2014 Backdirt

BACKDIRT
ANNUAL REVIEW OF THE COTSEN INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY AT UCLA
DECEMBER 2014
Learning from the past,

preparing for the future
Message from the Director

of the Institute
It has be e n anot h e r banner year for the

Cotsen Institute.As the end of the year approaches,
it is nice to look back on 2014 as we prepare for
the future.Our affiliated graduate programs in
Archaeology and Conservation took in one of the
most talented groups of young people ever. We are
now beyond competitive with our peer institutions
in recruiting and signing up the best students in the
world. Our Ph.D. graduates are doing extremely
well.Our research efforts push forward with projects
on five continents.Our support from the community
grows.We are all proud of these successes.
Special thanks go to Marilyn Beaudry-Corbett and
Don Corbett for their generous contribution to the
Archaeology Program graduate studies. Their substantial gift will endow support for women students
in the graduate program in Archaeology. Moreover,
Marilyn and Don created a chair in Mesoamerican
Studies that will provide funds for teaching and
research in this field in perpetuity.It is another
transformational gift.We likewise gratefully acknowledge Sonia Gottesman and her late husband, Mike,
for the gracious endowment of a fund to support
graduate student travel and research, which adds
to the support from Charlie Steinmetz and Jeannie
Kay.We thank the late Hal Adelson for his support
of the Rock Art Archive. Harris Bass, Bruce Hector,
Joan Silsbee, Sara Chitjian and scores of others have
helped us flourish over these years.
The theme of this years Backdirt is the future.
Last year, we celebrated the Cotsen Institutes fortieth
birthday, and we looked back with satisfaction on our
great accomplishments of the past. We have always
been forward-looking, and this year we see a great
future ahead.Our staff is fantastic, the faculty are
prominent in their fields, our students are the best,
and our supporters are simply amazing.
Charles Stanish
Director, Cotsen Institute
of Archaeology
Lloyd Cotsen Chair in
Archaeology
BACKDIRT 2014 | 1
contents
b ac k dirt 2 0 1 4
D I R E C TO RS M E S S AG E
1
Charles Stanish
T H E I N ST I T U T E I N T H E N E W S
5
Cotsen Titles Win Big Awards
Professor Monica L. Smith Elected AIA Academic Trustee
Professor Giorgio Buccellati Appointed to German Archaeological Institute
Discoveries on the South Coast of Peru Draw International Attention
8 Former Institute of Archaeology Director Elected to the

American Academy of Arts and Sciences
8
Graduate Students Receive National Science Foundation Awards
Faculty Honors, Distinctions, and Awards
F E AT U R E S
10 Landscapes of Defense: Kastro Kallithea and Its Role in
Fourth-Century-BCE Achaia Phthiotis

C. Myles Chykerda, Margriet Haagsma, and Sophia Karapanou
24 The Tin Problem Reconsidered: Recent Archaeometallurgical

Research on the Anatolian Plateau

Joseph Lehner
36 The Chincha Kingdom: The Archaeology and Ethnohistory of the

Late Intermediate Period South Coast, Peru
Ben Nigra, Terrah Jones, Jacob Bongers, Charles Stanish,

Henry Tantalen, and Kelita Prez
48 Exploring Ancient Pastoral Mobility through Stable Isotope Analysis:

A Case Study from Kenya

Anneke Janzen
58 Prehistoric Urban Archaeology in the Americas: A View from Cusco, Peru

Alexei Vranich, Stephen Berquist, and Thomas Hardy
MEMOIRS
68 Max Mallowan and Agatha Christie Mallowan:
Some Memories from Iraq and Iran

David Stronach
A RC H A E O LO GY A N D CO N S E RVAT I O N G R A D U AT E P RO G R A M S
77 Report from the Chair: The Archaeology Interdepartmental
Graduate Program, 20132014

John K. Papadopoulos
78
Incoming Graduate Students and New Academic Appointments
80 Report from the Chair: UCLA/Getty Program in Archaeological

and Ethnographic Conservation

Ioanna Kakoulli
R E S E A RC H I N AC T I O N
RE P ORTS F RO M THE F I E L D
21
82 Ten Years in the Tropics: Archaeological Research and

Education in Bocas del Toro, Panama

Thomas A. Wake
RESEAR C HER S NOTEBOO K

94 Research at the Ancient Town of Talapada, India, 2014
32
Monica L. Smith and Rabindra Kumar Mohanty
P H OTO - E S S AY
41
98
2014 Open House
Helle Girey
OPINION
102 Courage Among the Ruins: A Sustainable Conservation
Program in Time of War

Giorgio Buccellati
COT S E N CO M M U N I T Y E V E N T S
113 Fourth Annual Cotsen Institute of Archaeology
Graduate Student Conference
75
Rose Campbell
114 Archaeology and Multidisciplinarity in a Regional and Ethnic Context:

An International Conference at the Cotsen Institute
95
107
Gregory E. Areshian
116
Noon Talks, 20132014
Trevor Van Damme
118
Friday Seminars
Abigail Levine
119
Friends of Archaeology Dinner Lectures, 20142015
Helle Girey
P U B L I S H E RS D E S K
120
New Titles from the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press (CIoA)
Randi Danforth
IN MEMORIAM
62
124
Harold Adelson, Ph.D.
Jo Anne Van Tilburg
SPECIAL THANKS
125
To Our Donors
BACKDIRT
ANNUAL REVIEW OF THE COTSEN INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY AT UCLA
Charles Stanish
Director of the Institute
Randi Danforth
Publications Director, CIoA Press
Brett Kaufman
Co-Editor, Backdirt
Abigail Levine
Co-Editor, Backdirt
Copyediting
Ann Lucke
Design
Doug Brotherton
To request a copy or for information

on submissions, please contact the
Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press
at: 310-825-7411 or email
ioapubs@ucla.edu
Read Backdirt online at:
www.ioa.ucla.edu/publications/backdirt
@2014 UC Regents
F RONT C O V ER :
Cotsen students in the Chincha Valley, Peru. From left, Jacob Bongers, Kevin Hill, Terrah
Jones, Ben Nigra. Photo by Charles Stanish, submitted by Jacob Bongers.
BA C K C O V ER :
Students displaying their work at the Zita Project, Tunisia. From left, Hannah Lents,
Dylan Guerra, Amanda Dobrov, Harry ONeil. Photo by Brett Kaufman.
ABO V E :
Photo by Gregory Areshian.

ERRAT U M :
Figures 1 and 3 in Merrick Posnanskys article Evolving Holistic Approaches to

the Quaternary in East Africa in the last volume of Backdirt (2013) should be
credited to Kathryn Chew. The editors apologize for the oversight.
4 | BACKDIRT 2014
THE INSTITUTE IN THE NEWS
Cotsen Titles Win Big Awards
he Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press (CIoA

Press), widely recognized for high-quality academic volumes showcasing first-in-field research,
continues to receive accolades from the greater
archaeological community. This past year, three CIoA
Press titles received prestigious awards, affirming the
Institutes status as a global exchange for archaeological information and a purveyor of game-changing
scholarly publications.
The first title, Light and Shadow: Isolation and
Interaction in the Shala Valley of Northern Albania,
edited by Michael L. Galaty, Ols Lafe, Wayne E. Lee,
and Zamir Tafilica, was selected as the winner of the
2014 Society of American
Archaeology Book Award
in the scholarly category.
This volume details the
work of the Shala Valley
Project, which employed
survey archaeology,
excavation, ethnographic
study, and multinational
archival work to uncover
the many powerful and
creative ways the residents
of Shala shaped their
world. The award was
presented to the authors
at the Annual Business
Meeting and Awards Ceremony at the 79th Annual Meeting of the Society for
American Archaeology, held in Austin, Texas.
The second title, Crucible of Pueblos: The Early
Pueblo Period in the Northern Southwest, edited by
Richard H. Wilshusen, Gregson Schachner, and James
R. Allison, was awarded Outstanding Academic Title
from Choice Current Reviews for Academic Libraries. First published in 2012, this volume presents the
first comprehensive summary of population growth
and migration, the materialization of nascent villages, cultural diversity, relations of social power, and
the emergence of early great houses during the early
Pueblo period in the American Southwest.
Finally, Professor Jeanne Arnolds latest book, Life

at Home in the Twenty-First Century (co-authored
with Anthony Graesch, Enzo Ragazzini, and Elinor
Ochs), received the 2014 John Collier Jr. Award from
the Society for Visual Anthropology for the best use
of still photography in a book-length presentation of
anthropological research. The prize was presented at
the 2014 AAA annual meetings in Washington, D.C.
Published in 2013, this volume takes an archaeological approach to the study of the middle-class American home and is the first book by researchers affiliated
with UCLAs Center on the Everyday Lives of Families, supported by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation.
This award is the latest accolade for Life at Home,
which was featured in the New Yorker,the New
York Times,the Washington Post,Yahoo!,the Wall
Street Journal,the Boston Globe,the San Francisco
Chronicle,the Los Angeles Times,Time Magazine, and
People Magazine. Life at Home was also the subject of
a KCET (Los Angeles Public Television) feature story
that aired in 2013 and 2014, which was nominated for
an Emmy Award in the Daytime Feature category.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 5
Professor Monica L. Smith

Elected AIA Academic Trustee
ongratulations to Monica Smith, Professor of

Anthropology and member of faculty of the Interdisciplinary Program in Archaeology, who was recently
elected as an Academic Trustee of the Archaeological
Institute of America (AIA).
The AIA is the oldest archaeological organization in the US, founded in 1879 and the recipient of
a charter by the United States Congress in 1906. The
organization, which has 210,000 members, publishes
scholarly journals and has a very active program
of heritage awareness and public outreach, including Archaeology Magazine and an annual National
Archaeology Day. The AIA has nine elected Academic
Trustees representing a diverse set of professional
interests in Old World and New World archaeology.
These awards serve to further elevate

CIoA Press, which has become a premier destination for authors seeking to publish academic work.
Since 1975, the Cotsen Institute ofArchaeology
Press (formerly the Publications Unit) has served to
preserve cultural heritage through the documentation
and publication of scholarly archaeological research.
Esmeralda Agolli
(Ph.D. Archaeology 14) has
been appointed Assistant
Professor of Anthropological
Archaeology in the Department
of Archaeology and Culture
Heritage, Faculty of History
and Philology at the University
of Tirana, Albania.
6 | BACKDIRT 2014
Professor Giorgio Buccellati

Appointed to German
Archaeological Institute
iorgio Buccellati, Professor Emeritus of History and Near Eastern Languages and Cultures,
was elected Corresponding Member of the German
Archaeological Institute (Deutsches Archologisches
Institut; DAI) in December 2013. The DAI is a
German federal agency that sponsors research in
archaeology and related fields, including domestic
and international excavations, expeditions, and other
research projects. This highly prestigious appointment recognizes Professor Buccellatis research on
the Akkadian Empire, notably his work at the site of
Urkesh (Tell Mozan), where the DAI has also conducted fieldwork (see page 104).
Professor Buccellati was the founding director of
the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, which he established in 1973. His research interests focus on political institutions and the growth of the state in ancient
Syro-Mesopotamia and particularly on the religious
experience in ancient Mesopotamia and its structural
contrast with biblical religion. He is currently Director
of the Cotsen Institutes Mesopotamian Laboratory.
He is also the Director of IIMAS, the International
Institute for Mesopotamian Area Studies.
Discoveries on the
South Coast of Peru Draw
International Attention
research team led by Professor Charles Stanish

stunned the archaeological community with
their discovery of a 2,300-year-old architectural and
astronomical complex in the Chincha Valley, Peru. As
reported in the May 20, 2014, issue of Proceedings of
the National Academy of Sciences, the teams findings
demonstrate how the Paracas societies of the region
built an artificial landscape in an open desert to mediate periodic social events. These exciting new data
provide crucial insight into the ways in which people
in nonstate societies organized their social, political,
and economic lives.
The team, which included Archaeology IDP graduate students Benjamin Nigra and Laura Griffin, who
co-authored the PNAS article, conducted an intensive survey over a 30 km2 area of the valley. Using
Geoglyphs that
crisscross the valley
floor serve to mark
ceremonial mounds
and residential sites
and, in most cases,
help guide the viewer
across the desert.
GPS technology, the researchers plotted settlements,
mounds, and other significant archaeological features,
including geoglyphs, stone circles, platforms, and
cairns. Hand-drafted and digitally generated models
of the survey data aided the identification of feature
clusters and sets of associated geoglyphs. Orientations for the geoglyphs were independently confirmed
by multiple GPS ground measurements and confirmed
with hand compasses.
Analyzing the data, the team discovered that the
geoglyphs that crisscross the valley floor serve to
mark ceremonial mounds and residential sites and, in
most cases, help guide the viewer across the desert.
As quoted in Science Magazine, Professor Stanish explained that lines, created by sweeping dark
desert soil to expose the bright limestone underneath,
would be unmistakable to people traveling from the
surrounding hills. Notably, three of the large mounds
were associated with distinct pairs of geoglyphs that
mark the winter solstice in June, suggesting that they
had a ceremonial function.
Excavations in three of the mounds in the survey
area confirm that these geoglyphs date to the Paracas
period, predating the better-known Nasca lines to the
south. To securely date these settlements, Professor
Stanish and his team selected samples of noncarbonized annual plant remains, mainly maize and reed
leaves or stalks, from stratified, sealed contexts for
radiocarbon dating. Future research in the Chincha
Valley will include excavations at the mound sites in
order to determine the exact nature of the activities
that took place at Paracas-period settlements.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 7
Former Institute of Archaeology

Director Elected to the American
Academy of Arts and Sciences
Graduate Students
Receive National Science
Foundation Awards
imothy Earle, Professor Emeritus of Anthropology

at Northwestern University and former Director
of the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, was elected to
the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in April
2014. This honor was bestowed in recognition of his
groundbreaking work on the rise of early chiefdoms
and states.
An economic anthropologist, Professor Earle
specializes in the archaeological studies of social
inequality, leadership, and political economy in early
chiefdoms and states. He has researched these topics
across the globe, conducting archaeological fieldwork
in Peru, Argentina, Polynesia, Denmark, and Hungary.
He is the recipient of many grants from the National
Science Foundation and the Wenner-Gren Foundation
and has served on the review boards of the National
Science Foundation, the journal Annual Reviews in
Anthropology, and Cambridge University Press.
Prior to joining the faculty at Northwestern, he
was Professor of Anthropology at UCLA from 1973
to 1995, serving as Director of the Cotsen Institute of
Archaeology from 1987 to 1992. During his tenure
at Northwestern, he served as Chair of the Department of Anthropology and President of the Archaeology Division of the American Anthropological
Association.
Professor Earle was one of 204 members recognized this year by Americas most prestigious learned
societies. The academy membership of 4,600 Fellows and 600 Foreign Honorary Members includes
more than 250 Nobel laureates and 60 Pulitzer Prize
winners.
he Cotsen community congratulates Hannah Lau

and Adrienne Bryan, who successfully competed
for prestigious awards from the National Science
Foundation during the 20132014 academic year.
Hannah Lau, a doctoral candidate in the interdisciplinary program in Archaeology, was awarded a
Doctoral Dissertation Improvement Grant (DDIG),
which will fund her dissertation research at the Late
Neolithic Halaf (ca. 61005200 BCE) site of Domuztepe in Turkey. Her proposal, titled Mobility, Cooperation, and Emergent Political Complexity, aims to
assess cooperation and interaction among settled and
mobile farmers and herders during this time of major
transition. To do this, she will utilize data from animal
bones, combining information from both zooarchaeological analysis and analyses of isotopes from teeth
specimens of domestic animals to examine economic
Hannah Lau received a Dissertation Improvement Grant from

the National Science Foundation.
8 | BACKDIRT 2014
coordination among people in both daily subsistence

activities and in the feasting events at Domuztepe.
Through these analyses, this study will reveal ancient
peoples management choices regarding their livestockan integral aspect of their political economy
and contributes to broader discussions of emergent
political complexity and resource management. This
DDIG is Hannahs second award from the National
Science Foundation.
Adrienne Bryan, a second-year student in the
Anthropology Department, received a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship.
The highly competitive GRF provides three years
of support for graduate study leading to a researchbased masters or doctoral degree. As a NSF fellow,
Adrienne will conduct research in the Cuzco region of
Peruonce the heartland of the Inca Empirefocusing on the development of architectural styles during
the period between the Wari and Inca occupation of
the Cuzco region, or the Late Intermediate Period
(10001400 CE).
Faculty Honors,
Distinctions, and Awards
rofessor Lothar Von Falkenhausen was appointed

Honorary Professor at Zheijiang University. On
the occasion of his appointment, he presented a lecture titled, The Present Situation of Chinese Archaeology: An International Perspective in the Qizhen
Global Lecture Series.
n October 6, the Cotsen community celebrated

Professor Willeke Wendrichs installation as the
Joan Silsbee Chair of African Cultural Archaeology
in the Department of Near Eastern Languages and
Cultures.
rofessor Ioanna Kakoulli received an award from

the A. G. Leventis Foundation to support travel to
Cyprus for the analysis of thirteenth-century Byzantine
paintings at Sotera Ammohostou.
ssociate Professor Kara Cooney received a grant

from the American Research Center in Egypts
Antiquities Endowment Fund to study and document
coffins in Cairo.
rofessor John Papadopoulos was appointed as

Getty Consortium Professor for 20142015. He
will be teaching a course inspired by the recently
published volume, The Construction of Value in the
Ancient World, which he co-edited with Gary Urton of
Harvard University.
A
Adrienne Bryan received a National Science Foundation
Graduate Research Fellowship.
s reported in Proceedings of the Royal Society

B: Biology, Tom Wake was part of a team that
discovered that Caribbean fighting conch used to
be harvested with more meat, but owing to human
intervention, evolved to mature to a smaller size.
Such unnatural selection is indicative of the impact
humans can have on the environment, even in nonindustrial contexts.
Wake was also featured on the social news
website BuzzFeed, comparing real archaeology to the archaeology portrayed in the Indiana
Jones films: http://www.buzzfeed.com/dimitri/
surprising-ways-indiana-jones-is-actually-realistic.
Abigail Levine, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology,
UCLA
BACKDIRT 2014 | 9
F EAT U RE
Landscapes of Defense:
Kastro Kallithea and Its Role
in Fourth-Century-BCE
Achaia Phthiotis
C. Myles Chykerda1, Margriet Haagsma2, and Sophia Karapanou3
T he f o rt ifie d ci t y near modern Kallithea,

located in Achaia Phthiotis, dates to the late fourth
century BCE (Figure 1). It presents a unique opportunity to investigate contemporary Greek defensive
tactics beyond the powerful centers of Athens, Syracuse, and other large poleis whose extant defensive
architecture dominate the archaeological landscape.
Their elaborate walls, towers, and associated country forts and guard posts present examples that are
exceptions rather than something representative of the
general state of affairs in the early Hellenistic period.
Kallitheas geographical setting combined with its
own defensive system allowed the city to dominate its
surrounding landscape, demonstrating that substantial investment in military architecture occurred even
at relatively minor Greek cities. However, Kallithea
was not an isolated settlement; numerous nearby cities were of equal or greater stature, both in size and
political power. For this reason, a number of questions
remain: How did the city associate with its neighbors?
What was the political status of Kallithea in relation
to surrounding cities? We propose that an examination of the individual site, taking into account both
1. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, UCLA.

2. Department of History and Classics, University of Alberta, Canada.
3. Fifteenth Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities,
Larissa, Greece.
10 | BACKDIRT 2014
archaeological and epigraphic evidence, demonstrates

that as a true polis, Kallithea must have had sociopolitical and military interactions with nearby sites.
Specifically, it must have been closely associated with
the communities of New Halos and Pharsalos owing
to relatively proximity coupled with the regions high
population density. To demonstrate this connection, a
series of towers and forts along the Othrys Mountain
range are examined using Geographical Information System (GIS) methodology. The viewsheds and
lines of sight originating from each city suggest that
Kallithea and New Halos were important cities that
anchored two ends of a monitoring system designed to
secure the southern border of Achaia Phthiotis against
southern intrusions.
Greek Warfare
in the Fourth Century BCE
The fourth century BCE was a period of change and
innovation regarding Greek siege strategies. Previously, the taking of a city had been dependent upon
the use of manual weapons and sheer manpower to
surround, blockade, and wait out the stored resources
of the defenders. If an army was not willing to wait
for a settlements eventual capitulation, numerous
tactics could be employed in an attempt to overcome the walls and towers (Fields 2006:5052;
Lawrence 1979:3941; Nossov 2009:3546; Ober
Figure 1. Major cities in Achaia Phthiotis with

primary transportation routes indicated.
1985:4445). Such methods include scaling a wall

with ladders and slinging lead bullets; later strategies
involved constructing ramps, as well as digging tunnels designed to undercut the walls of a settlement.
Thucydidess account of the siege of Plataea in 429
BCE demonstrates that such tactics did not guarantee success (Thuc. 2.7578). The Spartans and their
allies besieged Plataea for 70 days, during which they
attempted to build a ramp to overcome the city walls.
In response, the Plataeans not only built up their own
wall height opposite the approaching ramp but also
undercut the attackers efforts from beneath, mining
out the ramps mass through a hole dug in the lower
city wall.
The late fifth century BCE ushered in a new era of
Greek warfare. In 409 BCE, Hannibal the Magonid
besieged Selinus with a force that included six mobile
towers of exceptional size from which the attackers,
positioned high above the citys parapet, had a crucial
advantage (Lawrence 1979:4243; Diod.13.5455).
At the battle of Motya in 397 BCE, the use of siege
towers was enhanced by an innovation of Dionysius
of Syracuse that would forever change the nature
of Greek warfare: catapults (Diod.14.4852). The
earliest catapults could only throw bolts and perhaps small stones but nevertheless had a profound
impact on Greek poliorcetics. Within 30 years, torsion engines, powered by springs made of sinew or
horsehair, became the standard siege weapon, capable

of hurling massive stone shots up to 350 m (Marsden
1969:5660). As both nontorsion and torsion engines
continued to be improved, architects were forced to
change the way defensive structures were built in
order to meet the increasing offensive capabilities of
well-equipped Greek armies. Defensive innovations
not only resulted in new ways to build walls and towers but also in new concepts of territorial protection.
During the fourth century BCE, unwalled cities were
rare (Lawrence 1979:121), as were cities not part of
some form of regional system designed to guard the
territory/chora4 of a city-state (Frederiksen 2011:8;
Lawrence 1979:159; Ober 1985:130180; Winter
1971:4243).
Ongoing development of siege tactics also necessitated communication methods capable of sending
discreet messages between the nodes of defensive
networks. Greek literature suggests that simply lighting a large beacon or bonfire was once a suitable
method for communicating a predetermined message.
In the opening of the Agamemnon, Aeschylus presents
the image of the fall of Troy being relayed to Clytemnestra through beacons (Aesch. Ag. 89). Whether
a signal could be transmitted over such distances is
4. : generally, a space, place, or spot. When referencing land, this
term specifically denotes the country in opposition to the town.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 11
F EAT U RE
Landscapes of Defense
debatable; Diels argues that two necessary steps in the

path would require breaks of 150 and 180 km (Diels
1914:7190). Nevertheless, Polybius notes that early
forms of fire signaling relied upon prearranged meanings (Polybius 10.43), suggesting that large bonfires
visible for long distances certainly could have been
used. Prearranged messages are still noted in fourthcentury histories, such as when Alexander of Pherae
directed a garrison monitoring an Athenian fleet to
light an additional beacon on the tower facing Magnesia, from where the signal would be relayed to Pagasae
(Polyaenus 6.2.1).
In Polyaenuss account, the second beacon indicates that the observers would have to differentiate
between two discrete sources of light from a single
tower. Other ancient sources also suggest that large,
single beacons did not fulfill communication requirements of fourth-century Greek warfare. Polybius,
recounting the fourth-century writings of Aeneas
Tacticus5, details how two large jars of identical capacity could be utilized to transmit one of several prearranged messages. Both vessels are filled with water
into which a rod set in a cork float is placed. On the
side of this rod are lines signifying various messages.
The sender raises a torch, which is answered by the
receiver also raising a torch, indicating they are at
attention. When the sender drops his torch, plugs are
pulled from each jar, water flows out, and the rods
descend in tandem. When the desired message meets
the rim of the vessel, the sender again raises his torch,
indicating to the receiver that they should stop their
jar and note the message indicated on the rod. Despite
such innovations, this system can only convey a
limited amount of information as one is limited to predetermined messages (such as enemies approaching,
fort breached, or send reinforcements), further
constrained by the maximum number of notches set
into the rod (Ober 1985:198; Polybius 10.45). This
problem is tackled by Polybius, who developed his
own system.
Polybius (10.45) details his own improvements
made to a method developed by Cleoxenus and Democlitus, which aimed to allow the sender to transmit
any desired message. In this system, each party has a
set of five tablets with five letters on each. The sender
raises two torches and waits until the receiver also
raises two torches, indicating both parties are at atten-
5. Aeneass sole surviving work, How to Survive under Siege, makes several mentions of signaling but reports in 7.4 that such matters are treated
at length in another book, Preparations (now lost), which must be the
work to which Polybius refers.
12 | BACKDIRT 2014
tion. These are lowered, and then torches are raised

on the left to indicate which tablet is to be consulted
and torches on the right indicate which letter on the
tablet is to be written down. It therefore becomes
imperative that the observer is able to distinguish not
only between torches positioned at the left and right
of an observation point, but a total of five torches
at each side. Polybius (10.46) suggests the aid of an
optical instrument with two tubes6. Although Polybius
was writing in the mid-second century, his attention
to signaling and references to Aeneas indicate that the
problem of communicating complex messages was
a matter of investigation in the fourth century and
that fire signaling utilized handheld torches placed
very close to each other. Distances between signaling stations thus becomes a primary consideration.
Forbes (1958:176) suggests that torches 10 m apart
can be resolved by the naked eye of an observer 10 km
distant, while Merriam (1890:14) suggest 16 km is the
convenient limit of distinguishing between torches at
each end of a 6 m fence.
New methods of signaling were not the only innovations to be developed in this period. The necessity
of large-scale defenses at both the city and regional
level is seen via extant ruins throughout Greece and
the colonial territories. Athens developed a complex
network of towers, forts, and walls to guard the
territory of Attica (Munn 1993; Ober 1985), while
Syracuse was heavily fortified by the addition of the
Euryalos fort (Winter 1963). Examples are also found
in connection with less-prominent areas, such as the
collections of towers that dot the islands of Lesbos
(Spencer 1995) or Leukas (Morris 2001), and are
found inland throughout the region of Boiotia (Fossey 1986, 1988, 1990, 1992). Despite the seeming
ubiquity of such systems, few have been well studied
in relation to their associations with nearby poleis
(Winter 1971:45). Of note is how isolated towers,
numbering in the hundreds throughout mainland
Greece, have been scarcely noted in archaeological
reports concerning Thessaly (Lawrence 1979:187).
This is surprising given fourth-century Thessaly was
by no means beyond the sphere of Aegean conflict.
In the 370s BCE, Jason of Pherae almost succeeded
in uniting the entire Thessalian region under a single
banner (Sprawski 1999; Westlake 1935). Later, the
region became a strategic theater for conflicts between
Demetrius Poliorcetes and Cassander, sons of rivals
who vied for power after the death of Alexander
6. (Polybius 10.45.1).
the Great. Achaia Phthiotis, at the southern edge of

Thessaly proper, was of particular strategic value for
anyone wishing to move from Macedonia and northern Greece into southern Greece. As such, it seems
logical that developments in defensive architecture
and regional planning would be implemented throughout Thessaly in the closing years of the fourth century,
particularly in Achaia Phthiotis.
Achaia Phtiotis and

Kastro Kallithea
Since 2004 the Kastro Kallithea Archaeological Project, a joint effort of the Fifteenth Ephorate of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities in Larissa, Greece
and the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada,
has investigated an ancient Greek city located near
the modern village of Kallithea, carried out under
the aegis of the Canadian Institute in Greece and the
Hellenic Ministry of Culture. The project began with
an intensive urban survey, which included documenting various extant architectural features (Tziafalias et
al. 2006a, 2006b, 2009). In this paper we present an
overview of the defensive network before moving on
to questions regarding the militarization of the surrounding landscape.
Methods
The recording and analyses of the fortification systems
discussed below involve two sets of methodologies.
Components of Kallitheas defenses were recorded in
detail through a combination of traditional architectural drawing and Total Station survey methodology
during the 2004, 2005, and 2006 seasons. These
highly detailed data were collected in both ESRIs
ArcGIS and Golden Softwares Surfer, the full results
of which are available in Tziafalias et al. 2006a.
In moving to questions regarding the broader
landscape of Achaia Phthiotis, we utilized digital
topographic data and GIS to produce an analytic
framework for the entire region. While we had
already produced detailed maps at a site level, we
were interested in the potential to test hypotheses on
a larger scale, including what was visible from our
site and surrounding locales via GIS (ex. Llobera
2006, 2007). Owing to time constraints arising from
our primary task of completing the urban survey of
Kallithea (20042006) and excavation of Building
10 (20072013), we utilized digital topographic data
and GIS to address these questions remotely. The use
of programs, such as ESRIs ArcGIS 10.1, to analyze
viewsheds7 and lines of sight8 was of particular interest in determining whether or not the Othrys system
Isolated towers,
numbering in the
hundreds throughout
mainland Greece,
have been
scarcely noted
in archaeological
reports.
was visually connected with Kallithea, Halos, or both.
Base data included a digital elevation map (DEM)
produced by the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) program9,
which was converted into a Triangular Irregular Network (TIN) for work within the GIS environment (de
Boer et al. 2008:7778). ASTERs version 2.0 DEMs
were released in 2011 and are reported as having
excellent vertical and horizontal accuracies well within
tolerances for archaeological investigations10.
The Fortifications
One of Kallitheas most impressive features is the
substantial amount of preserved curtain wall, towers, gates, and posterns (Figure 2). Although much
stone has either fallen down the slopes of the hill11
or become buried in sediment, the visible structures
speak to the enormous effort and cost that must have
been required for their construction. This section will
briefly review the characteristics of each component
before entering into a general discussion considering
the elements as a whole.
The Acropolis Fortifications

The western hill is crowned by an oval circuit wall
2.062.90 m in width, which encircles an area of ca.
7. A viewshed identifies what can be seen from one or more observation

locations. In a GIS, this analysis gives each cell in an output raster image
a value that indicates how many observer points can be seen.
8. A line of sight is a graphic line between an observation point and target
which indicates an unobstructed view or, in the case of an obstruction,
where along the line the view is blocked. 9. http://asterweb.jpl.nasa.gov/
documents.asp.
10. http://www.jspacesystems.or.jp/ersdac/GDEM/ver2Validation/Summary_GDEM2_validation_report_final.pdf.
11. Visible fallen blocks and internal fill are most evident around towers. However, despite the thick vegetation of the hill, one can still see
significant amounts of stone from the curtains on the slopes. When our
project began in 2004, such remains were much clearer as a result of a
fire clearing the entire site only several years prior. In 2013, many sections
of the wall were almost entirely hidden in the dense maquis.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 13
Figure 2. City plan of Kastro Kallithea with segments of the fortification system color-coded.
0.5 ha with two points of access: the western and eastern acropolis gates. The walls style of construction
aligns with Scrantons classification of irregular trapezoidal, examples of which he dates generally to the
fifth century BCE (Scranton 1941:7173, 167168).
Stones are flattened limestone blocks laid in irregular courses along the exterior and interior faces. The
interior is a rubble fill with irregular arrangement of
blocks in stretcher and header /emplekton construction (Lawrence 1979:214215; cf. Tomlinson 1961)12.
It is difficult to estimate the height of the preserved
wall because of the rubble that has collected along
both its interior and exterior faces (Figure 3). Despite
the relatively small size of individual stones (much
smaller than construction blocks seen elsewhere on
the site), they should not be viewed as rubble construction as they are well worked and finished in order
to ensure tight fits with adjacent blocks.
12. The lateral stones are so infrequent (or hidden in rubble) that those
present may in fact be evidence for small posterns. Future investigatory
excavation is needed to test this hypothesis.
14 | BACKDIRT 2014
This summit is a typical acropolis (Lawrence

1979:130136), which almost entirely lacks visible
remains of houses or barracks reflecting early periods
of habitation and protection. What does remain are
likely religious buildings and areas of cut bedrock
with particular cult significance (Tziafalias et al.
2006a:114115). The summit is also similar to many
acropolis precincts in that it does not rise completely
isolated from the center of the urban area (Lawrence
1979:131132). Instead, it is a highly defendable area
linked to the enceinte via cross walls that divided the
entire city into eastern and western segments.
The two gates of the acropolis are unusual by
being identical in construction style to the main
city wall but different from the style seen along the
remainder of the acropolis wall. While the west gate
is a large chamber gate, the east appears to consist
of a passage that proceeded either under or beside a
tower to its immediate north. Blocks are larger, more
regular in shape, and feature corner drafting. Here
we see a quintessential embodiment of the philosophy
that walls must be as pleasing to the eye as they are
F EAT U RE
Figure 3. The acropolis wall facing (left) and interior structure (right).
strong13. These gates, through which an individual

would have had to proceed en route from the main
western gate to the central agora14, must have been
reconstructed at the same time as the other works of
the Hellenistic period.
The Diateichisma
Cross-walls, or diateichismata, are found in many
Greek cities and were constructed for numerous
reasons, including reducing the size of a fortress or
encircling an internal population that had unsettled
relations with another group (Lawrence 1979:148
149). However, in Hellenistic times, the term is often
applied to walls built through the interior of a city,
marking off a section of the settlement that was no
longer defended. This was a process often associated
with a reduction in the overall length of an enceinte so
that it could be patrolled by a small garrison (Lawrence 1979:149). Kallithea is no exception to this
general tactical rule. While the enceinte encompassed
the whole of the hill in Gelndemauer15 fashion, the
diateichismata, radiating north and south from the
acropolis wall toward the enceinte, provided a secondary line designed to guard the eastern part of the city
against incursion from the west (as seen in the westfacing orientation of the diateichisma towers).
The diateichismata of Kallithea both follow steep
terrain, descending 60 m from the acropolis to the
enceinte. The remaining heaps of irregular stone and
rubble from the original structure, particularly at the
locations of its ten towers, make the courses extremely
13. Laws 778d779b.
14. Likewise, the eastern acropolis gate is a prominent part of the visual
landscape of the civic center.
15. This term refers to the manner in which architects of the fifth and
fourth centuries built city walls to encompass a large area of land so as to
prevent the enemy from gaining any surrounding high ground.
visible despite overall poor preservation. The interface

of the diateichismata with both the acropolis wall and
enceinte was relatively clear in 2004 and 2005, which
allows us a few comments on its period of construction (Figure 4). It is evident that the stones of the
diateichisma were not integrated into the walls of the
acropolis, particularly so where a tower of the north
diateichisma abuts the acropolis wall. The interface
with the enceinte demonstrates an opposite situation. Collapse of wall stones in the area of Tower 49
allowed us to observe that here the structure of the
diateichisma was bonded into that of the enceinte.
The construction of this interface enables us to suggest that the diateichismata were built as part of the
same program that planned the enceinte, to which we
now turn.
The Enceinte
The main enceinte is 2.4 km in length and encircles
the upper third of the hill (Figure 5). The curtain
consists of a double scale wall filled with limestone
rubble and earth. Both inner and outer faces are built
with stones that are pseudo-isodomic trapezoidal
blocks with quarry face. The average course height is
0.7 m, with lengths that typically reach 1.5 m. Individual stones have smoothed joints, providing a better
grip and a closely locking construction, adding to the
overall strength of the wall. Internal headers occur
on average every 3 m, sometimes with an extra stone
placed between the headers protruding inward from
each face, thereby creating an internal structure that
functioned to stabilize the rubble fill.
The preserved height of the wall varies greatly.
Along the eastern side of the city there is a small
section that reaches 2.5 m in height, while several
sections in the south-central area are almost entirely
buried and obscured by vegetation. Substantial
BACKDIRT 2014 | 15
Figure 4. Postern V in the foreground with the remains of the diateichisma visible in the background.
Note the poor level of preservation and heavy overgrowth.
Figure 5. The hill of Kastro Kallithea. The upper arrow points to the line of the enceinte, while the lower line
indicates a modern road along the base of the hill.
amounts of rubble can be seen along the exterior base

of the wall, while many more stones are hidden amid
the dense maquis of the slope. We are unable to say
for certain whether the walls were built entirely out
of stone or if they featured a mud brick superstructure atop a stone socle. Despite the entire hill being
a potential source of limestone, no evidence for local
quarrying has been found. Regarding the possibility
of a mud brick construction, we observe no preserved
level stretch of stone atop which a mud brick superstructure could sit. To date, we have not removed any
rubble in an attempt to determine the construction
of the lower foundations of the curtain or associated
towers and to ascertain whether the remains of mud
brick are present in associated stratigraphic layers16.
16 | BACKDIRT 2014
A total of 38 towers17 supplemented the main curtain, located at irregular intervals with spacing ranging
from 39 m to 157 m (Figure 2). The closest-set towers
occur along the western side where the site is most
vulnerable given the relatively low slope compared
16. The presence of a wash layer along the exterior of the walls at the
nearby Goritsa hill led the sites investigators to propose a mud brick
enceinte (Bakhuizen 1992:152); cf. Reinders 1998:7172, where an allstone wall is suggested.
17. Sthlin (1938:14011402) counts 38 towers during his initial visits to
the site. We have maintained his numbering system but added an undocumented tower 13a to the list. Conversely we could find no trace of towers
25 and 28 along the south wall of the city, which may indicate damage by
human intervention or seismic activity since Sthlins visit. We also added
tower numbers 39 through 49 for the diateichisma towers and the east
acropolis gate tower.
F EAT U RE
to elsewhere along the hill. Towers have an average

width of 6.7 m and protrude 2.3 m from the wall,
giving them an overall average depth of 4.8 m (Figure
6). Towers 1 and 15 are of a different construction:
both are large square towers that significantly protrude from the wall, creating large platforms which
may have served as convenient points for observing
the surrounding plains and signaling nearby outposts.
We cannot make any definitive statements concerning
the superstructure of the towers as they are preserved
to relatively low levels and have no traces of sills,
thresholds, staircases, or other architectural features18.
Towers from sites dating to the second half of the
fourth century often housed catapults (Ober 1983,
1987, 1992). Kallitheas towers were likely no different, although they are smaller than towers found at
many contemporary cities. Nevertheless, the interior
space of these towers is sufficient for modest defensive
catapults (Chykerda 2010:9899).
Two main gates, each constructed with a plan
distinct from the others layout, allowed passage at the
east and west sides of the city. The east gate, which
faces a steep approach, is structurally the simpler
of the two, built in a basic overlap style (Lawrence
1979:175)19, classified by Winter (1971:208) as Type
II. Although we have not identified any pivot stones
or other mechanical features, we can assume that the
gate was located approximately halfway through the
passage, a conclusion supported by a line of revetment in the wall face. The west gate, located at a
far easier approach, is a more complex construction
combining elements of both Type I and Type II gates.
Such a novel combination is not surprising given the
locations vulnerability (Winter 1971:206). While the
form is still that of an overlap gate, a chamber-house
has been set within the gap, oriented 90 degrees to the
course of the wall. There are three protruding arms,
possibly indicative of multiple gates. Five postern
gates are also located around the sites perimeter. They
are relatively simple: all are small openings, approximately 1.25 m in width, with no clear evidence of how
they were bared. Only one, Postern III, near Tower
18. The eastern acropolis tower gate appears to have one of its two lintel
stones in place, but the lintel covering the external access to the tower
has fallen and is broken. The overall design of this gate is rather different
from the various elements of the city enceinte. It is also almost entirely
buried in rubble, and while an overall plan has been drafted, the overall
construction style is difficult to ascertain.
19. Also referred to as tangential by Frederiksen (2011:55).
20. Sthlin (1906, 1914) did not report either Postern III or the neighboring Tower 13a. He did, however, note that several of the posterns were
intact. All except Postern III have since lost their lintel stones due to
earthquakes or human intervention.
Figure 6. Typical towers of Kallithea. Aerial photo of Tower 1 above,

Tower 5 plan below.
13a, has an intact lintel stone, although sediment has

filled the opening 20. While all posterns are situated in
close proximity to a tower, the Tower 30 / Postern V
combination, cleared and drawn in summer 2011, is
the most integrated pair and also the best-preserved
example free of thick vegetation (Figure 7).
The System in Total

By examining the defensive system as a whole, we are
able to come to several preliminary conclusions about
the stages of construction and the overall strategic
nature of Kallitheas defenses. There were at least two
phases of construction in the Classical and Hellenistic
periods, represented respectively by the acropolis wall
and the later addition of the enceinte and diateichismata, with a possible third stage of later renovations (Figure 2). The Classical acropolis fortifications
provided a refuge for the surrounding area in times of
strife. The Hellenistic expansion, which we have dated
to the late fourth century BCE, saw a significant augmentation of the fortified area and the construction of
civic and domestic zones in the central and southeastBACKDIRT 2014 | 17
Figure 7. Plan drawing of the Postern V / Tower 30 complex.
ern sections of the city (Tziafalias et al. 2006a:115

130). Defensive elements added at this stage were
designed to withstand siege techniques of the period
but also took advantage of the incredibly strong position Kallithea was afforded due to its topographical
setting. With the enceinte set directly on bedrock high
upon the hill, defending forces would not have to
worry about many of the siege tactics employed in the
fourth century. Even catapults may not have posed a
significant threat, as there are few areas at the base of
the hill where an offensive force could set up engines
close enough to damage walls several hundred meters
above them.
However, incursions against the relatively weak
western half were a primary concern. The design and
construction of the western gate were more sophisticated and therefore much stronger than the eastern,
while the diateichismata provided a fall-back position in case of an enemy breach, the western-facing
towers of which indicate that the wall was designed
to protect the civic and domestic areas lying farther
to the east. While the western part of the site is not as
densely built up as the eastern half, what foundations
are visible may be remains of barracks and support
structures used to attend to rural populations taking
refuge within the city. Once again, we note that from
all available evidence, the enceinte and diateichisma
appear to be of a single phase of construction and
are not suggestive of different periods as is often
indicated by two or more lines of wall (Lawrence
1979:145).
We are therefore presented with the image of an
urban center that was greatly expanded at the end of
the fourth century at what must have been a costly
enterprise. This wholesale expansion, which not only
18 | BACKDIRT 2014
aimed to fortify an expanded area, but also included

the renovation of the acropolis gates and the implementation of civic projects (i.e., the layout of streets
and the construction of several buildings at the agora),
leads to several questions. Could Kallithea afford such
expansion on its own, or did it need to turn elsewhere
for funds, material, and manpower, such as was the
case at nearby Melitaia21? If dependent on a benefactor, can we consider it to be a true polis or, rather, a
military outpost? In order to gain a broader understanding of Kallitheas role in regional politics we
must consider not just the city but also its territorial
context.
A PoliS And Its Chora

The impressive form of Kallitheas defenses leads to
questions concerning the nature of urban centers in
Hellenistic antiquity and their connection with the
surrounding landscape. Many heavily fortified settlements dating to the late fourth century are found in
Achaia Phthiotis, but not all of these were necessarily
full poleis or inhabited for lengthy periods. The founding of Demetrias in 294 BCE by Demetrius Poliorcetes
led to the depopulation of established cities, such as
Pagasae, through a forced synoikismos 22. However, at
the same time that the population of Demetriass surroundings was consolidated, the large hill of Goritsa,
near modern Volos, was fortified with substantial
defenses (Bakhuizen 1992). Despite its size, the
21. See Stamatopoulou 2012:85. An inscription found incorporated into
one of the city towers mentions that their construction was funded with a
sum of ten talents by Amynandros kin of the Athamanians.
22. : the founding of a new city through the migration of
populations from numerous existing settlements resulting in the depopulation of the pre-existing centers.
F EAT U RE
presence of public spaces, and visible housing blocks,

the settlements standing is not entirely clear. Winter
argues that many Hellenistic settlements, which were
primarily strategic in nature, were as large as or larger
than classical cities owing to their role as centers
of influence for a whole district, Demetrias being a
prime example (Winter 1971:45). Goritsa23, despite its
physical size and the discovery of numerous housing
blocks and potentially public spaces by Bakhuizens
team (1992:315), is contrastingly described by Winter
as only an outlying fort that was responsible for guarding the northern territory of its parent polis, Demetrias (Winter 1971:45). Winters interpretation may
be called into question given later discoveries which
showed that Goritsa possibly housed a considerable
population, short-lived as it may have been. Indeed,
Bakhuizen notes that their survey led them to interpret
the site as a center of habitation similar in nature to
Olynthos or Kassope, as opposed to a purely military
site (Bakhuizen 1992:315). The problem is perhaps a
matter of semantics; what constitutes a fort and what
separates a fort from a settlement? In order to evaluate Kallitheas standing, it is necessary to consider
how fortified sites, both small and large, were conceptualized in ancient Greece.
In his discussion of Greek fortifications, Lawrence uses the built character of defensive country
settlements to classify their remains in accordance
with ancient terminology, either as a stratopedon24
or phrourion25 (Lawrence 1979:159). The former
generally refers to an area of ground occupied by an
offensive force while on campaign and temporary
in nature, something Kallithea certainly is not. The
latter term includes permanent strongholds that were
intended to house a garrison. Although Lawrence
treats such outposts in categories distinct from walled
cities, phrouria may have shared many qualities with
residential and commercial centers. We see such an
example in Goritsa if we maintain the view that the
site functioned primarily as a military outpost despite
evidence of civic buildings. Indeed, while the primary
purpose of such sites may be tactical, in many cases
the occupants, particularly of larger centers, could
not have been purely military (Lawrence 1979:175),
blurring the distinction between tactical and domestic. Matters are further complicated in the sources
by various meanings of the term teixos. It is most
23. Winter (1971:45) associates Goritsa with Orminion after Meyer

(1956). Cf. Bakhuizen (1970, 1992), who retains the modern name.
24. : a military encampment, not necessarily permanent.
25. : a fort or citadel.
commonly used to denote a wall or collection of

fortifications surrounding a settlement regardless of
the sites nature (defensive location, polis, and so
forth; Frederiksen 2011:2034). Teixos is also used
more broadly to refer to the entirety of a military site,
such as a fort, but can further denote settlements that
are also described as poleis (Frederiksen 2011:24).
Nevertheless, ambiguities are relatively few as the
context of associated passages often prevents misinterpretation (Frederiksen 2011:24). While one can
deduce a distinction between the functions of sites
mentioned in written sources, there is not always
a matching clarity in archaeological evidence. For
example, Lawrence devotes an entire chapter to forts
at cities, highlighting that fort-like structures could be
nested within a true polis (Lawrence 1979:126143;
Winter 1971:43). The status of a given site may also
change over time. Oenoe, a walled settlement near
the boundary of Attica, was classified as a phrounion
earlier than 431 BCE, yet possessed many civilian
households. By 411 BCE Thucydides calls it a teixos,
...phrouria may
have shared
many qualities
with residential
and commercial
centers.
suggesting the site may have been upgraded in function and status (Lawrence 1979:173; Thucydides
2.18.2, 8.98.2). We therefore argue that the ancient
labels attached to architecturally constructed spaces
do not necessarily have a direct connection with
actual use and therefore cannot be viewed as decisive
factors in the analyses.
Regarding Kallithea, archaeological evidence can
be linked with epigraphic clues to suggest that the
site was a full-fledged polis in the fourth century. An
inscription from Delphi relates two boundary arbitrations between a certain Peuma and Melitaia and Chalai in one case and Pereia and Phylladon in another
(Ager 1996:99103; Pouilloux 1976:III.4.351). On
the basis of topographic details provided in these arbitrations, Sthlin concluded that Kallithea was likely
ancient Peuma, a polis (Sthlin 1906, 1914, 1938).
BACKDIRT 2014 | 19
Figure 8. The sites of the Othrys system. Poleis indicated in blue, forts and towers in red.
This hypothesis is supported by Helly (2001:244) and

Decourt (1990:87) and maintained in the Copenhagen
Polis Centres Inventory (Hansen 2004:715716). The
only other references to Peuma are a number of coins
minted during the late fourth and early third centuries
BCE (Classical Numismatics Group 2011; Nomos AG
2011; Rogers 1932:nos. 442443). Unfortunately, the
only piece of evidence found at Kallithea in favor of
an identification of the site as Peuma is a single coin
discovered during the surface survey. With the city
and its nature now considered, we turn to the surrounding environment.
Analysis of the Othrys System

Kallithea is surrounded by numerous contemporary walled cities, the closest being Pharsalos to the
northwest and New Halos to the east. It also lies in
close proximity to a number of isolated towers and
forts located along the northern edge of the Othrys
Mountains (Figure 8)26. These sites were initially
documented via pedestrian survey by a Dutch team
working at the site of New Halos, 20 km east of Kallithea, and its environs since the late 1970s (Haagsma
et al. 1993; Reinders 1988; Wieberdink 1990). However, the publication of these surveys consist as yet of
preliminary reports and, as we pondered questions
concerning Kallithea and its connection with the surrounding environment, we were faced with the need
26. These sites, from west to east, are Tsurnati Vrisi, Neochoraki, Myli,
Karatzadali, Ayios Nikolaos, and Vrinen
20 | BACKDIRT 2014
to re-examine these minor sites and their possible

relationship to Kallithea.
Two spatial analyses were performed: viewshed
and line of sight. Viewshed results produced maps
with highlighted areas denoting visibility from an indicated point of origin. In all cases, a viewing position
6 m aboveground was assumed in order to simulate
a lookout posted atop a tower. As an example, Figure
9a visualizes how a fort near Karatzadali is situated so
deep in a valley that it has limited visual connection
with the immediate surrounding landscape. Although
the northern plains are technically visible, we can
assume that this post was concerned with the valley
pass. In the case of Myli, we see how this location had
excellent visual connection with neighboring forts.
This characteristic is further supported by line of sight
analysis, which shows that an observer at Myli would
be in direct visual connection with all other forts
in the Othrys system (Figure 9b). Furthermore, the
two towers at Myli are ideally located approximately
equidistant between Kallithea and Halos. Other than
Halos, all sites are under 10 km distant.
Viewshed analyses of each location demonstrate
that with the exception of the towers at Myli, the
forts of the Othrys system are narrowly focused on
their surrounding locations. They monitor the various
passes of the Othrys Mountains against incursions but
are not designed to bar access to the south. This tactic
is clear when Myli is considered. Two small towers
isolated on the plains could not have hindered any
sizable force. Guarding the lowlands and main routes
F EAT U RE
Figure 9. Left: Viewshed analysis of the Karatzadali Mountain fort. Note visual connection with the surrounding
mountainous areas. Right: Line-of-sight analysis of Myli.
required much larger settlements, such as Kallithea

and Halos, both of which are located in the middle of
major passes that allowed access into Achaia Phthiotis
from the south. Given the regions importance during
the political turbulence of the late fourth century, it
is likely that Demetrius fortified the region by constructing both large settlements and minor forts. We
conclude that not only are the Othrys forts a complex
defensive system constructed in the closing years
of the fourth century but also that the system was
constructed with the tactical innovations of the period
in mind. The system included two towers at Myli to
act as a communication linchpin of the entire system27.
Any troubles identified in the mountain passes would
be signaled to Myli and relayed to the larger centres of
Halos and Kallithea. We are therefore presented with
a network enabling communication beyond simple,
prearranged messages to be conveyed over the length
of the entire system.
However, could messages transmitted with
multiple torches be intelligible over long distances?
Forbes (1958:176 ) and Merriam (1890:14) suggest
that 10 km is the maximum distance such technologies could serve. We believe that the solution for this
problem of distance lay in one of the most interesting
aspects of the towers at Mylitheir arrangement.
These towers are situated approximately 100 m apart,
separated perpendicularly to the axis linking Kallithea
and Halos. They would therefore appear as distinct
entities from observation points at either poleis and
could utilize the methods described by Aeneas and
27. Cf. Wieberdink (1990:50), who concluded that Agios Nikolaos did
not have a defensive function and must have been the central point of
communications.
Polybius to pass along messages, each tower acting in

tandem to ensure maximum separation of torches to
ensure accurate conveyance of signals.
Conclusions
Examined individually, Kallithea, Halos, and other
poleis of Achaia Phthiotis could be viewed as Greek
city-states, operating relatively independently and
each in possession of its own territory andto a
certain extentdiplomatic aims despite co-existing
under the umbrella of a regional collective 28. Given its
conspicuous defensive architecture, Kallithea could
easily be classified as a powerful polis whose strategic location atop a highly defensible hill allowed it to
dominate the surrounding landscape, making it a key
player in regional politics. However, the concept of
total independence as a necessity for polis status has
been challenged on numerous fronts (Morgan 2003;
Vlassopoulos 2007). In Achaia Phthiotis, an examination of the landscape with its associated built environment helps us form a better understanding of how and
on what level cities in this region interacted in the late
fourth century BCE. The Othrys network in particular
suggests that Kallithea and Halos acted cooperatively
(or were compelled to do so) in the pursuit of defend28. Greek ethnos, , a term which can simply mean a group of people.
Achaia Phthiotis is known to have been an ethnos that was politically
active and held two seats in the Delphic Amphyctiony. The role of ethne
in ancient Greek society and their manifestation in terms of policy and
social organization are complex matters that are unfortunately beyond the
scope of this study. The nuances of ethne and our understanding of their
operation in Thessaly and Achaia Phthiotis necessitate further research
from a broad range of perspectives: from the archaeological perspective,
from the historical perspective, and from the perspective of landscape. We
are presently investigating Kallitheas membership in the ethnos of Achaia
Phthiotis and will be presenting our findings in May 2015 at a symposium
concerning Greek ethnos states.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 21
ing a broader region against military incursions from

the south. GIS toolsets enable us to accurately test
visual connections between these sites and propose
that it was indeed a unified system suitable for the
tactical realities of the late fourth century BCE. Further analyses of the region via GIS may reveal visual
connections to other nearby sites, such as Pharsalos,
a known key player in Thessalian politics. While
extremely powerful in assessing landscapes (Kvamme
2003), remote GIS methodologies often require
support via ground investigation (Parcak 2009:4).
Regarding signaling methods, we acknowledge the
arguments presented here rely on assumptions concerning distances of visibility. Future experimental
archaeology will develop our operational knowledge
of the defensive and signaling techniques described by
ancient authors. Further exploration of the landscape
may also lead to these towers being considered in
alternative methods, such as foci of economic control
and exploitation of the landscape (Morris and Papadopoulos 2005). Ultimately, it is anticipated that a
broader understanding of the ancient landscape of
Achaia Phthiotis will lead to a clearer picture of local
development of urban centers and the techniques and
methods employed in the defense of their territory,
leading to further elucidation of the broader socioeconomic milieu of fourth-century BCE Thessaly.
RE F EREN C ES
Ager, Sheila. 1996. Interstate Arbitrations in the Greek World,
33790 BC. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Decourt, Jean-Claude. 1990. La valle de lEnipeus en Thessalie: tudes de topographie et de gographie antique. BCH
Supplement 21. Paris.
Diels, Hermann. 1914. Antike Technik. Leipzig: Teubner.
Evans, Thomas L., and Patrick Daly. 2006. Digital Archaeology:
Bridging Method and Theory. London: Routledge.
Fields, Nic. 2006. Ancient Greek Fortifications. Oxford: Osprey
Publishing.
Forbes, Robert J. 1958. Studies in Ancient Technology. Volume
VI. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Fossey, John M. 1986. The Ancient Topography of Eastern
Phokis. Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben.
. 1988. Topography and Population of Ancient Boiotia.
Chicago: Ares Publishers.
. 1990. Papers in Boiotian Topography and History.
Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben.
. 1992. The Development of Some Defensive Networks
in Eastern Central Greece during the Classical Period. In
Fortificationes Antiquae, edited by Symphorien van de
Maele and John M. Fossey, pp. 109132. Amsterdam: J.
C. Gieben.
Frederiksen, Rune. 2011. Greek City Walls of the Archaic
Period. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Frischer, Bernard. 2008. From Digital Illustration to Digital
Heuristics. In Beyond Illustration: 2D and 3D Digital
Technologies as Tools for Discovery in Archaeology,
edited by Bernard Frischer and Anastasia Dakouri-Hild,
pp. vxxiv. Oxford: Archaeopress.
Haagsma, Berndt Jan, Zo Malakassioti, Vasso Rondini, and
Reinder Reinders. 1993. Between Karatsadagli and
Baklali. Pharos 1:147167.
Hansen, Mogens. 2004. An Inventory of Archaic and Classical
Poleis. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bakhuizen, Simon C. 1970. Salganeus and the Fortifications on

Its Mountains. Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff.
Helly, Bruno. 2001. Un dcret fdral des Thessaliens mconnu

dans une cit dAchae Phthiotide. Bulletin de correspondance hellnique 125:239287.
. 1992. A Greek City of the Fourth Century BC. Rome:

LErma di Bretschneider.
Kvamme, Ken. 2003. Geophysical Surveys as Landscape

Archaeology. American Antiquity 68.3: 435457.
Chandler, Lilian. 1926. The North-West Frontier of Attica. The

Journal of Hellenic Studies 46.1:121.
Lawrence, Arnold. W. 1979. Greek Aims in Fortification.

Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Chapman, Henry. 2006. Landscape Archaeology and GIS.

Stroud: Tempus.
Lieberwirth, Undine. 2008. Voxel-based 3D GIS: Modelling

and Analysis of Archaeological Stratigraphy. In Beyond
Illustration: 2D and 3D Digital Technologies as Tools
for Discovery in Archaeology, edited by Bernard Frischer
and Anastasia Dakouri-Hild, pp. 8594. Oxford:
Archaeopress.
Chykerda, Christopher. 2010. Kallithea to Halos: The Defensive

Network of the North Othrys Mountains. M.A. thesis,
University of Alberta.
Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. 2011. The BCD Collection of
the Coinage of Thessaly. Triton XV. Lancaster, Pa.: Classical Numismatic Group.
De Boer, Arjan G., Walter N.H. Laan, Wouter Waldus, and
Wilko K. van Zijverden. 2008. LIDAR-Based Surface
Height Measurements: Applications in Archaeology. In
Beyond Illustration: 2D and 3D Digital Technologies as
Tools for Discovery in Archaeology, edited by Bernard Frischer and Anastasia Dakouri-Hild, pp. 7684.
Oxford: Archaeopress.
22 | BACKDIRT 2014
Llobera, Marcos. 2006. What You See Is What You Get?

Visualscapes, Visual Genesis and Hierarchy. In Digital
Archaeology Bridging Method and Theory, edited by
Thomas L. Evans and Patrick Daly, pp. 148168. New
York: Routledge.
. 2007. Reconstructing Visual Landscapes. World
Archaeology 39.1:5169.
Lock, Gary, and Trevor Harris. 1992. Visualizing Spatial Data:
The Importance of Geographic Information Sytems. In
Archaeology and the Information Age, edited by Paul
Reilly and Sebastian Rahtz, pp. 8196. New York:
Routledge.
F EAT U RE
Marsden, Eric W. 1969. Greek and Roman Artillery Historical

Development. Oxford: At the Clarendon Press.
Sprawski, Slawomir. 1999. Jason of Pherae. Krakow: Jagiellonian University Press.
Merriam, Augustus C. 1890. Telegraphing among the Ancients.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sthlin, Friedrich. 1906. Zur Landeskunde der Pthiotis. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archeologischen Instituts,
Athenische Abteilung 31:137.
Meyer, Ernst. 1956. Goritsa. Mitteilungen des Deutschen

Archologischen Instituts, Athenische Abteilung
71:98100.
Morgan, Catherine. 2003. Early Greek States beyond the Polis.
New York: Routledge.
Morris, Sarah P. 2001. The Towers of Ancient Leukas:
Results of a Topographic Survey, 19911992. Hesperia
70.3:285347.
Morris, Sarah P., and John K. Papadopoulos. 2005. Greek
Towers and Slaves: An Archaeology of Exploitation.
American Journal of Archaeology 109.2:155225.
Munn, Mark. 1993. The Defense of Attica. Berkeley: University
of California Press.
Nomos AG. 2011. Coins of Thessaly: The BCD Collection. Auction 4, Zrich, 20 May 2011. Nomos Auction 4. Zrich:
Nomos AG.
Nossov, Konstantin. 2009. Greek Fortifications of Asia Minor,
500130 BC. Oxford: Osprey Publishing.
Ober, Josiah. 1983. Two Ancient Watchtowers above Aigosthena in the Northern Megarid. American Journal of
Archaeology 87.3:387392.
. 1985. Fortress Attica: Defense of the Athenian Land
Frontier, 404322 BC. Leiden: E J Brill.
. 1987. Early Artillery Towers: Messenia, Boiotia,
Attica, Megarid. American Journal of Archaeology
91.4:569604.
. 1992. Towards a Typology of Greek Artillery Towers:
The First and Second Generations. In Fortificationes
Antiquae, edited by Symphorien van de Maele and John
M. Fossey, pp. 147169. Amsterdam: J. C. Gieben.
Parcak, Sarah H. 2009. Satellite Remote Sensing for Archaeology. New York: Routledge.
Pouilloux, Jean. 1976. Fouilles de Delphes III: Les inscriptions
de la terrasse du temple et de la rgion nord du sanctuaire, Nos 351 516. Paris:E. de Boccard.
Reilly, Paul, and Sebastian Rahtz. 1992. Introduction: Archaeology and the Information Age. In Archaeology and the
Information Age, edited by Paul Reilly and Sebastian
Rahtz, pp. 128. New York: Routledge.
Reinders, H. Reinder. 1988. New Halos: A Hellenistic Town in
Thessalia, Greece. Utrecht: HES.
Rogers, Edgar. 1932. The Copper Coinage of Thessaly. London:
Spink and Son.
Savage, Stephen H. 1990. GIS in Archaeological Research.
In Interpreting Space: GIS and Archaeology, edited by
Kathleen M.S. Allen, Stanton W. Green, and Ezra B.W.
Zubrow, pp. 2232. Bristol: Taylor & Francis.
. 1914. Die Grenzen von Melitaia, Pereia, Peumata and

Chalai. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archeologischen
Instituts, Athenische Abteilung 39:83103.
. 1938. Peuma. In Paulys Real-Enzyclopdie der
Classischen Altertumswissenschaft, edited by Georg
Wissowa and Wilhelm von Kroll, Vol. 19.2 Petros
Philon, pp. 13991405. Stuttgart: J B Metzlersche
Verlagsbuchhandlung.
Stamatopoulou, Maria. 2012. Thessaly (Prehistoric to Roman).
Archaeological Reports 58:7595.
Tomlinson, R. 1961. Emplekton Masonry and Greek Structura. The Journal of Hellenic Studies 81:133140.
Tziafalias, Athanasios, and Margriet J. Haagsma, Sophia
Karapanou, and Sean Gouglas. 2006a. Scratching the
Surface: A Preliminary Report on the 2004 and 2005
Seasons from the Urban Survey Project at Kastro Kallithea (Peuma), Thessaly. Part 1: Introduction and
Architecture. Mouseion 6.2: 91126.
. 2006b. The Kastro of Kallithea in Its Historical
Context. In 1 &
. Larisa. 911, Nov. 2006, edited by
. , pp. 224232. :
.
. 2009. Preliminary Results of the Urban Survey Project
at Kastro Kallithea, Achaia Phthiotis. In
2 (2006).
, 16.319.3.2006, edited
by , Vol. : , pp.
217244. : and
.
Vlassopoulos, Kostas. 2007. Unthinking the Greek Polis:
Ancient Greek History beyond Eurocentrism. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Westlake, Henry D. 1935. Thessaly in the Fourth Century BC.
London: Methuen Limited.
Whitehead, David. 2002. Aeneias the Tactician, How To
Survive Under Siege: A Historical Commentary, with
Translation and Introduction. London: Bristol Classical
Press.
Wieberdink, Ger. 1990. A Hellenistic Fortification System in the
Othrys Mountains (Achaia Phthiotis). Newsletter of the
Netherlands Institute at Athens 3:4776.
Winter, Frederick. 1963. The Chronology of the Euryalos
Fortress at Syracuse. American Journal of Archaeology
67.4:363387.
. 1971. Greek Fortifications. Toronto: University of
Toronto Press.
Scranton, Robert. 1941. Greek Walls. Cambridge: Harvard

University Press.
Spencer, Nigel. 1995. Multi-dimensional Group Definition in
the Landscape of Rural Greece. In Time, Tradition, and
Society in Greek Archaeology, edited by Nigel Spencer,
pp. 2842. London: Routledge, 1995.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 23
F EAT U RE
The Tin Problem
Reconsidered: Recent
Archaeometallurgical
Research on the
Anatolian Plateau
Joseph W. Lehner 1
The earliest innovation and adoption of

bronze technology in the late fourth and early third
millennium BC had a strong impact on societies across
Eurasia. Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin that
has improved performance characteristics compared
with pure copper, and it appears golden in color.
This latter characteristic helped position bronze as
a status marker, which is well demonstrated by the
consumption of bronze and gold objects together in
elite burials and hoards across the region during this
time period, including those at Troy and Alacahyk
in Anatolia. Just as consumption of the metal allowed
some members of society to display differential status,
the production and exchange networks associated
with the effectively integrated regional centers with
resource areas.
Extensive scholarship has been devoted to the
so-called tin problem in pursuit of the sources of
tin that supplied the first thousand years of the earliest bronzes in Eurasia. Archaeologists, geologists,
and historians have all variously sought to identify
regions of production and the trade routes by which
1. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology.
24 | BACKDIRT 2014
the metal was transported across the region. The

earliest bronzes are generally known from the Near
East, Anatolia, and the Balkans; however, in these
areas of bronze consumption, there is a significant
lack of prominent tin resources. Large deposits of
tin are much scarcer than copper and are distributed
in an irregular pattern across Eurasia, wherein the
largest deposits are found in western/central Europe
and central Asia. Multiple new discoveries of tin ores
in Iran and western central Asia have been identified
(Baroffka et al. 2002; Nezafati et al. 2011; Stllner
et al. 2011); however, utilization of these ores during
the third millennium BC must still be verified. Dating
several centuries later than the first tin bronzes, late
third millennium BC Sumerian texts position the origin of tin somewhere to the east of Mesopotamia. This
would make the highlands of Iran and central Asia
potential candidates for the supply of tin to Mesopotamia, despite the fact that these sources are thousands
of miles away. More recently, a renewed interest in
the earliest metallurgy has given focus to localized
processes of innovation and adoption, stressing that
those small, expendable mineralizations of copper
and tin would have been sufficient in the past. These
small occurrences, currently known to only a couple
Figure 1. View of Erciyes Dag from the early second millennium BC lower town of Kltepe-Kanesh.
of locations in Turkey and the Balkans, may actually

provide the crucial data to help determine the initial
sources of tin that the earliest bronze craft specialists
used in antiquity. Initial investigations for tin in Anatolia, precisely in the region of the earliest tin bronzes
in the region, yielded an important discovery in the
Bolkarda region of the central Taurus Mountains in
southeastern Turkey. In this region, small amounts of
tin were found associated with mining galleries and
a residential processing site called Gltepe, complete
with a suite of tin-smelting crucibles and processed
ores, all of which dated to the third millennium BC
(Yener et al. 1989; Yener and Vandiver 1993). The
discovery prompted heated debate because the mines
appeared to be totally expended, yielding only small
amounts of low-quality tin ore. Furthermore, early
tin metallurgy was thought to utilize alluvial placer
ores and not hard-rock underground mined ores. The
mining operations were then alternatively interpreted
to be for gold extraction (Muhly 1993); however, this
interpretation is based only on trace amounts of gold
found in the vicinity.
Recent geological discoveries in the volcanic zone
north of the Bolkarda in modern Kayseri Province
have yielded previously undescribed polymetallic ores
in soft andesitic host rock, including oxides of iron,

arsenic, and tin (Yazgan 2015). At first the discoveries went unnoticed by archaeologists, but in 2013
a team led by Fikri Kulakolu (Ankara University)
and Aslhan Yener (Ko University) identified a vast
industrial landscape with remains of Early Bronze
Age production sites near scores of mines associated
with the deposits (Yener 2014, Yaln and zbal
2009). This renewed interest in the earliest metallurgy has given focus to evolutionary processes of
innovation and adoption, stressing that small mineralizations of copper and tin would have been sufficient
in the past.
In this short article, I would like to discuss this
historical problem in relation to our new fieldwork in
central Anatolia. The Anatolian Highland Metallurgy
Group, consisting of an international group of archaeologists, geologists, historians, and archaeometallurgists, seeks to study the newly discovered occurrence
of tin at Hisarck. These deposits are also located
within 30 km of Kltepe-Kanesh, one of the largest
and most prominent Bronze Age regional centers
in Anatolia (Figure 1). This landscape of industrial
activity, complete with scores of mines and nearby
processing sites, promises to upend some of our simBACKDIRT 2014 | 25
F EAT U RE
The Tin Problem Reconsidered
plistic assumptions about the nature of not only metal

technologies but also the organization of production
and trade during the formative periods of initial state
formation in the region.
The Tin Problem and

Models of Bronze Adoption
Before the adoption of copper tin alloys in the Near
East, numerous and diverse social constellations
utilized specialized technologies and local resources
to produce unalloyed copper, as well as arsenical
copper, to make a wide range of objects (Lehner and
Yener 2014). Arsenical copper has a long history
of production, trade, and consumption in Anatolia,
and its origins extend far into the fifth to the fourth
millennium BC. Arsenical copper is typically characterized by a large range of arsenic content (0.57
percent, oftentimes more), which suggests that arsenic
content was difficult to control. Furthermore, there
are multiple possible trajectories to produce arsenical
copper. Simplistically, arsenical copper could be pro-
Figure 2. Quartile distributions of exchange

ratios of silver to other metal commodities
according to the early second millennium
texts predominantly from Kltepe (data from
Dercksen 1996, 2005).
26 | BACKDIRT 2014
duced intentionally by co-smelting or mixed-smelting

copper and arsenic ores together or unintentionally by
smelting arsenic-rich copper ores, thereby leading to
copper metal rich in impurities of arsenic (Lechtman
1996). Data from analyses of slags and production
debris associated with arsenical copper production at
Early Bronze Age (EBA) Arisman in Iran, however,
have demonstrated that intentional intermediate
technological processes involved in the industrial
production of speiss (an intermediate product composed of iron arsenide) existed (Rehren, Boscher, and
Pernicka 2012). This material was later added as a
mixed-smelting agent or in molten copper to produce
arsenical copper intentionally.
It is traditionally thought that bronze alloys gradually replaced earlier copper technologies, like arsenical
copper, because bronze metal has marginally better
performance characteristics (Northover 1989), and it
is easier to control alloying (Pernicka 1990). UCLA
Archaeology alumnus (14) Brett Kaufman has also
provided convincing evidence that bronze production
is more fuel efficient than arsenical copper (Kaufman
and Scott 2014). Yet the replacement of arsenical copper by bronze is made somewhat problematic because
tin bronzes were unevenly adopted or in some places
never adopted, such as central Iran, which suggests
that the decision rationale associated with adoption
also differed. Additionally, in many regions of the Near
East arsenical copper coexisted with bronze until as
late as the Iron Age. The alloys differ the most noticeably in their color, where mid- to high-arsenical coppers appear silvery, while tin bronzes generally appear
golden. Whereas production techniques of these two
copper alloys share important technologies, they actually represent two distinct metallurgical traditions, and
consumers along all parts of the production change
would have recognized these differences. This is made
most clear from burial traditions in central Anatolia,
where tin bronzes were consumed alongside gold and
silver status objects. In addition to the material and
thermodynamic properties briefly described above,
bronze production was therefore influenced by determinative social dimensions. This is also demonstrated
in early second millennium economic texts from Anatolia, which show comparably similar exchange ratios
of silver to tin and gold (Figure 2). These equitable
values placed exotic tin and local gold together as
fundamental commodities in long-distance exchange
between Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia.
While the second-millennium BC texts attest to
the mass importation of pure tin metal, we cannot
assume the same was true for the third millennium.
Figure 3. The distribution of known tin sources/occurrences and the earliest sites where past communities consumed tin
metal across the Near East and Central Asia demonstrates a major geographic disparity. The earliest tin bronzes occur
along the piedmont of northern Syro-Mesopotamia and western Iran (above). The largest tin-bearing regions (in gradients)
occur in Europe and Central Asia, while smaller occurrences (points) are irregularly distributed throughout the region
and tend to be more proximate to larger tin sources (below).
The tin problem has been discussed for nearly 140

years, perhaps first in 1876 by K. E. von Baer in an
article titled Von wo das Zinn zu den ganz alten
Bronzen gekommen sein mag (Pernicka 1990: 65).
Figure 3 shows the distribution of the earliest sites
associated with tin bronze and known tin resources
in the Old World from Europe to central Asia. Presently there are two distinct, though related, models
for understanding the adoption of tin use during the
Bronze Age in the Near East. Extensively described
by James Muhly (1985), the standard model hypothesizes that the irregular distribution and the size of
copper and tin resources across Eurasia, as well as the
nature of bronze technologies, determined the geographic scope of the metals trade. While small occurrences of tin are known in Turkey, this model predicts
that these occurrences were economically insufficient
or even unrecognizable to past communities (Pernicka et al. 1992). These geographic and technological parameters alone have led proponents of this
BACKDIRT 2014 | 27
F EAT U RE
model to hypothesize that tin was traded, however

indirectly, via many segments and long distances from
central Asia into regional copper exchange systems to
produce tin bronze (Muhly 1973). In this model, the
demand for copper and tin in the production and consumption of bronze therefore had far-reaching effects
across Eurasia and helped economically integrate
distinct cultural geographies through varied networks
of communication and exchange.
This model is supported empirically by evidence
that demonstrates indirect interaction with central
Asian polities, including the trade and processing
of lapis lazuli, which is primarily from northeastern
Afghanistan and northern Pakistan, and is found
concurrently with many of the earliest bronzes in the
Near East, including the regional centers of Ebla,
Kltepe, and Troy on the Aegean coast (Baroffka et al.
2002). Sources of gold and nephrite are also known to
central Asia, which gives further credence to its use in
the third millennium BC. Late third millennium texts
in Syro-Mesopotamia and second-millennium texts
in Anatolia and Syro-Mesopotamia also refer to an
Demand for
copper and tin in
the production and
consumption of
bronze had
far-reaching effects
across Eurasia.
eastern origin of tin (Akk. annakum/annuku, logographically AN.NA) by way of Susa in southwestern
Iran (Larsen 1987). Additionally, lead isotope ratios of
early bronzes from northwestern Anatolia and the Persian Gulf are highly variable, many samples of which
are not compatible with eastern European, Aegean,
and Anatolian sources of copper. This observation
has led some authors to conclude that some copper
and tin metals were likely imported from outside
source(s), with some tin alloyed together with local
copper (Pernicka et al. 2003). These data are consistent with an external source of tin but cannot alone
logically falsify the possible local sources of tin.
An alternative model suggests that local sources
28 | BACKDIRT 2014
of tin better explain the origin of bronze metallurgy

in the Near East. Proponents of this model question how the earliest bronzes, currently dating to
the northern periphery of Mesopotamia, could have
developed without local parallel innovations in early
tin metallurgy (Yener 2000). This supplants a logical
and empirical challenge associated with the standard
model. According to the alternative model, third millennium BC communities intentionally used local tin
occurrences in the production of the earliest bronze.
This model is supported primarily by the existence of
third millennium BC sites in close association with
some of these occurrences. Aslhan Yener and her colleagues first discovered small quantities of placer tin
in the Bolkarda of the central Taurus in the 1980s,
and later investigations at the nearby third millennium
BC Kestel mine recovered minor amounts of cassiterite (a tin oxide) associated with iron oxides (Yener
and zbal 1987; Yener et al. 1989). The specialized
metal processing site of Gltepe, located in the vicinity of Kestel and contemporary with the workings,
has evidence of tin-enriched hematite powders stored
in vessels and crucible residues, which are consistent
with tin processing. Further evidence from Plonik,
Serbia, where archaeologists have identified copper tin
alloy objects dating to the mid-fifth millennium, suggests that these alloys were produced from the direct
reduction of tin-bearing polymetallic ores (Radivojevi
et al. 2013). Comparable with the origins of arsenical copper, the development of tin bronze may have
evolved from a co-smelting or mixed-ore smelting
process, rather than the direct reduction of pure tin
ores to produce tin metal.
From the perspective of cultural evolution, we
are still missing key elements in the early adoption
of tin bronze to confidently describe and explain the
evolution of tin and bronze technological lineages.
If the evolution of lineages of tin extraction is fundamentally related to the production of bronze, then
we would expect the earliest bronzes to occur in the
vicinity of tin sources. However if this is not the case,
where the evolution of bronze and tin technologies are
distinct, then we must examine the nature of knowledge transmission and resource networks involved in
at least these two independent technological lineages.
If bronze technologies evolved and were demanded
in a social environment located in the Near Eastern
geography without an initial local tin extraction
knowledge, then there must be a reasonable explanation for the production of tin metal in central Asia
prior to the adoption of bronze in that region. Realistically, multiple sources of tin were probably used over
time; however, by the second millennium BC, our data

dramatically improve concerning the tin trade with
clear, although not necessarily exclusive, associations
with eastern sources in Iran and Central Asia.
The Distribution of
Earliest Bronzes in the Near East
The earliest bronze alloys occur in the Near East
during the late fourth and early third millennia BC
(generally the Late Chalcolithic and EB I), whereas
the widespread consumption of bronze can be dated
to the mid-third millennium BC and extends from
the Persian Gulf to the Aegean. Examples of copper
tin alloys across Mesopotamia include several objects
dating to the early third millennium BC from Tepe
Gawra, the Y cemetery at Kish, Tell Razuk, and Tell
Agrab (Hauptmann and Pernicka 2004). Several more
examples from a burial dating to the EB I at Tell Qara
Quzaq along the Middle Euphrates show appreciable
evidence for the use of copper tin alloys (Montero
Fenolls 2000). Along the northeastern bend of the
Mediterranean, sites in Cilicia, the Amuq Valley, and
the northern piedmont of the Taurus all attest to an
early third millennium BC adoption of tin bronzes.
Among the earliest examples of copper tin alloys
in the Near East are a group of ornaments from Kalleh
Nisar in northwestern Iran with tin contents ranging
from 3.5 percent to 14.8 percent; these are considered to be purposefully alloyed (Fleming et al. 2005).
These ornaments come from a burial excavated by
Louis Vanden Berghe in the 1960s and date to the
EB I in Luristan, which is roughly contemporary with
the Jamdet Nasr to Early Dynastic I (ED I) periods in
Mesopotamia. Even further examples of early third
millennium bronzes have been found in sites in Armenia and Dagestan.
Empirical evidence for copper tin alloys in central
and eastern Anatolia appears to date somewhat later.
Several hundred analyses of weapons, tools, and ornaments dating to the Late Chalcolithic and EB I periods
at Ikiztepe demonstrate the prolific consumption of
arsenical copper and a near-conspicuous absence of
copper tin alloys, which parallels patterns observed
in most EBA contexts in Transcaucasia (zbal et al.
2008). Analysis of Late Chalcolithic and EB I weapons
and ornaments at the site of Arslantepe shows a somewhat different pattern of copper alloy production and
consumption also without the use of tin (Hauptmann
et al. 2002). Here we find the production of copper
silver alloys and arsenical copper with significant lead,
nickel, and antimony contents. The well-known metal
assemblages associated with the Early Bronze Age
The development
of tin bronze may
have evolved from
a co-smelting or
mixed-ore smelting
process, rather than
the direct reduction
of pure tin ores to
produce tin metal.
burials at Alacahyk provide some of the earliest
examples of a well-developed tin bronze tradition in
central Anatolia. Several so-called standards and other
copper-based objects were first analyzed by Ufuk
Esin in the 1960s. She was able to show that cast
tin bronzes were consumed alongside with arsenical
copper (Esin 1969). Recent surface analyses of several
objects confirm the presence of tin bronzes, however,
also revealing a remarkable diversity in metal compositions, including alloys of copper silver gold, copper
silver, leaded tin bronze, and one example of an antimonial tin bronze figurine (Yaln 2012). Stylistically
and contextually similar objects from the nearby sites
of Horoztepe, Mahmatlar, Kalnkaya, and Resulolu
all attest to a similar profile of metal consumption.
Evidence for the adoption of tin bronze is comparably better understood in northwest Anatolia, where
analyses of materials from the Troad and across the
Aegean demonstrate the consumption of tin bronze by
the mid-third millennium BC. Data from the Troad,
primarily from the sites of Troy and Beiktepe, show
that bronze consumption is confirmed in the Troy I
period during the first half of the third millennium
BC, and with a rapid adoption in use by the Troy II
period (Pernicka et al. 1984). A similar pattern can be
observed in the Aegean at sites like Poliochni on Lemnos (Pernicka et al. 1990), Thermi on Lesbos (Begemann et al. 1995), and Kastri on Syros (Stos-Gale et
al. 1984).
Lead isotope analysis of many mid-third millennium BC copper tin alloys roughly contemporary with
Troy I and II from northwestern Anatolia and the
Aegean demonstrate that the copper in the bronze
is distinct from many of the copper ores from these
regions and is characterized as highly radiogenic old
lead. This lead could not have derived from the tin,
BACKDIRT 2014 | 29
Figure 4. View of Erciyes Dag from the mound of Kltepe-Kanesh.

Taken in early summer.
Figure 5. View of a large crystalline sample from Hisarck. The

large gray crystals are iron oxides (hematite) hosted on andesite
visible in the lower left of the image. Tin oxide (cassiterite) is
interspersed within and around the hematite and is visible as a
bright red mineral here.
30 | BACKDIRT 2014
because alluvial tin often has no trace lead. Therefore

the trace lead from the bronzes likely derives from
the copper. This radiogenic lead probably comes from
ores of at least Precambrian age, the rocks of which
are almost entirely unknown to the Aegean, Anatolia, and the Near East more generally. This influx of
imported copper is observed elsewhere in the Aegean
and from sites as far as in Oman and the United Arab
Emirates, which coincides with the rise of tin bronzes
in the region. Lead isotope analysis of arsenical copper
objects shows excellent consistency with local copper
ores, demonstrating that the production of this metal
was provisioned by local resources. This combined
evidence suggests that the earliest bronzes of northwestern Anatolia and the Aegean regions were likely
imported and not locally produced.
What is at once noticeable in the distribution of
early tin bronzes is the correlation of the chronological
and regional proximity of adoption. Current evidence
suggests that Syro-Mesopotamia, central and eastern Anatolia, and highland western Iran all adopted
bronze technology around the same time in the early
third millennium BC. Combined chronological and
lead isotopic data suggest that the consumption of
bronze dates a few centuries later in northwestern
Anatolia and the Aegean and that the metal was
F EAT U RE
imported through long-distance exchange, which is

more consistent with a diffusion model of adoption.
Given the apparent rapidity of the transmission of
bronze technology, we must assume that social groups
were highly connected to allow relatively rapid transmission rates.
The Tin Problem Reconsidered:

The Hisarck Tin Deposits
The recent discovery of central Anatolian tin deposits
in the vicinity of Kltepe has ushered in a reinvigorated research program regarding the tin problem.
This new deposit of tin, located near the town of
Hisarck along the hilly flanks of the near-4,000-m
stratovolcano Erciyes Da (Figure 4), is also associated with scores of ancient mining operations. The tin
deposits were first discovered by the MTA (General
Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration),
specifically by geologist Evren Yazgan (Yazgan 2015).
Initial analyses of select samples from an outcropping
demonstrated that cassiterite was associated with iron
oxides and a rare iron-arsenic oxide mineral called
yazganite (Figures 5 and 6). These deposits formed in
a subsurface volcanic environment and were deposited
on the soft andesitic walls of near-surface fumaroles as
hot gases cooled when they escaped into air. As such,
they differ substantially from tin ores more common
to Europe and central Asia, which primarily derive
from hard granitic lithologies.
During the 2013 field season, we were able to
conduct a brief reconnaissance of the region to access
many mineral outcroppings and ancient mines. We
were also equipped with a portable x-ray fluorescence spectrometer, which was capable of calculating
semiquantitative compositions of the ores, allowing
us to immediately characterize them (Figure 7). Initial
results, which are currently in press with Antiquity,
show that the ores have up to 20 wt. percent tin oxide,
together with significant oxides of iron and arsenic and
traces of manganese and antimony (Yener et al. 2014).
The concurrence of tin and iron would have
presented significant challenges to ancient smelters
hoping to reduce tin metal from these ores. Tin and
iron oxides have a similar reducibility, and in order to
control for the amount of iron as an impurity in the
tin metal, ancient smelters would have faced a tradeoff (Smith 1996). Under low reducing conditions,
nonmetallic tin would be trapped in slags, effectively
reducing the efficiency of the smelt, even if metallic
prills of tin could be retrieved. Conversely, tin metal
extraction could be increased through high reducing
conditions, a process which would also admit signifi-
Figure 6. Microphotograph of cassiterite and yazganite

minerals on a different sample of Hisarck ore. Photo
courtesy of Evren Yazgan.
Figure 7. Taking in situ measurements of outcroppings at Hisarck

using a portable XRF. Photo courtesy of Gonca Dardeniz.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 31
Figure 8. Ancient mining operations in the Senir Srt locality at Hisarck.
32 | BACKDIRT 2014
F EAT U RE
Figure 9. Remnant metal minerals are still visible on the surface of the mining entrance.
cant quantities of undesirable iron. This results in a

product called hardhead, an iron-tin alloy. Additionally, these natural deposits could have been used in
a co-smelting or mixed-smelting technique, whereby
smelters reduced the tin ores together with copper
ores or directly in molten copper through a cementation process.
Preliminary archaeological surveys in the region,
led by Fikri Kulakolu, Ryoichi Kontani, Yuichi
Hayakawa, and Aslhan Yener, also identified industrial sites and ancient mining operations in the region
of the tin deposits (Figures 8 and 9). One such site,
called Teknekayas Hyk, has been dated to the third
millennium BC by associated pottery, suggesting that
many of the ancient mining operations in the area may
be related.
If the current interpretation of the region holds,
then along with the Bolkarda occurrences this would
be the second known tin occurrence associated with
Bronze Age industries in Anatolia. These results suggest that early metallurgy, especially given the highly
dispersed nature of resources intrinsic to the craft,

developed from the utilization of a diversity of deposit
types, including smaller occurrences of metal deposits,
many of which could have been totally exhausted.
These results also have direct impact on the hypotheses of bronze adoption in the region. We must now
consider the role of local tin in the earliest innovation
and adoption of bronzes in the Near East; however,
it is also important to remember that these results do
not necessarily falsify the standard model, which is
based on second millennium BC textual and archaeological data. Local small-scale production of tin during
the third millennium BC could have conceivably operated alongside the importation of exotic tin produced
from distant operations elsewhere in the Old World.
Recent advances in tin isotope geochemistry developed at the Curt-Engelhorn-Zentrum Archometrie in
Mannheim promise to add an independent line of evidence. Natural variations in tin isotopes, whose ratios
are determined by non-radiogenic processes, appear
to differ according to sources which would allow
BACKDIRT 2014 | 33
their use as a tool in the provenance of tin in bronzes

(Haustein et al. 2010). This work is currently ongoing, and we still do not understand if all the potential
tin resources are distinct. Combined field research to
document sites like those at Hisarck, coupled with
cutting-edge breakthroughs in isotope geochemistry,
may solve this decades-old problem within the next
few years.
Acknowledgments
This work was primarily possible thanks to generous
support from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation German Chancellor Fellowship, the CurtEngelhorn-Zentrum Archometrie, the University
of Tbingen, Ko University, and Ankara University.
I am especially thankful to Fikri Kulakolu, the
director of Kltepe excavations, and Aslhan Yener,
director of excavations at Tell Atchana, for inviting
me to participate on this project. I would also like
to personally thank Evren Yazgan for innumerable
conversations about the geology of the Kayseri region
and for providing me with some of the data used in
this article. Thanks are also due to Ryoichi Kontani,
Yuichi Hayakawa, Gonca Dardeniz, Gzel ztrk,
Mike Johnson, and Abdullah Hacar.
RE F EREN C ES
Baroffka, Nikolaus, Jan Cierny, Joachim Lutz, Hermann
Parzinger, Ernst Pernicka, and Gerd Weisgerber 2002.
Bronze Age Tin in Central Asia: Preliminary Notes. In
Ancient Interactions: East and West in Eurasia. Edited
by K. Boyle, C. Renfrew, and M. Levine, pp. 135159.
Cambridge: McDonald Institute of Archaeological
Research.
Begemann, Friedrich, Ernst Pernicka, and Sigrid SchmittStrecker. 1995. Thermi on Lesbos: A Case Study of
Changing Trade Patterns. Oxford Journal of Archaeology
14(2):123135.
Dercksen, Jan Gerrit.1996. The Old Assyrian Copper Trade in
Anatolia. Istanbul: Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut te Instanbul.
. 2005. Metals According to Documents from KltepeKanish Dating to the Old Assyrian Colony Period. In
Anatolian Metal III. Edited by . Yaln, pp. 1734. Der
Anschnitt 18. Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau-Museum.
Esin, Ufuk.1969. Kuantitatif Spektral Analiz Yardmyla

Anadoluda Balangcndan Asur Kolonileri ana
Kadar Bakr ve Tun Madencilii. Istanbul: Ta
Matbaas.
Fleming, Stuart J., Vincent C. Pigott, Charles P. Swann, and
Samuel K. Nash. 2005. Bronze in Luristan: Preliminary
Analytical Evidence from Copper/Bronze Artifacts Excavated by the Belgian Mission in Iran. Iranica Antiqua
40:3564.
Hauptmann, Andreas, Sigrid Schmitt-Strecker, Friedrich Begemann, and Alberto Palmieri. 2002. Chemical Composition and Lead Isotopy of Metal Objects from the Royal
Tomb and Other Related Finds at Arslantepe, Eastern
Anatolia. Palorient 28(2):4369.
Hauptmann, Harald, and Ernst Pernicka (editors). 2004. Die
Metallindustrie in Mesopotamien von den Anfangen bis
zum 2. Jahrtausend v. Chr. Radhen: M. Leidorf.
Haustein, Mike, Carole Gillis, and Ernst Pernicka. 2010. Tin
IsotopyA New Method for Solving Old Questions.
Archaeometry 52(5):816832.
Kaufman, Brett, and David A. Scott. 2014. Fuel Efficiency of
Ancient Copper Alloys: Theoretical Melting Thermodynamics of Copper, Tin, and Arsenical Copper and Timber
Conservation in the Bronze Age Levant. Archaeometry
doi: 10.1111/arcm.12127.
Larsen, Mogens Trolle.1987. Commercial Networks in the
Ancient Near East. In Centre and Periphery in the
Ancient World. Edited by M. J. Rowlands, M. T. Larsen,
and K. Kristiansen, pp. 4756. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Lechtman, Heather. 1996. Arsenic Bronze: Dirty Copper or
Chosen Alloy? A View from the Americas. Journal of
Field Archaeology 23(4):477517.
Lehner, Joseph W., and K. Aslhan Yener. 2014. Organization
and Specialization of Early Mining and Metal Technologies in Anatolia. In Archaeometallurgy in Global
Perspective. Edited by B. W. Roberts and C. P. Thornton,
pp. 529557. New York: Springer Verlag.
Montero Fenolls, Juan-Luis. 2000. La Mtallurgie du Bronze
dans le Bassin Syromsopotamien au Dbut du IIIe Millnaire Avant J.-C. In Proceedings of the First International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near
East. Edited by P. Matthiae, A. Enea, L. Peyronel, and F.
Pinnock, pp. 10931104. Rome: Universita degli Studi
di Roma.
Moorey, P. Roger S. 1994. Ancient Mesopotamian Materials
and Industries: The Archaeological Evidence. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
Muhly, James D. 1973. Copper and Tin: The Distribution of
Mineral Resources and the Nature of the Metals Trade in
the Bronze Age. Volume 43. New Haven: The Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.
. 1985. Sources of Tin and the Beginnings of Bronze
Metallurgy. American Journal of Archaeology
89(2):275291.
.1993. Early Bronze Age Tin and the Taurus. American
Journal of Archaeology 97(2):239253.
Nezafati, Nima, Ernst Pernicka, and Morteza Momenzadeh.
2011. Ancient Tin: Old Question and a New Answer.
Antiquity 85(330).
34 | BACKDIRT 2014
F EAT U RE
Northover, J. Peter. 1989. Properties and Use of Arsenic-Copper

Alloys. In Old World Archaeometallurgy: Proceedings
of the International Symposium Old World Archaeometallurgy, Heidelberg 1987. Edited by A. Hauptmann,
E. Pernicka, and G. A. Wagner, pp. 111119. Bochum:
Selbstverlag des Deutschen Bergbau-Museums.
zbal, Hadi, Necip Pehlivan, Mieke Adriaens, Bilge GedikUluocak, and Bryan Earl. 2008. Metal Technologies during the Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age in North
Central Anatolia: Ikiztepe. A Case Study. In Ancient
Mining in Turkey and the Eastern Mediterranean. Edited
by . Yaln, H. zbal, and A. G. Paamehmetolu, pp.
6585. Ankara: Atlm University.
Pernicka, Ernst.1990. Gewinnung und Verbreitung der Metalle
in prhistorischer Zeit. Jahrbuch des Rmisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseum 37:21129.
Pernicka, Ernst, Friedrich Begemann, Sigrid Schmitt-Strecker,
and Apostolos P. Grimanis.1990. On the Composition
and Provenance of Metal Artefacts from Poliochni on
Lemnos. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 9(3):263298.
Pernicka, Ernst, Clemens Eibner, nder ztunal, and Gnther
A. Wagner. 2003. Early Bronze Age Metallurgy in the
North-East Aegean. In Troia and the Troad. Edited by
G. A. Wagner, E. Pernicka, and H.-P. Uerpmann, pp.
143172. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Pernicka, Ernst, James D. Muhly, nder ztunali, and Gnther
A. Wagner.1992. Comment on the Discussion of Ancient
Tin Sources in Anatolia. Journal of Mediterranean
Archaeology 5(1):9198.
Pernicka, Ernst, Thomas C. Seeliger, Gnther Wagner, Friedrich
Begemann, Sigrid Schmitt-Strecker, Clemens Eibner,
nder ztunal, and Istvn Baranyi.1984. Archometallurgische Unterschungen in Nordwestanatolien.
Jahrbuch des Rmisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum
31:533599.
Yaln, nsal. 2012. Alacahyk T Kral Mezarlar zerine

II: Idoller. orum Kaz ve Aratrmalar Sempozyumu
2:111122.
Yaln, nsal, and Hadi zbal. 2009. Ein Neues Zinnvorkommen in Kayseri-Hisarck, Zentralanatolien: Ein Vorbericht. TBA-AR 12:117122.
Yazgan, Evren. 2015. Cassiterite (Tin) Mineralization Related
with Erciyes Volcanic Activities and the Mode of Formation of the Hematite-Cassiterite-Yazganite-Tridymite
Paragenesis and Its Implication for Bronze Alloys. In
Proceedings of the 1st Kltepe International Meeting.
Edited by F. Kulakolu and C. Michel. Leuven: Subartu,
Brepols.
Yener, K. Aslhan. 2000. The Domestication of Metals: The Rise
of Complex Metal Industries in Anatolia. Leiden: Brill.
Yener, K. Aslhan, Fikri Kulakolu, Evren Yazgan, Ryoichi
Kontani, Yuichi S. Hayakawa, Joseph W. Lehner, Gonca
Dardeniz, Gzel ztrk, Michael Johnson, and Abdullah
Hacar. 2014. The Discovery of New Tin Mines and Production Sites near Kltepe, Ancient Kanesh in Turkey:
A Third Millennium BC Highland Production Model.
Antiquity.
Yener, K. Aslhan, and Hadi zbal.1987. Tin in the Turkish
Taurus Mountains: The Bolkarda Mining District.
Antiquity 61(232):6471.
Yener, K. Aslhan, and Pamela B. Vandiver. 1993. Tin Processing at Gltepe, an Early Bronze Age Site in Anatolia.
American Journal of Archaeology 97(2):207238.
Yener, K. Aslhan, Hadi zbal, Ergun Kaptan, Necip Pehlivan,
and Martha Goodway. 1989. Kestel: An Early Bronze
Age Source of Tin Ore in the Taurus Mountains, Turkey.
Science 244:200203.
Radivojevi, Miljana, Thilo Rehren, Julka KuzmanoviCvetkovi, Marija Jovanovi, and J. Peter Northover.
2013. Tainted Ores and the Rise of Tin Bronzes in Eurasia, c. 6,500 Years Ago. Antiquity 87(338):10301045.
Rehren, Thilo, Loc Boscher, and Ernst Pernicka. 2012. Large
Scale Smelting of Speiss and Arsenical Copper at Early
Bronze Age Arisman, Iran. Journal of Archaeological
Science 39(6):17171727.
Smith, Richard. 1996. An Analysis of the Processes for Smelting Tin. Mining History: The Bulletin of the Peak District
Mines Historical Society 13(2):9199.
Stllner, Thomas, Zeinolla Samaschev, Sergej Berdenov, Jan
Cierny, Monika Doll, Jennifer Garner, Anton Gontscharov, Alexander Gorelik, Andreas Hauptmann, Rainer
Herd, Galina A. Kusch, Viktor Merz, Torsten Riese,
Beate Sikorski, and Benno Zickgraf. 2011. Tin from
KazakhstanSteppe Tin for the West? In Anatolian
Metal. Edited by V. . Yaln, pp. 231252. Bochum:
Deutsches Bergbau-Museum.
Stos-Gale, Zofia A., Noel H. Gale, and G. R. Gilmore. 1984.
Early Bronze Age Trojan Metal Sources and Anatolians in the Cyclades. Oxford Journal of Archaeology
3(3):2343.
Von Baer, K. E. 1876. Von wo das Zinn zu den ganz alten
Bronzen gekommen sein mag? Archiv fr Anthropologie
9:263.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 35
F EAT U RE
The Chincha Kingdom:
The Archaeology and Ethnohistory
of the Late Intermediate Period
South Coast, Peru
Ben Nigra1, Terrah Jones2, Jacob Bongers3,
Charles Stanish4, Henry Tantalen5, and Kelita Prez 6
It i s u ncle ar e xact ly wh e n THE German

naturalist and medical doctor Ernst Middendorf first
heard of the monumental ruins in the lower Chincha
Valley, but by the mid-1880s, he had determined to
see them for himself. Middendorf became an early
authority on pre-Hispanic cultures during his 25 years
of work and travel across the Andes. Apart from amateur archaeology and ethnography, he had a penchant
for linguistics and published volumes on Quechua,
Aymara, and Mochicathe three major indigenous
languages in western South America (Reina 2008).
His travels in the Quechua-speaking regions outside
of Lima exposed him to a host of archaeological sites
that were previously unknown to European scholars.
At the same time, his appetite for Peruvian prehistory
led him to the Spanish chronicles, far fewer of which
were known and published than are available today.
By the time Middendorf reached Chincha, he had
amassed notes and drawings from archaeological sites
along the Peruvian coast. While Chincha was not an
exceptionally novel exercise for Middendorf, his work
there gave rise to a series of south coast explorations
that made Chincha a key focus for some of the earliest
major works in Andean archaeology.
4. Department of Anthropology, UCLA.
5. Investigador Prometeo, Escuela Superior Politecnica
del Litoral (ESPOL), Guayaquil, Ecuador.
6. Universidad Nacional de Trujillo, Peru.
36 | BACKDIRT 2014
Shortly after his arrival at the Chincha port of

Tambo de Mora, a guide escorted Middendorf by mule
to an area of what appeared to be a series of sandy
hills rising out of the valley bottom. It was here that
Middendorf made the first modern description of
Chincha material culture:
A half-kilometer north of the port begin the
ruins of an ancient city, which consist of temples
in the form of pyramids, great patios and small
dwellings, all quite deteriorated and crumbling.
The greater part of the existing walls and slopes
are constructed of compressed mud and not with
adobes, and therefore belong to more ancient
times like the constructions of Caete and of the
Rimac Valley, which are materially similar. . . .
The smaller ruins form clusters, both to the north
and the south of the swampy depression, each
one around a major structure, constituting,
it would appear, temples. (Middendorf 1973
[1894]:105106)7
The sheer size of these mounds impressed Middendorf. He reported that Huaca La Centinela (one of the
larger tapia8 platform mounds near Tambo de Mora)
was some 40 meters high and divided into distinct sectors (Figure 1). Middendorf noted an odd adobe brick
staircase on the southern end of the mound, which
appeared out of place based on his previous observations of coastal architecture. Unknown to the pioneer,
7. Our translation.
Figure 1. Tambo de Mora, a cluster of Chincha structures

occupying an earthen mound.
he had unwittingly stumbled across the remains of a

small Inca administrative structure dwarfed within
a much larger pre-Inca political center (Middendorf
1973 [1894]:106). Beginning with Middendorfs early
explorations, the Chinchas would become an exemplary case in the diplomacy and geopolitics of the late
pre-Hispanic Andes.
The Programa Arqueolgico Chincha (PACH) is a
multidisciplinary program of research on the prehistory of the Chincha Valley. While the majority of our
work focuses on the first regional societies of the
south coast, called Paracas (see our contributions to
Backdirt 2012: Hill et al. 2012; and Backdirt 2013:
Tantalen et al. 2013), we regularly encounter materials associated with the Chincha Kingdom,9 the peoples
who inhabited the valley during the Late Intermediate
Period (hereafter LIP; ca. AD 11001470). The results
from our first year of intensive survey in the upper
valley demonstrate a nearly continuous distribution
of Chincha villages, cemeteries, and refuges, showing
that Chincha peoples controlled not only coastal areas,
but swaths of upper valley territory as well. This is a
major contribution to our understanding of Chincha
political geography and settlement practices outside of
lowland coastal areas.
8. Tapia, also known as rammed earth, is a poured mud construction
technique common in coastal architecture.
9. As far back as the Spanish chronicles, Chincha has referred to the
political entity from which the flat, coastal drainage watered by the San
Juan, Matagente and Chico Rivers derives its name. Its constituents are
referred to as the Chinchas.
As we continue to explore the role of the Chinchas

in LIP geopolitics, we offer introduction to one of
the most fascinating case studies in ancient Andean
political economy. Prior to the first descriptions of
Chavn de Huantar in the eastern Andes, decades
before the discovery of the Paracas Peninsula cemeteries with their spectacular burials, twenty years before
Hiram Bingham stumbled into Machu Picchu, and
almost a century before scholars even conceived of a
Wari Empire, the Chinchas were a broadly known late
pre-Hispanic society and a powerful draw for early
students of Andean archaeology.
A Case for Inca Diplomacy

The Chinchas provide a fascinating example of Inca
imperial strategies in the coastal provinces and
continue to serve as a contrast to Inca imperialism in
other parts of the empire (Morris 1988, 1998, 2004;
Morris and Covey 2006; Netherly 1988; Patterson
1987). Unlike the general state of political fragmentation that characterized the Andean highlands during the tenth through early fifteenth centuries AD
(see Arkush 2005), broad swaths of the coast were
controlled by powerful, politically centralized groups
(Figure 2). Early Inca strategies in the heartland that
proved so successful in consolidating decentralized
chiefdoms into a unified Inca state did not work
against the larger, wealthier, and better organized
coastal states.
Given that Inca imperial strategy was multifaceted,
opportunistic, and tailored to local conditions, coastal
BACKDIRT 2014 | 37
operated in parallel with Inca representatives, going

so far as to take advantage of their autonomy for their
own gain (Lumbreras 2001; Morris and Covey 2006;
Rostworowski 1970); and excavations of smaller
villages from the pre- and post-Inca periods suggest
that Chincha economic structures remained more or
less intact (Sandweiss 1992). The fact that Chincha
political autonomy, economic organization, and demographics remained relatively untouched is a fascinating
anomaly that captured the attention of Spanish vicars
and soldiers at an early date. Understanding the role
of the Chinchas in Inca geopolitics, then, begins with
the ethnohistorical record.
The Chroniclers
Figure 2. Map of western South America, showing the Inca Empire

at its greatest extent and major sites discussed in text.
campaigns under the emperor Pachacuti shifted

between intense martial strategies and softer forms
of diplomatic pressure (DAltroy 1992). Subjugation
through military coercion remained a norm. To the
north, the massive and defiant Chimu state (Moore
and Mackey 2008) was reduced in a series of military
campaigns, its political hierarchy dismembered and
large portions of its populace forcibly resettled across
the Inca realm. Similarly, and only 40 km to the north
of the Chinchas in the Caete Valley, the Incas effectively destroyed the people of Huarco in a four-year
military siege (Marcus 1987, 2008:24), followed by a
general massacre of Huarco men. In Caete and Pisco,
the two drainages directly north and south of Chincha,
the Inca built impressive way stations and administrative centers at Inkawasi and Tambo Colorado (Hyslop
1985; Protzen and Morris 2004; Protzen and Harris
2005). Inca sites such as these were integrated into
the coastal road network to facilitate the movement
of goods and troops. The subjugation of the coast was
executed in a then-unprecedented scale of military
conquest and administrative reorganization.
The ethnohistoric and archaeological story of the
Chinchas does not follow this pattern, however. An
atypically small Inca palace structure at Huaca La
Centinela hides in the shadow of a much larger Chincha politico-religious building (Morris 2004); ethnohistoric accounts attest to an intact Chincha elite that
38 | BACKDIRT 2014
Middendorf and other nineteenth-century explorers

and archaeologists who described Chincha material culture were familiar with at least some of the
Spanish chronicles. Most of these early ethnohistorical accounts concerned themselves with the politics,
culture, and geography of the Incas, including the formation of the empire and the subjugation of non-Inca
peoples. Spanish agents and missionaries established
themselves firmly in Chincha within two decades of
the conquest because it was close to Lima and highly
desirable for its great agricultural potential. While
we should take these writings with a healthy dose of
skepticism, early discussions of Chincha are invaluable accounts rich in detail. As the kingdom remained
independent until sometime during the reign of Topa
Inca (beginning around 1475 AD), only a few generations separated an independent Chincha from the
earliest Spanish writers.
Numerous chronicles reference the Chinchas, but
three stand out. Pedro Cieza de Lens La crnica
del Per was published in Seville by 1553, making it
one of the earliest records of Inca history and political geography. Cieza is recognized as reliable, though
some of his information may have come secondhand
through a Quechua-speaking contemporary, Juan
Dez de Betanzos (Pease 2008). An account by Pedro
Pizarro, a cousin of the leader of the invading Spanish forces, Francisco, provides firsthand observations
of the Spanish encounters with the Inca beginning in
the early sixteenth century. His Relacin del descubrimiento y conquista de los reinos del Per (1571)
covers his time spent under the command of Francisco
Pizarro and describes Atahualpas entourage during
the 1532 confrontation in Cajamarca that precipitated
the collapse of the Inca political system. Lastly, Fray
Cristbal de Castro and Diego Ortega Morejn interviewed older inhabitants of Chincha in a document
F EAT U RE
The Chincha Kingdom
referred to in shorthand as the Relacin (1558).

Originally published for Spanish authorities (Castro
was a church vicar and Ortega Morejn a local magistrate), the Relacin describes diplomacy and political
maneuvering between the intact Chincha leadership
and Inca representatives. From these accounts come
the earliest picture of Chincha economic power, social
structure, and political acumen.
Cieza describes the realm of the Chinchas as
a great province, esteemed in ancient times . . .
splendid and grand . . . so famous throughout Peru as
to be feared by many natives (Cieza de Len 1959
[1553]:344345). He claims that the land of the
Chinchas was highly productive and desirable, full of
game, and capable of supporting large-scale agriculture and a population of 25,000 persons. He notes
that the Chinchas had access to an abundance of precious metals, both gold and silver, which the Spanish
found and plundered in nearby tombs (Cieza de Len
1959 [1553]:347). According to Ciezas informants,
the wealth and power of the Chinchas served not
only as the foundation of a regional coastal alliance,
but also supported major Chincha incursions into the
highlands. While the Incas were still consolidating
the Cusco region, Cieza reports, the Chinchas had
smashed the highland Soras and Rucanas, reaching
the land of the Collas in the Titicaca Basin (Cieza de
Len 1959 [1553]:346).10
Part of the Chincha Kingdoms political capital
derived from access to a powerful and prestigious
oracle called Chinchaycamac (Cieza refers to it as a
demon), who received offerings and spoke to the
Chincha elders (Cieza de Len 1959 [1553]:345).
This was likely a branch oracle of the pilgrimage
center of Pachacamac, near modern Lima, which the
Inca also incorporated (Uhle 1991 [1903]). If this
is true, then the Chinchas held a dual alliance with
both the Incas and the sponsor oracle (Menzel and
Rowe 1966:68). Chinchaycamac was referred to as
a child of Pachacamac (Rostworowski 1977:106),
and legitimizing a branch oracle in this way could
come at great cost. Contributions of precious metals, manufactured goods, labor, and agricultural or
animal products accompanied Pachacamac branch
oracles elsewhere (Burger 1988:115). Supporting
the oracle would require a significant level of surplus
10. This is perhaps an overstatement on Ciezas part. There is little
physical evidence to suggest that the Chinchas carried out military incursions into the southern highlands. Nonetheless, defensive architecture in
association with Chincha material culture in the upper valley suggests an
active border zone and the possibility of military excursions into immediate upland areas.
Understanding the
role of the Chinchas
in Inca geopolitics,
then, begins with
the ethnohistorical
record.
production beyond the basic subsistence needs of the

Chincha population.
The popularity of the Chinchaycamac oracle and
the organized wealth of the Chinchas probably played
key roles in negotiating for political autonomy in the
face of mounting Inca pressure. Morris and Covey
(2006:147) note some ambiguity in the chronicles
with regard to how much military activity, if any,
was involved in the absorption of the Chinchas, but
suggest that real capitulation took several generations. When the Incas finally did annex Chincha, it
was apparently as vassals and not through outright
domination (Castro and Ortega Morejn 1934
[1558]:135). The Inca installed their own overseers,
acquired lands for Inca specialist workers (mamacona
and yanacona), built a palace for Inca dignitaries,
and constructed a temple to the sun to serve the state
religion. Valley bureaucrats conducted a census and
introduced decimal-based administration (Castro and
Ortega Morejn 1934 [1558]:136139). A sort of
dual-justice system was instituted wherein the local
Chincha lord could prosecute crimes against Chincha elites and commoners, while an appointed Inca
magistrate dealt with crimes against Inca personnel
or the Inca state (Castro and Ortega Morejn 1934
[1558]:140141). Overall, the Chinchas retained a
major degree of political autonomy, an intact leadership hierarchy, and access to the Chinchaycamac
oracle and were able to maintain a broader ethnic
identity in the face of Inca incorporation. This is not
to mention potential costs were saved on both sides by
avoiding prolonged conflict.
In his description of the events at Cajamarca,
Pedro Pizarros observations support the idea that
Chincha incorporation into the Inca Empire took
place under politically amiable terms. He notes that
the lord of the Chinchas accompanied Atahualpa and
had access to several practices usually reserved for
BACKDIRT 2014 | 39
F EAT U RE
The Chincha Kingdom
Inca nobility or exclusively for the Inca himself. These

included transportation by litter (while accompanying
Inca nobles went on foot) and an honored position
in the Inca royal procession close behind Atahualpas
person (Pizarro 1921 [1571]:180181, 183). He was
close enough to the royal party to be killed in the
resulting fracas, stabbed in his litter by Juan Pizarro,
Franciscos half-brother (Pizarro 1921 [1571]:184;
Rostworowski 1999:130). The high position afforded
to this lord and the Inca desire to keep the Chincha
administration intact appear to be linked, in part,
to the Chinchas exotic economic practices. According to Pedro Pizarro, in a subsequent conversation
between the Spanish and the captured Atahualpa,
the Inca referred to the Chincha lord as a good friend
and master of 100,000 sea-going craft (Pizarro 1921
[1571]:443). This was perhaps an obvious boon for
a highland society with little regular access to large,
open bodies of water or the experience and human
capital to make use of them.
All in all, early ethnohistorical sources suggest
that the Chinchas were fabulously wealthy and well
connected. This included an unprecedented amount
of maritime infrastructure, massive economic surpluses that could be mobilized for special purpose
projects, a branch oracle associated with one of the
oldest and most highly respected ideological centers in the Andes, a large and reliable subsistence
base, and a burgeoning population. Their successful
negotiation with the Inca preserved Chincha social
structure and political hierarchy, at least by typical
Inca standards. If anything else, the Incas testified
to the importance of the Chinchas by naming one
quarter of Tawantinsuyu after them: Chinchaysuyu
was the largest and most populous province of the
Inca Empire, extending from Chincha in the south to
southern Columbia in the north.
Culture History and the Chinchas

If Middendorf was the first to describe Chincha
material culture in a modern context, then Max Uhle,
one of the founders of modern Andean archaeology,
bears responsibility for bringing it to the attention
of archaeologists. At the behest of the University of
California, Uhle spent three years between 1899 and
1901 on the Peruvian coast excavating and organizing collections for a new Museum of Anthropology in
Berkeley (Uhle 1924 [1901]). Uhle was familiar with
references to the Chinchas in a number of chronicles,
believing them to be a widely expansive state that carried out conquest throughout the sierra (likely based
on a reading of Cieza de Len). He placed the Chin40 | BACKDIRT 2014
Figure 3. Pottery recovered from Chincha and Chincha-Inca

sites during survey conducted by the UCLA/PACH team in 2013.
Images on the left demonstrate local vessel forms and motifs
common to pre-Inca times. Images on the right show nonlocal
blackwares introduced after the arrival of the Inca.
chas at the beginning of a developmental sequence

that eventually led to the formation of the Inca
Empire (Chinchas-Chankas-Incas), making them the
progenitors of all later polities composed of Quechuaspeaking peoples. Uhles model was reasonable, given
the methods at the time; by linking formalized pottery
styles with proposed historical events derived from
sixteenth-century documents, Uhle was developing a
basic chronology for Andean prehistory (Lumbreras
2001; Tantalen 2014).
Uhle conducted a series of excavations in Chinchaperiod cemetery lots in the northwest corner of the
valley, near and within the Huaca La CentinelaTambo
de Mora complex (Uhle 1924 [1901]). Ceramics from
six cemeteries allowed him to isolate a Chincha design
style, later detailed and subdivided into two Chinchaperiod phases and a post-Chincha, Inca-related phase
(Kroeber and Strong 1924). Uhle also uncovered a
variety of non-ceramic artifacts, including silverwork,
female figurines, spindles, and spindle whorls. This
formed the basis of the Chincha reference material
available to subsequent archaeological investigations.
The discovery of the Paracas Peninsula burials in the 1920s deflected much attention from the
archaeology of the Chinchas, as much work on
the south coast turned toward earlier periods and
the beautiful ceramics and textiles recovered from
Paracas and Nasca sites. Starting in the late 1950s,
two major research endeavors reignited scholarly
interest in the Chincha Kingdom. The first was a
reevaluation of Uhles Chincha ceramic collection
(Menzel 1966, 1971, 1977; Menzel and Rowe 1966).
Directed by John Rowe and his students, analysis of
the Chincha materials was part of a larger program
to bring together and standardize the dozens of
independent Andean ceramic seriations into a single
coherent chronology (our modern system of Horizons and Intermediate Periods is a product of
this). In examining the Chincha collections, Menzel
and Rowe (1966) and Menzel (1966) reasserted a
basic distinction between pre-Inca Chincha wares
and specimens associated with the period of Inca
influence (Figure 3). In the former period, Chincha
wares gradually incorporated traits from the broader
south coast region, an indicator of growing Chincha
cosmopolitanism. After the Inca incursion, Chinchastyle finewares abruptly disappear in favor of foreign
styles and imitations. Menzel interpreted this stylistic

shift as status imitation by Chincha elites. Menzel and
Rowe (1966:67) suggested that Chincha power was
increasing substantially across the south coast in the
century prior to 1476, whereupon the expert tactical
advantage, diplomatic pressure, and overwhelming
force of the Inca led to the bloodless capitulation of
the Chinchas and disappearance of Chincha styles in
favor of Inca imitations.
A major survey project in the Chincha Valley by
Dwight Wallace (1959, 1971), the first of its kind,
contributed much to the reinvigoration of Chincha
archaeology (Figure 4). Wallaces survey identified an
unprecedented number of Chincha-associated sites,

roads between site clusters, and massive tapia mounds
throughout the lower valley.11 He provided direct
evidence for a Chincha primary center composed of
La Centinela, La Cumbe, and Tambo de Mora mounds
(Wallace 1998), surrounded by secondary mound
clusters and tertiary hamlets. Of these secondary
sites, at least 30 were major mounds, and at least 5
11. Of 112 sites recorded by Wallace (1971), 70 are now recognized as

containing Chincha occupations. An additional 30 sites have since been
added to that list (Canziani 1992, 2009; Engel 2010; Lumbreras 2001;
Wallace 1971, 1991, 1998).
BACKDIRT 2014 | 41
Figure 4. Map of the Chincha Valley showing Late Intermediate

Period sites, infrastructure, and distinct economic communities as
documented ethnohistorically and archaeologically. Synthesis from
Canziani (2009), Engel (2010), Lumbreras (2001), and Wallace
(1971; 1991). Base map Google.
major clusters contained 10 mounds apiece. A set of

at least 4 straight roads radiated out from Huaca La
Centinela, leading to major secondary clusters and
connecting the valley to the eastern highlands and
neighboring drainages to the south (Menzel 1959;
Wallace 1991). Wallace distinguished between the
tapia architectural techniques common to the Chincha
and the rectangular adobe brick structures built by the
Inca, clearly distinguished by double-jamb doors and
trapezoidal portals (Wallace 1959).
The Aviso
The first half of the twentieth century witnessed a
florescence of fieldwork across the south coast and
with it, a renewed interest in the material culture of
the Chinchas. Multiple reassessments of Uhles original collections produced a basic distinction between
pre- and post-Inca assemblages, showing an increase
in external contacts through time. Some core ideas
taken from the chronicles were overturned in light
of new archaeological fieldwork, such as the notion
that the Chinchas took part in a military conquest of
the southern highlands (no material evidence could
be confirmed, from the Titicaca Basin or from the
coast; Menzel and Rowe 1966). The first surveys of
the valley concluded that the Chinchas were prosperous, perhaps even more so than was anticipated. The
sheer size, number, and density of Chincha mound
clusters suggested highly organized labor forces,
and the clear presence of a three-tiered settlement
system with linking infrastructure begged questions
42 | BACKDIRT 2014
of political organization
and territorial sovereignty.
How much of this existed
before the Inca incursion,
archaeologists asked, and
how much was a product
of post-annexation opportunities? Furthermore,
new theoretical paradigms
in economic anthropology juxtaposed highland
forms of socioeconomic
organization with distinct
coastal models, called
vertical and horizontal
complementarities (Murra
1972; Rostworowski 1977). The Chinchas provided a
perfect laboratory to study the intersection of highland
and coastal economic systems.
The publication of a previously unknown Spanish document in 1970, found in a Madrid archive
by Maria Rostworowski de Diez Canseco (1970),12
emphasized and addressed many of these questions. By
cross-referencing personnel references in the Aviso
with other known documentary sources, including
Castro and Ortega Morejn and Reginaldo de Lizrraga (1968 [1901), Rostworowski concluded that the
account dated to the early 1570s and was likely written by a Spanish clergyman stationed at the Dominican
mission in Chincha. The document came at a most
expedient time, linking information from the classic
chronicles with emerging archaeological evidence.
The Aviso describes the Chinchas as managers
of a massive maritime trading operation stretching
from Ecuador in the north to the south coast of Peru
(this articulates with Pedro Pizarros claim that the
Chincha paramount controlled 100,000 sea-going vessels). The Chinchas traded copper from the southern
Andes for Ecuadorian commoditiesgold, certain species of timber, emeralds, and, most significantly, shell
(Marcos 2005:158; Pillsbury 1996; Rostworowski
1970:144146, 152). Rostworowski suggests that
demand for spondylus (Spondylus princeps) shells,
important for state-sponsored rituals under the Incas,
served as a major driver. Perhaps most unexpectedly,
the Aviso claims fixed exchange rates for weights
12. This document lists neither date nor author. Its full nameAviso de
el modo que havia en el gobierno de los indios en tiempo del Inga y como
se repartian las tierras y tributostranslates roughly into Notice about
the rules under the Indian government during Inca times and how they
shared the land and taxes. Following common convention, we shorten it
to the Aviso.
F EAT U RE
The Chincha Kingdom
of gold and silver (1:10) and the presence of copper

marks, a sort of price-fixing mechanism otherwise
unknown in the pre-Hispanic Andes (Rostworowski
1970:152; Stanish 1992). It is, however, possible that
early Spanish sources accidentally conflated the commodity itself, copper, with the mediums of exchange
familiar to their own worldview.
Coastal traders filled a niche in the rapidly expanding Inca economy, whose centralized redistributive
system was usually at odds with private trading enterprises (Rostworowski 1970:147). Patterson (1987)
discusses the Chincha anomaly as an exercise in
merchant capital. In this scenario merchants serve as
debt financiers who mediate exchanges between independent commodity producers, in this case peoples
on either side of the Inca frontier. Such a scenario is
possible only when the means of production remain in
local hands. Once supply and demand become rigidly
coordinated through the introduction of a centralized
redistributive system, such as was the case with the
Inca, the role of merchant capital is reduced. Thus,
merchant capital is inherently conservative; it relies on
existing relations of production and the perpetuation
of producer autonomy.
Such a system tends to be most effective in moving high-value, low-density goods, rather than bulk
staples. Demand for gold, emeralds, and spondylus
shell stemmed strongly from the central political
apparatus of the Incas, yet reliable sources for these
commodities lay beyond effective Inca economic
control. As semiautonomous agents of the state, the
Chinchas could operate efficiently in contested and
unconquered areas. They commanded the seafaring
skills, boats, and previously established partnerships
that the Inca lacked and thus provided a more efficient
vector for acquiring valued goods.
The Aviso suggests that specialized sea-traders
existed in Chincha prior to the coming of the Inca
(Rostworowski 1977:128) and that this was one
component of a strictly organized domestic economy,
which also included permanent fishing and farming
communities (Rostworowski 1970:157). The document claims that economic specialization governed the
local settlement system, with artisans, fishermen, and
farmers each inhabiting distinct parts of the valley. It
also provides population estimates for each major division, suggesting 10,000 fishermen, 10,000 farmers,
and 6,000 artisanal specialists and merchants. Further
subdivision of artisans is likely: the Aviso lists
carpenters, pot-makers, shoemakers, and gold- and
silversmiths as distinct occupations (Rostworowski
1970:158). This horizontal integration of economi-
Curiously, only small

volumes of spondylus
shell supposedly
the major driver of
coastal trade have
been recovered in
Chincha excavations.
cally separate components in the formation of a larger
paramount political entity is referred to as a seoro
and is a common form of economic organization elsewhere in Late Intermediate Period coastal societies in
southern Peru (see also Knudson and Buikstra 2007;
Lozada and Buikstra 2002, 2005; Lozada et al. 2009;
Nigra 2009).
The Development of a Complex

Chincha Society
The Aviso provided powerful new information
on Chincha geopolitics, economic organization, and
settlement, supplying new hypotheses to test with
archaeological data. Whereas earlier investigations
sought to describe the universe of Chincha sites, architecture, and pottery styles, expeditions over the past
40 years have focused on processes of political incorporation, resistance, and empire-building across the
period of Inca influence. The 1980s saw the arrival of
a major archaeological program in Chincha under the
auspices of the Instituto Andino de Estudios Arqueolgicos (INDEA). These scholarsLuis Lumbreras,
Craig Morris, and John Murra, among othersare
responsible for taking Chincha archaeology beyond
descriptive culture history and into the realm of modern anthropology.
Given the tantalizing description of economically
distinct communities in the Aviso, INDEA scholars
dedicated much time to determining whether such
strict occupational specialization existed before the
arrival of the Inca. Sandweiss (1992) located and
excavated a Chincha-period fishing community precisely where the Aviso predictedalong a lengthy,
narrow strip of coast just west of the major Centinela
mound cluster. He concluded that community members were indeed specialized fishermen who practiced
no agriculture, though they likely produced some
of their own basic equipment, and that economic
BACKDIRT 2014 | 43
Figure 5. Inca palace at Huaca La Centinela. Tambo de Mora is in the left background.
specialization was in place before Inca incursion.

Fishing peoples fell under the rule of a local lord
who probably managed specialists of his own and did
not participate in subsistence activities (Sandweiss
1992:145). He suggested that Inca influence would
have a most profound effect on these local elites, who
would articulate with Inca-installed administrators but
would not affect the quotidian activities of subsistence-producing commoners (Sandweiss 1992).
While pure Chincha farming guilds have yet to
be demonstrated archaeologically, Lumbreras (2001)
suggests that these were located at the large mound
cluster of Las Huacas, situated in the center of the
Chincha alluvial plain. Far from the pre-Hispanic road
system but in highly productive land between the
Matagente and Chico Rivers, he argues that the site
was not suited for fishing or mercantile activity (Lumbreras 2001:4850). He supports the idea that fishing
villages paralleled the majority of the coastline, identifying the Rancheria cluster as a potential candidate
and suggesting that the San Pedro Complex, at the
southern end of the Chincha settlement distribution,
may have been a secondary center related to fishing
villages (Lumbreras 2001:52). All in all, he lists three
major urban centers within ChinchaCentinela, San
Pedro and Las Huacaseach with its own set of satellite communities.
Menzel and Rowes (1966) suggestion that the
triple-mound complex of Centinela, Tambo de Mora,
and La Cumbe was the seat of Chincha political power
is supported by Morriss excavations and architectural
analyses at Huaca La Centinelaboth at the Chincha
palace and the Inca installation next to it (Morris
1988, 1998). This cluster contains large residential
areas in low-lying spaces between massive tapia
44 | BACKDIRT 2014
mounds, forming a core of more than 200 hectares.

All available suggestions place the Chinchaycamac pilgrimage center at La Cumbe or at La Centinela itself
(Menzel and Rowe 1966; Uhle 1924 [1901]; Wallace
1998). In addition to major Chincha structures, Inca
influence is clearly present at La Centinela in the architecture of a small palace near the mounds principal
edifice (Morris and Covey 2006; Morris and Santillana
2007). Unlike Inca royal architecture elsewhere in the
provinces, the La Centinela structure stands out as
relatively small, off-center with regard to the mounds
main plaza, and executed in locally available mud
brick (Figure 5). The layout and placement of the Inca
palace suggests a strategy of imperial control based
on notions of alliance and mutual respect, rather than
heavy-handed imposition of Inca building practices
as found elsewhere in the Andes (Morris 2004). This
dampening of the imperial reality for purposes of positive diplomacy underlines the multifaceted and reflexive nature of Inca dominance and the usefulness of an
intact Chincha economy. Beyond the clusters role as
a political nexus, craft specialists worked and perhaps
inhabited the La Centinela, La Cumbe, and Tambo de
Mora mounds. At Tambo de Mora, excavators recovered clear evidence of silversmithing contexts (Alcalde
et al. 2002), and Morriss excavations suggests that
textile producers inhabited parts of La Centinela during Inca times (Morris 1988:110).
Curiously, only small volumes of spondylus shell
supposedly the major driver of coastal tradehave
been recovered in Chincha excavations. The INDEA
excavations of the 1980s recovered small amounts
(Morris 1988:109), but nothing on the scale suggested
by the Aviso. Sandweiss suggests that an emphasis
on spondylus occurred quite late in Chincha times
F EAT U RE
The Chincha Kingdom
and perhaps did not accelerate until the period of

Inca incorporation (1992:23). In Uhles early collections, spondylus appears only sporadically and only in
Inca-period contexts. Sandweiss suggests that Chincha
trade contacts with Ecuador did not predate the Inca;
instead, he offers the tantalizing suggestion that the
trade monopoly enjoyed by the Chinchas was a privilege under Inca rule, made possible by the dismemberment of more powerful maritime states (such as the
Chimu) (Sandweiss 1992:148).
Moving Forward
The Chinchas are one of the Andes best historically
documented cases of a complex coastal polity and
provide a unique perspective into Inca imperialism.
Research on the Chinchas has advanced models of LIP
socioeconomic organization, pre-Columbian maritime
merchant operations, and Inca period diplomatic
strategies. Yet, given the enormous amount of Chincha archaeological material packed into the valley,
there is much work to be done. The upper valley, the
corridor where the alluvial plain narrows to less than
a kilometer wide, contains a continuous distribution
of Chincha materials. This area has not been explored
systematically, although Lumbreras (2001) mentions
a few large sites in the area (see also Canziani 2009;
Wallace 1971). No excavations of LIP sites have been
conducted outside of the lower valley core. Yet current
knowledge of widespread Chincha mercantile net-
works and geopolitical relations with highland groups

suggests that this area may have been of great importance to the politys territorial and economic integrity.
Considering the upper valleys role as a likely avenue
for coast-highland traffic in both pre-Inca and Inca
times, concerted survey and excavation should further
our understanding of Chincha exchange practices and
the economic effects of Inca dominance.
The Programa Arqueolgico Chincha (PACH)
explores this transitional zone as part of a larger
valley-wide research endeavor. We recently completed
the first year of an ongoing full coverage survey of the
upper valley neck, and we expect to cover significant
ground in coming years. So far we demonstrate a
continuous landscape of Chincha settlements, cemeteries, public spaces, and fortifications. We observe a
decrease in settlement size and an increase in defensive measures as we progress into the highlands. We
note a tighter clustering of settlements to cemeteries in
contested areas. Our team is in the process of defining
an upper valley mortuary tradition related to the Chinchas, the first fieldwork on Chincha burial contexts
since Uhles 1901 excavations (Figure 6). Ceramic
distributions across the area suggest both pre- and
post-Inca contexts, and stylistic and technological
influences from other coastal groups are present in
many pieces. Preservation is phenomenal, illicit activity in the area is limited, and sites are data rich. The
door is wide open for an upper valley perspective into
Figure 6. The 2013 survey team documents a cluster of aboveground Chincha tombs.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 45
the development of Chincha economic complexity. In

coming seasons, we hope to add our own contribution
to the archaeology of one of the Andes most fascinating cases.
de Lizrraga, Fray Reginaldo. 1968 [1901]. Descripcin breve

de todo la tierra del Per, Tucumn, Ro de la Plata y
Chile. Madrid, Spain: Real Academia Espaola.
Acknowledgments
Hill, Kevin, Benjamin Nigra, Henry Tantalen, and Terrah

Jones. 2012. Cerro del Gentil: A Paracas Mound Site in
the Chincha Valley, Peru. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, Backdirt Annual Review 2012:93103.
We would like to thank the editors of Backdirt for

inviting us to contribute this review. We thank our
2013 project staff and studentsMichiel Zegarra,
Camille Weinberg, Michael Rosales, J. C. Fasano,
Marillyn Holmes, and the students of the 20122013
Chincha Fieldschool. We thank the Institute for Field
Research and Ran Boytner for orchestrating the fieldschool component of our research. Nigra and Bongers
thank the National Science Foundation Graduate
Research Fellowship Program [DGE-1144087].
Bongers was generously supported by a Ford Foundation Fellowship, National Geographic Young Explorers Grant, and Sigma Xi Grant-in-Aid. Nigra, Jones,
and Bongers thank Charlie Steinmetz for his generous
support of student travel.
RE F EREN C ES
Alcalde, Javier, Carlos R. del guila, Fernando F. Fujita, and
Enrique Retamozo. 2002. Plateros precoloniales tardos en Tambo de Mora, Valle de Chincha (Siglos XIV
XVI). Anales del Museo de Amrica 10:4357.
Arkush, Elizabeth N. 2005. Hillforts of the Ancient Andes Colla
Warfare, Society, and Landscape. Gainesville, Fla.: University Press of Florida.
Burger, Richard L. 1988. Unity and Heterogeneity in the Chavin
Horizon. In Peruvian Prehistory: An Overview of PreInca and Inca Society, edited by Richard W. Keatinge,
pp. 99143. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University
Press.
Canziani, Jos. 1992. Arquitectura y urbanismo del perodo
Paracas en el Valle de Chincha. Gaceta Arqueolgica
Andina 6:87117.
. 2009. Ciudad y Territorio en los Andes. Lima, Peru:
Fondo Editorial del Pontifica Universidad Catlica del
Per.
Castro, Fray Cristobal, and Diego Ortega Morejn. 1934
[1558]. Relacin del sitio del Cusco y principio de las
guerras civiles del Per hasta la muerte de Diego de
Almagro, 1535-1539: Relacin sobre el gobierno de
los incas, edited by Horacio H. Urteaga. Lima, Peru:
Librera e Imprenta Gil.
Cieza de Len, Pedro de. 1959 [1553]. Crnicas del Per. In
Incas of Pedro Cieza de Len, edited by Victor W. von
Hagen, translated by Harriet de Onis, pp. 17352. Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press.
DAltroy, Terence N. 1992. Provincial Power in the Inca
Empire. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution
Press.
Engel, Frdric A. 2010. Arqueologa Indita de la Costa

Peruana. Lima, Peru: Asamblea Nacional de Rectores.
Hyslop, John. 1985. Incawasi: The New Cuzco. Oxford, U.K.:

British Archaeological Reports International Series 234.
Knudson, Kelly J., and Jane E. Buikstra. 2007. Residential
Mobility and Resource Use in the Chiribaya Polity of
Southern Peru: Strontium Isotope Analysis of Archaeological Tooth Enamel and Bone. International Journal of
Osteoarchaeology 17:563580.
Kroeber, Alfred L., and William Duncan. Strong. 1924. The
Uhle Collections from Ica. In American Archaeology
and Ethnology Vol. 21, edited by Alfred L. Kroeber and
Robert H. Lowie. Berkeley, Calif: University of California
Press.
Lozada, Maria Cecilia, and Jane E. Buikstra. 2002. El Seoro
de Chiribaya en la costa sur del Per. Lima, Peru: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos.
. 2005. Pescadores and Labradores among the Seoro of
Chiribaya in Southern Peru. In Us and Them: Archaeology and Ethnicity in the Andes, edited by Richard M.
Reycraft, pp. 206225. Los Angeles: UCLA Cotsen
Institute of Archaeology Press.
Lozada, Maria Cecilia, Jane E. Buikstra, Gordon Rakita, and
Jane C. Wheeler. 2009. Camelid Herders: The Forgotten
Specialists in the Coastal Seoro of Chiribaya, Southern
Peru. In Andean Civilization: A Tribute to Michael E.
Moseley, edited by Joyce Marcus and Patrick Ryan Williams, pp. 351364. Los Angeles: UCLA Cotsen Institute
of Archaeology Press.
Lumbreras, Luis G. 2001. Uhle y los asentamientos de Chincha
en el Siglo XVI. Revista del Museo Nacional 49:1387.
Marcos, Jorge G. 2005. Los Pueblos Navegantes del Ecuador
Prehispnico. Quito, Ecuador: Abya-Yala.
Marcus, Joyce. 1987. Prehistoric Fishermen in the Kingdom of
Huarco: An Ancient Town on the Coast of Peru Exported
Dried Fish as Part of a Regional Economic Network
That Predated the Inca Conquest. American Scientist
75(4):393401.
. 2008. Excavations at Cerro Azul, Peru: The Architecture and Pottery. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of
Archaeology Press.
Menzel, Dorothy. 1959. The Inca Occupation of the South
Coast of Peru. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology
15(2):125142.
. 1966. The Pottery of Chincha. awpa Pacha 4:77144.
. 1971. Estudios Arqueolgicos en los valles de Ica,
Pisco, Chincha y Caete. Arqueolgia y Sociedad
6:10100.
. 1977. Pottery Style and Society in Ancient Peru. Los
Angeles: University of California Press.
Menzel, Dorothy, and John H. Rowe. 1966. The Role of Chincha in Late Pre-Spanish Peru. awpa Pacha 4:6376.
46 | BACKDIRT 2014
F EAT U RE
The Chincha Kingdom
Middendorf, Ernst W. 1973 [1894]. Per: Observaciones y estudios del pais y sus habitantes durante una permanencia
de 25 aos. Lima, Peru: Publicaciones de la Universidad
Nacional Mayor de San Marcos.
Moore, Jerry D., and Carol J. Mackey. 2008. The Chim Empire.
In Handbook of South American Archaeology, edited by
Helaine Silverman and William H. Isbell, pp. 783807.
New York: Springer.
Morris, Craig. 1988. Ms all de las fronteras de Chincha. In La
Frontera del Estado Inca, edited by Tom D. Dillehay and
Patricia J. Netherly, pp. 106113. Oxford, U.K.: British
Archaeological Reports.
. 1998. Inca Strategies of Incorporation and Governance.
In Archaic States, edited by Gary M. Feinman and Joyce
Marcus, pp. 293309. Santa Fe, N.Mex.: School of
American Research Press.
. 2004. Enclosures of Power: The Multiple Spaces of
Inca Administrative Palaces. In Palaces of the Ancient
New World, edited by Susan Toby Evans and Joanne
Pillsbury, pp. 299323. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton
Oaks.
Morris, Craig, and R. Alan Covey. 2006. The Management of
Scale or the Creation of Scale: Administrative Processes
in Two Inca Provinces. In Intermediate Elites in PreColumbian States and Empires, edited by Christina M.
Elson and R. Alan Covey, pp. 136153. Tucson, Ariz.:
University of Arizona Press.
Morris, Craig, and Julin I. Santillana. 2007. The Inca Transformation of the Chincha Capital. In Variations in the
Expression of Inca Power, edited by Richard L. Burger,
Craig Morris, and Ramiro Matos Mendieta, pp. 135163.
Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks.
Murra, John V. 1972. El Control vertical de un mximo de pisos
ecolgicos en la economa de las sociedades andinas. In
Visita de la Provincia de Len de Huanuco Vol. 2, edited
by Inigo Ortiz de Zunida, pp. 429476. Huanuco, Peru:
Universidad Hermilo Valdizan.
Netherly, Patricia J. 1988. El Reino de Chimor y el Tawantinsuyu. In La Frontera del Estado Inca, edited by Tom D.
Dillehay and Patricia J. Netherly, pp. 85106. Oxford,
U.K.: British Archaeological Reports.
Nigra, Benjamin T. 2009. Cucharas of the Chiribaya: Socioeconomic Subsistence Patterns, Social Boundaries, and the
Use of Wooden Spoons as Diagnostic Markers. Unpublished Bachelors Thesis. Department of Anthropology,
University of Chicago.
Patterson, Thomas C. 1987. Merchant Capital and the
Formation of the Inca State. Dialectical Anthropology
12(2):217227.
Pease, Franklin. 2008. Chronicles of the Andes in the Sixteenth
and Seventeenth Centuries. In Guide to Documentary
Sources for Andean Studies, 15301900, edited by
Joanne Pillsbury, pp. 1122. Norman, Okla.: University
of Oklahoma Press.
Pillsbury, Joanne. 1996. The Thorny Oyster and the Origins of
Empire: Implications of Recently Uncovered Spondylus
Imagery from Chan-Chan, Peru. Latin American Antiquity 8(1):313340.
Protzen, Jean-Pierre., and Craig Morris. 2004. Los Colores de

Tambo Colorado: Una Reevaluacin. Boletn de Arqueologa PUCP 8: 267276.
Protzen, Jean-Pierre, and David Harris (eds.). 2005. Explorations in the Pisco Valley: Max Uhles Reports to Phoebe
Apperson Hearst. August 1901 to January 1902.
Berkeley: Contributions of the University of California
Archaeological Research Facility.
Reina, Uta K. 2008. German Archaeologists and Anthropologists in the Andes: The Construction of the Andean
Image in Germany and the German Identity in the
Andes, 19501920. In Color, Hair, and Bone: Race in
the Twenty-First Century, edited by Linden Lewis, Glyne
A. Griffith, and Elizabeth Crespo-Kebler, pp. 102120.
Cranbury, N.J.: Associated University Presses.
Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, Mara. 1970. Mercaderes del
Valle de Chincha en la poca Prehispanica: Un Documento y unos Comentarios. Revista Espaola de Antropologa Americana 5:135177.
. 1977. Ethnia y Sociedad: Costa Peruana Prehispanica.
Lima, Peru: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos.
. 1999. History of the Inca Realm. Cambridge, U.K.:
Cambridge University Press.
Sandweiss, Daniel H. 1992. The Archaeology of Chincha
Fishermen: Specialization and Status in Inca Peru. Pittsburgh, Pa.: The Carnegie Museum of Natural History.
Stanish, Charles. 1992. Ancient Andean Political Economy.
Austin, Tex.: University of Texas Press.
Tantalen, Henry. 2014. Peruvian Archaeology: A Critical History. Walnut Creek. Calif.: Left Coast Press.
Tantalen, Henry, Charles Stanish, Benjamin T. Nigra, Michiel
Zegarra, and Kelita Prez. 2013. Excavations and Survey
in Chincha, Peru. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, Backdirt Annual Review 2012:152153.
Uhle, Max. 1991[1903]. Pachacamac: A Reprint of the 1903
Edition. Philadelphia: University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania.
. 1924 [1901]. Explorations at Chincha, edited by
Alfred L. Kroeber. Los Angeles: University of California
Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology
21(1):5594.
Wallace, Dwight T. 1959. Informe de reconocimiento del
valle de Chincha. Revista del Museo Regional de Ica
10(11):3140.
. 1971. Valles de Pisco y de Chincha. Arqueologicos 13.
Museo Nacional de Antropologa y Arqueologa. Lima,
Peru.
. 1991. The Chincha Roads: Economics and Symbolism.
In Ancient Road Networks and Settlement Hierarchies
in the New World, edited by Charles D. Trombold, pp.
253263. New York: Cambridge University Press.
. 1998. The Inca Compound at La Centinela, Chincha.
Andean Past 5:933.
Pizarro, Pedro. 1921 [1571]. Relation of the Discovery and

Conquest of the Kingdoms of Peru, translated by Philip
A. Means. New York: The Cortes Society.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 47
F EAT U RE
Exploring Ancient
Pastoral Mobility through
Stable Isotope Analysis:
A Case Study from Kenya
Anneke Janzen1
Pa sto rali sts are pe o pl e who primarily depend

on products of domesticated herd animals. Within
this category there is significant variation, ranging
from specialized nomadic pastoralists to those groups
that also depend heavily on agriculture. Owing to
seasonal variation in the distribution of resources,
many pastoral populations rely on various migration
strategies. Seasonal movements across the landscape
are often crucial to maintaining herds and obtaining resources that are not available year-round. Such
mobility has been extensively documented ethnographically, but identifying seasonal, or other types of
mobility, is more difficult archaeologically, especially
given the ephemeral nature of most pastoralist sites.
For decades, zooarchaeologists have studied herd
management through studies of herd composition,
slaughter patterns, and livestock health (Gifford et al.
1980; Greenfield et al. 1988; Payne 1973; Pike-Tay et
al. 2014). More recently, stable-isotope analysis has
emerged as a powerful tool for exploring human and
animal mobility and herd management strategies. This
paper addresses how stable isotopes can be used to
track ancient pastoral movements and livestock management and offers an example of how carbon and
1. Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Cruz.
48 | BACKDIRT 2014
oxygen stable isotope analysis can be used to identify

mobility patterns in the Pastoral Neolithic of Kenya.
Isotopic methods have proved elsewhere to provide
a finer-grained understanding of management tactics
employed by herders and promise to shed light on
early cattle/caprine pastoralism in East Africa, which
initially developed without the presence of agriculture
(Marshall 2000).
Pastoral Mobility
Ethnographic accounts of pastoral mobility indicate
the multitude of factors that may have influenced
mobility decisions in the past. Today, particularly in
East Africa, pastoralists must often move their herds
to access seasonally available pastures and water
sources. These movements may be highly patterned
or variable year-to-year. A number of factors may
influence these movements, including social and
political factors (McCabe 2004; Mearns 1993; Stenning 1957). However, the dietary requirements of
livestock are usually the primary concern affecting
mobility strategies. Because of differing nutritional
requirements, livestock may be divided according to
species and productive status. For example, cattle are
obligate drinkers, requiring roughly 60 liters of water
daily. They are also strict grazers and therefore may
be herded in pastures separate from more hardy species, such as nonmilking caprines (sheep and goats).
Figure 1. Map of study area in Kenyan Central Rift Valley with

selected Savanna Pastoral Neolithic sites in Kenya.
3200 m and above

3200 3000 m
3000 2800 m
2800 2600 m
2600 2400 m
2400 2200 m
2200 2000 m
2000 1800 m
0 20 40 60 80
Kilometers
BACKDIRT 2014 | 49
F EAT U RE
Exploring Ancient Pastoral Mobility
These requirements constrain herders to specific areas

that can meet those criteria (Coppolillo 2000; Dahl
and Hjort 1976; Fratkin and Smith 1994; Nicolaisen
and Nicolaisen 1997).
Beyond seasonal movements, livestock may also
move long distances between settlements or even
between ethnic groups through exchange. In East
Africa, such transfers have been extensively documented ethnographically. Livestock may be obtained
through several types of transactions, including bridewealth payments, barter for food and other resources,
gifts, and raiding (Evans-Pritchard 1940; Gulliver
1955; Kelly 1985; Spencer 1965). McCabe (2004)
and Gulliver (1955) underline the importance of
stock associations and partnerships among unrelated
Turkana herders of northwestern Kenya, as well as
partnerships based on kinship. Particularly in environments where precipitation is unpredictable, pastoral
production is characterized by boom and bust population cycles, and such relationships are important
for diversifying and maintaining herds if animals are
lost to disease, drought, or raiding or for mobilizing
surplus as needed for ceremonies. For the pastoralists,
far-flung networks of mutual obligation can make up
for shortfalls in livestock production and are crucial
in times of environmental crises, such as drought,
extreme flooding, or disease epidemics (Sobania 1991;
Waller and Sobania 1994). Such pervasive exchange
of livestock among pastoralist groups has not been
documented archaeologically.
Early Pastoralism in Kenya

African pastoralism is unique in that, unlike herding
in Southwest Asia, it developed much earlier than
farming. In northern Africa, pastoralism developed
around 8,000 years ago, first appearing in the NabtaKiseiba area of what is now southern Egypt (Gautier
1984). Over the next several millennia, the spread
of domesticated animals from northeastern Africa in
south- and westward directions is evidenced by a multitude of archaeological radiocarbon dates (Barthelme
1985; Di Lernia 2006; Haaland 1992; Marshall and
Hildebrand 2002; Paris 1997; Wendorf and Schild
1998). Pastoralism appeared in the Lake Turkana
basin by 4,5005,000 years ago and spread to the rest
of savanna East Africa by 3,000 years ago, continuing to change in response to shifts in the social and
ecological landscape until the present. Between 1000
BCE and about 800 CE, when farming populations
immigrated into the region, archaeology testifies to
the existence of two culturally distinct pastoral groups
in Kenya: the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic (SPN) and
50 | BACKDIRT 2014
Elmenteitan (Ambrose 1984; Bower et al. 1977). In

the Central Rift Valley, early pastoralist sites are situated across a range of altitudes, some at low elevations on the valley floor and adjacent plains, others
at higher elevations on escarpments flanking the Rift
(Figure 1). The placement of such sites raises questions about seasonal exploitation of these different
environments by herding groups. SPN sites, the focus
of this study, are primarily located in low-elevation,
open-country settings, from the Central Rift Valley to
the Serengeti and the Loita Plains in the southwest, to
the Athi-Kapiti Plains in the southeast. Most SPN sites
clearly result from pastoralist pursuits, with faunal
assemblages composed of cattle and caprines, with
cattle predominating (Gifford-Gonzalez 1984, 1998;
Gifford-Gonzalez and Kimengich 1984).
Cattle and other livestock are seasonally moved
considerable distances and widely exchanged in Kenya
today, and they may have been extensively moved
in antiquity as well. However, before the advent of
agriculture in East Africa and increasing populations,
pastoralist mobility strategies could have differed
markedly from those of modern herders.
Stable Isotope Analysis:

Insights into Diet and Mobility
Stable isotope analyses of archaeological livestock
remains have shed light on mobility practices of pastoralists by revealing the individual health, dietary, and
mobility histories of herd animals. Isotopic analysis of
livestock teeth have provided a more textured view of
seasonal mobility (Balasse and Ambrose 2005; Balasse
et al. 2003; Dufour et al. 2014), animal diet and foddering (Balasse et al. 2012; Balasse et al. 2005), as
well as well as weaning and birth seasonality (Balasse
et al. 2003; Frmondeau et al. 2012; Henton et al.
2010; Towers et al. 2011).
Tooth Formation in Livestock
Dental enamel is an ideal material for isotopic analysis
for several reasons. Teeth resist post-depositional
physical and chemical alteration and are very common in the archaeological and paleontological record.
Because tooth enamel is roughly 99 percent bioapatite
(the inorganic mineral component of bones and teeth),
it is especially resistant to these alterations, and,
unlike bone, tooth enamel is never remodeled during
life and thus preserves a record of the individuals history during its growth.
Enamel growth is incremental, and so over the
course of an animals growth, the isotopic signatures
of their diet are incorporated into the forming dental
tissue. Most livestock, including cattle, sheep, and

goats, have high-crowned molars that take at least
one year to grow. Sampling enamel sequentially, from
the top of the crown to its base, can show seasonal
changes in the carbon, oxygen, and strontium isotopic
composition of enamel (Figures 2, 3). These changes
are in turn due to variations in diet, climatic aridity,
and movement across geological substrates (Balasse et
al. 2002; Frmondeau et al. 2012; Fricke and ONeil
1996; Henton et al. 2010; Koch et al. 1989). The present study utilizes three sets of stable isotopes to track
these changes: oxygen, carbon, and strontium.
Stable Isotopes
Isotopes of an element vary. They always have the
same number of protons and electrons, but differ in
the numbers of neutrons, and thus differ in weight.
Stable isotopes do not undergo any radioactive decay,
and thus their relative abundances in the tissues of
long-dead organisms remain constant and can be
measured to gain information about the animals diet
and the environment in which it was living. Stable
isotopes measured in livestock tooth enamel in this
study include oxygen, carbon, and strontium. Carbon
isotope ratios reflect diet, and strontium isotope ratios
Stable isotope
analyses of
archaeological
livestock remains
have shed light on
mobility practices
of pastoralists.
indicate the geological substrate on which an animal
feeds. In tropical regions, oxygen isotopes record
seasonal changes in aridity and thus can provide
information on how diet and location may be linked
seasonally.
Oxygen Isotope Ratios and Seasonality
Animals form bioapatite, the mineral portion of
bone and teeth, in equilibrium with body water. The
oxygen isotopic composition (18O) of body water is
linked to that of ingested water. Drinking water can
vary seasonally (Dansgaard 1964; Gat 1996; Gonfiantini 2001; Iacumin et al. 1996; Longinelli 1984). The
18O values of water vary due to seasonal changes in
aridity and temperature. In warm and/or dry seasons
Figure 2. Cartoon of bovid mandible showing tooth growth and teeth

with sequential sample lines.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 51
Figure 3. Individual profile showing

seasonal changes in isotope ratios along
the growth axis of the tooth.
the 18O values are relatively higher than in cold and/

or wet seasons, as the lighter oxygen isotope (16O)
evaporates more readily. These seasonal changes manifest as cyclical changes in oxygen isotope ratios along
the growth axis of teeth (Figure 3). This technique has
been effectively employed to explore seasonal climate
in many archaeological studies (Balasse et al. 2003;
Frmondeau et al. 2012; Fricke and ONeil 1996;
Henton et al. 2010). It is often combined with analysis
of other isotopes to link changes in diet and location
during the seasonal round.
Carbon Isotope Ratios and Diet
The carbon stable isotope composition (13C) of
bioapatite reflects whole diet. Variations in the 13C
values are due primarily to the proportions of C3 and
C4 plants in the diet, which have different carbonfixing pathways, and thus different 13C values (Smith
and Epstein 1971; van der Merwe and Medina 1991;
Vogel et al. 1978). The geographic distribution of
plants is related to their photosynthetic pathways: C4
plants are confined to arid regions where the growing season is warm, whereas C3 plants tend to thrive
in colder, wetter areas. There is a strong correlation
of grass species distribution and altitude: the transition from C4 grass dominance at low elevations to C3
grasses at higher elevations reflects changes in mois52 | BACKDIRT 2014
ture and temperature with altitude. Therefore, vertical

mobility may be traced by changes in carbon isotope
ratios (Tieszen et al. 1979).
Strontium Isotope Ratios and Migration
Strontium isotope ratios in animal tissue reflect the
local geology on which an animal was feeding. Strontium in soils and water is taken up by plants, and a
small percentage of it substitutes for calcium in bioapatite. Strontium isotope ratios (87Sr/86Sr) vary with
rock type and age, resulting in particular signatures
for different geological substrates. In a given geological setting, bedrock, soils, ground water, and so forth
all may have different 87Sr/86Sr ratios, and therefore
local strontium signatures are determined by analyzing the remains of local plants or animals with small
home ranges (Bentley et al. 2004). Strontium isotope
analysis has been used to track mobility in wild and
domestic animals, as well as humans (Britton et al.
2011; Koch et al. 1995; Tafuri et al. 2006).
Tracing Ancient Mobility in the

East African Landscape
The diversity of the East African landscape permits us
to trace mobility through stable isotope analysis. The
Kenyan Rift Valley is bordered on either side by steep
escarpments reaching heights over 3,000 meters (over
F EAT U RE
10,000 feet). Along with this east-west altitudinal

zonation comes considerable variation in vegetation
and corollary variation in isotopic signatures. The Rift
Valley floor is blanketed by C4 grasslands, while bush
and woodland habitats dominate with increasing altitude, and C3 grasses thrive in alpine meadows at high
altitudes atop the escarpments (Balasse and Ambrose
2005; Tieszen et al. 1979; Young and Young 1983).
South and west of the Kenyan highlands lie the AthiKapiti, Mara, and Serengeti plains. These vegetation
patterns allow for altitudinal movements to be identified through the analysis of the carbon stable isotope
composition of tooth enamel. The various geological
substrates range from Plio-Pleistocene volcanics and
sediments in the Central Rift to Pre-Cambrian basement and granite geology to the east and west of the
Rift. The strontium isotope ratios of these regions vary
enough to permit application of strontium analysis to
study movement across the landscape. If correlated
with changes in oxygen isotope ratios, changes in diet
and location may be a consequence of herders coordinating livestock migrations according to seasonal
changes in forage and water availability.
The Study and Its Materials

Enamel samples were obtained from archaeological
cattle and caprine teeth from seven SPN archaeological sites housed at the National Museums of Kenya,
Nairobi, Archaeology Section. Teeth were cleaned
with a hand-held Dremel drill with a tungsten-carbide
drill bit, and enamel was sequentially sampled using
a 1-mm-wide diamond drill bit. Enamel samples were
then processed to remove possible contaminants and
analyzed for carbon and oxygen stable isotope ratios
in the at the Museum National dHistoire Naturelle in
Paris, France.
Results and Discussion

The results from two specimens from one site,
Crescent Island Main, which are representative of the
larger patterns of SPN mobility and herd management
strategies are discussed below. Crescent Island Main
is an SPN site located on Crescent Island, on Lake
Naivasha at 1,890 meters above sea level (Figure 1).
Radiocarbon dates place the occupation of the site
between 600 and 400 BCE. Like most other SPN sites,
the faunal assemblage is dominated by cattle.
Oxygen Isotope Ratios of Livestock Tooth Enamel
In the low latitudes, seasonal changes in aridity, rather
than temperature, drive changes in 18O values of
water (Rozanski et al. 1996). The 18O values of the
cattle specimen presented here show very minor evidence for seasonal variation (Figure 4a). The caprine
(Figure 4b), however, does show more significant
intraannual changes in 18O values. The relatively low
average 18O value and seasonal variation in the cattle
specimen compared to the sheep may be explained
by longer tooth mineralization rates in cattle (Balasse
et al. 2013), which could dampen the strength of the
seasonal changes in oxygen isotope ratios. Drinking
Dental enamel is an
ideal material for
isotopic analysis for
several reasons.
behavior and physiology can also explain the lower
amplitude of variation in 18O values. Cattle obtain
most of their body water by drinking, while caprines,
who are not obligate drinkers, obtain much more of
their water from vegetation. Cattle at Crescent Island
Main were likely drinking from Lake Naivasha, which
is a large water source buffered from strong seasonal
changes in oxygen isotope composition. In contrast,
the sheep had higher and much more variable 18O
values. This is a consequence of sheep ingesting
primarily leaf water, which is highly evaporated and
consequently has very high 18O values and is more
sensitive to seasonal changes in aridity (Helliker and
Ehleringer 2000).
Carbon Isotope Ratios

of Livestock Tooth Enamel
To identify whether livestock were moving up in
elevation seasonally, the diets of archaeological specimens are inferred by combining known 13C values of
plants with what is known about how carbon isotopes
are fractionated as they are incorporated from diet
into dental tissues. Today, C4 plants have an average
13C value of -12.5 permil (Cerling et al. 2003; Vogel
et al. 1978), which would have been approximately
1.5 permil higher in preindustrial times before the
widespread burning of fossil fuels (Cerling et al.
1997). The 13C values of livestock tooth enamel is
in general 14.1 permil higher than that of their diets
(Cerling and Harris 1999). The cattle specimen had
BACKDIRT 2014 | 53
a.
b.
a.
b.
Figure 4. Individual carbon and oxygen profiles for a) cattle:

CI-M Bos 2 M3; and b) sheep: CI-M Ovis 4 M3.
consistently high 13C values, around 3 permil. This

indicates that the cattle specimen was consuming a
near-100-percent C4 diet over the entire duration
of tooth growth. There is no indication of seasonal
changes in diet. In fact, the 13C values in the cattle
specimen drop less than 1 permil over the course of
tooth growth. In contrast, the sheep specimen, while
also exhibiting very high 13C values, showed slightly
more variation in 13C values, but this remains within
the C4 range. The sheep shows evidence for some
slight seasonal variation in diet, as 13C values covary
with 18O values, indicating that in drier months
(higher 18O values), the animal was consuming vegetation with higher 13C values. This does not point to
seasonal movement to higher elevations but, rather,
54 | BACKDIRT 2014
that the sheep was feeding at low elevations yearround and that the 13C values of vegetation, or the
types of vegetation available, vary seasonally.
The carbon isotope results from livestock at Crescent Island Main, as well as other sites not discussed
here, show that both cattle and caprines from SPN
sites were not herded to higher altitudes seasonally.
Nor is there evidence of long-term movement to
higher elevations. Similar results have been reported
by Balasse and Ambrose (2005) for Elmenteitan sites.
This emphasis on herding at low elevations is interesting, as it suggests that the Rift Valley and neighboring
plains may have been productive enough to support
pastoralism year-round. If there was no need to herd
animals seasonally to higher elevations, livestock
F EAT U RE
would be spared long journeys into mountainous

areas, as cattle who move long distances have lower
milk yields (Coppolillo 2000).
Next Steps: Strontium Isotopes
While this study shows no evidence for any altitudinal mobility among SPN herders, it is possible that
livestock were herded long distances, but at low
elevations. Therefore, strontium analysis may show
whether animals were herded seasonally or exchanged
long distances, across geological substrates. This portion of the project is still underway, as local 87Sr/86Sr
ratios must be determined by analyzing local microfauna collected from protected areas and archaeological sites.
Conclusions
Sequential sampling of cattle and caprine teeth for
stable isotope analysis illustrates the mobility strategies of early pastoralists in Kenya. Preliminary results
indicate lack of altitudinal mobility among the early
pastoralists, indicating that the more dynamic mobility patterns seen among East African pastoralists in
the recent past were not followed 3,000 years ago. It
is possible that before the encroachment of iron-using
and -producing peoples into the region, population
densities were low enough so that pastoralists did
not need to move their animals altitudinally to access
seasonally available pastures. However, this does
not preclude movement of livestock long distances
at low elevations. Long-distance mobility, including
exchange, which may have developed in antiquity,
would have provided herders with means to recover
their herds in cases of disease, raiding, and so forth
and would have been especially crucial for the earliest pastoralists encountering a new landscape and
ecology. These preliminary interpretations await
verification with results from strontium stable isotope
analysis.
Acknowledgements
Funding for this research was provided by a National
Science Foundation Doctoral Dissertation Improvement Grant (BCS-1240332), Wenner-Gren Dissertation Fieldwork Grant (#8630), UCSC CenTREAD
grant, a Lewis and Clark Fieldwork Grant, and a
UCSC Anthropology Department Fieldwork Grant.
Research was conducted with permission of the
National Council of Science and Technology, Republic of Kenya, under the sponsorship of the National
Museums of Kenya, Archaeology Section. Permissions
to collect modern fauna were obtained through the
National Environmental Management Authority of

Kenya and Kenya Wildlife Service. Samples were analyzed at the Museum National dHistoire Naturelle in
Paris, France. I would also like to thank Purity Kiura,
Emma Mbua, Rahab Kinyanjui, and Cecilia Ngugi at
the National Museums of Kenya. Jol Ughetto-Monfrin
and Richard Baldwin provided laboratory assistance,
and Diane Gifford-Gonzalez, Marie Balasse, and Stanley Ambrose offered many helpful insights.
RE F EREN C ES
Ambrose, Stanley H. 1984.The Introduction of Pastoral Adaptations to the Highlands of East Africa. In From Hunters to
Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa, edited by J. Desmond Clark and Steven A.
Brandt, pp. 212239. Berkeley: University of California
Press.
Balasse, Marie, and Stanley H. Ambrose. 2005. Mobilit altitudinale des pasteurs nolithiques dans la valle du Rift
(Kenya): Premiers indices de lanalyse du 13C de lmail
dentaire du cheptel domestique. Anthropozoologica
40(1):147166.
Balasse, Marie, Stanley H. Ambrose, Andrew B. Smith, and T.
Douglas Price. 2002. The Seasonal Mobility Model for
Prehistoric Herders in the South-Western Cape of South
Africa Assessed by Isotopic Analysis of Sheep Tooth
Enamel. Journal of Archaeological Science 29:917932.
Balasse, Marie, Adrian Blescu, Anneke Janzen, Jel UghettoMonfrin, Pavel Mirea, and Radian Andreescu. 2013.
Early Herding at Mgura-Boldul lui Mo Ivnu (Early
Sixth Millennium BC, Romania): Environments and Seasonality from Stable Isotope Analysis. European Journal
of Archaeology 16(2):221246.
Balasse, Marie, Loc Boury, Jol Ughetto-Monfrin, and Anne
Tresset. 2012. Stable Isotope Insights (18O, 13C) into
Cattle and Sheep Husbandry at Bercy (Paris, France, 4th
Millennium BC): Birth Seasonality and Winter Leaf Foddering. Environmental Archaeology 17(1):2944.
Balasse, Marie, Andrew B. Smith, Stanley H. Ambrose, and Steven R. Leigh. 2003. Determining Sheep Birth Seasonality
by Analysis of Tooth Enamel Oxygen Isotope Ratios:
The Late Stone Age Site of Kasteelberg (South Africa).
Journal of Archaeological Science 30(2):205215.
Balasse, Marie, Anne Tresset, Keith Dobney, and Stanley H.
Ambrose. 2005. The Use of Isotope Ratios to Test
for Seaweed Eating in Sheep. Journal of Zoology
266(03):283291.
Barthelme, John W. 1985. FisherHunters and Neolithic
Pastoralists in East Turkana, Kenya. Oxford: British
Archaeological Reports.
Bentley, R. Alexander, T. Douglas Price, and Elisabeth Stephan.
2004. Determining the Local 87Sr/86Sr Range
for Archaeological Skeletons: A Case Study from
Neolithic Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science
31(4):365375.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 55
Bower, John, Charles M. Nelson, Albert F. Waibel, and Simiyu

Wandibba. 1977. The University of Massachusetts Later
Stone Age/Pastoral Neolithic Comparative Study in
Central Kenya: An Overview. Azania 12:119146.
Britton, Kate, Vaughan Grimes, Laura Niven, Teresa E. Steele,
Shannon McPherron, Marie Soressi, Tegan E. Kelly,
Jacques Jaubert, Jean-Jacques Hublin, and Michael
P. Richards. 2011. Strontium Isotope Evidence for
Migration in Late Pleistocene Rangifer: Implications for
Neanderthal Hunting Strategies at the Middle Palaeolithic Site of Jonzac, France. Journal of Human Evolution
61(2):176185.
Cerling, Thure E., and John M. Harris. 1999. Carbon Isotope
Fractionation between Diet and Bioapatite in Ungulate
Mammals and Implications for Ecological and Paleoecological Studies. Oecologia 120(3):347363.
Cerling, Thure E., John M. Harris, Bruce J. MacFadden, Meave
G. Leakey, Jay Quade, Vera Eisenmann, and James R.
Ehleringer. 1997. Global Vegetation Change through the
Miocene/Pliocene Boundary. Nature 389:153158.
Cerling, Thure E., John M. Harris, and Benjamin H. Passey.
2003. Diets of East African Bovidae Based on Stable
Isotope Analysis. Journal of Mammology 84(2):456470.
Coppolillo, Peter B. 2000. The Landscape Ecology of Pastoral Herding: Spatial Analysis of Land Use and
Livestock Production in East Africa. Human Ecology
28(4):527560.
Dahl, Gudrun, and Anders Hjort. 1976. Having Herds: Pastoral
Herd Growth and Household Economy. Stockholm:
University of Stockholm, Department of Anthropology.
Dansgaard, Willi. 1964. Stable Isotopes in Precipitation. Tellus
16(4):436468.
Di Lernia, Savino. 2006. Building Monuments, Creating Identity: Cattle Cult as a Social Response to Rapid Environmental Changes in the Holocene Sahara. Quaternary
International 151:5062.
Dufour, Elise, Nicolas Goepfert, Belkys Gutirrez Lon, Claude
Chauchat, Rgulo Franco Jordn. and Segundo V.
Snchez. 2014. Pastoralism in Northern Peru during
Pre-Hispanic Times: Insights from the Mochica Period
(100800 AD) Based on Stable Isotopic Analysis of
Domestic Camelids. PLoS ONE 9(1):e87559.
Evans-Pritchard, Edward E. 1940. The Nuer: A Description of
the Modes of Livelihood and Political Institutions of a
Nilotic People. London: Oxford University Press.
Fratkin, Elliot, and Kathleen Smith. 1994. Labor, Livestock,
and Land: The Organization of Pastoral Production. In
African Pastoralist Systems: An Integrated Approach,
edited by Elliot Fratkin, Kathleen Galvin, and Eric A.
Roth, pp. 91112. Boulder: Lynne Reinner Publishers.
Frmondeau, Delphine, Thomas Cucchi, Franois Casabianca,
Jol Ughetto-Monfrin, Marie-Pierre Horard-Herbin,
and M. Balasse. 2012. Seasonality of Birth and Diet
of Pigs from Stable Isotope Analyses of Tooth Enamel
(18O, 13C): A Modern Reference Data Set from
Corsica, France. Journal of Archaeological Science
39(7):20232035.
Fricke, Henry C., and James R. ONeil. 1996. Inter- and IntraTooth Variation in the Oxygen Isotope Composition of
Mammalian Tooth Enamel Phosphate: Implications for
Palaeoclimatological and Palaeobiological Research.
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
126:9199.
Gat, Joel R. 1996. Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotopes in the
Hydrologic Cycle. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary
Sciences 24:225262.
Gautier, Achilles. 1984. Archaeozoology of the Bir Kiseiba
Region, Eastern Sahara. In Cattle-Keepers of the Eastern
Sahara: The Neolithic of Bir Kiseiba, edited by Angela E.
Close, pp. 4972. Dallas: Southern Methodist University.
Gifford, Diane P., Glynn L. Isaac, and Charles M. Nelson. 1980.
Prolonged Drift. Azania 15:57108.
Gifford-Gonzalez, Diane. 1984. Implications of a Faunal
Assemblage from a Pastoral Neolithic Site in Kenya:
Findings and a Perspective on Research. In From Hunters to Farmers: The Causes and Consequences of Food
Production in Africa, edited by J. Desmond Clark and
Steven A. Brandt, pp. 240251. Berkeley: University of
California Press.
. 1998. Early Pastoralists in East Africa: Ecological and
Social Dimensions. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 17:166200.
Gifford-Gonzalez, Diane., and John Kimengich. 1984. Faunal
Evidence for Early Stock-Keeping in the Central Rift of
Kenya: Preliminary Findings. In Origin and Early Development of Food-Producing Cultures in Northeastern
Africa, edited by Lech Krzyzaniak and Mical Kobusiewicz, pp. 457471. Poznan: Polish Acadamy of Science.
Gonfiantini, Roberto. 2001. The Altitude Effect on the Isotopic
Composition of Tropical Rains. Chemical Geology
181:147167.
Greenfield, Haskel J. 1988. The Origins of Milk and Wool Production in the Old World: A Zooarchaeological Perspective from the Central Balkans [and Comments]. Current
Anthropology 29(4):573593.
Gulliver, Phillip H. 1955. The Family Herds: A Study of Two
Pastoral Tribes in East Africa. London: Routledge.
Haaland, Randi. 1992. Fish, Pots, and Grain: Early and MidHolocene Adaptations in the Central Sudan. African
Archaeological Review 10:4364.
Helliker, Brent R., and James R. Ehleringer. 2000. Establishing
a Grassland Signature in Veins: 18O in the Leaf Water of
C3 and C4 Grasses. Proceedings National Academy of
Science 97(14):78947898.
Henton, Elizabeth, Wolfram Meier-Augenstein, and Helen
F. Kemp. 2010.The Use of Oxygen Isotopes in Sheep
Molars to Investigate Past Herding Practices at the
Neolithic Settlement of atalhyk, Central Anatolia.
Archaeometry 52(3):429449.
Iacumin, Paola, Herv Bocherens, Andr Mariotti, and Antonio
Longinelli. 1996. Oxygen Isotope Analyses of Co-Existing Carbonate and Phosphate in Biogenic Apatite: A Way
to Monitor Diagenetic Alteration of Bone Phosphate?
Earth and Planetary Science Letters 142(12):16.
Kelly, Raymond C. 1985. The Nuer Conquest: The Structure
and Development of an Expansionist System. Ann
Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
56 | BACKDIRT 2014
F EAT U RE
Koch, Paul L., Daniel C. Fisher, and David Dettman.1989.

Oxygen Isotope Variation in the Tusks of Extinct Proboscideans: A Measure of Season of Death and Seasonality.
Geology 17:515519.
Stenning, Derrick J. 1957. Transhumance, Migratory Drift,

Migration: Patterns of Pastoral Fulani Nomadism. The
Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great
Britain and Ireland 87(1):5773.
Koch, Paul L., Jennifer Heisinger, Cynthia Moss, Richard W.

Carlson, Marilyn L. Fogel, and Anna K. Behrensmeyer.
1995. Isotopic Tracking of Change in Diet and Habitat
Use in African Elephants. Science 267:13401343.
Tafuri, Mary Anne, R. Alexander Bentley, Giorgio Manzi, and

Savino Di Lernia. 2006. Mobility and Kinship in the
Prehistoric Sahara: Strontium Isotope Analysis of Holocene Human Skeletons from the Acacus Mts. (Southwestern Libya). Journal of Anthropological Archaeology
25(3):390402.
Longinelli, Antonio. 1984. Oxygen Isotopes in Mammal Bone

Phosphate: A New Tool for Paleohydrological and Paleoclimatological Research? Geochimica et Cosmochimica
Acta 48(2):385390.
Marshall, Fiona B. 2000. The Origins and Spread of Domestic
Animals in East Africa. In The Origins and Development
of African Livestock: Archaeology, Genetics, Linguistics,
and Ethnography, edited by Roger M. Blench and Kevin
C. MacDonald, pp. 191221. London: UCL Press.
Marshall, Fiona B., and Elisabeth Hildebrand. 2002. Cattle
before Crops: The Beginnings of Food Production in
Africa. Journal of World Prehistory 16(2):99143.
McCabe, J. Terrence. 2004. Cattle Bring Us to Our Enemies:
Turkana Ecology, History, and Raiding in a Disequilibrium System. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Mearns, Robin. 1993. Territoriality and Land Tenure among
Mongolian Pastoralists: Variation, Continuity, and
Change. Nomadic Peoples 33:73103.
Nicolaisen, Johannes, and Ida Nicolaisen. 1997. The Pastoral Tuareg: Ecology, Culture, and Society. New York:
Thames and Hudson.
Tieszen, Larry L., Michael M. Senyimba, Simeon K. Imbamba,

and John H. Troughton. 1979. The Distribution of C3
and C4 Grasses and Carbon Isotope Discrimination
along an Altitudinal and Moisture Gradient in Kenya.
Oecologia 37(3):337350.
Towers, Jacqueline, Mandy Jay, Ingrid Mainland, Olaf Nehlich,
and Janet Montgomery. 2011. A Calf for All Seasons?
The Potential of Stable Isotope Analysis to Investigate
Prehistoric Husbandry Practices. Journal of Archaeological Science 38(8):18581868.
van der Merwe, Niolaas J., and Ernesto Medina. 1991. The
Canopy Effect, Carbon Isotope Ratios, and Foodwebs in Amazonia. Journal of Archaeological Science
18:249259.
Vogel, John C., Annemarie Fuls, and Roger P. Ellis. 1978. The
Geographical Distribution of Kranz Grasses in South
Africa. South African Journal of Science 74:209215.
Paris, Franois. 1997. Les inhumations de Bos au Sahara mridional au Nolithique. Archaeozoologia IX:113122.
Waller, Richard, and Neal W. Sobania. 1994. Pastoralism in

Historical Perspective. In African Pastoralist Systems: An
Integrated Approach, edited by Elliot Fratkin, Kathleen
A. Galvin, and Eric A. Roth, pp. 4568. Boulder, Colo.:
Lynne Reinner Publishers.
Payne, Sebastian. 1973. Kill-off Patterns in Sheep and Goats:

The Mandibles from Asvan Kale. Anatolian Studies
23:281303.
Wendorf, Fred, and Romuald Schild. 1998. Nabta Playa and

Its Role in Northeastern African Prehistory. Journal of
Anthropological Archaeology 17:97123.
Pike-Tay, Anne, Xiaolin Ma, Y. Hou, F. Liang, Minghao Lin,

and Veronica Peterson. 2014. Combining Odontochronology, Tooth Wear Assessment, and Linear Enamel
Hypoplasia (LEH) Recording to Assess Pig Domestication in Neolithic Henan, China. International Journal of
Osteoarchaeology:n/an/a.
Young, Helen J., and Truman P. Young. 1983. Local Distribution of C3 and C4 Grasses in Sites of Overlap on Mount
Kenya. Oecologia 58:373377.
Rozanski, Kazimierz, Luis Araguas-Araguas, and Roberto

Gonfiantini. 1996. Isotope Patterns of Precipitation in
the East African Region. In The Limnology, Climatolog,y
and Paleoclimatology of the East African Lakes, edited
by Thomas C. Johnson and Eric O. Odada, pp. 7993.
Amsterdam: Gordon & Breach.
Smith, Bruce N., and Samuel Epstein.1971. Two Categories
of 13C/12C Ratios for Higher Plants. Plant Physiology
47(3):380384.
Sobania, Neal W. 1991. Feasts, Famines, and Friends: Nineteenth Century Exchange and Ethnicity in the Eastern
Lake Turkana Region. In Herds, Warriors, and Traders:
Pastoralism in Africa, edited by John G. Galaty and
Pierre Bonte, pp. 118142. Boulder, Colo: Westview
Press.
Spencer, Paul. 1965. The Samburu: A Study of Gerontocracy.
London: Routledge.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 57
F EAT U RE
Prehistoric Urban
Archaeology in
the Americas: A View
from Cusco, Peru
Alexei Vranich1, Stephen Berquist 2, and Thomas Hardy 3
In J a n uary 201 0, images of a collapsed railway,

of hotels tumbling into a swollen river, and the plight
of trapped tourists waiting to be helicoptered out of
Machu Picchu went viral across major Internet news
pages. Less noticed by the world media were the
ruined colonial houses and the flooded sewers and
streets in nearby Cusco, the former capital of the Inca
Empire and a World Heritage City. The Inca engineers
and architects had a merited reputation for building
firm structures that could withstand earthquakes and
remain perched on the side of mountains, unmoved
despite centuries of tropical downpours. However,
much had changed since the Spanish invaded and
created their own city with the stones torn from
the former palaces andmost significantly for the
present-day disasterfrom the terraces that revetted
the surrounding hills into a beautiful and hydraulically
stable hillside.
The archaeological investigation of Cusco is complex for a variety of reasons; foremost is the fact that
the modern city continues to exist and grow directly
2. University of Toronto.
3. University of Pennsylvania.
58 | BACKDIRT 2014
on the foundations of the Inca capital. Discontinuous

wall foundations are embedded in presently inhabited
buildings, and portions of terraces, as well as substantial ritual structuressuch as the temple of the sun
(the Qoricancha) and the monumental Saqsayhuaman
complex perched over the northwest portion of the
cityattest to a rich historical past.
The goal of this project is to combine 150 years of
architectural and archaeological survey and thereby to
produce a spatial database that will allow us to project
a hypothetical three-dimensional form of the indigenous city at its apogee. Methodologically, the project is
a feasibility study that reevaluates previous work while
incorporating new information. At a broader theoretical level, this research reconceptualizes the form and
the experience of this most important pre-Columbian
city of the South American continent.
The City of Cusco

Cusco is similar to other continuously occupied cities,
such as Rome and Jerusalem, where visitors can walk
along ancient architecture and imagine what the site
might have been like in the past (Figure 1). The unfortunate reality, notwithstanding, is that a near half-millennium of gradual processes and destabilizing events
Figure 1. Calle Loreto,

flanked on either side by
intact Inca walls.
has completely transformed the architecture and

topography of the ancient metropolis (Bauer 2004).
Alterations to the original design of the Inca capital
began soon after the imperial city was sacked and
burned in the late 1530s during the struggle between
the Spanish Conquistadors and the Incas. Royal
palaces and sacred temples were torn down in order
to provide stone for colonial buildings, and streets and
plazas were modified to fit European ideas of urban
space. Consequently, the original Inca city survives as
discontinuous fragments of masonry incorporated into
the walls of inhabited buildings, often floating above
or buried below the modern surface. Among scholars
there is no consensus on a map of the Inca city, and
popular representations in books and tourist guides
are incomplete and misleading. As a result, a city that
should be appreciated as a testament to the genius of
the pre-Columbian people who created an innovative
form of urbanism is experienced as a series of disembodied architectural fragments embedded within a
European Old World city form.
In the historical bibliography, the early descriptions of Cusco are invaluable, such as that of Pedro
Sancho de la Hoz, one of the few who saw and wrote
about the city before it was burned during the Great
Inca Revolt in 1536. Later descriptions were penned

by other chroniclers, such as Polo de Ondegardo,
governor and magistrate of Cusco during the Toledo
Viceroy; Juan de Betanzos, married to an Inca coya;
Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala, the first indigenous
ethnographer to write about his culture; and El Inca
Garcilaso de la Vega, the first mestizo writer to exalt
his indigenous origin. This information, combined
with more than a century of archaeological surveys
and excavations, provides enough to divide the site
into separate areas (Figure 2): The center of the city
(A), which contained one of the temples of the sun
and the primary residences of the Inca nobles and
associated administrators and provincial lords. A large
plaza in the center serves as the locations of important
ceremonies and opens to the west to (B), an expanse
of high and broad agricultural terraces. To the east
of the center of the city and on the other side of the
river was another section of terraces (C), although
these were smaller and closely stacked together. To the
northwest and perched over the city was the Saqsayhuaman (D), an expansive monumental complex that
served multiple purposes from ritual to storage. The
early descriptions further mention that an open space
surrounded the city, and outside the boundary were
BACKDIRT 2014 | 59
F EAT U RE
Prehistoric Urban Archaeology
the houses for other, lesser citizens (attendants, workers, minor nobles) of the empire.
The Cotsen Research Project
In the summer of 2005, the author and researchers
from the Center of Advanced Spatial Technologies
from the University of Arkansas (CAST) conducted a
high-density survey of the Inca ruins of Machu Picchu
using a 3D laser scanner. From this introduction into
the politically complex world of the archaeological
Cusco is similar to
other continuously
occupied cities,
such as Rome and
Jerusalem.
capital of South America, the Cotsen-based research
project expanded to include multiple related collaborative efforts: excavations in select locations in the
immediate environs of the city in collaboration with
AECID, a Spanish development organization; a survey
and study of the surrounding pre-Columbian road
system with Virginia Tech and the National Museum
of the American Indian; and a survey of the modern
and ancient hydraulics of the endangered Saqsayhuaman monument with the University of Virginia. The
joint Cotsen / CAST team returned again in 2009
with the purpose of surveying the historic core of
the city as part of a summer field school. The results
presented here are the continuation of the later efforts
conducted in 2011 and 2012.
Over the past 150 years, Cusco has hosted a
variety of archaeological investigations that range
from individual efforts to complex multidisciplinary
projects lasting several years. As is the case at many
complex archaeological sites with a long history of
research, the results of the various efforts are not
always compatible. Equally damaging is the loss of
much of the primary field data. One crucial and timeconsuming aspect of the project was to find and gain
access to the reports and surveys archived in the various public and private collections across the city. One
survey in particular conducted in the 1970s (Arguto
1980) was the most thorough. This single publication
contains several detailed maps of modern and Inca
60 | BACKDIRT 2014
architecture and samples of the formal and detailed

field forms; however, the bulk of the records are
missing. A large foldout map of the entire center of
the city was first made digital using scanners at a high
resolution. Modern city and Inca walls were traced
(vectorized) and separated into different layers. This
became the common map to add additional information to from recent professional surveys conducted by
Monica Paredes (1999) and Ian Farrington (2013).
From a number of citywide surveys conducted prior
to the 1950 earthquake that devastated the city, we
selected two mapsone from Ephraim Squier (1877;
see Figure 2) and a second made by Max Uhle a few
decades laterand included them in the database. A
third map, made in 1900 by hydraulic engineers, did
not mark the location of Inca remains but did have
regular elevation points across the entire historic core
of the city (Silgado 1900). This hydrological survey
became key for creating the three-dimensional form of
the terraced city.
Figure 3 presents a composite image of all the
important architectural surveys of the historic center
of Cusco. Several of these remains no longer exist but
were included based on the description, other evidence such as photography, and the reputation of the
scholar. As expected, none of the maps corresponded
exactly to the others, and a great deal of manipulation
(rubber-sheeting in computer terminology) was necessary to have even the modern architecture from each
map correspond. The location of the Inca remains
varied from map to map owing to various factors, the
most interesting being the distinction between preColumbian and the early colonial walls constructed
by Inca masons. For example, the wall marked A in
Figure 3 appears in nearly every map of Cusco as Inca;
notwithstanding, more recent analysis indicates that
this wall is early colonial. Graced with a monumental
entrance complete with classical Mediterranean architectural motifs, it tells the story of the effort of the
Inca masons to conceptualize and construct a proper
European doorway for their foreign rulers. A number
of recent architectural studies have refined the differences between Inca and colonial period Inca (Protzen
1993), but there remains ample room for debate. Case
in point: the structure known as Casa Concha (Figure
3B) continues to confuse specialists as to its form and
proper chronological period.
The other difference is the timing of the study. The
Inca walls are part of a living built environment, and
their visibility is directly tied to the fate and function of the city. Substantial transformations of the
city and landscape of the last century are the result
Figure 2. Cusco with sections referred to in the text. The underlying image is a map by Ephraim Squier (1877).
BACKDIRT 2014 | 61
Figure 3. Composite map of Inca remains over

the modern city form of Cusco.
of a dramatic increase in population. A watershed

moment was the aforementioned earthquake of 1950.
An important decision to maintain the historic form
of the city during the reconstruction process saved the
character of the city, though many more Inca walls
fell unnoticed as new buildings were constructed and
the interiors of dilapidated houses were modernized.
At the same time, Cusco has become a sought-after
destination attracting thousands of global travelers.
Social and physical transformations have led to the
exposure of new remains through salvage excavations
(Farrington 2013) and the loss of architecture both
within and in the immediate environs of the city. This
devastating process has been gradual throughout the
twentieth century but has accelerated in the last few
decades. More recently, there has been a change in
general attitude (along with a stricter enforcement
62 | BACKDIRT 2014
of the law) toward the Inca remains. The value of an

Inca wall, in particular in a restaurant, hotel, or any
other tourist facility, is considered high enough such
that care is now taken to highlight its presence in an
aesthetically pleasing manner. As more houses are
converted into hotels and restaurants, more remains
come to light.
Ground Truthing
The survey was divided into the three separate areas:
(A) the center of the city defined by the two rivers;
(B) the region to the west of the core; and (C) the
sector to the east of the center. Section D, Saqsayhuaman, was not included in this study, although a recent
architectural survey and three-dimensional modeling
presents the best-informed view of the most impressive of the Inca buildings reduced to its foundations
F EAT U RE
by centuries of quarrying (Mar and Beltran 2015). The

composite map of all the recorded Inca remains was
printed out into small sections and taken into the city
for ground truthing. Areas of particular concern were
marked for special investigation. Confirming previously recorded architecture, measurements and other
observations were marked directly on the map and
later transferred back to the database in the lab. In
addition, we recorded certain details that would later
be important for creating a 3D model, such as the
elevation of the base and, in rare cases, the original
height of the walls. Another aspect crucial for threedimensional modeling was the difference between
freestanding walls of a building and a terrace that
originally faced fill. Both have been marked on the
maps as Inca, but the implication for city form and
design are significant. Distinguishing between the two
was a tricky task since terraces and revetted platforms
have been gutted of fill to create interior spaces for
colonial buildings. Local guides tout the megalithic
wall that holds the famous twelve-sided stone as the
palace of an early Inca emperor. In fact, this structure
Social and physical

transformations
have led to the
exposure of new
remains through
salvage excavations.
had been a freestanding platform that had been gutted
to form the foundations for the walls of a colonial
building (Figure 4).
Cusco provides an overwhelming amount of data,
and this effort made use of such material as published
sources, historic photographs, and aerial photography.
During the course of walking around the city and
into individual properties, we had the opportunity to
interview long-term residents and present and former
owners of historic properties. Our regular meetings
Figure 4. The entrance to a colonial building built into a former Inca ritual platform.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 63
Figure 5. View of a monumental terrace revetment (A) that runs along the present market of San Pedro; (B) modern building on the
approximate surface of the terrace; (C) modern store formed by vacating the fill behind the terrace; (D) original location of an Inca street.
at the Institute of Archaeology also brought us into

contact with archaeologists and workers who participated in salvage excavations throughout the city. Their
observations and recollections were also noted on the
plan map.
Core Section A:
Central Area Defined by the Two Rivers
Several reputable chroniclers mention the area
between the two rivers, marked area A in Figure 2,
as the area that contained the imperial palaces, as well
as the largest public space and the most sacred ritual
structures. Around the central plazanow known
as the Plaza de Armas, but originally named Haucaypatawere four large buildings referred to as palaces. The dimensions, functions, and owners of these
monumental compounds are noted by early chroniclers, albeit discrepancies exist in their accounts.
Although substantially modified over the last 500
years, this area still contains the most impressive fragments of Inca architecture, many of which are openly
visible and form part of the itinerary of daily city
tours. These impressive walls were quickly confirmed
from the street or by casually entering the hotels and
64 | BACKDIRT 2014
restaurants that had previously been private property.

In places where new construction or renovation had
destroyed historic remains, extensive collections of
photographs from several Peruvian photographers
presented views of the architecture and city life from
the early twentieth century (Chambi 1990).
Section B: West of the Plaza
The farther away from the center and the primary
religious and palatial monuments, the less monumental the remains became and, as a result, either did not
survive or were completely subsumed into the new
constructions. There also appears to be few buildings in the area immediately outside the boundaries
established by the two rivers. Several chroniclers
describe the area to the west as an expanse of terrace
whose broad and wide surfaces were ideal locations
for later colonial constructions. Besides a celebrated
revetment that extends for nearly a kilometer (Figure
5), little other traces of Inca masonry remain. Figure
5 shows a portion of this Inca terrace (A) and the
manner in which the Spaniards either built on top
of the solid face of the revetment (B) or carved out
spaces from the fill (C). The location of the street (D)
F EAT U RE
is mostly likely Inca4, but the original steps have been

graded into a steep slope. Grading the stepped and
terraced Inca surface to accommodate wheeled traffic
is a process that started when the Spanish first entered
the city and continues even in recent times with the
introduction of the automobile.
Nevertheless, the former stepped pattern of
level surfaces and precise vertical boundaries can be
noticed in the undulating form of flat streets and sudden steep inclines. For a more quantifiable method, a
digital elevation model was made of the 1900 hydrological survey. Regularly spaced elevation points taken
along several major streets and intersections were
accurate to within a hundredth of a meter. Transforming these points into a three-dimensional form
map presented preautomobile surfaces closer to the
original Inca topography of the city. We reconstructed
the likely location of the terraces based on the digital
model and from observations from the pedestrian
survey in the present-day neighborhood.
Section C: Northeast of the Plaza
Toward the east of the center of the city is the colorful barrio of San Blas (Figure 2C). This area was also
covered in terraces, though, in contrast to Section
C, the material and masonry style were distinct. The
terraces were smaller and contoured to the natural
form of the hill. These terraces had collapsed and been
rebuilt many times over in the past, but in situ Inca
foundations could be noticed along the base. After
the colonization of the city by the Spanish, this area
became an indigenous neighborhood where houses
were built over or against the terraces. As a result, the
winding streets and irregular house plans, visible from
the air photography, betrayed the underlying Inca terraces. Several of the present stepped streets appear to
be in the original location.
This area also contained more private houses
and properties, which required the time-consuming
process of gaining permission. In this case, and in
other locations throughout the city that could not be
personally visited, a recent extensive effort by the city
of Cusco and AECID to document in detail the entire
historical heritage of the core of Cusco provided the
necessary insight. Within the thick folders for each
sector of the city were standardized forms, checklists,
and historical descriptions of the properties and, most
relevant to this study, plan maps that ranged from the
4. The present corner has been dismantled and reconstructed in recent

times. A historic image of this same corner shows a well-built corner that
appears to be original Inca constructions.
The winding streets

and irregular house
plans, visible from
the air photography,
betrayed the
underlying Inca
terraces.
city block to the individual house. These simple and
clear ground plans had notable sections of architecture marked with broad categories such as colonial,
modern, and Inca, along with a number linked to
a digital photograph.
In most cases, the photographs allowed for quick
confirmation of cultural / chronological category. The
municipal project data were collected by dozens of
individualsmany young and enthusiastic university
students of archaeology and related fieldswho made
every effort to be as objective as possible. However, as
noted above (Figure 3A and B), designating a culture
and period for architecture in Cusco can be problematic even for an expert. One category that required
revisitation was colonial with Inca stones, a label
that essentially includes every construction within the
historic core not made of cement. In most cases, the
walls were colonial or republican period built with
Inca stones; however, careful review of the bases of
the walls occasionally revealed their Inca foundation.
Plan View
The plan view of the historic area of Cusco (Figure 3)
with modern buildings and streets is an accurate and
useful record of the important resources that could be
preserved in this growing World Heritage city. While
the two-dimensional plan can be and has been the
basis for rewarding spatial analysis (Moore 1996),
scholars recognize that plan views are not capable of
conveying the experience and conceptual form of the
city. This problem is of special concern in the preColumbian Americas where research indicates that
basic canons of settlement design were radically different from the Old World (Smith 2007).
There is, of course, an established tradition of presenting three-dimensional drawings of archaeological
sites (Pillsbury 2012). Computer-assisted modeling,
recently accessible even to those without drafting and
architectural training, has both practical and theoretiBACKDIRT 2014 | 65
terrace walls. On a smaller

scale, justification for conjoining architecture fragments into
a single form was based on a
combination of attributes, such
as the type of stone, the quality
and style of masonry, and most
significantly, the alignment
and orientation of the architecture spread across multiple
properties. Inca architecture is
surprisingly regular, so one way
to reconstruct form is comparisons with more complete sites
or, as in the following case,
from more complete parts
Figure 6. Three-dimensional view of the city of Cusco at the apogee of the Inca period.
of the site. For example, the
Inca canchaa rectangular
enclosure with three or more
rectangular buildings placed
symmetrically around a central
patiowas a regular feature
of Inca sites. In the case of
Cusco, the cancha can be seen
in its most elaborate form in
the Qoricancha, to the more
modest housing for minor
officials and lords. Only a few
Figure 7. Original extension of the Cusicancha into the modern street of Maruri.
choice walls and corners are
necessary to extrapolate the
rest of the complex. For example, directly north of
cal purpose for the field of archaeology. The simple act
the Qoricancha is the Cusicancha, a large compound
of working in a 3D virtual environmentextruding
of repeated cancha forms. The excavations revealed
wall heights, connecting architectural fragments
how a widening of Maruri Street at some point in the
inspires new ideas. For the archaeologist, to draw is
past resulted in the destruction of the northern side
to understand, and questions along with long running
of the Cusicancha. The minimal remains of one side
points of contention are quickly resolved when the
of the cancha are sufficient to extend the compound
spatial relationship between architectural fragments
into the modern street (Figure 7). The size of the Inca
and their hypothetical forms are clearly seen in virtual
street corresponds to a surviving section on a betterspace. Figure 6 is a combination of the reconstructed
preserved block of the city, further lending support to
terraced topography and freestanding building during
the accuracy of this reconstruction.
the apogee of the Inca. For the purpose of this publication, the architecture has been simplified to repreConclusion
sent the basic boundaries of the buildings.
The hypothetical remains are based on various
There is a change of elevation of approximately 200
lines of evidence. Certain aspects of the grand Inca
meters from the top of the Saqsayhuaman complex to
design are evident from the aerial photographs, such
the southern tip of the city. Building in such a steep
as the straight streets that define the center that had,
environment was an engineering challenge to the Inca,
until only a few decades ago, held open channelfor whom it was a practical and aesthetic opportunity.
ized rivers. Overlaying the digital elevation model
In contrast to the present situation that has damaged
generated from the 1900 survey helped visualize the
both archaeological remains and inhabited homes,
relationships between the architecture, and changes
the stepped form of the city was an effective means
in elevation further helped confirm the location of
to manage the distribution and evacuation of water.
66 | BACKDIRT 2014
F EAT U RE
From a logistical and conceptual perspective, changes

in elevation were an efficacious means of structuring movement and creating unique views of the city
and its environs. The experience of navigating Cusco
would be less like the streets and avenues of the
modern city and more like stadiums where changes in
elevation serve to separate people, structure movement, and frame vision.
To continue the metaphor, if the architecture of
the city is the seating, the performance takes place
in two general locations. One would be the nearly
continuous political-ritual pageantry in the public
and private setting within the city. An elevated and
honored place for the elite and the emperor himself
was located to view the festivities and for the audience
and participants to have a view of their rulers. The
other would be the views of sacred mountains and the
interaction of astronomical bodies with the natural
and modified horizon (Zuidema 1964). The mostresearched example would be the stone towers (now
missing) placed along the horizon to measure the
movement of the setting sun from solstice to solstice.
Several open spaces across the city provided places to
gather and observe similar important dates.
Archaeologists tend to have scant training on the
appropriate use of ethnohistorical sources and even
less patience when it comes to immersing themselves
in archival research on the excavations of the very
recent past. Archaeologists do, of course, consult previous works as part of their due diligence, but timeconsuming bibliographic research is often reduced to
citations in the brief and obligatory section on previous works or history of investigations in dissertations and other publications. Fortunately, the changing
technology of the last few years provides the means to
reevaluate different aspects of previous labors. Crucial
to maintaining pace with changing circumstances,
and to the lifecycle of the data, will be the creation
of a viable archival database that is both recursive to
and inclusive of the various research and management
efforts in this historical and modern city. An effective
database will need to incorporate several centuries
of descriptions of Cusco with a substantial amount
of new data generated by specialists of various fields
and nonacademic agencies in charge of city planning
(Limp et al. 2010).
Chambi, Martn. 1990. Martn Chambi: Photographs, 1920

1950. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Farrington, Ian. 2013. Cusco: Urbanism and Archaeology in the
Inka World. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.
Limp, W. F., A. Payne, S. Winter, A. Barnes, and J. Cothren.
2012. Approaching 3D Digital Heritage Data from a
Multi-Technology, Lifecycle Perspective. Paper presented
at the Proceedings of the 38th Conference on Computer
Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology
Granada.
Mar, R., and A. Beltrn-Caballero. 2015. El Conjunto Arqueolgico de Saqsaywhaman (Cusco). Una Aproximacion
a su Arquitectura. Revista Espaola de Antropologica
Americana, Universidad Complutense de Madrid.
Moore, J. D. 1996. Architecture and Power in the Ancient
Andes: The Archaeology of Public Buildings. Cambridge
University Press.
Paredes, Monica. 1999. Registro Informatizado de Restos Prehispnicos en el Centro Histrico del Cusco. Diagnstico
e interpretacin. Unpublished thesis. Cusco: Universidad
Nacional San Antonio Abad del Cusco
Pillsbury, Joanne (ed). 2012. The Past Presented. Washington,
D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Press.
Protzen, Jean-Pierre. 1993.Inca Architecture and Construction
at Ollantaytambo. New York: Oxford University Press.
Silgado, E. 1900. Plano del Cusco: Estudio de la Conduccion
del Agua por los Ingenieros Erique E. Silgado y Mauro
Valderrama.
Smith, Michael. 2007. Form and Meaning in the Earliest Cities:
A New Approach to Ancient Urban Planning. Journal of
Planning History, Vol. 6, No. 1:347
Squier, Ephraim. 1877. Peru: Incidents of Travel and Exploration in the Land of the Incas. New York: Harper &
Brothers.
Zuidema, T. 1964. The Ceque System of Cuzco: The Social
Organization of the Capitol of the Inca. Leiden: E. J.
Brill.
RE F EREN C ES
Arguto Calvo, S. 1980. Cusco: La Traza Urbana de la Cuidad
Inca. Proyecto Per 39UNESCO INC.
Bauer, B. 2004. Ancient Cusco: Heartland of the Incas. Austin:
University of Texas Press.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 67
MEMOIRS
Max Mallowan and

Agatha Christie Mallowan:
Some Memories from
Iraq and Iran
David Stronach
F o llowing my re ce ipt of a first degree at

Cambridge University in 1955, and after I had
subsequently received a scholarship from the British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara, one of my
former mentors at Cambridge suggested that I might
like to apply for a fellowship at the British School of
Archaeology in Iraq. Not too long afterward I learned
that the application (which I had been quite nervous
about submitting) had been accepted. This meant that
I could not only look forward to joining the excavations at Nimrud (Figure 1) early in 1957, but that
I could expect to do so as a member of a team that
would be led by the director of the school, Professor
M.E.L. Mallowan. Not that I had any way of knowing
it at the time, but this was the beginning of a long and
close association with Max Mallowanas well as with
his wife and constant companion in the field, Agatha
Christie Mallowanthat was to last for nearly two
decades.
M.E.L. Mallowan
As the Professor of Western Asiatic Archaeology at
the University of London since 1947, Max Edgar
Lucien Mallowan was already a considerable figure in
Mesopotamian archaeology. He had dug in both southern and northern Iraq; he had directed excavations
68 | BACKDIRT 2014
David Stronach was the founding Director of

the British Institute of Persian Studies from 1961
to 1980. He is presently Professor Emeritus of
Near Eastern Archaeology at the University
of California, Berkeley.
at two major sites in Syria,; and his comprehensive
knowledge of the archaeology of Western Asiaeven
stretching to the region of the Indus Valleywas
widely acknowledged. More than this, it was possible
to think of him as one of the last active members of
the more notable archaeological expeditions of the
recent past. At a very young age, he had been selected
to join Leonard Woolleys team at Ur of the Chaldees
and, several years later, had taken part in one of the
British Museums last major excavations at Nineveh.
Figure 1. Places in Iraq and Iran that

are mentioned in the text.
All in all, he seemed to me at

the time to represent an almost
palpable link to the not-toodistant nineteenth-century
origins of Mesopotamian
archaeology.
Fortunately enough,
Professor Mallowan was also
willing, from the very beginning, to regale me with stories
drawn from his early days in
Iraq. I should perhaps preface these remarks by saying
that a detailed account of his
long career can be found in
his Memoirs, published in 1977
(Mallowan 1977). However, at
least a few of his early recollections (such as find a mention here
and which necessarily predate
the years in which I can claim to
have had a direct acquaintance
with him) may serve to illustrate the kind of challenges
that a young archaeologist could be confronted with in the
1920s and the early 1930s.
Ur of the Chaldees
When Mallowan completed his bachelors degree at
Oxford in the summer of 1925, he had very little idea
of what the future held for him. But shortly thereafter
D. G. Hogarth, the keeper of the Ashmolean Museum
at Oxford (who had earlier dug at Carchemish, with
both Woolley and T. E. Lawrence among his assistants), recommended Mallowan for the position of
archaeological assistant on the dig at Ur. In those days
there were of course no readily available stepping
stones toward a professional career in Near Eastern
archaeology. In Mallowans own modest recollection,
he had no qualifications for the job beyond a classical
degree, an interest in Greek sculpture, and the enthusiasm of a man aged twenty-one.
As the youngest member of Woolleys small staff
of five or six persons, Mallowan was more than
happy to meet whatever demands were made of him.
That is to say that on those occasions when he was
given charge of one of the more outlying mounds, he
was perfectly content to rise at 4 a.m., to walk for a
distance of several kilometers, and to be ready to start
the days worktogether with the local workers who
had often walked for even longer distancessoon
after the sun rose.
The fact that Max, as I must call him in the rest
of this informal account, was expected to drive to the

nearest town in order to obtain supplies at regular
intervals was also something that he was more than
willing to do. Indeed, such trips (undertaken in one of
the original Ford trucks that was as good as a mule
on rough ground [Mallowan 1966:21]) became all
the more enjoyable after Katharine Woolley invited
her friend, the noted author, Agatha Christie, to make
an extended visit to Ur in 1930, during his fifth season
at the site. Since Agatha was not an archaeologist
and, therefore, had no fixed duties to perform within
the context of the ongoing work, it became only
natural for her to accompany Max in the weekly expeditions to purchase supplies. And if the vehicle happened to stick in the deep ruts of some muddy track,
Agatha was always ready to get out and push or to
try to find some other way to remedy the immediate
situation. In this way their friendship grew until one
dayback in BritainMax proposed.
Agatha relates that when she took the news of
Maxs proposal to Katharine Woolley, her good friend
received the tidings with something less than heartfelt approval. Almost certainly dubious about the
wisdom of a marriage between a young man in his
mid-twenties and a divorced woman in her late thirties, she advised Agatha that it might be a good idea
to keep Max waiting for at least two years (Christie
1977:418). With some spirit, Agatha writes of her
dismay at the nature of this response. Whether or not
this moment of discord finds a distant reflection in the
BACKDIRT 2014 | 69
It was also while she

was on the dig at
Nineveh that Agatha
decided that she
would continue to
practice her craft as
a writer.
plot of one of Agathas celebrated detective stories,
Murder in Mesopotamia (1936), can only be a matter
of opinion. But it may be recalled that, in this tale of
dark deeds on an archaeological excavation in Iraq,
the wife of the director of the dig (an individual who
appears to have been modeled, in part, on certain
traits in the character of Katharine Woolley) does not
fare too well.
At all events, Max himself was of a firm view that,
from that point onward, there could be no more than
one woman at Ur. Accordingly, after he and Agatha
had proceeded with their wedding in September 1930
(with the full approval of Agathas young daughter,
Rosalind, who apparently relished the thought of
putting Max through his paces on the tennis court!),
the Mallowans decided that, following a short holiday
in Greece, Agatha would return to Britain while Max
continued onward to Ur for his sixth and final season
at the site.
Then, in Greece, Agatha fell quite ill. Greatly
worried by this development, Max told me that he was
unable to obtain any precise information about the
nature of his wifes illness. Yet when the time came for
him to depart, he had no choice but to do just that.
He had agreed to serve for a fixed number of seasons
at Ur, and, regardless of any other considerations, he
knew he would be expected to appear, without fail, at
the appointed day and time.
When he reached Baghdad, however, the Woolleys were nowhere to be seen. Instead there was a
message: the Woolleys had decided to travel a week
later, and he was instructed to proceed to Ur, where he
was to supervise the constructionof all thingsof
an extension to Katharine Woolleys bedroom! Even
if Max was obviously aware that the Woolleys could
have had no knowledge of Agathas recent difficulties,
he told me that he was so angered by the awkward
situation in which he had found himself in Greece that
he could hardly bring himself to complete the trivial
task that was asked of him.
In broad terms, however, the six seasons that Max
70 | BACKDIRT 2014
spent at Ur represented an exceptional apprenticeship. The excavations themselves were enthralling,

and much was to be learned from the example set by
Woolley. He was a skilled excavator, a man of great
tenacity and drive, and as Max never tired of stressing, he was a master of exposition, whether spoken or
written.
Nineveh
Digging at Ur gave Max a taste for excavating at large
sites, and this may have been one of the reasons why
when he was at liberty to look for another site at
which to work he elected to take part in the British
Museums excavations at Nineveh. In all respects,
Maxs single season at Nineveh was a decidedly happy
one. Agatha, long since recovered from her indisposition in Greece, was at his side (as she would continue
to be on each of his subsequent field projects), and it
emerged that he found a singularly congenial colleague in the director of the dig, R. Campbell Thompson (whom Max usually referred to as Thomp).
In the winter of 193132, Thompson engaged him
to take charge of an unusually challenging project.
This was to sink a vertical sounding from the surface
of Ninevehs tallest moundKuyunjikdown to
virgin soil. The Nineveh pit (as Max liked to call
this deep, ever-narrowing shaft) was a forbidding and
dangerous place by the time that the earliest archaeological deposits were exposed almost 30 meters
below the mounds surface. The brief seven weeks
that were occupied by this considerable undertaking
left little time to explore the occasional scraps of
wall that were encountered, but this single operation still provides the only broad brush picture of the
full prehistoric sequence that lies beneath Ninevehs
vaunted Assyrian palaces. It might be added that Max
was not a little pleased to find that, when he at last
reached virgin soil, he still was left with a quite creditable trench, at least 2 x 2 m in size. From the start,
in other words, the overall size of the trench could
hardly have been more finely judged.
It was also while she was on the dig at Nineveh
that Agatha decided that she would continue (at least
when she wished to do so) to practice her craft as
a writer, even at the same time as her husband was
occupied with his own separate researches. As she
put matters to an initially horrified Dr. Thompson
(who was doing his best to excavate a vast site on a
very tight budget), I am a writer and I need to have
a proper chair and a proper tableand I propose
to arrange for these items to be made for me in the
Mosul bazaar. Until that moment, Thompson, a noted
MEMOIRS
Memories from Iraq and Iran
Assyriologist, who had been very largely of the view

that dig furniture consisted of temporarily empty
packing crates, variously arranged to meet the not-toodemanding requirements of his steadfast staff!
For his part, Max was especially taken by the presence, toward the base of the deep sounding, of elegant
sherds of finely painted Halaf ware. Always on good
terms with his workers, many of whom hailed from
adjacent villages, he was soon apprised of the fact
(both by his workers and by Thompson himself) that
painted pottery of exactly the same kind was scattered
over the surface of a low mound that stood only a few
kilometers to the northeast of Nineveh.
Arpachiyah
With this critical information in hand he decided (in
1933, after Thompson had decided that his digging
days in Iraq were over) to embark on his first independent excavation at the prehistoric site of Arpachiyah.
The mound was shrewdly chosen. Directly beneath
the modest structures of a prehistoric village of
Ubaid date, he uncovered six superimposed levels of
a prosperous Halaf settlement that was distinguished
by stone-footed circular buildingspresumed to have
consisted of domed tholoias well as by spectacular examples of painted polychrome pottery. As most
readers of this journal will know, Arpachiyah can now
be counted as one of the better-known sites of the celebrated Halaf culture that appears to have spread out
over much of present-day north Iraq and north Syria
soon after 6000 BC.
Quite remarkably, Maxs entire staff consisted of
himself, Agatha, and a skilled draftsman, J. Cruikshank Rose. Also, notwithstanding the myriad duties
that fell to his lot, Max still found time to introduce a
series of lively events that were designed to sustain the
high spirits of his substantial work force. One of the
more memorable of these events cannot escape mention here. It consisted of a cross-country race, which
was three and a half miles in length and was open to
all who worked on the dig. The carefully predetermined course of the race wound its way through many
of the villages from which the workers came (where
partisan crowds cheered on their respective runners),
and the participantsup to one hundred in number
were rewarded at the end of the day by varying prizes
of livestock, eggs, or dates according to the order in
which they finished.
Nimrud
At this point I propose to pass over a considerable
interval until I myself started to work with Professor
Mallowan (later Sir Max Mallowan) in various capacities, first in Iraq, between 1957 and 1960, and then
in Iran, from 1961 until the late 1970s. These interludes provided many vivid recollections, and I hope to
convey at least some sense of our interactions that still
stand out in memory from these active years.
When I arrived at Nimrud in March 1957, I
remember being considerably taken aback by the
number of workers that were present. Max made
no apology for often having well over two hundred
men on the payroll. Indeed, he took no little delight
in insisting that he was an unabashed supporter
of the bygone days of digging. This statement did
not equate with the whole truth, however. Little by
little, he had gradually expanded the staff at Nimrud
to include a number of younger but also seasoned
archaeologists headed, most notably, by David and
Joan Oates.
At the same time, the excavations at Nimrud were
characterized by certain distinctive features. Among
other things, Max liked to employ no less than two
charismatic foremen. One of the many duties of
these ever-vigilant individuals was to keep an eye on
the mood of the workers. If some degree of lethargy
could be detected, they would burst into song, and
with one voice the rhythmic cadences of the song
would be taken up by each and every one of the men.
In an instant, the whole temper of the dig would be
transformed.
Beginning in the1957 season, Max began to turn
more and more of his attention to the outlying remains
of a huge structure that he chose to call Fort Shalmaneser after the name of its redoubtable founder,
Shalmaneser III (858824 BC). This complex building
proved to be an Assyrian royal residence, arsenal, and
treasury, where many of the storerooms contained an
exceptional range of carved ivories that dated back
to the early first millennium BC. In no time the safe
recovery of these exquisite objects became one of the
prime concerns of the expedition. Toward the end of
each long morning/early afternoon session of excavation, those individuals whose duties required them
to stay in the dig house would gather on the terrace
outside the building to examine the speed at which
the expedition Land Rover was approaching. If it
came quickly bouncing back along the track, everyone
would turn away and go in to lunch. But if it proceeded slowly and carefullyan evident indication
of the presence of some precious burden resting on
a soft bed of cotton wooleveryone would patiently
wait to see what fresh source of wonderment had just
emerged from the earth.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 7 1
MEMOIRS
Once the ivories began to stream into the dig

house, Agatha not only continued to work on developing film in the dig houses small dark room, but she
also joined in the work of cleaning individual ivories
as well. On one occasion she elected to carry out an
experiment. Since she owned a jar of moisturizing
cream that was supposed to draw out the dirt, she
decided to find out if this advertised property might
apply in the case of an ancient carved ivory. Such was
the success of this unlikely treatment that, in no less
than two weeks, every bit of Agathas face cream had
been donated to the greater good of the excavation
(Christie 1977:456).
As for Max, he was never happier than when he
was engaged in composing a description of one of
the finer ivories. Toward the end of each afternoon,
he could be found, sitting in an open office near the
middle of the dig house, where he could be heard
dictating a detailed, miraculously fluent description
of a given ivory while a harried registrar scribbled
frantically to try to preserve each golden word. It was
almost, I thought, as if the whole of his prior field
experience had prepared him for just these moments.
The evening meal at Nimrud still preserved certain
notes of formality. That is to say that, even if there was
no standard seating arrangement, Max always sat at
one end of the long dining table and Agatha would sit
at the opposite end. And since Agatha was always the
first person to be served, the different dishes would
proceed down the outer side of the table to where
Max sat, and they would then return on the inner
side of the table until they reached the last place on
Agathas right. Needless to say, this latter place was
where it was often difficult to find enough food to fill
the whole of ones plate. It was consequently known
as starvation corner.
On the other hand, the Nimrud table was no
stranger to occasional, improbable delights, one of
which as often as notwas the presence of a large
drum-shaped Stilton, bought at Harrods. Indeed, as I
learned early on, starvation corner was not without its
compensations. Above all, the Stilton would inevitably
end its wanderings at this very same corner, where,
under the benign protection of Agathas just detectable smile, you were usually encouraged to take a
second helping of cheese.
Maxcareful not to neglect the education of a
junior assistant in one of the finer points of lifealso
once surprised me at the end of one especially good
dinner by suddenly producing a bottle of port. At that
same moment he asked, David, do you know how to
feed a Stilton? I confessed that I did not. Like this,
72 | BACKDIRT 2014
said he, all the while decanting a quantity of fine port

into what was still left of the majestic Stilton.
Baghdad
Before and after the dig at Nimrud, quite a few
members of the team usually stayed at the schools
comfortable Expedition House in Baghdad. Life in this
traditional example of a Baghdad home was largely
centered on the buildings two-storied central courtyard and, most particularly, on the courtyards spacious second-floor balcony, part of which was always
cool and shaded.
With no need to make constant visits to the
archaeological museum, Agatha would occupy a part
of the balcony each morning for the start of her own
daily writing activities. She would place a comfortable
chair in a suitable, shaded position, lift her feet onto
a low stool, and pull out a hard-backed notebook.
Totally absorbed in her own thoughts, she would then
make notesand sometimes diagramsthat helped
to clarify the events that would take place in whatever
chapter she had chosen to work on at the time. In the
middle of the day she would take a long break. During
this interval, Ibrahim, our cook, would serve a late
lunch (timed to coincide with the end of the working
day at the museum). Then, at least when the weather
was on the warm side, time was taken for an hours
siesta, and a little later Ibrahim would ring his gong
to indicate that tea was served. At promptly 5 p.m.,
Agatha would head for the library on the second floor,
where the schools only typewriter was housed. The
library was strictly off limits to all others at this time,
and for the next two hours the sound of rapid, more
or less continuous, typing would issue from behind a
closed door. Amazed by the speed with which a whole
finished chapter would be regularly produced within
a single day, I once had the temerity to ask Agatha if
she ever needed to revise what she had written. She
considered the question for a few moments and then
responded, No, I dont think so!
In the evenings the Mallowans occasionally
enjoyed going out to exhibitions of work by contemporary artists. Tariq Madhloom, one of Maxs former
students, was not only an up-and-coming archaeologist in the Iraqi Department of Antiquities, but also
a successful painter, and the Mallowans possessed a
number of paintings by Iraqi artists. Also, as I can
personally attest, one of Agathas principal relaxations
before and after each season at Nimrud was to ferret
out choice Persian carpets (in addition to modern jewelry of a kind that she especially favored) in Baghdads
atmospheric bazaar.
Visits to the bazaar were memorable undertakings.

Since the house we lived in stood directly on the west
bank of the Tigris, and the bazaar stood exactly on the
opposite bank of the river, each of our expeditions
(in which yours truly was always more than content to
be the designated carpet-bearer) would start outside
our front door at the rivers edge. From this location
we would hire one of the local rowing boats, nearly
always riding at anchor somewhere nearby. The boatmen would row us across the wide sweep of the Tigris
(duly shielded from the sun by a large canopy), and to
cap each outward crossing, we would land at the nearest river entrance to the bazaar.
Once inside the bazaar, it was instantly obvious
that Agatha was a familiar figure. There would be
competing shouts and gesticulations from all directions to attempt to attract her attention. But the hullabaloo was to no availAgatha knew where the most
arresting carpets were to be foundand we would
head for her long-familiar haunts. On one occasion
when I saw that she liked a specific carpet, I felt it
my duty to inject a word of caution. I pointed out
that, while the carpet was undoubtedly an interesting piece, it was also rather worn. I can see that,
she replied. But I am perfectly certain it will outlast
me! Needless to say, the carpet was acquired without
further ado.
In the jewelry shops her eye would always be
caught by brooches with big stone settings. At first
glance I found many such brooches quite unappealing. But, once again, Agatha knew what she was
looking for. I would notice, for example, that a certain
piece that I had dismissed in my own mind as impossible would suddenly look just right on Agathas
own quite generous frame. In time, in fact, I never
hesitated to say, when called upon for an opinion,
that I believed a given brooch would look very well
when worn.
A New Venture in Iran

Owing to various circumstances that do not stand
entirely within the compass of the present account,
my associations with the Mallowans continued long
after the end of the1960 season at Nimrud. First, Max
made sure that I received the necessary funding from
the British School of Archaeology in Iraq in order to
be able to conduct an independent excavation, in late
May and early June 1960, at the newly discovered
Ubaid site of Ras al Amiya, located 80 km south
of Baghdad. Then, partly as a result of the British
Academys wish to set up a new British Institute in
Tehran at the time of Her Majesty the Queens visit to
The Nimrud table

was no stranger to
occasional, improbable
delights, one of which
as often as not was
the presence of a large
Stilton, bought at
Harrods.
Iran in March 1961, the Council of the Academy, at its
meeting on February 15, 1961, resolved to appoint a
Governing Council of the new Institute with Professor Max Mallowan as President and David Stronach
as Director (Wheeler 1970:83). In this way, Max and
I found ourselves committed to a continuing, close,
working relationship, albeit one that was now transferred to the newly foundedand recently named
British Institute of Persian Studies.
In the early days of the institute, Max was very
much a hands-on president. Always inclined to be
something of a worrier, I think he decided that, at
29, I was too young to be trusted to choose a suitably
representative site for the institutes first excavation.
Accordingly, he drew up a short list of three major
sites that I could choose from. One was the major
prehistoric site at Rayy (Figure 1), the second was the
early Islamic site of Nishapur, and the third was Pasargadae, the capital and last resting place of the Cyrus
the Great (559530 BC), the founder of the Achaemenid Empire. After I had carefully weighed the prospects for work at each site, I told Max that my choice
had fallen on Pasargadae. I noticed that this decision
seemed to give him an unusual degree of pleasure,
and he then recounted a piece of personal history that
conceivably deserves a place in this brief chronicle.
Early in their marriage Max and Agatha apparently
decided to make a late spring visit to Iran. It was a
visit that coincided with the end of Maxs sixth season
at Ur and one that Max viewed as their honeymoon.
After they had flown from Baghdad to Hamadan in
a single-engine airplane (with only one pilot), they
eventually flew down to Shiraz, where they began a
road journey back to Tehran via Persepolis, Pasargadae, and Isfahan, the most beautiful city in the
world. One special highlight, moreover, was their
visit to Pasargadae. Thanks to earlier, heavy rains the
surface streams near the tomb of Cyrus were in flood.
And as Agatha stood uncertainly on the edge of the
inundated area, a friendly local guard appeared out of
BACKDIRT 2014 | 73
Figure 2. An aerial view of the tomb of Cyrus

the Great, as the monument appears today.
The tomb is located near the southern limit
of Pasargadae (after Stronach and Mousavi
2012:plate 35).
nowhere and volunteered to carry her to the tomb and

back again (Figure 2). With this gallant assistance, the
Mallowans assuredly had extra reason to think well
of their visit to Cyruss capital, and I have to confess
that, notwithstanding Maxs well-documented interest
in the events of Cyruss career (see, e.g., Mallowan
1972), I have not seldom wondered if this incident
clinched Pasargadaes appearance on the all-important
short list.
In any event it was hardly unexpected when I
learned that Max and Agatha would pay a further
visit to Pasargadae, late in 1961, during the first of
the institutes three seasons of excavation at the site
(cf. Stronach 1978:v). More than this, they would be
74 | BAC K D I RT 2 0 1 4
accompanied (as they were on at least

one other occasion) by Sir Mortimer
Wheeler, the secretary of the British
Academy. Sir Mortimer, who can be
said to have done more than anyone
else to bring the new institute into
existence, was probably also keen to
see how the institutes first excavation was proceeding. In 1958 he had
taken me with him to Charsada, in
Pakistan, so that I had had the benefit
of excavating under both his guidance
and that of Max Mallowan in the late
1950s. I will confess to being just a
little nervous in advance of such a formidable field examination, but in the
end I believe our hard-working team
earned a positive report (Figure 3).
I might also note that Max and
Agatha were frequent visitors to
the institutes longtime premises in
Tehran. In particular, this was where
Agathas sleuthing instincts can be
said to have made themselves manifest
from time to time. Toward the end
of the working day, for example, the
institutes quite commodious library
became a place where people staying
in the hostel would help themselves
to tea from the Russian samovar and
settle down to relax. At the same time
this was also where Agatha liked to sit
at this time of day, normally in a chair
in one corner, seemingly concentrating on her knittingand seemingly paying no attention to whatever
else was happening. Except that she was paying close
attention! Thus, at some later point in time, she would
ask me: David, is anything going on between the
young man with a beard and the girl who sits and
reads for most of the day? On such occasions I would
usually look utterly blank and say, I have no idea.
And then, two weeks later, the same couple would
announce their engagement.
Despite Maxs self-described autocratic tendencies, I am happy to say that we had only one full-scale
skirmish during the many years that we worked
together. Not surprisingly, perhaps, this was related to
MEMOIRS
the role that Max thought I should

play with respect to the institutes
next archaeological excavation
after the dig at Pasargadae had
run its course in December 1963.
Although the Governing
Council in London had decided,
under Maxs deft chairmanship,
that the institutes next excavation ought to take place at Siraf,
the great medieval seaport on the
Persian Gulf (Figure 1), it never
occurred to me at the time that
anyone but a qualified archaeologist with medieval interests would
be invited to lead the work there.
With this single proviso in mind, I
more than welcomed this significant proposal, which promised to
do so much to raise the profile of
early Islamic archaeology in Iran.
Figure 3. Sir Mortimer Wheeler (sitting, facing camera), Professor Max Mallowan (sitting, preparing
to make notes), and Agatha Christie Mallowan (sitting, with her back to the camera), photographed on
Unfortunately, Max had other,
a visit to Pasargadae in October 1961. Members of the Pasargadae team (standing in the background)
very different ideas. In his view
include David Stronach (wearing a light blue sweater) and standing next to him, Ms. Parvin Barzin, the
it was my unquestionable duty to
representative of the Iranian Department of Archaeology.
agree to take charge of this new
the day (a rather rare event, it has to be said). Also,
flagship operation, even if it stood well outside the
with this brief contretemps put safely behind us, the
sphere of my own, earlier interests. Always a shrewd
two of us continued to work together for many a furtactician, Max only chose to acquaint me with his plan
ther year both happily and furiously as one percepto nominate me as the director of the new dig on the
tive mutual friend chose to put matters.
day before Council was due to meet to consider the
Space does not allow me to draw on too many
final, detailed plans for the work at Siraf.
other recollections, but I cannot omit some reference
Not to be outdone, I decided to let two key memto a subsequent journey that took the Mallowans,
bers of Council know what was afoot and to ask them
Wheeler, and myself to Siraf in order to visit David
if they would support my position that it was inapWhitehouse during the first season of excavations that
propriate to ask me to take on a task that lay outside
were conducted at that site in 1966. Early winter rains
the bounds of my major academic interests. I then
had swept through southwestern Iran shortly before
telephoned Max to say that two members of Council
our journey began, and when we reached Shiraz we
were, in fact, of the same view as I was. With whom
were greeted with the dire news that the bridge over
did you speak? he demanded to know. To Mortimer
the Mand River (Figure 1) had been swept away.
Wheeler and to Seton Lloyd, I replied. Oh! he
Nothing daunted, we proceeded to the north bank
responded and rang off at once.
of the swollen river, where I parked and locked the
Half an hour later Max rang with a note of resignaLand Rover. Then, one by one, the three distinguished
tion in his voice. It seems, he reported, that they do
individuals, for whom I felt myself to be hugely
agree with you. So we better have lunch tomorrow.
responsible, were lowered into a perilously small
Over lunch I went out of my way to stress that I knew
boat that then conveyed the four of us to the opposite
a very able medieval specialist: a young archaeologist
bank. Throughout this operation a series of horrennamed David Whitehouse. I added that I thought he
dous headlines swam before my eyesa situation
would leap at the chance to excavate at Siraf if he
that only ended when I could see David Whitehouse
were invited to do so. Suffice it to say that the post
extending a firm hand to Agatha, and then to each of
was duly offered to Whitehouse, who more than
his other two important guests.
repaid the confidence that was placed in him.
Just when we had reached Tahiri, the small village
In this way, in the end, Max gracefully conceded
BACKDIRT 2014 | 75
MEMOIRS
reach the fourth floor, whereupon she delivered the

following well-remembered speech: Now that I have
arrived on this fourth floor, David, you will be very
glad to know that I am not coming down again until it
is time for us to leave.
Epilogue
While I have fond memories of accompanying the
Mallowans to other archaeological sites in Iran,
including Hasanlu, Godin Tepe, and Tepe Nush-e Jan
(Figure 1), the various almost unbelievable elements
of the Siraf venture may represent a suitable note on
which to end these random reflections. For one other
account of this stay at Siraf, see especially David
Whitehouses reference to the visit of Sir Mortimer,
Sir Max and Dame Agatha, who endured the tribulations of winter on the Persian Gulf as though they
were everyday occurrences (Whitehouse 2009:4).
It may also be appropriate at this point to note
that Sir Max Mallowan died at his old home at Greenway in Devon on August 19, 1978, at the age of 74.
His wife, Dame Agatha Christie Mallowan, predeceased him by two years after what he referred to as
forty-five years of loving and merry companionship
(Mallowan 1977:311).
Authors Note: I would like to thank Professor Gregory Areshian for inviting me to contribute an article
on the present topic to the pages ofBackdirt. I am also
grateful to Ms. Anna Harkey for the preparation of the
map that appears here as Figure 1.
Figure 4. An aerial view of the extensive site of Siraf . While certain excavated areas
can be made out in the middle distance, the modern village of Tahiri hugs the shoreline near the top of the photograph (after Stronach and Mousavi 2012:plate 96).
that hugs the curved shoreline within the southern

half of the extensive ruins of Siraf (Figure 4), a further
problem arose. Since the Siraf team had not yet had
time to erect an excavation house, the only available
accommodation for the sites distinguished visitors
from London consisted of a series of rooms located
on the prestigious top (that is to say, fourth) floor of
the towerlike residence of the local sheikh. And since
each step in this structures single, steep staircase was
almost a foot in height, Agatha knew that she would
have to ask for help. I could see her first look at Max
before deciding that he could hardly be expected to
come to her aid in this quite strenuous context. Next
her eyes fell on Sir Mortimer, but he was still older!
Inevitably, she finally turned to where I was standing,
and called me to her side. Somehow we managed to
76 | BACKDIRT 2014
RE F EREN C ES
Christie, Agatha.1977. An Autobiography. London: William
Collins and Sons.
Mallowan, Max Edgar Lucien. 1966. Nimrud and Its Remains.
Vol. 1. London: William Collins and Sons.
. 1972. Cyrus the Great (558529 BC). Iran 10:117.
. 1977. Mallowans Memoirs. London: William Collins
and Sons.
Stronach, D. 1978. Pasargadae: A Report on the Excavations
conducted by the British Institute of Persian Studies from
1961 to 1963, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Stronach, D., and A. Mousavi (eds.). 2012. Ancient Iran from
the Air: Photographs by Georg Gerster. Darmstadt/
Mainz: Philipp von Zabern Verlag.
Wheeler, Mortimer. 1970. The British Academy, 19491968.
London: The British Academy.
Whitehouse, D. 2009. Siraf I: History, Topography, and Environment. Oxford: Oxbow Books.
ARCHAEOLOGY AND CONSERVATION

GRADUATE PROGRAMS
RE P ORT F RO M THE C HA I R
The Archaeology Interdepartmental

Graduate Program, 2013 2014
John K. Papadopoulos 1
T he acade mic ye ar 201 3 201 4 was another

successful one for the students of the Archaeology
Interdepartmental Program. Six of our students, all
working in very different parts of the world, completed and filed their doctoral dissertations: Dr.
Esmeralda Agolli, Dr. Anne Austin, Dr. Jack Davey,
Dr. Kelly Fong, Dr. Brett Kaufman, and Dr. Catherine Pratt. They join a long and distinguished group
of UCLA Archaeology Ph.D.s. One other student,
Bethany Simpson, an Egyptologist, is planning to file
her dissertation in the course of the fall.
Many of our continuing students were successful
in procuring funding. No fewer than six of our students (Jacob Damm, Maryann Kontonicolas, Rachel
Moy, Chelsey Fleming, Rose Campbell, and Terrah
Jones) won Graduate Summer Research Mentorships
for the summer of 2014. Jacob Damm and Deborah
Sneed were awarded year-long Graduate Research
Mentorships for 20142015, and three students
Joseph (Seppi) Lehner, Christine Johnston, and Kanika
Kalrawere awarded Dissertation Year Fellowships
for 20142015. Chelsey Fleming also won a Lenart
Fellowship.
In February 2014, the IDP students sponsored
another successful Graduate Student Conference, with
the theme: People in Motion: Mobility, Migration,
and Exchange. The keynote speaker was Professor
David Anthony of Hartwick College, Oneonta, New
York. The conference was funded by the Archaeology
IDP, the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, with additional funds from the Deans of Social Sciences and the
Humanities.
We also look forward to welcoming our new firstyear cohort in the fall. Five students will be joining
the program (for full biographies see page 00 in this
volume). Anna Bishop (B.A., USC) will work with
Professor Richard Lesure in Mesoamerican archaeology; Brandon Braun (M.A., Cal State San Francisco)
will work in Classical archaeology with Professors
Sarah Morris and John Papadopoulos; Karime Castillo
Cardenas (B.A., Universidad des las Amricas Puebla;
M.A. University College London) will work on New
World glass with Professors Ioanna Kakoulli and Richard Lesure; Adam DiBattista (B.A., Boston University,
where he studied with Assistant Professor John [Mac]
Marston, a UCLA Archaeology IDP graduate) will
study with Professors Aaron Burke and John Papadopoulos; and Georgi Kyorlenski (M.A., Columbia
University) will study Andean archaeology under
the guidance of Professors Stella Nair and Charles
Stanish. Two of our incoming cohort are international
students: Karime Castillo is the first student in the
Archaeology IDP from Mexico, and Georgi Kyorlenski
hails from Bulgaria. We wish them every success!
In addition to welcoming our incoming graduate
students, the Archaeology IDP is delighted to welcome, among its ranks, Assistant Professor Stephen
Acabado as the most recent member of our Core
Faculty.
1. Department of Classics; Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, UCLA.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 7 7

GRADUATE PROGRAMS
I N C O M I N G G RA D U ATE ST U D ENTS
AN D NE W A C A D E M I C A P P O I NT M ENTS
Archaeology Graduate
Interdepartmental Program
First-Year Doctoral Students,
2014-2015
KARIME CASTILLO
is originally from Mexico City. She
received her B.A. in Archaeology from
Universidad de las Amricas Puebla
and her M.A. in Artefact Studies from
the Institute of Archaeology, University College London. She is primarily interested in Mexican historical
archaeology and colonial material
culture. Her masters thesis proposes a
typology of pharmaceutical glass from
London. As a historical archaeologist,
she has done research on Colonial
Mexican majolica and the Hacienda
San Miguel Acocotla, Puebla, Mexico.
She has worked for archaeological
projects in different parts of Mexico,
including Sonora, Mexico City, and
Puebla, and has collaborated with the
Franz Mayer Museum in Mexico City
and London Archaeological Archive
and Resource Center in London. At
UCLA she will study glass production
in Colonial Mexico.
78 | BACKDIRT 2014
A D A M D I B AT T I S TA
originally hails from New Jersey. He
received his B.A. in Archaeology from
Boston University in 2014. In his
honors thesis Adam analyzed sheep
and goat molars for their strontium
isotope content, proposing new
approaches to understanding the decision-making processes of mobile pastoralists in Anatolia based on isotopic
analysis and GIS. He has conducted
fieldwork in Italy and, most recently,
in Turkey at the site of Kaymakci. In
addition to excavation, Adam worked
extensively to help catalog and analyze the faunal material at Kaymakci.
He hopes to continue to explore the
interactions between imperial and
resident populations there while at
UCLA, where he will be working with
Dr. Aaron Burke.
BRANDON BRAUN
was born in San Diego, California.
Although he has traveled throughout
the United States and Greece, he
has lived in California his entire life.
Brandon earned a B.A. in Classics and
Mathematics at San Diego State University and an M.A. in Classics with
an emphasis in Classical Archaeology
at San Francisco State University. He
is primarily interested in state formation in Archaic Greece, particularly
in the interactions and competitions
between state monuments. He is also
interested in the relationships between
Greek and Near Eastern states, and
his masters thesis examined the
monumental nature of stone terraces
at Athens, Delphi, and Persepolis.
Outside of academia, Brandon enjoys
watching, playing, and thinking about
basketball.
New Academic
Appointments
G E O RG I K YO R L E N S K I
is possibly the only representative
of a crossbreed between two rather
large groupsBulgarian archa eologists and U.S.-trained Andeanists.
He received a B.A. in Anthropology
and History from Beloit College and
an M.A. in Museum Anthropology
from Columbia University. Georgi is
primarily interested in Inca imperial
control through nonviolent means
and nonhuman interactions. He is
academically invested in the art of
institutional manipulation, propaganda, and the power of the collective
imagination. His M.A. thesis proposed
a new model of an on-site openair archaeological museum, which
reunites objects, architecture, and
site into a more comprehensive tool
for interpreting and experiencing the
past than the current heterotopic state
of archaeological collections. Georgi
has previously excavated in Peru and
Bulgaria and will work with Dr. Stella
Nair at UCLA. He is an avid Manchester United fan, a mediocre bassist, and
a casual fiction writer.
ANNA BISHOP
was raised in Connecticut and moved
to Los Angeles to attend the University of Southern California, where she
received a B.A. in Archaeology with
a minor in Geographic Information
Systems Technology. She has conducted fieldwork in Peru, Italy, Belize,
and Californias Channel Islands and
after graduating worked as an archaeologist in Australia. Annas research
focuses primarily on Mesoamerican
archaeology, visual culture, iconography, and authorship. This is combined
with an interest in GIS and spatial
analysis. Her senior thesis examined
the significance of the iconography
of the body in Classic Maya artwork.
Outside of the lab Anna draws on her
background in studio art and likes
getting out of her apartment/cubicle.
At UCLA Anna will be working with
Dr. Richard Lesure.
STEPHEN ACABADO
received his Ph.D. and M.A. in
Anthropology from the University
of Hawaii-Manoa and his B.A. in
Anthropology from the University
of the Philippines-Diliman.His
archaeological investigations in
Ifugao, northern Philippines, have
established the recent origins of the
Cordillera Rice Terraces, which were
once thought to be at least 2,000
years old. Dr. Acabado directs the
Ifugao Archaeological Project, a collaborative research program between
the University of the PhilippinesArchaeological Studies Program, the
National Museum of the Philippines,
the University of California,Los
Angeles, and the Save the Ifugao Terraces Movement, Inc. (SITMo). He
has published several articles based
on his work in the highland Philippines. His book manuscript,Antiquity, Archaeological Processes, and
Highland Adaptation in the Northern
Highland Philippines: The Ifugao
Rice Terraces(Ateneo de Manila
University Press), is scheduled to be
published by the end of 2014.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 79

GRADUATE PROGRAMS
RE P ORT F RO M THE C HA I R
The UCLA/Getty Program in

Archaeological and Ethnographic
Conservation
Ioanna Kakoulli 1
Co n s ervat io n is a fasci nat ing field.

Conservators work hands-on with beautiful and
unique cultural heritage objects that present interesting challenges to scientists and curators alike.
To deconstruct an object in order to understand its
complex nature requires creative, critical thinking and
expertise in integrating ideas, concepts, and principles
from many different fields. For the conservation of an
object, various factors need to be considered: provenance, aesthetics, artists intent, original technique,
physical condition, and conservation history. Understanding the physical properties of materials and
exploring ways to characterize original techniques, as
well as defects caused either by faulty construction
or as a result of aging and weathering, is key to the
conservation of artifacts.
The UCLA/Getty Conservation Program in the
Conservation of Archaeological and Ethnographic
Materials provides an excellent platform for education
and research in the preservation and management of
material culture. It supports discovery and innovation
through research that transcends the boundaries of
traditional disciplines. It uniquely trains the next generation of conservators in the best practices and meth-
1. Materials Science and Engineering Department, UCLA/Getty

Interdepartmental Program.
80 | BACKDIRT 2014
Figure 1 . Lesley Day, a first year conservation student, gap filling

losses in a Minoan pithos after reconstructing the fragments at the
INSTAP Study Center for East Crete this past summer.
ods of cultural heritage conservation through various

pedagogical approaches, including, but not limited to,
core teaching and learning, independent research, and
laboratory experience in museums and in the field.
Finally, it positively impacts the community by engaging with a more informed public that would seek to
protect cultural heritage from imminent threats.
The three-year program leading to a masters
degree consists of two years of coursework and laboratory work on artifacts, emphasizing research-based
practice, combined with two internships: a-ten-week
summer internship between the first and second
years and a nine-month-long internship in the third
year. A masters research paper is completed at the
end of the second year of study to allow students to
concentrate on their internship duties and conservation work in the third year.
Figure 2. William Shelley, a first year conservation

student, applying a plaster bandage during block-lifting
of a piece of charred wood excavated in the early
bronze stratum at Kaman-Kalehyk, Turkey.
Figure 3. Tom McClintock, a first year conservation student, removing

paint from the beak of a bald eagle exhibit, during his summer internship
at the Alaska State Museum in Juneau, Alaska.
WE ARE P ROU D TO ANNO UNC E the following

recently completed Masters (Class 2014):
B R I T T A N Y D O L P H Experimentation with
and Evaluation of Ethyl Silicate-Based Group
Formulations for Potential Application to Weather
and/or Porous Silicaceous Stones (Advisor: Prof.
Christian Fischer).
A Y E S H A F U E N T E S Technical Examination
of a Ritual Bone Ornament Ensemble from the
Himalayan Region, with Notes on Treatment and
Handling (Advisor: Prof. Ioanna Kakoulli).
G E N E V A G R I S W O L D Treatment of a
Tuscarora Headdress:Consultation and Material
Selection (Advisor: Prof. Ellen Pearlstein).
C A I T L I N M A H O N Y Examining Two
Novel Consolidants for the Treatment of Powdering
Leather Suffering from the Acidic Deterioration
Commonly Referred to as Red Rot (Advisor:
Prof. Ellen Pearlstein).
C A S E Y M A L L I N C K R O D T The Technical
Analysis of an Ancient Egyptian/Ptolemaic Sarcophagus Lid from the Collection of the San Diego
Museum of Man (Advisors: Prof. David Scott
and Prof. Ellen Pearlstein).
M A D E L E I N E N E I M A N The Alteration of
Cinnabar in Archaeological Roman Wall Paintings
(Advisor: Prof. Ioanna Kakoulli).
A L E X I S N O R T H Biomimetic Hydroxyapatite
as a New Inorganic Consolidant for Archaeological
Bone (Advisor: Prof. Ioanna Kakoulli).
Spotlight on 20132014
First-Year Conservation IDP Students
The 201314 class of first-year IDP graduate students
consisted of six highly talented and promising people:
Elizabeth Anne (Betsy) Burr, Lesley Day, Colette
Khanaferov, Tom McClintock, William Shelley, and
Heather White.
All students have successfully completed the first
year of their three-year degree program with average
GPAs of 3.89. Furthermore, first-year graduate student of the program Betsy Burr received an Honorable
Mention by the National Science Foundation for a
graduate research grant proposal. This is considered a
significant national academic achievement.
To read more about our program, students, faculty,
and staff, please visit our newly redesigned website:
www.conservation.ucla.edu.
Follow us!
https://www.facebook.com/UCLAGettyProgram
https://twitter.com/UCLAGettyCons
Blog:
http://uclagettyprogram.wordpress.com/2014/06/02/
class-of-2014-final-presentations/
C A R I N N E T Z A D I K Conservation, Analysis,
and Treatment of Jaina Figurines (Advisor: Prof.
Christian Fischer).
BACKDIRT 2014 | 81
RESEARCH IN ACTION
RE P ORTS F RO M THE F I E L D
Ten Years in the Tropics:

Archaeological Research and Education
in Bocas del Toro, Panama
Thomas A. Wake 1
It ha s be e n approxim at e ly ten years since I

embarked on the Proyecto Arqueolgico Sitio Drago
on Isla Coln in coastal Caribbean Panama. I was
initially drawn to the Bocas del Toro region of Panama
for a variety of reasons, not the least of which was to
be in the same country as my wife, Christina Campbell, who studies spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi)
in Panama every summer. My love for Neotropical
marine and terrestrial biodiversity and a burgeoning
interest in isthmian archaeology also spurred me into
action. An additional motivation was my desire to run
a long-term archaeological field and lab project. My
interest was piqued!
Little was known about the archaeology of Bocas
del Toro, Panama, when I began the project in 2003;
in fact, only two books and a handful of articles on
the region were available (Gordon 1982; Linares and
Ranere 1980). The first of these was based on work
by Matthew and Marion Stirling (1964), who led
the first archaeological expedition to the region in
1949, identifying several sites. Subsequently, Burton
Gordon (1982) conducted fieldwork on human geography in the region and noted several archaeological sites in addition to those located by the Stirlings
(Gordon 1962).
By the 1970s and 1980s there was much specula-
1. Assistant Adjunct Professor of Anthropology, UCLA; Director,

Zooarchaeology Laboratory, CIOA-UCLA; Research Associate, STRI
Panama.
82 | BACKDIRT 2014
tion about cultural affinities in Bocas del Toro, but

no real consensus (Haberland 1984). Only one major
archaeological field investigation had been carried out
in Bocas del Toro prior to 2003, led by Smithsonian
Tropical Research Institute (STRI) archaeologist Olga
Linares in 1970. Her project at Cerro Brujo led to one
book and several journal articles on the projects findings in the region (Linares 1971, 1976, 1977; Linares
and Ranere 1980).
According to Linares: The archaeological settlements of Bocas province appear to represent marginal
populations organized on the basis of small family (?)
groups, without status differentiation or political organization of any recognizable kind (1977: 311). She
further suggested that the mainland populace of the
mainland Aguacate Peninsula existed in a backwater
area, especially when compared to the better-known
Panamanian chiefdoms on the Pacific coast (Linares
1980a:66). Cerro Brujo, she added, was fairly typical of settlement and subsistence patterns in Bocas
(1977:310), while noting that larger sites may exist in
the region.
I was curious as to whether this part of the land
connecting North and South America were really so
isolated and relatively unexploited in the past as commonly believed and set my sights on a field project
in Bocas del Toro. It just so happened that my wife
had been teaching primate field ecology courses in
2001 and 2002 at the Institute for Tropical Ecology
and Conservation (ITEC) on Isla Coln (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Location of Sitio Drago,

Isla Coln, Bocas del Toro, Panama.
She mentioned ITECs interest in a possible

archaeology course, and I planned a visit in
the summer of 2002. A week or so before
I was scheduled to arrive in Panama, I
received word that road construction had
exposed an astonishing archaeological site right
in Boca del Drago, virtually underneath the ITEC field
station. Upon my arrival it became clear to me that
Sitio Drago (BT-IC-1) represented a large coastal habitation site with excellent preservation, a dense shell
midden, and a variety of artifacts that included ceramics, ground stone, chipped stone, and shell beads.
Fieldwork began in June 2003 with a UCLA summer archaeology field school run in collaboration with
ITEC at Sitio Drago (BT-IC-1; Figure 2). The class
included 5 students, with UCLA alumnus and current
University of Michigan Assistant Professor Jason de
Leon as Teaching Assistant. Various iterations of field
schools continued through 2014. In total, at least
65 undergraduate students, 10 graduate students, 10
volunteers, and 6 Panamanian archaeologists have
participated in the project over the past 12 years. The
collaboration of my Panamanian colleagues Tomas E.
Mendizabal and Alexis O. Mojica has been especially
fruitful.
RESULTS
Recent excavation and analysis of material from Isla
Coln has demonstrated a deeper and more complex
prehistory than is evident on the Aguacate Peninsula,
25 km across Almirante Bay to the southwest

(Linares and Ranere 1980). Several ceramic-bearing sites and over 50 large (>100 kg) igneous stone
mortars have been identified in a 60 ha full-coverage
surface-survey transect on the northern half of the
island. Radiocarbon dates from this transect and three
associated caves range from approximately 60 CE to
1850 CE. Several other sites on the island also bear
ceramics and large igneous stone mortars and date
from 1000 CE to 1700 CE.
Sitio Drago
Preservation at Sitio Drago is excellent, and our
investigations (involving excavation and wet-screening
through 3 mm mesh) have recovered a staggering
number of artifacts. The site is constituted primarily by an artifact-rich dark anthrosol built up over a
stabilized beach ridge made of coralline sand. The
result is a well-drained, pH neutral, fine sandy soil full
of artifacts, carbon, bones, and shell. At the end of
the 2012 season, 58 1 m2 excavation units had been
placed across the site. Many of these units represent
stratigraphic test pits designed to sample divergent
areas of the site. Three areas were then selected for
broader excavations with contiguous units exposing
21 m2, 9 m2, and 8 m2.
Some 40 radiocarbon dates are now available for
Sitio Drago. These dates range from 750 CE to 1410
CE, with the majority between 900 CE and 1300 CE.
These dates and the corresponding ceramic affiniBACKDIRT 2014 | 83
ties and characteristics place the site culturally in

the broader Chiriqu Phase of western Panama and
southeastern Costa Rica (Corrales 2000; Linares de
Sapir 1967a, 1967b).
Surface Features and Site Organization
Several low (23 m) earthen mounds are visible across
the surface of the central area of the site (Figure 2).
These mounds have proved to be elevated concentrations of domestic trash interspersed with remnants
of older surfaces. The relatively level beachfront
area where the site lies has a high water table and is
regularly inundated, so an elevated mound could keep
both people and their possessions out of floodwaters.
These mounds tend to have denser accumulations of
dietary remains (carbon, shell, and bone), ceramic
fragments, broken stone tools, lithic flakes, and the
occasional piece of worked shell or bone. No human
remains other than isolated teeth have been found in
any of these presumably domestic structures.
Funerary remains have been recovered from a
single mound in the center of the site, which contains
at least five tombs made of coral slabs. The architecture of the cajones (large boxes or coffins) consists of
a rectangular layer of flat coral slabs forming a floor
and one course of vertical slabs at each edge forming a
wall. Each tomb contains the skeleton of a single individual. The tombs were then filled with beach sand
and covered with a layer of overlapping coral slabs,
followed by a thin layer of soil. Four of the burials
contain the more or less complete skeletons of single
individuals, one of which is missing the head. A tightly
wrapped headless secondary burial was later placed
between two of the tombs, disturbing one of the
graves. None of the tombs found to date has contained
any associated grave goods.
The area surrounding the tombs tells a different story. Units placed close to the tombs (Units
14, 3942) have produced dense artifact accumulations, ceramic and stone tool caches, and many shell
beads and ornaments. A cache of stone artifacts was
recovered from Unit 14, directly adjacent to one of
the tombs. This collection of stone and bone artifacts
represents a recycling kit for making smaller ground
Figure 2. Sitio Drago, site core. Black quadrangles represent excavation units.
84 | BACKDIRT 2014
RESEARCH IN ACTION
stone woodworking tools from broken large axes.
The cache consists of at least 50 artifacts, including
broken large celts (as sources of raw material), large
and small hammer stones, several large primary flakes,
large flakes worked into preforms, pressure-flaked finished preforms, two finished small groundstone tools,
two hand-sized chunks of pumice, two hand-sized
spoon-shaped concreted volcanic ash polishing stones,
and three brocket deer (Mazama americana) antler
pressure flakers.
Old ground surfaces in Units 3942 are covered
with numerous broken ceramic vessels and large
shells, and dense concentrations of animal bone lie
directly adjacent to the tombs. Many of the ceramics
are exotic fine-ware drinking cups and serving vessels associated with larger ollas (curved sherds 6 cm
thick), and cooking vesselsall broken in situ. This
evidence suggests the occurrence of ritual feasting
events associated with the dead. The delicate placement of a secondary burial directly between two tombs
also suggests a social memory of who is buried where.
Ceramics
A diverse array of ceramic wares and vessel forms
are found at Sitio Drago, including huge ollas roundbottomed liquid and/or cooking containers of variable
sizes, small-to-medium tripod cooking and/or drinking vessels, and low open serving vessels. A variety
of pastes, tempers, slips, and surface treatments are
represented. Some sherds bear traces of red painted
designs, and others show designs rendered in red and
black or even polychrome.
The ceramic assemblage has yet to be analyzed in
detail, but preliminary results suggest that the occupation at Sitio Drago can be divided into two broad
ceramic phases. The most recent occupational phase is
characterized by the presence of Bisquit Ware (Linares
de Sapir 1967a,b; Linares 1980b), which is a quite
distinctive high-fired, thin, self-slipped fine ware with
a generally pastel beige paste and fine sandy temper.
Restricted-necked vessels often have detailed, lowrelief plastic circle and chevron decorations on the
neck. Open vessel forms can have tripod bases, can
have molded naturalistic figures as feet and handles,
or are shaped in an animal form. Bisquit Ware sherds
are found only in the upper 40 cm of the Sitio Drago
deposit in all units across the site.
The most common ceramics, various Bocas
Brushed wares, are found throughout the deposit and
are characterized by a brown paste with coarser sand
or crushed stone tempers. Bocas Brushed Ware decoration includes red slip at the rim, often with groups
of an odd number of stripes descending into the vessel

at the cardinal directions. Many of the globular vessel
exteriors are roughly finished, probably brushed with
a palm frond or leaf. Modeled, high-relief marine animal figures, including crabs, octopuses, starfish, fish,
dolphins, and birds are often present on the shoulders
of Bocas Brushed Ware vessels.
Several different ceramic wares are present at Sitio
Drago in addition to the apparently local and more
utilitarian Bocas Brushed Ware. Elaborate Chocolate
Incised Ware sherds represent vessels imported from
the Pacific Coast of S.W. Costa Ricas Diquis region.
This evidence
suggests the
occurrence of
ritual feasting
events associated
with the dead.
The Chocolate Incised Ware includes self-slipped
brown paste with relatively fine tempers. Design elements include application of a black micaceous slip to
the interior of some vessels. Complicated geometric
designs were incised into the vessel rims after firing,
as well as elaborately modeled hollow vessel supports
in the form of standing mammal figures or heads.
Each support contains clay balls inside, probably to
generate a rattling sound when used.
A few diagnostic sherds representing trade wares
from throughout lower Central America have been
identified from Sitio Drago, including central Panama
(Cocl and Macaracas), central Costa Rica (Irazu
Yellow-on-Red), N.W. Costa Rica (Mora Polychrome
and Asiento Polychrome), and possibly S.W. Nicaragua (Papagayo Polychrome; Figure 3). Some of these
exotic ceramics may have traveled up to 400 km to
end up at Sitio Drago.
Stone artifacts
Stone artifacts recovered from Sitio Drago include
ground stone celts and other possible woodworking
tools, mortars, and carved metates. Flake artifacts
include projectile points made on large prismatic
basalt flakes, a few chert-cutting tools, and dbitage
indicative of recycling broken tree-felling axes into
smaller ground stone tools. Small (60120 gm)
BACKDIRT 2014 | 85
notched pebble net-weights are also fairly common.

Fragments of several finely worked, carved stone
metates bearing complicated geometric designs and
feline heads have been recovered from the site. These
artifacts are similar to complete feline-effigy metates
commonly found in upland western Panama and
is more abstract. The two animal figures were recovered from Unit 14, associated with the lithics cache
mentioned previously.
Shell ornaments include a variety of large and
small disk beads in white, red/orange, and purple.
Several bivalve and snail shells of a variety of species
have holes ground in them, presumably for suspension. Carved shell
pendants (Figure 5) made of spiny
oyster (Spondylus), conch (Strombus), and pearl oyster (Pinctada)
shell have been recovered but are
rare compared to the small disk
beads. While worked shell artifacts
have been found across the site,
the vast majority of small-shell disk
beads have been recovered from
soil overlying the tombs in the mortuary area of the site (Units 1317,
2732, 3743, and 48).
Plants
Lana Martin, a UCLA Anthropology graduate student, is currently

conducting a detailed paleoethnobotanical analysis of the carbonized plant remains, phytoliths,
and pollen recovered from Sitio
Drago. Prior analysis of selected
Figure 3. Exotic Ceramics recovered from Units 3942, Sitio Drago: upper leftIraz yellow-on-red
carbonized plant remains suggests
(central Costa Rica); upper rightPapagayo polychrome (S.W. Nicaragua-N.W. Costa Rica); lower left
that Raffia Palm (Raffia taedigera)
Cocl polychrome (central Pacific Panama); lower rightMora polychrome (N.W. Costa Rica).
nuts were used as a food source at
the site (Wake 2006). Preliminary findings by Martin
adjacent Costa Rica. Because there were no local
(n.d.) indicate that a wide range of tree fruits and nuts
sources available, these cumbersome stone artifacts
is present in the samples available for analysis, but her
would have had to have been transported over land
forthcoming research will further refine the vegetal
and water to get to Isla Coln. It is likely that the celts
and arboreal sequences.
and projectile points came to Sitio Drago as finished
artifacts or late-stage preforms.
Shell
Bone and Shell Artifacts
Shells are probably the most common item encountered on the surface and during excavation at Sitio
Various bone artifacts representing projectile points,
Drago. To date, at least 86 genera and 76 species of
piercing tools (awls), and ornaments have been recovbivalves and gastropods have been identified from
ered at Sitio Drago. Lanceolate ground and polished
Sitio Drago (Wake et al. 2013). Of these, 15 species
large-mammal bone fragments, honed to a keen edge,
are most common in the collection, all used as food
are interpreted as projectile points. Pointed deer-bone
sources, some as sources of raw materials for artifacts.
metapodial fragments and a worked complete brocket
Many of the smaller, less numerous species may repredeer (Mazama americana) antler are interpreted as
sent riders not specifically collected for food.
piercing tools. Bits of worked bone waste indicate at
least some bone tool manufacture at the site. Three
Bone
carved white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)
Well-preserved animal bone is also common at Sitio
antler ornaments have been recovered as well (Figure
Drago (Wake and Mendizabal in press). In total, at
4). Two of these represent animal figures, and another
86 | BACKDIRT 2014
RESEARCH IN ACTION
Upon inspection, the ceramics recovered from
least 96 genera and 80 species of vertebrates have
this site were puzzlingthey were completely difbeen identified at Sitio Drago, representing 68 famiferent from those encountered at Sitio Drago. The
lies. Fish remains are the most numerous, with marine
IC-15 ceramics compared favorably with those termed
and terrestrial higher vertebrates well represented.
Bugaba by Linares (1980b) from Cerro Brujo,
Fifty-two genera and 43 species representing 34 famidating to approximately 600 CE. These ceramics are
lies of fish have been identified (Wake et al. 2013).
Amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals are present in the Sitio
Drago bone collection as well. Bones
from the smoky jungle frog (Leptodactylus savagei) are relatively
common in Units 1927 and 3942
in the mortuary area. Sea turtle
bones, mostly green turtle (Chelonia
mydas), represent the most common
large reptiles identified, followed
by terrestrial turtles, iguanas, and
snakes. Bird bones are the least common, but include parrots, cormorants, and songbirds.
The identified mammal remains
are dominated by terrestrial species,
especially rodents, including agouti
(Dasyprocta punctata), paca (Agouti
paca), and spiny rat (Proechimys
semispinosus). Artiodactyls, including white-tailed deer, brocket deer,
and peccaries (Pecari tajacu), are
Figure 4. Carved white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) antler pendants from Sitio Drago.
the most common large terrestrial
mammals. Three species of monkey
(howlerAlouatta paliatta, spider
Ateles geoffroyi, and white-faced
capuchinCebus capucinus) are
present in the Sitio Drago collection. West Indian manatee (Trichecus
manatus), the largest living New
World mammal, is also present in
low numbers.
Sitio Abuelitas (BT-IC-15)
In 2004, project participants were
led to a site now known as Sitio
Abuelitas (IC-15), some 4 km inland
from Sitio Drago at roughly 50 m
elevation. Surface artifacts were
collected in 2004 and the site was
tested in 2005 and again in 2010. I
submitted several carbon samples for
AMS dating, with the results ranging
between 60 CE and 420 CE, driving
back the occupational history for the
region another 600 years.
Figure 5. Selected carved shell ornaments from Sitio Drago: Red-orangeSpondylus;

WhiteStrombus; Mother-of-pearlIsognomon.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 87
RESEARCH IN ACTION
representative of a broader Aguas Buenas (AB) style
that occurs in western Panama and eastern Costa Rica
between 500 BCE. and 700 CE. The Aguas Buenas
style complex is defined by liberal usage of a bright
red slip and modeled naturalistic terrestrial animal
and human figurines on vessel exteriors, both wellrepresented at IC-15 (Figure 6).
Ground stone artifacts from IC-15 included a
couple of polished igneous celts, basaltic discoidal
choppers, and basaltic milling-stone fragments. We
also recovered a small greenstone disk bead, as well
as a hard greenstone pebble with a suspension hole
and modification reminiscent of a perched birdone
of very few provenienced greenstone artifacts known
One of the more

prominent
archaeological
features at Cerro
Brujo is a line of
four large basaltic
boulder mortars.
from Panama. A formal analysis of the IC-15 ceramics
and other artifacts is currently underway. Unfortunately, organic preservation at IC-15 is poor; no shells
were present, only shadows of burned fish vertebrae
were documented, and small pieces of charcoal were
recovered (Wake 2014).
ARTIFACT TRENDS
Ceramic distributions
While the Aguas Buenas Phase ceramics (Bugaba
style) from Cerro Brujo and IC-15 have yet to be
sourced, it would not be surprising if they were
produced in the highlands surrounding Volcan
Barthe apparent Bugaba / Aguas Buenas heartland (Linares 1980a). Visibly, the two Bocas del Toro
Aguas Buenasstyle ceramic collections from CB and
IC-15 appear virtually indistinguishable from those
described in Linares (1980a).
The ceramic collection from IC-1 is different from
that of Cerro Brujo and IC-15 in terms of diversity and
quality. The Cerro Brujo and IC-15 sites do not appear
to include ceramics from outside the local region other
than the highlands around Volcn Bar. The ceramic
88 | BACKDIRT 2014
assemblage from IC-1 includes a variety of ceramics

from throughout lower Central America, including
examples from central Panama (Cocl, Macaracas,
Parita), the Pacific slope of western Panama (Linarte
Zoned Red Line), the Diqus region of S.E. Costa Rica
(Chocolate Incised), Costa Ricas Valle Central (Irazu
Yellow-on-Red), the Tempisque region of N.W. Costa
Rica (Mora and Asiento Polychromes), and possibly
the Rivas region of S.W. Nicaragua (Papagayo Polychrome; Figure 3).
Stone Artifacts
With the exception of a few small flat limestone pebbles that were notched and likely used as net-weights,
no tool-quality stone is available on Isla Coln (Coates
et al. 2005). All of the igneous stone used for celts,
smaller woodworking tools, projectile points, carved
metates, and boulder mortars at Sitio Drago was
transported across at least 7 fathoms (12.81 m) of
water to get there. The presence of flat igneous milling stone fragments at both IC-15 and Sitio Drago
indicates continuing importation of finished products
from somewhere on the mainland, probably in the
highlands. The stone tool assemblage from IC-15
(celts, choppers, and cutting tools) also indicates earlier continued contact with the mainland.
One of the more prominent archaeological
features at Cerro Brujo is a line of four large basaltic boulder mortars. Boulder mortars are relatively
common on Isla Coln as well, found across the
island. These boulders are igneous in nature and also
from off-island. Many of these stones cannot even
be turned over by an individual and must weigh well
over 100 kg. To obtain stones such as these would
require an organized group of people with access
to watercraft, presumably from a mainland stream
course. The stones would have to be loaded into a
boat, transported across Almirante Bay, unloaded, and
then hauled to localities several km inland over rough
terrain. Exactly when boulder mortars were first transported to Isla Coln remains undetermined.
The lithic assemblage from Sitio Drago is further
testimony to the continued importation of various
prepared and/or finished stone tool classes from the
mainland. All of the large axes, celts, adzes, chisels,
and other chipped, ground, and polished stone tools
recovered on Isla Coln are made of igneous rock, primarily basalt, found on the mainland. The production
of these tools is a specialized process that requires an
abundance of raw material, none of which is available
on Isla Coln. The relative value of tool-quality basalt
at Sitio Drago is indicated by the intensive recycling of
Figure 6. Selected Aguas Buenas Phase ceramics from Sitio Abuelitas (BT-IC-15, AD 0-400), Isla Coln, Bocas del Toro, Panama.
large pieces of stone, in the form of broken axes, into

smaller adzes, celts, and chisels found in the stone
tool cache from Unit 14 described above. Someone
certainly had the knowledge and capability to reprocess broken axes into useful smaller stone tools at
Sitio Drago.
All of the projectile points and some of the smaller
woodworking tools recovered from Sitio Drago are
made on prismatic basalt blades. The production of
prismatic blades is a fairly specialized process, well
documented in Mesoamerica, that leaves tell-tale quarries, dbitage, and exhausted cores behind. The lack
of obsidian in Lower Central America necessitated the
use of local cherts and fine-grained basalts for blade
production.
Samples of basaltic flakes recovered from Sitio
Drago have been subjected to portable X-ray florescence spectroscopy (pXRF) analysis under the
direction of Christian Fischer in the UCLA / Getty
Conservation Program at the Cotsen Institute of
Archaeology. Preliminary analysis suggests at least
one primary source of material, along with several
outliers possibly representing other sources (Figure
7). The location of this source and any others is currently unknown but almost certainly lies somewhere
on the mainland, quite possibly on Volcn Bar.
Locating and characterizing the source(s) of the stone

artifacts from Sitio Drago presents an exciting future
research avenue.
Ornaments
The stone, shell, and bone ornaments from both
IC-15 and Sitio Drago represent potential objects of
exchange. The stone ornaments from IC-15 certainly
came from the mainland. The jadelike stone bird
amulet may be from Costa Rica or perhaps Mesoamerica: it remains to be chemically characterized.
The shell beads and ornaments recovered from
Sitio Drago represent objects that could be manufactured at the site in order to be traded or exchanged
for items from the mainland. Limited evidence of
shell-ornament production is documented from Sitio
Drago, primarily in the form of unfinished shell ornaments and bits of worked shell. Evidence of intensive
shell-bead production, such as that documented from
the Californias Channel Islands and at Cerro Juan
Diz (CJDMayo 2004, 2007), has yet to be found at
Sitio Drago.
Shell ornaments virtually identical to those from
Sitio Drago illustrated in Figure 6 have been found
to be fairly common in burials at CJD, especially
the red/orange Spondylus (spiny oyster) frogs and
BACKDIRT 2014 | 89
tree resources. The boulder

mortars and rocker manos,
common across the island, are
consistent with the proposed
mixed vegeculture plant use
pattern suggested for Cerro
Brujo (Linares and Ranere
1980).
The presence of flat milling stone fragments at both
IC-15 and Sitio Drago are
indicative of seed processing
and may represent a greater
use of maize in the region
than previously thought. The
results of Lana Martins dissertation (Martin n.d.) will
shed much light on plant use
on Isla Coln and hopefully
provide some answers as to
Figure 7. Results of PXRF analysis of 66 basaltic flakes recovered from Sitio Drago.
which plants were used in
what frequencies.
Study of the animal remains from Sitio Drago is
white ground-shell biperforate triangles (Cooke et
ongoing, but analysis of selected samples has demonal. 1998:192, Figure 9; Mayo 2004). Similar shell
strated evidence of human impacts on local animal
ornaments have been recovered from other central
resources. Wake et al. (2013) demonstrate a signifiPanamanian archaeological sites (Cooke, Pers. Comm.
cant reduction in the trophic level of fish represented
2012).
at Sitio Drago between the lower levels of the site, and
The bone ornaments from Sitio Drago are intriguthe upper 40 cm Bisquit Ware-bearing levels. Fishing
ing. All have large holes, presumably for suspension,
at Drago shifted from a focus on larger predatory speand two are carved to represent animals. These two
cies during the earlier occupation to a wider range of
figurines reveal iconographic similarities to central
more generalist species in the later occupation.
Panama. One amulet resembles a skeletal human figDetailed analysis of fighting conch (Strombus
ure from one aspect. However, when viewed from the
pugilis) shells from Sitio Drago elsewhere in the Bocas
side, the same figure resembles a crocodile. Lothrop
del Toro Archipelago shows a significant reduction in
(1937:171172, 198) recovered several similar carved
size at maturity over the past 7,000 years (ODea et
bone crocodile figurines from Sitio Conte, in Central
al. 2014). This trend began prior to the occupation
Panama. The other amulet resembles a felid with a
of Sitio Drago, continues into the modern era, and is
long tail, possibly a puma, and appears to be in the
indicative of the long-term effects of human harvestGran Cocl style (Lothrop 1937). Carved antler
ing pressure on the conch resource. The indications
ornaments from Jalaca, Diqus, Costa Rica (Stone
and implications of human impacts on various animal
1963) also bear a strong resemblance to those found
resources invite a great deal of further research.
at Sitio Drago. It should be noted that many bone
artifacts recovered from central Panama, Sitio Conte
Chronology
in particular, are made from manatee bone (Lothrop
The results of excavation at Sitio Drago and IC-15
1937)available only on the Caribbean coast.
have provided a great deal of information on the
Subsistence
settlement chronology of Isla Coln and Bocas del
Toro. Linares and Ranere (1980) suggest that the
The subsistence evidence from Isla Coln leads to
mainland Aguacate Peninsula was settled around 600
several interesting interpretations concerning plant
CE. Our project has shown that the IC-15 site clearly
and animal use and the human impacts on animal
indicates that Isla Coln was occupied at least 2,000
resources. In terms of plant use, it seems clear that
years ago. The occupants of this site had access to
the IC-1 inhabitants exploited raffia nuts and other
90 | BACKDIRT 2014
RESEARCH IN ACTION
stone tools and raw material not found on Isla Coln,
derived from the mainland. The ceramics from IC-15
bear clear affinities to the Bugaba / Aguas Buenas
style collections from Cerro Brujo and the highlands
surrounding Volcan Bar (Linares and Ranere 1980).
Earlier settlement of the Bocas del Toro region is not
surprising given the evidence from Black Creek (38302355 BP), just 25 km to the west in adjacent coastal
Costa Rica (Baldi 2001, 2011; Chavez et al. 1996).
The findings from Sitio Drago also help clarify the
settlement chronology of the region. The presence of
Bisquit Ware ceramics in only the upper 40 cm of the
Sitio Drago deposit clarifies that Linares and Raneres
Bocas Phase can be divided into two distinct occupation phases, at least at Sitio Drago. The post-contact
(post-1500 CE) radiocarbon dates from ceramic-bearing sites in the interior of Isla Coln indicate occupation of the region continued through the historic
period. However, the ceramic collections from these
sites appear locally manufactured, less diverse in
terms of types, varieties, and vessel forms, and bear
little affinity to those from IC-15 or Sitio Drago, suggesting a different material cultural horizon.
Educational Ramifications
The results described above offer a great deal of new
information concerning the prehistory of Caribbean
western Panama. Several articles have been published
documenting various parts of the project, including
project overviews (Wake et al. 2004; Wake 2008;
Wake and Mendizabal in press), remote sensing
(Wake et al. 2012), marine shell and bone (ODea et
al. 2014; Wake et al. 2013), and plant remains (Wake
2006).
To date the Proyecto Arqueologico Sitio Drago
and associated field schools have brought at least 65
undergraduates to Bocas del Toro, Panama. Several of
those undergraduates returned to the site as graduate students. Four of these students have finished, or
are completing, masters theses on various aspects of
the archaeology of Sitio Drago and Isla Coln (Bond
2008CSUN; Kay 2010U. Florida; Doughty
2011U. Birmingham; Davis n.d.Kansas U.).
A field season in 2010 and study season in 2011
allowed UCLA Anthropology graduate student Lana
Martin to familiarize herself with the site, Panama,
and STRI and to provide paleoethnobotanical data
for her dissertation on plant consumption practices
(Martin n.d.). In 2012, an Institute for Field Research
field school run through CSUN in collaboration with
UCLA allowed current UCB graduate student and
UCLA alumnus Jerry Howard to generate the final set
of field data for his dissertation on historical archaeology, creolization, and ethnic identity (Howard 2014).
Conclusions
Conducting research in Caribbean coastal Panama has
produced excellent dividends. Over the past ten years
we have learned that Isla Coln was settled earlier
than previously thought. Evidence of continuous contact with the highlands on the mainland to the south
for the past 2,000 years suggests also that the region
was less isolated than assumed. The material culture
recovered from Sitio Drago shows contact with a vari-
Evidence of
continuous contact
with the highlands
on the mainland to
the south for the past
2,000 years suggests
also that the region
was less isolated
than assumed.
ety of culture areas covering much of lower Central
America: Gran Cocl to the east, Gran Chiriqu to the
south, and Gran Nicoya to the northwest.
The people living at Sitio Drago were not isolated
and had a level of social organization that allowed
them to actively interact with other local and regional
populations and to organize the requisite number of
people and watercraft necessary to transport large
boulders from the mainland to island hilltops. In addition to the regionally diagnostic trade ceramics, the
stone and shell artifacts recovered from Sitio Drago
are evocative of an active exchange network operating
between Isla Coln and different parts of the mainland, up to 400 km away. Bocas del Toro was part of
a larger lower Central American trade and exchange
network from at least 2,000 to 500 years ago.
Data recovered from survey, surface collection,
and limited excavation suggest that this changed
radically in the sixteenth century CE, perhaps soon
after Columbuss October 5, 1502, visit to Bocas del
Toro. The material culture recovered from postcontact sites on Isla Coln appears less technologically
sophisticated and more insular. These sites have been
BACKDIRT 2014 | 91
located on interior hilltops and caves, away from the

coast and hidden from view. Few exotic ceramics were
found, and those recovered appear less diverse and
more crudely made compared to those from a century
earlier. Few basaltic tools were found.
All indications suggest an early historic period
collapse of the earlier far-flung network, resulting in
a more isolated local population. As Howard (2014)
discusses, this situation began to change in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries CE with the influx of
pirates, Anglophone Afro-Caribbeans, different Indian
groups, and banana plantations, ultimately producing
the diverse community that is modern Bocas del Toro.
The past 10 years of field work in Panama has
been a wonderful experience. Research collaborations have blossomed and are bearing academic fruit
in terms of new knowledge and interested students.
The Proyecto Arqueolgico Sitio Drago has served
to educate North American university students about
Panamanian archaeology and the vibrant culture of
Bocas del Toro and Panama in general. Many participants have remarked to me how enjoyable and
eye-opening their experience in Panama turned out to
be. Panamanian participants in the project have honed
their professional skills and continued their careers
in archaeology. Several project participants have
returned to conduct further research into the archaeology of Bocas del Toro. I look forward to at least
another ten years of enjoyable fieldwork in Panama.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge the Serracn Family
of Boca del Drago, especially Don Aristides Bolo
Serracn, Ana Serracn de Shaffer, Juany and Willy
Serracn, and Brenda Serracn de lvarez, for their
permission to excavate at at Sitio Drago, and their
accommodation and support. I also acknowledge the
support and participation of Alonso Iglesias, who
provided permission to excavate on his familys portion of Sitio Drago. I want to thank Joanne Snowden,
Helen Campbell, Marillyn Holmes, and Marta Perez
for their volunteer efforts on the project. Important
extramural support for the project has come through
private donations and support of the American
Philosophical Societys Franklin Fund (2005, $5,000).
The 2003 class and the subsequent project would not
have been successful without the institutional support of Carlos Fitzgerald (Director, Departamento
Nacionl de Patrimonio Histrico INAC, Panam)
and Pete Lahanas (Director, ITEC) and the support
and participation of Christina Campbell (California
State University, Northridge (CSUNAnthropology).
92 | BACKDIRT 2014
For the 2007 season, thanks are due to the Panamanian government, which provided support to Tomas
Mendizabal, my co-director, and myself for the UCLA
project in order to collaborate with Instituto Nacional de Culturas (INAC) Departamento Nacional de
Patrimonio Historico (DNPH) staff in the field and the
lab through the Secrataria Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologa (SENACYT, $49,800). I thank the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI), and David and
Marvalee Wake, for financial and material support.
RE F EREN C ES
Baldi, Norberto. 2001. Black Creek (UCR No. 467): Primeras
Interpretaciones de un Modo de Vida Costero en el
Caribe Sur de Costa Rica. Unpublished Licenciatura
Thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Costa
Rica.
Baldi, Norberto. 2011. Explotacion Temprana de Recursos
Costeros en el Sitio Black Creek (4000-2500 BP), Caribe
Sur de Costa Rica. Revista de Arqueologa Americana
29:85121.
Bond, Jeannette C. 2008. A Ceramic Analysis at Sitio Drago,
Bocas del Toro, Panam. Unpublished Masters Thesis,
Department of Anthropology, California State University,
Northridge.
Chavez, Carlos, Oscar Fonseca, and Norberto Baldi. 1996.
Investigaciones arqueologicas en la costa Caribe de Costa
Rica, America Central. Revista de Arqueologa Americana 10:124161.
Coates, Anthony G., D. F. McNeill, M-P. Aubry, W. A. Berggren, and Laurel S. Collins. 2005. An Introduction to
the Geology of the Bocas del Toro Archipelago, Panama.
Caribbean Journal of Science 41(3):374391.
Cooke, Richard G. 2005. Prehistory of Native Americans on the
Central American Land Bridge: Colonization, Dispersal,
and Divergence. Journal of Archaeological Research
13(2):129187.
Cooke, Richard G., Luis-Alberto Snchez, Ilean I. Isaza, and
Andres Prez. 1998. Rasgos Mortuarios y Artefactos
Inusitados de Cerro Juan Diaz, Una Aldea Precolombina
del Gran Cocl. La Antigua 53:127196.
Corrales, Francisco. 2000. An Evaluation of Long Term
Cultural Change in Southern Central America: The
Ceramic Record of the Diqus Archaeological Subregion,
Southern Costa Rica. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Kansas,
Lawrence.
Davis, Kristina E. No Date. Analysis of the Prehistoric Human
Skeletal Remains from Sitio Drago, Isla Coln, Bocas del
Toro, Panam. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Department
of Anthropology, University of Kansas, Lawrence.
Doughty, Douglas R. 2011. An Analysis of Molluscs Recovered
from Excavations at Sitio Drago, Isla Coln, Panam.
Unpublished Masters Thesis, Institute of Archaeology
and Antiquity, University of Birmingham, U.K.
RESEARCH IN ACTION
Gordon, Burton L. 1962. Notes on Shell Mounds near the
Caribbean Coast of Western Panama. Panama Archaeologist 5:19.
Mayo, Julia. 2007. Conchas y Especializacin artisanal en

Gran Cocl, Panam. Arqueologa del rea Intermedia
7:89112.
Gordon, Burton L. 1982. A Panama Forest and Shore: Natural

History and Amerindian Culture in Bocas del Toro.
Pacific Grove, California: The Boxwood Press.
ODea, Aaron, Marian L. Schafer, Douglas R. Doughty, Thomas

A. Wake, and F. Rodriguez. 2014. Evidence of SizeSelective Evolution in the Fighting Conch from Prehistoric Subsistence Harvesting. Proceedings of the Royal
Society B 281:20140159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/
rspb.2014.0159.
Haberland, Wolfgang. 1984. The Archaeology of Greater

Chiriqu. In The Archaeology of Lower Central America,
edited by Frederick W. Lange and Doris Z Stone, pp.
233254. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
Howard, Jerome. 2014. Culture Change and Identity in Bocas
del Toro, Panama: An Example of Community-Engaged
Scholarship in Historical Archaeology. Unpublished
Doctoral Dissertation, Department of Anthropology, UC
Berkeley.
Kay, Michael. 2010. Zooarchaeology and Human-Environment
Interactions at Pre-Columbian Sitio Drago, Panama.
Unpublished Masters Thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville.
Linares, Olga F. 1976. Garden Hunting in the American Tropics. Human Ecology 4(4):331349.
Linares, Olga F.1977. Adaptive Strategies in Western Panama.
World Archaeology 8(3):304319.
Linares, Olga F. 1980a. The Ceramic Record: Time and Place.
In Adaptive Radiations in Prehistoric Panama, edited
by Olga F. Linares and Anthony J. Ranere, pp. 81117.
Cambridge: Harvard University, Peabody Museum
Monographs, Number 5.
Linares, Olga F. 1980b. Ecology and Prehistory of the Aguacate
Peninsula in Bocas del Toro. In Adaptive Radiations
in Prehistoric Panama, edited by Olga F. Linares and
Anthony J. Ranere, pp. 5766. Cambridge: Harvard University, Peabody Museum Monographs, Number 5.
Linares, Olga F, and Anthony J. Ranere (eds.). 1980. Adaptive
Radiations in Prehistoric Panama. Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University, Peabody Museum Monographs,
Number 5.
Linares de Sapir, Olga F. 1968a. Ceramic Phases for Chiriqu,
Panam, and Their Relationship to Neighboring
Sequences. American Antiquity 33(2):216225.
Linares de Sapir, Olga F. 1968b. Cultural Chronology of the
Gulf of Chiriqui, Panama. Smithsonian Contributions to
Anthropology, Number 8. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Linares de Sapir, Olga F. 1971. Cerro Brujo: A Tiny Guaymi
Hamlet of the Past. Expedition 13(2):2735.
Lothrop, Samuel K. 1937. Cocl: An Archaeological Study
of Central Panama, Part 1. Memoirs of the Peabody
Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology 7. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Martin, Lana. No Date. Reconstructing Late Ceramic Period
Food Production and Political Complexity in Western
Caribbean Panama. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation,
Department of Anthropology, UCLA.
Stirling, Matthew W., and Marion Stirling. 1964. Archaeological Notes on Almirante Bay, Bocas del Toro, Panama.
Anthropological Papers 72:255284. Washington D.C.:
Smithsonian Institution.
Stone, Doris. 1963. Cult Traits in Southeastern Costa Rica and
Their Significance. American Antiquity 28(3):339359
Wake, Thomas A. 2004. Exploring Sitio Drago. Backdirt:
Newsletter of the Institute of Archaeology, University of
California, Los Angeles Fall/Winter:1, 45.
Wake, Thomas A. 2006. Prehistoric Exploitation of the Swamp
Palm (Raphia taedigera:Arecacae) at Sitio Drago, Isla
Coln, Bocas del Toro, Panam. The Caribbean Journal
of Science 42(1):1119.
Wake, Thomas A. 2008. Reflecting on Fieldwork in Bocas del
Toro, Panama. Backdirt: Annual Review of the Cotsen
Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los
Angeles Fall/Winter:4647.
Wake, Thomas A. 2014. Proyecto Arqueolgico Sitio Drago:
Prehistoric Subsistence and Society in Northwest Caribbean Panama, 2010 Archaeological Investigations at
Sitio Abuelitas (BT-IC-15), Isla Coln, Bocas del Toro,
Panam. Report submitted to Sandra Cerrud, Directora,
Direccin Nacionl de Patrimonio Histrico, INAC,
Repblica del Panam.
Wake, Thomas A., Douglas R. Doughty, and Michael Kay. 2013.
Archaeological Investigations Provide Late Holocene
Baseline Ecological Data for Bocas del Toro, Panama.
Bulletin of Marine Science 89(4):10151035.
Wake, Thomas A., Jason de Leon, and Carlos Fitzgerald. 2004.
Prehistoric Sitio Drago, Bocas del Toro, Panama. Antiquity 78(300) June 2004: http://antiquity.ac.uk/ProjGall/
wake/.
Wake, Thomas A., and Tomas Mendizbal. (In Press). Sitio
Drago (Isla Colon, Bocas del Toro, Panama): Un Aldea
y Centro de Intercambio en el Caribe Panameo. In
Mucho Ms que un Puente Terrestre: Nuevos Datos
Sobre la Vida Aldeana an Panam, edited by JuanGuillermo Martn and Richard G. Cooke. Barranquilla,
Colombia: Universidad el Norte.
Wake, Thomas A., Alexis O. Mojica, Michael H. Davis, Christina J. Campbell, and Tomas Mendizabal. 2012. Electrical Resistivity Surveying and Pseudo-Three-Dimensional
Tomographic Imaging at Sitio Drago, Bocas del Toro,
Panama. Archaeological Prospection 9(1):4958.
Mayo, Julia. 2004. La Industria Prehispanica de Conchas Marinas en Gran Cocl, Panam. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, Departamento de Historia de Amrica II
(Antropologa de Amrica), Facultad de Geografa e
Historia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 93
RESEARCH IN ACTION
RESEAR C HER S NOTEBOO K
Research at the Ancient Town

of Talapada, India, 2014
Monica L. Smith1 and Rabindra Kumar Mohanty2
T he p ro ce ss o f urbaniz at io n has profound

economic and social effects, not only on people who
live in cities, but also on inhabitants of the surrounding countryside. For example, farmers often have to
work harder to produce the food needed by urban
residents while facing the loss of agricultural workers who would rather go to the big city themselves.
Even when they do not move, rural residents become
familiar with urban customs and language as friends
and family members engage in cycles of migration to
the city and back again.
Our research projects in eastern India have provided a rare opportunity to examine both the heart
and the periphery of an ancient city. Having had the
benefit of conducting research in the regions premier
archaeological metropolis of Sisupalgarh for a decade,
we wanted to look at the surrounding region in order
to study its hinterland domino effect. Thanks to our
enterprising students study of Google Earth imagery,
the team located two settlements that had enclosing
walls constructed on the same pattern as Sisupalgarhs
kilometer-long rampart, but on a smaller scale. These
town-sized settlements, measuring about one-quarter
1 Professor, Department of Anthropology; Cotsen Institute of

Archaeology, UCLA.
2 Professor, Department of Archaeology, Deccan College
Post-Graduate and Research Institute, Pune, India.
94 | BACKDIRT 2014
Our research
projects in eastern
India have provided
a rare opportunity
to examine both
the heart and the
periphery of an
ancient city.
the size of Sisupalgarh, provided the ideal location

to evaluate the ways in which concepts ranging from
urban planning to household economies were materialized at hinterland sites.
We selected the site of Talapada for an intensive series of investigations. In 2014 we were able
to implement our biggest season thus far, with six
areas simultaneously excavated at various locations
on the ramparts, gateways, and habitation areas. The
research group included students and faculty from
UCLA and three Indian institutions, including the
entire first-year M.A. cohort of Deccan College. A
team of geophysical surveyors, coordinated by Professor Timothy Matney from the University of Akron,
also returned to Talapada to continue the pioneering
research of the previous year.
This past seasons work was carried out with a particular focus on the ramparts formal gateways. Visible
from satellite images, as well as on the ground, these
The towns
residents were
savvy about the
embellishment of
their symbolic
rampart.
Figure 1. Excavations in progress, Talapada gateway (UCLA graduate

student Hannah Lau with baseball hat at right).
gateways are identical in shape to those at Sisupalgarh, but on-the-ground reconnaissance immediately
showed that they were much more modest in scale.
The rampart itself was only 2-3 meters in height, and
likely to have constituted a social rather than a defensive perimeter. Our excavations of the gateways and
one of the rampart corners indicated that the towns
residents were savvy about embellishment: only the
gateway that faced Sisupalgarh had formal stone steps
and passageways, a nod to the influence of the big
city that was both aesthetic and cost-effective.
Figure 2. Students with electrical resistivity meter

conducting geophysical survey.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 95
Excavations
sometimes catch
ancient builders
in the act of
preparing for
constructions that
never materialized.
Figure 4. R. K. Mohanty and

excavated gateway at Talapada.
96 | BACKDIRT 2014
Figure 3. Evening paperwork,

Talapada field camp.
RESEARCH IN ACTION
Figure 5. Field crew with students and local village workers, Talapada.
Other areas were excavated to follow up on

geophysical signals of subsurface constructions. In
one areanow utilized as agricultural fieldsthat
lacked any visible trace of archaeological remains,
the geophysics team found a strong pair of signals
running approximately 20 meters long, like two tracks
or walls. Expecting a kiln or a structure, excavators
instead revealed carefully stacked bricks that appear
to have been a depot of construction material.
The discovery was a good reminder that excavations sometimes catch ancient builders in the act of
preparing for constructions that never materialized (a
snapshot of unfinished business that supports our earlier insights that Talapada might have been built on
spec and never fully realized or even occupiedsee
our report in Backdirt 2013). Excavations also followed up on geophysical signals of structural remains
in one area within the ramparts associated with iron
production and also another area whose enigmatic
circular constructions recalled similar structures from
Sisupalgarh.
Our large scale of investigations was made possible by the hard work and team spirit of the many
students who participated in the project. Their collective good cheer was evident every day, as well as their
sense of humor and innovation: they borrowed bicycles for the project directors to move from one excavation to another, a daily round-robin of cycling that
provided a constant source of village bemusement.
Talapada might
have been
built on spec
and never fully
occupied.
As always, we are highly appreciative to the many
agencies and individuals who made the fieldwork
possible, notably the Archaeological Survey of India
and the National Science Foundation, along with
many state and local supporters. The teamwork from
the season was dynamic and integrative, made possible by the generous accommodations of two village
families, who moved in with relatives and made their
houses available so that our team could work and live
together. We also had a wonderful support team of
cook, driver, and household workers, who have been
with us over the seasons and who contributed greatly
to the harmony and smooth working of the field camp,
enabling us to devote full-time attention to the many
exciting discoveries of the research season.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 97
PHOTO ESSAY
2014 Open House

2
3
1
he yearly Open House at the

Cotsen Institute of Archaeology
welcomes the community, college
students, high school students, and anyone who has a fascination with archaeology. Our faculty, students, staff, and
volunteers work together like a well-oiled
machine to make this event a success.
This should not come as a surprise, as
the Institute has opened its doors for
seventeen years to the public (Figure 1).
Upon entering our underground
labyrinth, our visitors are greeted with an
introduction to Stone Age tools (Figure
2). There is a strange familiarity when
holding these hand tools as they were
held thousands of years agothey have
the right weight and shape for cutting or
scraping. More tools are found in the Old
Stone Age laboratory, although many of
these are for finer work, such as making
crafts of leather or fibers (Figures 3, 4).
98 | BACKDIRT 2014
Hunter-gatherer groups are the focus

of the Channel Island laboratories, where
thousands of bead shells are found in
various stages of production (Figure 5).
These were used as currency for trading
with mainlanders.
The Zooarchaeology laboratory is
also a popular spot for visitors. Here,
miniscule bone fragments indicate which
animals were hunted and butchered and
how different parts of animals were utilized by people in the past (Figures 6, 7).
All photographs by
Reed Hutchison/PhotoGraphics
BACKDIRT 2014 | 99
2014 Open House

8
10
9
11
12
100 | BACKDIRT 2014
till in the Neolithic period is the

Mediterranean Laboratory, where
Scaloria Cave is giving up its
secrets from the mid-sixth millennium
BC (Figure 8).
The Ceramics Analysis Research
Group studies the production and use of
ceramic vessels. Visitors have a chance
to see and handle clay in various stages
of fabrication (Figure 9).
The Rock Art Archive presents
images of humans, animals, and many
curious shapes that only the cultures that
made them would be able to identify
(Figure 10).
The Mesopotamian Laboratory
presents 20 years of scholarship in Syria.
We hope archaeological research in this
region will resume when all the warfare
comes to an end (Figure 11).
We have a number of faculty and
students who are actively doing research
in Egypt (Figure 12). Another troubled
spot, but archaeology continues!
Other laboratories made accessible
for the Institutes Open House accommodate scholars studying such areas
as Armenia, the American Southwest,
South Asia, Anatolia, East Asia, and the
Andes.
13
14
The final phase of scholarship, after

the excavations, is the publication of
results (Figure 13) and conservation of
the finds for exhibiting in museums for
all people to learn and enjoy (Figure 14).
The public lecture is the culmination
of the process of sharing the data with all
interested individuals. This years lecture,
by Alexei Vranich, was titled Cusco,
Capital of the Incas.
For our small visitors, the Open
House provides a childrens room, where
the young (and not so young) can try
their hands at arts and crafts of a variety
of cultures (Figure 15).
For all of you who have been fascinated with our past, our Open House will
give you a glimpse of what knowledge is
still in the ground for us to discover. We
hope to see you in 2015!
15
All photographs by
Reed Hutchison/PhotoGraphics
Helle Girey,
Cotsen Institute of Archaeology,
UCLA
BACKDIRT 2014 | 101
OPINION
As archaeologists attempting to engage with the past, we often find
ourselves confronted with realities of the present that are not always
academic in nature. The Backdirt editorial committee wanted to find
a way to provide scholars with a conduit to communicate these kinds
of experiences and is therefore pleased to initiate a new section to
our Annual Review Opinion. The assertions or opinions expressed
below are not necessarily those of the editorial committee or Institute.
Courage among the Ruins:

A Sustainable Conservation
Program in Time of War
Giorgio Buccellati1
A MORAL PRESENCE
An archaeological project explores the past. But
it lives in the present. It is not only that history,
extracted from the ground, unravels their experiences,
of the humans of yesteryear, it is also that our collective identities rest on the vertical sense of self that
only our past can give us. We are our past. And caring
for it is the responsibility we share, whether archaeologists or not.
It is, then, with tender care that we must nurture a
project like oursaimed at a remote Syrian past, and
yet so full of meaning for the troubled Syrian present.
We had to design wholly new ways of showing how
much life there is in the remoteness of a buried past.
It is a moral presence. But not in the rhetorical and
sentimental sense that we only speak about it. Rather,
in the very concrete and real sense that we are transforming culture into a social glue.
We were ready, though we had clearly not been
1. Professor Emeritus of History and Near Eastern
Languages and Cultures.
102 | BACKDIRT 2014
expecting war. And yet it was as if we had. With the

clearest sense of purpose. It was the attention we
gave, over the years, to a central concern: the need to
raise local awareness for the subtle richness of a long
since hidden culture.
Training in conservation and education at all levels
were the mechanisms to meet these concerns. And
we were enabled to live up to our readiness through
grants, among others, from the Cotsen Institute of
Archaeology and from the Office of the Vice-Chancellor of Research at UCLA. Through their support,
our moral presence has become ever more real on the
ground where ancient Urkesh stood millennia ago and
where todays inhabitants are keeping guard, with our
help, protecting the silent witness of their ancient territorial forebears.
The results are far-reaching. From politics to
economics, from social awareness to, certainly, the
scholarly dimension as well, our project has set new
standards and has become a model for other such
projects. Putting together all the strands that derive
Figure 1. Presentations on Syrian archaeology at Rimini Meeting, with about 5,000 people in attendance.
from it reveals the richness of its message and defines

the uniqueness of its scope.
THE ABIDING RELEVANCE

During a recent major event in Rimini, Italy, we highlighted our current work in Syria to a vast public. The
occasion was a cultural festival that is quite unique
and certainly the largest of its kind anywhere: during
a single week, over half a million people attend a vast
array of exhibits, lectures, and art events. Admission is
free, and the public is drawn from the widest imaginable segments of society, from artists, intellectuals,
and politicians, to families, students, and children.
This year, we were able to present a series of
events on our project and Syria in general. My wife,
Marilyn, curated an exhibit for which our son Federico and I were the co-curators. The format of the
Rimini exhibits is very participatory: it requires the
presence of a guide who explains the contents of each
room to individual groups, and a large number of
videos, audios, and special graphic devices explain
the central concept in detail. This year there were five

large exhibits and a dozen smaller ones. The one we
proposed was one of the larger ones, alongside one on
space exploration, another on social work in developing countries, two on Peguy and Tolstoy, and two on
recent events in the Ukraine and in Egypt.
Our exhibit, entitled From the Depth of Time:
Communication and Community in Ancient Syria
(Figures 13), dealt with the past, but the last room
addressed the significance of archaeology for today,
especially this Syrian today so tragically immersed in
war and bloodshed. The exhibit remained open each
day during the week from 9 A.M. until midnight, with
groups averaging 60 people starting on a tour every
15 minutes. By the end, some twenty thousand people
had visited the exhibit. We also organized three conferences (Figure 1): the first two, addressing, respectively, the contents of the exhibit and the situation in
Syria today (Archaeology for Peace was the title), were
attended by several thousand people, while the third
was restricted to a limited technical audience.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 103
OPINION
We brought to Rimini three
regional directors of antiquities
from Aleppo, Idlib (the province
of Ebla), and Qamishli (the province of Urkesh); in addition, we
also had four Syrian students. The
Director General was unable to
come but sent a video in which he
addressed the central concerns of
the meeting. The entire program
made a great impact, because
it gave a sense of the immense
vitality and profound relevance of
archaeology.
THE NATIONAL
SYRIAN RESPONSE
In Rimini, we wanted to highlight the positivethe courage
Figure 2. Entrance to the Exhibit on Urkesh at Rimini Meeting.
among the ruinsin two ways:
on a larger scale, the work being
strenuously done by the Directorate General of Antiquities and
Museums (DGAM); on a smaller
scale, our own work at the site of
ancient Urkesh.
With great energy, the DGAM
has been conducting a successful
battle for the preservation of the
national cultural heritage and the
motivation of the people to defend
it. Given the circumstances, and
the long duration of the hostilities,
one would expect the functionaries to withdraw into a sort of intellectual and procedural limbo. But
the opposite is true, and within
the tragedy, the DGAM is living a
moment of hidden but real glory.
Figure 3. Exhibit on Urkesh at Rimini Meeting: about 2 0,000 people
visited the exhibit during the one week it was open.
It was always in the vanguard of
all the systems in the Near East
what has happened in other countries under similar
rigorously professional, in the service of archaeolcircumstances.
ogy first and foremost, whether done by Syrians or
In a statement of June 2013 the Director General,
foreigners. And in the current crisis, this tradition
Dr. Maamoun Abdulkarim, writes:
emerges in a new light, because of the courage with
which the functionaries remain faithful to their task at
Within the framework of the campaign of the
the very moment when personal interest might suggest
Ministry of Culture Syriamy homeland,
an escape into despair. There is a strong will to mainthe DGAM has launched a national campaign
tain the national values and even to innovate. In so
targeting 23 million Syrians to engage them all in
doing, they are indeed offering a model to the world
protecting ancient Syrian antiquities and culof how to cope with tragedy, a model from which the
tural heritage, which they take pride in, against
world may well learn, especially in comparison with
104 | BACKDIRT 2014
theft, vandalism and distortion as it is everyones

responsibility, and they should work together to
protect those antiquities.
The national campaign started its activities on
15-10-2012 by means of putting up road advertisements in all Syrian cities and governorates and
showing films on national televisions encouraging
Syrians to defend their Syrian cultural identity.
As for interaction with the local community,
workers in all directorates of antiquities are collaborating on protecting Syrian antiquities with
volunteers, interested people, opinion leaders,
and intellectual, cultural, and religious elites
in order to create a feeling in every Syrian that
damaging antiquities is an assault against their
civilization, national identity, and history.
The key issue for the DGAM is to play its role
in protecting the Syrian cultural heritage and
all its components, seeing that it belongs to all
Syrians regardless of their political views, which
do not concern the DGAM at all since the battle
is about safeguarding the history and heritage of
a nation.
Thus, the DGAM has been seeking to unify
the visions of all Syrians concerning the antiquities so as to defend and protect them, given
that they represent the thing which has always
brought our people together. Thanks to that, the
DGAMs performance has been professional, scientific and effective, and its cadres have remained
united in all governorates.
The measures taken reflect a wide range of initiatives, in five different directions: (1) Ensuring the
cohesiveness of the staff is a strong priority, because
their solidarity is essential to a capillary effectiveness
of the program. While often personally at risk in their
work, the staff, all the way to down to the guards at
the sites, can be in touch directly and at any time with
the Director General; to this end, a variety of new
items has been provided, from portable telephones
to computers. Also, members of the staff at all levels
have taken part in international meetings, whether
or not the Director General could attend alongside
them. (2) To maintain a high level of professionalism
is difficult, given the isolation in which the DGAM has
found itself. But this they have done, continuing excavations and the publication program within the severe
limits imposed by the events. What should not be forgotten is that the DGAM is safeguarding the sites for
which foreign missions (more than 60!) hold a permit
of excavation. (3) Damage prevention and control is,
of course, the most direct means to be present in the
territory, wherever access is possible. A great number
Figure 4. Large poster exhibited in Damascus and other Syrian cities to motivate
people to defend their cultural heritage.
of projects have been undertaken in this regard, with a

major effort at documentation: this seems often to be
underestimated at a time when several other projects
are being started from the outside to do just what
the DGAM has bravely been carrying out on a daily
basis. (4) Far from accepting isolation, the DGAM has
aggressively pursued a policy of very active collaboration with a large number of international organizations, from the UNESCO, ICOM, and ICCROM, to
NGOs like the World Monuments Fund and various
universities. (5) Last, but certainly not least, a strong
campaign intended to raising national awareness has
been waged, with a number of activities, from the
display of enormous posters in all major cities (Figures
4 and 5), to training conferences for the staff, public
meetings involving local communities, and conducting
a policy of supplying information to local authorities,
as well as strengthening cooperation with them.
In Rimini we witnessed all of this first hand. We
received the directors of three of the most vulnerable
areas, and while far from being Pollyannaish about
BACKDIRT 2014 | 105
it, they displayed the full measure of plain and simple

courage that the media seem to have come to disregard in their coverage of Syrian affairs. Some of us at
the meeting had been talking about courage and even
heroism. When I asked for comments from Yasmine
Mahmoud, one of the Syrian students on our staff who
had just arrived from Damascus on opening day, she
only said: I hear words such as heroism, but in truth
we all feel, in Syria, that we are doing with simplicity
what is needed and is important. She blew a kiss to
the audience, and she sat down.
THE ARTE POVERA OF

CONSERVATION AT MOZAN
Deliberately, the system of conservation I had set up
in Mozan had used the simplest approach, devoid of
technological sophistication, but rich on training for
maintenance at the local level and totally dependent
on local resources. The localized shelter approach to
mud brick walls is our trademark (Figure 6): a system
of iron trellises (Figures 7 and 8) that support a roof
of either metal or mud, flanked on the sides by burlap
panels (Figures 9 and 10). These panels may be drawn
like curtains, in which case they show the walls as
Figure 5. Large poster exhibited in various Syrian cities.
Figure 6. The system of localized shelters used to protect the mud brick walls of Urkesh.
106 | BACKDIRT 2014
OPINION
Figure 7. Detail of trellis, showing link among components.
Figure 8. Detail of trellis, showing modularity of system.
Figure 9. Trellis above

mud brick wall (with stone
substructure).
Figure 10. Tarps
being draped above trellis.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 107
Figure 11. An arte povera approach to wall conservation:

individual panels replacement.
Figure 12. Patching of holes in panels.
they were when first excavated. With the curtains in

place, one gains a sense of the architectural volume.
When they are drawn, one has a perfect view of the
monument in its full documentary sense. More than
twenty years since they were excavated, the walls
remain essentially undamaged.
Our long absence (it is now four years since our
last excavation) has proved the full validity of this
approach. Panels deteriorate and need replacing. My
choice was to opt for local patching (Figures 1114),
which had the advantage of giving work to our local
assistants, if at the cost of aesthetics. But the very
humility of this arte povera approach speaks well in
support of the system: the sense of involvement and
responsibility is increased even more.
In one case, I opted instead for a more drastic
solution. The burlap on the cupola-like cover of
the necromantic shaft, one of the most remarkable
structures in third millennium Syro-Mesopotamia,
had disintegrated. Instead of replacing it, I supervised
(via a complex communication network that relied
on e-mail, telephone, Skype, and Viber) the covering
of the cupola with metal sheeting (Figures 1517). It
was a better solution in terms of long-terms goals. But
especially I wanted to send a signal that our commitment to the site was serious and for the long duration. And it worked that way, with a renewed sense of
identification with our goals on the part of the local
stakeholders.
We have six individuals working on the project in
Mozan, and we are in touch on a regular basis with
them. We receive detailed reports and a great quantity
of photographs over the internet so that, for sure, the
site of ancient Urkesh is by far the best documented
during this period of crisis.
THE AWAKENING
OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Figure 13. Patches on panels.
108 | BACKDIRT 2014
Mozan, as a hill, has always been there, for over three

millennia. It has become Urkesh again thanks only to
archaeology. The evidence is so fine and fractured that
no one but an archaeologist would have been able to
recognize the reality deeply hidden in the ground.
The next question was how to preserve this fragile
gift of time. Preserve it physically, so that it is not
destroyed by rain and snow. But preserve it morally as
well, so that it is not destroyed by war.
The answer is that the site has to be embedded
in the consciousness of the people who are now the
immediate heirs to this remote richness. We had been
nurturing this consciousness, with a very explicit and
concrete program long before the troubles started in
OPINION
Figure 14. Patches on panels.
Figure 15. The disintegrated tarp above the

necromantic pit (abi) in summer 2013.
Figure 16. The new metal cover for the abi in the fall of 2013.
Figure 17, The abi shelter in winter 20132014.

BACKDIRT 2014 | 109
Figure 18. A doll produced by

the women of Mozan.
2011. This meant eliciting a sense of importance for a

seemingly evanescent, and certainly very remote, past.
It also meant training. For a patterned maintenance
system is the indispensable human ingredient for the
success of any such project.
Our local collaborators, Kurds and Arabs, are
working together with the sense of a common goal.
What is extraordinary is the complete lack of a feeling
of fatigue and disaffection.
It is four years now since there have been excavations at the site. A civil war has been raging in the
country. And we get picture upon picture of damages
to the mud brick; of plastic that shrivels and needs to
be replaced; of tarp covers that slowly disintegrate. All
of this is carefully documented on a floor plan or with
marks on a photograph to highlight the nature of the
problem. More than ten thousand pictures have been
received by the middle of 2014.
110 | BACKDIRT 2014
It may seem either epic or surrealistic, depending on the point of view.

. . . And it is instead the result of a
most admirable sense of commitment
to a job well done, the sense of pride
in their effort, in order to see the hill
Mozan of the most beautiful and the
best archaeological sites in the world,
as our photographer, Diadin, writes in
one of his reports.
Motivation is one of the main
ingredients of this whole enterprise. We
had nurtured it while we could work
together; we are nurturing it now from
a distance with our intense correspondence. But it is ultimately nurtured
by the sense of accomplishment that
comes from seeing the results. There
is a marked tone of victory in these
pictures, with which they show us, and
really show to themselves in the first
place, how the site can continue to be
managed and maintained in spite of all
odds.
At the Rimini Meeting, I presented
a small but meaningful accomplishment: a guidebook to the site written
in English, Arabic, and Kurdish. Our
signage at the site, which adds up to
more than 200 pages, had been in
English and Arabic from the beginning.
We would, however, give presentations in Kurdish to
the children and had started working on a translation
of the written texts as well when the troubles started.
I decided that now it was important to complete this
task, and with the help of a number of people from
Syria, Europe, and Canada, it was possible to finish this guidebook in time for the meeting. It will be
printed in Syria and distributed widely. Another sign
of our commitment to our values.
GRASSROOTS EMPOWERED
In our Mozan experiment, terms like stakeholders,
sustainability, grassroots, and bottom-up come
across with a whole new forcefulness. No theory, here.
Or rather, theory is vindicated by the natural impulse
that life brings to the fore. Reality precedes the words.
One of the goals had been to encourage local
activities that could eventually develop into a venue
OPINION
of interest to visitors. We suggested that the Mozan
women might be able to produce their artifacts so they
would be available for tourists as we developed the
site for tourism. Our plans could not proceed beyond
the concept, but colleagues from the Directorate General of Antiquities in Damascus went to Mozan in our
absence, further strengthening the resolve of the local
women. Through their own initiative, they set things
up as a well-organized system. We are now interfacing directly with them so as to maximize the potential
of their work. By all standards, this is a remarkable
accomplishment.
The group numbers some 30 women, working on
a variety of items, and their pride shows not only in
the actual products, but also in statements like the
following one from a video in which Amena speaks of
their work:
Earlier we used to work but it was normal things.
We used to make normal pieces for my neighbor,
my sister, but it was not of good quality. Then a
group of people came from Damascus and told
us: we have micro projects! We applied for the
grant. It was a little, but it helped us materially
and morally.
After that they sent experts to teach us,
among them was Ms. Reem who taught us a lot.
We were 30 girls. Some learned how to make
accessories, others dolls [Figure 18], clothes, and
embroidery.
Earlier, we could not send our products
because its quality was poor. After this training
we became able to improve the quality. . . . .
We have so many good things!
The thrust comes from the base, with a strong

sense of commitment and purpose. The women of
UrkeshUrkesh is the ancient name, but we use it
for the larger enterprise that subsumes the villages
around the archaeological site. So, it is the women
of Urkesh who have picked up with vigor when no
more guidance could be provided from the outside.
It is a model of an initiative at the grass root
level. We can now be partners in their initiative. And
we have found a way. We have ordered a number
of items produced by them and have received our
first shipment. It was with great emotion that we
opened this modest little package. They had placed
products inside a typical black garbage bag and sent
them to Damascus, from where they were in turn
sent abroad.
The quality of these products is no less astonishing than the simple fact that they were produced and
Figure 19. The packaging of another doll produced

by the women of Mozan.
shipped under the circumstances we all know so well.

We are now preparing ways to make them available to
our common friends and to place an order for more.
The photos speak for themselves.
But there is another small and yet significant
detail. The packaging and the logo (Figures 19 and
20)! Some of the items are carefully wrapped in a bag
with a burlap backing and a cellophane cover. In the
corner, there is a beautiful logo, which uniquely identifies the project and gives in beautiful handwriting the
name of the Urkesh Atelier of Handicrafts and their
telephone number!
CONCLUSION:
UNPLANNED PLANNING
The developments that have taken place at Mozan
in the wake of the tragic Syrian upheaval have been
remarkable. We had planted a seed. And a consciousness took root that validated our efforts. We had
of course never anticipated the disaster that would
ensue. But the commitment to the goal was so profound, that there was no question about the results.
Our planning was unplanned as to words. But it could
not have been more clearly planned as to the intent.
This was possible because there was, in the first
BACKDIRT 2014 | 111
OPINION
place, a dimension of trust. We had laid out concrete
mechanisms for maintaining contact with our local
collaborators, whom we expected to carry out various activities while we were there. But we could not
anticipate all details, nor could we micro-manage
the situation from afar, once it became impossible
for us to return regularly. What made up for it was
the reciprocal trust, which helped us, on both sides
of the great chasm, to interpret the essence of what
was needed, even when explanations could not be
forthcoming.
The heart-warming and comforting result was the
realization that out of the worst can come the best.
The dynamics of human situations are like a spiral,
and the initial direction of the movement is perhaps
the defining moment. If it spirals downward, one is
sucked into a progressively more negative trend. It
is therefore important to lay the groundwork so that
the thrust is upward from the beginning. That is what
happily happened in our case.
I will close with two e-mails dated November
2013, from Ibrahim and Kameran of our Mozan staff.
They shed more light onto the attitude with which

they see the joint commitment we share for the site.
Excavations good, but always lacking materials
and most of the time I do I bought on my account
such as threads, needles and oil and other
materials.
Ibrahim
Hello Dear Samer
We the workers we bought materials, such as
nylon and other materials debt, from when our
friends [they bought plastic sheets with their
own money] in order to cover the walls And Abe
before the rains, to come Mr. Sabah and covering
Abe well
Weve temporarily covered with nylon and also
some of the walls [they wanted to cover the
underground structure in anticipation of heavy
rains expected before Sabah, the smith, could
complete his new cover for this structure].
After we finished the coverage was really there
was a heavy rain, but we got back up In a timely
manner and there was no damage to the site.
Thank you,
Kameran
Figure 20. The logo on the packaging.
112 | BACKDIRT 2014
COTSEN COMMUNITY EVENTS
Fourth Annual Cotsen Institute of Archaeology

Graduate Student Conference
rchaeologists are well

acquainted with the difficulties of reconstructing patterns of
movement and migration in the
past. The Fourth Annual Cotsen
Institute of Archaeology Graduate
Student Conference, titled People
in Motion: Mobility, Migration, and
Exchange, sought to address this
complex problem and to explore
current methods for understanding the ways that people and
objects move through space and
time. Continuing in the tradition
of previous years, the conference planning committee (Rose
Campbell, Richard Ehrich, Terrah
Jones, Ben Nigra, Ben Shepard,
and Trevor Van Damme) sought to
attract high-quality work from both
U.S. and international graduate
students, not only in archaeology,
but also in other related disciplines.
The conference, held February 78, 2014, opened Friday
evening with an interesting and
informative keynote lecture by Dr.
David Anthony (Hartwick College, Oneonta, NY) about mobility
patterns and pastoralism in the
Eurasian Steppe. On Saturday,
twelve graduate students presented their research on variations
of the conference theme. UCLA
presenters included Cotsen IDP
students (Rachel Moy, Maryann
Kontonicolas, and Christine
Johnston), as well as students from
the departments of Anthropology
(Ben Shepard), and Near Eastern
Languages and Cultures (Amy
Karoll). Topics ranged widely
Figure 1. Friendly discussions in the galleries of the Fourth Annual

Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Conference.
across time and space, including

such themes as fire use and mobility strategies among Neanderthals
and early humans, the movement
of archives during the fourteenth
to seventeenth centuries C.E.,
the transportation of agricultural
products in Egypt during the
Greco-Roman period, and patterns
of trade in the Indian Ocean from
the third century B.C.E. to the
seventh century C.E. UCLAs own
Dr. Hans Barnard wrapped up the
conference with insightful closing
comments and valuable feedback
for the graduate student presenters.
Support for the Fourth Annual
Conference surpassed all expectations. In particular, the generosity
of the Armenian Archaeology and
Ethnography Program allowed us
to implement a cash prize for the
best student paper, challenging the
student presenters to contribute
their very best work. After care-
ful consideration by the conference planning committee and the

UCLA faculty moderators (Dr.
Willeke Wendrich, Dr. Sarah Morris, Dr. Gregson Schachner, and
Dr. Gregory Areshian), the prize
was awarded to Anneke Janzen
(UC Santa Cruz) for her excellent
presentation, titled Early Pastoral Mobility in Kenya Assessed
through Stable Isotope Analysis,
which is showcased in article form
in this volume (see page 48).
Owing largely to the generous support and tireless efforts of
the UCLA graduate students and
faculty, the conference continues to
grow exponentially each year, and
I look forward to the Fifth Annual
Conference in 2015!
Rose Campbell,
UCLA
BACKDIRT 2014 | 113
Archaeology and Multidisciplinarity in a

Regional and Ethnic Context: An International
Conference at the Cotsen Institute
he inaugural international
conference of the UCLA
Research Program in Armenian
Archaeology and Ethnography at
the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology
took place May 30 to June 2, 2014,
on the UCLA campus in order to
assess the pitfalls of compartmentalization within area studies and
the potential impact of integrative
approaches to archaeology and
regional studies. The conference
focused on Armenian Studies for
several reasons. First, among the
academic subfields which constitute that area, there are about a
dozen, including archaeology, history, philology, comparative historical linguistics, art history, cultural
anthropology, and diaspora studies,
that have long traditions of intellectual development with conflicting
research paradigms and that have
stemmed from different sociopolitical and cultural contexts. Second,
Armenian Studies are a good example of commingled regional and
ethnic studies, which necessitates
a theoretical and methodological
disentanglement of research questions, as well as a strengthening
of critical approaches. Finally, the
public visibility of created knowledge should be of great concern
to scholars, and Armenian Studies
highlight a number of exemplary
pitfalls from that perspective.
These interrelated issues were
the inspiration for the title of the
114 | BACKDIRT 2014
conference: Current Practices in

Armenian Studies: The Creation
and Visibility of New Knowledge.
Scholars from ten countries,
belonging to different intellectual
traditions and spanning three
generationsfrom members of
National Academies of Sciences
to recent recipients of Ph.D.
degreespresented papers and
participated in discussions.
The conference was structured
into three distinctive, yet interconnected, parts. The fourteen major
position papers presented in one
day summarized different aspects
of what is currently perceived as
Armenian Studies by the global
academic community. They
addressed not only the most recent
achievements in each subfield, but
also unsolved issues and emerging
research questions. The identification of gaps in knowledge and
the necessity of interdisciplinary
dialogue that could bridge those
gaps were major concerns reflected
in the majority of papers. Several
papers also addressed the increase
in public visibility of created or
constructed knowledge, including
the political impact of academic
research. This in turn allowed a
critique of the dominant modern
historical narratives and of the
short-term nature of historic memory, as well as of the widespread
antiholistic research attitudes
characterized by the cherry picking
of data. Some of the papers criticized superficial and/or unfounded
attempts to debase well-established

empirical knowledge.
The day of summarizing papers
was followed by three sessions of
roundtable discussion. The first
session was devoted to a critical
analysis of emergent Armenian
Studies in countries where this
area of academic inquiry did not
exist until very recently, such as
in Mexico and South America,
where, relevantly, some Armenian
diaspora communities are located.
In that respect, the topics of
international institutional collaboration, together with deficiencies
in institutional structures, were
specifically addressed. The second
roundtable session was completely
devoted to the discussion of the
politics and policies concerning the
archaeological cultural heritage in
Turkey, both from the standpoints
of long-term trends and specific
recent developments in that area.
Finally, the third session was
largely theoretical-methodological,
addressing both traditional and
newly emerging topics. Among the
traditional themes, correlations
between archaeological and linguistic data were discussed in light
of new discoveries made by both
archaeologists and comparativehistorical linguists. The question
was brought to the table: to what
extent do continuity and disruptions in culture affect constructions
of ethnic identities?
Two more days of the program
included four breakout sessions
Round-table discussion during the Armenian Studies Conference.
that pursued specific practical

goals within broad theoretical
perspectives. The central breakout session addressed the positive
role that archaeology can play in
the zones of current conflicts in
the Middle East by promoting an
understanding of ownership of
cultural heritage by local communities and shared ownership
of sites by conflicting parties.
Mentioning the positive experience of several such projects in
Israel/Palestine and in Syria (Tell
Mozan), the discussants focused on
Ani, a storied archaeological site
located in Turkey on the border
with Armenia. During the tenth
and eleventh centuries, Ani was the
capital of the Armenian Bagratuni
Kingdom and a major urban center
of the Byzantine Empire on its
eastern border. The development
of an international research project
at Ani with the participation of
Turkish and Armenian scholars will
clarify research questions related
to the study of medieval urbanism
as one of the central components
of the Silk Roads Trans-Eurasian
network. At the same time, it has
the potential to make a major
contribution to the improvement
of mutual understanding between
modern Turkish and Armenian
societies. Another breakout ses-
sion discussed the emerging role

of philanthropy in the preservation, study, and popularization of
the multicultural archaeological
heritage of Turkey. The active
participation of the leadership of
the influential Turkish Hrand Dink
Foundation in this discussion was
very important for the success of
this session. Two other sessions
addressed other newly emerging
opportunities. One discussed the
prospects of collaboration between
the archaeologists of the Republic
of Armenia and the Iraqi Autonomous Region of Kurdistan. The
other analyzed the prospects for an
interdisciplinary study of settlements destroyed and abandoned in
Turkey during World War I in the
course of the Armenian Genocide,
Muslim-Christian intercommunal
struggle, and the Greek-Turkish
exchange of population. Such a
study would combine the exploration of archaeological remains,
archival documents, oral histories,
and perspectives from current
historic memories.
The main message of the
conference is that ethnic studies
in a regional context should be
interdisciplinarily anchored around
topics of social identities that
shift through the ages in changing
cultural, sociopolitical, ideological,

and economic environments. One
result of the conference is the affirmation that archaeology today has
the potential to bridge the social
sciences, humanities, and natural sciences in its examination of
human societies. Consequently, it
is in a position to address theoretical, methodological, and practical
issues concerning the creation of
interdisciplinary knowledge. The
holistic approach of archaeology
is essential to the goal of integrating disciplines, and it can and
should be applied on varying scales
to different areas of knowledge
concerning human societies. The
integrative methodological capacity of archaeology is necessary to
counterbalance the spread of compartmentalization, which unfortunately tends to be characteristic of
many regional studies.
The conference was sponsored
by the Chitjian Foundation, Los
Angeles.
Gregory E. Areshian, UCLA
Research Program in Armenian
Archaeology and Ethnography
at the Cotsen Institute of
Archaeology and Department
of Near Eastern Languages and
Cultures
BACKDIRT 2014 | 115
Noon Talks, 20132014
his years annual noon lecture

series, or Pizza Talks, as they
are more colloquially known, featured a grand total of 28 presentations, showcasing the research of
both faculty, students, and alumni
of the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, as well as esteemed scholars
from other institutions, national
and international. The talks showcased the interdisciplinary and
collaborative nature of the Cotsen
Institute, with topics spanning 5
continents and over 7,000 years
of human culture. The near-fullcapacity attendance of most talks
throughout the year is a testament
to the continued interest in the
Cotsen Institutes research among
members of the general public and
outside departments.
The Pizza Talks benefited
greatly from concurrent exhibitions, research programs, and conferences in the Los Angeles area.
From the Getty Scholars program,
Connecting Seas: Cultural and
Artistic Exchange, came several
participants we were fortunate to
have deliver Pizza Talks. In the fall
quarter, Alex Knodell (Carleton
College) presented the results of a
survey project in the urban hinterland of Petra, Jordan, entitled
Beyond the Rose-Red City: Deep
History in the Landscapes North of
Petra. This was followed later in
the same quarter by Gert van Wijngaardens (University of Amsterdam) presentation of his ongoing
archaeological investigations on
the island of Zakynthos in Greece,
Discovering a Prehistoric Maritime Landscape: Zakynthos Island
116 | BACKDIRT 2014
in Greece. Finally, in the winter

quarter, we heard from Karl Knappett (University of Toronto) about
the first season of renewed excavation at the site of ancient Palaikastro on Crete titled, Urbanization in
Minoan Crete: A Palace at Palaikastro? Additionally, Elena Phipps
(Textile Society of America) kindly
spoke about the intersection of cosmology and technology in Andean
cloth production, The FourSelvaged Peruvian Cloth: Ancient
Threads/New Directionsthe
subject of an eponymous exhibition at the Fowler Museum from
October 13, 2013, to February 2,
2014. In addition, during the spring
quarter, we were fortunate to have
Sturt Manning (Cornell University)
speak on his current research into
climate change in the archaeological record of the third millennium
BCE. Levant. This was thanks to
his involvement in the International Symposium on Archaeometry, held in Los Angeles from May
19 to 23, 2014.
Several Cotsen faculty members presented us with updates on
their research. In the fall, Charles
Stanish (UCLAAnthropology)
updated us on his ongoing research
into the spatial distribution of
geoglyphs and platform mounds
in The Archaeological Treasures
of Chincha, Peru, and Li Min
(UCLAAnthropology / Asian
Languages and Cultures) discussed
Political Experimentation and
Expanded Horizon in Longshan
China (circa 23001800 BC.).
Also in the fall, Ye Wa (UCLA
Research Associate) spoke about
Yangguanzhai: Settlement of the

Fourth Millennium BCE. and Site
of the Sino-American Field School
2013, and Deanna Kiser-Go
(UCLANELC) captivated us with
some of the finer details of Egyptian tomb paintings in a talk titled
Theban and Memphite Private
Tombs of the Post-Amarna Period.
This was followed by Aaron Burke
(UCLANELC), who filled us in
on The 2013 Excavations of the
Egyptian Gate Complex in Jaffa,
Israel, during the winter quarter.
We also heard about several
new Cotsen projects. In the winter
quarter, Abigail Levine (UCLA
Instructor) presented the initial
results of her new project high in
the Peruvian altiplano, The Early
Andean Village: Examining Emergent Complexity in the Northern
Lake Titicaca Basin, Peru, while
Ben Nigra, Terrah Jones, and Jacob
Bongers (all UCLAArchaeology
IDP) presented Survey and Settlement on the Peruvian South Coast:
The LIP Chincha Kingdom (and
a Little Paracas, Too). In addition, we heard about new faculty
member Stephen Acabados first
season of excavation in the Philippines, Defining Ifugao Social
Organization: House, Field, and
Self-Organizing Principles in the
Northern Philippines. Also in the
winter quarter, Sarah Morris and
John Papadopoulos (both UCLA
Classics) presented an overview
of the aims and goals of their new
project in The Ancient Methone
Archaeological Project: New UCLA
Research at a Harbor City in the
North Aegean. This was followed
in the spring quarter by a presentation by Vanessa Muros (UCLA

Getty Conservation Program)
on conservation efforts already
underway on material previously
excavated at Methone by the local
Greek ephorate titled Conservation and Research at the Methone
Archaeological Project. Last but
not least, in the spring quarter,
Hans Barnard (UCLANELC) and
Brett Kaufman (UCLAArchaeology IDP) discussed the Results
of the First Season at Zita (Olive
City): A Punic and Roman Urban
Center in Southern Tunisia. All
of these projects are in their initial
stages and will continue to provide
exciting results and opportunities
in the coming years, so stay tuned!
Several current graduate
students in the Archaeology IDP
presented on their current dissertation projects. These included Anne
Austin, Tutcare! A Discussion of
Health-Care Systems in the Egyp-
tian New Kingdom Town of Deir

el-Medina, and Joseph (Seppi)
Lehner, Anatolian Tin Reconsidered in Light of New Discoveries
at the Hisarcik Mines and Early
Bronze Age Kltepe-Kanesh,
in the winter quarter, as well as
Hannah Lau, A Movable Feast:
Mobility, Cooperation, and Emergent Political Complexity at Halaf
Domuztepe, in the spring quarter.
Several talks addressed more
contemporary concerns. Craig
Goralski (Cypress College), Alexis
Gray (Norco College), and Captain
Kevin Lacy (Sheriff-Coroner, San
Bernardino County) delivered a
talk entitled Forensic Research
at San Bernardino: Combining
Archaeology, Medical Legal Death
Investigation, and Taphonomic
Studies, which highlighted the
intersection of archaeological
methods and modern criminology,
while Ran Boytner (Institute for
Field Research) discussed The
Study of Archaeology at the Age of
Big Data. In addition, David Scott
(UCLAGetty Conservation Program and Art History) discussed
some of the contemporary issues
regarding forgeries and restorations, challenging our conventional
notions of authenticity in Restoration and Fakery: Sculptures from
Ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome.
Last but not least, Lothar Von
Falkenhausen (UCLAArt History)
and Charles Stanish (UCLA
Anthropology) updated us on their
experiences at the first Shanghai
Archaeological Forum, held August
23September 3, 2013, with Putting China on the Map: A Report
from the First Shanghai Archaeological Forum.

We were also fortunate to have
several notable guests from other
institutions, both near and far, stop
in to fill us in on their research
projects. These included Julian
Henderson (University of Nottingham), who discussed the details of
Tracing Glass along the Silk Road
Using Isotopic and Chemical Techniques, Salam al Kuntar (University of Pennsylvania), who gave a
talk on Tell Hamoukar and the
Mesopotamian Economic Boom in
the Late Chalcolithic (42003100
BCE), as well as Ahmed Hamden
(UCLAFulbright Scholar), who
presented An Iconographical
Study of the Royal Ka during the
Middle and New Kingdoms. In
addition, Anthony Barbieri-Low
(UC Santa Barbara) took us on a
digital exploration in a hyper-real
talk titled Virtual Tombs: Computer-Assisted Reconstructions of
Burial Sites in Ancient China and
Egypt, and Dawn Lohnas (Metropolitan Museum of Art, Andrew
W. Mellon Fellow) took us into
the vaults of the Fowler Museum
collection with Paracas Ceramics: A Material and Technical
Examination.
Cotsen Institute Pizza Talks are
open to the public. They are held
on Wednesdays at noon in Fowler
A222 during the fall, winter, and
spring quarters.
Trevor Van Damme, Cotsen
Institute of Archaeology, UCLA.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 117
Friday Seminar Series
he 20132014 Cotsen Institute

Friday Seminar Series featured
a number of varied guest speakers
who provided diverse, cross-cultural perspectives on a number of
empirical and theoretical issues. In
celebration of the recent successes
of the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press (see this volumes
Institute in the News: Cotsen
Titles Win Big Awards), the seminars in the fall quarter featured
three presentations by authors of
recently published volumes. The
series began with a talk by UCLAs
own Richard Lesure, Professor of
Anthropology and author of Formative Lifeways in Central Tlaxcala: Excavations, Ceramics, and
Chronology, Volume 1, published
by the CIoA Press in July 2014 (see
page 120). His presentation, titled
Macroregional Structure in Central Mexico: Large-Scale Implications of Formative-Period Lifeways
in Central Tlaxcala, touched on
the rapid political evolution that
took place in central Mexico after
900 BC, which built on a legacy
of organizational innovations in
settled communities to the south.
Gregory Areshian, Director
of UCLAs Research Program in
Armenian Archaeology & Ethnography and editor of volume
Empires and Diversity: On the
Crossroads of Archaeology, Anthropology, and History (CIoA Press,
June 2013), spoke on The Creators of the Silk Roads: Empires,
Nomads, and Cities in Light of
New Multidisciplinary Observations from Central Asia and the
Near East. This presentation
118 | BACKDIRT 2014
summarized the authors research

in this subject, carried out between
2007 and 2013 in the Near East
and Central Asia. He focused
particularly on the archaeology of
cyclical nomadization and sedentarization in conjunction with interregional and transcontinental trade
and exchange. He also proposed
a new periodization of the Silk
Road systems from the perspective
of imperial management of regional
and international commerce.
Roderick Campbell (New York
University), the author of Archaeology of the Chinese Bronze Age:
From Erlitou to Anyang (CIoA
Press, August 2014), presented a
talk titled, New Paradigms for the
Chinese Bronze Age. Touching
on many of the themes from his
book, he discussed Shang archaeology and epigraphy as related to
the emergence and development of
complex polities, violence, history,
and production.
Two other renowned scholars
delivered presentations during the
fall quarter. Anita Cook (Catholic
University of America) spoke on
Feasting in the Andes: To Eat for
Others, which addressed how
archaeological remains of imperial
Andean feasts from pre-Inca times
can be interpreted through the lens
of ethno-history and ethnography.
Finally, John A. Peterson (University of Guam), presented a lecture
titled, The Archaeology of Climate
Change: Case Studies in Guam and
the Philippines.
During the winter quarter we
hosted five scholars who each
spoke on varied topics. Hans
Bernard (UCLA) opened the

series with a lecture titled, The
Anthropology of Chess, in which
he showcased his innovative ideas
on the archaeology of movement.
The second lecture of the quarter
coincided with the first day of the
Graduate Student Conference,
which featured David W. Anthony
as the keynote speaker (see page
113). Next, Christine Hastorf (UC
Berkeley) spoke on Maize in the
High Mountains, which detailed
a paleoethnobotanical perspective
on maize agriculture in the Andean
area.
Michael Harrower (Johns
Hopkins University), who was
the Cotsen Postdoctoral Scholar
in 20082010, compared ancient
Yemen (3200 BC600 AD) with
the American West in his presentation, Water Histories of Ancient
Yemen and the American West.
This lecture provided a fascinating
juxtaposition of two geographically
and temporally distinct cultures
that shared a pressing similaritylack of water resources. This
comparison effectively highlighted
how agriculture practiced in hyperarid areas led to a focus on water
scarcity and how the need to colonize water-scarce areas rationalized
massive state-constructed irrigation schemes that helped generate
state identities, religiosities, and
sovereignties.
The penultimate presentation
of the winter quarter was given by
Michael Galaty (Mississippi State
University), who spoke on What
Ethnography Can and Cannot
Teach Us about the Prehistoric
Mediterranean: Lessons Learned

From Ten Years of Research in
High Albania. Galaty is the
co-author of Light and Shadow:
Isolation and Interaction in the
Shala Valley of Northern Albania
(CIoA Press, 2013), which was
named the Winner of the 2014
Society of American Archaeology Book Award in the Scholarly
category (see page 5). Finally, Jade
dAlpoim Guedes (Washington
State University) presented a paper
titled, Modeling Ecological Niches
and the Spread of Agriculture to
Southwest China.
There were four speakers in
the spring seminar series. The
first presentation was by Guzden
Varinlioglu of UCLA. Titled From
Zero-D to 3-D: The Voyage of a
Virtual Nautical Archaeology Project in Turkey, this talk addressed

the lack of systematic methodology
for the collection, preservation, and
dissemination of data in underwater cultural heritage studies in
Turkey, and offered novel solutionsincluding archaeological
surveys and public awareness projects of the nautical archaeological
remainsto this urgent issue.
Kathryn A. Bard (Boston University) and Radolpho Fattovich
(University of Naples) co-presented
a paper titled Egypt and Punt, An
Archaeological Perspective. Ernst
Pernicka (University of Heidelberg) spoke on The Scenery of the
Iliad: Cultural History and Archaeology of Troia.
The final presentation of the
year by Geoff Emberling (University of Michigan, Ann Arbor)

discussed recent attempts to
identify and excavate settlement
remains around the pivotal Kushite
royal cemetery at El Kurru, in
northern Sudan, which date from
the ninth century BC and later. It
also addressed recent (and ongoing) excavation of a pyramid and
mortuary temple at the site that,
together, provide insight into
political competition among elite
families of Kush.
Abigail Levine,
UCLA
Friends of Archaeology Dinner Lectures, 20132014

November 5, 2013
Professor Stella Nair
Department of Art History, UCLA
Behind Closed Doors: Reconsidering the
Architecture of Inca Private Life
February 11, 2014
Professor Emerita Barbara Voorhies
Anthropology Department
University of California Santa Barbara
The Tlacuachero Shellmound:
A 5,000-Year-Old Off-Shore Casino
in Southern Mexico?
April 8, 2014
Professor Charles Stanish
Director, Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA
The Global Effect of Fakes in
Antiquities Trade
October 28, 2014
Forthcoming in 2015
February 10, 2015
Professor Sarah Morris
Steinmetz Professor of Classical Archaeology
and Material Culture
Department of Classics, UCLA
Ancient Methone Archaeological Project,
Pieria (Macedonia), Northern Greece
April 7, 2015
Three selected graduate students will present
their ongoing research. The work of these students
has been supported by the Friends of Archaeology.
Academic Excellence at the
Helle Girey,
UCLA
Professor Stephen Acabado

Department of Anthropology, UCLA
Rethinking History, Conserving Heritage:
Archaeology and Community Engagement
in Ifugao, Philippines
BACKDIRT 2014 | 119
PUBLISHERS DESK
New Titles from

the Cotsen Institute
of Archaeology
Press (CIoA)
Randi Danforth1
Formative Lifeways in
Central Tlaxcala
Volume 1: Excavations, Ceramics,
and Chronology
Edited by Richard G. Lesure
A s we co nt inue to develop and

expand our program with the publication
of significant research in archaeology,
anthropology, and art history, we at the
CIoA Press are pleased to announce
our 2014 publications, as well as our
forthcoming titles for Spring 2015.
Ordering Information:
Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press

books are distributed by the University of
New Mexico Press, www.unmpress.com,
telephone 800-249-7737. They are also
sold through our Publications Office,
ioapubs@ucla.edu, telephone
310-825-7411.
1. Publications Director, the Cotsen Institute

of Archaeology Press
120 | BACKDIRT 2014
ISBN: 978-1-931745-69-7
Publication date: June 2014
Series: Monumenta Archaeologica 33
Price $75.00 (hardbound)
This book, the first volume of a
projected three, reports on excavations at Formative-period sites in
the state of Tlaxcala, Mexico. The
transition to the Formative in the
relatively high-altitude study region is
later than it was in choice regions for
early agriculture elsewhere in Mesoamerica. From 900 BCE, however,
population growth and sociopolitical
development were rapid. A central
claim in the research presented here
is that a macroregional perspective
is essential for understanding the
local Formative sequence. In this
volume, the data from excavations
at three village sites (Amomoloc,
Tetel, and Las Mesitas) and one
modest regional center (La Laguna)
are examined. The ceramic typology
is described in detail. An innovative approach to the classification of
figurines is presented, and a Formative chronology for the region is
proposed based on seriation of refuse
contexts and radiocarbon dates. The
work concludes with a macroregional
framework to be used in the analysis
of subsistence, social relations, and
political economy in Volumes 2 and
3, now in preparation.
Archaeology of the
Chinese Bronze Age:
From Erlitou to Anyang
atalhyk Excavations:
The 20002008
Seasons
Integrating atalhyk:
Themes from the
20002008 Seasons
Roderick B. Campbell
Volume 7
Volume 10
Edited by Ian Hodder
Edited by Ian Hodder
ISBN: 978-1-898249-29-0
Price $89.00 (hardbound), $299.00
for all four volumes 710
ISBN: 978-1-898249-32-0
Publication date: September 2014
Price $69.00 (hardbound), $299.00
for all four volumes 710
atalhyk Excavations presents

the results of the excavations that
took place at the site from 2000 to
2008, when the main aim was to
understand the social geography of
the settlement, its layout, and social
organization. Excavation, recording, and sampling methodologies are
discussed, as well as dating, levels,
and the grouping of buildings into
social sectors. The description of
excavated units, features, and buildings incorporates results from the
analyses of animal bone, chipped
stone, groundstone, shell, ceramics,
phytoliths, and micromorphology.
The integration of such data within
their context allows detailed accounts
of the lives of the inhabitants of
atalhyk, their relationships, and
activities.
This volume discusses general themes

that have emerged in interpretation
of the results of the 20002008 excavations, synthesizing the results of
research described in other volumes
in the same series. Subsistence analysis and the examination of human
remains yielded data on landscape
use and mobility and the storage and
sharing of food. The ways in which
houses were constructed, lived in,
and abandoned leads to a broad
discussion of settlement and social
organization at atalhyk and of
change over time. For example, shifts
in the themes that occur in paintings
in houses evolve as part of a wider
set of social, economic, and ritual
changes in the upper levels. The
social uses of materials and technologies are explored, as well as the roles
of materials in personal adornment.
Finally, the discussion of variation
through place and time is recognized
as dependent on scales of analysis
and social process.
ISBN: 978-1-931745-98-7
Publication date: August 2014
Series: Monograph 79
Price $55.00 (paper)
Archaeology of the Chinese Bronze
Age is a synthesis of recent Chinese
archaeological work on the second
millennium BCEthe period associated with Chinas first dynasties and
East Asias first states. With a focus
on early Chinas great metropolitan
centers in the Central Plains and
their hinterlands, this work attempts
to contextualize them within their
wider zones of interaction from the
Yangtze to the edge of the Mongolian
steppe, and from the Yellow Sea to
the Tibetan plateau and the Gansu
corridor. Analyzing the complexity
of early Chinese culture history and
the variety and development of its
urban formations, Roderick Campbell explores East Asias divergent
developmental paths and re-examines
its deep past to contribute to a more
nuanced understanding of Chinas
Early Bronze Age.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 121
PUBLISHERS
DESK
New Titles from
the Cotsen Institute
of Archaeology
Press (CIoA)
122 | BACKDIRT 2014
The Excavation of
the Prehistoric Burial
Tumulus at Lofknd,
Albania
New Insights into the

Iron Age Archaeology
of Edom, Southern
Jordan
John K. Papadopoulos, Sarah P. Morris,

Lorenc Bejko, and Lynne A. Schepartz
Thomas E. Levy, Mohammad Najjar,

and Erez Ben-Yosef
ISBN: 978-1-938770-00-5
Publication date: December 2014
Price $169.00 (hardbound, 2 volumes)
ISBN: 978-1-931745-99-4
Publication date: September 2014
Price $169.00 (hardbound, 2 volumes)
The burial tumulus of Lofknd lies in

one of the richest archaeological areas
of Albania, ancient Illyria, home to
a number of burial tumuli spanning
the Bronze and Iron Ages of later
prehistory. Some were robbed long
ago, others reused for modern burials,
and a few excavated under scientific
conditions. Modern understanding of the pre- and protohistory of
Illyria has largely been shaped by the
contents of such burial mounds. What
inspired its systematic exploration
by UCLA was more than the promise of an unplundered necropolis;
it was also the chance to revisit the
significance of this tumulus and its
fellows for the emergence of urbanism
and complexity in ancient Illyria. In
addition to artifacts, the recovery of
surviving plant remains, bones, and
other organic material contributed to
insights into the environmental and
ecological history of the region. The
analysis of all the skeletal remains,
inhumed and cremated, enhanced
knowledge about the demography and
human population in this region of
Albania.
Situated south of the Dead Sea, near

the famous Nabatean capital of Petra,
the Faynan region in Jordan contains
the largest deposits of copper ore
in the southern Levant. The Edom
Lowlands Regional Archaeology
Project (ELRAP) takes an anthropological archaeology approach to the
deep-time study of culture change in
one of the Old Worlds most important locales for studying technological
development.Using innovative digital
tools for data recording, curation,
analyses, and dissemination, the
researchers focused onancient mining and metallurgy as the subject of
surveys and excavations related to the
Iron Age (ca. 1200500 BCE), when
the first local, historical state-level
societies appeared in this part of the
eastern Mediterranean basin. This
comprehensive and important volume
challenges the current scholarly consensus concerning the emergence and
historicity of the Iron Age polity of
biblical Edom and some of its neighbors, such as ancient Israel.
Forthcoming in 2015
An Archaic Mexican
Shellmound and
Its Entombed Floors
Vilcabamba and
the Archaeology of
Inca Resistance
Barbara Voorhies
Brian S. Bauer, Javier Fonseca Santa Cruz,

and Miriam Aroz Silva
ISBN: 978-1-938770-02-9
Publication date: January 2015
Price $55.00 (paper)
Tlacuachero is the site of an Archaicperiod shellmound located in the
wetlands of the outer coast of
southwest Mexico. This book presents
investigations of several constructed
floors, built during the 600800 years
of site formation in the Archaic period
(ca. 80002000 BCE), the crucial
timespan in Mesoamerican prehistory when people were transitioning
from full-blown dependency on wild
resources to the use of domesticated
crops. The constructed floors at the
site are among the regions earliest
permanent architecture and are now
deeply buried in a limited area within
the shellmound. The authors explore
what activities were carried out on
their surfaces, discussing the floors
patterns of cultural features, sediment
color, density, and types of embedded microrefuse and phytoliths, as
well as chemical signatures of organic
remains.
The studies conducted at Tlacuachero are especially significant in light
of the fact that data-rich lowland sites
from the Archaic period are extraordinarily rare. The wealth of information gleaned from the floors of the
Tlacuachero shellmound can now be
widely appreciated.
ISBN: 978-1-938770-03-6
Publication date: May 2015
Price: $55.00 (paper)
The sites ofVitcos and Espritu
Pampaare two of the most important Inca cities within the remote
Vilcabamba region of Peru.The
province has gained notoriety among
historians, archaeologists, and other
students of the Inca, since it was from
here that the last independent Incas
waged a nearly forty-year-long war
(AD 15361572) against Spanish
control of the Andes.Building on
three years of excavation and two
years of archival work, the authors
discuss the events that took place in
this area, speaking to the complex
relationships that existed between the
Europeans and Andeans during the
decades that Vilcabamba was the final
stronghold of the Inca empire.This
has long been a topic of interest for
the public; the results of the first
large-scale scientific research conducted in the region will be illuminating for scholars, as well as for general
readers who are enthusiasts of this
period of history and archaeology.
Rural Archaeology in
Early Urban Northern
Mesopotamia
Excavations at Tell al-Raqai
Glenn M. Schwartz
ISBN: 978-1-938770-04-3
Price: $89.00 (hardbound)
This book presents the results of the
extensive excavation of a small, rural
village from the period of emerging
cities in upper Mesopotamia (modern
northeast Syria) in the early to middle
third millennium BC. Prior studies of
early Near Eastern urban societies generally focused on the cities and elites,
neglecting the rural component of
urbanization. This research represents
part of a move to rectify that imbalance. Reports on the architecture,
pottery, animal bones, plant remains,
and other varieties of artifacts and
ecofacts enhance our understanding
of the role of villages in the formation of urban societies, the economic
relationship between small rural sites
and urban centers, and status and
economic differentiation in villages.
Among the significant results are the
extensive exposure of a large segment
of the village area, revealing details of
spatial and social organization and of
household economics. The predominance of large-scale grain storage and
processing leads to questions of staple
finance, economic relations with pastoralists, and connections to developing urban centers.
BACKDIRT 2014 | 123
IN MEMORIAM
Harold Adelson, Ph.D.

Jo Anne Van Tilburg
Sin c e i ts ince pt io n in 1979, the

UCLA Rock Art Archive has had the good
fortune to enjoy the support of a cadre
of dedicated and talented volunteers,
among whom was Harold Adelson. One
of the Rock Art Archives founders, the
late Professor Clement W. Meighan, was a
masterful recruiter of Extension Division
students as volunteers, and Clem believed
Hal Adelson (back row, far right) and Anne Adelson (front row, right) with the Rock
that combining such people as Hal with
Art Archive team at Little Lake Ranch. Front row, from left, Audrey Kopp and George
Spangler. Back row, from left, Alice Hom, Doug Brotherton, John C. Bretney, Clarus
others of diverse interests produced good
Backes, Jr., Ed McIntyre, Tony Hull, Jo Anne Van Tilburg, Gordon Hull, Noel Van Slyke,
rock art research.
Bill White, and Chuck Vezzetti.
The rock art that has come down to us
can be viewed as kaleidoscopic remnants of human
Hal and Anne took part in our Little Lake research
creativity. Perhaps that is why so many of our volunteams to help survey, locate, and document the elusive
teers over the years have been drawn from such varied
and challenging rock art at Little Lake Ranch in the
fields as mathematics, art history, graphic design, film,
Rose Valley. Then Anne joined her volunteer comand especially what everyone in Southern California
patriot Audrey Kopp to spend hours in front of the
used to call the space industry. Hal was a physicist
computer screen minutely analyzing and quantifying
and spent his highly productive and very creative prothe hundreds of rock art motifs we had recorded each
fessional life as an engineer at TRW before he joined
field season.
our Rock Art Archive research staff in 1995. A profile
Hal and Anne participated in the Cotsen Instiof Hal and his work at the Archive was published that
tutes Friends of Archaeology (FOA). From 2000
same year in Backdirt.
to 2001 Hal served as president of the FOA. When
it came time for us to publish our Rock Art at Little
Hal was looking for something in which he could
Lake monograph, Hal attended every editorial meetparticipate but also to which he could make a meaning. He was supportive, diplomatic, and assertive
ingful contribution. He didnt just want to donate his
in seeking solutions to issues or problems. He took
time, he wanted his time to be used well and valued.
careful notes, listened intently, and commented sagely.
Archaeology and rock art interested him. Working
Hal, like others of our colleagues at the Rock Art
in the Rock Art Archive with Gordon Hull, another
Archive, brought a fresh eye and a broad perspective
long-term volunteer and one of Hals many friends,
to questions that arose every day but which, when Hal
he made sure that our jerry-rigged computer systems
was involved, never received ordinary answers. Hal
were on-line and the data protected from loss. A
was a scholar, a gentleman, a friend, a colleague, and
bonus for us was that his wife, Anne, joined Hal in
a good companion in all things archaeological. He is
his rock art interest. Hal and Anne brought brains,
sorely missed.
beauty, and their own elegant sense of style to the
Rock Art Archive.
Friends of Archaeology
G ET I N VO LV E D
F R I EN D S O F ARC HAEO LO GY
Do you find yourself spending your

vacations wandering among ruins and
visiting archaeology museums across
the globe? At the Cotsen Institute,
there are a number of ways to get
involved in archaeological research
in Los Angeles and beyond.
Join the Friends of Archaeology, the Cotsen Institutes support group

dedicated to sponsoring graduate student education, faculty research,
publications, and many other initiatives. There are three levels of
membershipBasic Members ($300$999/year), Directors Fellows
($1,000$4,999/year), and Directors Council Members ($5,000+/year)
with many benefits, including special guided trips to archaeological
sites, domestic and international tours with faculty, and behind-thescenes events at UCLA. (See membership/renewal form on reverse side.)
BASIC MEMBERSHIP
($300$999 per year)
DIRECTORS FELLOW
(1,000$4,999 per year)
DIRECTORS COUNCIL MEMBER

($5,000+ per year)
NEWS
Backdirt Annual Review Magazine

Email news about Cotsen Institute
Public Lectures & events


EVENTS
Invitations to private receptions

(e.g., faculty book launches)
Invitation to one private dinner
lecture with Cotsen Institute
faculty or affiliate at UCLA venue
End-of-academic-year party
with faculty and graduate
students (June)
Invitations to private receptions

(e.g., faculty book launches)
Invitation to one private dinner
lecture with Cotsen Institute
faculty or affiliate at UCLA venue
End-of-academic-year party
with faculty and graduate
students (June)
Invitation to the Cotsen Institute
reception at the annual Society
for American Archaeology
Meeting
Behind-the-scenes tour at Cotsen
Institute research facilities or
affiliated institution, followed
by cocktail reception
All prior benefits plus the

opportunity to personally
sponsor Archaeology Program
graduate students with the
establishment of a $500 award
(included in donation).
Private salons hosted by Cotsen
Institute faculty
TRAVEL and
FIELD TRIPS
Opportunity to attend field

trips and/or museum
excursions in the LA area
with Cotsen Institute faculty
and/or affiliated
archaeologists
Opportunity to attend field trips

and/or museum excursions
domestically or abroad
Tours of 715 days, including
access to archaeological sites
All prior benefits plus additional

opportunities to participate in
international travel and research
Customized tours of 720 days,
including access to archaeological
sites. Tailored itineraries and
services
DISCOUNTS
20% off Cotsen Institute

Publications
30% off Cotsen Institute

Publications
All prior benefits plus a free

copy of new Cotsen Institute
Press Publications
Photo: Emily Uyeda Kantrim

BACKDIRT 2014 | 125
Friends of Archaeology
M E M BERSH I P/ RENE W A L F OR M
M e mbership Optio n s

C HOOSE ONE
n Basic Membership ($300$999/year)

n Directors Fellow ($1,000$4,999/year)
n Directors Council ($5,000+/year)
M e t ho d o f Pay men t
n Check: Please make check payable to: The UCLA Foundation

Credit Card: n Visa n MasterCard n American Express n Discover
Amount of Donation:
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Expiration Date (mm/yy): | | | | |
Credit Card #:
Name on card:
P L EASE P R I NT
D o no r I n fo rmatio n
Name (Mr. | Mrs. | Ms. | Dr.):

This is a joint gift. Spouse/Partner name (Mr. | Mrs. | Ms. | Dr.):
Preferred mailing address: n Home n Business
Preferred email address: n Home n Business
HO M E AD D R E SS:
C ITY/STAT E / Z I P
P H ONE
E M A IL
B US I N ESS AD D R E SS:
C ITY/STAT E / Z I P
P H ONE
E M A IL
For information about donations, please contact:

Lisa Mohan, Director of Development, Division of Social Sciences
(phone 310-825-8930; email: lmohan@support.ucla.edu)
5043 LS322
.
Please send payment and this completed form to:
The UCLA Foundation, PO Box 7145, Pasadena, CA 91109-9903

For additional information, please contact:
Lisa Mohan, Director of Development, Division of Social Sciences

(phone 310-825-8930; email: lmohan@support.ucla.edu)
Please review UCLA and The UCLA Foundations Disclosure Statements for
Prospective Donors at: www.uclafoundation.org/disclosures or contact
the development officer listed on this form.
impacting the academic, local, and global community
www.ioa.ucla.edu
126 | BACKDIRT 2014
Special Thanks
Donors and Funders of Projects July 1, 2013 June 30, 2014
($300 or more in support of the Institute)
The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA expresses its deepest gratitude to

LLOYD and MARGIT COTSEN for their commitment to the creation of knowledge and continuous
support of the faculty, researchers, students, and other affiliates of the Institute.
OUR SPECIAL THANKS G O A L SO TO THE FO L LOWI N G S U P P ORTERS
Anonymous
Falcon, Donna J. and James Myers
Miller, Jordan and Felice
Adelson, Harold E.* and Anne
Fowler, Eileen and Gary
Mohan, Lisa S.
Anawalt, Patricia R.
J. Paul Getty Trust
Moriarty, Phyllis Endowment
Apache Corporation
Girey, Helle
Morris, Sarah P.
Arnold, Deborah
and Walter Zipperman
Godwin, Beverly
Munitz, Barry
Gottesman, Sonia A.
Muir, Arthur H.
Arvey, Margaret C.
Grancell, Norin T. and Nona
Myers, Mary Jane
Babian, Avo
Ham, Richard and Judy
Bailey, Jeanne M.
Harris, Arlene S.
National Endowment for

the Humanities
Baldwin, Dana M.
Hector, Bruce P. and Justina
National Geographic Society
Bartley, Pamela
Henderson, David M. and Susan T.
National Science Foundation
Bass, Harris and Margaret
The Henry Luce Foundation
Nettleship, Patricia
Beaudry-Corbett, Marilyn P.
and Don Corbett
Housing Development Services Inc.
Norris, Tania
Holmes, Marillyn H.
Orellana, Sandra L.
Bendat, Millie R. and Julius S.
Holz, John and

Marguerite Maynard Holz
Orrange, William W. and Susan
Berberian, Roupen and Graziella

Bernard, Nancy S. and Allan H.
Hullett, Katherine
Papadopoulos, John
Boochever, David and Kathleen
Jacobson, Michelle and

Anthony Caldwell
Pine, Benjamin L. and Rue C.
Bost, Kurt W.
Bretney, John C. and Louise C.
Kay, Jean Steinmetz
Porcasi, Judith F. and Peter P.
Bristol-Myers Squibb Foundation, Inc.
Kershaw, Norma
Robertson, Deb and Tom Chwalek
Brooks, Elizabeth J.
Kopp, Audrey
Rugge, Dale
Cahill, William and Frances
Lee, Howard and Norma
Sherwood, Fran and Arthur L.
California Community Foundation

Boochever Family Fund
Sammy Yu-Kuan Lee Foundation
Joan Silsbee Revocable Trust
Lesser, Stephen O.
Cameron, John J. and Karen
Silton, Jill
Cascadden, Neil R.
Lieberfarb, Gail Kamer

and Warren N.
Stanish, Charles
Chen, Sharon S.
Lin, Agnes
The Harry & Ovsanna Chitjian

Family Foundation
Lipner, Sharon
Steinmetz, Charles and Ellen K.
Chitjian, Zaruhy Sara
Lucas, Herbert L. and Ann S.
Civalleri, Roger and Patty
Lynton, Jamie and Michael
The Coca-Cola Company
The Joseph and Fiora Stone

Foundation
MacCary, William and Karla
Conger, Jay A. and Nadege
Elbridge & Evelyn Stuart Foundation
Magalousis, Nicholas M.
Conte, Courtney and Gina
Sweitzer, Noel L.
Marott, Janet
Cooper, Helene and Edwin L.
Vaughn, Dennis H. and Linda
Cotsen, Lloyd and Margit
McAndrews, Colleen C.
and Robert E. Wood
Wake, David B. and Marvalee H.
Dalian, Dikran and Arpy
McClelland, Donald and Karen Profet
Duque, Mercedes and James
The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation
Zaki, Ihab M.
Estate Of John W. Lissack
Ostroff, Anita J.
Porath, Anne and Arnold
Steensland, Ronald E.
Steinmetz Family Trust
Steinmetz Foundation
The Waters Foundation

*In memoriam
BACKDIRT 2014 | 127

2014 Backdirt

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2014 Backdirt

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2014 Backdirt

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BACKDIRT

ANNUAL REVIEW OF THE COTSEN INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY AT UCLA

Learning from the past,

Message from the Director

It has be e n anot h e r banner year for the

Cotsen Titles Win Big Awards

Professor Monica L. Smith Elected AIA Academic Trustee

Professor Giorgio Buccellati Appointed to German Archaeological Institute

Discoveries on the South Coast of Peru Draw International Attention

8 Former Institute of Archaeology Director Elected to the

Graduate Students Receive National Science Foundation Awards

Faculty Honors, Distinctions, and Awards

C. Myles Chykerda, Margriet Haagsma, and Sophia Karapanou

24 The Tin Problem Reconsidered: Recent Archaeometallurgical

36 The Chincha Kingdom: The Archaeology and Ethnohistory of the

48 Exploring Ancient Pastoral Mobility through Stable Isotope Analysis:

58 Prehistoric Urban Archaeology in the Americas: A View from Cusco, Peru

Alexei Vranich, Stephen Berquist, and Thomas Hardy

Incoming Graduate Students and New Academic Appointments

80 Report from the Chair: UCLA/Getty Program in Archaeological

82 Ten Years in the Tropics: Archaeological Research and

RESEAR C HER S NOTEBOO K

Monica L. Smith and Rabindra Kumar Mohanty

2014 Open House

114 Archaeology and Multidisciplinarity in a Regional and Ethnic Context:

Noon Talks, 20132014

Trevor Van Damme

Friends of Archaeology Dinner Lectures, 20142015

New Titles from the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press (CIoA)

Harold Adelson, Ph.D.

Jo Anne Van Tilburg

To request a copy or for information

Photo by Gregory Areshian.

Figures 1 and 3 in Merrick Posnanskys article Evolving Holistic Approaches to

THE INSTITUTE IN THE NEWS

Cotsen Titles Win Big Awards

he Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press (CIoA

Finally, Professor Jeanne Arnolds latest book, Life

THE INSTITUTE IN THE NEWS

Professor Monica L. Smith

ongratulations to Monica Smith, Professor of

These awards serve to further elevate

Professor Giorgio Buccellati

research team led by Professor Charles Stanish

THE INSTITUTE IN THE NEWS

Former Institute of Archaeology

imothy Earle, Professor Emeritus of Anthropology

he Cotsen community congratulates Hannah Lau

Hannah Lau received a Dissertation Improvement Grant from

coordination among people in both daily subsistence

rofessor Lothar Von Falkenhausen was appointed

n October 6, the Cotsen community celebrated

rofessor Ioanna Kakoulli received an award from

ssociate Professor Kara Cooney received a grant

rofessor John Papadopoulos was appointed as

s reported in Proceedings of the Royal Society

T he f o rt ifie d ci t y near modern Kallithea,

1. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, UCLA.

archaeological and epigraphic evidence, demonstrates

Figure 1. Major cities in Achaia Phthiotis with

8 Former Institute of Archaeology Director Elected to the

24 The Tin Problem Reconsidered: Recent Archaeometallurgical

36 The Chincha Kingdom: The Archaeology and Ethnohistory of the

48 Exploring Ancient Pastoral Mobility through Stable Isotope Analysis:

58 Prehistoric Urban Archaeology in the Americas: A View from Cusco, Peru

80 Report from the Chair: UCLA/Getty Program in Archaeological

82 Ten Years in the Tropics: Archaeological Research and

114 Archaeology and Multidisciplinarity in a Regional and Ethnic Context: