1

1
PROCESS COSTING
Unit Structure
1.0 Learning Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Meaning of process costing
1.3 Distinction between job costing and process costing
1.4 Costing Procedure
1.5 Solved illustrations
1.6 Valuation of Work-in-progress
1.7 Questions
1.8 Exercise

1.0 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter you should able to understand
the meaning of Process Costing and its importance
the distinction between job costing and process costing
the accounting procedure of process costing including normal
loss abnormal loss (or) gain
the valuation of work-in-progress, using FIFO, LIFO average
and weighted average methods
the steps involved in inter process transfer

1.1

INTRODUCTION:

Process costing is a form of operations costing which is used

where standardized homogeneous goods are produced. This
costing method is used in industries like chemicals, textiles, steel,
rubber, sugar, shoes, petrol etc. Process costing is also used in the
assembly type of industries also. It is assumed in process costing
that the average cost presents the cost per unit. Cost of production
during a particular period is divided by the number of units
produced during that period to arrive at the cost per unit.

1.2

MEANING OF PROCESS COSTING

Process costing is a method of costing under which all costs

are accumulated for each stage of production or process, and the

2
cost per unit of product is ascertained at each stage of production
by dividing the cost of each process by the normal output of that
process.
1.2.1 Definition:
CIMA London defines process costing as that form of
operation costing which applies where standardize goods are
produced
1.2.2 Features of Process Costing:
(a) The production is continuous
(b) The product is homogeneous
(c) The process is standardized
(d) Output of one process become raw material of another process
(e) The output of the last process is transferred to finished stock
(f) Costs are collected process-wise
(g) Both direct and indirect costs are accumulated in each process
(h) If there is a stock of semi-finished goods, it is expressed in
terms of equalent units
(i) The total cost of each process is divided by the normal output of
that process to find out cost per unit of that process.
1.2.3 Advantages of process costing:
1. Costs are be computed periodically at the end of a particular
period
2. It is simple and involves less clerical work that job costing
3. It is easy to allocate the expenses to processes in order to have
accurate costs.
4. Use of standard costing systems in very effective in process
costing situations.
5. Process costing helps in preparation of tender, quotations
6. Since cost data is available for each process, operation and
department, good managerial control is possible.
1.2.4 Limitations:
1. Cost obtained at each process is only historical cost and are not
very useful for effective control.
2. Process costing is based on average cost method, which is not
that suitable for performance analysis, evaluation and
managerial control.
3. Work-in-progress is generally done on estimated basis which
leads to inaccuracy in total cost calculations.
4. The computation of average cost is more difficult in those cases
where more than one type of products is manufactured and a
division of the cost element is necessary.
5. Where different products arise in the same process and
common costs are prorated to various costs units. Such
individual products costs may be taken as only approximation
and hence not reliable.

1.3 DISTINCTION BETWEEN JOB COSTING AND

PROCESS COSTING
Job order costing and process costing are two different
systems. Both the systems are used for cost calculation and
attachment of cost to each unit completed, but both the systems
are suitable in different situations. The basic difference between job
costing and process costing are
Basis of
Distinction
1. Specific order
2. Nature

Job order costing

Performed
against
specific orders
Each job many
be
different.

3. Cost determination

Cost is determined for

each job separately.

4. Cost calculations

Cost is complied when

a job is completed.

5. Control

Proper
control
is
comparatively difficult
as each product unit is
different
and
the
production
is
not
continuous.
There is usually not
transfer from one job
to another
unless
there is some surplus
work.
There may or may not
be work-in-progress.

6. Transfer

7. Work-in-Progress

8. Suitability

Suitable
to industries
where production
is
intermittent
and
customer orders can
be identified in the
value of production.

Process costing
Production is
contentious
Product
is
homogeneous
and
standardized.
Costs are complied for
each
process
for
department on
time
basis i.e. for a given
accounting period.
Cost is calculated at
the end of the cost
period.
Proper
control
is
comparatively
easier
as the production is
standardized and
is
more suitable.
The output of
one
process
is transferred
to another process as
input.
There is always some
work-in-progress
because of continuous
production.
Suitable, where goods
are made for stock and
productions
is
continuous.

1.4 COSTING PROCEDURE

For each process an individual process account is prepared.
Each process of production is treated as a distinct cost centre.
1.4.1 Items on the Debit side of Process A/c.
Each process account is debited with
a) Cost of materials used in that process.
b) Cost of labour incurred in that process.
c) Direct expenses incurred in that process.
d) Overheads charged to that process on some pre determined.
e) Cost of ratification of normal defectives.
f) Cost of abnormal gain (if any arises in that process)
1.4.2 Items on the Credit side:
Each process account is credited with
a) Scrap value of Normal Loss (if any) occurs in that process.
b) Cost of Abnormal Loss (if any occurs in that process)
1.4.3 Cost of Process:
The cost of the output of the process (Total Cost less Sales value of
scrap) is transferred to the next process. The cost of each process
is thus made up to cost brought forward from the previous process
and net cost of material, labour and overhead added in that process
after reducing the sales value of scrap. The net cost of the finished
process is transferred to the finished goods account. The net cost is
divided by the number of units produced to determine the average
cost per unit in that process. Specimen of Process Account when
there are normal loss and abnormal losses.
Dr.

Process I A/c.

Particulars
To Basic Material
To Direct Material
To Direct Wages
To Direct Expenses
ToProduction
Overheads
ToCost
Rectification
Normal Defects

Units Rs.
Particulars
xxx
xx By Normal Loss
xx By Abnormal Loss
xx By Process II A/c.
xx (output
transferred to
xx Next process)

of
of

xx

To Abnormal Gains
xx

xx
xxx

By Process I
Stock A/c.

Cr.
Units
xx
xx
xx

Rs.
xx
xx
xx

xx

xx

xx

xx

5
1.4.4 Process Losses:
In many process, some loss is inevitable. Certain production
techniques are of such a nature that some loss is inherent to the
production. Wastages of material, evaporation of material is un
avoidable in some process. But sometimes the Losses are also
occurring due to negligence of Labourer, poor quality raw material,
poor technology etc. These are normally called as avoidable
losses. Basically process losses are classified into two categories
(a) Normal Loss (b) Abnormal Loss
1. Normal Loss:
Normal loss is an unavoidable loss which occurs due to the
inherent nature of the materials and production process under
normal conditions. It is normally estimated on the basis of past
experience of the industry. It may be in the form of normal wastage,
normal scrap, normal spoilage, and normal defectiveness. It may
occur at any time of the process.
No of units of normal loss: Input x Expected percentage of
Normal Loss.
The cost of normal loss is a process. If the normal loss units
can be sold as a crap then the sale value is credited with process
account. If some rectification is required before the sale of the
normal loss, then debit that cost in the process account. After
adjusting the normal loss the cost per unit is calculates with the
help of the following formula:
Cost of good unit:
Total cost increased Sale Value of Scrap
Input Normal Loss units
2. Abnormal Loss:
Any loss caused by unexpected abnormal conditions such
as plant breakdown, substandard material, carelessness, accident
etc. such losses are in excess of pre-determined normal losses.
This loss is basically avoidable. Thus abnormal losses arrive when
actual losses are more than expected losses. The units of abnormal
losses in calculated as under:
Abnormal Losses = Actual Loss Normal Loss
The value of abnormal loss is done with the help of following
formula:
Value of Abnormal Loss:
Total Cost increase Scrap Value of normal Loss x Units of abnormal loss
Input units Normal Loss Units

6
Abnormal Process loss should not be allowed to affect the
cost of production as it is caused by abnormal (or) unexpected
conditions. Such loss representing the cost of materials, labour and
overhead charges called abnormal loss account. The sales value of
the abnormal loss is credited to Abnormal Loss Account and the
balance is written off to costing P & L A/c.
Dr.
Particulars
To Process A/c.

Abnormal Loss A/c.

Units Rs.
Particulars
xx
xx By Bank
By Costing P & L
A/c.
xx
xxx

Cr.
Units
xx
xx

Rs.
xx
xx

xx

xx

3. Abnormal Gains:
The margin allowed for normal loss is an estimate (i.e. on
the basis of expectation in process industries in normal conditions)
and slight differences are bound to occur between the actual output
of a process and that anticipates. This difference may be positive or
negative. If it is negative it is called ad abnormal Loss and if it is
positive it is Abnormal gain i.e. if the actual loss is less than the
normal loss then it is called as abnormal gain. The value of the
abnormal gain calculated in the similar manner of abnormal loss.
The formula used for abnormal gain is:
Abnormal Gain
Total Cost incurred Scrap Value of Normal Loss x Abnormal Gain Unites
Input units Normal Loss Units

The sales values of abnormal gain units are transferred to

Normal Loss Account since it arrive out of the savings of Normal
Loss. The difference is transferred to Costing P & L A/c. as a Real
Gain.
Dr.
Particulars
To Normal Loss
A/c.
To Costing P & L
A/c.

Abnormal Gain A/c.

Units Rs.
Particulars
xx
xx By Process A/c.
xx

xx

xx

xx

Cr.
Units
xx

Rs.
xx

xx

xx

Check Your Progress:

1. Define the following terms
a. Process costing
b. Normal Loss
c. Abnormal Loss
2. Give the formulas of following
a)
Cost of good / normal unit
b)
Value of Abnormal Loss

1.5 SOLVED ILLUSTRATIONS

Illustration 1: (Normal / Abnormal Loss)
Prepare a Process Account, Abnormal Loss Account and
Normal Loss Account from the following information.
Input of Raw material
Direct Material
Direct Wages
Production Overheads
Actual output transferred to process II
Normal Loss
Value of Scrap per unit

1000 units @ Rs. 20 per

unit
Rs. 4,200/Rs. 6,000/Rs. 6,000/900 units
5%
Rs. 8/-

Solution :
Dr.

Process I

Particulars
ToRawmaterial
@ 20
To
Direct
Material
To Direct Wages
To Production
Overheads

A/c.

Units
Rs.
Particulars
1000 20000 By Normal Loss
4200

(5%
on
1000)
6000 By
Abnormal
Loss A/c.
BY Process II
A/c.
6000 (output
1000 36200 transferred)

Cr.
Units
50

Rs.
400

50

900
1000 36200

8
Dr.

Abnormal Loss A/c.

Particulars
To Process I
A/c.

Units Rs.
50

Cr.

Particulars
By Bank A/c.

Units
50

Rs.
400

50

400

By Costing P & L
A/c.
50

Dr.

Normal Loss A/c.

Particulars
To Process I
A/c.

Units
50

Rs.
Particulars
400 BY Bank

Cr.
Units
50

Rs.
400

Working Notes:
(1) Cost of abnormal Loss :
= Total Cost increased Sales value of Scrap x abnormal units
Input units Normal Loss Units

= 36200 400 x 50
1000 50
(2) It has been assumed that units of abnormal loss have also been
sold at the same rate i.e. of Normal Scrap
Illustration 2: (Normal / Abnormal Loss and Abnormal Gain)
The product of a company passes through 3 distinct
process. The following information is obtained from the accounts for
the month ending January 31, 2008.
Particulars

Process A

Process B

Process C

Direct Material

7800

5940

8886

Direct Wages

6000

9000

12000

Production Overheads

6000

9000

12000

3000 units @ Rs. 3 each were introduced to process I. There was

no stock of materials or work in progress. The output of each
process passes directly to the next process and finally to finished
stock A/c.

9
The following additional data is obtained :
Process

Output

Percentage of
Normal Loss to

Value of Scrap per

unit

Input

(Rs.)

Process I

2850

5%

Process II

2520

10 %

Process III

2250

15 %

Prepare Process Cost Account, Normal Cost Account and

Abnormal Gain or Loss Account.
Solution:
Dr.

Process A A/c.

Particulars
Units
To
Units 3000
introduced
To
Direct
Material
To Direct Wages
To Production
Overheads

Dr.

Rs.
Particulars
9000 By Normal Loss
A/c.
7800 By Process B
A/c.
6000
(Units
transferred
@ Rs. 10/-)
6000
3000 28800

Cr.
Units
150

2850 28500

3000 28800

Process B A/c.

Particulars
Units
Rs.
Particulars
To
Process I 2850 28500 By Normal Loss
A/c.
A/c.
To
Direct
5940 By
Abnormal
Material
Loss A/c.
To Direct Wages
9000 By Process C
A/c.
To Production
Overheads
9000
2850 52440

Rs.
300

Cr.
Units
285

Rs.
1140

45

9000

2520 50400

2850 52440

10
Dr.
Particulars
To Process II
A/c.
To
Direct
Material A/c
To Direct Wages
To Production
Overheads
To
Abnormal
Gain A/c.

Process C A/c.
Units
Rs.
Particulars
2520 50400 By Normal Loss
A/c.
8886 By
Finished
Stock A/c.
12000
108

Units
378

2250 85500

2628 87390

Abnormal Gain A/c.

Particulars
Units
To Normal Loss
108
A/c.
To Costing P&L
A/c.
108
Dr.

Cr.

Rs.
Particulars
Units
540 By Process C
108
A/c.
3564

Rs.
4104

4104

4104

108

Normal Loss A/c.

Particulars
Units
To Process A
150
A/c.
To Process B
285
A/c.
To Process C
378
A/c.

Cr.

Rs.
Particulars
Units
300 By Bank
A/c.
(Sales)
1140 Process A
150
A/c.
1890 Process B A/c.
285
Process C
A/c.
By
Abnormal
Gain A/c.

813

Rs.
1890

12000
4104

2628 87390
Dr.

Cr.

3330

Rs.
300
1140

270

1350

108

540

813

3330

1.6 INTER PROCESS PROFITS:

Normally the output of one process is transferred to another
process at cost but sometimes at a price showing a profit to the
transfer process. The transfer price may be made at a price
corresponding to current wholesale market price or at cost plus an
agreed percentage. The advantage of the method is to find out

11
whether the particular process is making profit (or) loss. This will
help the management whether to process the product or to buy the
product from the market. If the transfer price is higher than the cost
price then the process account will show a profit. The complexity
brought into the accounting arises from the fact that the inter
process profits introduced remain a part of the prices of process
stocks, finished stocks and work-in-progress. The balance cannot
show the stock with profit. To avoid the complication a provision
must be created to reduce the stock at actual cost prices. This
problem arises only in respect of stock on hand at the end of the
period because goods sold must have realized the internal profits.
The unrealized profit in the closing stock is eliminated by creating a
stock reserve. The amount of stock reserve is calculated by the
following formula.
Stock Reserve = Transfer Value of stock x Profit included in transfer price
Transfer Price

Illustration 3 :
A product passes through three processes before its
completion. The output of each process s charged to the next
process at a price calculated to give a profit of 20% on transfer
price. The output of Process III is transferred to finished stock
account on a similar basis. There was no work-in-progress at the
beginning of the years. Stock in each process has been valued at
prime cost of the process. The following data is available at the end
st
of 31 March, 2009.
Process Process
I
II
Direct Material
Direct Wages
Stock on 31st March
2009
Sale during the year

Process
III

20000
30000
10000

30000
20000
20000

10000
40000
30000

Finished
Stock
Rs.
--15000

--

--

--

180000

From above information prepare:

1. Process Cost Account showing the profit at each stage.
2. Actual realized profit and
3. Stock Valuation as would appear in the balance sheet

12
Solution:
Dr.

Process I A/c.

Particulars
To Materials

To Wages
Total
Les Closing
Stock c/d
Prime Cost
To Gross
Profit
(20% on
Transfer
Price)
ToStockB/d.

Total
Rs.
20000

Cost
Rs.
20000

30000
50000

30000
50000

10000
40000

10000
40000

Total
Cost
Rs.
Rs.
50000 40000

Profit
Rs.
10000

50000 40000

10000

---

10000

-- 10000

50000
10000

40000 10000
10000
--

Dr.

Process II A/c.

Particulars

To Process
I A/c.
To Material
To Wages
Less
:
Closing
Stock
C/d.
Prime Cost
To
Gross
Profit
(20% on
Transfer
Price)
To
B/d.

Profit Particulars
Rs.
-- By Process
IIA/c.
(Transfer)
---

Cr.

Stock

Total
Cost
Rs.
Rs.
50000 40000

Profit
Particulars
Rs.
10000 By
Process-III
A/c.
-(Transfer)
-10000

30000
20000
100000

30000
20000
90000

20000

18000

2000

80000

72000

8000

20000

--

20000

100000
20000

72000
18000

28000
2000

Cr.
Total
Rs.

Cost
Rs.

Profit
Rs.

100000

72000

28000

100000

72000

28000

13
Process III A/c
Particulars
ToprocessII
A/c
To Material
To Wages
TOTAL
Less.Closing
stock
To
Gross
profit
(20%of
transfer
price)
To Stock b/d

Total
Rs.
100000

Cost
Profit
Particulars
Rs.
Rs.
72000 28000 ByFinished
stock A/c
10000
40000
------122000 28000

10000
40000
150000
30000

24400

5600

120000

97600

22400

30000

--------

30000

150000
30000

97600
24000

52400
5600

Total
Cost
Rs.
Rs.
150000 97600

Profit
Rs.
52400

150000 97600

52400

Finished stock A/c

Particulars

Total
Rs.
To process 115000
III A/c
(-)Stock
15000
To
gross 135000
profit
45000
180000
To
Stock 15000
A/c

Cost
Rs.
97600

Profit
Rs.
52400

9760
87840

5240
92160

--87840
9760

45000
92160
5240

Particulars
By Sales

Total
Rs.
180000

Cost
Rs.
87840

Profit
Rs.
92160

180000

87840

92160

Calculation of profit on closing stock

Profit included in stock = Profit included in transfer price x Value of stock
Transfer price

Process I
Process Ii

= No profit
=10000x20000=2000
100000

Process Iii =28000x30000=5600

150000
Finished stock= 52400x15000=5240
150000

14
Illustration 4 :
A product process through three process A, B and C. The
details of expenses incurred on the three process during the year
2008 were as under :
Process
A
10000

Units introduced
Cost per unit is Rs. 50/Sundry Material
Labour
Direct Expenses
Selling price per unit of output

Process
B

Rs.
6000
18000
3000
70

Process
C

Rs.
9000
48000
11000
100

Rs.
3233
39000
18000
200

Management expenses during the year were Rs. 80000 and

selling were Rs. 5000. There are not allocable to the processes.
Actual output of the three process were A 9300 units, B 5400
units and C 2100 units. Two-thirds of the output of process A and
one half of the output of process B was passed on to the next
process A and one-half of the output of process B was passed on to
the next process and the balance was sold. The entire output of
process C was sold.
The normal losses of the three process, calculated on the
input of every process was : Process A 5%, B 15% and C
20%. The loss of process A was sold @ Rs. 3 per unit, that of B @
Rs. 5 per unit and of process C @ Rs. 10 per unit.
Prepare process A, B and C account and the Profit and Loss
Account.
Solution :
Dr.
Particulars
ToUnits
Introduced
@ Rs. 50
ToSundry
Materials
To Labour

Process A A/c.
Units

10000

Rs.

Particulars
By Normal Loss

5,00,000 By Abnormal
6,000
Loss A/c.
18,000 By Process B
A/c.
3,000 By P & L A/c.

ToDirect
Expenses

Cr.
Units
500

Rs.
1,500

200
6,200

11063
342958

3,100

171479

(@ 55.32)
10000

5,27,000

5,27,000

15
Dr.

Process B A/c.

Particulars
Units
To Process
A 6200
A/c.
ToSundry
Materials
To Labour
To
Direct
Expenses
ToAbnormal
Gains
A/c. (@ 77.19)
6330

Cr.

Rs.
Particulars
342958 By Normal Loss
9000 By Process
A/c.
48000 By P & L A/c.
11000

420980

Process C A/c.

Particulars
Units
To Process
B
A/c.
ToSundry
Materials
To Labour
To
Direct
Expenses

Rs.
Particulars
208165 By Normal Loss

Dr.
Particulars
To Process A
A/c.
To Process B
A/c.
To Process C
A/c.
To
Management
Expenses A/c.
ToSelling
Expenses
To
Abnormal
Loss A/c.
To Net Profit

Rs.
4650

2700

2,08,165

2700

2,08,165

6,330

4,20,980

100221

Dr.

2700

Units
930

Cr.

3233 By
Abnormal
Loss
39000 By P & L A/c.
18000
( @ 12.76)

268398

Units
540

Rs.
5400

60

7305

2100

255693

2700

268398

Profit & Loss A/c.

Cr.

Units
3100

Rs.
Particulars
171479 By Sales( @ Rs. 70)

Units
3100

Rs.
217000

2700

208165 By Sales(@Rs. 100)

2700

270000

2700

265693 BySales(@Rs.2000)

2700

420000

80000 BY Abnormal
A/c.

Gain

9372

50000
17168
133867
916372

916372

16
Dr.
Particulars
To Process A A/c.
To Process B A/c.

Abnormal Loss A/c.

Units
200
60

260

Dr.
Particulars
To Normal Loss
A/c.
To Costing P & L
A/c.

Rs.
Particulars
11063 By Bank Sales
7305
(@ Rs. 30)
By Bank
(@ Rs. 10)
By P & L A/c.
18368

Cr.
Units
200

600

60

600
17168
18368

260

Abnormal Gain A/c.

Units
130

Rs.

Cr.

Rs.
Particulars
650 By Process B /c.

Units
130

Rs.
10022

130

10022

9372
130

10022

Illustration 5
Mahesh Ltd process a material which passes through three
processes. Figures relating to production for the first 6 months of
2009 are as follows.

Raw material used

Manufacturing Wages
Expenses
Scrap sold @ Rs. 50 per
tone
Selling price per tone
Weight Loss

Process
A

Process
B

Process
C

1000 tones @
Rs. 200
Rs. 40000
Rs. 32500
50 tones

Rs. 30000
Rs. 10800
30 tones

Rs. 7000
Rs. 3710
51 tones

Rs. 320
5%

Rs. 450
10%

Rs. 800
20%

Management expenses were Rs. 10500, selling expenses

Rs. 8000 and interest on borrowed capital Rs. 2000. Two third of
process I and one half of process 2 are passed on to the next
process and the balance are sold.
Prepare Process Account, Process Stock Account and Costing
Profit & Loss A/c.

17
Solution
Dr.
Particulars
To Material
@
Rs. 200
To Wages
To Expenses

Process No. 1 A/c.

Units
1000

1000

Dr.
Particulars
To Process I A/c.
To Costing Profit
& Loss A/c.

Particulars
To
Process
1
Stock A/c.
To wages
To Expenses

Units
900

Particulars
To Process 2 A/c.
ToCosting
P&L
A/c.

272500

Units
50

Units
600

1000 272500

Cr.

Rs.
Particulars
270000 By Bank (@ 320)
6000 ByProcessNo.2
A/c.
276000

Units
300
600

Rs.
96000
180000

900

276000

Cr.

Rs.
Particulars
180000 By Normal Loss
(@ Rs. 50)
30000
10800 By Wight Loss
By Process
2
Stock
A/c(@ Rs. 430)
220800

Units
30

Rs.
1500

60

--

510
600

219300
220800

Process No. 2 Stock A/c.

Units
510

Cr.

Rs.
Particulars
219300 By Bank
5100 (sale @ 450)
By Process
A/c.

510

244400

Rs.
2500

50
-900 270000

Process No. 2 A/c.

600

Dr.

Rs.
Particulars
200000 By Normal Loss
(sale of Scrap)
40000 By Weight Loss
32500 By Process I Stock
A/c.(@300per tone)

Process No. 1 Stock A/c.

900

Dr.

Cr.

Units

Rs.

255

114750

255

109650

510

244400

18
Dr.
Particulars
To Process 2
Stock A/c.
To wages
To Expenses

Process No. 3 A/c.

Units
255

255

Rs.
Particulars
109650 By scrap
7000 By Weight Loss
3710 By Process 3
stock A/c
120360

Dr.

Process No. 3 Stock A/c.

Particulars
To Process 3 A/c.
To Costing P & L
A/c.

Units
153

153

Dr.

Rs.
Particulars
117810 By Bank
4590 (sale @ 800)
122400

Cr.
Units
51

Rs.
2550

51
153

-117810

255

120360

Cr.
Units
153

122400

153

122400

Costing Profit & Loss A/c.

Particulars
To Management Expenses
To Selling Expenses
To Interest on Capital

Rs.

Rs.
Particulars
10500 By Process 1 Stock A/c.
8000 By Process 2 Stock A/c.
2000 By Process 3 Stock A/c.
By Net Loss
20500

Cr.
Rs.
6000
5100
4590
4810
20500

1.7 VALUATION OF WORK-IN-PROGRESS

1.7.1 Meaning of Work-in-Progress:
Since production is a continuous activity, there may be some
incomplete production at the end of an accounting period.
Incomplete units mean those units on which percentage of
completion with regular to all elements of cost (i.e. material, labour
and overhead) is not 100%. Such incomplete production units are
known as Work-in-Progress. Such Work-in-Progress is valued in
terms of equivalent or effective production units.
1.7.2 Meaning of equivalent production units :
This represents the production of a process in terms of
complete units. In other words, it means converting the incomplete
production into its equivalent of complete units. The term equivalent
unit means a notional quantity of completed units substituted for an
actual quantity of incomplete physical units in progress, when the
aggregate work content of the incomplete units is deemed to be
equivalent to that of the substituted quantity. The principle applies
when operation costs are apportioned between work in progress
and completed units.

19
Equivalent units of work in progress = Actual no. of units in progress x
Percentage of work completed

Equivalent unit should be calculated separately for each element of

cost (viz. material, labour and overheads) because the percentage
of completion of the different cost component may be different.
1.7.3 Accounting Procedure:
The following procedure is followed when there is Work-inProgress
(1) Find out equivalent production after taking into account of
the process losses, degree of completion of opening and / or
closing stock.
(2) Find out net process cost according to elements of costs i.e.
material, labour and overheads.
(3) Ascertain cost per unit of equivalent production of each
element of cost separately by dividing each element of costs
by respective equivalent production units.
(4) Evaluate the cost of output finished and transferred work in
progress
The total cost per unit of equivalent units will be equal to the
total cost divided by effective units and cost of work-inprogress will be equal to the equivalent units of work-inprogress multiply by the cost per unit of effective production.
In short the following from steps an involved.
Step 1 prepare statement of Equivalent production Step 2
Prepare statement of cost per Equivalent unit
Step 3
Prepare of Evaluation
Step 4
Prepare process account
The problem on equivalent production may be divided into four
groups.
I. when there is only closing work-in-progress but without
process losses
II. when there is only closing work-in-progress but with
process losses
III. when there is only opening as well as closing work-inprogress without process losses
IV. when there is opening as well as closing work-in-progress
with process losses

20
Situation I :
Only closing work-in-progress without process losses :
In this case, the existence of process loss is ignored. Closing
work-in-progress is converted into equivalent units on the basis of
estimates on degree of completion of materials, labour and
production overhead. Afterwards, the cost pr equivalent unit is
calculated and the same is used to value the finished output
transferred and the closing work-in-progress
Situation II:
When there is closing work-in-progress with process loss or
gain.
If there are process losses the treatment is same as already
discussed in this chapter. In case of normal loss nothing should be
added to equivalent production. If abnormal loss is there, it should
be considered as good units completed during the period. If units
scrapped (normal loss) have any reliable value, the amount should
be deducted from the cost of materials in the cost statement before
dividing by equivalent production units. Abnormal gain will be
deducted to obtain equivalent production.
Situation III:
Opening and closing work-in-progress without process
losses.
Since the production is a continuous activity there is
possibility of opening as well as closing work-in-progress. The
procedure of conversion of opening work-in-progress will vary
depending on the method of apportionment of cost followed viz,
FIFO, Average cost Method and LIFO.
Let us discuss the methods of valuation of work-in-progress one by
one.
(a) FIFO Method: The FIFO method of costing is based on the
assumption of that the opening work-in-progress units are
the first to be completed. Equivalent production of opening
work-in-progress can be calculated as follows:
Equivalent Production = Units of Opening WIP x Percentage of work
needed to finish
the units

(b) Average Cost Method: This method is useful when price

fluctuate from period to period. The closing valuation of
work-in-progress in the old period is added to the cost of

21
new period and an average rate obtained. In calculating the
equivalent production opening units will not be shown
separately as units of work-in-progress but included in the
units completed and transferred.
(c) Weighted Average Cost Method: In this method no
distinction is made between completed units from opening
inventory and completed units from new production. All units
finished during the current accounting period are treated as if
they were started and finished during that period. The
weighted average cost per unit is determined by dividing the
total cost (opening work-in-progress cost + current cost) by
equivalent production.
(d) LIFO Method: In LIFO method the assumption is that the
units entering into the process is the last one first to be
completed. The cost of opening work-in-progress is charged
to the closing work-in-progress and thus the closing work-inprogress appears cost of opening work-in-progress. The
completed units are at their current cost.
(1) Format of statement of Equivalent Production :
Input
Particulars
Opening
Stock
Units
Introduced

Output
Units Particulars
xx
xx

xx

Units

Units
completed
Normal
Loss
Abnormal
Loss
Equivalent
Units

xx
xx

Material
% Units
xx
xx
--

--

Equivalent
Production
Labour
Overheads
% Units %
Units
xx
xx
--

--

xx

xx

xx

xx

xx

xx

xx

xx

xx

xx

xx

(2) Statement of cost per Equivalent Units :

Element of costing

Material Cost (Net)

Labour Cost
Overheads Cost

Cost
Rs.

Equivalent
Units

Xx
Xx
Xx
xx

Xx
Xx
xx

Cost per
Equivalent
Units Rs
Xx
Xx
Xx
Xx

Xx

22
(3) Statement of Evaluation
Particulars

Element of
cost

Units completed

Closing WIP

Abnormal Loss

Equivalent
Units

Material
Labour
Overheads
Material
Labour
Overheads
Material
Labour
Overheads

xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx

Cost per
equivalent
units
Rs.
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx

Cost
Rs.

xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx
xx

Total
Cost
Rs.

Xx

Xx

Xx

Illustration 6: (Average Costing)

Prepare a statement of equivalent production, statement of
cost, process account from the following information using average
costing method.
Opening Stock
Material
Labour
Overheads
Units Introduced
Material
Wages
Overheads

50000 Units
Rs. 25000
Rs. 10000
Rs. 25000
2000000 Units
Rs. 100000
Rs. 75000
Rs. 70000

During the period 1,50,000 units were completed and transferred to

Process II.
Closing stock 1,00,000 units. Degree of completion.
Material
100 %
Labour
50 %
Overheads
40 %
Solution :
Input
Particulars
Opening
Stock
Introduced

Output
Units

Particula
rs

Units
50,000 Produced
200,000 Closing
Stock
250000

Units

Equivalent Production
Material
%
Units

150000

100

150000

100

150000

100

150000

100000

100

100000

50

50000

40

40000

250000

250000

Labour
Units

200000

Overheads
%
Units

190000

23
Statement of Cost :
Element

Material
Labour
Overheads

Opening
cost
Rs.
25,000
10,000
25,000
60,000

Current
Total
Equivalent
cost
Cost
units
Rs.
Rs.
1,00,000 1,25,000 2,50,000
75,000
85,000 2,00,000
70,000
95,000 1,90,000
2,45,000 3,05,000

Cost
per
unit
0.500
0.425
0.500
1.425

Statement of Apportionment of Cost

Particulars

Units

1. Units introduced
& 1,50,000
transferred
2. Closing work-in-progress
Material
1,00,000
Labour
50,000
Overheads
40,000

Dr.
Particulars
To Opening
Stock
To Materials
To Labour
To
Overheads

Cost per
unit
1.425

0.500
0.425
0.500

Cost

50,000
21,250
20,000

Total
cost
213750

91,250
3,05,000

Process I A/c.
Units
50,000
2,00,000

2,50,000

Cr.

Rs.
Particulars
60,000 By
Units
completed
1,00,000 & transfer
75,000 By Closing Stock
70,000
3,05,000

Units

Rs.

50,000
50,000

2,13,750
91,250

2,50,000

3,05,000

Illustration 7: (FIFO Method)

From the following information relating to KKN Company Ltd.
Prepare Process Cost Account for Process III for the year 2008.
Opening Stock IN Process III
Transfer from Process II
Direct Material added in Process III
Direct Wages
Production Overhead
Units Scrap
Transferred to Process IV
Closing Stock

5000 units of
Rs. 36,000
2,13,000 units of
Rs. 8,27,000
Rs. 4,01,800
Rs. 1,98,100
Rs. 99,050
11,000 units
1,89,000 units
18,000 units

24
Degree of Completion :
Opening
Stock
Material
70 %
Labour
50 %
Overhead
50 %

Closing
Stock
80 %
60 %
60 %

Scrap
100 %
80 %
80 %

There was a normal loss of 5% production and unit scraped

were sold at Rs. 1.50
Solution :
Input
Particular
Units
s
Opening
Stock
Process II
Transfer

5,000
213,000

218000

Output
Particulars
Units
Normal
Loss
Op. Stock
Processed
Introduces &
Completed
Abnormal
Loss
Closing
Stock

Equivalent Production
Material
Labour
Overheads
%
Units
%
Units
%
Units

10000
5000

30

1500

50

2500

184000

100

184000

100

184000

100

184000

1000

100

1000

100

1000

80

800

18000
218000

100

18000
203000

80

14400
200900

60

10800
198100

Note : Units Produced : Opening stock + units introduced closing stock

: 5000 +213000 18000 = 200000
Normal Loss : 5 % of 200000 = 10000 units

Statement of Cost
Particulars

Cost
Rs.

Material I
Transfer
from
Previous 8,27,000
process
Less
Value of
scrap
15,000 8,12,000
(normal)
Material II
Aded+ in the process
4,01,800
Direct Wages
1,98,100
Overheads
99,050

Equivalent
Units
Rs.

Cost
Per
Unit
Rs.

2,03,000

4.00

2,00,900
1,98,100
1,98,100

2.00
1.00
0.50
7.50

25
Statement of Apportionment of Cost
Particulars

Op.
Processed

Elements

Stock

Units
introduced
and
Completed

Closing stock

Abnormal loss

Equivalent
Units

Cost
Per
Unit
Rs.

Cost
Rs.

Material I

--

--

Material II
Wages
Overheads
Material I

1,500
2,500
2,500
1,84,000

2.00
3,000
1.00
2,500
0.50
1,250
4.00 7,36,000

Material II
Wages
Overheads
Material I
Material II
Wages
Overheads
Material I
Material II
Wages
Overheads

1,84,000
1,84,000
1,84,000
18,000
14,400
10,800
10,800
1,000
1,000
800
800

2.00 3,68,000
1.00 1,84,000
0.50 92,000
4.00 72,000
2.00 28,800
1.00 10,800
0.50
5,400
4.00
4,000
2.00
2,000
1.00
800
0.50
400

TOTAL

Dr.
Particulars
To Balance
b/d.
To Process
II A/c.
To Materials
To Wages
To
Overheads

Process III A/c.

Units
5,000
2,13,000

Total cost
Rs.

Rs.
Particulars
36,000 By Normal
Loss
8,27,000 By Process
IV A/c.
4,01,800 By
Abnormal
Loss
1,98,100 By Closing
Stock
99,050

2,18,000 15,61,950

6,750

13,80,000
13,86,750

1,17,000

7,200
15,10,950

Cr.
Units
10,000

Rs.
15,000

1,89,000

14,22,750

1,000

7,200

18,000

1,17,000

2,18,000

15,61,950

Note :
Cost of goods transferred to Process IV :
Value of Opening Stock
Cost incurred in this process for Opening Stock
Cost incurred for the units introduced & Processed
Total

36,000
6,750
13,80,000
14,22,750

26
Illustration 8
The following information is given in respect of Process
costing 10 : 3 for the month of January 2009.
Opening stock 2,000 units made up of
Direct Material I
Direct Material II
Direct Labour
Overheads

Rs.
12,350
13,200
17,500
11,000

Transferred from Process 2 20,000 units @ Rs. 6 per unit.

Transferred to Process 4 17,000 units
Expenditure incurred in process 3
Rs.
30,000
60,000
60,000

Direct Material
Direct Labour
Overheads

Scrap:1,000 units-Direct Materials 100%,Direct Labour 60%,

Overheads 40%.
Normal Loss 10 % of Production.
Scrapped units realized Rs. 4/- per unit
Closing stock : 4,000 units Degree of completion. Direct
Materials 80 %, Direct Labour 60 % and Overheads 40 %.
Prepare Process 3 Account using average price method along
with necessary supporting statements.
[C. A. Inter, May 2001]
Solution :
Statement of Equivalent Production (weighted Average cost
Material)
Particulars
Units
Completely
Processed
Normal Loss
10% of (2000 +
20000 4000)
Abnormal Gain
Closing Stock

Total
Units

Material I

Material II
%
Units

Labour
%
Units

Overheads
%
Units

17000
1800

100
--

17000

100

17000

100

17000

100

17000

800
4000
22000

100
100

800
4000
20200

100
80

800
3200
19400

100
60

800
2400
18600

100
40

800
1600
17800

27
Statement of Cost
Particulars

Cost
Rs.

Material I :
Opening balance 2000 units
Cost of 20000 units @ Rs. 6
Per unit

Equivalent
Units

Rate / Equivalent
Units
Rs.

12,350

Material II :
Opening Stock
In Process II
Labour :
Opening Labour
In Process II
Overheads :
Opening Stocks
In Process II

1,20,000
1,25,150

20,200

6.1955

13,200
30,000
43,200

19,400

2.2268

17,500
60,000
77,500

18,600

4.1667

11,000
60,000
71,000

17,800

3.9888
16.5778

Total cost per unit

Valuation of Equivalent Unit

Finished goods
Abnormal Units
Workinprogress
Material I
Material II
Labour
Overheads

Rs.
2,81,822
13,262

(17000 units x Rs. 16.5778)

(800 units x Rs. 16.5778)
(4000 units x Rs. 6.1955)
(3200 units x Rs. 2.2268)
(2400 units x Rs. 4.1667)
(1600 units x Rs. 3.9888)

Dr.

Process III A/c.

Particulars
Units
To
Opening 2,000
WIP
To Process 2
20,000
To Direct
Material II
To
Direct
Labour
To Overheads
To
Abnormal
800
Gain
22,800

Rs.
Particulars
57,050 By Normal Loss

24,782
7,126
10,000
6,382

1,20,000 By Finished Goods

Units
30,000 By Closing Balance
60,000

48,290

Cr.
Units
1,800

Rs.
7,200

17,000 2,81,822
4,000
48,290

60,000
13,262
3,37,312

22,800 3,37,312

28
Illustration.9
The finished product of a factory pass through two
processes : the entire material being placed in process at the
beginning of the first process. From the following production and
last data relating to the first process, work out the value of the
closing inventory and the value of the materials transferred to the
second process.
Process I
Opening inventory
Material
Labour
Manufacturing Overheads
Opening inventory (25 percent complete)
Put into Process
Transferred to II Process
Closing inventory (20 percent completed)
Spoilage during process

Rs.
10,000
27,500
50,000
40,000
4,000
12,000
10,000
5,000
1,000
[I.C.W.A., Final]

Solution :
Process I A/c
Particulars
Opening
Inventory
Material
Labour

Kg.
4,000
12,000

Manufacturing
Overheads
16,000

Amount Particulars
Rs.
10,000 Transferred
to Process II
27,500 Normal Loss
50,000 Closing
Inventory
40,000
1,27,500

Kg.
10,000

Amount
Rs.
1,15,750

1,000
5,000

-11,750

16,000

1,27,500

Working Note :
Statement of Equivalent Production Units
Particulars
Opening
Stock
Processed
Completely
Processed
Normal Loss
Closing Inventory

Output
Kg.
4,000

Material
Qty.
%
3,000
75

Labour
Qty.
%
3,000
75

Overheads
Qty.
%
3,000
75

6,000

6,000

100

6,000

100

6,000

100

1,000
5,000
16,000

-1,000
10,000

-20

-1,000
10,000

-20

-1,000
10,000

-20

29
Statement of Element of Cost on the basis of Equivalent
Production
Particulars

Cost Equivalent
Rs.
Units
27,500
10,000
50,000
10,000
40,000
10,000

Material
Labour
Overheads
Total

Cost per Unit

Rs.
2.75
5.00
4.00
11.75

Statement of Apportionment of Cost

Particulars

Op.
Stock
Processed
Completely
Processed

Closing
Inventory

Elements

Equivalent
Units

Material

3,000

Cost
Per
Unit
Rs.
2.75

Cost
Rs.

Labour
Overheads
Material

3,000
3,000
6,000

5.00
4.00
2.75

15,000
12,000
16,500

35,250

Labour
Overheads
Material

6,000
6,000
1,000

5.00
4.00
2.75

30,000
24,000
2,750

70,500

Labour
Overheads

1,000
1,000

5.00
4.00

5,000
4,000

8,250

TOTAL

Total
cost
Rs.

11,750
1,17,500

Value of goods transferred to next process

Value of opening stock (given)
Additional cost on opening stock
Value of completely processed units

Rs.
10,000
35,250
70,500
1,15,750

Units
4,000
6,000
10,000

Illustration 10
ABC Limited manufactures a product 2X by using the process
normally R. T. for the month of May 2009, the following data is available.

30
Material Introduced
Transfer to next process
Work-in-Process
At the beginning of the month (4/5 completed)
At the end of the month (2/3 completed)
Cost records:
Work-n-Process at the beginning of the month
Material
Conversion cost
Cost during the month
Materials
Conversion cost

Process R. T.
16,000 units
14,000 units
4,000 units
3,000 units

Rs. 30,000
Rs. 29,200
Rs. 1,20,000
Rs. 1,60,800

Normal spoiled units are 10% of goods finished output

transferred to next process.
Defects in these units are identified in their finished state.
Materials for the product is put in the process at the beginning of
the cycle of operation, whereas labour and other indirect cost
flow evenly over the year. It has no realizable value for spoiled
units.
Required :
(1) Statement of equivalent production (average cost method)
(2) Statement of cost and distribution of cost
(3) Process accounts
[C.A. PCE. Nov. 2007]
Solution :
Statement of Equivalent Production (average cost method)
Input
units

Particulars

Output
Units

Equivalent Production
Materials
% completed

4000 Opening WIP

16000 Introduced and
Completed to
next
Normal
spoilage
Abnormal
spoilage
Closing WIP
20000

--

Conversion cost

Equivalent
Units

%
Complet
ed

Equivalent
Units

--

14,400

100

14,400

100

14,400

1,440

100

1,440

100

1,440

1,160

100

1,160

100

1,160

3,000

100

3,000

66.67

2,000

20000

20000

19000

31
Statement showing cost of each element
Particulars

Materials

Opening
Cost in process
Total
Equivalent Units
Cost per unit

(a)
(b)
(a b)

30,000
1,20,000
1,50,000
20,000
7.50

Conversion
cost
29,200
1,60,800
1,90,000
19,000
10.00

Statement showing distribution of cost

Particulars
Units completed
Materials
Conversion cost
Normal spoilage
(10 %)
Closing stock :
Material
Conversion cost
Abnormal Stock:
Material
Conversion Stock
Dr.
Particulars
To Opening WIP
To Material
Introduced
To Conversion cost
Incurred

Equivalent Cost per

Units
unit

(Rs.)

14,400
14,400
1,440

7.50
10.00
17.50

1,08,000
1,44,000

3,000
2,000

7.50
10.00

22,500
20,000

42,500

1,160
1,160

7.50
10.00

8,700
11,600

20,300

Process A/c.
Rs.
Particulars
59,200 By Profit and Loss
A/c.
1,20,000
(abnormal)
1,60,800 By Transfer to Next
Process
By Closing WIP
340000

2,52,000
25,200

Cr.
Rs.
20,300
2,77,200
42,500
3,40,000

Illustration.11
GH & Co. manufactures a product. The process costing is
followed and work-in-progress stocks at the end of each month are
valued at FIFO basis.
At the beginning of the month of June, the inventory of work-inprogress showed 400 units, 40% complete, valued as follows:

32
Rs.
3,600
3,400
1,000
8,000

Material
Labour
Overheads
Total

In the month of June, materials were purchased for Rs.

75,000. Wages and overheads in the month amounted to Rs.
79,800 and Rs. 21,280 respectively. Actual issue of material to
production was Rs. 68,500. Finished stock in the month was 2500
units. There was no loss in process.
All the end of the month, the work-in-process inventory was
500 units, 60 percent complete as to labour and overheads and 80
% complete as to materials.
Prepare a Process Account for recording the months
transactions and prepare a Process Cost Sheet showing total and
units costs
[I.C.W.A., Final]
Solution:
Dr.

Process A/c.
Rs.

Cr.

Particulars

Units

Particulars

To Opening
Stock
To Material

400

8,000 BY Transfer to

2,600

68,500 Finished stock

To Labour

79,800 By Work-in-

To Overheads

21,280 Progress
3000

1,77,580

Units

Rs.

2,500

1,56,094

500

21,486

3000

1,77,580

Working Note :
Statement of Equivalent Production (Units)
Input

Particulars

400 Opening
Stock
Completely
2600 Processed
Work-inProgress
3000

Outp
ut
400

Material
Qty.
%
240
60

Labour
Qty.
%
240
60

Overhead
Qty.
%
240
60

2,100
500

2,100
400

2,100
300

2,100
300

3,000

2,740

100
80

2,640

100
60

2,640

100
60

33
Working Note :
(1) For opening stock also equivalent production has been
calculated as it was partly complete and it has to be
converted into finished product in this period. They were
completed 60 % in this period.
(2) Total units produced in a month are 2,50 units. Out of this
400 units of opening stock has been deducted because they
have been partly processed in this particular month and we
have already calculated equivalent units of opening stock.
Only, 2,100 units have been introduced and completed in the
particular period.
(3) For closing stock also equivalent production in terms of total
units completed has been calculated.
Statement of Element of cost on the basis of Equivalent Units
Cost
Rs.
Material
Labour
Overheads

Equivalent
Units

68,500
79,800
21,280

2.740
2.640
2.640

Cost per
unit
Rs.
25.000
30.2273
8.0606

Statement of Apportionment of Cost

Particulars
Op.
Stock
Processed
Completely
Processed
Work-inProcess

Equivalent
Cost
Details
Units
Per Unit
Rs.
Rs.
Material
240 25.0000 6,000

Total
Rs.

Labour
Overheads
Material

240
240
2,100

30.2273 7,255
8.0606 1,935
25.0000 52,500

15,190

Labour
Overheads
Material

2,100
2,100
400

30.2273 63,477
8.0606 16,927
25.0000 10,000

1,32,904

Labour
Overheads

300
300

30.2273
8.0606

9,068
2,418
TOTAL

21,486
1,69,580

Total Cost of 2500 units

Cost of opening stock
Additional cost of opening stock processed
Cost of completely processed

Rs.
8,000
15,190
1,32,904
1,56,094

34
Illustration 12
The following data is available in respect of Process I for
February 1990.
(1) Opening stock of work-in-process 800 units at a
total cost of Rs. 4,000.
(2) Degree of completion of opening work in process
Materials
Labour
Overheads
(3) Input of materials at a total cost of Rs. 36,800 for
9,200 units
(4) Direct wages incurred Rs. 16,7540
(5) Production overheads Rs. 8,370
(6) Units scrapped 1,200 units. The stage of
completion of these units was
Materials
Labour
Overheads
(7) Closing work-in-process : 900 units. The stage of
completion of these units was :
Materials
Labour
Overheads
(8) 7,900 units were completed and transferred to the
next process.
(9) Normal Loss is 80 % of the total input (opening
stock plus units put in)
(10)Scrap value is Rs. 4 per unit

100 %
60 %
60 %

100 %
80 %
80 %

100 %
70 %
70 %

You are required to :

(a) Compute equivalent production
(b) Calculate the cost per equivalent unit for each element
(c) Calculate the cost of abnormal loss (or gain), closing work in
process and the units transferred to the next process using
the FIFO method.
(d) Show the Process Account for February 1990
[C.A., Inter]

35
(a) Statement of Equivalent Production (FIFO Method)
input
Particulars

Output
Particulars

units

Equivalent
Material

Units

Units
Op. Stock
of
W.I.P.

Units
completed
800 Work on Op.
stock
New units
9,200 Closing stock

Units
Introduced

Normal Loss
Abnormal
Loss
10,000

800

--

7100
900

7100
900

800
400

-400

10,000

8,400

Labour &
Overheads
Units
%

320

40

100
100

7,100
630

100
70

100

-320

100

8,370

(b) Statement of cost per equivalent units for each element

Particulars
Material
Less : Scrap
realization
(800 units @ Rs. 4)
Labour
Overheads

Cost
Rs.

Equivalent
Unit

Cost Per
Unit

36,800
3,200

33,600
16,740
8,370

8,400
8,370
8,370

4.00
2.00
1.00

I Statement showing cost of abnormal loss, closing WIP and units

transferred to the next process :
Particulars
Abnormal Loss
Materials
Labour
Overheads
Closing WIP
Material
Labour
Overheads
7900 units transferred to next
process
(i)
Cost of opening WIP (80 units)
(ii) Cost incurred on opening WIP
Material
Labour
Overheads

Cost per
unit Rs.

Equivalent
unit

Total cost
Rs.

4.00
2.00
1.00

400
320
320

1,600
640
320
2,560

4.00
2.00
1.00

900
630
630

3,600
1,260
630
5,490
4,000

-2.00
1.00

-320
320

640
320
960

36
(iii) Cost of completing 7100 units
Material
Labour
Overheads

4.00
2.00
1.00

7100
7100
7100

Total (I + ii + iii)

Dr.

Process A/c. for February 1990

Particulars
To
Opening
WIP
To Materials
To Labour
To Overheads

Units
800
9200
--10000

Rs.
Particulars
4000 By
Finished
Goods
36800 By Closing WIP
16740 By Normal Loss
8370 By
Abnormal
Loss
65910

28400
14200
7100
49700
54600

Cr.
Units
7900

Rs.
54660

900
800
400

5490
3200
2560

10000

65910

1.8 EXERCISE
1.8.1 Objective type:
Answer in Brief
1. State any four features of process costing.
2. Define process costing,
3. What do you mean by normal loss ? How is it treated in
process cost accounts?
4. What do you mean by abnormal loss ? How is it treated in
process cost accounts?
5. Distinguish between normal loss and abnormal loss.
6. What do you mean by abnormal effective? How is it treated in
process cost accounts?
7. What do you mean by inter process profit? What purpose
does it serve?
8. What do you mean be equivalent production?
9. Name any four industries in which process costing is
applicable?
10. Enumerate any two advantages of process costing.
11. Enumerate any two disadvantages of process costing.
12. What do you meant by equivalent units?

37
Multiple Choice Questions
1.
The type of spoilage that should not affect the cost of
inventories is
(a) Abnormal spoilage
(c) Seasonal spoilage
(b) Normal spoilage
(d) Indirect spoilage
2.

Materials may not be put into process

(a) At the beginning of an operation
(b) Continuously
(c) At the end of the operation
(d) In the shipping department.

3.

Process cost method is especially suitable for

4.

(a)Custom production
(b) Standard costs

(c) FIFO
(d) LIFO

In process costing, costs follow

(a) Price rise
(b) Price declines

(c) Product flow

(d) Finished goods

5.

When average costing is used, the opening inventory costs

are
(a) Kept separate from the costs for the new period
(b) Added to the costs of the new period
(c) Subtracted from the new costs
(d) Averaged with other costs to arrive at total cost.

6.

A disadvantage of FIFO costing is that

(a) The first units produced cannot be distinguished from
later production.
(b) Several units costs are used at the same time.
(c) The units have to be kept separate
(d) The shipping costs are higher

7.

Which of the following method of costing can be used in a

large oil refinery?
(a) Process costing
(c) Unit costing
(b) Operating costing
(d) Job costing

38
8.

Which of the following paid is odd :

(a) Construction-Contract costing
(b) Ship-building-Job costing
(c) Brick manufacturing Process costing
(d) Transport undertaking Operating costing

9.

A product which has practically no sales or utility value is

(a) Waste
(c) Spoilage
(b) Scrap
(d) Defectives

10.

Trimmings in timber industry should be treated as a :

(a) Waste
(c) Spoilage
(b) Scrap
(d) Defectives

11.

The type of process loss that should not affect the cost of
inventory is
(a) Abnormal loss
(c) Seasonal loss
(b) normal loss
(d) standard loss

12.

The stage where joint products are separated from each

other is known as
(a) break-even point
(b) angle of incidence
(c) split-off point

13.

Fifty units are put in a process at a total cost of Rs. 90.

Wastage is normally 10% without any scrap value. If output
is 40 units the amount of abnormal loss would be
(a) Rs. 80
(c) Rs. 10
(b) Rs. 8
(d) Rs. 9

14.

Abnormal loss is charged to

(a) process account
(b) costing profit and loss account
(c) Normal loss account

(Answers: 1(a), 2 (d), 3 (b), 4(c), 5(a), 6(b), 7(a), 8(c), 9(a),
10(b).)11 (a), 12(c), 13 (c), 14(b) )

39
1.8.2 Short notes
1. Write a short note-Inter process profits.(Apr-08)
2. Write a Short Note-Treatment of losses in Process.(Apr 07)
3. Write a short Note-Equivalent Production. (Apr-07)
4. Describe the main features of process costing.
5. Explain the features of process costing
6. How would you treat abnormal gain ?
1.8.3. Long questions
2. What do you mean by inter-process profits in process cost
accounts.
3. Explain the methods to be adopted in the treatment of joint
products and by-products in process account.
4. What do you understand by `Normal and `Abnormal Wastage
during the process of manufacture?
5. Describe briefly the method known as Process Costing, stating
four types of manufactures which would be suitable for its
application. A description of the method of dealing with byproducts is not required.
6. Explain the concept of Equivalent Production. Discuss the two
methods of its valuation.
1.8.4 Practical Problems
Illustration 1:
During a particular period 2,000 units at a cost of ` 60,000 were
introduced into Process A (at the beginning). The normal loss was
estimated at 5% of the input. At the end, 1,400 units were produced
and transferred to the Process B, 460 units being partially
completed and 140 units scrapped. The partially completed units
had reached the following state of production:
Materials
100% complete
Labour
50% complete
Overheads
50% complete
Additional costs incurred during the process were:
Materials
Rs. 17,000
Labour
Rs.33, 400
Overheads
Rs. 16,700
The units scrapped realised Rs.10 per unit.
Prepare Process A A/c with all relevant statements.
(Ans.: Equivalent Units, Material: 1,900, Labour: 1670, Overheads: 1,670
Transfer to Process B 1,400 units @Rs. 70 p.u.)
(

40
Illustration 2 :
XYZ Ltd. is engaged in process industry. During the month August
2000, 2000 Units were introduced in process X. The normal loss
was estimated at 5% of input. At the end of the month 1,400 units
had been produced and transferred to process Y. 460 units were
incomplete and 140 units, after passing through fully the entire
process had to be scrapped. The incomplete units had reached the
following state of completion:
Materials
Labour
Overheads

75% Completed
50% Completed
50% Completed

Following are the further information on the process X :

Cost of the 2000 units
Rs. 58,000
Additional Direct materials
Rs. 14,400
Direct Labour
Rs. 33,400
Direct Overheads
Rs. 16,700
Units scrapped realised
Rs. 10 each
Prepare statement of equivalent production, statement of cost,
statement of evaluation and process X account.
Ans. (Equivalent Units, Material: 1,785, Labour: 1,670, Overheads: 1,670)

Illustration 3 : (FIFO)
The following information is available for Process IV of Swastik
Fabrications Ltd. for the month of March 2005.
Opening Stock: 4,800 units @ Rs.16,500
Degree of Completion:
Material
70%
Labour
60%
Overheads
60%
Transfer from Process III: 30,600 units @ Rs. 30,600
Transfer to Process V:
27,600 units
Direct Material introduced in Process IV: ` 13,440
Direct Labour introduced in Process IV: ` 39,420
Production overheads incurred ` 52,560
Units scrapped: 2,400
Degree of completion:
Material
100%
Labour
70%
Overheads 70%

41
Closing stock 5400 units
Degree of completion:

Material
Labour
Overheads

60%
40%
40%

There was a normal loss of 10% of production in the process.

Unites scrapped were realised at Re. 1 per unit. From the above
information prepare:
1) Statement of equivalent production
2) Cost of equivalent unit for each element of the cost, the loss,
the work-in-process, etc.
3) Process account using FIFO method.
Ans. (Equivalent Units, Material I: 27,600, Material II: 26,880, Labour: 26,460,
Overheads: 26,460)

Illustration 4 : (FIFO)
The following data pertains to Process I for March 2003 of Beta
Limited :
Particulars
Opening Work-in-Progress
...
Degree of completion :
Materials 100%; Labour and
overheads 33%
Input of Materials
...
Direct Labour
...
Overheads
...
Closing Work-in-Progress
...

Units
1,500

Rs.

15,000

18,500 52,000
14,000
28,000
5,000

Degree of Completion Materials 90% and Labour and Overheads

30%.
Normal Process Loss is 10% of total input (opening work in
progress units + units put in).
Scrap value 2.00 per unit.
Units transferred to the next process 15,000 units.
You are required to:
1) Compute equivalent units of production.
2) Compute cost per equivalent unit for each cost element i.e.,
materials, labour and overheads.
3) Compute the cost of finished output and closing work-inprogress.
4) Prepare the process and other Account.

42
Assume:
i) FIFO Method is used by the Company.
ii) The cost of opening work-in-progress is fully transferred to the
next process.
Ans. (Equivalent Units, Material: 16000, Labour:14,000, Overheads: 14,000)

Illustration 5: (Weighted Average)

From the following details prepare Statement at Equivalent
Production, statement of Cost and find the value of: (a) Output
transferred and (b) Closing work in progress
Opening work in progress (units)
Materials (100% Complete)
Labour (60 % Complete)
Overheads (60% Complete)
Units introduced into this process
There are 2,000 units in process at the end and the stage of
completion is estimated to be :
Materials
100%
Labour
50%
Overheads
50%
8,000 units are transferred to next process.
The process costs for the period are:
Materials
Rs. 1, 00,000
Labour
Rs.78,000
Overheads
Rs. 39,000

2,000
7,500
3,000
1,500
8,000

Ans. (Equivalent Units, Material:10,000, Labour: 9,000, Overheads: 9,000)

Illustration 6 : (Average)
Shete and Shete Pvt. Ltd. gives the following particulars relating to
process P in its plants for the month of January 2007 :

43
Particulars
Work-in-Progress
01-01-2007

Rs.

Rs.

12,000
7,200
16,000

35,200

4,65,500
1,80,000
2,64,800

9,10,300

(500 units) on

Material (100%)
Degree of Completion Labour (50%)
Overheads (50%)
Units introduced during the Month
January, 2007 Units 19,500
Processing Cost incurred during the
Month
January, 2007
Materials
Labour
Overheads

Particulars
Output transferred to Process Q

Units Scrapped (Degree of Completion Material 100%,

Labour 80% and Overheads 80%)

Work-in-Progress (Closing Balance)

(Degree of Completion-Materials 100%, Labour and Overheads

50%)

Units
18,200
1,400
400

Normal loss in processing is 5% of total input and scrapped units

fetch 2.50 each. Prepare the following statements for Process P
for January, 2007 :
a)
Statement of Equivalent Production
b)
Statement of Cost and Statement of Evaluation
c)
Process P A/c
d)
Abnormal Loss A/c
Use Average Method
Ans. (Equivalent Units, Material: 19,000, Labour: 18,720, Overheads: 18,720)

Illustration 26 : (FIFO No Losses)

Avdoot Ltd., a manufacturer of a specialized product, is have a
process costing system. The stock of work-in-progress at the end of each
month is valued on First in First Out (FIFO) basis. At the beginning of
January 2008 the stock of work-in-progress was 2000 units (40%
completed) which was valued as :

44
Material
Rs. 18,000
Labour
Rs. 17,000
Overheads
Rs. 5,300
During the month of January 2008, actual issue of materials for the production
purpose was Rs. 3,42,500. wages and overheads in the month of January, 2008
amounted to
Rs. 4,02,600 and Rs. 1,12,200 respectively. Finished production taken into the stock
in the month was 12,500 units. There was no loss in the process. At the end of the
month of January, 2008 the stock of Work-in-Progress was 2500 units (60%
complete as to
Labour and Overheads and 80% complete as to materials).
Prepare the following statements for January, 2008.
a) No. of units introduced in the
process
c) Statement of Cost
e) Process Account.

b Statement of Equivalent
) Production
d
) Statement of Evaluation

(Equivalent Units, Material: 13,700, Labour: 13,200, Overheads: 13,200)

Illustration 27 : (FIFO Process A/c with Abnormal Loss)
From the following information prepare Process account as per
FIFO assumption:
Opening stock
Degree of completion
80 units @ ` 6 per unit Rs. 4,800
Material 60%
Labour 40%
Overheads 40%
Transfer from previous process : 12,000 units costing Rs. 16,350
Transfer to next process : 9,700; Units scrapped 1,300 units
Normal loss 10%; Closing stock : 1,800 units
Degree of completion
For units scrapped :
For closing stock :
Material
100%
Material
60%
Labour
50%
Labour
50%
Overheads
50%
Overheads
50%
Scrap realised Re. 1.00 per unit
Other information
`
Material
10,500
Labour
20,760
Overheads
16,470
(M.Com, Oct. 2008, adapted