CHAPTER 1

General Research Questions

Chapter Summary
Chapter 1 opens with an example of a research interest into Aboriginal culture
and walks you through the process of determining what questions to ask. This
example is a practical application of the way in which a research project begins.
It points to the reasons for social research as a process for assessing the adequacy
of a particular social theory, gathering information to create social theory,
understanding pressing social problems, or to explore personal experience.
The first step in the process is determining 1) the form of the theory and 2) the
relationship between the data and the theory. The theory requires the following:

Definitions: a statement of the definitions for key terms used in the

theory.
Descriptions: an overview of what exactly is being studied.
Relational Statements: the interconnection of variables (issues that impact
the data).
Deterministic relational statements: there is a direct relationship between
variables that always occurs.
Probabilistic relational statements: the variables are most often connected,
although there may be some instances in which the connection doesnt
exist.

Theories can be described as middle range or grand theories. Middle range theories
are ideas that explain particular facets of social activity and can be tested for
correctness. Grand Theories are broad perspectives that establish a macro-view
of social activity. They underlie analysis of particular social interactions and
social structures. Common examples of Grand theory are structural functionalism, symbolic interactionism, critical theory, post-structuralism and feminism.
Social research may be conducted using a deductive or inductive methodology.
Deductive methodology is based in a particular theoretical perspective and uses
Hypothesis testing to confirm or reject conclusions. Inductive methodology, or
grounded theory, starts with the collection of data and the application of theory
after the fact. In a grounded theory approach the data has primacy over the
theory. There are times when a grounded theory approach will only lead to
empirical generalizations rather than an actual theory of explanation.

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Epistemology
Epistemology is the about what we can know and how we can acquire that
knowledge. There are several approaches on knowledge acquisition that apply to
social research. The three key forms of epistemology are:
1. Positivism
Validity is based on the ability to confirm phenomena through he
senses.
Hypothesis testing that provides explanation for observable laws and
principles (deduction)
Inductive research may provide explanation for observable generalizations or laws.
Intersubjective (objectively valid) devoid of moral judgement
Explains the how and why of social interaction simply through a
descriptive process.
2. Interpretivism
Inductive methodology
Understand the subjective meanings of social activity.
Relies on a common-sense view of social reality.
Applies an empathetic understanding approach or Verstehen (Weber).
3. Symbolic Interactionism
A sub-category of interpretivism
Understand how people construct their activities in reference to how
they interpret the symbolic meaning of their environment.
Requires understanding of the researchers framework of interpreting
the activities of their research subjects.
Ontology
Ontology is the study of how we exist. There are two contrary forms of ontology
in social research and a third form that can in some ways be seen as a hybrid of
the two.
1. Ojectivism
Assumes a pre-existent (objective) social reality that is out of our
control.
It is available to be discovered.
Social order is imposed.
It is a distinct, timeless, and universal entity.
Leads to a research bias or assumptions toward formal properties of
social groups/interactions.

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2. Constructionism (hard)
Reality is created.
It is simply a facet of our mental constructions.
A negotiated social ordering
Social ordering will vary over time.
Leads to a research bias or assumptions about the changing nature of
social organization.
3. Soft-Constructionism
There may be an objective social reality but it is not reflected in our
ideas.
Ideas are constructs to rationalize domination.
A negotiated social ordering
Social ordering will vary over time.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative Methodology
Quantitative research incorporates the use of numbers and statistics to collect
and analyze data. It tends toward an objectivist orientation (assuming an overarching social reality) and a positivist (natural science) epistemology, which
requires deductive (hypothesis testing) methods.
Conversely, qualitative research tends toward mainly inductive, generating a
theory after data collection, and employs an interpretivist (subjectively based)
epistemology which stems from a constructionist ontological position.
Although there are tendencies toward contrary epistemologies and ontological
perspectives and in qualitative and quantitative approaches to research methods,
they are not mutually exclusive methods. There may be instances where one
theoretical perspective is borrowed from the contrasting methodological
approach.
Influence on Research Conduct
Values
Values are a part of human nature. As such researchers will have their own
personal beliefs, values and feelings when conducting research. There are several
places in which values can enter the research process and influence or bias the
actual research process or outcomes. The question becomes, can research actually
be value-free or should researchers use their values to direct and interpret their
investigations? This difficulty is overcome somewhat by self-reflection, recognizing your potential biases and stating them at the beginning of the research
documentation. This does not mean that values must be removed; rather they
may be exactly the reason why research is conducted, e.g., Feminist research.

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Politics
Political issues in research include the following:
Researchers may take sides such as feminist researchers who focus on
social disadvantage based in gender, or researchers who have particular
views on free market vs. governmental intervention in economic issues.
Funding of research is often by its very nature political. The group or
agency funding research has interests in the research, as well as the
outcome of the research. That is often why they fund a research project.
Who gets to decide what is researched, how it is researched, what the
outcome should be, what is done with a research conclusions?
Gatekeepers often manage the access to research subjects to protect the
interests of those offered up as research subjects by controlling who is
selected, setting limitations on access through time or review authority.
Negotiation to gain access to otherwise invisible processes is often
required with institutional organizations. Pre-determined limitations may
be set and/or several layers of gatekeepers may be present attempting to
protect varying interests.
Publication restriction may occur for research finding that do not conform
to the interests or beliefs of the funding agency or publisher.
Practical Considerations
Research orientation, design or method must match the research topic particular
research question being investigated. Studying a minority group to understand
how its members view themselves relative to other similar groups would likely
entail a qualitative approach. Likewise an assessment of the feelings toward a
governmental policy would likely require a quantitative approach; however, a
qualitative component may be useful as a secondary method to get access to
more in-depth analysis of some key point or localized impact.
As significant and interesting as the issues of epistemology and ontology seem, it
is the practical considerations that drive the ability to actually conduct the
research.
Good research often starts with the statement of question. It is a point of enquiry
rather than a statement of a belief. There is some room for a grounded theory
approach that functions as a data collection project without a research question,
but this method risks gathering volumes of unnecessary or unusable data. The
research question serves to set realistic boundaries for conducting the research.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The goal of social research is to ________.
a) asses the adequacy of a particular social theory
b) gather information to create social theory
c) understand pressing social problems
d) explore personal experience
e) all of the above
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2. Which of the following is NOT a required part of a theory?

a) a definition of terminology used in the research
b) a statement of the expected research conclusions
c) a description of what is being studied
d) a statement of variables
e) a statement of the relationship between variables
3. Social research can be conducted through ________.
a) a deductive methodology
b) an inductive methodology
c) a grounded theory approach
d) all of the above
e) a and c only
4. Epistemological arguments do NOT include which of the following?
a) the use of phenomena that can be confirmed by the senses
b) the use of a deductive method
c) generalizations drawn from inductive research
d) moral acceptance of social phenomena
e) all of the above
5. Intersubjectivity implies ________.
a) moral judgement
b) the lack of moral judgement
c) the use of deductive method
d) value-laden scientific method
e) a lack of independent variables
6. Understanding the subjective meaning of peoples actions is ________.
a) symbolic interactionism
b) positivism
c) phenomenology
d) interpretivism
e) functionalism
7. Interpretivism tends to be ________.
a) deductive
b) inductive
c) scientific
d) overview phenomenology
e) none of the above
8. Symbolic interactionism is ________.
a) understanding of how people interpret and respond to their environment
b) understanding the social constructs
c) understanding the subjective meanings of intersubjective activity
d) understanding a particular social phenomenon
e) understanding the meanings of ancient symbols
Social Research Methods, Third Canadian Edition
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9. An objective social reality exists in ________.

a) objectivism
b) hard constructionism
c) soft constructionism
d) a and c only
e) b and c only
10. Ontological positions lead to ________.
a) research bias
b) social ordering
c) negotiation
d) rationalized domination
e) scientific evidence
11. Which of the following is true with regard to qualitative research?
a) It relies on numbers and statistics.
b) It assumes a pre-existing social reality.
c) It relies on a scientific research method.
d) It often gathers data without relying on a pre-existing theoretical
perspective
e) It incorporates hypothesis testing as a main process.
12. Personal values and beliefs ________.
a) never affect research
b) always have a significant negative effect on research
c) may be negated by self-reflection and reporting early in research process
d) can never be allowed to influence research
e) always have a significant positive effect on research
13. When considering political issues in social research, gatekeepers ________.
a) always control access to research subjects out of concern for their own (the
gatekeepers) interests
b) may assist with getting research subjects to assist the research
c) control publication restrictions
d) control access to funding
e) prevent research subjects from accessing the results of a study
14. Research design is dictated by ________.
a) the research question being investigated
b) preferred methodology
c) the number of research subjects
d) the level of access the researcher has to data
e) the location of the research

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15. Most good research ________.

a) begins with a strong hypothesis
b) begins with a clear research question
c) begins with a broad statement of the epistemological position of the
researcher
d) all of the above
e) none of the above
True or False Questions
1. The deductive method is typically used to create theory.
True ____
False ____
2. Theory is used to give explanation to observed regularities or patterns.
True ____
False ____
3. Grand theories rely on hypothesis testing to explain particular facets of social
activity.
True ____
False ____
4. Deductive methodology uses hypothesis testing.
True ____
False ____
5. Inductive methodology always leads to the later use of a deductive method.
True ____
False ____
6. A grounded theory approach requires a pre-existing theoretical perspective.
True ____
False ____
7. Another name for positivism in social research is scientific method.
True ____
False ____
8. By nature, empirical practices prevent the use of more than one research
approach.
True ____
False ____
9. A negotiated social ordering view of society applies to both hard and soft
constructionism views.
True ____
False ____
10. Qualitative and Quantitative research methods are mutually exclusive.
True ____
False ____
11. Most researchers today believe that truly objective research is not possible.
True ____
False ____

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12. Researchers should never take a side in a political issue.

True ____
False ____
13. Practical considerations in research project design are a secondary issue that
can be treated as an add-on part of the research design.
True ____
False ____
14. The research question sets boundaries for conducting the research.
True ____
False ____
15. Grounded theory research requires a statement of a research question.
True ____
False ____
Media Resources

For an example of social research conducted to explore human response see

Milgrams 1963 study of obedience see http://www.age-of-thesage.org/psychology/milgram_obedience_experiment.html
o What practical considerations did Milgram overlook when conducting his
research?
o What ontological perspective was Milgram working from?
o What did we learn about obedience from the Milgram experiment?
o What political ramifications with regard to war and soldiers come out of
Milgrams experiment?
o How do the lessons learned from the Milgram experiment help us to better
design research methods?

For an example of empirical generalization without a theoretical component

see http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/080222/dq080222b-eng.htm
o What use might the data have for social researchers?
o How might this data be used in a political context?

For current commentary related to the Kelley and De Graff study see
http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/fashion/features/why-are-asianwomen-aspiring-to-western-ideals-of-beauty-2136868.html
and
http://foolocracy.com/2011/11/saudi-women-may-be-forced-to-cover-sexy-eyes/
o How could sociologists apply ontological perspectives to these articles?
o Are either of them clearly objectivism or constructionism?
o Politically speaking, is there a reliance on one or the other ontological
perspectives?

Social Research Methods, Third Canadian Edition

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http://www.rnd.ncnu.edu.tw/hdcheng/research/quali/The%20Epistemology%20
of%20Qualitative%20Research.htm
o What are the specific characteristics of a qualitative research epistemeology?
o What are the differences between epistemology for qualitative and a
quantitative research?
o Given the differences in epistemology, can the same social setting be
researched with both qualitative and quantitative research methods?

http://www.enquirylearning.net/ELU/content%20resources/ontologiesnotes.ht
ml
o What are the specific characteristics of a qualitative research ontology?
o What are the differences between ontology for qualitative and a quantitative research?
o Given the differences in ontology, can the same social setting be researched with both qualitative and quantitative research methods?

Social Research Methods, Third Canadian Edition

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Answer Key
Multiple Choice Questions
1. e (p. 3)
2. b (p. 4)
3. d (p. 6)
4. d (p. 8)
5. b (p. 8)
6. d (p. 9)
7. b (p. 10)
8. a (p. 9)
9. d (p. 11)
10. a (p. 12)
11. d (p. 13)
12. c (p. 14-15)
13. c (p. 18)
14. a (p. 18)
15. b (p. 18)

True or False Questions

1. F (p. 6)
2. T (p. 4)
3. F (p. 5)
4. T (p. 6)
5. F (p. 6)
6. F (p. 6)
7. F (p. 9)
8. F (p. 10)
9. T (p. 11)
10. F (p. 14)
11. T (p. 17)
12. F (p. 17)
13. F (p. 18)
14. T (p. 19)
15. F (p. 19)

Social Research Methods, Third Canadian Edition

Oxford University Press Canada, 2012