UNIT 1 CHARACTERISTICS OF WESTERN

PHILOSOPHY

Characteristics of
Western Philosophy

Contents
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Brief History of Western Philosophy
1.3 Characteristics of Western Philosophy
1.4 Critical Constructions of Western Philosophy
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 Key Words
1.7 Further Readings and References

1.0 OBJECTIVES
Philosophy is not one of the natural sciences . . . The result of philosophy
is not a number of philosophical propositions, but to make propositions clear.
Says Wittgenstein. Philosophy is an important branch of human knowledge. It
is an effort to understand the world systematically and holistically. The
conceptions of philosophy and approaches of philosophy have been varied with
social context. Western philosophy has been constructed on certain propositions.
This chapter explores the some of the basic characteristics of western philosophy
with an historical note. The western philosophy has taken its starting point from
Greco- Roman philosophy. It has followed by medieval thought which has mostly
influenced by the religion. The modern western philosophy has not only critical
about orthodox religion but also came with ideals of secularism, humanism,
scientific temperament, progress and development. Skepticism, rationality,
individualism and scientific methods are influenced the human conception in
understanding the world. The western philosophy under the spell of modernity
has an impact on the non- western world too. This has been coincided with
colonial rule of western over Afro-Asian nations. However, western modernity
has different meanings and implications for the world. In recent times, the methods
and foundations of western philosophy and its ideals of modernity has been
attacked in west and outside by the thinkers postmodern, post colonial and
communitarians. The objective of this chapter is to make familiar the characteristics
of western philosophy.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Philosophy is the search for comprehensive view of nature, an attempt at a
universal explanation of things. The ideas of philosophy have evolved with social
necessity of times. Philosophy is neither science nor religion, though historically
it has been entwined with both. In the beginning the distinction between science,
religion, and philosophy was not as clear as it became in later centuries. The
function of philosophy is critical evaluation of our beliefs and clarification of
concepts. Philosophy is the search for conceptual clarity in all areas of life.

Introduction to Western
Philosophy

Philosophy maintains the distinguishing features of abstraction and concern for

truth. Philosophers analyse and clarify concepts. Philosophy tries to explore
critically the foundations of human practices, such as science, politics, religion
or morality. The distinctive feature of philosophy is logical argument. Philosophers
engage in arguments either by inventing of their own or by criticizing other people
or doing both. Philosophy involves expounding existing ideas, creating new
imaginative ideas, and critically assessing the soundness of the arguments put
forward in support of views claimed to be true. Philosophers are often debated
what is ultimate reality? How do we know that reality? What constitutes good
life? What is the meaning of life? These questions gave rise to branches of
philosophy such as metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, logic and aesthetics. These
questions are interrelated in evaluating the social reality and in understanding
the world in order to lead a good life. Western philosophy is a philosophy
evolved from western civilization and its historical development. With changing
socio- economic and political conditions, western philosophy too changed over
a period of time. But it had maintained its continuity from Greek philosophy
to the contemporary times. The approaches and styles of doing philosophy may
vary, but we can identify certain features on which western philosophy got
constructed. In the light of contemporary struggles, the very assumptions and
foundations of philosophy are under scrutiny. It does not mean that it dismissing
the philosophical thought of western society, but arguing for new methods of
inquirers in understanding the western reality against the dominant view of western
philosophy.

1.2 BRIEF HISTORY OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY

The philosophical ideas have to be understood historically. The social context
plays a crucial role in understanding the ideas of philosophers. In fact, our ideas
emerged out of social tensions and chaos of the world. Philosophy is a social
expression of this situation and provides comprehensive understanding of social
reality. Philosophical ideas not only provide clarification but also lead for
betterment of life. In other words, philosophers prompt a direction for humanity
by providing the comprehensive and critical understanding of the world in which
they live. Historically, Western philosophy has enriched by many philosophers
of western countries. In ancient times, Greco-Romans are the leading philosophers.
In medieval times, the Greek philosophy has influenced the religion and comes
with philosophy of religion. The modern philosophy developed with industrial
revolution of the west. Though British, German and French and American and
other European nations have different social and political contexts, there are
efforts to construct philosophical thought of these as western. Within west, we
may find different philosophical traditions with different styles of doing philosophy
and at the same time we may find some kind of convergence of philosophical
thought commonly identified as western philosophy.

The western philosophy finds its roots in Greek philosophy of 6th century B.C.
Greek philosophy has considered as a starting point for western philosophy.
The later philosophy has shaped by this philosophy. In other words, the very
definition and nature of philosophy of west has identified, continued and
developed further from the Greek philosophy. The Greek philosophy has not
only speculated about the world, but also tries to differ from the religion and
theology. It has its roots in naturalism and critical about prejudice, beliefs and
tradition. From the very beginning, Greek philosophy was an intellectual activity,

for it was not a matter only of seeing or believing but of thinking , and philosophy
meant thinking about basic questions in a mood of genuine and free inquiry.
(Stumf, p.4)

Characteristics of
Western Philosophy

For our understanding we may divide history of western philosophy into ancient,
medieval and modern, and contemporary.
a.

Ancient philosophy- (Greek, Hellenistic and Roman Philosophy) Greek

philosophy from Thales to Aristotle, Greco-Roman Philosophy, Neo
Platonism of the Alexandrain School.

b.

Medieval philosophy or scholasticism from fifth to fifteenth century. (Patristic

and Scholastic Philosophy)

c.

Modern philosophy- the renaissance from the 15th to the 17th century,
the period of enlightenment from Locke to Kant, German philosophy from
Kant to Hegel

d.

Contemporary philosophy from 1860 to the present. (20th century Postmodernism)

Greco-Roman Philosophy
The early Greek philosophers are concerned about the nature of things. What
is everything made of, or what kind of stuff goes into the composition of things?
What is permanent in existence? Thales considered the element water as the
foundation of all physical reality. Others were following Thales with alternative
solutions. The Pythagoras came with mathematical basis of all things. There are
attempts to explain change and permanence. Heraclitus came with a proposition
that all things are in flux. Parmenides, the founder of Eleatic school of
philosophy is critical about both Heraclitus and Milesian philosophies that all
things emerge out of something else. He rejects very notion of change and
considered phenomenon of change is basically an illusion. For him, the concept
of change was logically neither thinkable nor expressible. Whatever exists must
be absolutely, or not at all. Thales believes that every thing is made up of water,
Anaximenes believes everything is made of air, Anaximander believes that
everything s made up of boundless, Democritus believes everything is made
up of atoms.
Ancient Greek philosophy may be divided into the pre-Socratic period, the
Socratic period, and the post-Aristotelian period. The pre-Socratic period was
characterized by metaphysical speculation, often preserved in the form of grand,
sweeping statements, such as All is fire, or All changes. Important preSocratic philosophers include Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Democritus,
Parmenides, and Heraclitus. The Socratic period is named in honor of the most
recognizable figure in Western philosophy, Socrates, who, along with his pupil
Plato, revolutionized philosophy through the use of the Socratic Method, which
developed the very general philosophical methods of definition, analysis, and
synthesis. While Socrates wrote nothing himself, his influence as a skeptic
survives through Platos works. Platos writings are often considered basic texts
in philosophy as they defined the fundamental issues of philosophy for future
generations. These issues and others were taken up by Aristotle, who studied
at Platos school, the Academy, and who often disagreed with what Plato had
written. The post-Aristotelian period ushered in such philosophers as Euclid,
Epicurus, Chrysippus, Hipparchia the Cynic, Pyrrho, and Sextus Empiricus.

Introduction to Western
Philosophy

Medieval Philosophy
The medieval period of philosophy came with the collapse of Roman civilization
and the dawn of Christianity, Islam, and rabbinic Judaism. The medieval period
brought Christian scholastic philosophy, with writers such as Augustine of Hippo,
Boethius, Anselm, Robert Grosseteste, Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon,
Bonaventure, Thomas Aquinas, John Duns Scotus, William of Ockham, Nicholas
of Cusa, and Francisco Surez. The philosophy of this period is characterized
by analysis of the nature and properties of God; the metaphysics involving
substance, essences and accidents. That is, qualities that is respectively essential
to substances possessing them or merely happening to be possessed by them.
Many of these philosophers took as their starting point the theories of Plato
or Aristotle. Medieval philosophy had been concerned primarily with argument
from authority, and the analysis of ancient texts using Aristotelian logic. The
philosophy of medieval age was an attempt to construct religious thought with
reasoned account of its various doctrines. In other words, it characterizes with
synthesis of theology and philosophy. The doctrines of Plato and Aristotle were
reinterpreted to fulfill their religious demands. In medieval age to a large extent
the speculative theories of Aristotle combined with theological presuppositions
in the Bible. The state has been subordinated to spiritual dominion, to the power
of the Pope.
Renaissance
The Renaissance saw an outpouring of new ideas that questioned authority. Roger
Bacon (12141294) was one of the first writers to advocate putting authority
to the test of experiment and reason. Niccol Machiavelli (14691527)
challenged conventional ideas about morality. Francis Bacon (15611626) wrote
in favor of the methods of science in philosophical discovery.
Renaissance, embracing the classical tradition, highlighted the Greek culture as
supreme achievement in western civilization, and also had a stressing the
importance of this world, by emphasizing the dignity of man, by championing
the possibilities of reason and pointed to a new scientific age. The ideal of
Humanism was the most important intellectual development emerged out of
renaissance. It has belief in man and a passion for learning. Humanists believed
that reason is self sufficient and more important than faith. Though the ideals
of humanism in renaissance age mostly confined to aristocratic class, it stresses
exact knowledge, the validity of reason and need for moderation in making
intellectual assertions. Interestingly, the period of renaissance coincided with an
expansion of Western Europe. Nature was regarded as the standard of all things.
The Machiavelli, the renaissance thinker believed that religion should be
dominated by the state. It did not matter whether a religion were true or false.
Machiavelli, the realist viewed man not an image of God but as a creature
governed by self-interest. In philosophy, the Renaissance refers to the period
of the break-up of feudalism (15th to early 17th century), when trade grew
up around the merchants and craftspeople of Northern Italy particularly, and
a bourgeois society began to flourish and gave rise to a humanist culture in
opposition to the official scholasticism.
Modern Western Philosophy

10

The modern philosophy begins with immense faith in human capacity to know
every thing. The authority of the church was diminished and the authority of

science got increasing. Though the method of philosophy was radically changed
with modern western philosophy, but the much of its content remained same.
The medieval philosophy had close nexus to theology, but the modern philosophy
was subservient to scientific methodology. The modern philosophy developed
the philosophical method, formation of philosophical systems and humanism. The
modern western philosophy flourished with philosophical traditions of Rationalism
of Descartes, Leibniz and Spinoza, and Empiricism of Locke, Berkley and Hume.
The reconciliation of these two can be seen with enlightenment philosopher Kant.
It has taken to further heights by the Hegel through his method of Dialectical
idealism, and Dialectical Materialism of Marx. The modern western philosophy
has further carried by analytical, phenomenological and continental philosophical
traditions.

1.3

Characteristics of
Western Philosophy

CHARACTERISTICS OF WESTERN
PHILOSOPHY

Though it is a difficult task to characterize or identify the specific features of

western philosophy, but we may mark some common features marked with
western philosophy. Philosophical traditions may vary from ancient Greek
philosophy to contemporary western philosophy, but there are efforts to construct
the essential features of western philosophy. The idea of west got its prominence
and distinctiveness in relation to other Afro-Asian nations, which are under the
control of colonial rule of west. The following are some of the features of western
philosophy:
Philosophy as an Intellectual Speculation
From the beginning, western philosophy characterizes as an intellectual enterprises
in understanding the social reality. As Bertrand Russell viewed philosophy is
something intermediate between theology and science. Like theology, it consists
of speculations on matters as to which definite knowledge has so far, been
unascertainable; like science, it appeals to human reason rather than to authority,
weather that of tradition or that of revelation. As Russell argues all definite
knowledge belonged to science, and all dogma as to what surpasses definite
knowledge belonged to theology. All the questions of the most interest to
speculative minds are such as science can not answer, and the confident answers
of theologians no longer seem so convincing as they did in earlier times. Western
philosophy from its very beginning maintained that philosophy is distinct from
science and theology. Science is the realm of empirical investigation and attempts
to understand the world explain the observable events and formulate the laws
of nature, and a human experience has explained accordingly. We also find some
of the questions answered differently from this. In some occasions the questions
generated by science may pass beyond its ability to solve them. There are
attempts to understand the world as whole and some times beyond this empirical
phenomenon. The final cause and meaning of the world have been found by
invoking God, or universal idea or a supreme principle. This kind of inquiry
in understanding the world has treated as metaphysical. This may have
convergence with religion and faith. In other words, it is justifying the central
claims of religion by providing a rational grounding.
Philosophy as distinct from theology, began in Greece in the sixth century B.C.
after running its course in antiquity, it was again submerged by theology as

11

Introduction to Western
Philosophy

Christianity rose and Rome fell. Its second great period, from eleventh to
fourteenth centuries, was mostly dominated by Catholic Church. This period
was brought to an end by the confusions that culminated in the reformation.
The third period, from the 17th century to the present, is dominated, more than
either of its predecessors, by science; traditional religious beliefs remain
important, but are felt to need justification, and are modified wherever science
seems to make this imperative. Few of the philosophers of this period are
orthodox from catholic standpoint, and the secular state is more important in
their speculation than the church. However, Western philosophy for the most
part consists of insightful remarks about the nature of reality or human beings
(everything changes or the unexamined life is not worth living, or no decision
is a decision), analyses the fundamental concepts (knowledge is justified true
belief), and systematic treatments of the basic structures of reality (everything
is a body or Only minds and ideas exits)
Classification of Philosophy
Western Philosophy has evolved into various branches in course of time. One
may find clear cut divisions in western philosophy into metaphysics, epistemology
and axiology. And axiology further classified into ethics, aesthetics and logic.
The most of the philosophical questions raised and systems of philosophy was
developed around the issue of ultimate reality. In that sense metaphysical
questions are central to philosophy. It deals about the conceptual schemes in
understanding reality. Epistemology is an inquiry into the nature, origin, conditions
and limits of knowledge. It is a science of knowledge. Scientific and logical
understanding of the world got its priority with an emphasis on epistemology.
The questions of knowing ultimate reality are addressed by revisionary
metaphysics with a marked difference from speculative metaphysics. As a result,
whether epistemology is subservient to metaphysics or otherwise, is a debating
point for some time. Though philosophers initiated their debates in pursuit of
well being and good society, they are primarily concerned either with metaphysics
or epistemology. In this process, ethics has treated subservient to both. In recent
times, the continental philosopher Levinas came with a proposition that ethics
as first philosophy by negating the dominant way of doing philosophy by
prioritizing either metaphysics or epistemology. However, one may find clear
cut compartmentalization of western philosophy into metaphysics, epistemology
and axiology, and developed accordingly.
Metaphysics

12

In the history of western metaphysics usually we find two conceptions

descriptive and reversionary metaphysics. The philosophers such as Aristotle,
Kant and Strawson are forerunners of former and the Descartes, Leibniz, and
Berkeley are representatives of reversionary metaphysics. This distinction may
not cover all metaphysical systems, but it has been greatly influential in reviving
work in metaphysics. Descriptive metaphysics is content to describe the actual
structure of our thought about the world; reversionary metaphysics is concerned
to produce a better structure. Descriptive metaphysics aims to describe the most
general features of our conceptual scheme, that is, to describe reality as it
manifests itself to the human understanding. Conceptual analysis is its main
method. Reversionary metaphysics, on the other hand, attempts to revise our
ordinary way of thinking and our ordinary conceptual scheme in order to provide
an intellectually and morally preferred picture of the world. The reversionary

metaphysicians generally like to establish a well-organized system beyond the

world of experience.

Characteristics of
Western Philosophy

The issue of appearance and reality occupies important place in the history of
metaphysics. The distinction between appearance and real paves the way for
idealism. This views that we have direct access to in sense-perception is at
best the mental representations of things. Plato explains that sensible world is
in some sense less real than the Forms. For Plato, the forms are unchanged,
eternal, universal and known to reason alone. Descartes distinction between the
mental and physical provides the basis for the identification of a realm of
appearances as distinct from reality. Kants transcendental idealism views that
appearances are to be regarded as being, one and all; representations only,
not things in themselves, and that time and space are therefore only sensible
forms of our intuition. For Hegel no appearance can be absolutely false, and
therefore in absolute contrast with reality, despite the natural opposition between
the concepts of appearance and reality. From Hegelian point of view appearance
can be only a less coherently organized form of reality; the supposed contrast
that the terms appearance and reality suggests is thus, officially, a matter of
degree, not strict opposition. In this sense, reality is in a sense both other than
and inclusive of appearance. Reality both transcends and also includes its
appearances. Realism proposes alternative view to idealism. According to this
reality is independent of us and our minds, and that what we think, understand
and recognize does not necessarily exhaust what that reality involves. Against
idealism and phenomenalism, realism asserts the independent existence of material
objects and their qualities.
The dualism of Descartes was vigorously attacked by Hobbes. Matter and mind
are not separate, he declared; they are homogeneous and are subject to the
same laws. The great dualism in nature is only between matter and spirit, and
spirit is a subject for theology, not for philosophy. Space and time, Hobbes
maintained, do not possess metaphysical reality; they are merely attenuated
images of the physical body. They have a material content which characterizes
the nature of all reality. Hobbes interpreted the religion naturalistically and argues
that the source of religion, lie in curiosity and fear.
From Nature Centric to Ethical and Human Centric
The first philosophers of Greek thought are mostly concerned about the nature,
the physical world and its composition. The principle question had been about
the natural physical world to shifted to ethical, how human beings should behave.
The sophists and Socrates shifted the concern of philosophy to the study of
man. Instead of debating about alternative theories of nature, philosophers started
addressing themselves to the problem of human knowledge, asking whether it
was possible for the human mind to discover universal truth. Could there be
a universal concept of goodness if men were incapable of knowing any universal
truth?
Ethical discourses are central to any philosophical systems. Some of the
philosophers are directly addressed the well being and social good. The
philosophical ideas of some of the philosophers have implications for ethics.
The sophists consider man is measure of everything. For them, what gives
pleasure is good. Socrates emphasized on virtue as knowledge and unexamined
life is not worth living. Socrates devised a method for arriving at truth, linking
knowing and doing to each other in such a way as to argue that to know

13

Introduction to Western
Philosophy

the good is to do the good. Plato considered good with identification of cardinal
virtues. Medieval philosophers maintained goodness with religious morality and
the authority of religious text. The modern philosophers were started identifying
with the ideals of humanism and secularism. The utilitarian philosophers such
as Bentham and J.S. Mill developed ethical theories in the line of utility. The
consequence of action determines the good. Kant again revised the virtue ethics
through good will and categorical imperative. G. E. Moore argues that good
is indefinable. Any attempt to define it in naturalism leads to a naturalistic fallacy.
But at the same time he argues that objective moral truths are known through
intuition. The emotive theory of ethics of A. J. Ayer with an application of method
of logical positivism argues that ethical statements are neither positive nor
negative. But ethical statements exclamatory and indicates emotions.
The ethics of ancient and medieval theories are founded on religious morality.
The ethical theories of modern times are developed on the human nature. J.S.Mill
maintains that human being by nature seeks pleasure and avoids pain. For Kant,
human beings by nature are rational and argue for universal moral duty on this
basis. The existential thinker Jean Paul Sartre argues that there is no human
nature as such. Human beings are made up in situation. There is no objective
morality, but subjective.
Comprehensive Understanding
Socrates developed dialectic as a method of argumentation. Plato brought
together all the major concerns of human thought into a coherent organization
of knowledge. This comprehensive understanding of reality become a feature
of western philosophy and had influence on later philosophers of west.
The history of western philosophy reveals that, Plato has critically apprised. As
whitehead remarked that the safest general characterization of the European
philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. The
earliest philosophers, the Milesians were concerned chiefly with the constitution
of physical nature, not with foundations of morality. Similarly, the Eleatic
philosophers Parmenides and zeno were interested chiefly in arguing that reality
consists of changeless, single reality, the one. Heraclitus and Pythagorean, on
the other hand, considered reality as always changing, full of flux, and consisting
of a vast multitude of different things. Socrates and sophists showed less interest
in physical nature and instead, steered philosophy into arena of morality. Platos
great influence stems from the manner in which he brought all these diverse
philosophic concerns into a unified system of thought. Plato argues that the kind
of knowledge that helps one to distinguish between shadows, reflections, and
real objects in the visible world is just the kind of knowledge that man needs
to discriminate the shadows and reflections of the genuinely good life. Plato
had argued that the truth of the world is not revealed to ordinary sense
perception, but to reason alone; the truths of reason are necessary, eternal and
a priori; that through the cultivation of reason man can come to understand
himself, God, and world as these things are in themselves, freed from shadowy
overcast experience.
Skepticism

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Skepticism is doubting or denying the possibility of attaining true knowledge.

In ancient Greece, the sophists provide their argument based on skepticism.
The modern skepticism is associated with Hume, and J.S.Mill. It is reaction

against dogmatic metaphysics and is the logical consequence of a through

going empiricism. Descartes introduced the method of doubt, which has
influenced the western philosophy significantly. He considered doubt is the source
of knowledge. To doubt was not an end in itself; it was a process of purification,
of eliminating various false hoods, and of ultimately arriving at an unshakable
foundations of truth. In fact, our doubt implies the reality of our thoughts.
Doubting means thinking, this implies a self consciousness. Cogito ergo sum
(I think therefore I am).Descartes regarded it as primary truth of reason. For
Locke, skepticism was not an end in itself; it was prelude to a more scientific
philosophy. Though out the western philosophy, one form or other skepticism
has becomes one of its features. In fact, Western philosophy has progressed
further with skepticism.

Characteristics of
Western Philosophy

Scientific Method
Rational understanding of the world has one of the dominant features of
philosophy. The rational understanding has enriched with scientific method against
dogmatic and orthodox religious traditions. Descartes was a founder of
seventeenth century continental rationalism. It was Descartes, Spinoza and
Leibniz fashioned a new ideal for philosophy. In the wake of developments in
science, it was inevitably philosophy was affected by this new ways of discovering
facts. The early modern philosophers considered the methods of science a fresh
way of developing knowledge.
As Fredirich Mayer out lined in A History of Modern Philosophy, modern
philosophy has reflecting the spirit of science. In 16th and 17th centuries
philosophy was influenced a lot by the dev elopement of natural and physical
sciences. It has changed the perspective of philosophers. In 18th century the
growth of the social sciences changed the outlook of philosophers. The optimism
of 18th century philosophers was based on belief that progress can be achieved
by making the world more rational, by eliminating obsolete traditions, and by
destroying the spirit of prejudice. In 19th century, the growth of new biological
concepts stimulated philosophical thinking, but the conclusions of biology were
less comforting. The new scientific theories of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo
revolutionized mans concept of the physical world. There is no doubt that the
scientific discoveries and scientific methods of looking at world have changed
the direction and conception of western philosophy in a significant way.
Philosophical Method
Philosophical method is a combination of rules, assumptions, procedures, and
examples determining the scope and limits of a subject and establishing
acceptable ways of working within those limits to achieve truth. The question
of philosophical method is itself a matter for philosophy and constitutes a major
example of the reflective nature of the subject. Historically, the philosophers
disagree about the appropriate philosophical method. The identifying mark of
a philosophical school or movement lies mainly in the method it adopts. Ancient
philosophy was developed according to various interpretations of dialectic
method, and modern philosophy was initiated by Descartes s method of doubt.
Analytic philosophy is characterized by linguistic method, while non-analytic
European philosophy is characterized by phenomenological, historical, and textual
methods. Historically, philosophers have tried to model their work on the methods
of successful sciences, such as mathematics, physics, biology, psychology, and
computer science, but the appropriate relationship between philosophical and

15

Introduction to Western
Philosophy

scientific method is a matter of dispute. Some philosophers draw methodological

implications from the claim that philosophy is a part of science or ancillary to
science, while others derive their account of philosophical method from the claim
that philosophy is prior to science.
The method of philosophy is empirical as well as rational, inductive as well
as deductive. In the history of western philosophy, we find different theories
of philosophical methods and the limits of knowledge. Dogmatism, skepticism,
criticism and dialectic are prominent methods of inquiry. Dogmatism is the method
of philosophical inquiry without a prior criticism of knowledge. A dogmatic
philosophy assumes without hesitation the capacity of mind to know realities.
It assumes, without justification, i.e, without explanation or proof, certain
fundamental principles as well as self-evident or axiomatic and then deduces
conclusions from them. It does not question the truth of the premises with which
it starts. Dogmatism generally characterizes ancient philosophy, for the first
inclination of the human mind is to act without questioning itself. Skepticism
is doubting or denying the possibility of attaining true knowledge. In ancient
Greece, the sophists provide their argument based on skepticism. The modern
skepticism is associated with Hume, Mill. It is reaction against dogmatic
metaphysics and is the logical consequence of a through going empiricism. Kant
used the critical method. Kant points out that knowledge is not wholly built
of sensations as Hume supposes, it involves a priori as well as a posteriori
elements- reason as well as sensation. The matter of our ideas is furnished by
senses; their form is the work of reason. This is reconciliation of both empiricism
and rationalism.
The conflict of opposite dogmas gives rise to doubt as to the possibility of
knowledge. Dogmatism gives rise to skepticism. Doubt leads to reflection,
skepticism to criticism. Humes critical reflection leads to extreme skepticism.
According to him, we can never pass beyond the range of actual and possible
sensations, and knowledge is wholly built up out of the elements of sensations.
As per the critical method of Kant knowledge involves not merely sensations,
but also certain a priori notions (forms and categories) supplied by the thinking
principle from within itself. Our knowledge of the world has no resemblance
of kind to the real world, so that there are two worlds- a world of human
thought and a real world of things-in themselves.
Dialectic is a method used to a form of reasoning by finding out contradictions
or opposites. It is classified into negative and positive dialectic. The negative
dialectic as a method was used by Socrates. It consists in exposing the
inconsistencies or self-contradictions involved in opinions and thereby destroying
them. The positive dialectic method was adopted by Hegel. It is essentially a
process of reconciliation or unification. Hegel maintained that human thought
proceeds dialectically; its movement involves a process of contradiction and
reconciliation. An idea can be understood only in relation to its opposite or
contradictory. Heideggers Phenomenological method views Philosophy is the
study of phenomena, where phenomena referring to whatever shows itself.
Phenomena are not mere appearances, but those things which show themselves
to consciousness.

16

Further, philosophers approached reality from different stand points. Descartes

described reality as dualism consisting of two basic substances, thought and
extension; Spinoza proposed monism, saying that there is only a single substance,

Nature, which has various attributes and modes; Leibniz was pluralist, saying
that although there is only one kind of substance, the monad, there are
nevertheless different kinds of monads accounting for the various elements in
nature. It is evident that there are different philosophical methods adopted in
the tradition of western philosophy.

Characteristics of
Western Philosophy

Theories of Knowledge
In Greek philosophy, knowledge is perception held by atomists and the sophists.
Protagoras and Gorgias are important thinkers in this regard. Socrates, Plato
and Aristotle are important critics of this theory. For Socrates and his student
Plato, knowledge means what is universal and valid and free from contradiction.
Perception is momentary and relative to different persons. For Aristotle that
no sense contradicts itself at the same moment about the same object. If all
opinions and appearances be equally true, then it would lead to self contradicting
statements. The modern philosophy has an emphasis on human capacity to know
the world against the medieval view. It appealed to natural agencies in place
of super natural ones. In modern philosophy, empiricism and rationalism are
come with a distinct view of knowing the reality. The empiricists draw their
model from empirical experience of everyday life. The rationalists draw their
model from mathematics. For empiricists, experience is the source of knowledge
and for rationalists, reason is the source of knowledge. The empiricists believe
that mind is a clean state or tabula rasa. All the character of knowledge are
acquired through sense-experience. As per rationalism, intellect is an independent
source of knowledge. This gives us innate or a priori ideas. Knowledge,
according to it, consists in these innate ideas alone. These self evident universal
truths are given by our intellect, the best example of which is found in
mathematics. According to rationalism, experience does not constitute but serves
an occasion for the exercise of intellect, whose innate ideas constitute knowledge.
Intellect is an independent source of knowledge. This supplies us with self evident
innate ideas. Knowledge is constituted by innate ideas alone. Knowledge so
gained is universal and necessary.
Rationalism and empiricism are chief currents of modern western philosophy.
It is Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz of continental nations fashioned a new ideal
for philosophy. They are influenced by the progress and success of science and
mathematics; they attempt to provide philosophy with the exactness of
mathematics. They set out to formulate clear rational principles that could be
organized into a system of truths from which accurate information about the
world could be deduced. Their emphasis was upon the rational capacity of human
mind, which they now considered the source of truth about man and about
the world. Although they did not reject the claims of religion, they did consider
philosophical reasoning something independent of supernatural revelation.
The British empiricists Locke, Berkeley and Hume consider experience as the
source of knowledge. Empiricism is the view that all our knowledge is based
on experience alone, and that, therefore, the true philosophical method is
experimental or empirical. Locke argues that all knowledge is derived from
experience; do not deny the possibility of metaphysical knowledge. For Hume,
nothing is really knowable or thinkable beyond the range of experience no
certainty or knowledge about realities. Attack on innate ideas- Locke started
his philosophy with an examination of the first principles of knowledge and attacks
the doctrine of innate ideas. The doctrine of innate ideas is popular with

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Introduction to Western
Philosophy

continental philosophers especially Descartes, Leibniz and Spinoza. It was

derived from Plato and thus had a very ancient lineage. It gave regularity and
consistency to knowledge; it explained the universality of ideas and concepts.
Locke pointed out that this universality is not real and there is no reason for
the acceptance of innate ideas.
Theories of Truth
The prominent theories of truth are correspondence, coherence, and pragmatic.
According to the correspondence theory, a claim is true if it corresponds to
what is so (the facts or reality) and false if it does not correspond to what
is so. What we believe or say is true if it corresponds to the way things actually
are- to the facts. A belief is true if and only corresponds to a fact. This view
could be seen in various forms throughout the history of western philosophy.
In modern times, the analytical philosophers Russell and G.E. Moore holds this
position. According to the coherence theory of truth, a statement is true if
it is logically consistent with other beliefs that are held to be true. A belief is
false if it is inconsistent with (contradicts) other beliefs that are held to be true.
A belief is true if and only if it is part of a coherent system of beliefs. The
idealistic philosophers are in favour of this theory. Like correspondence theory,
this theory too prominent in western philosophical thought. This theory is
associated with British idealists in modern times. According to the pragmatic
theory, a statement is true if it allows you to interact effectively and efficiently
with the cosmos. The less true a belief is, the less it facilitates such interaction.
A belief is false if it facilitates no interaction. In other words, truth is end of
inquiry. Truth is satisfactory to believe. The most famous advocate of the
pragmatic theory is the American philosopher William James.
Political Philosophy

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Western philosophy has diverse traditions of political philosophy, from social

contract to communitarianism. Historically, Greek thought followed the Christian
natural law. The Christian natural law was undermined by the individualism of
seventeenth century. This period was informed by the new vision of progress
and freedom. Science had revolutionized peoples life and thinking. Relationship
between individual and god was replaced by the relationship between individual
and individual as the foundation of social enquiry. This individualism becomes
the basic characteristic of the subsequent liberal tradition. The idea of social
initiative and social control surrendered to the idea of individual initiative and
individual control. In simple terms, new material conditions gave birth to new
social relationships and new philosophy was evolved to afford a rational
justification for the new world which had come into being. This new philosophy
became known as liberalism. Liberalism acquired different flavors in different
national cultures. The difficulties in liberal theory lie in its basic foundations of
seventeenth century individualism and its quality of possessiveness. The possessive
quality lies in the conception of the individual as essentially the proprietor of
his own person or capacities owing nothing to society. The individual was seen
neither as a moral whole, nor as a part of a larger social whole, but as a
proprietor of himself. The basic assumption of possessive individualism that
man is free and human by virtue of his sole proprietorship of his own person,
and that human society is essentially a series of market relations, were deeply
embedded in seventeenth century foundations. This theory may correspond with
the market society of seventeenth century. Society becomes the web of free
equal individuals related to each other as proprietors of their own capacities.

Society consists of relations of exchange between proprietors. Political society

becomes a calculated device for the protection of this property and for the
maintenance of an orderly relation of exchange. Later theories of politics tried
to articulate from the point of community or individual in relation to community.
The inconsistency lies inherently in the market society itself. Market society
automatically brings the class differentiations. The propertied class would like
to hold power over the subordinate classes. Men no longer saw them selves
fundamentally equal in an inevitable subjection to the determination of market.
Alternatives emerged for the market system. Articulation of proletarian politics
gave a serious blow to the liberal politics. There are altogether different
assumptions about man and society. The community has replaced individual.
Marxist theory aims at the radical change in society and its human relations.
Human society has seen from the perspective of the class considers human being
as primarily a producer. His relations are determined by his involvement in social
production. Other than the Marxist notion there is a conservative political theory
would like to see society from the point of view of community. Conservatism
has reverence for tradition, religion and age old custom. Edmund Burke is the
one of the examples for conservative tradition. As per the conservative views,
the inherent imperfections of human nature make a strong state necessary. It
is needed to control the anti-social impulses of the individual. State has been
seen as a crucial institution necessary to prevent society from dissolving into
disorder and chaos. The conservative thinkers consider the forms of inequality
and privilege as ineradicable and necessary elements of society. In the domain
of political thought, the contemporary dilemma can be phrased broadly in terms
of the relationship between contract and community.

Characteristics of
Western Philosophy

The liberals have persistently tended to cut the citizen off from the person,
putting on their pedestal a cripple of a man without a moral or political nature
and without moorings in any real community. Libertarianism is an individualist
philosophy, with a strong focus on the rights of citizens in a democracy. Whereas
the libertarian Rawls seemed to present his theory of justice as universally true,
communitarians argued that the standards of justice must be found in forms of
life and traditions of particular societies and hence can vary from context to
context. Liberals insist that democratic self-government requires a fair and neutral
political framework in which individuals can enjoy freedom and be treated as
equals. As such, a democratic state must be as minimal as possible; its primary
function is to maintain the social conditions and political institutions under which
free and equal persons can live harmoniously together. On the communitarian
view, democracy requires that individuals embody the virtues that make them
capable of the true freedom of self-Government, and that these virtues can be
properly nurtured only within the context of a proper community. Therefore,
the state in a democratic society must undertake the project of forming its citizens
characters by providing the necessary conditions under which communities, and
hence the individuals who compose them, can flourish.
Liberals posit a self that is by nature autonomous and thus enters into social
associations by voluntary choice. According to communitarians, selves are
essentially tied to the social contexts within which they live. Such contexts form
the dispositions, desires, interests, and commitments of individuals. Communitarian
thinkers in the 1980s such as Michael Sandel and Charles Taylor argued that
Rawlsian liberalism rests on an overly individualistic conception of the self.
However, the western political thought has dominant streams such as liberalism,
conservatism radicalism and communitarianism.

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Introduction to Western
Philosophy

1.4

CRITICAL CONSTRUCTIONS OF WESTERN

PHILOSOPHY

In recent times, there are many critical notes about the dominant constructions
of western philosophy from within west and outside. The postmodern philosophical
inquiries are not only critical about grand philosophical narratives but also provide
different direction to philosophy by bringing into view the marginalized philosophical
narratives. The periphery has brought into centre by celebrating the differences,
which is either subsumed or negated in generalization. The social movements
such as feminists, blacks, ethnic, ecological, post colonial are critical about the
very foundations and constructions of western philosophy. The continental thinker
Emmanuel Levinas opposes the orientation of western philosophy with a claim
of ethics as first philosophy. Against the construction of philosophy around
centre, he proposes other as central. The postmodern thinker, Michel Foucault
discusses possibility of discourse by analyzing the relationship between knowledge
and power. Antonia Gramsci reminds the role of intellectuals in forming counter
hegemony against ruling class hegemony. Edward Said in Orientalism exposes
the colonial interests in writing/viewing other. The post colonial thinkers are not
only critical about western imperialist forces but also their knowledge systems
by highlighting the specificity of indigenous/local cultures. The western rationality
and its scientific progress were critically viewed. Against the modern liberal self,
embedded self was celebrated.

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The distinguishing characteristic of postmodernist theorizing is its rejection of

traditional philosophy and metaphysics. The postmodernists claim to have
rejected not one thesis or another but rather the entire philosophical tradition
from Plato through George Santayana. They problematised the notion of
modernity and the philosophy constructed around that idea.The theoretical
discourses of modernity from Descartes through the Enlightenment and its
progeny championed reason as the source of progress in knowledge and society,
as well as the privileged locus of truth and the foundation of systematic
knowledge. Reason was deemed competent to discover adequate theoretical
and practical norms upon which systems of thought and action could be built
and society could be restructured. This Enlightenment project is also operative
in the American, French, and other democratic revolutions which attempted to
overturn the feudal world and to produce a just and egalitarian social order
that would embody reason and social progress. Yet the construction of modernity
produced untold suffering and misery for its victims, ranging from the peasantry,
proletariat, and artisans oppressed by capitalist industrialization to the exclusion
of women from the public sphere, to the genocide of imperialist colonialization.
Modernity also produced a set of disciplinary institutions, practices, and
discourses which legitimate its modes of domination and control. The Postmodern
theory argues that meaning is not simply given, but is socially constructed across
a number of institutional sites and practices. The postmodern thinkers such as
Foucault and others analyze the institutional bases of discourse, the viewpoints
and positions from which people speak, and the power relations these allow
and presuppose. They interpret discourse as a site and object of struggle where
different groups strive for hegemony and the production of meaning and ideology.
From these beginnings in the 1960s and 1970s, postmodernists continued their
attack on conventional philosophic and social scientifice approaches, developing
a wide range of views that challenged the notion of progress, truth, reality, and

values. Among the writers who are often classified as postmodernist are Michel
Foucault, Jean Baudrillard, Jean-Francois Lyotard, Roland Barthes, Frederic
Jameson, Jacques Derrida, Felix Guattari, Gilles Deleuze, Paul Virilio, and Arthur
Kroker. Postmodern philosophy is a philosophical direction which is critical of
the foundational assumptions and structures of philosophy. There is no single
world view that captures reality, no master story (or meta-narrative) that underlies
humanity. Reason is to be distrusted because there is no way to know which
persons reason is reliable. There is no such thing as objectivity. There is
no truth to appeal to for understanding history and culture. There are no
moral absolutes. The West, with its colonialist heritage, deserves ridicule.
Texts, whether religious or philosophical or literary, do not have intrinsic
meaning. Ideas are cultural creations.

Characteristics of
Western Philosophy

1.5 LET US SUM UP

Western philosophy is an intellectual enterprise in comprehensive understanding
of reality. From the beginning it evolved as a distinct discipline by keeping
distance from both theology and science. It has classified into metaphysics,
epistemology and axiology and developed further in the same line of demarcation.
Skepticism, scientific method, individualism are identified as the features of
modern western philosophy. In metaphysics, descriptive and revisionary are two
dominant approaches of doing metaphysics. In epistemology, Empiricism and
rationalism are two chief currents in knowing reality and the theories of
knowledge are further developed by different thinkers. Correspondence, coherence
and pragmatic are prominent theories of truth. In Political philosophy, liberalism,
radicalism, conservatism and communitarianism are prominent theories. However,
in recent times with the rise of new social movements and postmodern thinking,
the dominant constructions of western philosophy are under scrutiny.

1.6 KEY WORDS

Metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, skepticism, philosophical method,
postmodernism, liberalism, empiricism, rationalism, theories of truth, renaissance,
medieval, modern, Greco-Roman

1.7 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Mayer, Frederick. A History of Modern Philosophy. New Delhi: Eurasia
Publishing House,1976.
Scruton, Roger. A Short History of Modern Philosophy. London: Routledge,1995.
Masih, Y. A Critical History of Western Philosophy. New Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidas Publishers, 2002.
Levi, Albert William. Philosophy as Social Expression. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1974
Stumpf, Samuel Enoch. Socrates to Sartre, A History of Philosophy. New
York: Mc Graw Hill,1982
Russell, Bertrand. History of Western Philosophy. London: Routledge Classics,
2010

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