UNIVERSIDAD SANTO TOMAS VILLAVICENCIO

TALLER DE RECURSOS HIDRAULICOS

PRESENTADO POR

QUINTO SEMESTRE

INGENIERIA AMBIENTAL

PRESENTADO A
ING. IVAN HERNANDEZ

VILLAVICENCIO- META

Chapter 1
Properties of fluids

1.1 Introduction

What is the definition of fluid?

RTA: Fluid mechanics is the science that

studies the effect of forces applied to the
fluid. A fluid is any substance that can
flow, as well as liquid gases[1]
Specify the forms of matter that are
embraced by the term fluid
RTA:
a) Viscosity.
Viscosity is the measure of the
internal resistance of a fluid to
displace or moverse.Tanto the air
and water to flow easily though,
have some degree of difficulty
flow. When molecules of a
moving fluid, internal forces tend
to counteract the force applied to
the fluid to put in motion they are
presented. [2]
b) Surface tension
The surface tension causes the
free surface of a liquid behaves
like a thin very weak and thin
elastic membrane that can stretch
upon application of a small force
and may even romperse.La
surface tension is a measure of the
magnitude of the forces to They
are acting on the inner surface of a
liquid. Each liquid has a different
surface tension value, which
depends on the intensity of the
forces of cohesion. [2]
c) Cohesion

Cohesion is the force of attraction

that holds molecules of the same
substance. Cohesion is higher in
solids than in liquids and these
were more than in gases. But on
the molecules of the liquid does
not act only cohesion forces; also
they act repulsive forces prevent
them placed too close to each
other and also the gravity acting
on them, forcing the upper layers
of the liquid to slide on the lower,
reaching the same level on the
surface. [2]
c) accession or adhesion.
It is the force of attraction occurs
between the molecules of two
different substances are contacted;
usually a liquid to a solid.
Generally liquids, stick to solid
bodies. When the sticking
phenomenon occurs it means that
the bond strength between
molecules of the same substance
is greater than the cohesive force
experienced with a different
substance, with which they
contact. Such is the case of water
that adheres to the glass, paint
adhering to a wall, the oil to
adhere to paper, ink or a notebook.
Cohesion and adhesion. By
bringing together a liquid with a
solid result that we in the contact
surface there are two forces
opposite trend. [2]
d) Capillary.
The capillary phenomenon, is the
ascent or descent of a liquid

within a small diameter tube

called capillary. [2]
f) Density.
The density of a substance is
defined as the mass contained in
unit volume. the mass is a
measure of the amount of material
containing a substance.
g) Relative Density
The relative density of a body is
the result of dividing the density
of said body between the density
of water. [2]

h) Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of a
substance is defined as the weight
of substance per unit volume. [2]
i) Pressure
When you sleep on a mattress in
it deformation occurs, but is
higher if you stand on it. Although
your weight does not change by
changing the position of the body
is greater deformation in the
mattress because the contact area
decreases. [2]
With it, called atmospheric
pressure. [2]
k) Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic pressure is that pressure of a
liquid due to its weight, especially body
that is immersed therein. [2]
1.3 Mass density and specific weight
State the definition of mass density (or
just density) and its formula.

RTA:
The density of a substance is the ratio
between the mass and volume:

The mass and volume are extensive or

general properties of matter, ie are
common to all material bodies and also
depend on the amount or extent of the
body. [3]
State the definition of specific weight
and its formula.
RTA:
The specific gravity of a fluid is
calculated as the weight of a unit volume
(or density per g). In the international
system it is measured in Newton / cubic
meter. [4]

1.4 Relative density

State the definition of relative density
and its formula (for water)
RTA:
The relative density is a comparison of
the density of a substance to the density
of another that is taken as reference. The
relative density has no units, since it is
defined as the ratio of two densities.
Usually the density is used as the water is
constant, which as we know in m3 equals
1,000. [4]

1.5 Viscosity of fluids

- State the definition of viscosity.
RTA: Viscosity.
Viscosity is the measure of the internal
resistance of a fluid to displace or
moverse.Tanto the air and water to flow
easily though, have some degree of
difficulty flow. When molecules of a
moving fluid, internal forces tend to
counteract the force applied to the fluid to
put in motion they are presented. [2]
- Specify the formula of Newtons law of
viscosity.
RTA:
Newton's law of viscosity.
Considering the flow between two plates.
After a certain time profile reaches its
final steady state. Once this state is
reached movement must apply a constant
force Fx to retain the movement of the
bottom sheet. This force clearly depends
on the speed V, of the nature of the fluid,
the distance between the plates (b) and
the contact area S thereof with the liquid.
For this special case it is given by: [6]

Where the slope of the curve vx against z

is vx / Az. Taking the limit as z
approaches 0 approximates the true
gradient at z, which is given by the partial
derivative vx / z. The resulting basic
equation for unidirectional transport of
momentum is unstable: [6]

Called Newton's law of viscosity in one

dimension. zx is the shear stress applied
in the x direction on the surface of a fluid
located at a distance z, for the fluid in the
region where z is lower. Fluids that obey
the above equation are called Newtonian.
According to the considerations made,
zx can also be interpreted as the density
of viscous flow amount of movement x
(flux density is flow rate per unit area, or
which are units of momentum per unit
time and unit area) in the direction z [6]

State the
viscosity.

definition

of

Kinematic

Rta:
Kinematic viscosity

That is, the force per unit area is

proportional to the speed decrease with
distance z. The proportionality coefficient
is called fluid viscosity. Using deltas
can be written: [6]

As a convention, the kinematic viscosity

is defined as the ratio of the dynamic
viscosity of a fluid and its density.
Because the dynamic viscosity and
density are properties of the fluid, the
kinematic viscosity is too. [7]
- What are the approximate Dynamic and
Kinematic viscosity of water? (include
the formula).

RTA.
Units dynamic viscosity
kinematic viscosity

E=
and

the

In the international system (SI) unit of

dynamic viscosity is the Pascal second
(Pa.s) or even Newton second per square
meter (Ns / m2), or kilogram meter per
second (kg / ms). [7]
The corresponding unit in CGS system is
Poise and has dimensions of Dina second
per square centimeter or grams per square
centimeter. The centipoise (cP), 10-2
poise, is most often used to express the
dynamic viscosity because most have low
viscosity fluid unit. [7]
In the international system (SI), the unit
of kinematic viscosity is the square meter
per second (m2 / s). The CGS unit is the
corresponding
Stoke
(St),
with
dimensions of square centimeter per
second and Centistoke (cSt) 10-2 Stokes,
which is the most commonly used
submultiple.[7]
= / (m2 / s)
1.6. Compressibility and elasticity of
fluids
- What is it required for all fluids to be
compressible?

P
V /V

P - Variation less initial pressure

final pressure
V - Volume change experienced by

the substance
V- Initial volume of the substance before
applying pressure

- According to the formula above, what

does the negative sign indicate?
Rta
The negative sign in the above formula
represents the elasticity of the fluid
1.7. Vapour pressure of liquids
- When does a liquid in a closed
container reach a stage of equilibrium?
Rta
If a closed vessel, which was previously
made empty, partially filled with a liquid
substance A, it is partially evaporate (if
sufficient for the process is not total
amount), so as to reach finally, a steady
state in which the pressure in the
container is the vapor pressure of the
substance at the temperature considered
[9]

Rta.
Compressibility refers to change in
volume of a substance is subject to a
change of pressure on it. What it
measures this phenomenon is called bulk
modulus of elasticity, or simply bulk
modulus E. [8]

1.8. Surface tension and capability

-What are the properties that liquids
possess? And due to what/ or why?
Rta

Liquids
are
deformable
systems
constituted by an infinite number of
isolated points infinitesimal materials. It
is continuous systems where there are no
"empty spaces" within the mass. From the
point of view of mechanics include the
following fundamental properties of
liquids: [9]
Isotropy: are known as isotropic
substances whose properties are identical
in either direction. [9]
Mobility: Lack of proper form. Ability to
take any form, the vessel that contains
them. [9]
Viscosity: Also called dynamic viscosity
() of a fluid is the resistance that it
opposes deformation, or in other words,
to the sheets of fluid slide between its
immediate. [9]
- State the definition of Surface tension.
Rta
The cohesive forces between the
molecules of a liquid, are responsible for
the phenomenon known as surface
tension. Surface molecules have no other
equal on all sides, and thus more strongly
cohere with those associated directly on
the surface. This forms a surface film,
which makes it difficult to move an object
across the surface, which when fully
submerged. The surface tension is usually
measured in dynes / cm., The force
required (in dynes) to break a film of 1
cm. of length. It can be set by an
equivalent surface energy in ergs per
square centimeter [7]

Chapter 8
Steady Flow in Open Channels

8.1 Introduction
- What are the characteristics of an
open channel?
Rta
The open channel flow should have a free
surface, while the pipe flow does not,
because in this case the water should
completely fill the duct. A free surface is
subjected to atmospheric pressure. the
free surface can change over time and
space, and also by the fact that the depth
of the flow stream and the slopes of the
channel bottom and free surface are
independent [10]
- Does a sewer flow in the same way
than a river?
Rta
Sewer, flowing partially full, is a covered
channel with a comparatively short length
installed to drain water through road
embankments or railways. [10]
8.2 Uniform flow resistance
- Which equations apply for noncircular sections?
Rta
The equations from non-circular section
according to featheerstone are the
equation
of
darcy-weisbach
and
colebrook White [11]
Equations Darcy-weisbach

hf
l

v
Sf= So= 8 g R

Colebrok White:

1
k
-2 log [ 14.8 . R

2.51 v
4 r v ]

8.3 Channels of composite roughness

- What was the assumption from
Horton and Einstein about sub-area?
Rta
According to featheerstone The wter
rea is divided into N parts having wetted
perimeters P1,P2 with asossiated
roughness coefficients n1, n2 nN.
Horton and Einstein asumed that each sub
rea has a velocity equal to the mean
velocity: [11]

8.4 Channels of compound section

What would be an example for a
compound section?
Rta
The example can be a cannel with flood
plains. Acording to featheerstone The
rougnhness of the side channels and the
method of analysis is to consider the total
discharge to be the sum of component
discharge computed by the mannin
equation [11]
- According to the research data from the
flood channel facility at Wallingford,
what has it been shown?

In accordance with featheerstone and

Nalluri shown that the discrepancy
between the conventional calculations and
the measure flow is dependent on flood
flow levels. He formulated aprropiate
corrections factor for each region of flow;
a detailed exposure of the analysis of the
research is beyond the scope of the book
[11]
8.5 Channel desing
- What is it involved in the design of
open channels
Rta
In accordance with featheerstone and
Nalluri the selection of suitable sectional
dimension such that the maximum
discharge will be conveyed withi the
section, The bed slipe is sometimes
constrained by the topography of the land
which the chanell is to be constructed
[11]

8.5.2.1 Critical tractive force theory

- State the definition of tractive force.
Rta
In accordance with featheerstone and
Nalluri he force exerted by the water on
the wetted area of a channel is called the
tractive forc [11]

8.5.2.2 Maximun permissible mean

velocity concept

- What was published by Fortier and

Scobey in 1929?
Rta
In accordance with featheerstone and
Nalluri Fortier and Scobey published the
values of or well-seasoned channels of
small bed slope and depths below 1 m in
the next table [11]
8.6 Uniform flow in part-full circular
pipes
- How are the storm sewers designed?
Rta
In accordance with Featheerstones and
Nelluri Storm sewers are usually
designed to sufficient capacity, but this
dependt with the material of the sewers,
they do not run full when conveying the
computing surfacerun off resulting from a
storm of a specified average return
period [11]
- State the use of circular pipes.
Rta
According to Featherstone and Nelluri
Circular pipes are widely used for
underground storm sewers and wastewater sewers [11]
8.7 Steady, rapidly varied channel flow
energy prnciples
- What does the computation of nonuniform Surface profiles require?
Rta

The computation of non-uniforme surface

profiles according to featheerstone and
Nelluri is caused by changes of channel
section, etc, requires the application of
energy and momentum principles.
The energy per unit weight of liquid at a
section of a channel above some
horizontal datum is:
[11]

8.8 The momentum equation and the

hydraulic jump
- State the definition of hydraulic jump.
Rta
The hydraulic jump In accordance with
featheerstone and Nalluri is stationary
surge and occurs in the transition from a
supercritical to subcritical flow, a smooth
transition is not possible [11]
- What is the name of the depth at
which the hydraulic jump starts?
Rta
Downstream depth
8.9 Steady, gradually varied open
channel flow
What is the result when motivating and
drag forces are not balanced?
Rta
Steady gradually varied open channel
flow, in accordance with Featheerstone
and Nellurithis condition occur when the
motivating and drag forces are not

balanced with the result that the depth

varies gradually along the length of the
channel [11]
8.10 Computations of gradually varied
flow
What method can be used to solve the
gradually varied flow equation?
Rta
The graphical integration method is
widely applicable. However, with the
advent of electronic calculators and
specially digital computers it is often
more convenient to use numerical
method; such methods are applicable to
general cases of non-prismatic channels
of varying slope

8.11 The direct step method

State the meaning of the direct step
method.
Rta
The direct step method In accordance
with featheerstone and Nalluri is a
simple method applicable to prismatic
channels. As In the graphical integration
method depths of flow are specified and
the distances between successive depths
calculated [11]

Rta
The standard step method In accordance
with featheerstone and Nalluri is
applicable to non-prismatic channels and
therefore to natural rivers. The station
positions are predetermined and the
objective is to calculate the surface
elevations, and hence the depths, at the
station. A trail and eror method is
employed [11]
8.13 Canal delivery problems
What are the characteristics of the
reservoir-canal-reservoir?
Rta
When a channel is connected to two
reservoirs its discharge capacity depends
upon inlet (upstream) and outlet
(downstream) conditions imposed by the
waters levels in the reservoir. The
reservoir- canal-reservoir interaction In
accordance with featheerstone and Nalluri
depends upon the channel characteristics
such as its boundary roughness, slope.
lenght between reservoirs and the state of
water levels in the reservoirs [11]

8.14 Culvert flow

- Where can culverts be located?
Rta

8.12 The standard step method

When can the standard step method be
applied?

Hightway cross-drainage is normally

provided with culverts, bridges and dips.
culverts are submerged structures buried
under a high level embankment.

What are the characteristics of the

hydraulic design of the culvert?
Rta
the hydraulic design of the culvert In
accordance with featheerstone and Nalluri
is based upon the characteristics of the
barrel flow ( free surface flow, orifice
flow or pipe flow), Conditions which
depend on its leght, roughness, gradient
and upstream and dowstream water
levels [11]
8.15 Spatially varied flow in open
channels
How is the SVF represented?
Rta
Spatially varied flow (svf) In accordance
with featheerstone and Nalluri
is
represented by the discharge variation
along the lenght of the channel due to
lateral inflow (slide spillway channel) or
outflow [11]

Chapter 13

Some common examples of gradually

varied unsteady flow waves are growing
and due to the slow operation of control
structures, such as gates and sliding gates
in locks. Examples of rapidly varied
unsteady flow surges are difenrestes
classes, caused by rapid operation of
control structures. [12]
Explain what surges are.
Rta: In the first type the curvature of the
waveform is gentle and the change in
depth is gradual. Omponent vertical
acceleration of water particles is
negligible compared to the total
aceleraion, while the effect of the friction
of the channel often is significant and
should be considered for an accurate
analysis.
In the second type the curvature of the
waveform is very large, so that the profile
surface
may
become
virtually
discontinued. The vertical component of
acceleration, therefore plays an important
role in the phenomenon, while the effect
of friction in the channel is negligible
compared with the dynamic flow effect.
[12]

Unsteady Flow in Channels

From
a
stationary
observers
perspective, what is the velocity of a
wter wave? (formula)

13.1 Introduction

F = FF

Vs Vo
Vs Vf

State several examples of unsteady

cannel flows.
Rta: There are two types of unsteady
flow: non permante gradually varied flow
and no permanent rapidly varied flow.

fo = frequency perceived by the observer

ff = actual frequency emitted by the

source

1+2

( ]

v = velocity of water

yo
yo
R2 R w
B
B
Rb =

vo = velocity of the observer (also used as

speed vr or receptor)

VF = velocity of the source (also used as

looks or speed of the issuer)
We must focus attention on the + signs
(plus) and - (minus) of the equation. Note
that appears in the numerator (plus or
minus) and the denominator is reversed
(less more). This placement of signs is
very important as it use one or the other
depends on whether the observer is
moving towards or away from the sound
emitting source. [12]
Chapter 14
14.4.1.3 Grade-Ranga rajus formula
Garde and Ranga Raju (1966) analyzed
data from flumes, Canals and natural
streams, and a graphical relationship
(Figure 14.2) between the parameters
K V/ ( gR )
vs. K (R/d)1/3S/ ,
1

where K1 and k2 are functions of sediment

size (see Figure 14.3), was proposed.
Figures 14.2 and 14.3 facilitate the
calculations of discharge in alluvial
channels.
In the case of rectangular channels (bed
width B) with smooth sides Einstein
suggested the following equation for the
hydraulic radius of the bed:

Where the hydraulic radius corresponding

to the walls Rw is computed from the
Manning equation assuming it is
applicable to the side walls and the bed
independently. Vanoni and Brooks (1957)
proposed for rough channels with smooth
sides that
R b=

b V 2
8 gS

14.5 Velocity distributions in looseboundary channels

Einsteins equation in the form
u
30.2 yx
=5.75 log (
)

ks
U

[14.12]

Where u is the temporal mean velocity at

a distance y from the boundary is
applicable universally for smooth,
transition and rough beds. The correction

ks
factor x is a function of
/ (

sub-layer

thickness

given

by
Ws

11.6v/U) given in Table 14.1

where

Equation 14.12 gives the mean velocity V

as

sediment particle.

12.27 Rx
ks
()
V =5.75 U log

For

ks

is the fall velocity of the

Fall velocities are equally of importance

in reservoir sedimentation and settling
processes and may be expressed as
W s =f
(shape and density of sediment,
number of particles falling, particle
Reynolds number)

> 6.0, the boundary is

fully rough and the Manning-Strickler

equation could conveniently be used to

The fall velocity of a single spherical

particle can be written as
W s=

4 gd
3 CD

14. 7 Bed load transport

calculate the mean velocity.

14.6
Sediment
Characteristics

transport

When flow characteristics (velocity,

average shear stress, etc.) in an alluvial
channel exceed the threshold condition
for the bed material, the particles move in
different modes along the flow direction.
The mode of transport of the material
depends on the sediment characteristics
s
such as its size and shape, density
and movability parameter

U / Ws ,

Several empirical equations from

laboratory flume data have been proposed
by many investigators with the basic
assumptions that the sediment is
homogeneous and no cohesive. The
results differ appreciably and it is
dangerous to transfer the information to
outside the limits of the experiments.
However, one can discern general trends
of the transport rate by using several
formulae
(with
some
theoretical
background). The following are the most
commonly used equations
1. Shields equation :
Shields used the concept of excess shear
responsible for the transport and
presented a dimensionally homogeneous
equation

2. Schoklitsch equation The bed

load gb in kg/m.s is given by

In which k = d for Cgrain and k is a

function of bed form ( dune
height) for Cchannel.

Where qcr = 0.20 (

5/3

d3/2/S7/6
It must be noted that equation is
not dimensionally homogeneous
and is valid only for q and qcr in
m3/ms.
3. Kalinske equation
For Frd2 0.09 this can be
written as

Qb/U*d = 10 (U*2/ gd)2

5. Einsteins equation
Introducing probability concepts
of sediment movement Einstein
developed
an
empirical
relationship

14.8 Suspended load transport

The vertical (suspended) mass
balance equation in a two
dimensional flow was first
expressed by OBrien as

Equation
is
dimensionally
homogeneous and may not be
good for high transport rates.
4. Meye Peter and Muller
formula
The energy slope, S is split into
two parts and only one part (
uS
is considered to be
responsible for transport (grain
drag; the other is expended in the
form drag). The factor u is
dependent on the bed from (ripple
factor) and is expressed as

Where C is the Chezys

coefficient given by

Where c is the volumetric

concentration of the sediment and

is the kinematic eddy

s
viscosity (turbulence diffusion
coefficient) in the presence of

sediment, equal to ,
being the eddy viscosity for clear
water. is of the order of unity
in the presence of fine sediment
and decreases with increasing
particle size. Combining equation
14.28 with the turbulent mixing
theory (log law distribution of
velocity) gives the solution for
sediment concentration, c at a
height, y in a channel as

function of its size, as indicated in Table

14.6. Lacey, combining equations,
suggested the resistance equation:
Where ca is the reference
concentration at a height a form
the bed and X is Karmans
constant

14. 9 Total load transport

Total load includes both bed material load
and wash load. Wash load is usually
caused by land erosion and a useful
criterion for its existence may be taken as
the particle Froude number (=V/ gd )
around 20. Due to its small size fractions
wash load moves in suspension and thus
can be estimated from the total suspended
load provided the suspended bed material
load is known.
14. 10 Regime channel design
Regime equations were developed using
from stable channels in the Indian
subcontinent, carrying moderate sediment
loads of less than 500 ppm by weight.
2. Laceys approach

In

which the silt factor, f, is given by:

3. Blenchs approach
Blench developed more rational formulae
(using flume and Indian sub-continent
data), taking into account the effects of
bank cohesiveness on channel geometry
and sediment load.
4. Simon. Albertsons method
Regime channel data form the USA,
Pubjab and Sind (Indian subcontinent)
were analyzed by Simons and Albertson;
their modified regime equations have a
wider applicability.
5.

Non-scouring erodible boundary

channel design
This method approaches the criterion that
the bed material (coarse) does not move
when the channel carries either clear
water or water with fine silt in suspension
(not depositing). The principle of design
is to achieve a cross section in which the
boundary material is on the verge of
motion (initiation criterion). The method
utilizes the information on boundary
shear distribution and the Shields
initiation criterion (both on bed and
banks) and establishes either permissible
depth or slope (given one or the other).
6. Design of stable erodible boundary
channel
Six channel/sediment parameters: Q, Qs,
V, B, y0 and S.

Where d is in mm, P and R are in m and

Q is un m3/s. The silt factor, f, is a

14. 11 Regid-bed
sediment transport

channels

with

Novak and Nalluri suggested for initiation

of no cohesive coarser sediment (bed
load):

The limit-deposition criterion in the case

of rectangular channels is given by:

Where Cv is the limiting sediment

concentration by volume that can be
transported with a velocity Vs (selfcleansing). The overall friction factor
s
is given by:

Where

the channels is clear water

friction factor given by Colebrook-White

s equation the equations will give (by
iterative solution) the design velocity for
the self-cleansing criterion in rigid
boundary rectangular channels with
bedload transportation.
In the case of clean pipe channels, the
limit-deposition criterion may be written
as:

Where

s is given by

Chapter 15
Hydraulic Structures

15.1 Introduction
Hydraulic
structures are engineering
works necessary
to
achieve
the development of water resources
and control
their destructive
action. They work in most cases in
combination
with
elements and
mechanical
equipment. They
are
built for the benefit of man and
the development of humanity.

One can say that the waterworks is a

group of structures built in order to
control the water, whatever their origin,
use purposes or defense.
15.2 Spillways

With the friction factor

given by

The limit-deposition criterion in the case

of pipe channels with deposited flat beds
of width b is given by

It is a hydraulic structure to produce,

free or controlled through, water
surface runoff, being exclusively for the
overflow drain and not to the
measurement. There are various types
according to the form and use made of
them, sometimes controlled and
sometimes as a safety measure in case
of storms in dams.
15.2.1.1 Negative
cavitation

pressures

and

15.2.1.5 Self-aeration
Operating conditions:
Upstream pressure:
1.2 1.4 bar
Pressure downstream:
0.1 bars
Fluid speed:
2.2 m / sec
(Referred to the diameter
Nominal)
15.2.1.2 Gated Spillways

- What does imply steep slope?

It is the degree of inclination of a straight
line, the reason of change in and with
regard to the change in x. (Facultad
Bayamon, s.f.)
If a straight line happens for two
different points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), then
his earring (m) is given for:

Allows the evacuation of water, either

routinely or to control the water level of
the reservoir.
Areas near the free surface of the
reservoir water is usually discharged, as
opposed to the discharge line, which
allows controlled waters off the deep
layers of the reservoir.
15.2.1.3 Offset spillways
The effective length of the landfill is
calculated using the formula:

Donde L es la longitud libre total del

aliviadero, N es el nmero de pilas, y Kp
y Ke son los coeficientes de contraccin
de las pilas y los estribos. Where L' is the
total free length of the spillway, N is the
number of batteries, and Ke and Kp are
the coefficients of contraction of batteries
and stirrups.
15.2.1.4 Effective spillway length
- When the crest has pierce its length
must be reduced to..? (Formula).
Not found

15.3
Energy
dissipators
downstream scour protection

and

- What is the most effective way of

dissipating the high energy of the
incoming water?
Ponds dampers
Type impact: It is a buffer structure
where dissipation occurs when the arrival
stream collides with a vertically
suspended deflector and the swirling
currents due to the change of direction of
the current after having collided with
cushion. It is imperative that the structure
is strong enough to withstand the thrust
produced by the jet without slipping and
endanger the dam. (Mara, s.f.)
Immersion pools: The energy is dissipated
through the water shock and free falling
vertically in a pond in the riverbed. Due
to the great erosive power of water, you
have to coat the channel and its walls with
rocks or concrete so it is kind of like a
diving pool. Anyway materials suffer

much wear from constant shock which is

owed to good maintenance. (Mara, s.f.)
- What is the common type to dissipate
energy?
The most used method is to induce in the
flow a great turbulence by means of
sudden changes both in direction and in
expansion, since it happens with the
hydraulic bounce (hydraulic jump), which
is very effective in the dissipation of
energy and turns the supercritical flow
into subcritic. (PALACIOS, s.f.)
Chapter 16
Environmental
Hydraulics
Engineering Hydrology

and

16.1 Introduction
- In your own words, explain the natural
hydrological cycle.
Is a conceptual model that describes the
storage and movement of water between
the biosphere, atmosphere,
lithosphere,
and the hydrosphere. Water on our planet
can be stored in any one of the following
major reservoirs: atmosphere, oceans,
lakes, rivers, soils, glaciers, snowfields,
and groundwater. Water moves from one
reservoir to another by way of processes
like
evaporation,
condensation, precipitation,
deposition, runoff, infiltration,
sublimation, transpiration, melting, and
groundwater flow
-How is water
environment?

impounded

in

the

It is confiscated by the moors, rivers,

ponds, reservoirs, ice caps, groundwater
and marine.
16.2 Analysis of gauge driver flow data
- When/where river discharges are required,
what is the preferable way to work that out?
Separate recycling things, then calculate
waste per day. Next process the waste to
reduce it contamination according to national
standards.

For design purposes concerning gauged

catchments, what type of values may be
analysed?
Runoff resulting from any rain, depends
on the distribution in time and space
thereof. If the rainfall is concentrated in
the lower part of the basin, will produce
higher flows than those they would have
if it took place in the upper part, where
the regulatory effect of the flow, and the
delay in concentration, manifested in a
decrease the maximum discharge rate.
(UNESCO, s.f.)
General weather conditions exist that
influence, although in an indirect manner
in the runoff, such as temperature, wind
speed, relative humidity, barometric
pressure, etc. (UNESCO, s.f.)
16.3 River Thames discharge data
- According to the text, what are
hydrological day and water year?
The United Nations General Assembly
adopted on 22 December 1993 resolution
A / RES / 47/193 by which 22 March of
each year was declared World Water Day,
to be held since 1993, in accordance with
the recommendations of the United
Nations Conference on Environment and
Development contained in chapter 18
(Fresh Water Resources) of Agenda 21.

The different States are invited to devote

this day, within the national context, the
concrete activities such as the promotion
of public awareness through the
production
and
diffusion
of
documentaries and the organization of
conferences, round tables, seminars and
expositions related to the conservation
and development of water resources as
well as the implementation the
recommendations
of
Agenda
21.
(UNESCO, s.f.)
-Are the mean daily value and
instantaneous maximum value different
from each other?
The principal difference between daily
and maximum, its that the maximum
value its the highest value reached in the
investigation, while the daily value is an
average by all the data of the day.
16.4 Flood alleviation, sustainability
and environmental channels.
- Which are the main components of
constructed works to alleviate the effects
of flooding?
The systems of prevention are based on
dikes, specks, metallic barriers, regulatory
reservoirs and improvement of the
capacity of outlet of the fluvial riverbeds.
-Which is one of the main components of
sustainable urban drainage systems?
Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems can
be considered as those elements involved
in the drainage of cities and reduce the
current flow across the surface of it, they
get also significantly reduce the amount
of contaminants carried by the runoff
water. (Abellan, s.f.)
16.5 Project appraisal

- What method is it used to express the

present values of costs and benefits?
The preferred method is cost-effective in
the evaluation. Some believe that our
techniques tend to underestimate the
benefits of the projects. Others object that
sometimes exaggerated estimates of the
benefits are involved to meet the
requirement of certain lobbies. (CATIE)
- How are all costs expressed? Explain
how positive benefits and undesirable
costs are reflected respectively.
PRODUCTIVITY INDICATORS
Degree of operating leverage: The degree
of operating leverage, GAO, measures the
impact of fixed costs on operating profit
to an increase in sales caused by
investments in fixed assets (technology).
(Vquiro, s.f.)
Opportunity cost: In absolute terms is the
difference between the budgeted results
of an investment and the results given. In
relative terms is the percentage that has
not received budgeted on results.
(Vquiro, s.f.)
Breakeven: The point where operating
income is equal to operating costs. In
other words, it is the impasse where there
is no income or operating loss. (Vquiro,
s.f.)
Asset Rotation: Analyzes times become
assets sales or operating income.
(Vquiro, s.f.)
PERFORMANCE INDICATORS

Net profit margin: The ratio between net

income and total sales (operating
revenues). It is the first source of
profitability in business and it depends on
the return on assets and return on equity.

Gross margin: The ratio between gross

profit and total sales (operating income)
is the percentage of operating revenue
remains after the cost has been discounted
sales. The higher this index greater the
chance to cover operating expenses and
the use of the funding organization.
(Vquiro, s.f.)
Sustainable Growth: The result of the
application of sales policies, financing,
dividends and capitalization. In modern
times the strategy which contributes to
the competitiveness of SMEs is precisely
the strategy of growth, which suggests
that the increase of sales, assets and
equity of the company, is consistent with
the growth in demand. (Vquiro, s.f.)
FINANCIAL
EVALUATION
INVESTMENT PROJECTS

OF

Consumer Price Index - CPI: An indicator

that measures the average percentage
change in retail prices between two
periods of time, of a set of goods and
services that households acquire for
consumption. The change in the price of a
good or service is the weighted sum of
the item price variation in the cities
surveyed. (Vquiro, s.f.)
Payback period Investment (PRI): One of
the methods in the short term may have
the favoritism of some people when
evaluating investments. For ease of
calculation and application is considered
an indicator that measures both the
liquidity of the project as well as the
relative risk can anticipate events in the
short term. Consists of measuring the
period of time required for the net cash
flows of an investment recover their cost.
(Vquiro, s.f.)

Net Present Value: The best known

method when evaluating investment
projects in the long term. As the basic
objective is to maximize financial
investment, this tool can determine if the
investment may increase or decrease the
value of SMEs. That change in the
estimated value can be positive, negative
or remain the same. If positive means that
the value of the firm will have a value
equivalent to the increase VPN. If
negative means that the company will
reduce its wealth in value yielding the
VPN. If the result is zero VPN, the
company will not change the amount of
their value. (Vquiro, s.f.)
Example: Calculate the cumulative value
of an investment of 5,000 UM for a year,
under the following conditions:
Solution:
PV = 5,000; n = 1 ... 4; i = annual 0.15,
0.075 and 0.0375 quarterly semiannual
With 15% annual interest:
[19] VFn = 5.000 (1 + 0.15) 1 = UM
5750.00 with semiannual interest of
7.5%:
[19] VFn = 5.000 (1 + 0.075) 2 = UM
5778.13 with 3.75% quarterly interest:
[19] VFn = 5.000 (1 + 0.0375) 4 = UM
5793.25
The results are not the same, because the
capitalization of interest we do so with
different frequencies while maintaining
proportionality in the different rates of
interest.
To achieve that, whatever the frequency
of capitalization and the final value
remains the same is necessary to change
the formula for the equivalence of interest
rates

BIBLIOGRAFA
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pablo
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departamento de Astronoma
Universidad de Guanajuato
[2] Universidad autnoma del
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[3] concurso de ciencia y
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[4] fsica practica.com

[5]
proyecto
de
fsica,blogspot.com
[6] universidad Nacional Abierta y
a Distancia
[7]
clases
de
viscosidad//
Alejandra Rodriguez// facultad de
qumica y fsica
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universidad de Sevilla
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// Libro Ven Te Chow