Name Prabhat pandey

Class xii-a
Roll no 1022
Subject - photography

Digital cameras /digicams

Digital camera (digicam)

Front and back of Canon Power Shot A95, a typical pocket-size digital camera

Hasselblad 503CW with Express V96C digital back, an example of a

professional digital camera system
A digital camera or digicam is a camera that encodes digital images and videos digitally and
stores them for later reproduction. Most cameras sold today are digital, and digital cameras are
incorporated into many devices ranging from PDAs and mobile phones (called camera phones)
to vehicles.
Digital and film cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens with a variable
diaphragm to focus light onto an image pickup device. The diaphragm and shutter admit the
correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film but the image pickup device is electronic
rather than chemical. However, unlike film cameras, digital cameras can display images on a
screen immediately after being recorded, and store and delete images from memory. Many
digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound. Some digital cameras can crop and
stitch pictures and perform other elementary image editing.

History
The history of the digital camera began with Eugene F. Lally of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
who when he wasn't coming up with ways to create artificial gravity was thinking about how to
use a mosaic photo sensor to capture digital images. His 1961 idea was to take pictures of the
planets and stars while travelling through space to give information about the astronauts'
position. Unfortunately, as with Texas Instrument employee Willis Adcock's filmless camera (US
patent 4,057,830) in 1972, the technology had yet to catch up with the concept.
Steven Sasson as an engineer at Eastman Kodak invented and built the first electronic camera
using a charge-coupled device image sensor in 1975. Earlier ones used a camera tube; later ones

digitized the signal. Early uses were mainly military and scientific; followed by medical and
news applications. In the mid to late 1990s digital cameras became common among consumers.

By the mid-2000s digital cameras had largely replaced film cameras, and higher-end cell phones
had an integrated digital camera. By the beginning of the 2010s almost all smartphones had an
integrated digital camera.

Image sensors
The two major types of digital image sensor are CCD and CMOS. A CCD sensor has one
amplifier for all the pixels, while each pixel in a CMOS active-pixel sensor has its own
amplifier. Compared to CCDs, CMOS sensors use less power. Cameras with a small sensor use a
back-side-illuminated CMOS (BSI-CMOS) sensor. Overall final image quality is more
dependent on the image processing capability of the camera, than on sensor type.

Sensor resolution

Image at left has a higher pixel count than the one to the right, but has lower spatial resolution.
The resolution of a digital camera is often limited by the image sensor that turns light into
discrete signals. The brighter the image at a given point on the sensor, the larger the value that is
read for that pixel. Depending on the physical structure of the sensor, a color filter array may be
used, which requires demosaicing to recreate a full-color image. The number of pixels in the
sensor determines the camera's "pixel count". In a typical sensor, the pixel count is the product
of the number of rows and the number of columns. For example, a 1,000 by 1,000 pixel sensor
would have 1,000,000 pixels, or 1 megapixel.

Methods of image capture

At the heart of a digital camera is a CCD or a CMOS image sensor.

Digital camera partly disassembled. The lens assembly

(bottom right) is partially removed, but the sensor (top right) still captures an image, as seen on
the LCD screen (bottom left).
Since the first digital backs were introduced, there have been three main methods of capturing
the image, each based on the hardware configuration of the sensor and color filters.
Single-shot capture systems use either one sensor chip with a Bayer filter mosaic, or three
separate image sensors (one each for the primary additive colors red, green, and blue) which are
exposed to the same image via a beam splitter (see Three-CCD camera).
Multi-shot expose the sensor to the image in a sequence of three or more openings of the lens
aperture. There are several methods of application of the multi-shot technique. The most
common originally was to use a single image sensor with three filters passed in front of the
sensor in sequence to obtain the additive color information. Another multiple shot method is
called Micro scanning. This method uses a single sensor chip with a Bayer filter and physically
moved the sensor on the focus plane of the lens to construct a higher resolution image than the
native resolution of the chip. A third version combined the two methods without a Bayer filter on
the chip.
The third method is called scanning because the sensor moves across the focal plane much like
the sensor of an image scanner. The linear or tri-linear sensors in scanning cameras utilize only
a single line of photo sensors, or three lines for the three colors. Scanning may be accomplished
by moving the sensor (for example, when using color co-site sampling) or by rotating the whole
camera. A digital rotating line camera offers images of very high total resolution.
The choice of method for a given capture is determined largely by the subject matter. It is
usually inappropriate to attempt to capture a subject that moves with anything but a single-shot
system. However, the higher color fidelity and larger file sizes and resolutions available with
multi-shot and scanning backs make them attractive for commercial photographers working with
stationary subjects and large-format photographs.

Improvements in single-shot cameras and image file processing at the beginning of the 21st
century made single shot cameras almost completely dominant, even in high-end commercial
photography.

Filter mosaics, interpolation, and aliasing

The Bayer arrangement of color filters on the pixel array of an image

sensor.
Most current consumer digital cameras use a Bayer filter mosaic in combination with an optical
anti-aliasing filter to reduce the aliasing due to the reduced sampling of the different primarycolor images. A demosaicing algorithm is used to interpolate color information to create a full
array of RGB image data.
Cameras that use a beam-splitter single-shot 3 CCD approach, three-filter multi-shot approach,
color co-site sampling or Foveon X3 sensor do not use anti-aliasing filters, nor demosaicing.
Firmware in the camera, or a software in a raw converter program such as Adobe Camera Raw,
interprets the raw data from the sensor to obtain a full color image, because the RGB color
model requires three intensity values for each pixel: one each for the red, green, and blue (other
color models, when used, also require three or more values per pixel). A single sensor element
cannot simultaneously record these three intensities, and so a color filter array (CFA) must be
used to selectively filter a particular color for each pixel.
The Bayer filter pattern is a repeating 2x2 mosaic pattern of light filters, with green ones at
opposite corners and red and blue in the other two positions. The high proportion of green takes
advantage of properties of the human visual system, which determines brightness mostly from
green and is far more sensitive to brightness than to hue or saturation. Sometimes a 4-color filter
pattern is used, often involving two different hues of green. This provides potentially more
accurate color, but requires a slightly more complicated interpolation process.
The color intensity values not captured for each pixel can be interpolated from the values of
adjacent pixels which represent the color being calculated.

Sensor size and angle of view

Cameras with digital image sensors that are smaller than the typical 35mm film size have a
smaller field or angle of view when used with a lens of the same focal length. This is because
angle of view is a function of both focal length and the sensor or film size used.

The crop factor is relative to the 35mm film format. If a smaller sensor is used, as in most
digicams, the field of view is cropped by the sensor to smaller than the 35mm full-frame format's
field of view. This narrowing of the field of view may be described as crop factor, a factor by
which a longer focal length lens would be needed to get the same field of view on a 35mm film
camera. Full-frame digital SLRs utilize a sensor of the same size as a frame of 35mm film.
Common values for field of view crop in DSLRs using active pixel sensors include 1.3x for
some Canon (APS-H) sensors, 1.5x for Sony APS-C sensors used by Nikon, Pentax and Konica
Minolta and for Fujifilm sensors, 1.6 (APS-C) for most Canon sensors, ~1.7x for Sigma's
Foveon sensors and 2x for Kodak and Panasonic 4/3-inch sensors currently used by Olympus
and Panasonic. Crop factors for non-SLR consumer compact and bridge cameras are larger,
frequently 4x or more.

Relative sizes of sensors used in most current digital cameras.

Type
1/3.6"
1/3.2"
1/3"
1/2.7"
1/2.5"
1/2.3"
1/2"
1/1.8"
1/1.7"
2/3"
1"
4/3"
APS-C
35 mm
Black

Table of sensor sizes

Width
Height
Size
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
4.00
3.00
12.0
4.54
3.42
15.5
4.80
3.60
17.3
5.37
4.04
21.7
5.76
4.29
24.7
6.16
4.62
28.5
6.40
4.80
30.7
7.18
5.32
38.2
7.60
5.70
43.3
8.80
6.60
58.1
12.8
9.6
123
18.0
13.5
243
25.1
16.7
419
36
24
864
48
36
1728

The majority of digital cameras are phone cameras.

Types of digital cameras

Digital cameras come in a wide range of sizes, prices and capabilities. In addition to general
purpose digital cameras, specialized cameras including multispectral imaging equipment and
astrographs are used for scientific, military, medical and other special purposes

Compacts

Subcompact with lens assembly retracted

disassembled compact digital camera

Compact cameras are intended to be portable (pocketable) and are particularly suitable for casual
"snapshots".
Many incorporate a retractable lens assembly that provides optical zoom. In most models, an
auto actuating lens cover protects the lens from elements. Most ruggedized or water-resistant
models do not retract, and most with (super zoom) capability do not retract fully.
Compact cameras are usually designed to be easy to use. Almost all include an automatic mode,
or "auto mode", which automatically makes all camera settings for the user. Some also have
manual controls. Compact digital cameras typically contain a small sensor which trades-off
picture quality for compactness and simplicity; images can usually only be stored using lossy
compression (JPEG). Most have a built-in flash usually of low power, sufficient for nearby
subjects. A few high end compact digital cameras have a hot shoe for connecting to an external
flash. Live preview is almost always used to frame the photo on an integrated LCD display. In

addition to being able to take still photographs almost all compact cameras have the ability to
record video.

Action cameras
GoPro and other brands offer action cameras which are rugged, small and can be easily attached
to helmet, arm, bicycle, etc. Most have wide angle and fixed focus, and can take motion and still
pictures, usually without sound.

Bridge cameras

Bridge cameras physically resemble DSLRs, and are

sometimes called DSLR-shape or DSLR-like. They provide some similar features but, like
Compacts, they use a fixed lens and a small sensor. Some compact cameras have also PSAM
mode. Most use live preview to frame the image. Their usual autofocus is by the same contrastdetect mechanism as compacts, but many bridge cameras have a manual focus mode and some
have a separate focus ring for greater control.
Big physical size and small sensor allow super zoom and wide aperture. Bridgcams generally
include an image stabilization system to enable longer handheld exposures, sometimes better
than DSLR for low light condition.

Mirror less interchangeable-lens cameras

In late 2008, a new type of camera emerged called mirror less interchangeable-lens camera
(MILC), which uses various sensors and offers lens interchangeability. These are simpler and
more compact than DSLRs due to not having a lens reflex system. MILC camera models are
available with various sensor sizes including: a small 1/2.3 inch sensor, as is commonly used in
bridge cameras such as the original Pentax Q (more recent Pentax Q versions have a slightly
larger 1/1.7 inch sensor); a 1 inch sensor; a Micro Four Thirds sensor; an APS-C sensor such as
the Sony NEX series, Fujifilm X series, Pentax K-01, and Canon EOS M; and some, such as the
Sony Alpha 7, use a full frame (35 mm) sensor.

Modular cameras
While most digital cameras with interchangeable lenses feature a lens-mount of some kind, there
are also a number of modular cameras, where the shutter and sensor are incorporated into the
lens module.
The first such modular camera was the Minolta Dimge V in 1996, followed by the Minolta
Dimge EX 1500 in 1998 and the Minolta MetaFlash 3D 1500 in 1999. In 2009, Ricoh released
the Ricoh GXR modular camera.
At CES 2013, Sakar International announced the Polaroid iM1836, an 18 MP camera with 1"sensor with interchangeable sensor-lens. An adapter for Micro Four Thirds, Nikon and K-mount
lenses was planned to ship with the camera.

Digital single-lens reflex cameras

Digital single-lens reflex cameras (DSLR) use a reflex mirror that can reflect the light and also
can swivel from one position to another position and back to initial position. By default, the
reflex mirror is set 45 degree from horizontal, blocks the light to the sensor and reflects light
from the lens to penta-mirror/prism at the DSLR camera and after some reflections arrives at the
viewfinder. The reflex mirror is pulled out horizontally below the penta-mirror/prism when

shutter release is fully pressed, so the viewfinder will be dark and the light/image can directly
strike the sensor at the time of exposure (speed setting).
Autofocus is accomplished using sensors in the mirror box. Some DSLRs have a "live view"
mode that allows framing using the screen with image from the sensor.
These cameras have much larger sensors than the other types, typically 18 mm to 36 mm on the
diagonal (crop factor 2, 1.6, or 1). The larger sensor permits more light to be received by each
pixel; this, combined with the relatively large lenses provides superior low-light performance.
For the same field of view and the same aperture, a larger sensor gives shallower focus.
They use interchangeable lenses for versatility. Usually some lenses are made for digital SLR
use only, but recent trend the lenses can also be used in detachable lens video camera with or
without adapter.

Digital Single Lens Translucent (DSLT) cameras

A DSLT uses a fixed translucent mirror instead of a moving reflex mirror as in DSLR. A
translucent mirror or transmissive mirror or semi-transparent mirror is a mirror which reflects
the light to two things at the same time. It reflects it along the path to a pentaprism/pentamirror
which then goes to an optical view finder (OVF) as is done with a reflex mirror in DSLR
cameras. The translucent mirror also sends light along a second path to the sensor. The total
amount of light is not changed, just some of the light travels one path and some of it travels the
other. The consequences are that DSLT cameras should shoot a half stop differently from DSLR,
but in practice there are no significant differences between DSLT and DSLR. One advantage of
using a DSLT camera is the blind moments a DSLR user experiences while the reflecting mirror

is moved to send the light to the sensor instead of the viewfinder do not exist for DSLT cameras.
Because there is no time at which light is not traveling along both paths, DSLT cameras get the
benefit of continuous auto-focus tracking. This is especially beneficial for burst mode shooting
in low-light conditions and also for tracking when taking video.