Hyperbolic Cooling Towers - Details

World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology
International Journal of Civil, Structural, Construction and Architectural Engineering Vol:8, No:10, 2014
A Survey on Hyperbolic Cooling Towers

E. Asadzadeh, M. Alam
International Science Index Vol:8, No:10, 2014 waset.org/Publication/9999928
AbstractThis study offers a comprehensive review of the

research papers published in the field of cooling towers and gives an
insight into the latest developments of the natural draught cooling
towers. Different modeling, analysis and design techniques are
summarized and the challenges are discussed. The 118 references
included in this paper are mostly concentrated on the review of the
published papers after 2005. The present paper represents a complete
collection of the studies done for cooling towers and would give an
updated material for the researchers and design engineers in the field
of hyperbolic cooling towers.
KeywordsHyperbolic cooling towers, earthquakes, wind,
nonlinear behavior, buckling, collapse, interference.
I. INTRODUCTION
OOLING towers constitute very important component of

power generation systems they also contribute to
environment protection. The hyperbolic cooling towers are
associated with nuclear and thermal power plants, although
they are also used to some extent in some large chemical and
other industrial plants. From the structural point of view they
are high rise reinforced concrete structures in the form of
doubly curved thin walled shells of complex geometry and so
is their analysis and design. The in-plane membrane actions
primarily resist the applied forces and bending plays the
secondary role in these special structures. Development of
cooling towers goes back to the 19th century when the
condensers were used with the steam engine (1902). The first
hyperboloid shaped cooling tower was introduced by the
Dutch engineers Frederik van Iterson and Gerard Kuypers and
built in 1918 near Heerlen having 35 meter height. The first
ones with 68 meter height in the United Kingdom were built
prior to 1930 in Liverpool, England. Soon, heights and
capacities increased, and the first cooling tower of height
higher than 100 meter constructed in High Marnham Power
Station in Britain. The cooling tower of 200 meter height built
in 2002 in Niederaussem power station, Germany, was the
world tallest hyperbolic cooling tower in the world until the
construction of Kalisindh thermal energy plant in Rajasthan,
India completed in June 2012. Two towers in this plant (Fig.
1) have a height of 202 meters with the base diameter of 142
meter each.
E. A. is a Ph.D. Scholar at the Department of Civil Engineering, Jamia

Millia Islamia University, 110025 Maulana Mohammed Ali Jauhar Marg,
New Delhi, India (e-mail: es.asadzadeh@gmail.com)
M. A. is a professor at the Department of Civil Engineering, Jamia Millia
Islamia University, 110025 Maulana Mohammed Ali Jauhar Marg, New
Delhi, India (e-mail: mehtablm04@gmail.com)
International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 8(10) 2014
Fig. 1 Construction of Kalisindh thermal energy plant in Rajasthan,

India
Cooling towers are classified by their use, build, heat

transfer methods, air flow generation methods, and air-towater flow mechanism. With respect to drawing air through
the tower (air flow generation methods), there are three types
namely as natural draft, mechanical draft and fan assisted
natural draft cooling towers.
The present paper would concentrate on the researches done
so far in the modeling, analysis, design and the latest
theoretical and practical developments of such structures to
bring to the light the better understanding of their behavior.
The present work has more focus on the published research
works between 2005 and 2014.
II. NATURAL DRAFT COOLING TOWERS (NDCT)
In NDCT, lower density of the moist air inside the chimney
as compared to dry and cooler air outside at the same pressure
makes the cooling process natural. The hyperbolic geometry
has advantage of a negative Gaussian curvature which makes
it superior in stability against external pressures than straight
towers. The widened bottom of the tower accommodates large
installation of fill to facilitate the evaporative cooling of the
thin film of circulated water. Narrowing effect of the tower
accelerates the laminar flow of evaporation and diverging top
promotes turbulent mixing which increases the contact
between hot inside air and cooler outside air. The entire
structure is made of high-strength Reinforced Cement
Concrete (RCC) in the form of hyperbolic thin shell standing
on diagonal, meridional, or vertical supporting columns and
radial supports. The shell is sufficiently stiffened by upper and
lower edge members. In order to achieve sufficient resistance
against instability, large cooling tower shells may be stiffened
by additional internal or external rings which may also be used
as repair or rehabilitation tool. The peripheral support at the
base of the tower consists of either a number of single
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columns of varying or constant cross sections or pair columns

of types A/V/X/ either joined at the tower base or foundation
level (concentric) or not joined at any level (eccentric).
III. GEOMETRY AND OPTIMUM SHAPE OF THE TOWER
The hyperbolic form of thin-walled towers provides

optimum conditions for good aerodynamics, strength, and
stability. The only general ruled surface of revolution which
can degenerate into a cylinder, a cone, or a plane is the
hyperboloid. Rotation of a hyperbola
1 , lying in the
xOz plane having its convex toward the axis of rotation Oz,
forms a hyperboloid in which the hyperbola becomes a
meridian of this surface [1]. The other different formulas to
1, or by
define a hyperbola are given by equation
the parametrical equation:
;
finite elements to model and simulate the geometry and

loading conditions of such complex structures. First, flat
triangular finite elements were used. Lochner [14] applied a
three-node curvilinear triangular shell element. A year later,
using the FEM, Konderla considered the numerical solutions
of symmetrical [15] and asymmetrical [16] problems of
hyperbolic shells of revolution within the limits of a
geometrically nonlinear shell theory. Detailed investigations
on the finite element modeling and suitable elements applied
in cooling towers analysis are covered in [17]-[20]. The latest
researches done after 2005 are mostly related to the modeling
and analysis considering the material nonlinearity, crack
formation, use of multilevel elements and effect of large
displacements using the FEM techniques.
With regard to general hyperbola other forms of

representation may also be used leading to the optimum shape
of the tower against the different types of the loading
conditions. Different geometries may found in the [2], [3].
Some studies have focused on selection of the optimum shape
of the tower shell. Harte [4] gave a brief introduction into the
shape optimization, design and construction of the 200 m high
natural draught cooling tower shell at Niederaussem. Form of
the tower is the result of optimization calculations with respect
to a best possible load bearing behavior, lowest meridional
stress and highest buckling safety, resulting in most economic
concrete and steel masses. It has also been commented that the
best possible load bearing behavior can be reached with
continuous increase of meridian curvature from the base lintel
to the throat level and thereafter continues without any drastic
change. El Ansary et al. [5] following the flow chart given in
Fig. 2 investigated the optimum shape of the tower
corresponding to minimum weight assuming constant
thickness and introduced the shell thickness as one of the
design variables in order to achieve an optimum shape and
design for the towers having B-spline geometric function. A
number of computer optimization techniques were used by
various researchers to solve shape optimization of cooling
towers. Some are reported on [6]-[12].
IV. FINITE ELEMENT MODELING
In 1967, the first cooling tower shell analyzed by means of
a shell bending theory [1]. Later, Antonov [13] neglecting the
tangential displacements and their derivatives in the
geometrical equations of a bending shell theory used a fourthorder ordinary differential equation for the normal
displacement. Because of the complex geometry of the cooling
towers and also the classical methods of analysis of shell
structures, the most preferred method of the modeling and
analysis of NDCT is Finite Element Method (FEM). In the
1970s, the FEM began to enter into the analysis of hyperbolic
cooling tower shell structures. There are numbers of available
Fig. 2 Flow chart for optimum shape and design of cooling towers [5]
V. NONLINEARITY AND ULTIMATE LOAD

For the last four decades, tensile cracking in the concrete
has been employed in the finite element analyses of RC
structures. To this end, two distinct models being complex and
time consuming have been generally employed: the discretecracking model and the smeared-cracking model.
Determination of the ultimate strength of the cooling towers in
the nonlinear static analysis subjected to the severe quasistatic wind loads is one of the objectives of the research for
the structural engineers. Various nonlinear factors, such as the
material nonlinearities in the concrete and reinforcing steel,
tensile cracking, the bond effects between concrete and steel
in the cracked concrete which is known as the tension
stiffening, the large displacement effects, and so on; need to
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be taken into account to investigate the ultimate behavior of

such structures.
Based on the Finite Element Method (FEM) a
comprehensive numerical investigation of a RC hyperbolic
cooling tower at Port Gibson, Miss. USA, was reported by
Mang et al. [21]. They analyzed the cooling tower shell
considering the large displacement, cracking in concrete, steel
yielding and inelastic behavior of concrete. In their study, it
was suggest that, in evaluating the ultimate strength of the
cooling tower shell, the full nonlinear analysis must be
performed since the ultimate load factor obtained by the
nonlinear analysis is shown as considerably lower than that
obtained by the buckling analysis. In fact, the linear buckling
analysis gives ultimate load several times larger than that of
nonlinear analysis. In this paper, it had been concluded that
propagation of cracks in tensile zones would initiate the failure
of the tower, followed by increased activation of the loadcarrying capacity of the reinforcement and, finally, by yielding
of the reinforcement. Milford and Schnobrich [22] obtained
the load factor of 2.1 considering the tension stiffening effect,
crack rotation and the geometrical nonlinearity. Later studies
carried out by Hara et al. [23], Min [24] and Noh [25] reported
the same conclusion. Thirty years later, Jia [26] employing
another program, analyzed the same tower using the finite
element method to find out whether the conclusions based on
these results still hold if the concrete with much higher
strength is used and geometric imperfections are considered.
In this paper, ultra-high-strength-fiber concrete (UHSFconcrete) was used, the shell thickness was reduced and
imperfections of the original geometry of the structure were
also considered. The main conclusion of the study was that the
cooling tower would still fail by loss of strength, characterized
by the existence of an ultimate load and of yielding of the
reinforcement which confirms the previous findings.
However, Mahmoud and Gupta [27] obtained a load factor of
1.73 taking into account the large displacement effects. They
concluded that the failure of the Port Gibson Tower at
Mississippi was caused by the circumferential buckling in the
vicinity of the throat rather than the yielding of the
reinforcement, which contradicts the results of the previous
researchers.
In the literature, many works such as Milford and
Schnobrich [28], Gupta and Maestrini [29], and Harte and
Kraatzig [4], have been given attention on the ultimate
strength and causes of HPC towers failure. Noh [25]
employing the layered degenerated shell element for modeling
the reinforced concrete and taking into account the nonlinear
behavior for the Port Gibson tower, obtained the ultimate load
bearing capacity of cooling tower shell as 2.34 times that of
design wind pressure. In this study for the concrete in
compression, the work hardening plasticity was employed and
the modified DruckerPrager yield criterion written as a
function of stresses given in (1) was used.
1.355
0.355
(1)
where 0 is effective stress equal to 30% of the compressive

strength in which the initial yielding assumed to occur. For the
tension stiffening effect, which is the contribution of the
tensile stiffness from the cracked concrete due to the bond
between concrete and reinforcement, the tension cut-off
strategy was used. The schematic view of this model is given
in Fig. 3. In this figure the degree of tension stiffening is
controlled by ultimate strain m which is given as constant n
times the tension crack strain t.
Fig. 3 Tension stiffening of concrete [25]
A year later, repeating more or less the same work, Noh

[30] investigated the nonlinear behavior of the same cooling
tower from unstressed state to the ultimate state. In this
analysis, both the material nonlinearities in concrete (such as
work-hardening plasticity, cyclic behavior to unloading and
reloading, tension cracks and crack rotation, tension stiffening
and shear transfer) and steel reinforcement, and the
geometrical nonlinearities based on the GreenLagrange strain
tensor were taken into account. To represent the biaxial
behavior of the concrete, again the work-hardening plasticity
model was employed. The ultimate load bearing capacity of
the cooling tower shell under consideration was obtained as
1.925 times that of the design wind pressure that corresponds
to the wind velocity of 40.2m/s (90 mph). In this study, the
nonlinear behavior reported to start by the formation of
horizontal tension cracks in the windward meridian at the 43%
height of the cooling tower shell. Then increasing the applied
loading, cracks spread along meridional and circumferential
directions. At the ultimate load, the yield of steel
reinforcement in the windward meridian had occurred
resulting in an abrupt increase in the along-wind displacement.
Once the steel yielded, the yield zone propagated along the
circumferential direction, resulting in the structural failure.
The failure of the cooling tower was caused by the yielding of
reinforcement in the windward meridian. The maximum crack
width at the failure was over 3.0 mm in the part where the
reinforcement yielded, however the bending cracks along the
line of large curvature on the extrados were observed to be
two orders lower to that of the maximum.
Deformation response and ultimate strength of RC shell
structures are governed predominantly by material response of
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concrete and reinforcing steel, tensile cracking of concrete,

bond between concrete and steel [31], [32]. Softening
response of concrete due to quasi-brittle cracking in tension
also significantly influences the nonlinear response by
inducing loss of strength and stiffness [33]. Due to all these,
analysis requires attention for realistic modeling of the layer of
shell concrete confined between the reinforcement layers.
Now a days one of the most challenging areas for the
researches is the modeling techniques using the layered
elements. Gopinath et al. [2] presented integrated
methodologies based on multilevel modeling concepts for
finite element analysis of reinforced concrete hyperbolic
cooling tower shell structure, with specific reference to
account for nonlinear response behavior at ultimate capacity
of cracked concrete. Geometric representation of the shell was
enabled through multiple concrete layers. Composite
characteristic of concrete was accounted by assigning different
material properties to the layers.
After the successful linear or nonlinear analysis of the
cooling towers for any types of loadings in which the finite
element method is the most preferred, the designing process
would be started. In the case of nonlinear analysis there are
two different concepts for designing purpose [34]. A general
cross-section design procedure according to EC 2 which is
also used in linear analysis or an ultimate load design
according to German standards DIN 1045-1 shown in Fig. 4.
purposes.
Dead load consists of the self-weight of the tower shell
wall, the ribs, and the superimposed load from attachments
and equipment. During the preliminary phase of the design
process the results obtained from the self weight analysis are
helpful to choose the most optimum shell-thickness variation.
In the vicinity of the top edge, the self weight of the tower
produces membrane tension however an axisymmetric and
near-membrane state of compression are attained in the entire
shell and in the vicinity of the supports, some bending may
occur [35], [36]. The self weight for the towers of a general
shape considering a number of different patterns of shellthickness variation along a meridian was studied by Zingoni
[35]. In this study, he developed explicit analytical results for
resultant membrane stresses of the shell of revolution. The
meridional directed forces developed in tower shell due to the
self-weight of the tower may cause local (diamond-shaped)
buckling or axisymmetric circular buckling [1]. For NDCT
shell structures self-weight is always studied in combination
with wind load in the areas of negligible seismic activity.
Overall buckling of the tower shell may caused by
combination of wind load and self-weight which takes place
with large displacements. There is a considerable difference
between design codes in criteria for buckling safety, requiring
either the snap-through approach proposed by Der and
Fidler [37] and used in British, Indian and German codes, the
local or buckling stress states (BSS) approach proposed and
developed by Mungan [38]-[40] and also used in German
code, or the global approach which requires a full nonlinear
buckling analysis of the shell and preferred in USA code [41].
VII. RESPONSE TO THE EARTHQUAKE
Fig. 4 Non-linear design procedure for ultimate limit state [34]
VI. LOADING, ANALYSES AND RESPONSES

The NDCT shell structures are submitted to environmental
loads such as wind, earthquake and thermal gradients that are
stochastic in nature. The dead loads, settlement, and
construction load are the other common load conditions and
various accidental loads, e.g., explosion often experience by
hyperbolic cooling towers in their lifetime. The effects of the
various loading conditions are combined and factored
according to the available codes for the analysis and design
The earthquake loads are dynamic in nature. In the NDCT

the earthquake loading is produced by transmission of ground
motions from the foundation through the supporting columns
and the lintel into the shell. For a hyperbolic tower, the
magnitude and distribution of the earthquake-induced forces in
the meridional direction, is a function of the mass of the tower
and the dynamic properties of the structure (natural
frequencies and damping) and the acceleration produced by
the earthquake at the base of the structure. In parts of the
world wherein the wind is not the dominant load for the
design, earthquake loading is an important consideration in the
design of cooling towers. Back in 1967, closed-form
expressions derived by Gould and Lee [42] for determining
the resultant stresses in the shell and corresponding
deformations under static seismic design load. Design aids
were produced in the form of tables and charts. Acceptable
results yielded by the proposed procedure for the static load
case. For a tower fixed at the base and free at the top, on the
basis of characteristic statistical data, Abu-Sitta and Davenport
[43] investigated the effects of dynamic earthquake loading. In
their study, the induced dynamic stresses were related to
equivalent membrane stresses from static loads, resulting in
the development of a simplified earthquake analysis
procedure. Wolf and Skrikerud [44] had studied the Influence
of geometry and of the constitutive law of the supporting
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columns on the seismic response of a hyperbolic cooling

tower. To determine the optimum seismic design, the
influence of the geometry of the columns was investigated
parametrically. Bhimaraddi et al. [45] had studied the free
vibration response of the column supported, ring stiffened
cooling tower and concluded that under seismic excitation of
the cooling tower the stiffening rings may not help to increase
the resistance of the structure because these rings have no
influence on the modal characteristics of structures under such
excitations, however, the stiffening rings help to increase the
load-carrying capacity of towers under wind excitations.
Various attempts had been made to model the discrete
columns and to incorporate their effects into the cooling tower
analysis using different approaches of varying accuracy. Hara
[46] had studied dynamic response of cooling tower
considering two alternative types of the supporting column
systems namely I-column supports and V-column supports. It
had been concluded that the total structural responses of the
shell with supporting columns strongly depend on the
supporting column systems and were different from the
conventional pin-supported ideal shell. Sabouri-Ghomi et al.
[47] had carried out a numerical study of the nonlinear
dynamic behavior of reinforced concrete cooling towers
supported by columns under earthquake excitation and its
influence on the integrity and stability of cooling towers. In
this study, the locations of plastic hinges within the supporting
columns were identified and assessed the ramifications of the
plastic hinges on the stability of the cooling tower. Asadzadeh
et al. [48] had studied the structural response of the hyperbolic
cooling towers under static wind and pseudo static seismic
forces. In this study, two types of supporting systems namely I
type and I type of column supports at the base of the towers
had been considered and the finite element analysis employing
higher order Mindlin formulation for the shell elements have
been undertaken. They have observed that the I type of
supports create higher flexibility at the base of the tower as
compared to the V type of supports which behaves in a
manner similar to fixed support at the base. The structural
response of the towers under wind and earthquake was found
to be completely different for the towers supported on
different columns. Asadzadeh et al. [49] have studied the
effects of the inclination angle of the supporting columns on
the dynamic response of the cooling towers. In this study,
dynamic response, the location of the maximum displacements
in the tower shell and the participation of the towers stiffness
in structural response of the layered cooling tower has found
to be significantly dependent of the change of the inclination
angle and even the types of the supporting columns. It has also
observed that the stiffness of the structure increases with
increase in inclination angle of the supporting columns
resulting in decrease of the period therefore altering the
resistance of the cooling tower against the earthquake loading.
It have been concluded that the hyperbolic structure of the
cooling tower can be optimized by finding the optimum
inclination angle of the supporting columns.
VIII. WIND AND BUCKLING OF THE TOWER

Wind is the prime lateral load and its combination with self
weight of the tower shell can cause the buckling instability
leading to catastrophic failure. After the sudden collapse of
three immense cooling towers at Ferry-Bridge Power Station
in England in 1965, experimental and theoretical
investigations had been done in the area of the stability of
hyperbolic shells to study the parameters increasing the wind
resistance and buckling safety of the cooling towers. Niemann
et al. [50] assessed the wind loads on the cooling towers using
a new approach with individual equivalent static loads, and
presented the design of the reinforcement in the meridional
/circumferential direction and the design against buckling.
Karisiddappa, et al. [51] carried out the analysis of column
supported cooling towers for unsymmetrical wind loads.
Improved 3D finite element formulation of column supported
hyperbolic cooling towers and the realistic circumferential
wind pressure distribution was carried out. Consequently, for
different wind pressure distribution profiles, meridian
membrane forces were shown to exhibit more sensitivity
towards the pressure variations. Buckling is one of the main
failure considerations in design of the cylindrical and
hyperbolic shells. Vaziri et al. [52] reported that the sensitivity
of the buckling behavior of both plates and shells in the
presence of defects such as cracks highly depends on the
loading condition. The uniform external pressure at which a
cylindrical shell buckles is very sensitive to the geometry of
the cylinder. The buckling strength drops rapidly as the buckle
becomes longer making longer cylinders have a lower critical
buckling pressure. The buckling strength is also affected by
the thickness of the cylinder and thinner cylinders have lower
critical buckling pressures [53].
The wind-induced response of cooling tower is the key
factor to improve safety and to reduce tower crack [54]. At
present, the research on the large cooling towers is focused on
the material properties of the shell structure of tower, such as
multi-layered nonlinear concrete shell [30], [55], and the
structural behaviour under external environment [56], [57]
especially under wind loads.
Wind load analysis can be performed following three
methods. One is from experiments wind pressure coefficient,
the shape factors and the wind-induced vibration coefficient
can be obtained [58], [59]. Two is the CFD (computational
fluid dynamics) analysis, to calculate the wind pressure and
velocity distribution directly with the appropriate turbulence
models [60], [61]. And the three is, to perform spectral
analysis with a variety of wind spectra of the tower.
Goudarzi et al. [62] investigated the effects of NDCT
geometry features on formation of pressure field around the
Kazerun power plant in Iran. In this paper, the effects of inside
flow modelling on the external surface wind induced pressure
and the effects of adding circumferential footing structures to
the external Wind Induced Pressure Field (WIPF) distribution
were numerically examined and results were compared with
the German power plant guidelines VGB. It had been stated
that modelling inside the NDCT had negligible effects on the
external WIPF. Then modelling the two different geometrical
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characteristics of a full scale standard NDCT by omitting the

footing attachments and by considering the footing with major
geometrical difference with standard NDCT shape the
comparisons were made. The circumferential WIPF diagrams
were found to be similar with VGB trends at throat level. At
upstream stagnation point (=0), identical positive WIPF were
computed and at downstream part of the NDCT (110<<180)
shell, the constant values of negative pressure were obtained.
However, the circumferential WIPF presented different trends
for the two models at footing levels. The vertical profiles of
WIPF follow the VGB guideline in the vertical levels except
the footing structure wherein some disturbances appeared.
Li and Cao [63] analysed the large cooling tower based on
the iterative method for wind pressure. In this paper, three
analysis methods of wind load were studied and compared, the
proposed iterative pressure method with fluid-structure
interaction, the design code based method and the rigid body
method assuming the tower structure as a rigid body in CFD
analysis without fluid-structure interaction. It had been
concluded that the code based method is conservative, and the
relative error between iterative method and code based method
increases with the increase of the mean wind speed. According
to the iterative method, the pressure coefficient Cp becomes
uniform relatively at lee near the exit and bottom of the
outside surface of tower because of turbulence, which is
different from Chinese code.
Ke et al. [64] presented a new approach for analyzing windinduced responses and corresponding equivalent static wind
loads (ESWLs) by a consistent coupling method (CCM) based
on structural random vibration theory. In this work, the refined
analysis method was firstly presented as a CCM to
compensate the coupling component between background and
resonant components. Then, to discuss the modal coupling
mechanism of ESWLs, and to verify the precision of CCM for
super-large cooling towers, a case study on a super-large
cooling tower in Jiangxi nuclear power plant was made. In
order to compute the dynamic response of the cooling tower,
the fluctuating wind pressures acting on the shell surface were
measured in a wind tunnel test. Then, based on a modified
equivalent beam-net design method [65], the aero-elastic
model for simultaneous pressure and vibration measurement
was firstly put forwarded to check the validity of responses for
a super-large cooling tower with CCM. The aero-elastic model
consisted of 14 x 36 spatial thin steel sheets, which provide
reduced-scale stiffness and truly simulated bending, torsion
and axis stiffness components by modifying three-dimensional
sizes of each thin sheet, such as depth and width, and of 12 x
36 pieces of copper additional masses, which simulate
reduced-scale mass distribution. The computation results
indicate that the coupling effects between resonant modes and
cross term between background and resonant component are
significant, and CCM is an effective method for calculating
ESWLs on super-large cooling towers.
IX. STIFFENING RINGS
In new built and repaired NDCT the stiffening rings used to
improve the stability of the total structure [66]-[73].
Meanwhile, contribution of stiffening rings to dynamic

properties was also investigated in several parallel studies
[67], [69]. Some preliminary instructive conclusions for the
effects of the stiffening rings on dynamic properties are
mentioned here. Compared with the original un-stiffened
structure, stiffening rings influences on eigenfrequencies
could be classified into two separate series. For a specified
mode, the stiffening rings effect is related to its location: the
eigenfrequency would be increased most if it locates at the
maximum modal displacement, which is quite similar to the
buckling problem [66]-[71]. For different modes, the
stiffening rings effect is related to the lattitude wave number:
the mode which has more latitude waves will show more
remarkable increase on eigenfrequency [67], [69].
Abbu-Sitta [74], presented ring-stiffened hyperbolic cooling
towers under static wind loading and showed that the ring
beam effect is local and influences mainly the meridional
moment and the circumferential force. Form [67] found that
the construction of the stiffening rings significantly influenced
the buckling safety factor (BSF) and structural buckling
stability of hyperbolic cooling towers. He showed that adding
2, 3, or 4 stiffening rings to the cooling tower increase the
BSF of the R.C. shell by a factor of 1.65, 2.32, and 2.80,
respectively. Bhimaraddi et al. [45] concluded that the
stiffening rings may not increase the earthquake resistance of
the HCT. Later on, in 1998, Boseman [75] evaluated the R.C.
cooling towers of the Athlone power plant and showed that the
addition of stiffening rings to cooling towers increased the
BSF of the R.C. shell by a factor of 2.75. However, neither
study addressed the details of stiffening ring design
parameters such as quantity, location, and dimension. These
design parameters are essential for effectively strengthening
the R.C. cooling towers and achieving maximum buckling
stability. Eight years later, Sabouri-Ghomi et al. [73]
investigated the effect of stiffening rings on the buckling
stability of R.C. cooling towers supported on X-shaped
columns by considering the important design parameters such
as the number, dimension, and location of stiffening rings and
concluded that added stiffening rings increase the buckling
resistance of the R.C. shell. The stiffening rings behaved
flexibly or rigidly, depending on their dimensions. The
number of flexible stiffening rings required to maximize the
buckling safety factor was found to be higher than the number
of rigid stiffening rings required to maximize it.
Zhang et al. [76] had also studied the effect of the stiffening
ring on hyperboloidal cooling towers (HCT) to improve the
dynamic properties and the wind resistance capability of such
structures. In this study, they had proposed a participation
degree of stiffening rings concept based on some fundamental
perceptions on the dynamic properties of HCTs and free ring
structures. The participation degree is determined by the
modal deform amplitude and latitude wave number of
stiffening rings which was in good agreement with [67], [69].
In more detail, Zhang and his co-authors concluded that the
higher modal deform amplitude and larger latitude wave
number, which mean more modal energy, will give higher
participation degree in the ring-shell structure and more
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improvement to the eigenfrequencies. They also found that the

contribution of stiffening rings to a specified mode is related
to the modal deform amplitude of the stiffened HCT.
However, according to the earlier studies it was related to the
modal deform amplitude of the unstiffened HCT. They also
concluded that for the latitude and meridian directions, the
stiffness in the latitude direction contributes more to the whole
structure and finally, the location where the maximum modal
displacement of the unstiffened HCT appears will not always
be the most effective place for an additional stiffening ring
unless the mode shapes of the unstiffened and stiffened HCTs
are similar.
X. INTERFERENCE EFFECTS
In some power plant stations, the cooling towers are often
in close distance with each other or the adjacent structures,
consequently the wind-induced pressure on the towers of a
cluster would be considerably different from the isolated one.
The diversion of the air flow due to the vicinity of the tower to
the nearby structures is known as interference. Though, there
are no valid theoretical models for the correct evaluation of
the interference effect [77], yet the experimental investigations
on prototypes or boundary layer wind tunnel (BLWT) tests are
used [78]. The BLWT tests are performed on flexible models
by measuring the interference effects on strains with strain
gauges placed on the inner and outer surfaces of the model and
on rigid models by measuring the interference effects on
pressure patterns [79]-[81]. The experimental studies involve
the use of expensive wind-tunnel tests and data recording
facilities, thus, requiring significant time and effort to obtain
the desired results, therefore, there is growing interest among
the researchers to use a relatively new technique known as
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) employing the FEM.
The performance of the mathematical models used in CFD
depends on the physical assumptions made for the turbulent
component of engineering flows, thus, it has been proved to
lead to a major errors in wind engineering simulations [82].
However, it does not mean that the results obtained by CFD
are not reliable; it needs a careful effort and good knowledge
of the modeling techniques. Orlando et al. [83] investigated
the wind induced interference effects between two adjacent
towers experimentally and numerically. First, the BLWT test
performed for the rigid models of two adjacent towers of
Italian power plant for varying distances and wind directions.
Second, the interference effects on the structural responses of
the towers were generated from the results of a computational
model using the empirically obtained data by Orlando [84] and
Borri et al. [85]. In this study the effects of resonance were
neglected. It was concluded that the most significant
interference effects are on the downwind tower and the largest
interference effects on stresses were found for distances
between 1.5 and 2 times that of base diameter and for flow
angles less than 25. The interference effects were found to be
negligible for distances of greater than 2.5 times that of base
diameter. Irtaza et al. [85] carried out a comprehensive
numerical study for the determination of wind pressure
coefficients on cooling towers considering the interference
effects using the turbulence models of CFD. In this work, a

cluster of three and five cooling towers having different wind
incidence angle and spacing of two times the base diameter
were simulated. Then the computed results on isolated and in
single interference configurations of cooling towers were
compared with the wind-tunnel tests data from Indian Institute
of Technology, Kanpur, India [86] for Krishnapatnam thermal
power plant in Andhra Pradesh, India and a good agreement
on the windward face of the cooling tower was found using
RNG k- turbulence method. In case of multiple cooling
towers, both shielding and interfering effect leading to either
reduction or enhancement in wind pressure coefficient values
at different wind incidence angle observed. And because of
interference and shielding effect the negative pressure
sometimes found to increase by more than 33% to that of the
isolated cooling tower.
Zhang et al. [87] studied the interference effects for group
hyperboloidal cooling towers under static wind loading. In this
paper the mechanical performance of hyperboloidal cooling
tower (HCT) shell was illustrated according to some basic
properties drawn from horizontal rings and cantilever beams
under circular pressure. To better understanding of the
mechanical performance, the cooling tower regarded as the
coupling of horizontal rings and meridian cantilever beams.
To pursue the relationship between different CP () and windinduced responses they have adjusted the mean external
latitude wind pressure distribution, CP (). It was found that
the maximum responses in hyperboloidal cooling tower shell
are primarily dominated by the non-uniformity of CP () but
not the local pressure amplitude CP or overall resistance/drag
coefficient CD. They had also found that the latitude wind
pressure shows great local effects on internal forces and
deformation. The internal forces and deformation of HCT
shell are primary dominated by wind pressure in sideward and
windward which act as assistants for each other. In this study,
the maximum amplitude of meridian axial tension was
selected as an indicator to evaluate the influence of CP () on
responses because it is the controlling force in design of
structure. Since the interference effects on the cooling towers
originate from the change of the wind pressure distribution
along the circumference of the tower, the more realistic study
would be the consideration of the dynamic wind effects.
In 2013, Ramesh Babu et al. [88] conducted wind-tunnel
tests on aero-elastic model of an isolated cooling tower and
the cooling tower with surrounding structures. The coolingtower model made to a reduced scale of 1:300 from the
geometric coordinates and good-quality aluminium material
was used. In order to reliably predict the behaviour of the
prototype cooling tower, similarity laws, namely, both
dynamic and geometric were satisfied in this research. The
total height of the model was 577 mm with the throat height as
432.5 mm. The top and bottom diameters were 246 and 413
mm, respectively, and the throat diameter was 236 mm. The
wind-tunnel study was carried out on the model with raker
columns. To obtain the velocity scale ratio as unity, base
flexibility was provided at the base of the cooling tower by
mounting it on a circular plate of 600-mm diameter and
1033

connected it at its periphery through a series of bolts to the

turn table. Interference structures include the rigid models of a
second cooling tower, power house block, boiler structures,
electrostatic precipitator building, and a chimney stack. The
details of the experimental programme, measurements,
analysis, and results for both the isolated and interference
cases completely presented in this paper. Wind-tunnel
measurements on an isolated cooling tower were carried out to
obtain meridional and hoop stresses at four different levels,
namely, at top, throat, middle, and bottom, along a meridian
using strain gauges. The interference factors also evaluated
due to the presence of surrounding structures. A maximum
interference factor of 1.3 observed at the top level. At other
levels, the interference factors were observed to be in the
range of 1.081.16.
XI. SOIL-STRUCTURE INTERACTION

Consideration of the soilstructure interaction is one of the
challenging factors in the analysis of the cooling towers and it
is extremely important when the soil or the foundation
medium is not very firm. During lifetime of the cooling towers
under the applied dynamic loadings, the structure interacts
with the surrounding soil imposing soil deformations. These
deformations, in turn, cause the motion of the supports or the
interface region of the soil and the structure and consequently
change the response of the structure. Noorzaei et al. [57]
analyzed the cooling towerfoundationsoil system under
vertical and lateral load generated due to self-weight and wind
loads. In this study, the unsymmetrical wind pressure
distribution in terms of Fourier series given in (2) was taken
into account:
cos
cos 3
sin
sin
sin 2
cos
sin 3
cos 2
(2)
is the coefficient for circumferential distribution

where,
and
the
of wind pressure, n the number of harmonics,
harmonic constants, and the horizontal angle measured from
windward meridian. The response of the structure was
investigated with respect to displacement and stresses. It was
seen that the interactive analysis of the cooling tower
foundationsoil media plays a major role in releasing the
stresses in the cooling tower, particularly at the bottom ring
beam. Viladkara et al. [56], carried out the numerical
modeling of a column supported hyperbolic cooling tower and
its supporting annular raftsoil system to study the soil
structure interaction response under the influence of
symmetrical wind load acting upon the tower. They
highlighted that significant alteration of radial displacements
and design forces and moments had occurred in the tower
shell and supporting columns. It had been observed that the
presence of a relatively stiff stratum at the base does not alter
the design forces significantly. However, absence of a stiff
layer at the bottom of the soil strata causes significant
alteration in the values of forces and moments in the structure
and the foundation. In this study, the annular raft with a
thickness of 5.0 m behaved as a flexible foundation.
XII. COLLAPSE AND GROUND VIBRATION

The collapse of three natural draft cooling towers at the
Ferry bridge power station in 1965 invited the attention of the
researchers to work on the collapse and subsequent effects.
These towers collapsed due to the inadequate design for the
wind forces [89]. Krtzig and Zhuang [90] numerically
simulated the collapse of a cooling tower subjected to both
gravity load and wind load. This research only evaluated the
safety and reliability of the cooling tower and did not consider
the entire process of the collapse. In recent years, with the
rapid development of computational technology, numerical
simulation method has been applied to describe the collapse of
structures, e.g., the collapse of cooling towers under blasting
demolition [91] and the collapse of the World Trade Center
after being hit by the planes [92]. In the coming years, a new
cooling tower with an overall height of 235 m would be built
as a part of the construction of a planned nuclear power station
in southern China. Feng et al. [93] followed a comprehensive
approach for prediction of the ground vibration due to the
collapse of this super large tower caused by various accidental
loads. In this investigation, firstly, the falling weight tests
were conducted by the authors on the construction site near
Hangzhou, China, using the dynamic compaction method by a
falling weight of 12 tons with a diameter of 2.5 m and made of
a concrete-filled steel shell slowly slung to a height of about 6
m and then freely dropped, impacting the soil surface and,
consequently, inducing ground vibration. Then using the
acceleration sensors the ground vibrations were measured in
the form of acceleration time histories of the vibration points
in the vertical and radial directions and not in tangential
directions. Then the results of four typical test cases presented
in the form of accelerograms at distances of 80m, 100m,
120m, and 150m with falling heights of 5.917m, 5.968m,
5.903m, and 5.97 m, respectively. A comparison on the
maximum acceleration amplitudes showed that, a) the wave
forms were typical vibration responses under a heavy impact,
b) the maximum acceleration amplitude occurred in the radial
direction and, c) the maximum acceleration amplitudes in the
radial direction were larger than the corresponding ones in the
vertical direction in the considered ground region are, similar
to the results observed by Kwang and Tu [94]. Then using the
ANSYS/LS-DYNA, a finite element method based falling
weight-soil model of the four test cases were developed for
the prediction of the impact-induced ground vibration.
Comparing the simulation results and the test data satisfactory
agreement was achieved both in the acceleration amplitudes
and vibration durations. Although the simulated curves did not
fit the ones obtained from test very well, their dominant
frequency band was quite similar.
Meanwhile, the simulated collapse processes of the cooling
tower supported by 120 columns of 18m at the bottom under
two accidental loads that may cause the tower to collapse were
considered in a parallel study. The accidental loads considered
were the sudden removal of 60 columns which could be a
result of a bomb attack or foundation settlement and the other
was an extremely strong wind load with 44.3 m/s velocity.
The details of the cooling tower, the structural model as well
1034

as the collapse simulation were described by Li et al. [95]. The

simulations indicated that the cooling tower collapsed and the
collapse modes of the tower exhibited different characteristics
under the two load cases. The tower shell began to incline in
the removal direction after the sudden removal of the
columns, sinking in integrity, almost without changing the
profile of the whole tower shell. Meanwhile, the residual 60
columns were crushed into pieces sequentially, due to the
action of the tower gravity. The tower shell then contacted the
ground surface with an inclination angle of about 3.
Subsequently, the tower strongly struck the ground and finally
disintegrated. This collapse mode is labelled as collapse in
integrity in this study. Dissimilarly, after the extremely
strong wind load was applied, a large part of the upper shell
became concave and cracked. The tower then disintegrated,
broke into fragments and finally dropped on the ground.
However, the lower portion of the shell did not break. This
collapse mode is labelled as collapse in fragments.
Furthermore, based on the falling weight-soil model,
cooling tower-soil models were developed for the prediction
of the ground vibrations induced by two collapse modes of the
cooling tower. The ground vibrations were obtained in the
form of acceleration histories of vibration points at various
distances in the vertical and redial directions.
In practice to reduce the ground vibration generated by
various factors an open or filled isolation trench is often used.
This method of vibration isolation can be classified into two
categories: source isolation and receiver isolation [96], [97].
The former is used to reduce the vibrations at their source;
whereas, on the other hand, the latter is usually built away
from the source, surrounding the structure to be protected. A
good deal of research efforts, both experimental and numerical
have been devoted to the vibration screening by open trenches
in [96]-[99]. These studies concluded that using an open
isolation trench could reduce the ground vibrations
significantly. Generally, the effect of vibration reduction
depends mainly on the depth and width of the trench. The
trench depth is the governing factor compared to the trench
width. An analytical approach has rarely been used; because
its solutions are usually limited to ideal conditions using an
open isolation trench could reduce the ground vibrations
significantly. Generally, the effect of vibration reduction
depends mainly on the depth and width of the trench. The
trench depth is the governing factor compared to the trench
width. An analytical approach has rarely been used, because
its solutions are usually limited to ideal conditions. Feng et al.
[93] in the last part of their study, for a deep understanding of
the vibration characteristics, conducted a parametric study
with consideration of different collapse profiles, site or soil
geologies as well as the arrangements of an isolation trench.
For the collapse profile of the tower shell the inclination angle
and vertical velocity were considered as two critical factors
when it just reached the ground surface. For the three
considered inclination angles (i.e., 00, 30, 60), it was found that
the case with an inclination angle of 0, led to the most
intensive ground vibration having the maximum acceleration
amplitude. However, its vibration duration, i.e., of about 5.7 s,
was the shortest one of the three. Two types of site geology
were considered in this paper to study the vibration
characteristics. One was a solely rock foundation; and the
other was a soil-rock foundation, i.e., overlying soft soil to a
depth of 10 m with the same rock foundation underneath. It
was found that the ground vibration was dramatically reduced
for the soil-rock foundation and that the vibration duration
became shorter, compared to those of the solely rock
foundation. From the viewpoint of application, this finding
also suggests an efficient method for vibration reduction. In
the last part of the parametric study, two different open
isolation trenches, both with a length of 220 m and a width of
5 m and 10 m, were set in the model as a method of source
isolation. It was seen that the ground vibrations were
significantly reduced by adding an isolation trench and the
vibration durations of the considered cases had almost no
significant change which was in agreement with the numerical
study carried out by Adam and Estorff [97]. Considering the
whole study, it was found that severe ground vibration
occurred in the vicinity of the cooling tower when the collapse
happened. However, the vibration attenuated rapidly with the
increase in distance from the cooling tower. Moreover, the
collapse in integrity mode and the rock foundation
contributed to exciting intense ground vibration. By
appropriately arranging an isolation trench, the ground
vibration can be significantly reduced. This study has
indicated that, with the increasing height of the cooling tower
and the relatively small distance between the nuclear island
and the cooling tower, the effect of collapse-induced ground
vibration on the nuclear-related facilities cannot be ignored.
A year later, in 2014, Yi and his co-authors [100] continued
their study on the same tower considering the accidental loads.
Dynamic finite element analysis considering the nonlinear
material models carried out and the focus made on the modes
and mechanisms behaviour of the collapse of the towers
subjected to accidental loads. Vehicle collision, airplane
impact, local explosion and missile attack were the four
simulated accidental loads to study the failure of the tower. It
was found that vehicle collision, missile attack and small TNT
equivalent explosives (2 kg, 20 kg, and 200 kg) might result in
local failure of the cooling tower; however, the tower can still
keep stable. On the other hand, large TNT equivalent
explosives (2000 kg, 4500 kg) could cause severe damages in
the inclined columns of the cooling tower, and lead to
progressive collapse of the entire cooling tower. The two
kinds of TNT equivalent explosives caused the same collapse
mode while the collapsing duration was different. The airplane
impacted at the throat of the cooling tower caused the local
failure of shell structure of the tower, and then the progressive
collapse of the cooling tower happened due to the gravitational
action. The resulting collapse mode was different from that
triggered by the local explosion.
XIII. RELIABILITY ANALYSIS
Due to the complexity of the building procedure,
uncertainties in the material properties as well as differences
between the theoretical and the real geometry also exist [101]
1035

therefore the reliability analysis is also seems to be

indispensible part of the investigation in the cooling towers.
Numbers of researchers have been paid attention to the
random responses of cooling towers; they are seldom related
to the buckling bearing capacity with consideration of random
factors. Recently, Xu et al. [102] analyzed the stochastic
response of cooling towers with fluctuating wind by Pseudoexcitation method, and compare simulated and experimental
results. Li and Chen [103], [104] proposed the generalized
probability density evolution method for random structures
analysis in terms of the formal solution of dynamic system and
the probability conservation theory. Then, Xu and Bai [105]
introduced a virtual time variable to construct a virtual
stochastic process for the random buckling problem, so that
the probability density function of random buckling bearing
capacity, i.e. the first order random buckling eigenvalue,
described as a dynamic process as well. Thereafter the joint
probability density evolution equation derived for the buckling
bearing capacity. In this paper, they developed a probability
density evolution method for the analysis of the random
structural buckling problem and they have analyzed a super
large cooling tower of 250 meter height employing the same.
To partition the random parameter space in terms of given
probability models tangent spheres method or spherical
sieving technique [106] was employed. In this paper, the
random material properties and wind loads are considered and
three random variables are introduced including the elastic
modulus of concrete, the wind speed at height of 10 m and the
ground roughness. They reported that, the random buckling
capacity obeys normal distribution in the case of elastic
modulus as the sole random variable following normal
distribution. But as extreme value distribution of wind speed
at height of 10 m and the log-normal distribution of ground
roughness were considered, the simulated probability density
functions of buckling capacity were distorted and quite
different from normal distribution. They also found that, as far
as the first order and the second order statistical moments
were concerned, the mean values of the analyzed cooling
tower considering both random material properties and
random wind loads were close the deterministic buckling
bearing capacity. But the standard deviation and the
coefficient of variability of random buckling bearing capacity
increase when the random wind loads (non-normal random
factors) are taken into account.
XIV.COOLING TOWER EFFICIENCY
Cooling tower is normally designed for stagnant ambient air
condition, but experimental observation showed that cooling
efficiency was changed as a function of cross-wind velocity.
Cooling efficiency of a natural draft cooling tower (NDCT) is
significantly affected under cross-wind condition and might
decrease to 75 percent in the range of moderate to high windvelocity condition. Separated flow occurring at the rear
radiators, along with deflected plume exiting tower stack,
reduces the cooling efficiency [107]. Experimental and
numerical observations identically showed that heat transfer
capacity of the cooling tower proportionally increased with
wind velocity up to 3 m/s, and then decreased for higher wind

velocity [108]. Various researchers have studied the effect of
the wind on cooling towers efficiency and the methods of the
improvements. The first numerical study was performed by
Du Preez and Kroger [109] to illustrate the wind effect on air
flow field through the cooling tower. Other researchers
identically showed that there were two causes which reduced
the cooling efficiency; flow acceleration near the sideward
radiators trailing with a flow separation beside the rearward
radiators, and plume deflection at the exit plane of the tower
stack [110], [118]. The same unfavorable cross-wind effects
were reported in [111]-[113] on the thermal performance of a
natural draft wet cooling tower.
Many researchers have given their attention on the
accelerated flow near the side ward radiators. They used wind
breakers which were extended normal to the wind direction, to
decelerate the air flow velocity. The idea of using the wind
breakers was firstly suggested by Du Preez and Kroger [109],
but it was not tested by them. This idea then was tested
numerically by some other researchers [110]-[115] and
reported that, windbreakers improved cooling efficiency up to
16% at generally investigated wind velocity of 10 m/ s. AlWaked and Behnia [110] simulated the flow field in the
presence of different wind breakers under the wind condition.
They computed the air mass flux through the radiators. Also,
they computed the heat flux from the radiators and concluded
that in the presence of wind breakers both the mass and heat
fluxes increased under the high wind velocities. Three years
later in 2007, the same authors [115] illustrated that,
windbreakers could also increase the thermal performance of a
natural draft wet cooling tower. Also, Wang et al. [116]
qualitatively showed that guiding channels improved the
thermal performance of a small scale model of natural draft
wet cooling tower. Goodarzi and Keimanesh [117] used
radiator type windbreakers instead of usual solid type
windbreakers in their numerical simulation and showed that
their proposed windbreakers improved cooling efficiency
more than solid ones. Although the wind breakers improve the
cooling efficiency, designers have never used them practically.
Goodarzi [107] has proposed a new exit configuration for
tower stack to improve the cooling efficiency attempting to
reduce the throttling effect of the plume deflection. In this
study by crossing an oblique plane of 27 and 45 an elliptical
exit plane for the tower had been created and was studied
numerically. It had been concluded that, in the regions of
invariant wind direction, the proposed geometry can be used
to reduce the throttling effect. Because of the fact that the
wind direction may alternatively change, it has been suggested
that, the tower stack can be fabricated by two parts; the fixed
lower part, and the upper part which must be suitably rotated
with respect to the wind direction. But the problem arises here
because of the practical implementation and the
constructability of such additional rotating parts. It was also
stated that the proposed geometry cannot improve the cooling
efficiency as large as the wind breakers, but the combined use
of proposed geometry and wind breakers will significantly
improve the cooling efficiency under the wind condition. In
1036

another study, Goodarzi and Ramezanpour [117] proposed

alternative shell geometry with elliptical cross section cooling
tower instead of usual shell geometry with circular cross
section. Thermal performance and cooling efficiency of the
two types of cooling towers are numerically investigated.
Numerical simulations showed that cooling tower with
elliptical cross section improves the cooling efficiency
compared to the usual type with circular cross section under
high-speed wind moving normal to the longitudinal diameter
of the elliptical cooling tower. According to the fact that the
wind direction is not always the same efficiency of proposed
elliptical configuration must be studied for the different
blowing angles of the wind.
XV. CONCLUSION
The latest theatrical and experimental improvements and
new achievements in the analysis and design of the natural
draft hyperbolic cooling towers are briefly discussed. The
various factors in the analysis and design of the cooling towers
have been tracked in this study. This review is a complete
collection of the studies done for cooling towers and would
give the updated and sufficient materials for the researches in
this field.
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World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology

A Survey on Hyperbolic Cooling Towers

International Science Index Vol:8, No:10, 2014 waset.org/Publication/9999928

AbstractThis study offers a comprehensive review of the

OOLING towers constitute very important component of

E. A. is a Ph.D. Scholar at the Department of Civil Engineering, Jamia

International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 8(10) 2014

Fig. 1 Construction of Kalisindh thermal energy plant in Rajasthan,

Cooling towers are classified by their use, build, heat

World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology

columns of varying or constant cross sections or pair columns

International Science Index Vol:8, No:10, 2014 waset.org/Publication/9999928

The hyperbolic form of thin-walled towers provides

finite elements to model and simulate the geometry and

With regard to general hyperbola other forms of

International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 8(10) 2014

V. NONLINEARITY AND ULTIMATE LOAD

International Science Index Vol:8, No:10, 2014 waset.org/Publication/9999928

World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology

be taken into account to investigate the ultimate behavior of

International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 8(10) 2014

where 0 is effective stress equal to 30% of the compressive

Fig. 3 Tension stiffening of concrete [25]

A year later, repeating more or less the same work, Noh

International Science Index Vol:8, No:10, 2014 waset.org/Publication/9999928

World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology

concrete and reinforcing steel, tensile cracking of concrete,

Fig. 4 Non-linear design procedure for ultimate limit state [34]

VI. LOADING, ANALYSES AND RESPONSES

International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 8(10) 2014

The earthquake loads are dynamic in nature. In the NDCT

International Science Index Vol:8, No:10, 2014 waset.org/Publication/9999928

World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology

columns on the seismic response of a hyperbolic cooling

International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 8(10) 2014

VIII. WIND AND BUCKLING OF THE TOWER

International Science Index Vol:8, No:10, 2014 waset.org/Publication/9999928

World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology

characteristics of a full scale standard NDCT by omitting the

International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 8(10) 2014

Meanwhile, contribution of stiffening rings to dynamic

World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology

improvement to the eigenfrequencies. They also found that the

International Science Index Vol:8, No:10, 2014 waset.org/Publication/9999928

International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 8(10) 2014

effects using the turbulence models of CFD. In this work, a

World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology

connected it at its periphery through a series of bolts to the

International Science Index Vol:8, No:10, 2014 waset.org/Publication/9999928

XI. SOIL-STRUCTURE INTERACTION

is the coefficient for circumferential distribution

International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 8(10) 2014

XII. COLLAPSE AND GROUND VIBRATION

International Science Index Vol:8, No:10, 2014 waset.org/Publication/9999928

World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology

as the collapse simulation were described by Li et al. [95]. The

International Scholarly and Scientific Research & Innovation 8(10) 2014

International Science Index Vol:8, No:10, 2014 waset.org/Publication/9999928