Flow Control
Flow Control
Flow Control
New Series
m:
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Jean-Paul
Bonnet
(Eds.)
Flow Contro
Fundamentals and Practices
4
1
-1
.
113411,
Springer
Editors
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
Department of Aero.
& Mech.
Engineering
e-mail:
mohamed.gad.el.hak.i@nd.edu
Andrew Pollard
pollard@me.queensu.ca
Jean-Paul Bonnet
Centre d'Etudes A6rod. &
Thermiq.
Universit6 de Poitiers
bonnet@univ-poitiers.fr
CIP data
applied for.
Die Deutsche Bibliothek
CIP-Einheitsaufnahme
ISSN 0940-7677
(Lecture
ISBN 3-540-63936-5
subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of
specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, re-use of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other
way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is
permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9,
1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from
Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright
This work is
Law.
@
Printed in
The
use
Germany
of general
tion does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement,that suchnames are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and
regulations
55/3144-543210
Printed
on
acid-free paper
general use.
Preface
No
knowledge
(Leonardo
da
can be certain if it
Vinci, 1452-1519)
hydrodynamics
is to be the root
and is at
The present book contains the lecture notes of eight of the nine instructors at
course Flow Control: Fundamentals and Practices, which was held
the short
Carg6se, Corsica, France, during the week 24-28 June 1996, and repeated
at the University of Notre Dame, Indiana, 9-13 September 1996. Following
the course week in Corsica, a 5-day workshop on the same topic was held.
Selected papers from the workshop are scheduled to appear early 1998 special
volume of the International Journal of Experimental Heat Transfer, Thermodynamics, and Fluid Mechanics. All three events were organized by Jean-Paul
Bonnet of Universit6 de Poitiers, France, Andrew Pollard of Queen's University at Kingston, Canada, and Mohamed Gad-el-Hak of the University of
Notre Dame, U.S.A.
The ability to actively or passively manipulate a flow field to effect a
desired change is of immense technological importance, and this undoubtedly
accounts for the fact that the subject is hotly pursued at present by more
in
scientists and
flow control is
arrows.
The German
VI
to
provide
up-to-date
an
standing
of
increased
that
some
substantially
is
enhancing
employed
to
produce
some
possible
so
understanding suggests
quintessential challenge in the field of flow
taming of turbulence
control
be
can
as
the
to eliminate
some
others.
an
was
fabulous
international
by
attended
course
at Notre Dame
was
from
organized into nine chapters as follows. Mohamed Gad-elChapters I and 2 a broad introduction to flow control and
its classical as well as modern developments. Gad-el-Hak maintains that the
recent developments in chaos control, microfabrication and neural networks
will make feasible, for future practical devices, efficient reactive control of turbulent flows where a distributed control input is optimally adjusted based on
feedforward or feedback spatio-temporal measurements. In Chapter 3, Ron
F. Blackwelder details the eddy structures in the near-wall region of bounded
turbulent shear flows as well as their relationship to the momentum transfer,
mixing and drag. Blackwelder suggests that transitional flows can be used
The book is
Hak
provides
as a
in
sce-
following chapter,
utilizing
Delville, Laurent Cordier and Jean-Paul Bonnet illustrate the use of
proper orthogonal decomposition for large-scale structure identification and
narios
Jo6l
control of turbulent shear flows. Pierre Perrier surveys the multiscale theo-
possibilities
emphasis
on
roughness
effects and
V11
Daniel
contribution
was
Annual Review
Notre
October 1997
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
Contributors
Los
Angeles,
CA 90089
U.S.A.
France
ron0spock.usc.edu
delvilleOuniv-poitiers.fr
Thermiq.
Universit6 de Poitiers
Thermiq.
Laboratoire E.M2.C.
Acole
Universit6 de Poitiers
France
F-92295
bonnet(guniv-poitiers-ft
France
Vignes
Chatenay-Malabry Cedex
durox(gem2c.ecp.fr
Professeur S6bastien Candel
Laboratoire E.M2.C.
Hermann-F6ttinger-Institut
ffir Str,5mungsmechanik
tcole
F-92295
D-10623 Berlin
Vignes
Chatenay-Malabry Cedex
Rance
Germany
candel0em2c.ecp.fr
hfiedler0pi.tu-berlin-de
Thermiq.
France
U.S.A.
cordierOuniv-poitiers.ft
Universit6 de Poitiers
Dr. Olivier
Delabroy
Laboratoire E.M2.C.
Laboratoire E.M2-C.
Itcole
Itcole
Vignes
Chitenay-Malabry
F-92295
Vignes
Chatenay-Malabry
France
France
delabroy(Aem2c.ecp.fr
edward0em2c.ecp.fr
Cedex
X11
Dr.
Rran ;ois
Lacas
Laboratoire E.M2.C.
tcole
Vignes
ChAtenay-Malabry
Cedex
France
francois0-em2c.ecp.fr
Dr. Pierre C. Perrier
France
perrier(Odassault-aviation.fr
Professor Andrew Pollard
poflard( me.queensu.ca
Dr.
noy Shinbrot
Dept.
of Chemical
Northwestern
Evanston, IL
Engineering
University
60208
U.S.A.
shinbrotOnwu.edu
Contents
1.
2.
Some Notes
in the
........................
109
Drag Reduction
Near-Wall Region
on
Ron F. Blackwelder
4.
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
3.
........................
.........................
Large-Scale-Structure
155
Jo6l
5.
Delville,
199
...........................
275
6.
.......
7.
...........................
431
by Active Control
Edward Haile, Olivier Delabroy, Daniel Durox, Franqois Lacas
Combustion Enhancement
335
Andrew Pollard
8.
..........................
........................
............................
467
501
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
subject
of flow control is
elaborated.
we
or
disposition
of
concern
to
us
here.
of a
flow
(1904) pioneered
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
Prandtl
(1904)
influence such
control exerted
boundary-layer separation
Prandtl's success, aircraft designers in the three decades following his convincing demonstration were accepting lift and drag of airfoils as predestined
characteristics with which
no man
could
or
should tamper
(Lachmann, 1961).
This
The major
goal
of this
chapter
is to
broadly introduce
the
subject
and to
a variety
subject matter is Pedagogical
and is designed to attract newcomers to the field. Emphasis is placed on
external boundary-layer flows. The same vorticity considerations brilliantly
employed by Lighthill (1963) to place the boundary layer correctly in the flow
as a whole is used to explain many of the flow control techniques reviewed in
present
of end results. At
times, the
treatment of the
here.
transition,
to
passive
or
beneficial
change
delay/advance
suppress/enhance turbulence or to prevent/provoke separation,
in wall-bounded
or
drag reduction, lift enhancement, mixing augmensuppression. Broadly, there are perhaps five
in
distinct eras
the development of the art and science of this challenging
albeit very useful field of research and technology: The empirical era (prior
to
1900);
the scientific
era
(1900-1940);
era
(1940-1970);
the energy crisis era (1970-1990); and the 1990s and beyond. The art of How
control probably has its roots in prehistoric times when streamlined spears,
arrows
evolved
empirically by
archaic Homo sapiens. Modern man also artfully applied How control methods to achieve certain technological goals. Relatively soon after the dawn of
civilization and the establishment of
an
agriculture
way of life
8,000
years
the
flow field.
trial and
longer
surely,
but physical reasoning and even first principles are more often
for rational design of such artifacts.
the choice of flow control devices is
no
Slowly
error
but
feat,
Stimulated by the Second World War and the subsequent cold war, that
trend accelerated significantly during the third era (1940-1970). Military
needs of the superpowers dictated the development of fast, highly maneuverable, efficient aircraft, missiles, ships, submarines and torpedoes, and flow
played
The energy crises exemplified by the 1973 Arab oil embargo brought about
noticeable shift of interest from the military sector to the civilian one.
specifically
towards
transitional and
pursued by
developments
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
works should
control
strategies include those by Wilkinson (1990), Moin and Bewley (1994), and
Gad-el-Hak (1994; 1996b). Reactive flow control is emphasized in the
lowing chapter of this book. All five eras of flow control are seen from
perspective of the history of the universe depicted in Figure 1.
fol-
the
Governing Equations
There is
control devices is
(non-Newtonian fluid),
uum
fluid,
the
ap
at
P
at
(ae
energy
tensor notation
f aui
contin-
aXk
(PUk)
auj
Uk
X
Xk
(1)
49-Pki
OXk
ae
aqk
X
X
aXk
+ Uk
(2)
+ Pgi
f-
-Fki
aUi
aXk
(3)
In the above
equations, p is the density, ui is an instantaneous velocity component (u, v, w), Zkj is the second-order stress tensor, gi is the body force
is the internal energy per unit mass, and qj is the heat flux
independent variables are time t and the three spatial coordinates
and x3
or
Absent any
(x, y, z)
Big Bang
15 billion
(years ago)
4.6
billion
1.5
billion
Solar
-- ----
Life
System
began
on
formed
Earth
250 million
Dragonfly
4 million
Ancestral hominid
2 million
Homo
habilis
1.5 million
Homo
erectus
500,000
Archaic Homo
200,000
Homo
10,000
(years ago)
Agriculture
5,500
Plough
-- ----
-- ----
5,000
-- ----
4,000
-- ----
(handy)
sapiens
(wise)
sapiens
(Civilization)
Irrigation Systems/Writing
(Abraham)
Biblical Judaism
3,500
Metals
300
150
Navier-Stokes
Equations
100
Powered
(years ago)
Present
Future
The Information
Fig.
1.
History
of the Lmiverse
Age
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
field,
and
-P 6ki + It
Zki
of state,
appropriate equations
namic properties, are needed. For
for example, these relations read
auj+
(aXk
aUk
+A
axi
(aU5)
axj
(4)
6ki
aT
qj
de
-n
c,
(5)
axi
dT
and
(6)
pRT
where p is the thermodynamic pressure, y and A are the first and second
coefficients of viscosity, respectively, 5ki is the unit second-order tensor (Kro-
now
read
ap
at
a
+
aui
P
a Xk
+Uk
at
(PUk)
(7)
auj
ap
aXk
axi
19
+
PCV
where
(aT
+Uk
at
is the
[/ (
)
(, aT) _PaUk
aUi
aXk
aT
aXk
aXk
aXk
allk
axi
6ki A
auj
a xi
+ pgi
(9)
aXk
aXk
(8)
conversion of mechanical energy to internal energy as a result of the deformation of a fluid element. The viscous dissipation is given by
0
There
1
=
IL
OUi
aXk
OUk
axi
)2 (auj )2
+ ",
(10)
axj
Newtonian
six
implies
tensor
(rate
of strain
proportionality
tensor).
The
isotropy assumption
stants- Fourier fluid is that for which the heat flux vector is
the temperature
relation is
linearly
con-
related to
constant in this
Considerable simplification is achieved if the fluid is assumed incompressible, usually a reasonable assumption provided that the characteristic flow
speed is less than 0.3 of the speed of sound. The (constant) density is assumed given and the governing equations for such fluid are
auk
Oxk
aui
P
at
+ Uk
ap
axk
-axj
axk
axk
axj
+Pgi
aT
PCV
[1t(aui auk)]
aT)= 19-X (xaT)+O.
TX
_Xk
aui
+ Uk
at
(12)
(13)
are
five
auk
aui
at
+uk
(14)
TXk
'aui
OP
aXk
axi
a
+
+ Uk
Ilk (
5- )
F,(T)
is
Pe
axk
aT
Ec
+
X1,
Xk
where
e
aXk --k-
aT
aT
[F,(T) (auj
X1,
k
Re
auk
axj
Gr.
+
Re2
T &j3
F, (T)
(15)
(16)
viscosity
variation with temperature, and Re, Gr, Pe and Ec are, respectively, the
Reynolds, Grashof, P6clet and Eckert numbers. These dimensionless param-
time, and
can
or
3.1-
of motion
are
Equations of Motion
useful to flow
at the Wall
flows, the streamwise (x) and spanwise (z) momentum equations written at the wall give very useful expressions of the wall fluxes of, respectively, the spanwise and streamwise vorticity. For an incompressible fluid
In wall-bounded
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
momentum
au
PVW
ay
1Y=O
These
ay 1Y=O
equations
are
IY=O
ax
lap
ay
aP
aw
PVW
ap
-
JY=O
az
IY=O ay I
Y=O
/.t
0
'Y=O
aw
alt
I
ay
instantaneous and
Y=O
are
ay I
J'Y=O
a2V
ay2 JY=O
a2
ay2 1,0
ay2
Y=O
/t
(17)
(18)
(19)
lent flows.
(positive) injection
through
to injection
or
Here, v, is the
the wall. Upward
a2 U
au
att
ay
(negative)
velocity
analogously
or suction. The right hand side of each of the three equations
represents the curvature of the corresponding velocity proffle, which in the
case of the streamwise/spanwise equation is the same as the flux of spanwise/streamwise vorticity from the wall. Negative curvature implies that the
velocity profile is fuller and that the wall is a source (positive flux) of vorticity. Whether the wall is a source or a sink of spanwise/streamwise vorticity,
depends on whether fluid is sucked or injected from the wall, whether the
streamwise/spanwise pressure gradient is favorable or adverse, and whether
the wall viscosity is lower or higher than that above the surface. For a canonical turbulent flow, the instantaneous velocity proffles in all three directions
change shape continuously as a result of the random changes in the pressure
or
suction
field.
3.2
The Kdrindn
Integral Equation
Cf
a80
P, V'-,
Similar
integral
50
[(2 )
5*
relations
50
can
Q...
P""
Q""
aU20- +
19X
ap"O
P"'
ax
1
+
aR]
Rax
(20)
energy differential equations. In the momentum integral equation, the skinfriction coefficient, the displacement thickness and the momentum thickness
are
Cf
7-W
-=
1
2
POO U2.
(21)
)dy
( )
Pu
P.
60
Also, R is the
corresponding
10
"0
P
P.
U.
(22)
U.
I
(23)
dy
U.
body
of revolution
(the
flow), p...
Equation (20) drops
density and velocity outside the boundary layer, respectively,
ected (or sucked)
pw and vw are the density and normal velocity of fluid in
through the surface, and -rw is the shear stress at the wall.
Since the skin-ft-iction coefficient in the momentum integral equation is
defined in terms of the shear stress and not in terms of the velocity gradient
at the wall, theKArmAn equation is, in fact, valid for both laminar and turbulent flows as well as for both Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids; the only
assumptions being made are that the flow is two-dimensional (or axisymmetric) in the mean. In case of a turbulent flow, the mean strearnwise velocity,
and U,,
are
U(t, x, y)
for
term in
two-dimensional
the
au
Irw
3.3
/L
ay
6,9. For
Newtonian fluid
LO
(24)
Turbulent Flows
All the
equations
thus far
are
as
well
as
turbulent
are
general randependent
dom functions of space and time. No straightforward method exists for obtaining stochastic solutions of these nonlinear partial differential equations,
and this is the primary reason why turbulence remains as the last great unsolved problem of classical physics. The recent attempts to use dynamical
systems theory to study turbulent flows has not yet reached fruition especially at Reynolds numbers far above transition (Aubry et al., 1988), although
advances in this theory have helped some with reducing and displaying the
massive bulk of data resulting from numerical and experimental simulations
(Sen, 1989). The brute4orce numerical integration of the equations using the
supercomputer is prohibitively expensive at practical Reynolds numbers. For
the present at least, a statistical approach, where a temporal, spatial or ensemble average is defined and the equations of motion are written for the
various moments of the fluctuations about this mean, is the only route available to get meaningft engineering results. Unfortunately, the nonlinearity
of the Navier-Stokes equations guarantees that the process of averaging to
obtain moments results in an open system of equations, where the number
of unknowns is always greater than the number of equations, and more or
less heuristic modeling is used to close the equations. This is known as the
closure problem, and again makes obtaining first-principle solutions to the
(averaged) equations of motion impossible.
flows.
case
the
variables
in
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
10
ensemble averages for the velocity and pressure, respectively, and u, and p'
are the velocity and pressure fluctuations about the respective averages. Note
temporal
or
This
&
equation
Uk
Ui
axt,
is written in
axj
cous
on a
(_ auj
__
5Xk
1-
aXk
(Reynolds stresses),
UiUk)
__
(25)
+P
physical interpreta-
-P UiUk,
as
additional
along
equation for the components of this tensor may
as
UiUjUk, and
so on.
closed
The
equations
Unifying Principles
are
particular control strategy is chosen based on the kind of flow and the
goal to be achieved. Flow control goals are strongly interrelated, and
there are several different ways for classifying control strategies to achieve a
desired effect. Presence or lack of walls, Reynolds and Mach numbers, and the
character of the flow instabilities are all important considerations for the type
of flow to be controlled. These issues are discussed in turn in the following
A
control
five subsections.
4.1
Section 4.3 will contrast free-shear and wall-bounded flows. For the purposes
section, we focus on the latter particularly the technologi-
of the present
as
be
manipulated
cally
to achieve transition
2
crease, skin-friction and pressure
Pressure
induced
11
is enhanced and
more
other
hand,
the skin-friction
much
as an
order of
achieved.
4.2
There
Classification Schemes
different classification schemes for flow control methods. One is to
are
technique is applied
at the wall
or
particles,
dust
or
fibers,
can
also be
injected through
or air wall-bounded flows. Control devices located away from the surface can
also be beneficial. Large-eddy breakup devices (also called outer-layer devices,
or
OLDs),
acoustic
waves
bombarding
shear
layer
from
outside,
additives
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
12
Transition in Free-Shear
TRANSITION
Layer may
REATTACHMENT
(Bubble
Fon-nation)
Lead to Reattachment
-In
;Clc
0`>
'0
eF
c2:
m
(a
SEPARATION
(0
ca
01-
:3
Induced
DRAG
1.
Drag
Lift-to-Drag
Fig. 2. Interrelation
.10
LIFT
Ratio
goals
shear
are
ex mples
of flow control
classifying flow control methods considers energy exloop involved. As shown in the schematic in Figure
3, a control device can be passive, requiring no auxiliary power, or active,
requiring energy expenditure. As for the action of passive devices, some prependiture and
fer to
use
the control
(Fiedler
and
terminology
dynamic processes. Acpredetermined or reactive. Predetermined
control includes the application of steady or unsteady energy input without
regard to the particular state of the flow. The control loop in this case is
open as shown in Figure 4a, and no sensors are required. Reactive3 control
is a special class of active control where the control input is continuously
the latter
for
linguistically
to
adjusted based
can
measurements of
some
loop
in this
13
case
either be
(Figure 4c).
on
an
control.
Flow control
strategies
Passive
Active
Reactive
Predetermined
Feedforward
Adaptive
Physical
Fig.
model
I I Dynamical systems
Optimal
dealing with
control
strategies
Feedback
particularly impor-
over
sta-
control,
example, the pressure or velocity can be
sensed at an upstream location, and the resulting signal is used together with
an appropriate control law to trigger an actuator which in turn influences the
velocity at a downstream position. Feedback control, on the other hand, necessitates that the controlled variable be measured, fed back and compared
tionary
sensors
reference
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
14
Controller
Controlled
(Actuator)
variable
Power
(a)
Measured
Controlled
variable
00
Sensor
variable
Controller
Feedforwardoo
POP
(Actuator)
signal
Power
(b)
Measured/controlled
Co
Feedforward element
arator
variable
(Actuator)
Feedback
signal
Feedback element
(Sensor)
W
Fig.
4. Different control
loops
profile
or
Streamwise
taneously
vorticity
or
in the
eyists
mean.
is
three-dimensional,
instan-
15
ity flux
streamwise
of shear
thinning/thickening
additive.
rather than
can
inflectional
nozzle,
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
16
et
al., 1988).
and Fernholz
and
4.4
more
(1990),
who offer
recently by Gutmark
Regimes
of
Reynolds
et al.
(1995)
and Viswanath
(1995).
17
>
5).
discussed in here.
4.5
grouping the different kinds of hydrodynamic instabilities as inviscid or viscous, one could also classify them as convective or absolute based
on the linear response of the system to an initial localized impulse (Huerre
and Monkewitz, 1990). A flow is convectively unstable if, at any fixed location, this response eventually decays in time. In other words, if all growing
disturbances convect downstream from their source. Suppression of convective instabilities is particularly effective when applied near the point where
the perturbations originate. If any of the growing disturbances has zero group
velocity, the flow is absolutely unstable. This means that the local system response to an initial impulse grows in time. In this case, some of the growing
disturbances can travel back upstream and continually disrupt the flow even
after the initial disturbance is neutralized. Therefore, absolute instabilities
axe generally more dangerous and more difficult to control; nothing short of
complete suppression will work. In some flows, for example two-dimensional
blunt-body wakes, certain regions are absolutely unstable while others are
convectively unstable.
In -addition to
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
18
Transition
Delay
Delaying laminar-to-turbulence transition of a boundary layer has many obadvantages. Depending on the Reynolds number, the sldn-friction drag
in the laminar state can be as much as an order of magnitude less than that
in the turbulent condition (Figure 5). For an aircraft or an underwater body,
the reduced drag means longer range, reduced fuel cost/volume, or increased
speed. Flow-induced noise results from the pressure fluctuations in the turbulent boundary layer and, hence, is virtually nonexistent in the laminar case.
Reducing the boundary layer noise is crucial to the proper operation of an
underwater sonar. On the other hand, turbulence is an efficient mixer and
vious
are
transition may be sought in some applications as for examwhen enhanced heat transfer rates are desired or when rapid mixing is
state,
ple
so
early
needed.
10-2
a-
10-3
Cli
10-4-1
105
111111
106
111111
On
11111L
pressible,
flow (somewhat
profile and
as
111111
109
=-U_LN
for
are
many;
smooth flat
plate
at
zero
in
incidence to
uniform,
clean, uniform,
incorn-
the Iaminar
possible,
leading edge) is in the form of a Blaenough Reynolds number, typically Re.,, <
downstream of the.
exists at low
108
sius
107
Re
as
19
to small perturbainvariably exist in any flow. Squire's (1933) theorem shows that
two-dimensional traveling waves (TollrDien-Schlichting waves) are the most
dangerous for incompressible-flow instability and become unstable when the
Reynolds number exceeds a critical value. However, as soon as the T-S waves
are amplified, gain a certain amplitude and nonlinear effects take place, threedimensional disturbances can no longer be excluded (Itoh, 1987). Following
the linear step, the originally two-dimensional waves inherently acquire a
nearly periodic spanwise modulation and three-dimensional structures evolve
as a result of a secondary instability. Hairpin vortices develop, perhaps due
to a tertiary instability, and finally breakdown to turbulence occurs (Klebanoff et al., 1962). Not surprisingly, these nonlinear processes are far less
understood than the linear step. The linear amplification step is, however, the
slowest of the successive multiple steps in the transition process and, hence,
factors that affect the linear amplification detern-Ane the magnitude of the
transition Reynolds number.
tions that
Reshotko
consequence of the
sound,
surface
roughness,
surface
vibrations,
or
are
combination of these
small,
transition
en-
Reynolds
depends
signature
tivity; see, for example, Morkovin, 1969; Goldstein and Hultgren, 1989), and
the linear amplification of the growing normal modes. Once wave interaction
and nonlinear processes set in, transition is quickly completed. If the initial
disturbance levels are large enough, the relatively slow linear amplification
step mentioned above is bypassed (Morkovin, 1984; 1988) and transition can
at much lower Reynolds numbers. In fact, a sufficiently violent distur10%, can cause transition of a laminar boundary layer to
bance, Urms/Uoo
advance to the position upstream of which perturbations of all wave numbers
decay (Klebanoff et al., 1955).
occur
To
ing
set of
delay transition
to
as
First,
tion of ToUrnien-Schlichting
Reynolds number,
these
far downstream
waves
waves
position
as
possible,
determine the
magnitude
or
the follow-
amplifica-
of the transition
canceled. In the
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
20
former method of
using
the
any
shape
modifiers
control,
the
growth
of the
spiration/wall motion,
and surface
heating/cooling.
5.1
Stability Modifters,
Stability modifiers are those methods of laminar flow control which alter
shape of the velocity profile to minimize the linear growth of unstable
waves. For a two-dimensional larninar boundary layer, vorticity is only in the
spanwise direction and, within the boundary layer approximation, is given by
-OU1/10-'r2. The right-hand side of (17), therefore, represents the flux of
W3
vorticity at the surface, as demonstrated by Lighthill (1963). Any of the terms
on the left-hand side of (17) can affect the sign of the second derivative of the
velocity profile (or the direction of the vorticity flux) at the wall and, hence,
the flow stability Stability modifiers do just that and include wall suction (or
downward wall motion), favorable pressure gradient, surface cooling in gases
or surface heating in liquids. Any one or a combination of these methods
will cause the curvature of the velocity profile at the wall to become more
negative and, hence, increase the lower critical Reynolds number and reduce
the spatial or the temporal amplification rates of unstable waves.
the
are
stabilized
able pressure gradient are known as natural laminar flow (NLF), while the
other methods to modify the stability of the shear flow are termed laminar
flow control
are
(LFC).
It is clear from
hybrid
one
(17)
of the LFC
techniques-
normally
refers to the
postponing
21
transition is the
application
region
velocity profile at the
wall and
duce the power necessary to drive the suction pump but also the momentum
loss due to suction, and hence the skin friction, is minimized. This latter
can
...
Cf
2
d6o
dx
1VW I
U""
(26)
on
the
the fluid
ity
treatment
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
22
U(Y)
The
displacement
U.
[I
Ivj is the
(20) reads
Cf
(27)
exp
vllvl,
where
is
velocity
(28)
Cq
nearer
the
leading edge (branch I of the neutral stability curve) when disturbances are
amplitude.
Suction may be applied through porous surfaces, perforated plates, or
carefully machined slots. It is of course structurally impossible to make the
still small in
whole surface of
an
aircrafts
wing
or
23
or steel are used. A relatively inexpensive wosteel, Dynapore, is now available and provides some structural
support (Reynolds and Saxic, 1986). Superior surface smoothness and rigidity are obtained by drilling microholes in titanium using the recently developed electron-beam technology. The lower requirement for a pressure drop in
the case of a perforated plate translates directly into pumping-power saving.
However, outflow problems may result from regions of the wing having strong
pressure gradients (Saric and Reed, 1986). Outflow in the aft region of a suction strip can cause large destabilizing effects and local three-dimensionality.
often
ven
strips
of sintered bronze
stainless
slots
on
the
formation at low
clog
as
well
as
suspended
destabilize the
particulate
boundary layer.
ocean
that
can
Shaping. The second method of control to delay laminar-to-turbulence transition is perhaps the simplest and involves the use of suitably shaped bodies to
manipulate the pressure distribution. In (17), the pressure gradient term can
affect the sign of the curvature of the velocity profile at the wan and, hence,
change the stability charac'teristics of the boundary layer. According to the
calculations of Schlichting and Ulrich (1940), the critical Reynolds number
based on displacement thickness and freestream velocity changes from about
100 to 10,000 as a suitably nondimensionalized pressure gradient (the shape
-6 (adverse) to A
+6 (favorable). Moreover, for
factor, A) varies from A
the case of a favorable pressure gradient, no unstable waves exist at infinite
Reynolds number. In contrast, the upper branch of the neutral stability curve
-
in the
tote
so
case
that
of
a
an
adverse pressure distribution tends to a non-zero asympregion of wavelengths at which disturbances are always
finite
oo.
amplified remains even as Re
Streamlining a body to prevent separation and reduce form drag is quite
an old art, but the stabilization of a boundary layer by pushing the longitu-4
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
24
dinal location of the pressure minimum to as far back as possible dates back
to the 1930s and led to the successful development of the NACA 6-Series
(Granville, 1979).
The favorable pressure gradient extends to the longitudinal location of the
pressure minimum. Beyond this point, the adverse pressure gradient becomes
as
the
Wall
Heating/ Cooling.
stability
surface of
is
negative.
body moving
which
in
causes
on
near
(17)
25
velocity profile becomes fuller and more stable. The term containing the
viscosity derivative will also be negative if the surface of a body moving in
water is heated. With heating in water or cooling in air, the critical Reynolds
number is increased, the range of amplified frequencies is diminished and the
amplification rate of unstable waves is reduced. Substantial delay of transition
is feasible with a surface that is only a few degrees hotter (in water) or colder
the
(in air)
the
drag
of
flat
plate placed
phenomenon
was
by a large amount
plate is heated (Linke, 1942). Both Rick and McCullough (1942)
and Liepmann and Fila (1947) showed that the transition location of a flatplate boundary layer in air at low subsonic speeds is moved forward as a result
of surface heating. The stability calculations of Lees (1947) confirmed these
experiments and, moreover, showed that cooling has the expected opposite
effects. The critical Reynolds number based on distance from the leading edge
increases from 105 to 10' when the wall of a flat plate placed in an air stream is
a
in
when the
(Kachanov
et
Fisher
(1980)
on an
airborne
cone over
the Mach
as
Prandtl number
are more
(good
pronounced
thermal
coupling)
In
hypersonic flows,
different mode of
cooling,
larger
dependence of
a surface heating
curvature of the
turbulence.
6
For water at
drop
room
in temperature.
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
26
velocity profile
at the wall
surface
as a
cooling
of 20'C in air
or a
suction
or water)
al., 1982).
(Liepmann
(in
(1968;1970) used a modified fourth-order Orr-Sommerfeld equation combined
with the eg method of Smith and Gamberoni (1956) and confirmed that wall
of 0.0003
air
coefficient
Wazzan et al.
et
temperature.
(1974)
(1968; 1970)
calcu-
of 4.7 x
10' for a wall overheat of 8'C. No further increase in (Re Itramition) was
as the wall was heated further, in contradiction to the computations
observed
causes
of this
tunnel, Lauchle
and Gurney (1984) observed an increase in transition Reynolds number from
4.5 x 106 to 3.6 x 10" for an average overheat of 25'C. Clearly, surface heating
in water can be an extremely effective method of transition delay and, hence,
drag reduction for small, high-speed underwater vehicles where the rejected
heat from their propulsion system is used to increase the surface temperature along the body length. The detrimental effects of freestream particulate
alluded to earlier are, however, a major obstacle at present for a practical
implementation of this method of control. Suspended particulate having a
On
heated
body of revolution
are
sought
in
high-speed
water
abundant in the
before
contaminated environment.
using
oceans
and
' particledelay
In addition to surface
heating,
27
several other
effective
becomes
5.2
>
in
Wave Cancellation
An alternative
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
28
in a flat-plate boundary layer in a water tunnel. A feedloop was then used to synthesize and introduce disturbances
of equal amplitude but of opposite phase via flush-mounted wall heaters. Ladd
and Hendricks (1988) performed their experiment in a water tunnel on a 9:1
fineness-ratio ellipsoid. Strip heaters were again used to create and actively
attenuate T-S. waves. They applied digital filtering techniques to synthesize
the attenuation signal. The filter was able to actively adapt the attenuation
signal to changes in amplitude and frequency of the artificially introduced
instability wave with no loss in attenuation downstream.
The transition delay achieved by active wave cancellation is modest, typically a factor of two or less increase in the transition Reynolds number based
on distance from the leading edge. Reshotko (1985) maintains that to achieve
significant delay in transition using this technique would require an extensive array of disturbance detectors and generators as well as prohibitively
natural T-S
waves
forward control
complicated
via the
5.3
Compliant Coatings
Wall motion
using
surface
can
be
generated by
flexible coating
waves are
either
whose modulus of
In the former case, the wall motion is precisely controlled and can be made
to affect the shape of the velocity profile in a desired manner. This method of
to
modulate the
mean
29
time-dependent calculations would be preferlinear-stability theory, but neither has been attempted
obvious
due
the
to
complexities of the problem. Notwithstanding the
yet
shortcoming of present stability calculations, Willis (1986) obtained a very
impressive agreement with the careful experiments conducted by Michael
Gaster. Eigenvalue calculations were performed to predict the amplification
factors for a range of modal frequencies. The flexible coating was a siliconrubber/silicon-oil n-jix covered by a thin latex rubber skin stretched across
or a
true
able to conventional
were
conducted in
water
and
plate,
care
must be taken to
amplitude
two-dimensional disturbances
and
ensure
through
al., 1988, and Gad-el-Hak, 1996a).
Although the original Kramer's (1960) experiments were discredited up
until a few years ago, new theoretical and experimental evidence confirm
Kramer's results (Carpenter and Garrad, 1985). Passive flexible coatings
with density the order of the fluid density appear to be capable of considerable transition postponement. The density requirement makes this method of
control suitable for water applications only. Transitional Reynolds numbers
(based on distance from the leading edge) that are 5-10 times those for a
rigid surface seem to be readily achievable with a simple method that does
not require energy expenditure, slots, ducts, or internal equipment of any
the recent review articles
by Riley
et
kind.
6
6.1
Separation Control
Steady Separation
30
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
conditions.
inverse calculation.
6.2
Unsteady Separation
over
steady
ing wall shear does not necessarily coincide with separation, and this greatly
complicates the problem. This was first observed by Rott (1956) while analyzing the unsteady flow in the vicinity of a stagnation point. He. observed that,
while the wall shear vanished with an accompanying reverse flow, there was
no singularity or breakdown of the boundary-layer assumptions. In seeking a
generalized model for separation, Sears (1956) postulated that the un teady
31
streamline
separated region
a.
Fixed wall.
stream
separated region
wall movement
b. Wall
moving
downstream.
munfine
sh e
separated region
-wall movement
c.
Wall
moving upstream.
boundary layer
to
verify
over
this
fixed
or
important
more
tractable
moving
(1959)
separation
problem
wig (1964) investigated experimentally a shrouded rotating cylinder in steady
How. As expected, separation was delayed (moved downstream) when the wall
of steady
over
opposite the
Moore
was
and Lud-
hypothesized by
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
32
Separation point
moving downstream
Separation point
moving upstream
Moving Separation
-------------
Fig.
7. Moor's
Fixed
Separation
Point
Point
wall
alytical verification
moving wall.
of the
case
of
(1974a; 1974b),
downstream
the relation-
ship between unsteady boundary-layer separation over fixed walls and steady
separation over moving walls has been an intuitive one. By considering the
rather general class of unsteady, two-dimensional boundary-layer problems
which could be treated by the method of semi-similar solutions, William
and Johnson (1974a) were able to transform an unsteady problem in three
independent variables into an equivalent problem in two independent variables. This transformation made it then possible to use conventional numerical techniques for solving steady, nonsimilar boundary-layer problems, and
allowed the authors to investigate some time-dependent flows where separation occurs in a coordinate system for which unsteady separation is most
easily identified and analyzed. As a practical example, Williams and Johnson
(1974a) verified the MRS model for unsteady separation for a particular timedependent retarded flow the steady flow equivalent of which is the classical
linearly retarded flow studied by Howarth (1938).
subsequent paper, Williams and Johnson (1974b) established a rigoranalytical link between unsteady separation over a fixed wall and steady
In
ous
function
only
of
ve-
linear
combination of the streamwise coordinate and time and where the wall.
downstream with the
33
moves
6.3
mentioned, Prandtl (1904) was the first to explain the mechanics of separation. He provided a precise criterion for its onset for the case of a steady,
two-dimensional boundary layer developing over a fixed wall. If such a flow is
retarded, the near-wall. fluid may have insufficient momentum to continue its
motion and will be brought to rest at the point of separation. Fluid particles
behind this point move in a direction opposite to the external stream and
the original boundary-layer fluid passes over a region of recirculating flow.
Since the velocity at the wall is always zero, the gradient [au/ay],=0 will be
positive upstream of separation, zero at the point of separation, and negative
in the reverse flow region. The velocity profile at separation must then have
a positive curvature at the wall. However, [a2U/ay2] is negative at a large
distance from the wall, which means the velocity profile at separation must
have a point of inflection somewhere above the wall. Since [,92U/,ay2] > 0 is
0
a necessary condition for a steady, two-dimensional boundary layer to separate, the opposite, i.e. a negative curvature of the velocity profile at the wall,
must be a sufficient condition for the boundary-layer flow to remain attached.
The above arguments naturally lead to several possible methods of control to delay (or advance) steady, two-dimensional separation that rely on
modifying the shape of the velocity profile near the wall. Namely, the object
is to keep [,92U/ay2] as negative as possible, or in other words to make the
0
velocity profile as full as possible. In this case, the magnitude of the spanwise vorticity decreases monotonically away from the wan and the surface
vorticity flux is in the positive y direction. Not surprisingly, then, methods of
control to postpone separation that rely on changing the velocity profile are
similar to those used to delay laminar-to-turbulence transition. For example,
beyond the point of minimum pressure on a strean-Ained body the pressure
gradient is adverse and the boundary layer will separate if the pressure rise
is sufficiently steep; however, enough suction may be applied there to overcome the retarding effects of the adverse pressure gradient and to prevent
separation.
As
For any
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
34
or
sapiens discovered,
through scores of trials and errors, the value of streamlining spears, sickleshaped boomerangs, and fin-stabilized arrows (Williams, 1987). In supersonic
flows,
pressure
separate
as
always
rises
result of the
across a
wave
shock
wave
and
boundary layer
may
(Young,
To
expand the
attached flow
separation line
negative. However,
boundary layer be just at the condition of separation, withactually separating, at all positions in the pressure rise region, Stratford
(1959b) experimentally verified that such flows achieve a specified pressure
out
possible distance
35
possible dissipation of
lifting surface which could utilize the Stratford's distribution imafter transition from laminar to turbulent flow would be expected
to have very low skin friction as well as pressure drag. Liebeck (1978) successfully followed this strategy using a highly polished wing to achieve the best
lift-to-drag ratio (over 200) of any airfoil tested in the low-Reynolds-number
range of 5 x 105-2 x 106. He argued that the entire pressure-recovery region
of an airfoil's upper surface would be operating at its maximum capacity if
the adverse pressure distribution was uniformly critically close to separation.
By assuming an incipient-separation turbulent profile, Liebeck calculated the
derive
pressure field required then used an inverse calculation procedure to
the airfoil shape from the given critical-velocity distribution.
When attempting to reduce skin-friction drag by driving the boundary
layer towards separation, a major concern is the flow behavior at off-design
conditions. A slight increase in angle of attack for example can lead to separation and consequent large drag increase as well as loss of lift. High performance airfoils with lift-to-drag ratio of over 100 utilize carefully controlled
adverse pressure gradient to retard the near-wall fluid, but their performance
deteriorates rapidly outside a narrow envelope (Carmichael, 1974).
energy. A
mediately
Separation
on
the upper
sur-
sufficiently low Re, the separated flow will not reattach to the surface.
However, in the intermediate Reynolds number range of typically 104-106,
transition to turbulence takes place in the free-shear layer due to its increased
susceptibility. Subsequent turbulent entertainment of high-speed fluid causes
the flow to return to the surface, thus forming what is known as a larninar
separation bubble. Regardless of whether or not the flow subsequently reattaches, the laminar separation leads to higher form drag and lower maximum
lift. Delicate contouring of the airfoil near the minimum pressure point to
lessen the severity of the adverse pressure gradient may be used to accomplish separation-free transition (Nenninger and Vemuru, 1990).
For
Mranspiration. The second method to avert separation by changing the curvature of the velocity profile at the wall involves withdrawing the near-wall
fluid through slots or porous surfaces. Prandtl (1904) applied suction through
a spanwise slit on one side of a circular cylinder. His flow visualization photographs convincingly showed that the boundary layer adhered to the suction
side of the cylinder over a considerably larger portion of its surface. By re-
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
36
moving the decelerated fluid particles in the near-wan region, the velocity
gradient at the wall is increased, the curvature of the velocity profile near the
surface becomes more negative, and separation is avoided. In the following,
an approximate method to compute the amount of suction needed to prevent
laminar separation is briefly recalled (Prandtl, 1935).
For a laminar boundary layer, the ratio of pressure forces to viscous forces
is proportional to the shape factor, A,
A
62
--
62
dpco
dU,,,,-
dx
dx
p.
(29)
U,,
where 6 is the
a2UJO
dp,,
(30)
ay2
dx
The
a2U
[,ay2 10
U...
12
(31)
62
-12
121/
(32)
(duoo/dx)
solution. As
---
4.36Re-0-5
where Re is the
freestream
on
the
(33)
cylinder diameter and
the
boundary layer
tioA distribution
(see,
particularly simple
e-g..,
on a
(1956).
He reduces the
37
problem to solving a first-order ordinary differential equation. As an example, for a symmetrical Zhukovskii airfoil with uniform suction, nuckenbrodt
predicts a suction coefficient just sufficient to prevent separation of
Qq
where Re is the
1.12
Re-0-5
(34)
velocity.
For turbulent
inevitably
in the range of
typical
airfoil
nose
gradient
the
on
occurs.
passive
1983; Savu and nifu, 1984; Nagamatsu et al., 1985; 1987; Raghunathan, 1985;
Stanewsky and Krogmann, 1985; Barnwell et al., 1985; Koval'nogov et al.,
1987) in both transonic and supersonic flows (Bauer and Hernandez, 1988).
The basic device is an empty subsurface plenum covered by a porous surface
and located underneath the shock-boundary-layer interaction region. Such
a passive porous surface allows mass to self-bleed from downstream of the
shock to upstream, resulting in a more gradual viscous-inviscid interaction, a
series of weaker shock waves and reduced pressure gradients. Flow separation
is then delayed and wave drag is minimized. Suction implemented via passive
bleed is employed as an integral part of the technologically important case of
high-speed inlet design (Delery, 1985; Viswanath, 1988).
Optimization. Flow separation control by suction is the other
technique which, along with blowing, is within the capacity of
contemporary CFD for design and optimization via tailored and perhaps distributed flow profiles and is well reviewed in readily available literature. Suction can be instituted via active or passive systems, with the boundary-layer
diverter constituting the reductio ad absurdum. The parameter space for separation control by suction (or injection) includes: distribution of mass transfer
location vis-a-vis adverse pressure gradient regions; spatial distribution (discrete, continuous); exit orientation; tailoring of orifice velocity proffles, active
Suction
conventional
and
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
38
1987);
that upstream control is less effective than direct control of the separated flow region; and that optimum distributed suction requires several
consequent loss of
embedded near-wall
wing box) has revived interest in suction control for the subsonic case.
Preliminary studies indicate that the LFC suction system for cruise application is not incompatible with leading-edge region suction separation control
or high-lift requirements for both CTOL and SST (supersonic transport) applications. Flight experiments of leading-edge suction systems for high lift
(e.g., Hunter and Johnson, 1954) and LFC (Hefner and Sabo, 1987) do not
indicate any stoppers. A combined approach has considerable promise, using
the same suction surface and system for both LFC at cruise and leadingedge-region high lift for takeoff and landing. For LFC, there is the added
benefit of eliminating the joints, etc-, associated with conventional leadingedge, variable-geometry devices.
of
method to
(1960; 1961).
(1958),
(1959),
and Lankford
problem
compressible boundary layer are available
on
separation
(1960)
Chang (1970; 1976).
Active separation control by wall cooling in air is straightforward- The
technique might be particularly appropriate for high-altitude, long-endurance
vehicles (HALE) having thick, low-Reynolds-number wings and cryogenic fuel
the
and
of
in Gadd
39
provide the requisite heat sink (e.g., Baullinger and Page, 1989). Unfortunately the method is mainly restricted to cryogenically-fueled aircraft. This
makes it particularly appropriate for hypersonic applications such as shockboundary-layer interactions on hydrogen-fueled vehicles. Cooling in air works
according to both experiment and theory for low (Macha et al., 1972; Lin and
Ash, 1986) as well as high (Spaid, 1972; Ogorodnikov et al., 1972) speeds.
In liquids, surface heating lowers the near-wall viscosity but the density
remains essentially unchanged. Using simple asymptotic analysis of the coupled energy and momentum equations, Aroesty and Berger (1975) compared
the effectiveness of wall heating to suction as a means of delaying separation
for a prescribed adverse pressure gradient in a water boundary layer. They
concluded that surface heating can be used in water to delay separation somewhat. However, it seems that this analytical result has not been confirmed
experimentally.
to
In addition to surface
to establish
heating/cooling,
are
available
viscosity gradient
separation. These include as indicated earlier film boiling,
cavitation, sublimation, chemical reaction, wall injection of a secondary fluid
having lower/higher viscosity, and the introduction into the boundary layer
in
the location of
of
shear-thinning/shear-thickening
additive.
Moving Walls
6.4
flow. Prandtl
a
(1925)
right angles
side of the cylinder
uniform stream at
nated
on
the
injects additional
Separation
is
cylinder placed in
completely elimi-
move
in
same
is
rotor.
practical point of view, wall motion for body shapes other than
cylinders or spheres is prohibitively complicated, although it is feasible to replace a small portion of the surface of, say, an airfoil by a rotating
cylinder thus energizing the boundary-layer and avoiding separation (AlvarezCalderon, 1964). Rotating cylinders have been successfully employed to delay
separation at the leading and trailing edges of airfoils and control surfaces
(Johnson et al., 1975; Mokhtarian and Modi, 1988; Mokhtarian et al., 1988a;
Rom
circular
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
40
1988b;
Modi et
face gap.
Flight tests were conducted on an YOV-10A STOL-type aircraft having flaps with rotating cylinders at their leading edges (Cichy et al., 1972;
Weiberg et al., 1973; Cook et al., 1974). With the flaps in lowered position,
the cylinders were rotated at high speed and lift coefficients as high as 4.3
were recorded at a modest flying speed of 30 m/sec along approaches up to
-80. Modi and his colleagues (Modi et al., 1981; Mokhtarian and Modi, 1988)
carried out a comprehensive wind tunnel test program involving a family of
airfoils each having one or more rotating cylinders located at the leading
edge, the trailing edge or the upper surface, as sketched in Figure 8. Under
optimum conditions, the lift coefficient increased by as much as 200% and
the stall angle was delayed to 48'.
Leading-Edge
Cylinder
((Dj:
Trailing-Edge
Cylinder
Upper-Surface Cylinder
((3,
Fig.
of
8. Various
an
delay stall
airfoil
as
27%,
when the
was
41
speed.
semi-passive
in character
mentation.
U00
Uc
Fig.
rotating cylinders
Creating a wall-slip layer biases the mean flow such that a larger pressure
gradient can be tolerated before separation occurs. There are essentially two
techniques for establishing a slip layer on the wall to mitigate sepaxation.
The first of these is to actually translate the wall itself, e.g., moving belts
or embedded rotating cylinders as discussed above. The other approach is
the establishment of stabilized cavity vortex flows. Either small-scale (Migay,
1960a; 1960b; 1961; 1962a; 1962b; 1962c; Stull and Velkoff, 1975; Howard
and Goodman, 1985) or large-scale (Ringleb,1961; Adkins, 1975; Adkins et
al., 1980; Burd, 1981; Chow et al., 1985; Krall and Haight, 1972; Haight
et al., 1974) vortex stabilization is necessary, otherwise the trapped vortex
will generally periodically shed downstream causing disrupted operation and
higher drag and losses. Stabilization techniques include injection (Krall and
Haight, 1972; Haight et al., 1974); suction (Adkins, 1975; 1977; Adkins et al.,
1980; Burd, 1981; Chow et al., 1985); and/or viscous forces via low-cavityReynolds number (e.g., Howard and Goodman, 1985). The vortex flap is the
latest version of such a device. These slip-layer separation control techniques
work for moderately separated flows, but in extreme cases reverse flow can
still occur away from the surface (Zhuk and Ryzhov, 1980).
6.5
Time-Dependent Separation
For
rather
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
42
point moves upstream as is the case on the suction side of an airfoil undergoing a pitching motion from small to large angles of attack. Conversely, when
an airfoil is pitched from large to small attack angle, the separation point
on the suction side moves downstream and separation is advanced, much the
same as the case of a wall moving upstream.
An airfoil
of attack
can
pro-
duce very high lift coefficients and maintain flow attachment well beyond
static stall attack angles (McCroskey, 1977; 1982). During the upstroke, the
separation point moves upstream and reverse flow exists in an attached and
mathematically wel-l-behaved boundary layer. The global aerodynamic properties of a pitching airfoil are strongly influenced by the local unsteady separation. Sudden changes of lift, drag, and pitching moment occur near the
onset of separation and the spillage of a leading edge vortex. These effects
are particularly significant at high frequencies and large amplitudes. Moment
stall is observed when the reverse-flow region extends over most of the airfoil
and a large-scale vortex is formed near the leading edge. A discontinuous increase in circulation is associated with the spilled vortex. During this phase
of the cycle, lift continues to increase. Lift stall follows moment stall and
occurs when the separation vortex reaches the latter half of the airfoil and
a double-peaked pressure distribution results on the suction side. In other
words, the suction on the upper surface of the airfoil continues to increase
at the initial stages of separation, and a sudden decrease in suction does not
occur until the leading edge is in the wake of separation.
phenomena are observed on three-dimensional lifting surfaces undergoing pitching motion (Gad-el-Hak, 1986a; 1988a; 1988b; Gad-el-Hak and
Ho, 1986a). For highly swept wings, both steady as well as unsteady flows
are vortex dominated. The latter flow is characterized by the existence of unsteady large- and small-scale vortices that go through a growth-decay cycle
with hysteresis during each period (Gad-el-Hak and Ho, 1985; 1986b; Kandil
and Chuang, 1988; Atta and Rockwell, 1990; Huyer et al., 1990).
Similar
sualized
43
approximately 250 million years, presumably survived innuaerodynamic struggles (Luttges et al., 1984; Luttges,
enviably large lift coefficients generated by the chalcid wasp dur-
in existence for
1989).
The
6.6
Separation
Three-dimensional boundary layers are more common in praretical. flow situations than two-dimensional ones. Bodies of revolution at some angle of
attack, flow near wing tips, turbine blades, pump impellers, and low-aspect-
wings
are
the distance from the wall goes to zero coincides with the skinfriction lines on the surface of the body. Oil-streak techniques and the like are
usually used to obtain separation and attachment patterns for steady, three-
streamlines
as
dimensional flows
(Maltby, 1962).
move
in
general more capable of overcoming an adverse pressure gradient without separation. Three dimensional relief of the streamwise adverse pressure
gradient may be exploited to delay sepaxation. Properly designed corrugated
trailing edges can provide sufficient easement to postpone the separation at
higher angles of attack. In nature, three-dimensional serrated geometry is to
are
in
be found in the
natural-laminar-flow airfoil.
6.7
Turbulators
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
44
layer,
from
Morkovin
(1984) broadly
bypass
transition into
For low-Reynolds-number airfoils, performance may be improved by reducing the size of the larninar separation bubble through the use of transition
ramps (Eppler and Somers, 1985), boundary layer trips (Davidson, 1985; Van
Ingen and Boermans, 1986), or even pneumatic turbulators (Pfenninger and
Vemuru, 1990). Donovan and Selig (1989) provide extensive data using both
methods for 40 airfoils in the Reynolds number range of Gx 104-3 x 105. A long
45
103
SMOOTH AIRFOILS
102ROUGH AIRFOILS
LL
CDL
MAX
101
1001
103
105
104
Rc =-
Fig.
10. Airfoil
performance
as a
106
107
U-C
V
function of chord
Reynolds
number
low
approximately
drag.
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
46
(Tani, 1969). For high Mach number flows, the general decay in spatial amplification rate of T-S waves makes conventional tripping more difficult as the
Mach number increases (Reshotko, 1976). For these flows, trips that generate
oblique vorticity waves of appropriate wavelength may be most effective to
advance the transition location.
turbulence for
standing that the turbulence levels and the Reynolds stresses are highest
immediately following transition (Harvey et al., 1969), the newly developed
turbulent flow is in general less capable of resisting separation than a corresponding flow at higher speeds (Lissaman, 1983). Turbulence augmentation
in the low-Reynolds-number case is then a useful control goal to energize the
flow and to enhance its ability to resist separation at higher angles of attack. Roughness will enhance the turbulence, but its associated drag must be
carefully considered. Other devices to enhance the turbulent mixing include
vane-type vortex generators, which draw energy from the external flow, or
wheeler-type or Kuethe-type generators, which are My submerged within
the boundary layer and presumably have less associated drag penalty (Rao
and Kariya, 1988). These and other devices will be detailed in the next section.
6.8
or
for
off-design
supply of additional energy to the near-wall fluid particles which are being
retarded in the boundary layer. The additional longitudinal momentum is
provided either from an external source or through local redirection into the
wall region. Passive techniques do not require auxiliary power, but do have an
associated drag penalty, and include intentional tripping of transition from
laminar to turbulent flow upstream of what would be a laminar separation
point (Mangalam et al., 1986; Harvey, 1986), boundary-layer fences to prevent separation at the tips of swept-back wings, placing an array of vortex
generators on the body to raise the turbulence level and enhance the momentum and energy in the neighborhood of the wall (Mehta, 1985b; Rao and
Kariya, 1988), rippled trailing edge (Werle et al., 1987), streamwise corrugations (Mabey, 1988), stepped afterbodies to form a system of captive vortices
in the base of a blunt body (Kentfield, 1985a; 1985b; Kidd et al., 1990), or
using a screen to divert the flow and increase the velocity gradient at the
wall.
Active methods to postpone separation require energy expenditure. Obthe energy gained by the effective control of separation must exceed
viously,
47
in Section
speeds.
Many
external
as
rical
well
as
rotating
boundary layer with zerovice in a wide-angle diffuser, Viets et al. (1981) were able to postpone the
natural separation and dramatically improve the diffuser's performance.
cam
com-
monly carried out via one of two general approaches, either macro overturning
of the mean flow using embedded streamwise vortices generated by fixed lifting surfaces, or Reynolds stress amplification which leads to increased crossstream momentum transfer. Conventional passive vortex generators (VGs)
date from the 1940s (Taylor, 1948a) and are simple, effective and generally
the first tried as a fix to an existing flow separation problem. Passive VGs have
been applied, for example, to compressor blades (Staniforth, 1958), diffusers
(Henry et al., 1956; Feir, 1965; Brown et al., 1968), airfoils (Pearcey, 1961;
Nickerson, 1986; Bragg and Gregorek, 1987), and the afterbody of aircraft
fuselages (Calarese et al., 1985; Wortmann, 1987). What these embedded vortices do is
cause
via
macro
motions. Fluid
particles with high streamwise momentum are swept along helical paths toward the surface to mix with and, to a certain extent, to replace the retarded
near-wall flow. The vortex influence upon the turbulence'ean actually be
debilitating due to streamline curvature-induced stabilization.
to the
surface,
vor-
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
48
Leading-Edge
Slat
Trailing-Edge
Flap
Combination
Fig.
11. Passive
cr
slats and
trailing-edge flaps
Nominal
(1948b); Henry et
or
height
to avoid
vortex
rec-
production
devices is
on
49
produce
erating
off-design problems, the
devices
are
sizable
VGs
retracted
Spangenberg (1960); Gadetskii et al. (1972); Liandrat et al. (1986); Cutler and Bradshaw (1986; 1989); Inger and Siebersma (1988); Mehta (1988);
and Briedenthal and Russell (1988) provide generic studies of vortex generator physics and operation. Application to supersonic flows is summarized by
Gartling (1970).
Several approaches are now available to optimize the performance of passive vortex generators. The first of these is the use of downstream reinforcers;
which are vortex generators of the same sense located in the path of the
upstream-generated vortex to maintain the strength of the overturning motion (Kuethe, 1973; Wheeler, 1984; Lin and Howard, 1989; Rao and Kariya,
1988). A second optimization approach is surprisingly recent and consists of
simply reducing the device height from the order 6 to 0 [6/51 or less (Rao
and Kariya, 1988; Lin and Howard, 1989; Lin et al., 1990a). This size reduction significantly diminishes the parasitic drag and is enabled by the extreme
fullness of the mean velocity profile in a turbulent boundary layer. In other
words, with sizable longitudinal momentum levels readily available quite close
to the surface, it is not necessary to have 0 [61 devices. Such sub-8 devices
must be placed closer to the nominal separation location and therefore may
be less suitable than larger devices for situations where the separation region
is not relatively localized.
Alternative approaches for separation control by streamwise vortices are
the V-shaped cutouts of the NACA's flush inlet, leading-edge serrations (Harris and Bartlett, 1972; Soderman, 1972; Barker, 1986) and use of large-scale
(flow field vs. boundary-layer scale) vortical motions to control separation on
highly swept wings. Such motions can be generated by either auxiliary lifting
devices, e.g. canards, or by simple abrupt planform variations such as wing
leading-edge extensions (LEXs). Such large-scale vortical motions alter both
the near-walt momentum and the basic pressure field, generating increased
lift. Problems with such an approach include vortex bursting, usually caused
primarily by adverse pressure gradients. Control of bursting is actually control of vortices and is a subsidiary problem of separation control by vortices
and
(Vakili, 1990).
Passive Turbulence
trol
approach
Amplification.
con-
Reynolds stresses in as much as the overall pressure rise for incipient separation is directly proportional to the square root of
the skin-friction coefficient of the undisturbed boundary layer (Hayakawa and
Squire, 1982). The zeroth order consideration for most separation control is
to ensure a turbulent rather than laminar boundary-layer state. For Reynolds
cross-stream momentum via
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
50
levels.
turbulent
destabilizing longitudishear, concave for boundary layers and convex for wall jets (coanda effect). For high speeds, use
of upstream shock-wave-interaction, which can amplify turbulence significantly (Anyiwo, and Bushnell, 1982; Zang et al., 1984), also delays separation
(Schofield, 1985; Gol'd Fel'd and Zatoloka, 1979). The use and/or generaAdditional turbulence
amplification ploys
include
tion of freestream
tions also
turbulence/disturbance
amplifies
(Hoff-rnann, 1981;
Honami, 1989).
Sasaki and
mo-
turbulence in the
51
WaU-Region Momentum Enhancement. Active momentum adtechniques include streamwise vortex generation via discrete blowing
or injection, turbulence/Reynolds stress amplification through use of dynamically activated or driven devices, and direct tangential injection of highvelocity fluid. The two passive techniques discussed above, vortex generation
and turbulence amplification, can also be employed via active systems. Of
particular interest is the use of discrete jet injection for streamwise vortex
generation. This concept arose in the 1950s (Wallis and Stuart, 1958; Pearcey,
1961; Kukainis, 1969; Wimpenny, 1970) and is the subject of current research
(Zhang and Sheng, 1987; Reynolds et al., 1988; Johnston and Nishi, 1989;
1990; Compton and Johnston, 1991). What is particularly appealing is the
ability to deploy or retract the vortex generators as required, which eliminates parasitic drag in the retracted nonblowing condition. The associated
fluid supply lines operate at high pressure and are thus relatively small. They
might even be utilizable as structural reinforcement elements. The status of
research in this area is such that, while it is clear that discrete jets Will generate vortices and delay separation, the approach has not yet been optimized.
Research is required to determine optimal injection orientation, spacing, individual hole geometry and size, velocity, pressure, and finally location visa-vis the adverse pressure gradient regions. Papell (1984) addresses vortex
generation within the injection jet itself. Another use of injection for vortex
generation is spanwise injection along the leading edges of swept wings for
upper surface separation control (e.g., Bradley and Wray, 1974). Employing spanwise arrays of small, skewed, pitched jets from holes in the surface,
Johnston and Nishi (1990) have shown that the jets can produce longitudinal
vortices strong enough to substantially reduce and nearly eliminate a large
stalled region of a turbulent separated flow.
Active
dition
relatively recent development in flow separation control is active turbuamplification in the bounding shear layer for flows already separated.
The fundamentaJ concept is excitation and, through phasing, enhanced interaction of large transverse eddy structures near and downstream of the
separation point, thereby amplifying the mixing in the shear layer bounding
the separated flow region. This increases entrainment and generally reduces
the extent of separation. For initially laminar flows, the zeroth order influence
of dynamic forcing is to both trip transition and enhance the eddy dynamics of the low-Reynolds-number shear-layer (e.g., Collins, 1979; 1981; Mullin
et al., 1980; Sigurdson and Roshko, 1985; DeMeis, 1986; Durbin and McKinzie, 1987; Huang et al., 1987; Neuburger and Wygnanski, 1988; Zaman and
McKinzie, 1989; Bar-Sever, 1989).
A
lence
dynamic devices have been tried for the initially turbulent flow
including acoustic drivers (Bhattacharjee et al., 1985), oscillating embedded plates, spoilers and flaps (Reisenthel et al., 1985; Roos and Kegetman,
1986; Afiau et al., 1988; Chen and Shi Ying, 1989; Katz et al., 1989a; 1989b),
both chordwise and spanwise dynamic blowing (Oyler and Palmer, 1972; Ely
Various
case
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
52
Berrier, 1975; Vakili et al., 1988; Vakili, 1990), rotating cam (Viets et
al., 1979; 1981a; 1981b; 1981c; 1984), and even dynamic motions of the entire body. One of the few large-scale dynamic experiments thus far is also
one of the earliest (Oyler and Palmer, 1972). The same incremental increase
in lift was achieved with only 50% of the blowing mass flow required for the
steady-state case. What is obvious from the initially turbulent, dynamic-input
separation control research thus far is that, once again, the method works.
What is not so obvious is how well it would work in engineering applications
and the nature and operating range of the optimal dynamic devices.
and
tangential injection, wan jet, was and still is the preferred and straightforward flow separation control technique which has been
applied to military fighters and STOL transports. IRgh-pressure air can be
used enabling relatively small interior lines as opposed to suction control
which, while generally more energy efficient than blowing at both low and
high speeds, usually requires larger interior ducting (Gratzer, 1971). In some
applications, a lighter gas is introduced to reduce the rate at which heat is
exchanged between the wall and the external stream and, thus, to provide
thermal protection at high supersonic velocities.
Ifigh-pressure. bleed air was readily available from the early jet engines
but less so for modern high-bypass-ratio turbofans. CFD can now be used to
design the system and optimize the injection velocity profile for a given mass
flow for optimal separation delay (see Saripalli and Simpson, 1980). Performance can be further enhanced by convex longitudinal curvature (coanda
effect). Tangential blowing is also used to stabilize a trapped vortex, particularly in the knee region of wing flaps. The literature for the steady blowing
case is both extensive and readily available, with most information dating
from the 1950s. Separation control by blowing at high speeds is covered in the
reviews by Delery (1985) and Viswanath (1988). Of possible interest for separation control via direct tangential injection is the application of turbulence
control techniques to reduce the mixing between the injected and incident
Wall Jets. Direct
flows and
thereby
downstream
high neax-wall
al., 1985).
preserve the
(McInville
et
an
over
momentum for
larger
extent
imental
under
numbers of 1.2
105-3.9
tion of the
rear
105,
McLachlan observed
dramatic increase in
trailing-edge blowing was used to control the locaseparation points- He reported a gain in the lift coefficient of
53
ling boundary layer separation and reattachment include the use of acoustic
excitations (Collins and Zelenevitz, 1975; Ahuja et al., 1983; Ahuja and Burrin, 1984, Zaman et al., 1987; Huang et al., 1987), periodic forcing of the
velocity field via an oscillating flap or wire (Koga et al. 1984; Sigurdson and
Roshko, 1985; Reisenthel et al., 1985; Roos et al., 1986; Katz et al., 1989a;
1989b; Bar-Sever, 1989), and oscillatory surface heating (Maestrello et al.,
1988).
early as 1947, Schubauer and Skramstad observed that sound at particular frequencies and intensities could enhance the momentum exchange
within a boundary layer and could, therefore, advance the transition locaAs
(1975)
and Collins
(1979; 1981)
technique to enhance
the lift of
introduced the
an
airfoil. In this
case, sound is radiated onto the wall from a source outside the boundary
layer. Using the same technique at chord Reynolds number up to 1 X 106,
timurn
et al.
(1983)
frequency
and
was
found to be 4 U,,Ic
(i.e.
Strouhal number
4),
where
is the freestream
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
54
et al.
respective wind
layers separating from their
respective airfoils. Extremely high level of excitation was required, however,
to maintain these wind tunnel resonance modes, making the external acoustic
excitation technique impractical for actual applications. Zaman et al. (1987)
speculated that a more effective separation control can be obtained by direct
introduction of velocity disturbances.
tunnels and
one
Huang et
al.
(1987)
technique,
a lifting
surface. The loudspeaker in this case is essentially used as a piston to produce
localized vorticity perturbations at the leading edge of the airfoil. Recently,
Hsiao et al. (1990) reported improved aerodynamic performance of a twodimensional airfoil using sound emitted from three narrow wall slots located
near the leading edge. The sound pressure levels used in their experiment
was substantially lower than that used externally by other researchers. Additionally, a correct Strouhal number scaling was achieved. Hsiao et al. (1990)
concluded that the enhancement of momentum transport resulting from the
sound excitation produce a suction peak at the leading edge, an increase of
lift and a narrower wake, as long as the excitation frequency is locked-in to
the most unstable frequency of the separated shear layer.
in which sound is emanated from
hole
or a
slot
on
the surface of
directly disturb the velocity field, Koga et al. (1984) used a computercontrolled spoiler-like flap in a flat-plate turbulent boundary layer with and
without modeled upstream separation. They were able to manipulate the
separated flow region and its reattachment length characteristics by varying
the frequency, amplitude and waveform of the oscillating flap. Reynolds and
Carr (1985) offer a plausible explanation, from the viewpoint of a vorticity
framework, for the experimental observations of Koga et al. It seems that
the large-scale vortical structures produced by forcing play a major role in
enhancing mixing and entrainment, thus leading to reattachment. The active flap controls the size of the separated region by providing an additional
mechanism for removing vorticity from this zone, namely, large-scale vortex
convection. Recent experiments by Nelson et al. (1987; 1990) seem to confirm that the dominant mechanism of vorticity transport behind an oscillating
spoiler is convective.
To
Periodic
forcing
of the
velocity
ment
introduce transverse
airfoil at
high
velocity fluctuations
incidence.
into
on an
6.9
55
Separation Provocation
Although
are
designed
to
freestream
is
quite low.
The detached bow shock
forming upstream
of
blunt
body in supersonic
flight may be changed into a weaker, attached oblique shock by placing a spike
in front of the body. The pressure rise and the presence of a solid surface on
which a boundary layer forms causes the flow to separate downstream of the,
spike tip. A properly designed spike may result in lower drag, higher lift, and
corresponding change in pitching moment (Wood, 1961).
Periodic separation may also be provoked by changes in the wan geometry. Francis et al. (1979) initiated separation on an airfoil by periodically
inserting and removing a spoiler at the wall. Viets et al. (1984) studied separation inducement and control by use of a cam-shaped rotor mounted on
an airfoil. The cam, either driven or free-wheeling, periodically extended out
into the flow causing the boundary layer to separate. Large-scale coherent
spanwise structures were periodically generated and were responsible for the
flow detachment as explained by Reynolds and Carr (1985).
On a sharp-leading-edge delta wing, the separation position is fixed and a
strong shear layer is formed along the entire edge (Lee and Ho, 1989; 1990).
The shear layer is wrapped up in a spiral fashion, which results in a largebound vortex on each side of the wing. The two vortices appear on the suction
surface of the wing in the form of an expanding helix when viewed from the
apex. The low pressure associated with the vortices produces additional lift on
the wing, often called nonlinear or vortex lift, which is particularly important
at large angles of attack. The experiments of Gad-el-Hak and Blackwelder
(1985) have indicated that small discrete vortices are shed parallel to the
leading edge at a repeatable frequency, determined by the angle of attack
and Reynolds number. Repeated vortex pairings result in the formation of
progressively larger vortices. This process can be modulated by weak, periodic suction/injection through a leading edge slot. In particular, when the
perturbation frequency is a subharmonic of the natural shedding frequency,
the evolution of the bounded shear layer is dramatically altered (Gad-el-Hak
and Blackwelder, 1987a; Blackwelder et al., 1987).
Wood and Roberts (1986; 1988) examined the feasibility.of vortex control
by tangential mass injection at the leading edge of a 60' delta wing. Their
initial experimental results indicate that modest continuous blowing was ca-
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
56
pable of extending the regime of stable, controlled vortical flow over the upper
surface of the wing by approximately 30' angle of attack. Increases in maximum normal force of 30% were achieved and significant rolling moments
were produced at attack angles of 35-60'. On a delta wing with rounded
leading edges, the blowing seems to control the location of the crossflow separation points and hence the trajectories of the ensuing vortices. Wood and
Roberts (1988) propose that this blowing scheme may be a practical solution
for changing the normal force without changing attitude, for the production
of both steady and transient control moments at extremely high angles of attack, and for increasing the lift-to-drag ratio of very slender bodies at modest
attack angles. In a recent experiment, Wood et al. (1990) have shown that
the effects of asymmetric leading-edge blowing are uncoupled at prestall angles of attack. In this case, the overall forces and moments for symmetric
blowing can be simply deduced by superposition of asymmetric blowing situations. On the other hand, the response of the vortical flowfield is strongly
coupled for asymmetric blowing at poststall conditions. Wood et al.'s results
imply that tangential leading-edge blowing may result in substantial rolling
moments at conditions where other control devices
Controllable
cease
to be effective.
7'
7.1
large
an
active method of
vortices
Drag
Reduction
Introductory
Remarks
throughput,
reduced
pumping
power,
or
Nature
provides
drag
instances where
numerous
57
cles. At present, the annual ftiel bill for all commercial airlines in the United
States is about $10 billion (Heftier, 1988). At subsonic cruising speeds, ap-
lates into
an
takeoff and
Hence,
saving
reduction in skin-friction
annual fuel
of $1 billion. Not
only
landing aircraft
drag of 20% trans-
is this
substantial
sum, but also many believe that a return of the 1973's energy crisis is inevitable (Phillips, 1979; Kannberg, 1988). While the world may have another
friction.
Attempts
Streamlining
to reduce
drag
go back to
antiquity
as
mentioned in Section 2.
can
elim-
separation. Some form drag remains, however, even when the flow remains attached to the trailing edge.
Due to the displacement effects of the boundary layer, the pressure distribution around the body differs from the symmetric distribution predicted
by potential flow theory. This remnant drag can be reduced by keeping the
boundary layer as thin as possible. For a blunt body, passive and active
inate most of the pressure
drag due.
to flow
are
available
(Viswanath, 1995).
of
drag
can
subsonic
reduce the energy dissipated into waves at the air/water interface. An even
simpler solution to reduce wave drag is to operate the ship well below the
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
58
aircraft's
drag,
skin-friction
Let
drag
us
start
and this
would have
unit
number of 2 x
Reynolds
traveling at
10"/m
at
sea
an
an
underwater vehicle
Three flow
friction.
First,
same
level and 1
10"/m at
viscosity of water,
20
knots)
unit
regimes
can
if the flow is
laminar, typically
leading edge < 106, then methods of reducing the laminar shear
sought. Any or a combination of the following techniques can be
used to lower the laminar skin friction: wall motion; injection of fluid normal
to the wall; adverse pressure gradient; wall heating in air; or wall cooling
in water. Note that any of these methods will promote flow instability and
separation. These tendencies have to be carefully considered when deciding
how far to go with the attempt to lower Cf. Two other techniques can be
used to lower laminar skin-friction. Narasimha and Ojha (1967) considered
the higher order effects of moderate longitudinal surface curvature. Their
similarity solutions show a definite decrease in skin friction when the surface
has convex curvature in all cases including zero pressure gradient. Narasimha
and Ojha attributed the decrease in Cf to the fact that the velocity in the
potential flow region tends to decrease away from the surface. The second
technique is used in rarefied gas flows. Appropriate surface preparation could
be used to introduce a slip velocity at the wall and, thus, lower the tangential
momentum accommodation coefficient (Steinheil et al., 1977; Gampert et al.,
distance from
stress
are
1980).
Secondly, in the range of Reynolds numbers from I X 106 to 4 x 10", active
passive methods to delay transition as far back as possible are sought.
These techniques were reviewed in Section 5, and can result in substantial
savings. As shown in Figure 5, the skin-friction coefficient in the laminar flat
plate can be as much as an order of magnitude less than that in the turbulent
and
case.
result in
The
an
all the
stability
object is,
of course, to
keep
the
over
penalty
layer.
saving, i.e., the net
59
drag will be above that of the flat-plate larninar boundary-layer but well
below the viscous drag in the flat-plate turbulent flow.
Thirdly, for Re > 4 x 10", transition to turbulence cannot be delayed
with any known practical method without incurring a penalty that exceeds
saving. The task
the
bulent
boundary layer.
This
topic
saving here
is
problematic
at
following
7.3, although achieving
tur-
section.
a
net
present.
vehicle with
unit
Turbulent Flows
7.2
and
ous
techniques involving
the geometry. Three excellent reviews of the variare available, Bushnell (1983),
inputs having
first-order influence
Reduction of Near-Wall Momentum. Methods of skin-friction drag reboundary layers that rely on reducing the near-wall
duction in turbulent
momentum
drag
are
as
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
60
on the Reynolds stress term. However, these influences are qualitatively in the same direction as in the simpler laminar case. Thus, lower skin
friction is achieved by driving the turbulent boundary layer towards separation. This is accomplished by injecting fluid normal to the wall, shaping to
produce adverse pressure gradient, surface heating in air, or surface cooling in
water. These methods of control in general result in an increase in turbulence
intensity (Wooldridge and Muzzy, 1966).
modulations
Although
in the
flow
or sepaThis
and
aircraft.
of
an
example
wings
point
ration,
empennage
will be discussed further in a later subsubsection.
source
from the
for
Howard et al.
(1975)
and multi-slot
may
provide
even
to
help compensate
61
for
system losses.
drag can be
include
Examples
by
foreign
longchain molecules, surface-active agents and microbubbles in liquid flows, and
small solid particles or fibers in either gases or liquids. In general, the addition
of these substances leads to a suppression of the Reynolds stress production in
the buffer zone that links the linear and the logarithmic portions of the mean
velocity profile. Thus, the turbulent mixing is inhibited and a consequent
Introduction of
reduced
Foreign
substances.
the wall
(Virk
et
al., 1967).
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
62
Many mechanisms have been proposed to explain the experimental obserLumley (1973; 1977), Landahl
(1973; 1977), and the more recent quantitative theory by Ryskin (1987). According to Lumley's model, the macromolecules are expanded outside the
viscous sublayer due to the fluctuating strain rate. The resulting increase in
effective viscosity damps only the small dissipative eddies. The suppression
of small eddies in the buffer layer leads to increased scales, a delay in the
reduction of the velocity profile slope, and consequent thickening of the wall
region. In the viscous sublayer, the scales remain unchanged since the effective viscosity of the dilute solution in steady shear is only slightly affected.
In the buffer zone, the scales of the dissipative and energy containing eddies
axe roughly the same and, hence, the energy containing eddies will also be
suppressed resulting in reduced momentum transport and reduced drag.
vations. Notable among these is the work of
63
'::T
sharp
tion. For
dilute solution of
intensity,
N/4U2,
occurs
drag-reducing polymer,
the
at the
peak
of
same
loca-
NrU2: moves
away from the wall and becomes much broader as compared to the solvent
alone. Production of Reynolds stress in this important buffer zone is, thus,
diminished.
The
use
of
drag-reducing polymers
in
pipe lines
is cost effective in
some
applications.
was
can
be added to
friction
polymer
case
layer. The
energy
the momentum
A surface-active
in water
ity
or
in
an
transition at
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
64
The idea of
placing a thin layer of gas between the wall and its water
dates
back to the last century. Substantial drag reductions
boundaxy layer
are potentially possible due to the lower density of the gas. Unfortunately,
gas/liquid interface result in drag inExtremely small gas bubbles (microbubbles) injected through a porous
wall or produced by electrolysis do not suffer from the stability problems of
a gas film and result in skin-friction reduction as high as 80%. Maximum
reduction is obtained when the gas volume fraction approaches the bubble
packing limit. Skin friction is reduced because of the substantially lower density and also because of the usual increase in bulk viscosity due to particles
(Batchelor and Green, 1972), which damps the small scale motions in the
buffer layer. Legner (1984) presents a simple phenomenological model to predict microbubble drag-reduction in turbulent boundary layers. Application
of the microbubbles technique for surface ships is quite feasible. Compressed
atmospheric air is injected through a micro-porous skin over portions of the
hull. This has the additional advantage of reducing fouling drag and fouling maintenance costs, since water is kept away from the hull surface. The
situation is different for underwater vehicles. There, a source of air is not
readily available and using electrolysis for bubble production will not yield
net energy saving. Moreover, the presence of bubbles may adversely affect
the flow-induced noise, an important consideration for naval vehicles.
Spherical or large length-to-diameter particles can be used in both air and
water flows. For spherical particles, drag reduction of up to 50% is feasible for
certain parameter values, although drag increase is also possible. Heavy but
small particles may red-Lice the drag by inducing a stable density stratification
near the wall thus driving the turbulence towards relaniinarization. Lighter
particles that are large enough to interact with the smallest turbulence scales
reduce the drag through the same mechanism as in the polymer case, i.e.
suppressing the dissipative eddies and increasing the scale of dissipation.
McComb and Chan (1981) report up to 80% drag reduction using the
naturally occurring macro-fiber chrysotile asbestos dispersed at a nominal
concentration of 300 ppm by weight in a 0.5% aqueous solution of Aerosol OT.
The individual fibrils of chrysotile asbestos have a mean diameter of 40 nm
and a mean length-to-diameter ratio in an undegraded suspension in the
range of 103-104. Like polymers, macro-fibers readily break down (McComb
and Chan, 1979) and have to be carefully dispersed into the solvent and
delivered to the boundary layer. In principle, fibers can also be used in gases,
although their drag-reduction potential has yet to be demonstrated.
the various instabilities associated with
crease.
Methods
duction
how these
geometrical
65
present knowledge comes from experiments. Needless to say, the lack of analytical framework makes optimization for a given flow condition as well as
extension to other flow regimes very tedious tasks.
The
devices
(LEBUs)
are
designed
to sever, alter
or
break up the large vortices that form the convoluted outer edge of a turbulent boundary layer. A typical arrangement consists of one or more splitter
plates placed
part of
turbulent
boundary layer.
It
is to
ensure
drag reduction has been documented even in the presence of favorable or adverse pressure gradient in the main flow (Bertelrud et al., 1982;
Plesniak and Nagib, 1985). Additionally, Anders and Watson (1985) have
demonstrated that an LEBU having an airfoil shape is nearly as effective in
reducing the net drag as a flat ribbon. A wing is several orders of magnitude
stiffer than a thin ribbon, a certain advantage for extending the technique
to field conditions. At flight Reynolds and Mach numbers, the possibility of
paying for transitional or turbulent skin-friction as well as wave drag on the
device itself is real (Anders et al., 1984; 1988) and achieving net drag reduction in this circumstance is problematic at present (Anders, 1990). For an
airplane, an LEBU is likely to take the form of a ring around the fuselage.
Net
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
66
trailing edge
as
result of
an
con-
vected past the device tends to cancel the effect of the incoming vortex and
to reduce the velocity fluctuations near the wall. Atassi and Gebert (1987)
and Gebert
(1988)
as
two-
or
They use the rapid distortion alaproximation and unsteady aerodynamic theory to compute the fluctuating
velocity downstream of thin-plate and airfoil-shaped devices. The fluctuating
normal velocity component is most effectively suppressed for a range of frequencies that scales with the freestrearn velocity and the device chord. This
important result determines the optimum size of an LEBU by selecting this
frequency range to correspond to that of the large-scale eddies in a given
turbulent boundary layer.
The second
geometrical modification is the riblets. Small longitudinal striations in the surface, interacting favorably with the near-wall structures in
a turbulent boundary layer, can produce a modest drag reduction in spite of
the increase in surface area. The early work employed rectangular ffi:ls with
height and spacing of 0 [100 v/u,]. The turbulent bursting rate was reduced
by about 20% and a modest 4% net drag reduction was observed (Liu et
al., 1966). In a later refinement of this technique, Walsh and his colleagues
at NASA-Langley examined the drag characteristics of longitudinally ribbed
surfaces having a wide variety of fin shapes that included rectangular grooves,
V-grooves, razor blade grooves, semi-circular grooves, and alternating transverse curvature (Walsh and Weinstein, 1978; Walsh, 1980; 1982; 1983; 1990;
Walsh and Lindemann, 1984). A net dragreduction of 8% is obtained with
V-groove geometry with sharp peak and either sharp or rounded valley. Optimum height and spacing of the symmetric grooves are about 15 V/u,. Although these dimensions would be extremely small for the typical Reynolds
numbers encountered on an airplane or a submarine (peak-to-vall6y height
35 ftm )I such riblets need not be machined on the surface. Thin, low
specific gravity plastic films with the correct geometry on one side and an
adhesive on the other side are presently available commercially and existing
vehicles could be readily retrofitted. In fact, these tapes were successfully
0.7 on a T-33 airplane and on a Lear jet. The performance of
tested at M
the riblets in flight was similar to that observed in the laboratory (Anders et
al., 1988). In water, riblets were employed on the rowing shell during the 1984
Summer Olympic by the United States rowing team.- Similar riblets were also
used on the submerged hull of the winner of the 1987 America's Cup yacht
race, the Stars and Stripes, with apparent success.
-
are
zero as the yaw angle between the flow and the grooves goes up
Surprisingly, drag does not increase at yaw angles > 30'. Remaining
practical problems include cost, weight penalty, particulate clogging, ultravi-
decreases to
to 30'.
olet
resistance to
hydraulic
67
The third
geometrical
or
integrated skin-friction
waves can
be
as
much
relequivalent
with
of
ratio
0.028,
h/A
atively shallow having a height-to-wavelength
A
0[6]. Sigal (1971) reported a reduction in integrated skin-friction of
0.031) than
about 12% when using a 10% larger amplitude waves (h/A
that used by Kendall. The transverse waves provide alternating regions of
longitudinal concave and convex curvatures along with alternating adverse
and favorable pressure gradients. The coincidence of convex curvature and
favorable pressure gradient promote relaminarization as the wave crests are
approached, and the near-wall momentum is reduced in regions having adis reverse pressure gradient. Accordingly, the integrated skin-friction drag
duced. Unfortunately, viscous forces cause a downstream phase shift between
the pressure distribution and the wave relative to the 180' out-of-phase relationship predicted from potential flow theory for a sinusoidal wave. This
phase shift causes an additional pressure drag not present in the flat-surface
increases decase. The net result is that the total drag for the wavy surface
there
that
al.
et
may be
(1980) argue
spite the decrease in skin friction. Cary
two approaches to overcome this problem. First, since pressure drag varies_as
(h/A)', further reduction of h/A may yield a net drag reduction. Secondly,
as
over an
waves were
=
certain non-sinusoidal
waves
may have
more
on
the viscous
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
68
to the ratio of
wave
height
hU,1V
periments
approach were only partially successful (Lin et
al., 1983). Skewed waves with gradual, straight downstream-facing slope and
steeper, sinusoidal upstream-facing surface have lower pressure drag than a
symmetric sine-wave. However, the asymmetric surface is not as effective in
reducing the viscous drag, with the result that the net drag reduction is only
1-2%, hardly worth the effort (Wilkinson et al., 1988).
walls and
non-interactive
or
wavy wall is
essentially
slip boundary condition and reduces the skin friction. Obviously the
U,,. A moving
boundary layer could be completely eliminated when U,,,,,
wall
thrust
translational
at
can produce a
high enough
speed but causes
wavy
an additional pressure drag at lower speed. In any case, this method of control
is in general impractical and is used mainly to provide controlled experiments
to determine what type of wave motion is required to achieve a given result,
acts
as a
much the
same as
Wall motion
can
also be
case.
generated by using
flexible
ficiently
with
of
coating would be
boundarv laver.
more
likely
to achieve
net
drag reduction
in
turbulent
Other
69
modifications
on the surface with a drag-reducing poaligned with the flow (essentially large-scale riblets), micro air-bearings, compound or three-dimensional riblets, sieves,
furry (wheatfield-type) surfaces, and sword-fish configuration. These techniques have been reviewed by Bushnell (1983) and more recently by Wilkinson et al. (1988). The last of these methods is the most straightforward. As
a boundary layer thickens, the Reynolds number increases and the coefficient of skin friction decreases, with the result that the local skin friction is
higher in the forward part of a vehicle and quite low in the aft end. Consider, for example, a 50-meter-long aircraft with a unit Reynolds number of
107/m, and ignore pressure gradient and other effects. Near the nose, the
skin-friction coefficient is about 0.003 (Figure 5). Near the tail, Re ;Z 5 x 10'
and Cf ; i 0.0018, i.e. 40% lower. By substantially reducing the wetted axea of
the forebody, the sword-fish configuration, drag reduction may be attainable.
This technique is particularly useftil when combined with a convex aftbody.
geometric
7.3
waves
Relaminarization
variously
explain
the reversion of
also known
inverse
or reverse tranretransition,
Patel
and
Head, 1968; Bradshaw,
sition, or
(Preston, 1958;
1969). Narasimha and Sreenivasan (1979) provide a comprehensive review
and analysis of the phenomenon. Instances of relaminarization may be found
in a stably stratified atmosphere, spatially or temporally accelerated shear
flows, coiled pipes, swirling flames, tip vortices behind finite lifting surfaces,
far wakes of finite drag-producing bodies, air flow as it progresses from the
trachea to the segmental bronchi in human lungs, and shear flows subjected
to magnetic fields. Various authors use one or more of the following syndromes to diagnose the reversion of a turbulent flow: reduction in heat transfer or skin-friction coefficient, cessation of bursting events near the wall or
entraimnent of potential flow at the outer region of a boundary layer, reduction in high-frequency velocity fluctuations, breakdown of the log-law in.
the wall layer, spreading of intermittency to wall region, and overlapping
of energy-containing and dissipating eddy scales. In the quasi-laminar state,
the velocity fluctuations are not necessarily zero but rather their contribution to the dynamics of the mean flow becomes inconsequential. In other
words, the turbulent fluctuations inherited from 'the previous history of the
flow are no longer influencing the transport of mass, momentum or energy.
Narasimha and Sreenivasan (1979) adopt a pragmatic definition of reversion.
They maintain that a flow has relaminarized if its subsequent development
as
relaminarization
can
dissipation. When the Reynolds number goes down in a turbulent flow, for
example by enlarging a duct or by branching a channel flow, the viscous
dissipation may exceed the production of turbulent energy and the flow may
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
70
revert to
quasi-laminar state.
Turbulent energy can also be destroyed or absorbed by the work done against
external forces such as buoyancy (e.g., in stably stratified fluids), centrifugal
(e.g.,
in
convex
boundary layers),
or
Coriolis
(e.g.,
in
absorptive-type
proceeds rapidly once the critical value
of Ri is exceeded. In both dissipative- and absorptive-type of reversion, the
turbulence energy is decreased but more significantly the velocity components
that generate the crucial Reynolds stresses are "decorrelated." This explains
the strong effects on turbulence of, say, a very mild positive curvature (So and
Mellor, 1973; Smits and Wood, 1985). In this case, the amplitude as well as
the phase of the different components of the fluctuating motion are affected
by the additional strain rate imposed upon the flow, particularly away from
(Ri)
number
and relaminarization
the wall.
The third mechanism to effect relaminarization is observed in
layer
of such
flows,
(1973)
over
same
highly
ac-
argue
level
as
the zero-pressure-
Near the
wall, however,
boundary layer.
gradient
The
the
acceleration.
stabilized
is
the
flow
and
dominates
by
dissipation
altoand
bursts
diminish
in
frequency
turbulence-re-energizing
may stop
gether and a thin new laminar boundary layer grows from the wall within
the old boundary layer. According to Morkovin (1988), the turbulence in the
outer layer is "starved" and the inner laminar layer is "buffeted7 by the decaying, wake-like, turbulence of the outer region. The skin friction and the
heat transfer rate in the relaminarized inner layer is less than those expected
in a corresponding turbulent flow.
over
case
much of the
verting flows
can
(1979)
be considered in
light
assert that
of the three
number of different
archetypes
re-
summari ed
inarization
or
Dutton
(1960)
observed that
suction coefficient
Cq
;Zt;
0.01 is sufficient to
boundary layer
at Re
The
wall is
to
increased,
the
Reynolds
faster rate
tion,
71
leading
or
stimuli,
is
viable
or
drag
not
suc-
reduction
boundary layers. The suction rate necessary for relamiapplied profitably over an entire surface, although
high
it may be feasible to apply massive suction through a spanwise slot (perhaps
enough to ingest the entire mass flow in the boundary layer) followed by gentle suction (or any of the other stability modifiers discussed in Section 5.1)
to prevent transition of the newly formed Iaminar sublayer. This issue will
be discussed again in the next subsubsection.
Convex (or positive) curvature affects the boundary layer locally in much
the same way as a large eddy breakup device. With a relatively large radius
of curvature, of the order of 108, positive Reynolds stress is produced in
method for turbulent
to be
narization is too
the outer flow and the wall shear is reduced. Downstream of the end of
achieve
7.4
drag reduction.
Synergism
Ideally,
one
drag
total favorable effect is greater than the sum. For example, Lee et al. (1974)
have shown that the use of polymers and fibers together can produce much
in skin friction than either additive alone. A
slightly different
beneficial, is to employ a second control method
that reduces the drag penalty of a given technique while adding some saving
of its own. An example of that is the use of fluid that is being withdrawn from
a certain portion of a vehicle for injection into another location, thus avoiding
the ram drag penalty associated with blowing freestrearn fluid. For an aircraft,
tangential slot injection or normal distributed injection may be used to reduce
the skin friction on portions of the fuselage as discussed earlier. Possible
larger reduction
sources
no
less
of low-loss air include LFC suction from the wings and empennage,
on the fuselage, and active or passive bleed air for
relarninarization slots
separation
Several
control.
possible
combinations of
drag
reduction
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
72
ted
area)
friction is
high
followed
part of
by
body
where the
nose
boundary layer
spike followed by a
in
drag
required
for
relaminarization,
reduction. For Re
(1972),
[10'],
(d6oldx
0)
Favre et al.
(1966),
is much lower
enough
to
yield
(1970)
Rotta
and
others, report
asymptotic
equation (20) rewritten for a steady, incompressible,
zero-pressure-gradient boundary layer on a flat plate, the corresponding skin2 Cq
friction coefficient is Cf
0.006, indicating higher skin friction than if
no suction was applied. The problem is that fluid withdrawn through the wall
Verollet et al.
of
Cq
;z ;
an
among
suction coefficient
0.003. ftom
boundary layer where the streamwise momenrelatively high level of U,,,,, as was discussed in
Section 5.1 in connection with using suction for transition delay. To achieve a
net drag reduction with suction, the process must be further optimized. The
results of El6na (1975; 1984) and more recently of Antonia et al. (1988) indicate that suction causes an appreciable stabilization of the low-speed streaks
has to
come
mass
is at the
15 to 12%
as
Assuming
apply
presently
production of turbulent energy is due to the instability of an inflectional U(y) velocity profile, one needs to remove only enough fluid so that
the inflectional nature of the profile is alleviated. An alternative technique
that could conceivably reduce the Reynolds stress is to inject fluid selectively
under the high-speed regions. The immediate effect would be to decrease
the viscous shear at the wall resulting in less drag. In addition, the velocity
profiles in the spanwise direction, U(z), would have a smaller shear, WI'9z,
located and
is
that the
because the
injection would
and Blackwelder
often
as
(1984)
inflection
create
a more
points
are
observed in
Swearingen
U(z) profiles
occur as
under the
high-speed regions would decrease this shear and hence the resulting instability. Since the inflectional profiles are all inviscidly unstable with growth
rates proportional to the shear, the resulting instabilities would be weak-
73
(1990).
large eddy breakup device influencing the outer structures of a turboundary layer may be combined with drag reduction methods that
mainly influence the near-wall region. Walsh and Lindemann (1984) show
that the performance of riblets in the presence of an LEBU is approximately
additive, not quite a synergetic effect. Wilkinson et al. (1988) propose using an LEBU device to reduce the free mixing between tangentially injected
fluid and the boundary layer flow, thus extending the low skin-friction region.
Bushnell (1983) suggests that the suction mass flow rate required to achieve
relaminarization of a turbulent boundary layer may be reduced by the use of
a large eddy breakup device ahead of the suction region.
A
bulent
(1988)
is most
be considered.
this section
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
74
with
something
yield
such modest
the effort
For
some
Other
Turbulence
goal.
methods,
e.g.
riblets,
Augmentation
applications,
the efficient
75
the temperature of the CRAY-2 to a tolerable range, its entire CPU is immersed in a dielectric liquid coolant (trade name FC-75). This is obviously
to achieve the desired
goal.
by Bergles
and Morton (1965), Bergles (1978), Bergles and Webb (1985), and Nakayama
(1986). The simplest scheme involves the intro4uction of distributed roughness on the heat transfer surfaces. This would destabilize the wall region and
intensify the mixing process leading to an increase in the convective heat
an
(1986)
are
reviewed
(1986)
introduced
Noise Control
clearances, and reduction of time derivatives. (4) Active methods of conas sound reflection and absorption in wave guides, or compensation
trol such
of
periodic
excitation.
identified the
sources
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
76
equation (1)
ap Ui
-
&
By subtracting 9/axi
(35)
of
al&t
from
(35)
r9xk
aXk
of
(1),
an
results
a2
a2P
-
&2
aXi aXk
Zki)
(36)
"
Let p
p, +
subtract c'
=
speed
(P Ui Uk
of acoustic
waves.
The
a2pl
-
&2
Where Tik
Zik
C2
V2P
C2
P' 6iki
is
reads
a2 Ti k
(37)
aXi aXk
waves
should be avoided.
At present,
sonars are
placed
at the
nose
boundary layer
proved by placing additional hydrophones; farther
the
listening
downstream.
devices is im-
However,
the
could be
commercial
to
delay
transition
77
the entire length of an aircraft or a submarine may reand is, therefore, not very practical. However,
expenditure
energy
it may not be necessary to relaminarize an entire vehicle. Instead, selected
portions of the boundary layer, where, for example, a hydrophone is to be
placed, are treated.
A compliant coating that causes transition delay or reduction in turbulence skin friction will also lead to attenuation of sound radiated by the
boundary layer. This is because the wan pressure fluctuations are dependent
on turbulence levels, which in turn are related to the wall shear stress. The
reverse is not necessarily true; i.e. a coating may attenuate the flow noise
without affecting the hydrodynamic drag. In fact the technology exists today
for manufacturing energy-absorbent compliant liners for sound absorption,
vibration reduction, and noise shielding, while the search for a drag-reducing
coating has thus far eluded researchers for about 40 years (Riley et al. 198R;
Gad-el-Hak, 1996a).
Flow noise is influenced by surface flexibility through two distinct mechanisms: either the surface acts as a sounding board excited by the turbulent
pressure field, or the surface compliance induces a change in the turbulence
structure and, hence, modifies the pressure fluctuations (Ffowcs Williams,
1965; Purshouse, 1976; Dowling, 1983; 1986). As mentioned earlier, flow
noise is currently considered the limiting performance factor for sonar systems placed on surface ships, submarines, and towed arrays. Major advances
in the reduction of "self-noise' have been achieved by exploiting the first
mechanism above, and further reductions may be possible if the nature of
the turbulent boundary layer and its wall pressure fluctuations can be altered. Von Winkle (1961) and Barger and Von Winkle (1961) report pressure
fluctuations measurements on a streamlined body of revolution free-falling
in a water tank. Flush-mounted hydrophones fabricated from lead-zirconate
titanite are used to measure the instantaneous pressure. Their experiment
indicates a dramatic reduction in the pressure coefficient when the body is
covered with a Kramer-type compliant coating. This result may, however, be
due to transition delay caused by the flexible surface and not due to changes
relaminarization
over
quire large
Active noise suppression systems are based on generating sound by auxiliary source with such an amplitude and phase that in the region of interest
the sound
wave
original
and
auxiliary
source
results in
possi-
ble is, of course, the linearity of the governing equations.' The older systems
with fixed gain in the feedback loop could not achieve high noise reduction.
However, with the recent availability of adaptive filter systems, much more
impressive suppression of noise is feasible (Tichy et al., 1984). These systems
are capable of adjusting the feedback loop for the magnitude and phase re7The
dB)
of
pressure fluctuations associated with sound at the threshold
only 0.1% of the atmospheric pressure.
are
pain (140
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
78
lationship of the spectral components and can quickly compensate for the
path changes. These active control devices seem to work best for low
frequency sound, where passive silencers are relatively ineffective, and when
the source is localized and accessible. Local control is obviously easier than
global one. Moreover, effective control is achieved when the system response
within the frequency band of interest is dominated by relatively few modes.
Review papers on active. control of noise are available by Warnaka, (1980),
sound
Ericksson et al.
(1988),
in
techniques seem
remarkably short time.
(1988),
Anti-sound
laboratory
to
(1988).
application
Concluding Remarks
10
presenting a unified
contemplated for, particularly, external boundary-layer flows to achieve a variety of goals. These goals
are not necessarily mutually exclusive and include transition delay, separation
postponement, lift enhancement, drag reduction, turbulence augmentation,
and noise control. In both laminar and turbulent boundary layers, the effect
This
or
can
clog the
suction surface
as
well
as
destabilize the
boundary layer.
For
wa-
79
more
devices.
results in
are more
Streamlining
to
can
geometric design. The skin friction constitutes about 50%, 90% and 100%
of the total drag on commercial aircraft, underwater vehicles and pipelines,
regimes
are
identified.
concerns
First, for Re
<
106,
reduction of skin-
and skin friction may be lowered by reducing the near-wall momentum. Adverse pressure gradient, blowing and surface heating/cooling could lower the
friction, but increase the risk of transition and separation. Secondly, for
106 < Re < 4 x 107 active and passive methods to delay transition could be
used, thus avoiding the much higher turbulent drag. Thirdly, at the Reynolds
number encountered after the first few meters of a fuselage or a submarine,
skin
sought.
These methods
ification.
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
80
The present
chapter
was
to the short
References
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Absaugung. Naturwissenschaften 29, 622--623.
A
Short
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Adkins R.C. (1975):
Ackeret
297-302.
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(1977):
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Concepts for Drag Reduc-
Special
Boundary Layer
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Course
on
81
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J.B., Walsh M.J., Bushnell D.M. (1988): The Fix for Tough Spots. Aerospace
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Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
110
But thou know'st winter tames man, woman, and beast; for it hath tamed my
old master, and my new mistress, and myself, fellow Curtis,
Control of Turbulence
1.2
already
been
reviewed
Hussaini
(1992),
mented in
Bushnell
and Fernholz
controlling
al.
free-shear
or
are
effective
exist for
some
familiar control
example,
in
control.
Flow control is most effective when
applied near the transition or separapoints; in other words, near the critical flow regimes where flow instabilities magnify quickly. Therefore, delaying/advancing laminar-to-turbulence
transition and preventing/provoking separation are relatively easier tasks to
accomplish. To reduce the skin-friction drag in a non-separating turbulent
boundary layer, where the mean flow is quite stable, is a more challenging
problem. Yet, even a modest reduction in the fluid resistance to the motion
of, for example, the world-wide commercial air fleet is translated into fuel
savings estimated to be in the billions of dollars. Newer ideas for turbulent
flow control focus on the direct onslaught on coherent structures. Spurred
by the recent developments in chaos control, microfabrication and soft computing tools, reactive control of turbulent flows is now in the realm of the
possible for future practical devices.
The primary objective of the present chapter is to advance possible scenarios by which viable control strategies of turbulent flows could be realized.
As will be argued in the following presentation, future systems for control of
turbulent flows in general and turbulent boundary layers in particular could
greatly benefit from the merging of the science of chaos control, the technology of microfabrication, and the newest computational tools collectively
termed soft computing. Control of chaotic, nonlinear dynamical systems has
been demonstrated theoretically as well as experimentally, even for multidegree-of-freedom systems. Microfabrication is an emerging technology which
has the potential for producing inexpensive, programmable sensor/actuator
tion
chips that have dimensions of the order of a few microns. Soft computing
networks, fuzzy logic and genetic algorithms and are
now more advanced as well as more widely used as compared to just few
are
envisaged
as
ill
consisting of
large number
of
randomly within the boundary layer. Sensors detect oncoming coherent structures, and adaptive controllers process the sensors information
and provide control signals to the actuators which in turn attempt to favorably modulate the quasi-periodic events. Finite number of wall sensors
perceive only partial information about the entire flow field above. However,
a low-dimensional dynamical model of the near-wall region used in a Kalman
filter can make the most of the partial information from the sensors. Conceptually all of that is not too difficult, but in practice the complexity of such
a control system is daunting and much research and development work still
that
occur
remain.
Outline
1.3
on a
full-scale air
or
water vehicle
are
estimated in that
section. Sections
Sect. 8.
Suction
To set the
ground
for
introducing
the concept of
global
control
as
the previous
which is
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
112
waU-bounded
flow,
the flux of
spanwise
heating/cooling
of the wall
or
sink
or
streamwise
or a source
introduction of
of
shear-thinning/shear
thick-
(body shaping),
surface
heating/cooling,
of
from its
use.
Small amounts of fluid withdrawn from the near-wall. region of a boundary layer change the curvature of the velocity profile at the wall and can
dramatically
alter the
number' based
can
stability characteristics of the flow. Concurrently, sucgrowth of the boundary layer, so that the critical Reynolds
on
thickness may
never
be reached.
Although
laminar flow
be maintained to
fluid is sucked
imum suction
drive the suction pump, but also the momentum loss due to the additional
freestream fluid entrained into the boundary layer as a result of withdraw-
case
momentum loss
flat
plate
in
equation.
the viscous region is exponential and has
The
displacement
The lowest
grow in
is, of
course, manifested
as an
drag.
at
zero
Reynolds nuioaber
an ex-
incidence is
The
vllvwl,
Tollmien-Schlichting
where
waves
is
would
the kinematic
113
velocity
integral equation reads:
2 Cq. Bussmann and Milnz (1942) computed the critical Reynolds
Cf
number for the asymptotic suction profile to be Rep =- U J*1v
70,000.
at the wall. In this case, the familiar
von
K6rm6n
...
Q7
-=
lvwl/U,,,,
> 1.4 x
asymptotic profile is an order of magnitude less than that for the Blaboundary layer (Pretsch, 1942). This treatment ignores the development
distance from the leading edge needed to reach the asymptotic state. When
this is included into the computation, a higher Cq (1.18 x 10-4) is required
to ensure stability (Iglisch, 1944; Ulrich, 1944).
In a turbulent wall-bounded ffow, the results of E16na (1975; 1984) and
more recently of Antonia et al. (1988) indicate that suction causes an appreciable stabilization of the low-speed streaks in the near-wall region. The
13 drops from 15 to 12% as Cq varies from
maximum turbulence level at y+
0 to 0.003. More dramatically, the tangential Reynolds stress near the wall
drops by a factor of 2 for the same variation of Cq. The dissipation length
scale near the wall increases by 40% and the integral length scale by 25%
for the
sius
required
for relaminarization
enough to yield net drag reduction. For Reynolds number based on distance
0 [106], Favre et al. (1966), Rotta (1970) and Verolfrom leading edge Re
=
let et al.
(1972),
0.003. For
among
a
Coherent Structures
114
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
briefly
in
hierarchy
of
organized
structures
wall-bounded flow.
is, for the most part, due to the random size and
strength of the different types of organized structures comprising that field.
domness of the flow field
wall-bounded
identified
Bandyopadhyay (1994)
for
discussion of
Reynolds number
115
1981). The Falco eddies are also highly coherent and three dimensional. Falco
(1974; 1977) named them typical eddies because they appear in wakes, jets,
grid-generated turbulence, and boundary layers in zero, favorable and adverse pressure gradients. They have an intermediate scale of
about 100 v1u, (100 wall units; u, is the friction velocity and V/u, is the visEmmons spots,
cous
the
length-scale).
large
an
where the
high-Reynolds-number flows, the Reynolds stress peaks, and therefore is produced, outside the near-wall region (see Gad-el-Hak and Bandyopadhyay, 1994).
This contrasts the production of turbulence kinetic energy which always peaks
near the wall, say y+ zj 13.
In
116
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
Fig. 1. Model of neax-wall turbulent boundary-layer structure (adapted from Blackwelder, 1978)
the wall it induces a high uv sweep (positive u and negative v). The wan
region is continuously bombarded by pockets of high-speed fluid originating in
the logarithmic and possibly the outer layers of the flow. These pockets tend
to promote and/or enhance the inflectional velocity profiles by increasing
the instantaneous shear leading to a more rapidly growing instability. Blackwelder and Haritonidis (1983) have shown convincingly that the frequency
over
of
occurrence
dynamics
vasan
(1989).
number
of turbulent
boundary layers
has
recently
been
provided by Sreenihigh-Reynolds
Bandyopadhyay (1994).
boundary layers
is
4.1
117
Reactive Control
Introductory
Remarks
(1993),
James et al.
(1994),
and Keefe
(1997).
consider the
use
of
already been successfully impractical engineering devices. Yet, limitations exist for some
familiar control techniques when applied to specific situations. For example,
in attempting to reduce the drag or enhance the lift of a body having a turbulent boundary layer using global suction, the penalty associated with the
control device often exceeds the saving derived from its use. What is needed
is a way to reduce this penalty to achieve a more efficient control. Reactive
control geared specifically towards manipulating the coherent structures in
turbulent shear flows, though considerably more complicated than passive
control or even predetermined active control, has the potential to do just
that. As will be argued in this and the following three sections, future systems for control of turbulent flows in general and turbulent boundary layers
in particular could greatly benefit from the merging of the science of chaos
control, the technology of microfabrication, and the newest computational
tools collectively termed soft computing. Such systems are envisaged as consisting of a large number of intelligent, communicative wall sensors and actuators arranged in a checkerboard pattern and targeted towards controlling
certain quasi-periodic, dynamically significant coherent structures present in
the near-wall region.
plemented
in
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
118
Targeted
4.2
Control
As discussed in
or
heating/cooling
The
by
can
and Gad-el-llak
(1990).
inflectional
one
needs to
profile
remove
119
nique that could conceivably reduce the Reynolds stress is to inject fluid
selectively under the high-speed regions. The immediate effect of normal injection would be to decrease the viscous shear at the wall resulting in less
drag. In addition, the velocity profiles in the spanwise direction, U(z), would
have a smaller shear, 9U1,9z, because the suction/injection would create a
uniform flow. Since
more
Swearingen
and Blackwelder
(1984)
inflectional
high-speed regions would decrease this shear and hence the resulting instability. The combination of selective suction and injection is sketched in Fig.
2. In Fig. 2a, the vortices are idealized by a periodic distribution in the spanwise direction. The instantaneous velocity profiles without transpiration at
constant y and z locations are shown by the dashed lines in Figs. 2b and 2c,
respectively. Clearly, the U (y, z) profile is inflectional, having two inflection
points per wavelength. At zi and Z3, an inflectional U(y) profile is also evident. The same profiles with suction at zi and Z3 and injection at Z2 are
shown by the solid lines. In all cases, the shear associated with the inflection points would have been reduced. Since the inflectional profiles are all
inviscidly unstable with growth rates proportional to the shear, the resulting
instabilities would be weakened by the suction/injection process.
demonstrated
equivalent
suction coefficient of
Cq
0.0006
was
boundary layer.
naturally developing turbulent boundary layer,
Blackwelder
(1989)
elements if
ifications. Minute
(1987)
and Wilkinson
(1988)
combine
suction/blowing
no
net
proposed by Gad-el-Hak
and Blackwelder
(1987; 1989)_
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
120
Low
Speed
Streak
YO
ZZ
a.
'
INJECTION
SUCTION
\JA
SUCTION
J
U
(YO, Z)
5_11
b-
at
yyo
FLOW
U (y, zi
/ / 7
c-
Fig.
2. Effects of
U (Y1
7 7
Velocity
7 7
Z2)
-7-7-7-7-
7 .7 z 7 7 7 z
(YIZ3)
7-z-1-7
suction/injection
on
with transpiration
the rather
simple, heuristic
Blackwelder
(1987),
control law
20%
When
rather
at
121
0.8
'WO
(t)
0.6
co
'71
I'll
0.4
a.
C.
0.0.
0.8
(t)
0.6
0.4
0
10
15
TIME
b.
Fig.
25
30
0.0006.
events in
C,
Cq
20
(s)
0.0.
laminar
(b) C,
0.0006
tation of this
of
success.
can
help
in
constructing
more
(Sect. 5)
and soft
gorithms.
Time sequences of the numerical flow field of Choi et al.
(1994)
indicate
sucdrag-reducing
the
without
deterring
modifying
sweep motion,
the primary streamwise vortices above the wall, and consequently moving the
high-shear regions from the surface to the interior of the channel, thus directly reducing the skin friction. Secondly, changing the evolution of the wall
vorticity layer by stabilizing and preventing lifting of the near-wall spanwise vorticity, thus suppressing a potential source of new streamwise vortices
above the surface and interrupting a very important regeneration mechanism
of turbulence.
new developments have relevance to the issue at hand. Firstly,
recently demonstrated ability to revert a chaotic system to a periodic
may provide optimal nonlinear control strategies for farther reduction in
amount of suction (or the energy expenditure of any other active wall-
Three
the
one
the
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
122
technique)
needed to attain
This is
as
developments
seen
from
4.3
was
Also,
in
controller would
or
perhaps
as
that for
boundary layer,
may include elements from each of the four classifications. Each of the four
categories
is
briefly
described belovir.
123
region
mechanism.
Nonlinear
into
allows turbulence to be
dynamics
are
decomposed
examined to
determine the best control law. The task is to stabilize the attractors of a low-
Finally, optimal control theory applied directly to the Navier-Stokes equaprinciple, be used to minimize a cost function in the space of
the control. This strategy provides perhaps the most rigorous theoretical
framework for flow control. As compared to other reactive control strategies,
optimal control applied to the full Navier-Stokes equations is also the most
computer-time intensive. In this method, feedback control laws are derived
systematically for the most efficient distribution of control effort to achieve a
desired goal. Abergel and Temam (1990) developed such optimal control theory for suppressing turbulence in a numerically simulated, two-dimensional
tions can, in
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
124
Navier-Stokes
flow,
Required Characteristics
4.4
It is instructive to estimate
some
==
near-wall fluid.
effective control of
4
as
It is also
as
the
in here
leading
increases.
externally imposed
are
pressure
125
If the
spanwise and streamwise distances between individual elements of a checkerboard array is, respectively, 100 and 1000 wall units, 5 or 260 y and 2600 p,
for our particular example. A reasonable size for each element is probably
one-tenth of the spanwise separation, or 26 I-L. A (1 m x I m) portion of the
surface would have to be covered with about
colossal
number, but
the
It is well known that not every low-speed streak leads to a burst. On the
average, a particular sensor would detect an incipient bursting event every
wall-unit interval of P+
pU2 IV
250,
or
characteristics,
ballpark
As
of U,,
a
=
as
is still the
--
but the
still be in the
same
estimated in here.
second
10
example,
consider
an
edge of an imaginary flat plate towed in water at the same speed, the friction
0 .39 m/s, but the wall unit is still the same as in the airvelocity is only u,
2.6 y. The density of required sensors/actuators array
craft example, v/u,
1.5 x 106 elements/m2.
is the same as computed for the aircraft example, n
The anticipated average frequency of sensing a bursting event is, however,
600 Hz
much lower at f
=
both
on
examples),
the order of
40'C/2'C (in
the
0.0006,
or
surface
cooling/heating
should
These
are
average
two
adjacent streaks and the average streamwise extent for a typical low-speed region. One can argue that those estimates are too conservative: once a region is
relaminarized,
it would
perhaps stay
row
of
as
sensors/actuators
beyond
while
as
may therefore be
relegated to a
Relatively simple physical or
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
126
As
computed
in the two
size for
a sen-
sor/actuator
technology. The number of elements needed per unit area is, however, alarmingly large. The unit cost of manufacturing a programmable sensor/actuator
element would have to come down dramatically, perhaps matching the unit
cost of a conventional transistor, before the idea advocated in here would
become practical.
An additional consideration to the size, amplitude and frequency response
is the energy consumed by each sensor/actuator element. Total energy consumption by the entire control system obviously has to be low enough to
achieve net savings. Consider the following calculations for the aircraft example. One meter from the leading edge, the skin-friction drag to be reduced
is approximately 54N/M2 Engine power needed to overcome this retarding
force per unit area is 16 kW/m2, or 104 /tW/sensor. H a 60% drag-reduction is
achieved '6 this energy consumption is reduced to 4320 ILW/sensor. This number will increase by the amount of energy consumption of a sensor/actuator
unit, but hopefully not back to the uncontrolled levels. The voltage across a
0. 1-1 V, and its resistance in the range
sensor is typically in the range of V
of R
0.1-1 MQ. This means a power consumption by a typical sensor in the
V2 IR
0.1-10 ILW, well below the anticipated power savings
range of P
due to reduced drag. For a single actuator in the form of a spring-loaded
diaphragm with a spring constant of k
10ON/m and oscillating up and
18 kHz with an amplitude of y
down at the bursting frequency of f
26
2
microns, the power consumption is P
(1/2) k y f 600 AW/actuator. If
suction is used instead, Qq
0.0006, and assuming a pressure difference of
104 N/m2 across the suction holes/slots, the corresponding power con'AP
1200 fLW/actuator. It
sumption for a single actuator is P
Cq U,,, Ap/n
is clear then that when the power penalty for the sensor/actuator is added
to the lower-level drag, a net saving is still achievable. The corresponding actuator power penalties for the submarine example are even smaller
.
=:
--
(P
actuator),
and
larger savings
are
therefore
40
AW/actuator
possible.
Chaos Control
Nonlinear
5.1
theory of dynamical systems, the so-called butterfly effect denotes sendependence of nonlinear differential equations on initial conditions. The
In the
sitive
solution of such
equations
A not-too-farfetched
Sect. 4.2.
goal according
strange
attractor -whose
well-defined mechanism to
requiring random
produce
127
chaotic be-
can radically
rich, unpredictable behavior, can
small disturbances
wall
sensors.
by incomplete information,
and thus
least square
sense
globally optimizes
the
the
errors
caused
performance of
Boundary layer turbulence is described by a set of nonlinear partial differential equations and is characterized by an infinite number of degrees of freedom. This makes it rather difficult to model the turbulence using a dynamical systems approximation. The notion that a complex, infinite-di-inensional
flow can be decomposed into several low-dimensional subunits is, however,
coherent struca natural consequence of the realization that quasi-periodic
shear flows.
turbulent
random
of
the
tures dominate
seemingly
dynamics
in formally
exist
localized
can
This implies that low-dimensional,
dynamics
Reducflows.
turbulent
infinite-dimensional extended systems-such as open
ing the flow physics to finite-dhnensional dynamical systems enables a study
of its behavior through an examination of the fixed points and the topology
of their stable and unstable manifolds. In Lumley's (1991) view, a bursting
event corresponds to a dynamica system leaving one fixed point and jumping to another along a heteroclinic cycle. Delaying this jump by holding the
system near the first fixed point should lead to lower momentum transport
in the wall region and, therefore, to lower skin-friction drag.
significant attempt the proper orthogonal, or Karhunen-Lo6ve, decomposition method has been used to extract a low-dimensional dynamical
system from experimental data of the wall region (Aubry et al. 1988; Aubry,
1990). Aubry et al. (1988) expanded the instantaneous velocity field of a turbulent boundary layer using experimentally determined eigenfunctions which
are in the form of streamwise rolls. They expanded the Navier-Stokes equations using these optimally chosen, divergence-free, orthogonal functions, applied a Galerkin projection, and then truncated the infinite-dimensional representation to obtain a ten-dimensional set of ordinary differential equations.
These equations represent the dynamical behavior of the rolls, and are shown
In
one
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
128
to exhibit
observed in
dynamical phenomena
incorporated,
of the wall
mine
flows.
(1988)
but
rather rooted
deeper
in
(1991), attempts
directly
Again, the central
are
region.
underlying specific
or
turbulent
equations can be asymptotically deby a finite number of degrees of freedom. Grappin and L6orat (1991)
computed the Lyapunov exponents and the attractor dimensions of two- and
three-dimensional periodic turbulent flows without shear. They found that
the number of degrees of freedom contained in the large scales establishes an
scribed
upper bound for the dimension of the attractor. Deane and Sirovich
(1991)
(1991) numerically determined the number of dimen-
range of Rayleigh
dimension is 0
[Ra2/3 I
The
corresponding dimension in wall-bounded flows appears to be dauntingly high. Keefe -et al. (1992) determined the dimension of the attractor
underlying turbulent Poiseuille flows with spatially periodic boundary conditions. Using a coarse-grained numerical simulation, they computed a lower
bound on the Lyapunov dimension of the attractor to be approximately
352 at a pressure-gradient Reynolds number of 3200. Keefe et al.
(1992)
argue that the attractor dimension in fully-resolved turbulence is unlikely to
be much larger than 780. This suggests that periodic turbulent shear flows
determini tic chaos and that
to the Navier-Stokes
tractors.
the
periodic
case
is believed to be
even
higher
provided by
129
the
In contrast to
5.2
Chaos Control
(e.g., Fowler,
1989; Hilbler and Liischer, 1989; Huberman, 1990; Huberman and Lumer,
1990), the recent method proposed by workers at the University of Maryland (Ott et al., 1990a; 1990b; Shinbrot et al., 1990; 1992a; 1992b; 1992c;
Romeiras et al., 1992) promises to be a significant breakthrough. Compre-
(1995).
(1990a) demonstrated, through numerical experiments with the
procedure
consists of
possible to stabilize a chaotic motion about any prethrough the use of relatively small perturbations. The
applying minute time-dependent perturbations to one
of the system parameters to control the chaotic system around one of its
the process
many unstable periodic orbits. In this context, targeting refers to
130
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
so
for the state to wander off in the unstable direction. The intermittent control
prevents that and the desired trajectory is achieved. This efficient control is
not unli
trying to balance
Bewley, 1994).
direction
There is
(left/right).
one
stable direction
horse saddle
(front/back)
and
(Moin
one
and
unstable
dynamics,
inter-
the ball to
mittently causing
needs only be applied,
wanders off in the
left/right
direction.
trajectory
Fig.
controlling chaos
successfully applied
a relatively simple experiment by Ditto et al. (1990) and Ditto and Pecora (1993) at the Naval
Surface Warfare Center, in which reverse chaos was obtained in a parametrically driven, gravitationally buckled, amorphous magnetoelastic ribbon.
Garfinkel et al. (1992) applied the same control strategy to stabilize drug-
induced cardiac
in
arrhythmias in sections of a rabbit ventricle. Other extensions, improvements and applications of the OGY-strategy include higherdimensional targeting (Auerbach et al., 1992; Kostelich et al., 1993b), con-
131
trolling chaotic scattering in Hamiltonian (i.e., nondissipative, area conservative) systems (Lai et al., 1993a; 1993b), synchronization of identical chaotic
systems that govern communication, neural or biological processes (Lai and
Grebogi, 1993), use of chaos to transmit information (Hayes et al., 1993), control of transient chaos (Lai et al., 1994), and taming spatio-temporal chaos
using a sparse array of controllers (Chen et al., 1993; Qin et al., 1994; Auerbach, 1994).
complex system, such as a turbulent boundary layer, there
interdependent modes and many stable as well as unstable
manifolds (directions). Factors that make turbulence control a challenging
task are the potentially quite large perturbations caused by the unmodeled
dynamics of the flow, the non-stationary nature of the desired dynamics, and
the complexity of the saddle shape describing the dynamics of the different
modes. Nevertheless, the OGY-control strategy has several advantages that
In
exist
more
numerous
of
for the
penalty).
comparison between two
nonlinear control strategies as applied to fluid problems. Ott-Grebogi-Yorke's
feedback method described above and the model-based control strategy originated by H-dbler (see, for example, Hdbler and Uischer, 1989; Liischer and
Hiibler, 1989), the H-method. Both novel control methods are essentially
generalizations of the classical perturbation cancellation technique: apply a
prescribed forcing to subtract the undesired dynamics and impose the desired
one. The OGY-strategy exploits the sensitivity of chaotic systems to stabilize
existing periodic orbits and steady states. Some feedback is needed to steer
the trajectories toward the chosen fixed point, but the required control signal is minuscule. In contrast, Hiibler's scheme does not explicitly make use of
the system sensitivity. It produces general control response (periodic or aperiodic) and needs little or no feedback, but its control inputs are generally large.
The OGY-strategy exploits the nonlinearity of a dynamical system; indeed
the presence of a strange attractor and the extreme sensitivity of the dynam-
Recently,
Keefe
(1993a; 1993b)
made
useful
ical system to initial conditions are essential to the success of the method. In
contrast, the H-method works equally for both linear and nonlinear systems.
applied to
Ginzburg-Landau equation,
fully-developed
an evolution equation that governs the initially weakly nonlinear stages of
transition in several flows and that possesses both transitional and fullychaotic solutions. The Ginzburg-Landau equation has solutions that display
either absolute or convective instabilities, and is thus a reasonable model
Keefe
(1993a)
first examined
numerically
as
for both closed and open flows. Keefe's main conclusion is that control of
nonlinear systems is best obtained by making maximum use possible of the
underlying
natural
dynamics.
If the
goal dynamics
is
an
unstable nonlinear
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
132
solution of the equation and the flow is nearby at the instant control is applied, both methods perform reliably and at low-energy cost in reaching and
degrades due to noise and the spatially discrete nature of realistic forcing.
Subsequently, Keefe (1993b) extended the numerical experiment in an attempt to reduce the drag in a channel flow with spatially periodic boundary
conditions. The OGY-method reduces the skin friction to 60-80% of the
controlled value at
un-
mass-flux
colleagues at
al., 1992), who
devised a feedback control to stabilize (relaminaTize) the naturally occurring chaotic oscillations of a toroidal thermal convection loop heated from
below and cooled from above. Based on a simple mathematical model for
the thermosyphon, Bau and his colleagues constructed a reactive control system that was used to alter significantly the flow characteristics inside the
convection loop. Their linear control strategy, perhaps a special version of
the OGY's chaos control method, consists simply of sensing the deviation
the
University
of
Pennsylvania (Singer
et
thermosyphon loop
et
and then
Bau
(1994)
used
critical
be
Reynolds
significantly increased
Other attempts to
use
or
decreased.
low-dimensional
(1994a; 1994b).
Berkooz et al.
(1993),
(1994),
(1993) applied techniques
Corke et al.
of modern control
theory to estimate the phase-space location of dynamiwall-layer coherent structures, and used these estimates to
control the model dynamics. Since discrete wall-sensors provide incomplete
knowledge of phase-space location, Berkooz et al. maintain that a nonlinear
observer, which incorporates past information and the equations of motion
into the estimation procedure, is required. Using an extended Kalman filter,
they achieved effective control of a bursting pair of rolls with the equivalent of
cal models of the
sensors.
Corke et al.
(1994)
used
low-dimensional
133
Microfabrication
Manufacturing processes that can create extremely small machines have been
developed in recent years (Angell et al., 1983; Gabriel et al., 1988; Gravesen et
al., 1993; Gabriel, 1995). In this emerging microfabrication technology, under
intensive development only since 1990, electronic and mechanical components
are combined on a single silicon chip using photolithographic micromaching techniques. Motors, electrostatic actuators, pneumatic actuators, valves,
gears and tweezers of typical size 0 [10 p] have been fabricated. These have
been used as sensors for pressure, temperature, velocity, mass flow, or sound,
and as actuators for linear and angular motions. Current usage for microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) includes accelerometers for airbags and
guidance systems, pressure sensors for engine air intake and blood analysis, rate gyroscopes for antilock brakes, microrelays and microswitches for
semiconductor automatic test equipment, and microgrippers for surgical pro.
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
134
cedures
1996; Robinson
scribed
of Microelectromehanical Systems and Journal of MiMicroengineering are dedicated to this technology, and the
older Sensors and Actuators is increasingly allotting more of its pages to
MEMS. Entire sessions in scientific meetings have been increasingly assigned
to MEMS applications in fluid mechanics (see, for example, the presentations
by McMichael, Tai, Mehreg-any, Mastrangelo, and Yun, all made at the AIAA
Third Shear Flow Control Conference, Orlando, Florida, 6-9 July 1993, and
the volumes edited by Bandyopadhyay et el., 1994, and Breuer et al., 1996).
Recent reviews of the use, or potential use, of MEMS in flow control include those by Gad-el-Hak (1994; 1996), Lumley (1996), McMichael (1996),
Mehregany et al. (1996), Ho and Tai (1996), and Keefe (1997).
The
new
Journal
cromechanics and
MEMS would be ideal for the reactive flow control concept advocated
in the
occur
sensors
would be
of the
or
interest. For
measuring wall
vibrating surincluding
variable-capacitance (condenser or electret), ultrasonic, optical (e.g., opticalfiber and diode-laser), and piezoelectric devices (see, for example, Lafdahl
et al., 1993; 1994). A potentially useful technique for our purposes has been
pressure,
microphone-like
face membrane
or an
devices
respond
to the motion of
are
available
135
in
therefore
was
used for field measurement of the instantaneous surface presboundary layer. The wall-shear stress, though smaller and
turbulent
more
difficult to
measure
than pressure,
provides
reliable
a more
events.
are
expected to produce a
desired
presence of
or
Terfenol-d rods
(a
novel metal
com-
(1996),
and Keefe
Suction/injection
(1997).
at many discrete
points
can
be achieved
example, Sen et al., 1996; Sharatchandra et al., 1997) can be used for
blowing or sucking fluid through small holes/slits. Based on the results of
Gad-el-Hak and Blackwelder (1989), equivalent suction coefficients of about
0.0006 should be sufficient to stabilize the near-wall region. Assuming that
the skin-friction coefficient in the uncontrolled boundary layer is Cf
0.003,
for
and
asympassuming
boundary layer (dJoldx 0, where Jo is the momentum thickness), the
0 + 2 Cq
skin friction in the reactively controlled case is then Cf
0.0012,
or 40% of the original value. The net benefit will, of course, be reduced by
totic
an
=:
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
136
(or micropumps)
as
well
as
the
Finally, if the bursting events are to be eliminated by lowering the nearviscosity, direct electric-resistance heating can be used in liquid flows and
thermoelectric devices based on the Peltier effect can be used for cooling in
the case of gaseous boundary layers. The absolute viscosity of water at 20'C
decreases by approximately 2% for each I'C rise in temperature, while for
room-temperature air, IL decreases by approximately 0.2% for each I'C drop
wall
in
effect
on
momentum
equation
can
surface
and
et
surface
cooling
approximately the
velocity profile as a
of 40'C in air
(Liepmann
al., 1982)_
Sensors and actuators of the types discussed in this section can be comon individual electronic chips using microfabrication technology. The
bined
introduced! It is
even
same
the much
more
complex integrated
case
of the
circuit. The
simple
price
tran-
antici-
pated by Texas Instruments for an array of half a million mirrors hints that
technology is well in its way to mass-produce phenomenally inexpensive
microsensors and microactuators. Additionally, current automotive applications are a rigorous proving ground for MEMS: under-the-hood sensors can
already withstand harsh conditions such as intense heat, shock, continual
vibration, corrosive gases, and electromagnetic fields.
the
Soft
Computing
137
Bouchon-Meunier et
principal
constituents of soft
are
(examples)
to unknown
ones.
computational neural networks (CNN). The nonlinear, highly parallel networks can perform any of the following tasks: classification, pattern
matching, optimization, control and noise removal. As modeling and optimization tools, neural networks are particularly useful when good analytic
are
called
138
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
InteHigence
Computing
Artifical
Biological
(symbolic)
Soft
Co-puting,,,)
Hard
(Computational fntelli.-en
Computing
(Numeric)
Probabilistic
Reasoning
Neurocomputing
Biologically
Acciirate,
'
_)
Fuzzy
sets
Fuzzy Logic
Membershi
Function
P) (Possibility ) I
Engineering
Optimization
Search
Oriented
Artificial Neural
Networks
Genetic Algorithms
Computational Neural
(ANN)
Networks
Fig.
(CNN)
) (Machine Learning
computing
models
are
either unknown
or
139
as
used
Fuzzy logic
was
introduced
by
as
mathematical
tool to deal with uncertainty and imprecision. The book by Yager and Zadeh
(1992) is an excellent primer to the field. For computing and reasoning, gen-
(such
eral concepts
belonging
to not
belonging
to
set. The
concept of possibil-
involving fuzzy
practical problem using fuzzy
logic: fuzzification, analysis and defuzzification. Given a complex, unsolvable problem in real space, those three steps involve enlarging the space and
searching for a solution in the new superset, then specializing this solution
to the original real constraints.
ity provides
mechanism for
Genetic
are
algorithms
interpreting
involved in
are
search
factual statements
solving
control, genetic algorithms aim at achieving minimum cost function and maximum performance measure while satisfying the problem constraints. The
books by Goldberg (1989), Davis (1991) and Holland (1992) provide gentle
introduction to the field.
favored to
chromosomes. Each gene may have several forms or alternatives called alleles
produce differences in the set of characteristics associated with that
which
are
therefore the
acid
(DNA)
mosomes
in
and the
performance
In
an
and this
creature is
reproduce
attempt
causes
more
Simply put,
the
to solve difficult
problems, John
procedure of natural
evolution in the early 1970s. The candidate solutions to a problem are ranked
by the genetic algorithm according to how well they satisfy a certain criterion,
sity of Michigan
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
140
are
the
solution is coded
as a
chromo-
described
some are
as genes, and its varying values at specific positions are
called alleles. Good solutions are selected for reproduction based on a fitness
crossover
and muta-
global parallelism in
the
of
search
area
axe simultaneously
regions
many
allocated.
Genetic
7.1
Biologically inspired
neural networks
are
finding
increased
applications
in
many fields of science and technology. Modeling of complex dynamical systems, adaptive noise canceling in telephones and modems, bomb sniffers,
(1993)
focuses
on
the
use
com-
plex dynamical systems. For flow control applications, neural networks offer
the possibility of adaptive controllers that are simpler and potentially less
sensitive to parameter variations as compared to conventional controllers.
Moreover, if a colossal number of sensors and actuators is to be used, the
massively parallel computational power of neural nets will surely be needed
for real-time control.
The basic elements of
neural network
axe
of the
are
141
Hidden
Input
layer
layers
Fig.
6. Elements of
Output
layer
neural network
control, neural networks provide convenient, fast, nonlinear adaptive algorithms to relate sensor outputs to actuator inputs via variablecoefficient functions and nonlinear, sigmoid saturation functions. With no
prior knowledge of the pertinent dynamics, a self-learning neural network
For flow
through the
controller, the overall control loop is,
however, a feedback, closed loop: the self-learning network dynamically updates
its various parameters by comparing its output to a desired output, thus requiring
network. When
feedback information
relating
as a
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
142
develops
dynamics through observations of the applied conby nature nonlinear and can
therefore better handle nonlinear dynamical systems, a difficult task when
classical, linear or weakly nonlinear, control strategies are attempted. The
feedforward type of neural network acts as a nonlinear filter forming an output from a set of input data. The output can then be compared to some desired output, and the difference (error) is typically used in a back-propagation
algorithm which updates the network parameters.
a
small
here,
provide only
sample. Using a pre-trained
growing rapidly.
neural network, Fan et al. (1993) conducted a conceptual reactive flow control
experiment to delay laminar-to-turbulence transition. Numerical simulations
of their flow control system demonstrate almost complete cancellation of single and multiple artificial wave disturbances. Their controller also successfully
attenuated a natural disturbance signal with developing wave packets from
an actual wind-tunnel experiment.
we
the
of attack and
angular velocity
as
recently, Kawthar-Ali and Acharya (1996) developed a neural netuse in suppressing the dynamic-stall vortex that periodi-
cally develops
state of the
mum
in the
im
amount
143
Concluding Remarks
The present chapter emphasized the frontiers of the filed of flow control, reviewing the important advances that took place during the past few years.
An attempt has been made to place the field in a unifying framework and
witnessing
resurgence of interest.
As is clear from both this and the previous chapter, there is no lack of flow
control methods to achieve a particular goal for free as well as wall-bounded
flows
across
simple
to
to
great
variety of control devices to choose from. Flow control is most effective when
applied near the transition or separation points; in other words, near the
critical flow regimes where flow instabilities magnify quickly. Therefore, delaying/advancing laminar-to-turbulence transition and preventing/provoking
boundary
layers. Numerous other techniques are available to reduce form drag, induced
drag and wave drag. Remaining issues for field application of market-ready
techniques include cost, maintenance and reliability. Potential further improvements in classical flow control techniques will perhaps involve combining
more than one technique aiming at achieving a favorable effect that is greater
than the sum. Examples include combining suction or polymer injection with
riblets for increased effectiveness and saving. Due to its obvious difficulties,
synergism has not been extensively studied in the past but deserves future
riblets and LEBUs
can
consideration.
con-
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
144
trol
algorithms
developed.
are enormous.
The outlook is, however, quite optimistic. Soft computing tools and nonlinear dynamical systems theory are developing at fast pace. MEMS technology is improving even faster. The ability of Texas Instruments to produce
array of
actuator is
of such devices to withstand the harsh environment under the hood. What is
needed
make it all
is
come
fuel cost for the commercial fleet in the United States alone. Contrast this
perhaps
(a gentleman of Pisa):
Lucentio
tam'd
'Tis
wonder, by
your
leave,
she will be
so.
The present chapter was part of the author's contribution to the short
course Flow Control: Fundamentals and Practices, held in Carg6se, Corsica,
France, 24-28 June 1996, and repeated at the University of Notre Dame,
Notre Dame, Indiana, U.S.A., 9-13 September 1996. Part of the material in
this
chapter
is
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T., Ditto W., Grebogi C., Ott E., Spano M., Yorke J.A. (1992a): Using the
Dependence of Chaos (the "Butterfly Effect") to Direct Trajectories in
Experimental Chaotic System. Phys. Rev. Lett. 68, 2863-2866.
Shinbrot
Sensitive
an
Grebogi C., Ott E., Yorke J.A. (1992b): Using Chaos to.
tionary States of Flows. Phys. Lett. A 169, 349-354.
Shinbrot T.,
Shinbrot
Target
Sta-
T., Grebogi C., Ott E., Yorke J.A. (1993): Using Small Perturbations
to
Shinbrot T.,
tories to
Trajec-
T., Grebogi C., Ott E., Yorke J.A. (1992c): Using Chaos to Direct Orbits
Targets in Systems Describable by a One-Dimensional Map. Phys. Rev. A 45,
Shinbrot
to
to Direct
4165-4168.
Mohamed Gad-el-Hak
152
(1991):
Chaotic
Computational Study
of
System. Phys.
Rev.
Rayleigh-B6naxd
Con-
Sreenivasan K.R.
(1989):
The Turbulent
Mechanics, ed.
M.
Thi Y-C.
(1993):
Silicon
Micromachining
6-9
July.
Tang J., Bau H.H. (1993a): Stabilization of the No-Motion State in Rayleigh-136naxd
Convection through the Use of Feedback Control. Phys. Rev. Lett. 70, 1795-1798.
Tang J., Bau. H.H. (1993b): Feedback Control Stabilization of the No-Motion State
of a Fluid Confined in a Horizontal Porous Layer Heated from Below- J. Fluid
Mech. 257, 485-505.
Townsend A.A.
11,97-120.
Townsend A.A.
(1970):
(1944)-
Ulrich A.
Theoretische
nis durch
Laminarhaltung
forschung
mit
8, 53.
Va,rgo S.E., Muntz E.P. (1996): A Simple Micromechanical Compressor and Vacuum
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Verollet
E., Fulachier L., Dumas R., Favre A. (1972): Turbulent Boundary Layer
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Layers, eds. N. Afgan, Z. Zaxic and P. Anastasijevec, vol. 1, (Pergamon Presss,
Oxford),
157-168.
Viswanath P.R.
Reduction.
Wadsworth
D.C-, Muntz E.P., Blackwelder R.F., Shiflett/ G.R. (1993): Tran ien
Energy, Release Pressure Driven Microactuators for Control of WaR-Bounded
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in
Thermal Convection
Phase-Locked Surface
Willmaxth W.W.
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Structure of Turbulence in
Wiltse
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Wilkinson S.P.
tion in
153
Wilkinson
S.P.,
Lazos B.S.
Thin-Element Riblet
Willmaxth W.W.
(1975a):
Structure of Turbulence in
Willmarth W.W.
ers.
(1975b):
Boundary Lay-
Yager R.R., Zadeh L.A. (editors) (1992): An Intorduction to Fuzzy Logic Applications in Intelligent Systems (Kluwer Academic, Boston).
Yun W. (1993): System Considerations for Integration of Microsensors and Electronics. Invited oral presentation at the AlAA Third Flow Control Conference,
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Zilberman M., Wygnanski I., Kaplan R.E. (1977): rf ansitional Boundary Layer
Spot in a Fully Turbulent Envirom-nent. Phys. Fluids 20, S258-S271.
Some Notes
in the
Drag Reduction
Near-Wall Region
on
Ron F. Blackwelder
University
of Southern
California,
Los
Angeles,
California
90089, U.S.A.
years has
thirty
of the first to
using primaxily visualization methods. They showed the existence of the ubiquitous
low-speed streaks and coined the word "burst" to describe the violent lift-up and
mixing. The intervening thirty yeaxs have provided many details about this region
and its importance to the dynamics of bounded shear flows. It is well known that
the eddies in this region control the production of turbulence and the drag due to
the boundary. The general structure of the eddies and processes in this region is
covered in the next section followed by a discussion of the siniflarities between this
region and transitional flows. The
and controlling the eddies follow.
Since the
original
work
by Kline
use
Bursting
et al.
(1967),
manipulating
Process
many authors have added ter-
rninology to
Robinson
(1991).
156
Ron F. Blackwelder
Streamwise
vortices w X
Pockets
LS S
lop
Sweeps
U(y)
1Profile
U(z) Inflectiona
Profile
Large
Scale
Outer
In.stGbility
Inflectional
Instobi!ity
Mechanism
Mechanism
Structure
-w
Oscillotionsl
lu-v Oscillations
Lift-up
Ejections
Breakup
8
Mixing
Fig. 1. The proposed sequence of the bursting process. The arrows indicate the
sequential events and the T indicate relationships with less supporting evidence.
Most of the
knowledge
number is
as
there
are
almost
as
many
are
required. Consequently
been obtained at
"low"
Some Notes
on
Drag Reduction
in the Near-Wall
Region
157
the scales
characterized
of the
by
the
velocity gradient
The viscous
mean
at the
wall;
is determined
length scale, f,
given by
by
vorticity
i.e.
in the
alllayl
region; t,
region
is
The inverse
['Ul'ylw]-'
vorticity
is
FlyI W_
where
is the kinematic
f,lt,
which
yields u,
11 2a_UY 1
-This characteristic
-11 J
velocity is called the 'friction velocity.' These scales have been used universally
in the near-wall region of bounded turbulent shear flows for half a century.
Ludwig and Tilman (1949) showed that they were independent of the imposed
pressure gradient. When the physical variables are scaled with the viscous
y/f,.
scales, the usual ()+ notation will be used; e.g. y+
The large eddies in the outer or core region of a bounded turbulent shear
flow scale with & which is either the boundary layer thickness, radius, or half
channel height depending upon the type of shear flow. The ratio of the scale
of the outer eddies to the scale of the near-wall eddies is 6/ , denoted by 8+.
6 u,/v. It is easily shown
This is a form of the Reynolds number, Re,
=
that
Re,
(2)
where 6
eddies.
Ron F. Blackwelder
158
length
is
Fig.
in
2 illustrates the
mean
turbulent
0 -
wake
_-,_buffer
_,_,viscous
ub layer
layer
1.9 Y/8
region
log region
y+ - 4
2-0+
ReT
-0.20
u+0
Lr
uv
du+
uz
dy+
OAO
10-
uV
du
Ur
dy
N.
0--
V/ I
10
-.
I-
I-
100
I
MCI
J4
'10
Fig.
2. The
bulent
in
tur-
the wake
The
1.2
Some Notes
on
Principal Eddies
Drag Reduction
in the
in the Near-Wall
Bursting
Region
159
Process
The most common characteristic of the near-wall region is the presence of the
low-speed regions called 'low-speed streaks.' They were first noticed by Hama
(see Corrsin, 1957) and reported in detail by Kline et al. (1967) and many
others since. They are most easily Visualized by allowing small amounts of dye
to seep into the wall region via a spanwise slot in the wall. The dye is quickly
coagulated into streaks as seen in Kline et al. Alternatively, small hydrogen
bubbles can be introduced into the region which also form elongated regions
as seen in Fig. 3. The low-speed streaks have a width of about twenty
,
and a length of several hundred to a thousand ,. Smith and Metzler (1983)
have shown that they have a lifetime of typically 500y/u,2 but lifetimes up to
2500v/u 2 were observed. The average spacing between them is approximately
10U, with a median spacing of 80f, as seen in Fig. 4. This figure plots the
probability distribution of the spanwise spacing, A,,, between the streaks using
data from Lee et al.
(1974)
(1977).
The
region
can
spacing
always
the figure
are
(1967)
y+
< 50 in
mixing.
eddy structure in the near-wall region is the streamwise
vortices that occur typically on the sides of the low-speed streaks. These vortices are much more difficult to study for several reasons. First there is not
a commonly accepted definition of a vortex, contrary to the precise mathematical definition of vorticity. Secondly, there is no small vorticity meter
that is useful in experimental studies of the near-wall region, however the
DNS studies have been very illuminating in describing the vorticity. Kim and
Moin (1986) have shown that there are large amounts of fluctuating streamwise vorticity in the near-wall region and have traced out vortex lines. The
coherent sections of the streamwise vorticity only extended a hundred f, or
so in the streamwise direction. They found very little evidence that the vorticity looped over the low-speed streaks in the shape of a horseshoe vortex
Another
as
common
speculated in the literature. The streamwise vortices had diame10-30f, and lengths of approximately IOU,. The remaining elements
had been
ters of
of the BP shown in
Fig.
can
by referring to a model
shows three low-speed streaks
best be described
region. Fig.
an
x-z
Ron F. Blackwelder
160
3. A
bubbles
were
image relatively short regions of streamwise vorlow-speed streaks as discussed above. The origin of the
ticity lying
streaks is still unknown. Several authors have suggested different mechanisms
between them. One
can
also
besides the
is
no
for the
spacing of
The location of the streaks in the near-wall region implies that they will
by intense regions of strong shear. First, on their sides large
be surrounded
aulaz
values of
fluid in the
Robinson
streaky
(1991)
found that wy
was
region.
the
to have
Some Notes
on
Drag Reduction
in the Near-Wall
Region
161
(X+Z)
.010-
Rayleigh Probability
Density Function
Denslt i
.005-
50
100
200
150
Fig.
4. The
probability
streaks.
y
10
...........
...............
...............
------
.......
20
......
..
80-`100
X1
Fig.
coordinate, x'.
low-speed
162
Ron F. Blackwelder
du
ay
x
au
du
Fig. 6. The regions of the intense velocity shear surrounding the streaks
spanwise directions.
in the
normal and
important element in the sequence shown in Fig. I are the inprofiles that develop in the normal and spanwise directions. In the
0, develops as
spanwise direction, an inflectional velocity profile, U"(z)
from
because
formed
is
as one moves
soon as a low-speed region
high to low
and back to high speed regions in the spanwise region, two inflection points
are encountered. In the normal direction, an inflectional U(y) profile forms
only after the low-spped streak has had sufficient time to develop; i.e. in its
earlier stages the low-speed deficit may not be sufficient to form an inflectional
profile. The inflection points in any streamwise velocity profile are numerous
as can be seen in Fig. 7 which shows profiles in the normal and spanwise directions. The number of inflection points decreases as the distance from the
boundary increases as seen by comparing Fig. 7b and 7c. Since the low-speed
streaks are three dimensional, the loci of all of the inflectional points must be
The next
flectional
time scale
given by the
compared
an
inflection
point. Hence
even
flow, such
as
are
usually slow
flows,
where
Some Notes
on
Drag
Region
163
UA
U/U'
250
200
+
150-
i00-
0 1
_
Fig.
7. Instantaneous
directions from
tained at
<
U/U'
io
y+
15 in
spanwise (b and c)
spanwise data were obinflection
The
are denoted by the
points
(c).
(b)
and at 66 in
(a)
in the normal
velocity profiles
direct simulation of
and
symbol.
the initial
instability
is
Tollmien-Schlichting type
point occurs
instability rapidly develops.
soon as an
in the flow
an
field,
instability, the
inviscid instability. As
viscous
Kelvin-Helmholtz type
can be
profile, U( ) shown in Fig. 8 where
a hyperbolic tangent profile, Xhchalke
(1965) has shown that the maximum growth rate according to linear theory
is 0.19U./.A where A is the half width of the shear layer. This growth rate
can be shown to be an order of magnitude larger than the growth rates in
viscous instabilities. Nfichalke points out that the most amplified wave has a
wavelength of approximately 14.A and will increase its amplitude by a factor
Consider -the-Anflectional
Ron F. Blackwelder
164
of
thirty while
it travels
only one
wave
length
downstream.
be able to travel
has increased in
For this
reason
Correspondingly,
during the same
probably will not
more
than
flow,
as
in
the coherent
difficult to observe.
UO
Fig.
8. Schematic of
The
analysis
an
inflectional
of Michalke
profile
(1965)
velocity profile
associated with
an
inviscid
instability.
infinity in the
analysis
and shown that there are no significant changes to the analysis as long as
the inflection point is greater that W, removed from the wall. Secondly,
Nfichalke considered only an inflection point in a two dimensional profile.
However Nishioka et al. (1980) have shown that the results accurately predict
the wavelength and breakdown of a three dimensional transitional flow in the
presence of a wall. Lastly, the above analysis is for a steady flow. However
the time scales of the disturbance are so small compared to the longer time
scales of the low-speed streaks that this condition is well satisfied. This can be
seen by examining the time scale of the velocity profile which is [aUI,9 1-1 -,AIU,,. Swearingen and Blackwelder (1988) examined a boundary layer and
found experimentally that A was approximately 1U, and U,, was roughly
:L
directions. Ruerre
(1983)
was
has added
an
5u, in the near-wall region. Compared with the time scale of the low-speed
Some Notes
in the Near-WaR
Drag Reduction
Region
165
streaks of
it is
on
that the
seen
profiles
Any
region
passive contaminant along a line such as the bubbles
Grass (1971) and others quickly sees distortions due
of bounded shear flows.
wall
in
Fig.
or
studies
to inflectional
by
profiles.
observed similar
of oscillations
the
can
low-speed
(1978)
between the
low-speed
(1967)
observed tha:t
they
as
higher speed
fluid moving toward the wall. Blackwelder and Kaplan (1976) and Bacher and
Smith (1986) obtained conditionally averaged data and found some evidence
having wavelengths
predictions.
of waves
of A+
X
;::
150 in
Although the oscillations are not readily observed, the process of the liftlow-speed streak has been documented in the visualization studies.
These studies suggest that the low-speed streak is disturbed by the background turbulence which triggers the inviscid instability discussed above.
This instability grows rapidly with an oscillation from side to side in response
to a growing inflectional instability of U(z) or away from the wall with a U(y)
instability. Since the instability may be in any other plane aligned with the x
axis, the instability need not occur in only the xz or the xy planes. However
when visualized in the xz plane, a projection of the oscillation will be seen.
Similarly, when viewed in the xy plane, its projection in that plane will be
seen. Fig. 9 suggests how an oscillation may appear based upon this information. Although a single wave is more commonly seen, two are often seen
and are shown in the cartoon. In the xy plane, the low-speed steak is seen to
move away from the wall in a motion called lift-up. This is commonly seen in
the visual studies and is usually defined when a portion of the streak raises
up of the
up above
y- -
As the
;:z
15.
lift-up
fluid which
seems
continues
outward,
it
comes
phase
higher speed
an
'ejection'
there is
and involves
Ron F. Blackwelder
166
...........
10
*7
*
,
....
. .....................
..
*............
-`-'
......
......................................
...
.........
....
.....
.................
................
.......
............................
..................
................
.......
..
..........
.
......
.........................................................
...................................
....
...
...
..
....
..
..........
'Z 3 0
..
... .
...................................
.......................................
...
.........
................................................
............................
....
............
..
.......
......
io 7, h
.
.................
"
.. .........
.....
...............................
-,***"*"*'
.
-5...................................................................
W
I
..........................................
.....
........
.......
Oscillation
when
observed
h 3
io
<5-'
__
X1
Fig.
Sinuous motions
are
low-speed
__
lift-up
moves
to
y+
lift-up.
> 10.
suggested that the ejections were associated with a sweep of large scale highspeed fluid that appeared to be associated with the outer motion. Tiederman
et al. (1985) defined the ejections as a marked fluid element originating from
y+
< 15 which
over a
distance downstre
(1986)
studied multiple
the
ejections
multiple
they
occur,
ejections
lift-ups
25. In this near-wall region, the convection velocity
were separated byAt+
is roughly 6-10u, yielding a wavelength of approximately 150-25U,
of 3501,. In another
study, Bogard
and Tiederman
and
the visualization
it
impossible
Some Notes
Inner-Outer
1.3
on
Drag
Relationship
Region
167
ejections moving
On the other
hand,
there is
more
re-
gion may influence the events that occur in the near-wall region. Corino and
Brodkey (1969) were the first to point out the significance of regions of highspeed fluid that regularly disturb this region. They termed this high-speed
fluid 'sweeps' and suggested that they were associated with the larger eddies in the logarithmic and outer regions. They found that after the ejection
phase of the process, the larger scale high-speed fluid would sweep everything downstream and leave the region in a more quiescent state until the
BP began again. Offen and Kline (1974) found that the lift-ups in the nearwall region seemed to be correlated with the passage of an eddy structure
in the outer region having a negative normal velocity component. Chen and
Blackwelder (1978) used a temperature contaminant introduced at the wall
to study a turbulent boundary layer. They found that the upstream side of
the large structures in the wake region had a sharp temperature discontinuity separating the warmer temperature inside the turbulent region from the
cooler fluid in the non-turbulent fluid. Because the large outer eddies were
strongly three-dimensional, the discontinuity did not always extend through
the logarithmic region. But sometimes it did extend into the near-wan region
suggesting a possible linkage between the these two diverse regions.
Falco
(1977)
smaller
eddy
structure that
boundary
on
large
layers. These 'typical eddies' appear to have length scales of roughly 100200 , and move toward the wall as the large structures evolve. Although
Falco could not follow these typical eddies into the near-wall region, he speculated that they may interact with the region thus forming a link between the
wake and the wall region. In a separate study, Falco (1979) found a similarly
shaped disturbance in the near-wall region. He introduced smoke through a
slot into the wall region and initially observed only the streaks. By increasing
rides
Ron F. Blackwelder
168
there is still
two
linkages
There
Fig.
1.
number to
Although there is universal usage of the viscous variables to describe the wall
flow, Sreenivasan (1989) has pointed out that there are some parameters that
remain a ftmction of the outer variables. One such example is the distance
from the wall to the peak in the Reynolds stress, yl. For channel flows with
half height 6, the Reynolds equation is
dU
-
Assuming
the
mean
UV
profile
is
-1/
_) + Ur (1 Y)
2
(3)
dy
approximately logarithmic
given by
in the
region
of
yl,
Yi
where
is
von
FT
(4)
shear stress
Reynolds
maximum is
-u-v
(YI)
=
U2
7'
2
-
VfK_6+_
(5)
which also
near-wall
is
Analogies
Some Notes
on
Drag Reduction
in the Near-WaU
Region
169
similarities and differences between the transitional flow and the wall
region
fully developed bounded shear flow. Most of the comparisons will be
with boundary layers since more work has been done on this flow; however
the results generally hold for pipe and channel flows as well.
The gross characteristics of the transitional boundary layer and the nearwall region of a turbulent boundary are quite evident. They both are bounded
by a solid surface, which together with the no slip condition, produces a strong
shear flow, Wlay. This gradient yields a strong spanwise vorticity field in
both flows. The Navier-Stokes equations evaluated at the wall are identical
for both the transitional and the turbulent flow having the same boundary
conditions. For an isothermal wall with no suction, the equations show that
when the instantaneous apl,9x : 0, the wall is a source of spanwise vorticity.
Similarly, when aplaz = 0, the wall is a source of streamwise vorticity. Thus
of
when the transitional and the turbulent flows have three-dimensional distur-
bances, they both produce wx and wz vorticity at the wall. In both flows, the
vorticity in the near-wall region is diffused away from the wall by viscosity.
The length scale associated with diffusion in both flows is i, and the velocity
scale is u,. Although these scales were introduced earlier for the turbulent
case, they can be utilized in the transitional case which provides the basis
of the similarity. For a Blasius boundary layer, the boundary layer solution
yields
U,
U.
0.58Rex 1/4
(6)
1/4
1/4
There has been evidence of streamwise vortices for many years in several
types of transitional boundary layers. These vortices usually have diameters
of the order of the
and
are
related to
an
instabil-
ity. The best documented case is the G6rtler boundary layer where counterrotating vortices are a first order result of the initial instability. Klebanoff,
et al. (1962) also documented the existence of counter-rotating streamwise
transitional Blasius
These vortices
as a
same
case was
Ron F. Blackwelder
170
unity. However, if the viscous scales are used for the comparison, the spanwise
length scales are comparable. That is, it has been well documented in the
turbulent case that the average spacing between the low-speed streaks is A+
100. In transitional boundary layers, the counter-rotating vortices usually
fill the boundary layer and have diameter of approximately 6+. Since the
spanwise length scale includes two vortices, A+ in transitional boundary layers
z
should be
Fig.
approximately
100-200.
counter-rotating streamwise
boundary layer (right).
(left)
of transitional
The transitional
wave.
Correspondingly,
maximum and
Some Notes
on
Drag
171
Region
Table 1,
Re ,
Reference
Bippes (1972)
Bippes (1972)
Aihara
(1979)
(1981)
(1980)
Bippes (1972)
Tani & Sakagami (1962)
Wortmann
(1969)
Tani
(1969)
(1962)
(1979)
(1963)
(1979)
Saric et al. (1981)
Kovasznay et al. (1962)
Saric et al. (1981)
Klebanoff et al. (1962)
Hama & Nutant
Wortmarm
33,000
54,000
72,000
80,000
100,000
130,000
233,000
250,000
330,000
420,000
600, 000
210,000
220,000
370,000
490,000
660,000
A+
6+
G6
6.3
37
39
6.8
39
46
6.5
47
103
5.9
40
70
7.4
51
81
7.2
49
82
4.9
64
220
4.0
56
110
7.5
69
200
6.8
68
211
4.6
82
296
62
287
850,0001
54
280
77
610
70
335
83
660
87
365
95
460
spanwise wavelength for G6rtler and transitional boundlayers for various Reynolds numbers and G,5rtler numbers.
Table 1. The
ary
decay
to
approximately
wave.
zero.
Their data
are
plotted
in
Fig.
12a
along
with
are
midpoint
were
obtained at the
Ron F. Blackwelder
172
10,
10
106
Rex
flow
the
was
VITA
y-
versus
probe.
These data
ensemble
--
are
quite
vortices
were
are
obtained at Az+
rical. That
-17
occur
in
must
occur
(1989) pointed
in the flow
this aspect differs from the transitional flow in Fig. 12a. But otherwise, the
sequence of the growth and decay of the spanwise velocity profiles associated with the streamwise vortices is similar in the bounded transitional and
turbulent flows-
Some Notes
on
Drag
Region
173
The
Another
similarity between the transitional boundary layers and the turboundary layer is the presence of inflectional profiles of the mean
velocity. In the transitional case, the profiles are stationary and easier to
study than in the turbulent case. In addition, the lack of the background
turbulence often makes it easier to follow the ensuing instability in the transitional boundary layer. Several authors have examined the inflectional profiles in transitional boundary layers and their profiles are shown in Fig. 14.
Nishioka et al. (1979) have also measured similar inflectional profiles in a
transitional Poiseuille flow (not shown). The profiles are all plotted with the
viscous scales. In the transitional cases, the profiles are usually observed over
a longer period of time possibly because there is less background disturbance
to seed and thus trigger the ensuing instability. In addition, since the values
of u,/U,,,, are smaller in transitional boundary layers, the profiles are seen to
extend to larger values of u+. One interesting aspect of the two transitional
profiles is that the maximum shear exhibited is approximately the same and
has a value slightly greater than u,/i,. Kovasznay et al. (1962) were this first
bulent
In the transitional
the shear
moves
averaged value
shear; however
boundary layer,
mean
in the turbulent
random variable
as seen
Fig.
7. Thus the
As in the turbulent
in transitional flows
down. Several
in
case
are
Ron F. Blackwelder
174
2
U
U-r
0
-2
-1-7
W
-2'
2-
-r+=
13
2-
-r+= 3
UT 0
-2[
-2
2-
-r+=-9
I
U.r
r+= 7
-2
2
U-r
-2
20
40
60
20
Fig.
40
60
12.
to the
delay, -r+,
are
plotted
below.
at several
Some Notes
on
Drag
Region
175
<U>
U
0.5-
20
-0.5
-0.5-
0.5-
r+=-15
<W>
0.5-
UT
r+
r+_0
0
0.5-
<W>
-0.5-
0.5-
0.5-
7r+=
10
0;5
r+= 10
<W>
U-r
-0.5-
-0.5T
0.5-
0.5-
U-r
'r
<W>
-0.5-
+= 15
-0.5-
20
40
60
20
40
60
Fig.
12.
(b)
The
Ron F. Blackwelder
176
Y+
70,
50
30-
W
t
-1.0
1.0
(Y')
1WMaX
Comparison of the spanwise velocity profiles associated with the streamvorticity in transitional and turbulent boundary layers. The data are from: a
G6rt1er instability (Bipps, 1972), -; a transitional boundary layer (Fig. 12a),
Fig.
13.
wise
and
(Fig. 12b)
-------
to
and
and turbulent
quoted
cases.
(1965)
earlier.
Of course, there
are some
boundary layers. The most obvious is that the turbulent flow has two distinct
regions; namely the near-wall region and the outer region or core region in
pipe and channel flows. Associated with the outer region is an additional set of
eddies often termed the large scale outer eddies. They promote mixing in the
outer region and control the entrainment in turbulent boundary layers. The
turbulent boundaxy layers grow as x 0.8 via turbulent diffusion in the outer
region whereas transitional boundary layers
0.5
Some Notes
on
Drag Reduction
in the Near-Wall
Region
177
20
10
40
30
50
Glur
Fig.
ers.
14. Inflectional
velocity profiles
(Aihaxa
cases
is
approximately u,/f,.
The data
are
plate (Kox;
Vasudeva, 1962), o; a conditional average in a turbulent
boundary layer (Blackwelder and Kaplan, 1976), 11; and two instantaneous turbuand
lent boundary layer profiles,
from:
a concave
wall
and
Sonoda, 1981),
boundary lay-
transitional flat
----
length scale;
------
there is
turbulent
case.
Aspects
The
large
over
Ron F. Blackwelder
178
1000
0
0
00
1001
00
0
0
10
1111
100000
10000
Fig.
corresponding
wavelength
1000000
Rex
profiles and
boundary layers.
desired
goal
at
as
particular case of drag reduction, efforts in the first half of this century were
primarily aimed at streamlining to reduce drag due to separation and later
smoothing the surface to reduce the roughness drag. With the development of
low turbulence wind tunnels and the experimental confirmation of T-S waves
by Schubauer and Skramstad (1947), new efforts were undertaken to further
reduce drag by attempting to maintain a laminar boundary layer at increased
Reynolds numbers. The discovery by Toms (1949) at mid century that a small
amount of long chain polymer added to a liquid flow could reduce the base
drag of a turbulent flow up to 80% set the stage for further advances in drag
reduction. Although the details of how the polymers actually reduce the drag
are still not understood, it is realized that they alter the eddy structures in the
near-wall region which thereby reduces the drag. This concept has opened the
doors for other ideas of drag reduction that have been pursued intermittently
with vigor :Iuring the last twenty years. These efforts have included Large
Eddy Break-Up Devices, riblets, polymers,
etc.
Some Notes
on
Drag
Region
179
Table 11
Reference
Re,,
(1981)
80,000
907000
Bippes (1972)
(1980)
Bippes (1972)
Ito
(1963)
(1967)
(1962)
Kovasznay et al. (1962)
Emmerling (1973)
Klebanoff et al. (1962)
Klebanoff et al. (1962)
Kline et al.
Klebanoff et al.
Blackwelder and
Kaplan (1976)
Type
G
A+
X
6+
40
70
481
100,000
132,000
220,000
330,000
500,000
5807000
660,000
800,000
51
86
55
150
54
110
69
250
210-480
240
83
150
950,000
120
83
152
820
200
90
163
1,130,000
98
178
1,800,000
930
200
T-turbuIent.
There
are
many other
reasons
why
one
trol in bounded sheax flows. Other aspects of control in bounded shear flows
follow similar reasoning as presented below. Control of free-shear layers are
discussed in the other
chapters
in this book.
use of a model for the near-wall region would be of great help -in
study of control of the eddies in this region. However the complexity
of the dynamics of the region essentially preclude such models, although
Lumley (1996) reports some progress using a truncated model. Not only
is the turbulence four-dimensional (three spatial coordinates plus time) but
it is random as well. Although some Reynolds averaged equations can well
The
the
Ron F. Blackwelder
180
predict the mean flow around a streamlined body, their turbulence models
are usually not sufficiently detailed to describe the effects of perturbations on
the eddy structure within the near-waU region. Consequently these models
do not perform well when applied to the prediction of incipient separation,
the addition of polymers, selective suction, etc.
It should be emphasized that control of the turbulent shear flows differs
from attempting to maintain a laminar flow over as much of the flow field
as possible. These two goals are quite different in nature and application of
the same technique in laminar and turbulent flows may have grossly different
effects on the flow. For example, suction under a laminar boundary layer can
alter the base flow and change the stability characteristics of the boundary
layer- This will delay the transition to turbulence and thus lower the overall
drag on a body. However suction applied globally under a turbulent boundary
layer will increase the drag unless massive suction is used to remove the entire
boundary layer. This is demonstrated by examination of the von KArm6n
relation
Cf
dO
Vwall
dx
U""
gradient.
uniform
ever
SUCti0n(Vwall
everywhere)
zero
(7)
(i.e. -Vwa11/Uoo
a manner
pres-
Thus
10-5)
critical
the
sitions to turbulence at
larger values of cf due to the turbulence are delayed and the integrated
drag on the body is decreased. The primary effect of the suction in this case
is to delay the onset of the T-S waves and decrease their growth.
However T-S waves have no dynamical significance in turbulent boundary layers and suction has a completely different effect; namely it increases
the velocity gradient at the wall and thus increases the skin friction. Consequently techniques that delay transition will not necessarily be successful in
fully developed turbulent flows. For this reason, drag reduction methods in
turbulent shear flows often concentrate upon controlling the eddy structures
the
control scenarios
adapted
to the
are
more
flow,
lot
it
usually has
a more
concise and
often
difficult turbulent
in a
waves
into
case.
transitional
an iin
et al.
dimensional T-S
can
laminar
ToUrnien-Schlichting waves
(1982)
are
Some Notes
channel. As the
on
Drag Reduction
in the Near-Wall
Region
181
grew
3.1
Global
versus
Selective Control
boundary layer control has been studied by applying some external condition globally; i.e. the condition is applied everywhere within the
How field without regard to how it effects the individual eddies in the flow.
For example, to decrease the shedding behind a circular cylinder, suction can
be selectively applied in the vicinity of the separation region on the cylinder. Applying suction globally around the entire cylinder may achieve the
same result, but with a much greater expenditure of energy. The control of
turbulent boundary layers may display similar results. Instead of applying a
control mechanism globally, it could be applied only selectively; i.e. locally
with respect to the eddy structure that one is attempting to control. For
example, to alter the low-speed streaks, the external condition may need be
applied only under or around the streaks. This implies that the controlling
mechanism must have dimensions comparable to those of the streaks or other
structures that they are attempting to control.
A second important criteria for control is the phase of the controlling
parameter with respect to the eddy structure. Phase is used here in its
traditional sense in the temporal domain. (The spatial phase variability is
taken care of by the selectivity parameter discussed above.) Just as suction
would not necessarily need be applied -everywhere around the cylinder example above, it also need not be applied continuously in time either. Short
bursts of suction having a duty factor of 0.2 or less may be sufficient to control the shedding of vortices. Of course the suction would need to be applied
at the appropriate phase of the shedding process to have the desired effect.
If the phasing is incorrect, the vortex shedding process could be enhanced
instead of suppressed. This aspect is extremely important in the control of
turbulent production within the turbulent boundary layer because it is well
known that the production is a very intermittent and random process. The
frequency of occurrence of the bursting phenomenon yields a good estimate
of the intermittency and duty factor of the control mechanism.
In the past,
Ron F. Blackwelder
182
available,
ideas for
utilizing
dynamics
of the
eddy
structures has
developed.
The concept of 'selective control' was proposed by Gad-el-Hak and Blackwelder (1987; 1989) to apply a control mechanism such as suction/blowing,
heating/cooling,
to interact with
etc.
It also requires that the eddies location in space and time be known a priori so that the control can be applied. As mentioned above, the spatial and
their
the
3.2
Selective Suction
described
amount of suction under the streaks. This action would reduce the quan-
in the
or
that it be
Some Notes
Au(z),
on
Drag Reduction
velocity gradient
in the Near-Wall
Region
183
would reduce the mixing and the blowing would help reduce the local skin
friction so that both actions would reduce the drag. In addition, since the
suction/blowing
is
amount of
pumping
power
should be
--f
Ye
Z'
Z3
suction
suction
injection
as
is
Myose
consisting
and Blackwelder
of
laminar
(1994)
boundary
They applied
the suction
studied the
was
spanwise profile. Thus although the suction was able to. eliminate the normal inflectional profile and the associated instability, the spanwise profile
remained and became unstable, albeit further downstream.
Selective suction has been demonstrated in direct numerical simulations
Choi et al.
by
Ree
(1994). They
150 and
applied
used
suction and
blowing
at the wall in
non-uniform
Ron F. Blackwelder
184
manner.
was
velocity
at the wall
was
-v(yd)
given by
v,,,,Il
flow.
maximum of 25%
3.3
Spanwise
Wall Disturbances
It has been noted for years that some turbulent boundary layers with a three
dimensional mean flow appear to have a reduced level of Reynolds stress and
turbulent
production.
as
swept wings by Bradshaw and Terrell (1969) and in shear driven flows such
as on rotating cylinders aligned in the streamwise direction by Bissonnette
and Mellor (1974). This has instigated several studies that have imposed
controlled three dimensional disturbances into a nominally two dimensional
mean flow with the idea of suppressing the turbulence and drag.
on
To add three
formed
dimensionality
flow, Moin et al. (1990) perphenomenon by utilizing a sudgradient on a 21) ftflly developed turbulent
to the
mean
was a
decrease in the
of 6+
180. As in the other investiReynolds shear stress and the turbulent
=
Some Notes
on
Drag Reduction
in the Near-Wall
Region
185
2.0
1.6
-dP
dx
1.2
........................................
0.8
0.4 1
0
...................
........
to
15
20
tu'r /3
Fig.
17. Time
flow while
Choi et
sensors
-------
kinetic energy. Sendstad and Moin (1991) reported that the probability density functions showed that lower u' fluctuation levels occurred primarily due
to a reduction of the intensely negative u' values. Moin et al. (1990) noted
that in theirs and other similar investigations, there is an observed difference
between the alignment of the Reynolds shear stress vector and the mean velocity gradient vector. Moin et al. also computed the terms in the Reynolds
stress transport equations and determined that the turbulent production was
decreased and the turbulent dissipation increased, however no drag measurements were reported.
Instead of the
Ron F. Blackwelder
186
of f+
one
0.01, they used the mean two dimensional channel flow and oscillated
an amplitude of 0.8U,,,g. This disturbance produced a
an
oscillated
'
reduction
occurring
wall under
Note that
none
of the
dition, there
implemented
were
was no concern
over
for the amount of energy added with the disin engineering applications. However these and
region
can
be
the
equilibrium
nominally two-dimensional
flow in
between the
manner
low-speed
studies also
point
quently, thpre
are
eddy
manner
region.
3.4
Some Notes
on
Drag Reduction
and/or
region.
or
Region
187
Region
in the Near-Wall
use
Most of these
techniques
have
employed
other actuators
the
boundary
attempted.
near the wall to alter the flow paconditions. Many different approaches to the
or
to control the
flow;
i.e.
microscopic
or
macroscopic
the other
hand,
a non-zero
expensive
operating
costs. On
to install and
operate
but may be more effective. If active actuators are to be used, sensors mast
also be employed to detect the state of the fluid or eddies. This necessitates
the addition of
algorithms
system,
feed forward
algorithm,
an
algorithms
may involve
artificial neural
network,
feed back
Ron F. Blackwelder
188
use
date has
chosen
generally
region
use an
Jacobson and
was
subset of the
utilized
small
near-
cavity
over
the
Fig. 18. The actuator was driven by an amplitude modulated signal supplied to a piezo-ceramic unimorph mounted on the under
side of the actuator. This provided a means to control the amplitude of the
actuator with a fast time response using low power. Since the cavity was
closed, there was no net mass addition. The cantilevered actuator was designed to be asymmetric with respect to the cavity which produced a diffuse
cavity
as
shown
on
pair of
w,,;
a more
counter-rotating vortices
over
the
narrow
side
gap of the cantilever. The test flow field was a laminar boundary layer with
superimposed streamwise vortices generated upon demand by small suction
holes upstream. The vortices were sensed by shear. stress sensors located upstream of the actuator. Various algorithms using the mean and fluctuating
shear stress controlled the action of the actuators.
Using
neural
networks,
they
were
able to obtain
stress.
A--I
plan view
section A-A:
77777-IV/A
section B-B:
fiow
during
/-Pkz0&ctriccmn0aver
bomdarf
r7-7-,
boundary
(1995).
t F '/-
A
Ae-
Fig.
plan
under-cantflevcr
Cavity
Some Notes
Lorkowski et al.
Drag
on
(1997) performed
Region
189
similar
bed to
as a
test
simulation,
Mito and
Kasagi (1997)
allowed
wall of their two dimensional channel flow to oscillate with the wall
displacement given by
YW
only
sin
27rz
sin
(2-Fft)
(8)
of a- -
was
amplitudes
45 and 90 were computed for two
spanwise wavelengths of s+
0.01 and 0.02. These disturbances did not produce any
frequencies of f+
significant drag reduction. In fact, the larger amplitude perturbations slightly
and two
welder et al.
(1998)
to
Ron F. Blackwelder
190
streaming flow from under the wing that coagulated into two low-speed
displaced fluid depended upon the oscillation frequency which was typically 0.01 < f+ < 0.15. The actuator
was positioned so that it produced the low-speed regions in the location of
the naturally occurring high-speed region between the G6rtler vortices. The
net result was a more uniform velocity field downstream shown by the isovelocity contours in Fig. 20. The mean and fluctuating wall shear stresses
were reduced. In addition, the spanwise shear, alllaz, was weaker downstream which delayed the breakdown of the low-speed streaks by 20P. At
a
that
to be due
more
spanwise
to the inflectional
inflectional
profile
profile.
CO.<O
Low
Speed Streak
Ok>0
ffighSpeed.'.
-**:.*
Actuator
'
Region.
0).<O
k\ Lo
Speed Streak
co" 'O
Fig. 19. Sketch of the delta wing actuator used by Blackwelder et al. (1987). Its
orientation pumped low-speed fluid into the e-Nisting high-speed region.
become smaller
successfi-illy
numbers by
used to
measure
Hites et al.
(1997).
Some Notes
on
Drag
Region
191
25
X-1.3M
20
E15::
E
5,_
00
X-I.IM
1
.6
Is
24
32
40
Z(M4MI
25
X=1.3M
20
-15:
E
E
, fio_=
5
Fig.
20.
X-I.1M
0
a'
Iso-velocity
the
operating
leading edge of the
Control
48
Z(MM)
are
no
oscillation is shown in
-found in
(b)
velocity
a
(below)
curved
3.5
40
32
24
Is
data shown
was
were
1.1 and
Algorithms
possibility of combining computers
control of turbulence is being considered. At present the
technology,
the
Ron F. Blackwelder
192
Although
it is
This may prove to be a more difflcult hurdle than the hardware. These issues
have been di cussed in the literature and at symposiums, but no consensus
has been reached upon the types of solutions
required.
linear
an
additional system of
weights
can
sensors
ed, the
changed
additional
sensors
(1997)
conditions. Kim
in real time
weights
for the
are
deriving
can
control
be described
encompassing method for designing control software is to exoptimum control methods as discussed by Temam et al. (1997) and
Another
amine
in
Some Notes
on
Drag
Region
193
the control
near
the wall.
Conclusions
eddy
important components in the bursting phenomenon including the streamwise vortices, low-speed streaks, inflectional velocity profiles, etc. The low-speed streaks are surrounded by two dimensional surfaces
that there
are
many
are
have
time scale
dynamics but with less randomness. A review of the transition process highlighted the similarities and differences between these two classes of flow fields.
The inflectional velocity profiles appear to be a key element in the breakdown
into turbulence in both the transitional flow and the bursting process. Lastly
several investigators have attempted to control these eddies with promising
results. Values of drag reduction exceeding 50% have been reported with
several researchers finding 20-30% using suboptimal methods. However the
full control of bounded turbulent flows must await the development of control algorithms that will sense the state of the turbulent flow, process this
information and operate actuators to alter it in
beneficial
sense.
Acknowledgments
This work
was
supported by
years is
through
Grants
by
greatly appreciated.
Ron F. Blackwelder
194
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mensional Tollmien
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A6rodynamiques,
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prhnary importance for most of the flow
chaxacteristics. Due to the turbulent chaxacter of flows under practical and industrial interests, the detection, analysis, prediction and control of the laxge-scale
trol of the
large-scale
structures.
laxge-scale
structures
are
Indeed,
even
in
known to be of
axe quite complex. We present, in this chapter, several tools available for
accessing these large-scale structures. Non conditional, stochastic methods, based
on correlations, are preferentially detailed. In particulax, the Proper Orthogonal
Decomposition and the Linear Stochastic Estimation are described. As an illustration of the potentialities of these objective stochastic approaches, the particular
all along this
case of the turbulent plane mixing layer is derived as a guide-line
the
onto
focus
will
this
which,
using POD,
In
its
by
last part
chapter
way
chapter.
structures
closed
can
Introduction
Industrial, applied and fundamental researchers alike are now convinced that
large-scale, organized motions exist and play a crucial role in turbulent flows.
These large-scale structures are known to have a recurrent character and most
of the time they are quasi-periodic: at a given spatial location, they possess
these
a preferential size and appear with a preferential frequency.' Indeed,
characteristics are smeared by the turbulent nature of the flow and, unless
artificially excited, possess a random distribution in size, location, frequency
etc. Large-scale structure can then only be defined in a statistical way or by
using specific concepts that will be described later in this chapter.
For
example,
in the
case
of a
corresponding to a Strouhal
Chap. 6 of this book).
number S,,,
&,1U,,,,
(see
200
As is the
case for any type of flow control, large-scale structure control can
by passive as well as by active means (for a review, see Chap. I of
this book). However, regardless of which particulax method is used to control
the large-scale structures, it is first necessary to be able to identih them.
In this first stage of flow control, experimentalists and numerical analysts
be achieved
are
(extract)
are
to find out:
1)
how to separate
directly
are
passing
or
present
problem
of
large-scale
structure identi-
va-
of detection
or
numerous
et al.
1993), (Schoppa
different methods
can
be
and Hussain
surprising
are
1994)).
at first. This
available from
ex-
handled
fore,
easily
large to be
interpreted in terms of large-scale structure. Theresimulations, it is generally necessary to choose properly
and to be
for numerical
Large-Scale-Structure
201
chosen.
appreciate the need for these techniques one must understand the
high Reynolds number, often turbulent, motions. As modern,
full Navier-Stokes computer simulations have made clear, knowing the data
To
character of
points in the flow does little in and of itself to make clear what is
happening, due to the chaotic nature of the flow. The key to understanding
usually lies in what is done to the data to bring the underlying structure to
at many
the
foreground.
been utilized
more
1.1
can
detail in Sect. 4.
As stated
202
or
data and
by
physical
understand-
Active Control
bring
some
large-scale
structure
can
be defined
as
attempting
to
the structures from their present state to another desired state where
given feature of the flow will be enhanced, reduced or simply modified.
active control is discussed
chapter,
i.e.
closed
feedback system
flows,
large-scale
structure
one
wants to
for
Large-Scale-Structure
203
unavoidable
phase
turbulence.
into "turbulent"
or
"coherent
access
It is also necessary to know the limit of the description of the flow required
for efficient control: spectral range, vectorial information (e.g. velocity com-
ponents)
or
scalar data
density, concentration,
The
that
(e.g. only
pressure,
optimal configuration
can
be used to obtain
one
.
), correlations,
etc.
relevant
description
processing procedures
a given
of the structure at
Analysis:
is necessary to
rounding
quantify
large-scale
and/or
accepted,
to the
it
sur-
flow.
control requires
turbulent process, providing that only the result and not the details of this
harmonic
process is known. In terms of time dependency, the usual spectral,
it can be
that
the
in
has
and
useful
in
time
is
past
proven
(Fourier) analysis
Based on the above remarks, the usual Reynolds decomposition is insufficient, and thus alternate decompositions have been introduced, such as the
double or triple decompositions. For these approaches, the flow is divided into
coherent and incoherent motions. The coherent part corresponds to "conditional" contributions, which are the flow properties when a "predetermined"
type of event occurs. Another solution is to make use directly of some kind
of
(Fourier,
204
approaches, no assumptions
to be made.
Regardless
of the
approach used, it is necessary to estimate the contrilarge-scale structure to the global turbulent process that has
to be controlled. For example, the contribution to turbulent kinetic energy
production, to Musion, to sheax stress etc. has to be specified.
bution of the
Prediction: In order to
it is necessary, based
Strategy: As
stated
on
before,
the
it is necessary to introduce
a specific strategy
perturbation required to bring the large-scale
structure to the required state, while the imposed constraints are satisfied or
at least approached.
For such a purpose, a determini ti approach to turbulence can be of great
interest. The early works of Lorenz (1963) or Ruelle and Takens (1971), have
shown that, for some simple cases, turbulent behavior can be described by low
order dynamical systems, or, more precisely, that these systems can exhibit
a chaotic behavior. Recent developments in chaos control (Shinbrot et al.
1993, Ott et al. 1990) have demonstrated the great sensitivity of this kind of
system
to initial conditions
(butterfly effect).
One of the interests in this type of approach is that this sensitivity allows
to conjecture that a very small amount of energy can be sufficient in order
One
particular point
context, authors
in
closed-loop
sufficient.
are
be derived
in this last
feedback
Large-Scale-Str&ture
to stabilize
(or de-stabilize)
desired characteristics
205
Up until
are.
to
of control
(Shinbrot
et al.
same
1992a, Shinbrot
et al.
1992b).
Actuators: The last stage of the active control process is of course the need
to define the suited "actuator": the mechanical (Ho et al. 1996) (or other:
temperature,
mass
flow
...
device
by
the desired state. In any case, the gross characteristics of such actuators can
generally be estimated from a global knowledge of the flows. As an example,
the Strouhal number
or
the characteristic
frequencies of the
flows
can
be used
to select the order of magnitude or the time response of the actuator. The size
of the actuators, or their domain of influence, corresponds in general to the
of
magnitude,
it is sometimes
2
2.1
Large-Scale
Overview
The definition of
turbulent
are
are
generally hidden
in
nique used to determine when and where certain structures are passing
present is directly related to the definition of the coherent structure itself.
Indeed,
large-scale structure.
Organized Motion, Co-
or
206
herent
agree with
minimum
set of characteristics.
Several
-were
devoted to topics
proceedings
axe
directly
meetings (Moffat and Tsinober 1989), (Gyr 1990), (Lumley 1990), (Langley
1990), (Wtais
and Lesieur
1989), (Bonnet
Among others,
let
some
From Lesieur
recall
us
and Glauser
1993).
available definitions:
et al.
1993):
Suppose that,
a domain Dt.
at
conditions).
From Hussain
correlated
phase-
vorticity".
From Berkooz
(Berkooz
Coherent Structures
edly
as a
appear
are
et al.
defined
(often in flows
1993):
"organized spatial features which repeatdominated by local shear) and undergo a characas
From
proposals
but not
dom),
-
as
passive scalars
over
transport
given distances without consider-
207
being defined by the event itself. This concept does not imply
quasi-periodicity of the flow, nor any mechanism related to the generation of
Reynolds stress (see for example (Adrian 1979), (Bonnet and Glauser 1993)).
An extended review of this approach can be found in (CISM/ERCOFTAC
Advanced Course 1996). Typical applications in the context of flow control
will be given later in this chapter.
tional eddies
Other
have been
introduced
corresponds
to
one
(or several)
of these definitions.
case
of numerical
1989), (Adrian
1993).
(TCFD
and Moser
Contrarily,
in the
case
and Moin
of
1988), (Bonnet
experimental approaches,
2.2
or
and Glauser
1993),
or
it is first necessary to
accessible.
Visualizations.
simple
obtained
by
(1974).
tracers
Velocity
Measurements.
quantitative analysis
techniques.
More
can
be
performed
Jo8lDelville,
208
Hot Wire
Anemometry is,
two main
properties:
it delivers
velocity signals
which
are
to
good fredissipa-
quency range (the inertial range is easily well described and the
tive scales can be reached if probes axe well designed),
-
due to its
However,
-
some
limitations
on
the
use
of this
technique
remain:
spatial integration, 3 due to the wire length: this effect can be reduced by
using gold plated or Wollaston wires.
The intrusive nature of this technique may restrict its application field.
This is more crucial when multi-probe configurations are used.
For practical, industrial applications, the fragility and sensitivity to externalyerturbations (dust, noise, etc) can prohibit the use of such apparatus.
Image Velocimetry (PIV) (21) or, better Holographic) assomulti-point velocity measurement, thus allowing to
obtain both visual and quantitative velocity information. Potentially any detection method can be used in this case. At present, these approaches are
limited to research laboratories, but are under rapid development and systematic use is probable in the very near future. For example, in an application
to the backward-facing step, Huang (1994) was able to apply POD to PIV.
However, up until now the temporal bandwidth of PIV has remained low (of
the order of ten pictures per second) and applications to high Reynolds number and 3D flow are limited. Some attempts are presently made to combine
hot wire rake measurements and PIV in order to obtain simultaneously good
spatial and temporal descriptions (Glauser 1996).
The Particle
locations,
This
spatial integration
considered: there is
with the
found in
1996)_
no
can
other
temporal
information
(linked
Large-Scale-Structure
209
random
indeed, the
of the
can
be
crucial
advantage.
from
temperature
or
pressure fluctuations: in
pressure as input. Up
approaches that use information other than that arising from the velocity. Temperature, considered
as a passive contaminant, has been used successfuly for Coherent Structures
detection by Antonia et al. (1986) among other authors. Pressure information is used extensively for most flow control in aeroacoustic problems. For
wall flows this information is easy to obtain. However, in free shear flows,
or
the local fluctuations of static pressure, which constitute one of the relevant
quantities, are difficult to measure. Some attempts have been made in the
case
of
high velocity
Excited
2.3
vs
flows
(Long
Natural
et al.
1993).
Approaches
Except
at least 2
early
use
1976)). Later,
plex
data
instantaneous
210
Detection Methods
2.4
an
mesh
requirements, etc.)-
possible
to
classify
Non-CONDITIONAL
CONDITIONAL
9
Detection:
-
(<*
Structure
definition)
Fluctuation Levels
4
Space-Time Correlation
Spectral Analysis
Quadrants
VITA
Orthogonal Decomposition
Gradients
TPAV
Tracers
(temperature
...
Visualizations
Topology
e
e
Wav4ets
Stochastic Estimation
Pattern
Recognition
STATISTICS:
-
Average
Multiple Decomposition
Coherent Structures dynamics
Ensemble
Statistical
Modal
Decomposition
Dynamical Systems
Properties
-
one
to collect
events,
to
compute
compile
approach requires
to
variable
degrees
of
subjectivity
or
preconceived
notions of
Large-Scale-Structure
information
(such
as
211
space-
correlations, for example) to derive the characteristics of the Coherent Structures, which are responsible for these statistics. These approaches
are entirely "objective" or, at least more "objective" than in the first case.
They are, however, limited to stochastic information, although under certain
conditions they can provide instantaneous characteristics and they can be
associated with conditional approaches, thereby making the two approaches
time
complementary.
approaches, in addition to the information on the morphology
of the Coherent Structures, it is possible to determine their dynamics, their
From both
teristics
for
developing
new
computational
simulations.
The Variable
Integration
Average (VITA)
Time
introduces
time
scale in the selection process. VITA is now a popular method applied mainly
to boundary layer flows, but easily appplicable to free flows. The principle
was
variance
fLT(X70
The variance of the
new
signal,
t+
1
-
aa is
iT
(1)
detector function
is built.
D(t)
K is
an
O
1
if
ai2,
> K
au2
(2)
otherwise
the threshold.
method is based
every Coherent
on a
are
unknown.
212
The Pattern
Mumford
(Ferr6
(1982)
and Girault
1989b) (see
Ferr6 in
(Bonnet
and Glauser
1993)).
This
technique
is
an
Conditional
Sampling
is the
been related,
techniques
educe the average (most dominant?) structure and can also instantaneously
characterize the location of a given Coherent Structure. This method is also
the
levels
and/or
multiple decomposition can then be computed. This information is of current interest for both understanding the dynamics of the structures and for
numerical predictions.
The Wavelet Tran
rm
consists of
the
(Farge 1992).
Large-Scale-Structure
213
This
tinuities of the
approach allows for detection of the instantaneous disconsignals, which can be related directly to the footprint of the
(see
Coherent Structures
Kevlahan et al. in
other recent
(Bonnet
and Glauser
1993)).
In
a
applications,
mask.
has
This
method
its
in
several
time-frequency
efficiency
flows,
proven
including turbulent free shear layers and a manipulated turbulent boundary
layer. It allows to extract large-scale structure from the background turbu-
(Bonnet
lence
The
et al.
1996)
or
(De
Souza et al.
1997).
introduced
by Lumley,
largest
mean squared projection on the flow field (Berkooz et al. 1993). This approach
is optimal in the energy sense, has a rapid convergence, must be applied to
inhomogenous directions and requires no a priori knowledge of the flow. Various applications of POD can be used; classical POD, snapshot POD, and
consists of the identification of
POD based
on
scalar
or
as
of the
can
large
be detailed in Sect. 3.
(1979)
Adrian
one or
several
lations),
uses
(LSE) Technique
locations,
in
conjunction with
specified
its statistical
introduced
as
by
Properties (corre-
approach
complementary methods, such as POD, conditional
sampling, quadrant analysis, etc. As examples, from an experimental point
of view, LSE extends the possibility of Coherent Structures analysis with a
given number of probes and permits the use of the dynamical reconstruction
as developed by Gieseke and Guezennec in (Bonnet and Glauser 1993). This
can
be associated with
more
large-scale structures possess a marked signafrequency range. Generally this corresponds to cases where dominant structures exist and have spectral footprints appearing as sharp peaks
of the energy spectral density at certain frequencies. In these cases, some filtering techniques can be used to separate the coherent contribution from the
turbulent flow field. Such approaches have been developed by Brereton and
Kodal (1994) or De Souza et al. (1997). The method consists in defining a
frequency-based filter either by auto-recursive or by Fourier techniques. This
kind of approach can be very efficient when the Coherent Structures footprint
is very well localized in the frequency domain. Such is the case when vortex
shedding occurs or when, for example, well defined unstable modes (such
Filters:
ture in the
214
as
Kelvin-Helmoltz)
these
approaches
are
will be in
general
more
inefficient.
These
Remarks.
widely
techniques
are
(1993)
compared
the
application
now
have
reasonably
given
mature
review of
(see (Bonnet
of several methods to
enough
some
and Glauser
synthetic
to be
of the above-
1993))
data.
have
During
were
collaborative programme (Bonnet
1993), some
applied to the same data base for a free, turbulent, incompressible shear flow.
The main conclusions of this comparative study were: the methods applied
of these methods
et al.
are
generally
Experiments
to
obtain 3D information
optimal
comparison of results obtained from various techniques permits the determination of some common features and helps to avoid discrepancies appearing
between the different approaches and related Coherent Structure definitions.
The conclusion drawn from most of these comparisons of eduction methods
the
was
same
average chaxacteristics.
can
means.
suggest
new
approaches
of flow control
dynamics of Coherent
using either passive or
Large-Scale-Structure
215
In this section,
on
POD
be
can
a
1993)
(Berkooz
(Holmes
1996). The aim of this section is first to recall the POD theory and some
and in
et al.
found in
The POD
3.1
can
be obtained.
Approach
in Brief
Lumley (1967) proposed a method, generalizing spectral analysis to nonhomogeneous directions, applied to turbulent flow analysis. He showed that
in this way the dominant large-scale structures can be defined in an objective
and unique manner. The formalized approach is intensively described in the
book "Stochastic Tools in Turbulence"
(Lumley 1970).
random field
can
tion of the flow that possesses the largest projection onto the flow field. This
approach, the POD, is a classical tool in Probability theory (Loeve 1955).
called, among other denominations, Karhunen-Loeve exRecognition theory (Ash and Gardner 1975), (Fukunaga
pansion
1972) or Principal Component Analysis by statistical analysts. (Ahmed and
This method is also
in Pattern
Goldstein
1975).
Compared
identification
Pattern
large-scale structure
Recognition Analysis,
),
scheme.
or/and temporal)
and for
variables leads to
more
216
This
decomposition
sometimes described
is
an
elegant procedure
approaches,
3.2
large-scale
as
structure.
correspond
to
Mathematically
this
problem
can
U,
where
(u, v) corresponds to
be written:
p) 2)
the scalar
(3)
Max
product
by
defined
by:5
n,,
u(X)v*(X)dX
(U, V)
n, is the number of
describing
ui(X)vi*(X)dX
(4)
(e)
phase average,
approach
The POD approach can be compared to searching, in the space of velocity
field realizations, for a direction that can describe the preferred organization
of the flow in terms of energy. The remainder of this flow description is
decomposed in the same way, and this process is repeated ad infinitum up to
the determination of the last significant mode.
The problem of maxin-Azation (3), leads to a Fredholin integral eigenvalue
problem (Lumley 1970):
erage
operator
depending
on
can
the
E
j=1
Rij
studied
4
is the
spatial
or
used.
n.
where
be
IV Rj(X,X`) Pj(X')dX`
A Pi(X)
(5)
over
the
domain
Rij(X,X')
3.3
Control
217
(ui(X)uj*(X))
(6)
integral equation (5) is discussed in the Hilberttheory (Riesz and Nagy 1955), (Temam 1988). For this theory to be
applied, the integration domain has to be finite so that the integral (5) exists
and the correlation tensor Rij is symmetric and belongs to the L' space.
In the particular case where homogeneous or stationary directions exist, the
domain of integration becomes unbounded. In such a case, a different decomposition has to be applied: the harmonic decomposition is well suited to this
task, and is generally preferred.
The solution of the Fredholm
Schmidt
When these
integration conditions
(Loeve 1955).
be derived
are
satisfied,
are
can
given
below:
1. The
1:
A (n)
satisfying:
0 n) (X)
(7)
j=1
n
1, 2, 3,
+oo
71
2. The
eigenfunctions 0(n)
can
>
then
(8)
...
be chosen to be orthonormal:
are
(Ru, u)
arbitrary when these function are determined relative to a multiplicative constant. When a "snapshot" POD is involved (see for example
(Rempfer and Fasel 1994a)), the eigenfunctions are chosen such that:
u.
This choice is
n,:
0(p)
(X) 45.(q)
(X) dX
i
i
and the coefficients
easier to
use
"snapshot
condition
POD."
(10)
a(m))
A(P)Jpq
(9)
reasons, it is
218
n,,
Jpq
==
ui(X)
for p
for p
0
=-
=7
=
(10)
can
eigenftinctions 40n)
determini tic
+00
ui(X)
(n) 0
-) (X)
(11)
n=1
are
then calculated
by using:
a(n)
Rj
can
be
(u,,I,)
(Courant
6. Mercer's theorem
tions
dX
(12)
1953) specifies
and H-Ubert
decomposed
Rij (X, X )
in the
following
way:
(13)
n=1
unfformly convergent.
impose that the coefficients a(n)
6, 4 and
lated and
mutually
are
uncorre-
satisfy:
mnX(n)
(a(n).a*('))
8. Points 6 and 3 allow
one
(14)
to write:
+C0
n,
E Rii (X, X)
dX
1: A(n)
n=1
i=1
if u(X) is
In
u(X)
a measure
of the relative
structures
present
basis, and
Tf
(n)
optimal
(X)
for
describing
(X)
E b(n)!P n) (X)
n=1
basis,
p n) (X)
Z
one can
is the POD
write:
+cc
+C0
ui
energy. If
E a() 0')
S
n=1
1 -1
VIL)
(16)
Large-Scale-Strncture
(1991)
Berkooz
E (a
(n)
a*(-))
n=1
A (n) >
n=1
one
of the
219
E(b(').b*('))
(17)
n=1
reasons
for
to construct
low order
3.4
Approaches
Depending
sitions
can
example,
-
on
be obtained:
can
....
For
consist of-
a temporal average, under the ergodicity assumption in statistically stationary flows: "classical" method.
a spatial average, estimated for N uniformly sampled discrete times t,,
nT- for n
I.... N, for which the instantaneous flow fields uj(x,n-r)
are uncorrelated, where T is'a time scale, characteristic of the correlation
time: "snapshots" method (Sirovich 1987a; 1987b; 1987c).
a spatial average estimated for time realizations satisfying the symmetry
group of the equation used to generate the signal: (Sirovich 1987a; 1987b;
--
1987c); (Breuer and Sirovich 1991) ; (Sirovich and Park 1990), (Park and
1990) ; (Deane and Sirovich 1991) ; (Aubry et al. 1993).
Sirovich
-
an
extended POD
-
spatial
(Glezer
spatial
flow
as
u(x, t)
In what
(in practice, phase average of background periodic(Sirovich et al. 1990b) ; (Rajaee et al. 1994).
or
without
ergodicity
(Aubry
1989).
tional measurements
et al.
et al.
or
as
to the
1991).
follows, only
"snap-
The
p(n) (x)
are
written:
220
n,:
I:
A Pj (x)
(18)
j=1
evaluated from
on
NPOD
R,j (x
ui
(x, t) uj (X', t)
where T is
ui
(x, t)
The time
(19)
n=1
NPOD
(n)
(t)
fV
U,
signal
can
be estimated
using the
relation:
(X, t) 0 n) *(x) dx
(20)
In this
"Snapshots" Method. In
1987b; 1987c), the ensemble
operator
(4,)
by
Sirovich
is evaluated
as
(1987a;
a
space
when
applying
overcome
critical size
.,
JT
(21)
Large-Scale-Stru ture
C(t, t')
poral correlation
C(t, t)
The
1
__
spatial basis
ui(x,t)
of the
ui
functions
T and
tem-
dx
NPOD
=T
(n)
(t)a
(22)
n=1
(A(n))-l
1. Each
two-point
("classical"
is the
221
as:
period of time
eigenvalue problem
tensor defined
jV
fT
ui
of the
approaches
(23)
dt
orthogonal decomposition
"snapshots"):
and
space-time realization ui(x, t) can be expanded into orthogonal baV') (x) with uncorrelated coefficients a(n) (t):
sis functions
NPOD
Ui (X,
t)
(n)
(t)O(n) (X)
(24)
,,=I
2. The
spatial
modes
p n) (x)
2
are
specified
temporal
modes
I
a(') (t)
are
to be orthonormal:
dX
jn",
(25)
X(n) nm
(26)
=:
orthogonal:
I a(n) (t)a(')*(t)
dt
7
T
(18)
or
via
by the particular data set available for the evaluation of the kernels. Data sets from experiments typically
consist of a long time history with moderate spatial resolution, whereas data
sets from numerical simulation typically offer much higher spatial resolution
but a moderate time history. Therefore, the data issued from an experimental
approach will be generally8 treated by using the "classical" method and data
issued from numerical simulation by the "snapshots" method.
the
'
An exception is the
case
is determined
hnage Velocimetry.
222
To
Analysis
3.5
apply
the
orthogonal decomposition,
(5)
should
example, we can assume that the spatial direction OX3 is homoge(a generalization including other directions is immediate). Splitting
the space-time variable X
(X1 X2 X3; t) into a homogeneous variable X3
and inhomogeneous variables, we introduce a new variable X
(XI X2 t) for
follows:
written
is
as
which the Fredholm equation (5)
For
neous
:--
n,,
j=ljv
E
(27)
where:
1.
2.
41
Hij
Rij
direction of Pj.
(28)
+00
are
3.6
solutions of the
Evaluative
The POD
Summary
analysis
or
itself is neither
approach by
turbulent flows. It is
wavelets
of the POD
technique
are)
for data
decomposition:
"natural!' basis of the flow: the eigenvectors of the two-point correlation tensor. It is then clear that this decomposition, because it isbased
onto
on
flow, will
fimctions. that
composition, Chebyshev polynomials,
In this basis, the eigenfimctions can be
decompositions based
Approach
on
be
axe
more
given
considered
the
preferred
sta-
This basis is
Large-Scale-Structure
orthogonal,
in the
sense
are
223
statisti-
cally uncorrelated.
Among
the
advantages related
This method is
The POD is
process under
-
to this method
are
the
following:
linearity of the
study.
(best decomposition
in terms of
energy).
inhomogeneity of the
direction in which it is applied; it is then suited for the analysis of turbulent shear flows. In the particular case of an homogeneous direction,
POD degenerates into a classical harmonic decomposition. This method
is therefore complementary to harmonic methods.
This decomposition is an interesting complement to dynamical systems
theory in the sense that this theory requires systems of minimal order,
The
efficiency
Among
the
disadvantages related
minimum number
following points
can
be underlined:
This
technique requires
the
knowledge
of
can
two-point correlation
then be limited
by
tensor
the size of
huge.
One of the most important limitations of the POD is called the "phase
indetermination". This indetermination is due to the use of two-point
correlations and appears for directions where a harmonic decomposition
has to be used. It can be easily proven that if (P(X'; k3) is a solution of
(27)
then every
where
0(k3)
is
random
phase function, will also be a solution. However this indetermination occurs only for the directions where a harmonic decomposition has been
particular, it is impossible to obtain directly a description of the preferred modes in the physical space. However,
complementary techniques can be used in order to palliate this problem
(Herzog 1986) or (Moin and Moser 1989). Dynamical systems theory can
also provide this information indirectly.
used. For the classical POD in
Another limitation of the POD resides in the intrinsic nature of the eigenfunctions. These eigenfunctions are directly related to the flow configuration from which
they
functions to flows of
different nature,
or
extrapolation
to the
same
of these
other
224
Some
3.7
Typical Applications
of POD
(1996)
for
a more
complete
was
review
first
on
applied
the
to
topic.
experimental data in 1967 by Payne
(1966), Payne and Lumley (1967) to study the data sets obtained by Grant
(1958) in the wake of a cylinder. These data were limited to a small part of the
two-point correlation tensor and the measurement mesh was quite coarse and
incomplete. To palliate this poor resolution, the authors used an ensemble
of complementary techniques: Gram-Charlier decomposition (Payne 1966),
(Frenkiel and Klebanoff 1967); use of a mixing length hypothesis and the
continuity equation to estimate the remaining part of the correlation tensor.
Contrarily to what they expected, the first POD mode did not really dominate
subsequent modes.9 However, the first mode of the POD confirmed the
approach of Townsend (1976) according to which the flow organization is
dominated by large scale counter-rotating eddies which axe inclined with
respect to the wake axis ("Double Roller Eddy Model").
the
Herzog (1986) performed a complete three dilayer of a turbulent pipe flow using the
correlation tensor obtained experimentally with neither interpolation nor approximation. The measurements of the streamwise and spanwise components
of the velocities were used to estimate the first three POD eigenfunctions.
Herzog found that approximately 60% of the total kinetic energy is contained
in the first eigenmode. By use of the "Shot Noise" technique to palliate the
initial phase loss due to the use of the two-point correlation tensor, Herzog
reconstructed the zero phase structure in physical space and found a pair of
counter rotating vortices with physical characteristics that match the results
of BakeweU and Lumley (1967).
POD in Wall-Bounded Flows:
mensional POD
analysis
of the wall
were
used
by Lumley's
order
dynamical
Using
merical simulation,
the
develop
(1987)
al.
low
1988)).
group to
(e.g. (Aubry et
obtained
consider in
obtain what
contribute to
as
This
much
as
Large-Scale-Structure
225
(1967)
of the
are:
(i)
RaJaee and Karlsson (1990) use the snapshot POD based on conditional
phase averaged measurements in a plane mixing layer. This approach was 2D
in the sense that they only consider a slice of the flow. Rom this study a low
order model has been proposed for the plane mixing layer (Rajaee et al. 1994).
Delville et al.
(1990),
(1996) apply
layer.
Delville
study
will been
Se-
Cao
wake
tem based
on
can
derive
low-dimensional
dynamical
sys-
study the transition to turbulence on a rotating flat disk, Aubry et al. (1994) applied biorthogonal decomposition techniques to experimental data from one-point measurements. The evolution of
the system's global entropy with the Reynolds number is studied. As the
Reynolds number increases, the entropy increases, revealing that the distriPOD in Transitional Flows: To
bution of the energy tends to become more uniform between the different
modes. The same typical results were obtained by Rempfer and Fasel (1991),
in the
study
of the transition
over a
flat
plate.
226
Typical Results:
Application to the Plane Mixing Layer.
Some
3.8
We present here selected results which illustrate the application of the POD
a plane mbdng layer experiment, where the applied decomposition is of
to
to the resolution of
eigenvalue
n,,
A() (k)
Pi(n) (x; k)
(29)
j=l-
where n,, is the number of components used for this POD. In the above
equation, Tfij (x, x'; k) is the cross-spectrum of ui uj and corresponds to the
Fourier transform of the space time correlation Rj (X, X') in the "homo-
geneous"
directions.
defined,
taken
nization.
experimental apparatus
Pure
Spatial
For sake of
where
only
POD: n,
simplicity,
the
can
1,
be found in
x =_
y,
(Delville 1995).
(here
account)
one-dimensional
into account.
(30)
where
the
ou(n)
and
AN
are
the nth
is
two-point correlation.
For this
decomposition, eigenvalues
are
POD is found to account for about 37% of the turbulent energy and 63%
is contained in the first three modes. The POD is
eralization of harmonic
analysis
for the
Large-Scale-Structure
227
Ua"""
f T. (
Fig.
manner as
I.
0)
Fourier modes
(Moin
and Moser
1989), (Chambers
et al.
1988),
the number of
on
the
are
plotted.
We will
now
consider
more
are
number of
increased.
In this
ative contribution to the turbulent energy can be examined. The first mode
is found to contain 44% of the energy while the first three modes contain
about 71% of this energy. From Fig. 3, where the evolution with
eigenvalues obtained by this vectorial POD,,, are
note the
rapid
convergence of the
frequency of
plotted, one
fully
the
higher
modes.
Jo8lDelville,
228
POD,,
mode I
od.
mode
m
od(
m
-2
mode
mod(
de 3
mo
_4"
'4' 4
A
mode
-3
-0.8
-1.2
-0.4
0.4
0-8
1.2
Y/J.
Fig. 2. Shape of the first four eigenvectors of the POD based
mbdng layer.
at the
edge
of the
on u
in the
plane
spatio-temporal organization.
In this POD, eigenvectors axe complex functions of y and f Their moduli
are plotted in Fig. 4. In this plot, the modulus is weighted by the square root
of the corresponding eigenvalue, to take into account the statistic importance
of the mode for the frequency domain considered. One can note the presence
.
lyl/L
footprint
of the
POD3D:
n,
In this
large-scale
3,
x =-:
0.5 for
0(l), which
U
structure at the
y, k
=-
edge
can
of the
be
interpreted
mixing layer.
as
the
(f, k ,)-
complex vectorial POD application, referred to in the following as POD3Di the spanwise direction z and the temporal direction are assumed to be respectively homogeneous and stationary on average. Hence the
eigenfimctions used in these directions are Fourier modes. The cross-stream
direction y, which is strongly inhomogeneous, is examined with the POD.
The integral Fredhohn equation that must be solved for this application of
more
j=I
JD
I,-, n,
n)
,) Pj (y'; f, kz) dy'
n)
(y; f, k
(31)
Large-Scale-Structure
0.010
0.008
0.006
A(n)(f)
0.004
229
AM
-
POD,,,
A(2)
.6
\(3)
0.002
..........................................
0.000
0
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
fj.M
Fig.
3. First 3
eigenvalues.
on uv.
Shape
of the first
Plotted:
(y+:= y/S,,
and
eigenvector
LU
in the
S is the turbulent
LU
V+
4.
(here
domain.)
Y+
Fig.
on uv.
a)
component;
b)
component.
230
where
Eigenvalues
cross-spectral
the
eigenvalues
In this POD
are
wavenumbers. When
and
integrated
spanwise
frequency
and frequency the contribution of the first mode
contribution of the first three modes is
depend
on
wavenumbers
over
to energy is
75%. When
the
as
shape of the eigenvalue spectra AM (f, k-,) for the first mode is shown
Fig. 5(a). For this mode, two maxima are discernible: a very well. defined
0.3 and another less pronounced one for
maximum located at f J,,/U,
0.5. These two maxima correspond to the dominant lengthscales
k;,J,,
present in the core of the mixing layer (Delville 1995) and are the footprint
of the two main types of organization present within the mixing layer (quasi
The
in
2D
large-scale
structure and
expanded by a factor of
good representation of the first mode is
comparing the eigenvalue for this mode (Fig. 5(a))
the modes of the POD plotted in Fig. 5(c).
is
mode. The
summ
of all
k,)
Energy Reconstruction: k
in the inhomogeneous direction, the local contribution of
Turbulent Kinetic
For each value of y
integral
in the two
homogeneous
+C
U'i Uj, M
In the
(n)
same
manner,
we can
I-
Reynolds
stresses
directions of the
can
spectral
tensor:
+.
(32)
U uj'W
(33)
dk,
-C)o
where
Tf )
The
Reynolds
eigenvalues
n)
and
(Y; f
of the POD:
eigenfunctions
kZ
) p*(n) (Y. f, k
j
(34)
(POD3D)
Large-Scale-Structure
231
a)
0.001
f+
0.8
C)
0.001
f+
Fig.
0.8
5. Evolution of
cumulative
U.
232
eral authors
(e.g.
Instantaneous
(1989)).
Signal Reconstruction:
In the framework of
feedback control
of
the
ability of POD
to
reconstruct instantaneous
The
sensors
allows
mode to the
one
to
access
given
velocity
(e.g. (12)) and then to construct the contribution of this mode to the
velocity field (e.g. (11)). For example, in the case of POD,,, this can be done
basis
by computing
as
follows:
,, n)(Y
It
t)
(y, t
(35)
(n)
(y, f)
-a(n) (f)$
(n)
(Y' f)
(36)
where
a(n) (f
Figure 7 shows
the velocity signal
i(Y' f)$
*(n)
(Y' f) dy
(37)
to
be found in
compared
an
0.04
233
measure
0.03
U/2
2
(A
0.02
0.01
ode
mode
mo
mode
de
m ode
mo
mode'1+2
1+2
0.00 r
-1.0
-0.5
0.5
0.0
1.0
Y/S.
0.02
measure
measu r
mode
I
m 0 de 1
V/2
2
mode
11
de 1+2
mode
1+
0 01
.
--*--
0.00
-1.0
-0.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Y/S.
0.02
measure
w/2
2
(A
mode 1
mode 2
mode 1+2
0.01
;k
0.00
-1.0
-0.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Y/S.
0.00
r
measure
me&-;
mode 1
momdomo(
Me
U/V/
('6, U)
mode
2
mo
0(
mode 1+2
;k
-0.01
-1.0
-M
D
0.0
0.5
1.0
Y/J.
Fig.
Plane mixing
layer.
Reynolds
stresses.
(POD3D).
234
e)
d)
e)
U,
=:
lom/s
a)
t
10-3
of
on
POD Based
rd
mode; d)
instantaneous
axe
favorable to the
Here,
we
limit
our
attention to the first mode. In terms of turbulence, this mode contains about
productive
terms
(function
other
hand, using
seems
(function
&v'). In
of
of
significant
terms of flow
organization, this
POD, it is possible
large-scale structure.
to reconstruct
can
application.
LSE and
3.9
One
a(t),
a(t)
on
only
can
one
be derived from
"degenerated"
POD
a case.
Complementary Technique.
important aspect
coefficients
the
POD based
access
the
way that
(11)
can
be used. For
Large-Scale-Structure
This method
Adrian
(1975).
235
(LSE) as introduced by
complementary technique which ema(t) from a very reduced experimental
uses
on a
to estimate the
Adrian
(1975)
stochastic estimate
can
be
(in y)
A one-dimensional
in the
justified
hence the
use
of the linear
present study.
iii (y, t)
with
insignificant,
was
yields
an
estimate
(38)
uj(y)uk(y)Aik(Y1)
where
Uj(Y)Uk(y)
and
uj(y)ui(y')
respectively.
relation tensors,
are
tion may be
not
and
theory,
stress and
two-point
cor-
theory
(Guezennec 1989).
can
(in y)
being investigated.
This estima-
one or more
see
uses
(Adrian
and Moin
1988), (Cole
refer to Adrian
Stochastic estimation
flow at
Reynolds
easily
the reader
the
(39)
Ui(Y)Ui(Y1)
1992)
are
on
on
et al.
the LSE
(1996).
specified
about the
locations in
velocity at select
for all y locay locations in the flow to estimate the instantaneous velocity
tions. A simple test has been performed for the mixing layer data. Here the
cations. Here the thrust will be to utilize the instantaneous
instantaneous
are
probes).
In many other experiments, this is not the case due to a lack of a sufficient
number of channels of hot-wire anemometry data acquisition and A/D con-
version.
us
to
Hence,
it is
236
are
minimum of two
probes
and associ-
to any
experiment
necessary to
velocity components across the mbd-ng layer from the ex(38) using the actual velocity components at select positions in
We estimate the
pansion of
y. Here, it is
of probes or
their
1993)
present
detailed discussion
on
what number
respective positions
are
velocity
mixing layer and
in
(Cole
et al.
1992)
for
jet
mixing layer.
Figure 8(a) presents the vector plot of the measured velocity field. Fig8(b) through (d) show various linear stochastic estimates of the vector
field where the condition points are indicated by the arrows. Figure 8(b)
presents a one-point estimate, whereas Figs. 8(c) and (d) present two-point
estimates. For the two-point cases, the probes which supply the condition
are equally spaced on either side of the centerline. Comparison of Figs. 8(b)
through (d) with Fig. 8(a) indicates the quality of each respective estimate.
It is clear that the estimate shown in Fig. 8(d) provides the best comparison.
Note, in particular, that both the amplitude and phase of the velocity vector
field are reasonably preserved with this estimate.
ures
can
be
Fig.
same
extended to
estimation is
given
of the
an
rake have been used in order to estimate the full vorticity field surround-
easily
necessaxy to
(W2
W2 + W2)0-5)
z
Y
measure
the full
wise and
with
the
eigenvectors obtained from step one are projected onto the estimated velocity field obtained from step tvvo to obtain estimated random coefficients.
These estimated random coefficients are then used in conjunction with the
Laxge-Scale-Structure
237
a)
IN-
b)
(a) Origplot; (b) LSE with I condition; (c) and (d) with
conditions. The reference signals are indicated by the arrows on each example.
Fig.
8.
Examples
inal instantaneous
2
Fig.
9.
velocity
vector
the modulus of
238
POD
eigenvectors
Mathematically
velocity
field.
are
calcu-
lated from:
est
an
where in this
case
(f)
(40)
streamwise
velocity
can
be
reproduced
in Fourier
'X)
fi75t(y, f)
(41)
n=1
and then inversely transformed to obtain fti"t(y, t). For further details on this
technique refer to Bonnet et al. (1994), Glauser et al. (1993) and Ukeiley et
al.
(1993).
Figure 10(a) shows the contribution from the first POD mode using the measured instantaneous velocity field, Fig. 8(a), in the projection as presented
in the previous section. The first POD mode retains most of the large scale
features exhibited in the original field. The application of the complementary technique is shown in Fig. 10(b). Here the eigenvectors, obtained from
direct application, of the POD, are projected onto the estimated field using
the estimated data presented in Fig. 8(d). Reasonable estimates of the laxge
scale structure are obtained, even though only 17% of the measured instantaneous data has been used. In fact, one sees that Fig. 10(b) compares quite
well to Fig. 10(a), which was computed using the hill measured instantaneous velocity field.
In order to
developed
Large-Scale-Structure Identification
and Control
239
a)
b)
Fig. 10. Complementary technique. (a) first POD mode from full measurement
field; (b) reconstructed using the stochastically esth-nated field. For original velocity
field refer to Fig. 8(a).
U'/AU
0.2
ofiow
POD inods
Camp. TadL
0.1
-1.2
-0.8
-0.4
0.4
0.8
1.2
Y/S.
Fig.
11.
Comparisons
component
through LSE,
the author
was
("conditional"
after
Adrian) signals.
complementary approach
The
was
240
the excited
Flow Control
Deterministic
4.1
of Turbulence
Dynamical System. Lorenz (1963) was the'first who exdynamical system and turbulence. His first obto elaborate a crude description of the earths atmosphere, that
Low Order
pressed
jective was
can
be simulated
on
attempt, he proposed
by
of the Galerkin
of the
projection
typical values of the control parameter, he demonstrated that this system
can behave chaoticly.
Later, Ruelle and Takens (1971) conjecture for Navier-Stokes equations,
defined on a bounded domain and under certain conditions, the existence of
a mathematical object they called a strange attractor. They suspect that,
for this system, a chaotic regime can be reached through a limited, finite,
For
question arising
progress has been obtained with this kind of model. For these
initial
instability
flows,
the
by
Control
241
dynamical system
guaranteed.
low order
cannot be
modelisation of any
flow.
It has been shown that the POD is
very
structure.
it
seems
ical system.
4.2
Development
of POD Based
Dynamical System
in detail
'0
Notations
the flow.
and
x are
position within
242
au
F(u)
&
where F is
avec u
=-
u(x, t)
(42)
D and t > 0
where D is the
boundary conditions"
(u(x))
h(x, t)
with t >
0, x
(43)
aD
U(X, 0)
(42)
U0
in
(44)
(X)
set of
OD9,
the
development
on
a(') (t)(
ui(x, t)
Pi(') (X)
(45)
M=1
where
is
NPOD
following equation
then obtained:
NPOD
da(') (t)
dt
M=1
The set of
can
NPOD
,
P - ) (x)
be written
(46)
M=1
as:
NPOD
F( 1: a(m)(t)Oi(7n)(x))
M=1
Taking
a(') (t#p(n)
(X)
i
(a('),
(47)
orthogonality
eigenfunctions 0 n) (X)
of the
one
obtains:
(,p(n),
Finally,
the Galerkin
NPOD
a(m) (t),
P m) (x))
(48)
M=1
projection
of
(42)
eigenfunctions,
has
to be evaluated:
(,p(n),
where
Ngal
aU
at
(,p(n) F(u))
,
for
(42)
can now
be
kept
expressed
boundaxy
11
...
Ngal
in the
projection.
as:
of the domain D.
(49)
Large-Scale-Stnicture Identification
da(n) (t)
The functions
.97(n)
are
linear,
Ngal
(50)
1,
if F is
linear operator.
of Navier-Stokes
case
In order to obtain
a
by (48)
defined
with
243
In the
are
a(n) (t))
,
_
dt
and Control
well
(50).
These conditions
(44) imposed by
a(')(t
0)
(n)
0
the
with
can
be
one
needs to add
directly
inferred
original problem:
(n)
0
(51)
describing practical
cases,
preliminary
remark should be
empha-
On) (x)
E q(n) (tk)Ui(X7tk)
1;
...
(52)
NPOD
k=1
these
itself.
each
In the
same
boundary
-
if the
POD
conditions
play
one
to consider two
cases
where
different role:
the
not
study
of transition
(Rempfer
and Fasel
the
of
study
et al.
In the
they
equation.
special care is needed. This
can
near
over a
flat
case can
be found for
wall region in
turbulent
1988).
case
where the
(Fletcher 1984).
244
Examples
al.
1993)
and
(Hoh-nes
Wall
flows models:
that developed for
et al.
1996).
To this
These different
discussed
and Zhou
1994).
Flow control
that for
Large-Scale-Structure Identification
and Control
(1989)
245
showed
one
phase randomization gives rise to a fully sustained drag resame magnitude as found when small concentrations of
long-chained polymers are introduced into the flow.
The study of Berkooz (1992) have been later extent by Coller et al. (1994a)
and Coller et al. (1994b) in examining the effect on a naturally occuring
streamwise vortex pair of a perturbing pair produced by an actuator. In particular, Coller et al. introduced a control strategy that reduces the bursting
rate and hence the turbulent drag in the model equation. Recently, Carlson
and Lumley (1996) investigate numerically in a minimal flow unit, the effect
of an actuator, Gaussian in shape, on drag reduction. The test flow contained
just one pair of coherent structures in the near wall region: a high and a low
speed streak. They found that when the actuator is raised underneath a lowspeed streak, an increase in drag is obtained and when the actuator is raised
mechanism of
underneath
Work
on
high-speed
open
streak
fluid flows:
reduction is obtained.
dynamical
jet-annular mixing
layer was constructed along the lines of the model of Aubry et al. (1988) for
the wall layer by Glauser and coworkers ((Ukeiley et al. 1993) and (Zheng
cascade phenomena were obtrigger modes to excite various helical modes, in particular azimuthal modes 4, 5 and 6. These results
were then applied by Corke et al. (1994) to control the experimental setup
1991)).
In their
(1993).
The
higher
as
helical modes
were
excited
through
246
the
the
practical
flow
predictions,
4.3
Navier-Stokes
Equation: Pressure-Velocity
As
seen
equation.
Using
are
Formulation
grad
u.u
-grad
P +
Re
AU
(53)
Thus
given
in
(45),
the Galerkin
to
da(n)
grad P)
dt
2
+
Re
(54)
_(,5(n),E a(')a(k)Fradp(m),p(k))
m,k
Ngai-
In this
be
the
Control
247
(4i('), grad P)
In this
equation,
pp(n)
(55)
dS
number of flow
configurations
(54)
the
on
exactly
(55) clearly shows that this will 9ccur when the venormal
is
to the domain (no slip conditions). This will be
locity component
true also when the boundary conditions are periodic. In this last case the
vanishes. The form of
contributions of the
of the
periodic parts
(1992)
use
by numerical simulation.
In the study of Aubry et al. (1988) the domain is limited to the near
wall region of a turbulent boundary layer. The modelisation of the non zero
pressure term then becomes necessary. For that purpose, Aubry et al. utilized numerical data coming from an LES of a channel flow by Moin (1984).
Knowing pressure fluctuations at the upper boundary of the domain they
could determine exactly the term (55).
'
In the
study
of the transition
over
flat
vorticity. We describe,
in the next
term, uses
section, this
approach.
4.4
The
at
where the vorticity
w
taking
on
=,rot
Lo
w.u
is defined
as
be writen:
grad
2
u.w
Re
(56)
Aw
velocity
vector
u.
In order to be able to
tions
grad
can
(x, t)
and
(x, t)
temporal dependancy
perform
Galerkin projection of
both have to be
is carried
by
the
(56),
flow realiza-
same
248
After
sets of
applying POD to
eigenfunctions Tf (')
be defined
=rot
fi(n)
eigenfunctions are
be demonstrated by writing:
the
,k(n)
This
w.
new
This
ensemble of
can
(n)
(t)T,(n)
==
n=1
new
(57)
eigenfunctions
NPOD
NPOD
(45),
as:
of the
vorticity
NPOD
a
(n)
(t).rot (fi(n)
rot
E (n)&(n))
a
st
n=1
n=1
(58)
the set of
at the
time veloc-
Hence,
ity and vorticity fields (via the definition 57 of Tf(n)). The only practical
limitation is that one has to check, for every new application, that the eigenfunctions Tf (n) are linearly independant.
The Plane
4.5
same
Mixing Layer
ingredients
In the next
necessary to
we
will illustrate
Dynamical System Based on Experimental Data. From the experimental arrangement of the plane mixing layer, in an approach similar to the
one of Aubry et al., (1988), a POD based dynamical system can be derived.
assumptions are necessary in order to be able to apply this
approach. The mixing layer is considered as being two-dimensional in the
mean sense: the sPanwise (z or x3) direction is assumed homogenenous. The
streamwise (x or xj) direction is considered as being locally homogeneous.
The POD is applied only in the direction of the mean velocity gradient y (or
X2) In the two other directions, a Fourier transform is applied.
POD:
Two
The
j=1
AW (kxl, kxjp(n)
(x2j kx,., kxj
i
12
In the
or
sequel,
X1, X2, X3 ;
27
I.... 1+00
the
(59)
x, y,
Large-Scale-Structure Identification
Hij (X2
The cross-spectrum
homogeneous directions
the
The set of
Xf2 ;
kj; k--,)
X1
:--
XO
-)
process involved
X3
is
249
X1 and X3 of the
(Uj (X2
averaging
and Control
space correlations
two-point
:--:
O)u (x'21 Xo
deltax, Jz)
Here,
a(n)
kx,7kx3
(60)
n=1
where
tuation
at
t)
X3 i
Navier-Stokes
Governing Equations:
aui
+ uj
aui
equations
aP
axi
axj
in the form:
VV2U,,
(61)
17273
similar way as that followed by Aubry et al. (1988) and Zhou and Sirovich
(1992), the homogeneity in directions x, and X3 allows us to define, for each
In
(9)
_F-)
spatial integration:
as a
'
=
LIL3
1(-)dx,dX3
(62)
where L, and L3
then be
andP
are
a few manipulations,
respectively:
au j
at
at
vj-
a-u-i
axj
au, '
-
If
axi
1
+_
P
a-Ui
(63)
P + Pf
au'i
19P
axi
u1i
axj
U1.
vv,u,i
V3-
0), homogeneity
axj
fluctuating
axj
and
mean
part
au,
a-U-7
3axj
(64)
VV2 vi-
(65)
aP
auli
(U-2
can
gi- + U'i
ui
After
pressure fields
axi
like the
in the X3 direction
thin-layer hypothesis
(9(*)
aX3
0),
250
au'i
au,i
/
+Ui
at
ax",
aul
ul,
"7
I ap
+__
p axi
Equations for
a-,z7j'
19-U-1
-aui
aX2
ax,
+ U2 -Jil +
VV2U1
(66)
the
yields
empirical
basis set
set of time
the POD
dependent
i i (kx, k,; y t)
7
This
projection
then followed:
(66) using:
if.
decomposition (60).
application of a Galerkin projection of the
onto the eigenfunctions:
x+k. z) dX dZ
(67)
3. The
equation,
Note: that the
part of
One of the
(66).
64)
W) for
equation obtained
n=l,.-.,Ngal
(68)
quadratic (due
k ,k,,:
dynamical system
to the convective
Closure:
p(n)
new
remaining points
mean
field U
solution
seems
better in the
minimum number of
sense
that
we
want
equations.
Depending on the assumptions made about the flow and of the flow configura(wall bounded flows, free shear flows, etc.
), several closure methods
tions
can
be used:
Control
251
the
The
thought
integration of
Y-
UM
Unfortunately,
U(L)
and
are
UIVI (y')
Vt
a-u
uV
dy'
gives:
U(O)
(69)
boundary
conditions
U(-L)
Ub
U,, cannot be
-vt ,
closure where
(e.g. (Aubry
some
et al.
success,
1988)
(Zhou
or
and Sirovich
one
92;U
09UIV1
(70)
c9y
By integrating (70) twice,
U(y)
obtains:
one
-I
V
ulvl(y)dy
can
Cly
certainly be used
efficiently for
gions
configuration.
-
In
wake flow
configuration,
Cao
(71)
C2
(1993),
uses
for
a
near
wall
re-
equations:
ue_
19-u-'YU'V'
'YX
a-U
av-.
ay
=
09X
ay
justified by
(72)
the far
wake,
teristics.
dynamical system. A
problem
252
Truncation:
modes)
POD
and selected
modes that
sipated by
of
Numerical Dissipation.
viscous effects
appearing
at
In
high
suppresses this
highest
retained.
are
Introduction
corresponds
high
one
of the
imposed
in
(Aubry
such
et al.
approaches,
General Form
(66)
1988).
can
of
As
result,
is the control
the
an
artificial
viscosity
av
is added to
v.
In
Finally,
Dynamical System:
the
dynamical system
of
dak.,k.
dt
1:
R I + a<k ,k__
+L
BC
kx,kz] akx,kz(t)
Qk,',,klz,kx,kz
akl,kl
ak.,,-k,',,,k;,-k,,',(t)
Ck,1
akx,k. (t)
(73)
7k',k.,:,k.
z
kl,kl
Lk ' k,,
x
correspond
LBC
when
time
independant closure
mean
velocity.
Amplified
very
is then derived. It is
stability analysis
possible to
of Michalke
compare this
(1964).
analysis
with the
corresponding
Large-Scale-Structure Identification
0.12
and Control
253
(1997a)
Michalke (1964)
0.1
et a].
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
;k
1
1.2
Fig.
12. Lineax
growth
Figure 12 compares the linear growth rate obtained for an inviscid mixing
layer by Michalke (1964) to the one obtained with the simplified dynamical
system. An excellent agreement
can
growth
rate
being comparable.
It
comparable results.
Three-Dimensional Model. A
system of the
of Large Eddy Simulation. From a three-dimensional Large Eddy Sima plane mixing layer, Cordier et al. (1997b) applied a snapshot
POD. From the eigenfunctions obtained, a dynamical system was derived. It
has been found that with only a 10 equations model, the short time evolution
of the How can be predicted by this system, as illustrated in Fig. 14.
Use
ulation of
These examples are particularly encouraging for the use of POD based
Dynamical System for flow control. The time is now close to being able to
include these approaches either for building strategies of flow control or to be
254
Fig. 13.Vorticity contours. (a) in the XI-X2 plane; (b) in X2-X3 planes. Dynamical
System of the plane mbdng layer (39 nodes-filter relashionship). a--0.39. From
(Ukeiley 1995). Courtesy of L. Ukeiley.
directly
This
POD
eigenfanctions.
4.6
Representativity
Generally,
POD, try,
point
of the
is
now
addressed in the
section.
following
to evaluate the
Large-Scale-Structure
255
0.8
0.6
0.44
+4-.
0.2
WO(t)
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
4P
_j
0.001
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.006
0.005
0.007
IS]
14.
properly the dynamics of the flow. Once, the governing equations and the POD basis are known, the development of the system becomes
straightforward. However, considering flow control, a fundamental question
tems to describe
has to be asked: what is the robustness of the model when the flow realizaare more or less varied relatively to the ones from which the POD basis
tions
was
...
optimal
makes this
is also
section
of
approach interesting,
will try to bring elements
convergence
responsible
answers
to these
questions.
dynamical sysmanner
explicit
generally
of
the
in
well
POD, for exan implicit manner (through
as
eigenfunctions
as
the physical
of
of
effect
the
variations
flow
control,
ample). Hence, in terms of
in
a series of
parameters on the eigenfunctions needs to be addressed. Early,
General Considerations.
tem appears
papers
quation,
in
an
256
relationship:
(a(n)a(0)
61,,,
is verified
only
complete, orthonormal
set
if IL
fLo.
satis ing
However,
the
the set
boundary
con-
ditions and flow properties (e.g. incompressibilty). The calculated set 4io W
might therefore be expected to be useful over a range of parameter space tL,
at least for
relatively small
ods, encountered in the literature, to take into account this variation depend
strongly on the type of flow realizations used for solving the POD problem.
Practically, two cases are found:
1. the realizations used to solve the POD
problem
are
known
only
for
one
are
eigenfuncReynolds
range of 16 : 1.
However in thin viscous wall layers, the eigenfunctions depend strongly upon
the Reynolds number. They note that this dependence can be reduced by
rescaling the distance from the wall with the thickness of the viscous layer.
Chambers et al. illustrate here a principle of large scale similarity for the
Karhunen-Loeve eigenfunctions of a two-length scale process: "In the physical region outside of the wall layers and in the range of sequencies where the
eigenfunction wavelength is large compared to the viscous length scale, both
the structure of the eigenfunctions and the spectrum of the eigenvalues are
Reynolds
tions
are
numbers.
nearly
They
identical for
layers,
numbers spanning
on
the
outer variables".
Note that ft appears explicitely in the dynamical system model via the
equations that have been projected on POD basis.
governing
Deane et al.
Large-Scale-Structure
257
(1991) applied
detailed
U(Re)
-y(Re) U(Reo)
-c'
Re
C21'9(Reo)
(74)
where the parameters cl and C2 are estimated such that the flow rates at
different values of Reynolds number match those from the simulation. The
model system derived by this way, predicts very well the flow dynamics
for Reynolds numbers away from the decomposition value. The Hopf bifur-
new
cation location is
--
as
to estimate the
ability
of the
eigenfunctions
(x, Reo)
determined when
Reo
to
u(x, t, Rep)
not
spanned by
the
eigenfunctions
258
(u, N,,,,,,)
Res
u(x, t, Rep)
(75)
(JJu(x,t,Re,)JJ)
grooved channel flow (Reo
energy not captured. This error
For the
350 and
Rep
1000),
there is about 8%
is
=:
Mavriplis (1994)
oped by
Deane et al.
(1991),
use
the
same
to describe the
Liu et al.
in
fully turbulent
pro-
cess, of the principle of large-scale similarity for the POD eigenfunctions, introduced previously by Chambers et al. (1988). In this study, Liu et al. show
region of wall-bounded turbulent flow, both the eigenfunceigenvalue spectra of the one dimensional Proper Orthogonal
Decomposition have shapes that are independent of Reynolds number when
scaled by the wall friction velocity and the outer length scale. By comparing
the POD results of Lu and Smith (1991) for a boundary layer to their results
for channel flow, they conjecture that the similarity principle can be extended
Values
of
Control Parameters:
The characteristics of the flow vary strongly in transitional flows, thus these
flows axe good test cases for studying the influence of the variation of the con-
trol parameters.
parameters
There
are some
(1993)
and
259
intrinsically included.
Carrion
by
studies
are
14
Aubry
Such
et al.
configurations
(1994)
be found in the
can
Studies
and Fasel
are
from
same
nature.
to
Evolving
in the streamwise
be
negligible.
The
cc
(thin
direction)
from the
dynamical system
is
same
derived,
In these transitional
configurations,
are overcame.
simulation.
dynamics.
this is excessive:
an
an
theories),
non
linear
access
phenomena dominate.
ones
(lineax
to the last
260
Another
applying
POD to
way that
regimes encountered,
Unfortunately, this means that the eigenfunctions obtained
through these decompositions are such that they cannot be identified to the
coherent structures of the flow, whatever the value of the control parameters.
the various
considered.
are
Christensen et al.
(1993) apply
one
this
end is
tensen
As
1995).
seen
in this
to variations of the
control parameters, has been studied essentially more in terms of the influence of the vaxiation of the flow parameters (e.g. Reynolds nwnber) than
in terms of the influence of the
Berkooz
(1992)
for
example,
geometry
boundary
conditions.
However,
or
has
depend
fact, the
both
on
variations of
eigenfunctions
with
the type
the
eigenfunctions
properly (e.g.
(1994),
(1988), Lu
needs
be intromethod
al.
to
Smith
et
and
(1990)) or a specific
(1991), Aubry
duced. This last problem is crucial in transitional configurations, where the
How characteristics and dynamics can evolve strongly. In this configuration,
the authors try to take into account the variation of the control pa:rameter
by to ways: either sets of ODE are derived over a range of discrete values of
the control parameter (e.g. Rempfer 1996) or a unique set of ODE is derived
that include implicitely the vaxiation of the control parameter (e.g. linear evolution Deane et al. (1991), displacement vectors Christensen et al. (1993)).
This last method, because it reduces greatly the number of equations to be
used seems very promizing. The common penalty of these approaches of low
can
be rescaled
applied. Either,
on
Liu et al.
case
of
Chambers et al.
same
motivations
rotating disks.
by Cordier (1996)
Large-Scale-Structure
261
Concluding
As noticed all
Remarks
along
this
chapter,
it is
well admitted
now
that, by their
presence, the large-scale structures have a considerable influence on the turbulent flow dynamics. Indeed, even in fully turbulent shear flows, the large-
scale structures
are
known to be of
dict their short time evolution. The ultimate aim of any method involved
in flow control has then to try to define methods allowing to interact with
practical and
industrial
large-scale
interests, the detection, analysis, prediction
structures are quite complex. Even organized, these large-scale structures
and control of the
associated to
methods: flow viz, one or several point measurements, instantaneous or random data collecting. A commmon feature of these approaches is that they
selective, in that they only retain very well defined events. A comparaanalysis shows that the average characteristics, obtained by using various
conditional methods, are close. Even more they can be compared to the ones
that can be derived from stochastic approaches, as POD or LSE are. However, the efficiency of the detection is different, accordind the method used.
This point should be taken into account for flow control strategies: how can
a method, even precise in the average sense, but selecting only a few percent
of occuring events, be efficient?.
are
tive
Therefore,
non
262
general.
can
These
positions.
One point has to be recalled in the context of real time flow control: the
only requires (at each time) to evaluate a
spatial integral
value. This
can
computed
prediction of
in real time.
the relevant
dynamics
two
strategies,
of the flow
can
be
Large-Scale-Structure
263
ing equations and the POD basis are known, the development of the system
becomes straightforward. However, considering flow control, a fundamental
question remains
less varied
are more or
relatively to
the
ones
from which
was
...
least
one
of these
optimal
flow"
convergence
available. The
are
the type of flow realizations used for solving the POD problem.
The two practical cases that can be found (realizations used to solve the
strongly
POD
on
problem
realizations
known
only
containing
developped in this
for
one
specific
parameter)
have been
are now
avail-
able that allow to take into account the variation of the control parameter.
These methods
a
are
of the
the rapid
of
prediction
developpement
the
used
have
al.
et
work
Joia
in
recent
dynamical
flows:
a
(1997)
complex
system of Aubry et al. to simulate a two-phase flow (bubbles in air). In their
approach, the dynamical system provides the large scale motion of the flow,
while a Lagrangian approach is used for the particles trajectories. The second remark concerns an other application of the Karuhnen Loeve theory in
the framework of flow control, this decomposition can be used as a tool for
the identifications of dynamical systems and can be used for defining predictive models directly from time series data (see Landa and Rosenblum (1991)).
Two additional remarks
can
To conclude this
the
use
chapter,
dynamical system
one concerns
as a
tool for
are
necessary for
unavoidable.
experimental
studies remain
264
Acknowledgements
The authors
gratefully aknowledge
J.H.
Garem,
S.
Bellin,
E.
Vincendeau, R.
support of the
through collaborative
are also aknowledged
appreciated.
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Large-Scale-Structure Identification
and Control
273
Pierre C. Perrier
Dassault
Aviation,
92210 Saint-Cloud
Cedex,
France
Abstract. The
I
1.1
cost fimction.
Physics
Physics
and its
Modeling
of Multiscale Flows
complexity
is
common
in the field
applications
Reynolds number and of computation with increased
viscosity, by artificial dissipation of the numerical schemes, are now widespread, and have become the basis of physical knowledge of flows for many
people. Both types of visualization succeed too much in extracting quasisteady flow patterns, often the more attractive for researchers or engineers
willing to consider simple explanations of mean properties of flows. Turning
to a problem of active control implies that transient effects and their stability
become of main importance in the study of control, and that the hypothesis of
smooth mean flow properties is no longer relevant. Another error is to consider
the behavior of the flow as a linear output of an excitation by actuators, and
so assume that relevant unsteadiness is linear sum of forced outputs by the
intended movements of actuators. Such framework of analysis of flows comes
from the linear theory of the control of systems and is strictly valid only
of fluid
mechanics,
both in
visualization at low
Pierre C. Perrier
276
is the
Major paxt of our knowledge in the field of control have been developed
stability analysis of systems with reduced number of degrees of freedom or with clear separation of modes. It is usual in mechanical systems
where a small number of eigen values keeps significant percentage of the energy stored from an impulsive solicitation. On the side of fluids such simplicity
does not exist because the modes are not at fixed frequency regardless the
fact that they may be seen (when a more amplified frequency lets a particular
mode to appear) with more amplitude on some modes than on others. Mode
frequency and possibly its shape will generally change downstream from the
point of observation. So, the energy embedded in a given perturbation can be
transfered to other frequencies, can be convected by mean flow or may have a
significant relative traveling velocity, may eventually feed other modes. Such
that the spreading of an initial perturbation is generally larger than anticipated from simple one-mode-convected linear analysis. One could consider
as a challenge the control of flow patterns having such highly nonlinear behavior, but in fact it is the contrary. It means that the system constituted
of the areas of interest is highly responsive to perturbations and so will be
controlled with small inputs, if such inputs are adjusted to the possible self
amplification where they are more sensitive. We need to turn to a sensitivefrom the
ness
the
interest for
Compressibility. Another
ity. It implies that
we
277
perturbations, compressibility waves (isentropic at small amplitude and dissipative at high amplitude) coming from locally supersonic flows and acoustic
sources. They are fed by interaction with turbulent flows or unsteady flows in
shear layers in wakes or near the wall (induced by fluctuating separation, or
vortex breakdown). It is generally at the sources of such unsteadiness where
it is preferable to place an actuator because the control of the surface of
shock waves in the field would need specific generators and cancelation seems
difficult except with absorbing boundary materials out of the scope of this
paper. Major problems are then related to the control of acoustic waves that
focus in traveling shock waves or, in subsonic flows, that fill up all the domain
at much higher velocity than traveling waves. They are however smaller amplitude than other perturbations. Acoustic waves have yet to be controlled
for applications because a small percentage of energy fed into acoustic waves
gives unacceptable level of perceived noise Moreover control has to avoid
generating strident noise by the controller, because users do not accept such
environmental attrition. Coupling of isentropic acoustic waves and entropy
waves is also a main ingredient of the multiscale interacting process of traveling waves excitation. It is not a local process and is generally effective for
large domain where interaction may have cumulative action in spite of large
relative speed of convective modes and acoustic waves.
Vorticity. We can now turn to Fig. 1, which gives a reproduction of a drawing by Leonardo da Vinci, the famous engineer and painter of the Renaissance,
that clearly indicates the effort in thinking needed to understand real vortical
flows and to open the way for a control of their detrimental effects. Drawings
are
the deduction that losses of energy (height needed for waterfall) are present,
generating vortical flows. However, without consideration of the boundary
layer before, Leonardo da Vinci was led to try to control the vortex produced
at the point of separation by an unsuccessful redesign of the, downstream
channel. Cancelling large turbulent vortex structures after geheration is, of
course,
difficult task.
Figure
2 is
an
image,
in
(or
compressor
set of very
high speed
unsteady
a large unsteady
blade) having
output, aimed to
lifting wing section
camera
flowfield around
wake
generated by separated
Fig. 1.. Drawing by Leonaxdo da Vinci describing the compleNity of vortical flows
1`7
41
Fig.
separated
279
layers on both sides of the section. Such a test case has been selected
quasi bidimensional behavior. The carefully designed experimental apparatus by Professor Dymant of the Institut de M6canique des Fluides de
Lille, with parallel lighting, gives a pixel quality allowing identification of
all phenomena. With a pixel size of 10' chord length, the duration of the
lighting may be coherent with such an accuracy, so freezing all the waves and
flow oscillation. The Reynolds number is roughly 3 x 106 and Mach number 0.8, giving a supersonic pocket on the upper surface with an oscillating
separation. In Fig. 3 we have summarized the major flow patterns for better identification in the Schlieren picture of Fig. 2 and their scale related to
shear
for its
chord
c.
41.
Fig.
0,
4k
*,
3. Main characteristic
280
in
Pierre C. Perrier
we
predominant
effect.
Bidimensionality and Tridimensionality. For control of fluid such reallife flow analysis teaches us to take into account the following phenomena:
-
Natural mode
Upstream
amplification
and downstream
in the
shear-layers
of the flow.
Sound
or
pressure
waves
Low
effect
We need
as
281
perturbation
phenomena
Multiscale
ined in Perrier
process of
(1996)
with
more
details but
in
T
(A)
Dissip
100
10-1
10 2
10-3
are exam-
On
,
1%..
Ilik
Reventivitv
Fig.
The process of
4. Modes
amplification
and
coupling
sketched in
282
Pierre C. Perrier
shear-layer. One is the normal mode without helicity and the two others are
the conjugate modes with helicity, The angle with streamline of the more
amplified transverse mode is near 45" at low speeds and low gradients but
can be at higher angle (or lower) if the flow is accelerated or distorted by
the local tensor of deformation. With these three oscillators, a level of 10-2
for fluctuating velocities compared to mean velocity may be sufficient for
beginning a coupling between modes. Such nonlinear process can extract
energy from the external flowfield with an excellent efficiency giving birth to
the three lengths allowed for rolling a vortiead flow to a chaotic flow feeding
turbulence efficiently. So we have to separate
-
il in the
10-6
modes takes
The
more
amplitude,
before the
chaotic interference is present, and particular care has to be devoted to master it. The source of low amplitude waves is to be found in external entropy
fluctuations and in pressure
ing
the viscous
layer
are
wave
interference. External
perturbations
if at the critical
enter-
wavenum-
because
1996).
analysis of multiscale physics, it
beginning of any study of control of complex
flow, that one should completely survey the unsteady phenomena present in
the configuration of flowfield and near boundary conditions, to identify the
more strongly amplified linear modes and their receptivity to external perturbation. Particular emphasis will be put on noise traveling waves and on
focusing of such waves and of compressibility waves. Preliminary study will
highlight the "sensitive points" in the flowfield for each of the waves, including the stationary waves that can push ihe non linear processes to be present
). Such prelimi-na y study,
very soon and very effective (Gbrtler vortices
Sensitive Points. As
conclusion of this
...
283
problem
of robustness of control, will also give the amperturbation that the controller can be expected
to deal with. It is a point where we need improvement in measurements, and
obviously need some new equipment able to identify in the noise the linear
plitude
modes
of maximal external
present
at level <
direct evaluation of
Modeling
1.2
of
10-4
as
well
amplified
more
as new
computations able
modes in the
complete
to reach the
field.
Unsteady Flows
line
test
case
same
as
lenticular
arc
Rebuilding by 2D computation does not give the correct frequency for this
periodic phenomena of iteratively separated flow on upper and lower surface
induced by a movement of the shock waves. Correct answer is rebuilt with
a 3D unsteady computation. Fig. 5 gives two Mach number contours in the
cycle and shows the highly non linear behavior of the pressure for two chord
positions. Such computation is a first step towards transonic buffet control on
aircraft by appropriate deflection of the rear flap for damping the oscillations.
----
Front Chord
Back Chord
0.2
0.1
-0.2
40000
45000
50000
55000
60000
Time
Fig.
5. Pressure in transonic
separated oscillating
flow
metastability
is
present
in
an
aircraft
or
for
Pierre C. Perrier
284
generator
laminar
by
interaction of
Elementary Phenomena. Such perturbations can be summari ed in Ta1, and are of increasing importance and complexity when compressibility
or enthalpy production are present in the flowfield.
A major part of such nonlinear phenomena can appear in a boundary
layer and is enhanced when perturbation velocity is large relative to mean
velocity, as exemplified in near wall coherent structures; see e.g. Robinson
ble
(1989).
285
Table 1: Perturbations
as
quasi-steady
viscous flows.
Mode coupling in
local frame or in
absolute frame
Quasi-steady or
multiscale
and
Isentropic waves as
waves
generated by entropy
entludpy
radiated noise-and
waves generated
by elastic or inelastic
reductionidetonStion
unstead'
St2tionary etge
in
vectors in he li coidal
or
vortical. modes
wall
near
vortical
Pairing
Table 11:
Convected
eigen vectors
Vortical
Inflection
Spirat,
Inst2bili
Instability
Modeling constraints
and
Spiral
Instability
equations
Global:
-
inviscid
flows-coupling
with
structure.
-
Propagation
of
waves
viscid and
Local:
(Craya equation).
(Landau equation).
Interaction between large structures of vorticity (Crocco equation).
Local amplification factors in linear approximation (Orr-Sommerfeld.
Multiscale homogenization due to small-scale turbulence (Pironneau-Papanicolaou).
number
Interaction between
waves
Dispersion equation
for different
waves
286
Pierre C. Perrier
analysis of the
stability analysis as
initiated by Monkewitz (1989) and may be roughly characterized by hot wire
or pressure sensor put in the flowfield. In Fig. 10, adapted from Monkewitz
and Sohn (1988), the frequency distribution of peaks appearing in a hot jet is
compared to the almost smooth frequency spectra of a typical cold jet. This
is an example of the subsequent tracking of energy containing large structures
that control has to manage. Table 3 of Huerre and Monkewitz (1990) gives the
basic stability of the main different flow topology (jets, wakes,
). Numerical
tools able to give complete local stability prediction are lacking at present.
Local
effect of
an
actuator
on
of any control
a4iij
5F
!Pij (k, t)
Tfij
Oij
2-yk2,pj
(1)
spectral tensor.
equation is usually done by EDQNM over the triple
correlations of the k, p, q triad. The integration over all possible triads
gives a statistical closure of the equation, and so include the different waves
emerging Qf the multiscale computation and then redistributes energy in the
continuous spectra of established turbulent flow downstream, destroying the
order preserved for large eigen vectors in Crocco equation
where
is the
dt
rotV -rotV
TVS
mulation
(2)
Vh
keep
deterministic for-
through random stochastic medium. (see e.g. Carpenter, 1996). -*T& controllability of propagating waves are.addressed in Bardos et al. (1991; 1992).
figure gives example of what is accessible
by L.E.S. computation (Professor Lesieur, LEGI, Univ. Grenoble) as basic
elementary flows: past a step in velocity formulation, for a turbulent KelvinHelmholtz convected instability as for vortical flow attached as a distinct
vortex to a swept step and as periodic G6rtler helical'pattern to a ramp.
Physical evidence of such structures are generally well substantiated as seen
by physical visualization and may be found in Ducros et al. (1996), Mittal
and Balachandar (1996), and Urbin and M6tais (1997).
Global Direct L.E.S. The next
Fig.
The
coupling
between
longitudinal
287
pattern
large
struc-
one
LES
Physics
-4
Numerical. modeling
-*
Analysis
-+
Validated tool
to the
proper
Mesh
cover
288
Pierre C. Perrier
the control.
200
too
100
200
300
an
airfoil
1.3
Three Ways for Handling the Control of Fluids. The comple3dty of the
problem of control of flows of fluids is directly connected to the comple)dty
Fig.
Fig.
289
computation
Dynamical Model.
with
reduced number of
as equivalent to a system of coupled ordinary differequations. The coupled evolution of each of the parameters define the
amplitude of each degree of freedom in which the system is reduced. If the actuators and sensors are also in reduced discrete number, such reduction may
be equivalent to the standard black-box simulation of a dynamical system
with a control loop, the vectors of parameters defining the state of the system. The input of actuators and the output of sensors are vectors of variables
to be managed by the controller. The tools of classical control theory of simplified discrete system apply and are particularly efficient when the system
is quasi-linear, linearity affording simple mathematical tools for evaluation of
can
then be considered
ential
290
Pierre C. Perrier
stability
and
performances,
non
decomposition)
is
no
or
multivalued output
way to
rationality
of control is to build
an
complexity of
consideration of the experimental
duplicating
Numerical P.D.E. Model. The control may be designed with a set of socomputed on a fine grid with a very large number of degrees
lutions of P.D.E.
of freedom.
Convergence
to continuous
is
refined,
is
"least
response time of
control,
as
actuators
291
sensors.
sensor
we
consider
flowfield and
target for
the system operating with such flowfield, a cost function J may be defined
as distance of a better system state vector to present system defined by its
state vector y. Then
J(yj)
<
J(yi)
which is
such that
<
Ay,
>
<
y,A*
>
(3)
+ b
(1970).
going from
require the help of A and A* The differentiation of the cost function J(y,,!P), -b being the control vector, gives the
optimal control, if we solve the direct an the adjoint problem simultaneously.
It is possible to reduce the optimal control to a suboptimal control working
only on a time step from time t to time t + dt and using the formulation
the state 0 to the state 1 will
Pierre C. Perrier
292
of the discrete
continuous
of
or
perturbation equation.
(1995),
(1971; 1986).
Chacon
We may try
a
and Lions
a
matrix in linearized
et al.
(1991),
by
sensitivity
(1991), Gunsburger
to be correlated.
of boundaries
The
same
including
trend
as
actuators.
the
perturbations
may be mastered
by direct acting
(being locally damped or self amplified by a convective or absolute local instability), the global control may lead to controllable or uncontrollable behavior.
The
general
time
lag
induced in
partially
or
generated by
incomplete observability. The computation of the better action (eventually
to be balanced with simpler laws of control based on data of sensors as for
a Kalman filtering in O.D.E.) requires the solution of the Riccati equation.
Unfortunately this is a P.D.E. with 6 dimensions in space and I in time, difor
controllable system is
errors
ficult to compute except for a very small domain. One has to confine within
specific control of prescribed modes. Targeted control, based
limits of local
on
pertinent
1991; 1993).
excitation of
large
scales
are
not
as
or
properly
or
dffFuse vortical
flows,
293
may then be
in turbulent
three-dimensional flow.
Present state of the art is far from
constraints for
data.
written
as
J(U' t)
The cost function for
fo [ P(y(u))
going from
the physical
+ Tf (u)] dt
state 0 to state I is
(4)
J(u, ti)
parts,
tances between state 1 and 0. It is clear that the overall economic cost of
This consideration of
mean
needed for
penalty
physical
or
duplication
an
additive term,
acting
as
294
Pierre C. Perrier
these express distance to a desired behavior of the system seen as more globally productive, safe or comfortable and with respect to which least regrets
are
Similarly, least regrets penalty may be conby margins for unanticipated phenomena, out of sensors location, by
uncertainties, or in physical cost (mean or extreme residual errors in
to be taken in consideration.
strained
extreme
operation)
or
in economical cost
major concern
requires the availability of multiscale codes for
the generation of the large coherent boundary conditions in the reduced size
cases
is
needs the
use
of
mesoscale
function.
Turbulence Enhancement
Using Active
2.1
Energy Spreading. Rom an energetic point of view, whatever the spefunction, the control has to be divided by the applications between
cific cost
some
to increase of fluctuations at
mass
transfer)
related
certain scale.
or
internal flows.
addition of energy is
supplied
are
often denominated
"Passive?' when
input of
free system without controller to control the position in time of the actuators,
and active control is related to a system with a controller, the output of which
295
Strategies
2.2
By Force
of Control
Action. It is
hancement in
possible
flow when
more
to
and
more
sum
of contribution of
or-
Noinlln
4
to.
oo
-,
10
00
ol
01
oo
oo
L.
ff771'
00
00
Forced 11irbulence
Turbulence
The first
one
consist in
more or
forced turbulence
or
seeding, self
less local
source
of
allows
Self-Amplific2tion Bracket
Nonlinear Strategy
Seeding
Pierre C. Perrier
296
generators. Active
relying on added moving blades, injections, or moving walls. The proper design of the flow boundaries will help
to have or retain intended diffusion downstream of turbulent energy injected
in the local source spots. Clearly such path is irreversible and so specific to
vortex
means are
turbulence enhancement.
Mode
Coupling
on
one
will
identification of the
rely on control
areas
of
of maximum
receptivity of the flow to external actions or perturbations. The energy injected in the receptive part of the flow need to be in phase resonant with one
amplified wave to be more effective, if active control is built. The use of acoustic or shock waves may be added to the means of turbulence enhancement,
but the use of chaotic seeding of turbulent energy (Swanson & Ottino, 1991)
is no more relevant. Selection of the more amplified waves leads to adjust size
of passive,means for excitation of unstable modes. Such modes are surviving
to intermittency and low-scale turbulence in the case of turbulent incoming
flow. Phase adjustment increases effectiveness of active means, asking for a
precise acquisition by sensors of phase of incoming waves. The persistence of
induced action in turbulent flow is a major practical and theoretical issue.
1 and
2,
causes
u',
u2
0.)
larger the
product
scalar
of
side of
rely on
297
(right
Fig. 9).
linear mode is
can
new
pushed to saturation,
value, the action on the
on
the second
first mode have not to be effective at the location of the actuator but at
the natural linear
some
downstream, relying
amplification
modes, but the localization of the interference have to be prescribed. The
longitudinal modes that are pure helical modes, except in the case of curvature induced amplification (i.e. G6rtler-type amplification), and are convected with a quasi-constant value of helicity. They may interact efficiently
with rolling vortices normal to convection velocity: convected alternate in
sign helicity helps to build nonlinear bracket coupling.
station
on
Reversibility
of Action.
as
for other
so
are
the
more
efficient process
as
being quasi-reversible
of turbulence.
2.3
Enhancement
Constrained Global Cost. The maximization of energy may not be a target, being not bounded. Added constraints need to be expressed as limiters,
rely only
on
constraints
mensional
may appear. If one considers for example a two dilayer, mainly bidimensional turbulence will enhance a k-1
mixing
is wavenumber, see Fig. 10). A continuous transfer to low frequency of the injected energy amplified by Kelvin-Heh-nholtz instability will
enforce coupling with external flow of mean shear layer. Such transfer may
put energy in low frequency mechanical parts of the system. A "least regret"
cost function, (difference to a target in turbulence energy plus mechanical
energy) taking in account given alternate fatigue-stresses constraints, will be
the best expression of the global target of the control. A direct control of
mean stresses may act in the controller for limitation of amplitude.
behavior
Local
(k
Homogeneity Indexed
Cost. The
of
are
298
Pierre C. Perrier
log
IC-1
k75/3
ko
2D
3D
log k
Fig.
10. 2D
versus
3D energy transfer
Global
Economy Indexed
Cost. If
we
turn to economical
constraints,
it
is clear that the energy required for a given efficiency is an index that has to
be balanced with the complexity of the set of actuators and sensors and of
justify jump
from
cost
are
key
factors
allowing
299
be addressed in Part 5.
the
of
CP
(5)
+ CP
C,
'
e-i
)3
e-s
+ 'Y
e-h
(6)
ef
where cp is the performance index cost, cost of energy input related to energy
output, c, is economical index cost (cost of sensors + actuators + controller)
related to energy output, ef is the turbulent energy injected in the flow
domain to be controlled (integral), ei is the input of energy in actuators,
e, is feedback input of mechanical energy above stress limit constraints, eh
is the defect of energy below
domain of
2.4
interest),
and a,
mean
)3, -y
are
ef
(integral
weighting
ef , Ci, eh
can
analyze
are
parameters for
the
quasiorganized one
equivalent dynamical system
In the quasi equilibrium turbulence, it is possible
or
or
the
Mixing.
modeled in
as
ergy. If wavenumbers p
wavenumber vectorr,
Stochastic
coupling,
better.
In the
case
of
specific
excitation
coupled
flow,
the large eddy structure of the flow may be enhance& as a resonator amplifying input excitation. For example an excitation of the K66n street of a
dimensional
300
Pierre C. Perrier
smoothed
by redistribution
of
(1996).
Reynolds
For
an
stress in wavenumber
as
exemplified
spectra in
cascade, same behavior may appear with the forcing issued from
the wake of a cylinder in the subscale of a shear layer. Efficient increase in
mixing results from the return to isotropy of such forcing at frequency higher
than the energy carrying scales. That process also reduces the transfer to
low frequency, and so is an efficient mixing process in small scales, it allows
devices to be efficient for improvement of the classical mixing in chemical
industries with paddle wheel mixer. Another mixing enhancement may rely
on the coupling between same structures, one being excited (see Lepera and
Vandsburger, 1997) or excitation of the vortical separated flows (see Nelson
et al., 1990; Nelson and Eaton, 1996).
turbulence
(see
'Eransitional
Mixing. One
1989).
can
notice
waves.
successively in
typical transitional
situation:
2. Growth of low
3. Phase
Ho' 1991).
4. First vortex
scale turbulence.
5.
6. Second
7.
8.
9.
301
10. Return to
11.
mittency.
and Pironneau
(1994).
Assuming
some
of
the process of transient flow as described before, one may notice that phases 12-3 may not be modeled by realistic computations due to the length of growth
(first
perturbations)
damping
rolling vortices as if it was in low
Reynolds number range. Such behavior is physically possible, when fine structure of perturbations are almost homogeneous in small-scale turbulence. An
equivalent low-Reynolds-number pattern is built by the turbulent Reynolds
averaged stress tensor. Numerical tests in LES/DNS are therefore mandatory
before testing robustness versus turbulent fluctuations of any control law.
tivity
reduction
by artificially
increased
of external
Pierre C. Perrier
302
phase
the mid-scale
tra
or
fine
scale,
and
so
on
(item 10-11).
It is clear that stabilization of the main structures to be excited down-
the
Critical Point
2.5
aerodynamic design is the search for regular flow patangle of incidence or sideslip. Regular forces and moments
will
be obtained. However the high angle of attack and
vehicle
therefore
a
on
involved
in high performance design has put the challenge of regular
sideslip
behavior in domains where bifurcations are predominant. With large variations of wall separation patterns and of external flow patterns, with shock
waves and vortex sheets or vortex lines, with bursting and reattachment induced processes, the challenge would be almost impossible to overcome. The
control of large main structures in the flow would give robustness and monotonicity to the flow field at varying angles. That is, it is not necessary to
search for stabilization of all large eddies but to stabilize low frequencies
One
major
concern
in
layers. Stabilization
of the
separation lines
303
layer
or
vortical
in their
complex
transition to
(particularly
streamwise
vortices).
on
time
it is the critical
to
action.
Jumper (1994) have shown the trailing edge control effectiveunsteady behavior, and Lee and Ho (1993) experimented with
the reduction in lift fluctuations by trailing edge suction. Wu and Wu (1991)
identified the gain in swirl as obtained by suction in the central part of an
S-shaped duct of square inlet and circular exit. This may also be achieved by
passive control with vortex-generators (Reichert and Mendt, 1994).
Rennie and
ness
and its
injected
mass
airflow.
given length.
control. For
vortices,
care
layers,
when
angles of the
ducing the helicity fluctuations convected in the vortex core. For small sweep
angles low helicity precludes shedding, while large sweep induced more stable
flow pattern. Intermediate sweep generates alternate flow pattern becoming
sweep
304
Pierre C. Perrier
more
in
stable for
stability
are
2.6
Theoretical
background
Receptivity Control
and Bechert
(86)
large
shear-layer
(Moose, 1977)
coupling effects (Viswanathan, 1994).
scale
the
(1981)
to the screech
noise
Present accuracy of DNS and LES does not allow to compute pressure
generation modeling. However, recent modeling is bet-
1996),
and
2.7
Experimental
Work in
are
Progress
supporting the
increase of turbulence
to be checked.
large
or
chaos
For
flows
see
305
(1981),
Gaster
analysis
(1985),
Ho
(1984),
experiments of Fiedler
(1988),
more
detailed
was
conditional
to
to
(1993).
Bonnet
For
layer's development,
jets
same
two
(1987),
(1991), Kusek (1990), Compton (1992), Jeung (1994), VuillerRaman
maux (1994),
(1994), Vandsburger (1997), Bishop (1996), Sverdrop
(1996), and L.E.S. by Urbin and Metais (1997).
For vortical flows from Provansal (1987) and Gad el Hak and Blackwelder
(1987) vorticity and helicity, to Wu (1991), Roussopoulos (1993), Erikson
(1994), Celik (1994), Park (1994), Blackwelder (1995) and Lee (1996), but
the stability of vortical flows (see Yang, 1996) remains to be better known
after first major work of Lopez and Perry (1992).
(1984)
to Michalke
Lee
and to Martin
(1966),
(1996).
(1996)
and Terent'ev
and Gutmark
as a
Rockwell
flame holder
(1980)
see
to Ovelano
McManus
(1995),
(1993),
McGrath
Candel
(1992)
(1994).
Turbulence
Suppression
by Passive and Active Control
3
3.1
Strategies of Control
of chaos
with
sub-
subsections.
spread
large
case
of
sensors
operate
of different scales
due to the
Pierre C. Perrier
306
effect between local reduction processes have been evaluated and controlled
yet. One may also try to move up the turbulent hairpins, reducing their cou-
pling with high shear near the wall by a positive normal velocity bump, but
the gains obtained by Lumley (1996) were lost in negative velocity phase of
the wall displacement.
con-
produced, keeping
after, and simply adding downstream artificial damping.
The first need is to identify and remove the sources of turbulence. Turning
back to the description of the physics of generation of turbulence, in addition to the standard model of receptivity as presented before, one has to
consider the catastrophic or by-pass production on local wall irregularities,
on shock-wave interaction or on mixing with turbulent flow by concentrated
eddies contamination. The strategy will be to use enhanced dissipation process by passive (grid, divergence of flow) or active (vibrating pads or blades
perturbations
...
means.
homogenize
where
low
It is
sources
an equivalent eddy
Reynolds number due to turbulent viscosity) and at
the same time indeed dissipation increase, but possible unstable modes may
be fed back and only large structures may grow until rebuilding large eddies.
viscosity
For
(equivalent
example
the
low
dissipation
of the wake of
cylinder by
forced transfer of
307
the turbulent energy to small scale lets the K6rmAn-street large eddies form
again themselves further downstream. So the control of new main modes is
to be added to the
downstream. Such
not
feeding)
tively
when
source
when
amplitude
passive means may
their
continuous
of turbulence
they
are
kept active
damping (but
amplitude, trying
to reduce
ac-
not be efficient
blowing/sucking).
to be
bracket strategy:
(local acceleration,
curvature
kept
on
or
longer
being applied for a Lagrangian control of spots of turalways able to birth and increase again downstream
due to the receptivity to external perturbations (also to be kept by control
at low amplitude). The forced dissipation of small scales tries to avoid such
an amplification.
streamline abscissa
as
Local
are
in the deterministic
energy
versus
wave
number
curve
(Fig. 11).
dissipative length
spill-over
a dynamical system, with a large number of degrees
of freedom and weakly coupled interactions between modes, the control of
large structures alone is not able to damp the system below a modest ratio of
amplitude. This is so because the transfer of energy to high frequency modes
has not damped itself and energy stored in such modes are not reduced in
same amount and feedback large frequency eigen modes by a spill-over effect
(Bourquin 1996). Such effect is to be expected with flows that have a large
coupling between low- and high-frequency modes. This may be computed
through triadic interaction with the Craya equations (1958) for randomly
sparse eddies, giving the flux of energy to be absorbed for stabilization of the
process by a hole in the spectra.
So strategic an issue will be cutting a sufficient gap of wavenumbers Ki
K2 by active control at their scale that once low frequencies are isolated,
the control will turn to bidimensionalization of large-scale turbulence that
may be well controlled because energy is transfered more efficiently in low
frequency (Fig. 11) and the triadic effect feeding chaotic movement of eddies
is reduced to dyadic which is easier to control. Bidimensionally controlled
fluctuations are cutting the path to chaos such strategy may be summarized
by the transfer to both extremities of spectra towards diffusion (high k)
and linear control (low k). However, the turbulence gap needs a methodical
control in the field which is not easy (passive honeycomb filter or active array
of vanes) to implement and not yet carried out.
control is to cut the
scales. If
we
consider
rely
the
using
control,
previous
intermittency
of
control
the
mathematical
from
theory
(see
sweeping-out concept coming
Periodic Paced Flow Enhancement. More advanced strategy has to
on
Pierre C. Perrier
308
E(k)
Fig.
1996).
If the
differential
inducing transfer
to chaotic flow
be sucked out
locally
309
applied
near
easier to control
(Fig. 12).
needed.
Steady
Separated
-10
'ZI-
Kelvin-Helmholtz
Unsteady
Excitation
three basic
1.
shear
layer
induced
by separation
at
leading
3.2
ing
on
possible
Dissipation
of
periodic curing
are
of control domain
addressing
actions:
11. Creation of
coupling.
Perhaps the level III is intractable if the flow outside the location of the
catastrophic event is not convectively stable or absolutely stable and/or dissipative turbulent cascade is unable to damp low frequency large structures.
Perhaps the level 11 is intractable because the needed gap width in frequency
is too large and requires difficult phasing of controls. Perhaps the level I is
intractable, outside of a better knowledge and observability of the flow field
near
The
on a
ture
flat
Pierre C. Perrier
310
"active?'
would be
complex
answers
Screaning
Screaning
Amplification
Control
Receptivity
Control
Fig.
13.
Reducing turbulence
in flow
low
frequency
control.
general problems
of
or
simpler
controllable
311
systems address the problem of observability and also the selection of tech-
nology
of
sensors
specific
to be
are
boundary layers,
are
convenient local
measure
quality for
globalturbuof
lence energy consideration is often the unique integral design parameter. The
questions of stability or decoupling with other phenomena (vibrations, aeroe-
lasticity
), and of
of the incoming flow
...
robustness of control
are
part
more
"acceptable"
fluctuations
of evaluation of
"acceptable"
versus
generally
the
modeling.
problems is the practical problem of certification
or qualification of a passive or active system and of its "acceptability" and
affordability with realistic improvement of performances.
same
3.3
Coupling
are
very different if
they
monodimensional, bidimensional or tridimensional coupling. The boundary conditions force each coupling as may be seen in the three following
include
impedance
propagation (McManus
et
of the flow
or
al., 1993)
and to
adjust
upstream incoming mass
(obstruction
airflow control) for reducing acoustic emissions. By controlling pressure near
the exit tube, it is easy to obtain reduction of more than 20 db; it has been
achieving deriving control law from the monodimensional equation for flow.
Similar results may be obtained with combustion in the tube, as'far as a
single monodimensional fluid mode is to be controlled while coupled together
with linear acoustic modes. However, it is a stiff problem from the fact that
the pressure-velocity relation at any position in the tube is modified by the
command of the valve (subsonic flow). Noticeable are the periodic peaks of
stant of acoustic
the movement of
waves
valve
Pierre C. Perrier
312
troller.
complex problems
acoustics, the generation of the shear-layer
tones interacting with cavity resonant modes is first added. Then the frequency for filling in or out the cavity and the frequencies of shear layer impinging on its downstream edge where there is low-speed compressible fluid
axe added to the sub-harmonic frequency coupling of the cavity and shear
flow. Some coupling effects may also appear between the acoustics and the
entropy modes as well as between the control and thp uncontrolled filling of
the cavity. Moreover, the intensity of radiated noise, generated at the impingment of shear layer on the downstream step of the cavity, is fed by shear
layer large eddies structure. But again the radiated noise brings instability
to the shear layer and the amplitude of its fluctuations. Such flow requires
control that may counteract external bidirnensional waves, because they are
highly distorted by tridimensional effects as by compressibility effects.
Bidimensional control may be recovered with locally three dimensional
flow, if turbulence enforce "subgrid?' or subscale turbulent isotropic dissipation. The bidimensionality may be destroyed locally by roughness, as by a
succession of small bumps. In a tridimensional bump problem, the helicity
built in the vorticity layer contouring the bump is fed by helicity in the boundary layer shed off the bump but it is dissipated in 3D-turbulence and only
influences stability and size of separated areas after the bump. The receptivity problem is of main importance, in the evaluation of the perturbations
level and of the amplitude of the oscillations of boundary layer thickness
and vortical flows superimposed. The control of the fluctuations of incoming flow is so related to the tridimensional receptivity (Fig. 14) if it allows
now
to consider
more
stationary modes
and
on
so
are
important:
linear
sooner
(G6rtler instability).
on
on
not
feeding such
modes appear
and have stronger influence
as
multiple 2D
location,
large
it reduces
analysis of the bidimensional transition from 2D Tollmie-nflow, and to the control of the perturbation
Schlichting waves
velocity by suction and/or blowing in a 2D slot, we can check that the perturbations in the field issued from the slot control are propagating upstream
If we turn to the
to 2D turbulent
as
well
as
downstream. Therefore the control has to counteract upstream perare generated by blowing or sucking through the slot (Fig-
turbations which
313
Bursting
fflgh Amplitude
Bypass
log
AO
Nonlinear
A,
.01/
arnpihg
Incoming
Perturbations
(unsteady)
Linear
Steady Helical
S
Fig.
Receptivity
14.
near
leading edge
_102Ut __O
_162a
OA
CEr
0.2
0.8
0.4
0.4
0.4
CEr
1.2
0.6
0.2
0.2
00
104
SX163
b)
-Iola,
0.6
0-8
0.5
r, 2
102a I
OA6
M,
1.1
f12
0.4
0.4
0.2
OA
5XI03
M =0
2)
0.2
0
=
0.2
0.5
0
0
0
c)
Fig.
5X103
R81
lo
00
compressibility
on
20 04
104
R81
d)
M,=3
15. Effect of
Me
2D adiabatic flat
4.5
plate
Pierre C. Perrier
314
-2
-4
-6
-8
0
150
Fig.
16.
of
ToRmien-Schlichting
waves.
modes
as
driven
in
by
perturbations
method relies
on
the other in
an
as a
alternate stable
coupling.
Some
comparative
This is
a
easily
channel flow
work with
one
mastered
(Ott
et
vorticity generation
flow, where the complexity
of the flowfleld is much larger that in a duct. It appears that the coupling
between internal and external flows are of major importance so that it is at
the lip that control by suction needs to be applied. Computation requires
fine grid for the rebuilding of experimental turbulence level in the channel
flow, but the turbulence control is not itself attained. Control succeeded by
the suppression of irregular vortex emission feeding turbulence. Generation of
turbulence is, therefore, better controlled at the source by direct suppression
of the
separation
on
on
two-dimensional channel
the
lip.
generated on the
lip added helical perturbations by structures parallel to the external velocity
and coupling building the tridimensionalization of the separated flow.
sional structure of the real flow
(Fig. 17).
Main vortices
Fig.
17. LES of
separated
flow
on a
315
2D ramp
are
from the
The
analysis of
(Grath
and Show
domly
ter
generation would be
strategy would be
to reduce
(peaks
very difficult
as
related to
ran-
value).
A bet-
the local
peaks.
in Dalembertian local
316
Pierre C. Perrier
IF777777,
Y,
0.1
0.031
cr, f%
0.01
A LL
0.0031
I-,'
C
,,,B
0.001
Mi
B,
0-(5'IF 'eVk'
P12 MV U1
P21 M29 U2
h
tus
U41 M4
a,
D
Fig.
18.
C 2
C
Cavity pressure fluctuation analysis (comparison with step and ramp flow)
birth to the
It therefore appears that an action on the singular separation or reattachment processes, is the best strategy of control of main turbulent parts of a
more
to maintain
However, the selection of the best velocity control and microblowing loca-
317
Flow Direction
Shear
Layer
Shallow
Cavity
Motor/Push-Rod Assembly
Peak
143.25 dB @ 1936.67 Hz
Pe2k
160
160
150
ISO
WO
140
130
130
120
120
no
110
100
126A8 dB @ 2142.00 1 lz
100
1000
2000
4000
3000
5000
1000
2000
3000
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
No Control
11FTG Control
Fig.
rectangular cavity
4000
5000
noise
3.4
If
we
very
Direct Control of
turn to
thin,
Separation
separation on
only rely
we can
on
Pierre C. Perrier
318
will be
by
on
near
separation,
shape
separation and control of separation point.
The latter rely on the control of vorticity and helicity convected downstream by the shear layer generated at separation. This may be used for
modulation of vortex-induced flowfield on the boundary or self-induced
vortex breakdown location control (see Lopez, Perry, 1992). Both concepts are building enhancement or decrease of global turbulent energy
but more complex target is anticipated (see Wu, 1991; Yang, 1996)_
the reduction of the
Problems in Practical
of Flow Control
4.1
Systems
Introduction to
The scientific
Design
problems
Engineering
that
Problems
specificity.
The
problems
to be solved
are
to be
put in
general
framework
319
answer-
Problems of
4.2
Methodology
Conceptual studies: such studies has to cover the proof of concept work.
Industry and research teams have to organize coordinated research works
plus experiments to validate the concept and its technology. Less detailed
or subscale designs within relevant flow parameters range have to anticipate that operation will be easy to do and support and that operation
failures are conceptually not critical.
Feasibility studies: for such studies, experimental tests are needed with
reduced size and range of parameters but with a validation of extensions to real size and practical operational parameters. The economic
cost of fabrication, operation and environmental acceptance should also
be included. Of major concern are the uncertain evaluations relevant to
risk-performance affordability for the venture and the prediction of pro,
gramatic flexibility.
Development studies: such studies need a set of comprehensive simulation
tool by real life tests and/or virtual simulation of extreme conditions of
use, with and without failures in simulation, including man interaction.
These support the detailed design work and the necessary evaluation of
critical design points.
Fabrication and delivery.
parallel
to
of
an
random
perturbations,
natural multiscale
a
step in
Acceptance Program. It
is that
Pierre C. Perrier
320
new
level of
performance.
con-
ceptual studies and need collaboration of research and industry, from the conceptual studies to the training of users and vendors. The use of advanced design tools, including computational virtual products and experimental benchmarking of representative tests, are mandatory in the acceptance program by
certification authorities and users. Their evaluation, or at least the checking
of program consistency with in-time delivery, are to take place before internal industrial go-ahead, because the virtual demonstration of a new level of
mastering of flow, characteristic of "control," is a central issue. Clearly the
absolute mastering of complexity of real turbulent flows may remain for a long
time an incredible target. The practical experimental-numerical demonstration has to be done by reference to a passive, uncontrolled, no more totally
mastered "reference system."
Conceptual Methodology. Conceptual studies are the major location of
cooperation between industry and research because the real problem of conceptual methodology needs to be sufficiently focused on affordable
solutions. Otherwise, designs will be too costly either due to the cost of too
numerous and complex actuators and sensors or due to the cost and time involved in research studies. Conceptual studies are basically multi-disciplinary
studies. They ask for a multiscale approach not only in physics of flow and
scientific
hardware but
on
Sensor
Design
2. Local mode
stretching detector.
amplification detector.
3. Detector of
balance. of momentum
dissipation
in
and energy
bandwidth of wavenumbers.
production,
diffusion and
behavior,
the second
gives the receptivity to perturbations and active mastering from local actuator. The "approximate" sensors detect gradients in pressure, velocity or
density but generally in one dimension and not as a tensor, and heat fluxes or
bly
or
sensors are
sensors.
generally
321
assem-
"correct"
...
mation of the
...
intrinsically either of simple design (linear matrix of local command or control with a given outphasing
relative to local measurements) or much more complex with computation of
amplitude and phase of a set of actuators in a coordinated way. The simple controller uses a knowledge-based building of controlled variables. Some
good estimation of the state of the system may rely on neural network learning process and similarly on the side of controller output on a set of variables
given by an empirical semi-linear approach. One or two significant parameters may help to adjust control laws to variables conditions, so building a
feed-forward control, relying on those parameters measured in the incoming
ControHer
Specification. Controllers
are
speed and
Pierre C. Perrier
322
as a
of
need
and
an
sensors
cost,
In
or
paxticular
complete coherence
design
4.4
Fail Safe
An active system
the reduced
tive.
The
simplest system
more move.
is in
It is the safer
equipments).
or
The
triplication
Qualification. The
former
analysis
and
large
to be
are
good
switching-out procedures.
and
performances
control in active
Heuristic
ones
in
impact of failure.
Sensors, actuators and controller need
safe return to
for the
qualification:
operation
-
323
or non
or
in
degraded
as
systems with
mode.
to be replaced by deterministic
effects; e.g. neural network used
be replaced by deterministic codes giving
deterministic systems
are
preliminary
studies
are
to
external
at
in
trol
are
reliability
and
performances
of active flow
are
con-
using
it from the
robustness.
Parting
Remark
major output of the research for design and operation of future active and
passive control systems is an increase of knowledge of how multiscale flows
are working. Real unsteady flows are a mix of stochastic and deterministic
and of local and global behavior. Better knowledge of such multiscale flows
will help also to master better and to design the uncontrolled systems and
identify the real uncertainties and the real boundaries of safe operations of
One
324
Pierre C. Perrier
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(1995):
Trends in
Aerodynamics Design
and
Optimization-A
Mathe-
Tang, K.Y., Graham, W.R., Peraire, J. (1996): Active Flow Control Using a Reduced Order Model and Optimum Control. 27th AIAA Fluid Dynamics Conference, AIAA
Paper No.
96-1946.
Terent'ev
Jets-Vortex Control.
Phys. Fluids.
334
Pierre C. Perrier
35(3),
571-574.
Yang, J., Ghia, K.N., Ghia, U., Osswald, G.A. (1993): Management of Dynamic
Stall Phenomenon Through Active Control of Unsteady Sepaxation. AIAA Shear
Flow Conference, AIAA Paper No. 93-3284.
Zaman, K.B. (1994): Effect of Delta Tabs on Mixing and Axis Swelling. AIAA
Heinrich E. Fiedler
Technische UniversWit
nik,
M-dUer-Breslau-Str. 8, D-10623
In the fourth part combinations of classical free flows and of free and wall-bounded
flows--complex scenaxios of growing practical interest-are dealt with. Some of
their characteristics
are
possibilities
axe
shown.
I
1.1
Basics and
Principles
Introduction
and
insight
into
flow control mechanisms: Nature has-over many millenia of optimizationachieved and developed some amazingly elegant and efficient ways of flow
control, the most widely known ones being the control of wing-flow of birds
and the drag reduction mechanisms found with aquatic animals-particularly
the dolphin and the shark. Some of the underlying principles are as yet still
incompletely investigated and understood.
In recent time this topic has again been revived for two reasons: It is on
the one hand a scientifically logical extension of the coherent structures research of the last two decades, and on the other hand the need for improved
technical processes wherever a turbulent flow is involved, as well as the ubiquitous necessity for reduced energy consumption (e.g. drag reduction), which
has economical as much as ecological implications. In the following we shall
discuss major developments of recent in some depth. We shall-after a general introduction of the physical phenomena and principles involved-discuss
specific flow scenarios in the light of their susceptibility to certain ways of
control.
1.2
Description-Typology
and Characterization
question
some
basic
understandings
is:
Heinrich E. Fiedler
336
What
are
readily given:
aries. A
more
are
flows with
a mean
specifics:
To
simplify and standardize the infinite number of possible flow configlong time been customary to distinguish between three
classical abstractions, which are sketched in Fig. 1. They may be seen as basic building blocks or moduls of essentially all more complex configurations.
urations it has for
Control Versus
1.3
Management
relatively
('tailoring')
-
given flow
to fit
in windtunnels to suppress
scribed structure, or
to simulate
an
desired
specification,
as
background turbulence,
or
by
9
e.g.
or
to create
pre-
investigations
in architectural
Some
honeycombs. Figure
2 shows
Yajnik
and
Acharya 1977;
Nieberle
1986).
JET
_U0.T--
337
WAKE
All
MIXING
P:;=
LAYER
---),--x
+-COMBINATIONS THEREOF
Fig.
Some History
1.4
Obviously, control
Since when dates
chronological
-
is based
our
on
detailed
knowledge
knowledge
of those? Here
of turbulent structures.
are some
cornerstones in
succession:
v.
Heinrich E. Fiedler
338
xcdDG--100
YO.,
a)
YOS
x
3%
x/D=75
X/D_-St 6
100 -x.,1Dr,=100
Y03
YO-5
1%
x/D=75
x/D=5t6
x
/Ds=100
YO)
yu
0%
__
----4X
DOE
E]nr
r-ir
OLO-5
tz
x/D=75-
xlD=70.3
Fig.
jet:
an
example
of flow management
(Nieberle 1986).
that it is
provided and signified progress. Thus, from 1960 on we obphenomenology, which, among other things, led to the
conditional
of
sampling methods in experimentation and, in this
development
context, to the discovery of coherent structures as a backbone of turbulence.
Those coherent structures are, as we shall see, the major links to flow control.
Without, however, knowing about those specific elements, quite spectacular observations of dynamic flow control have been reported already more
than one hundred years ago. The famous description by Tyndall (1867) relates to the observation by Leconte (1858) and extends it to a multitude
methods which
serve a
of
renaissance of
gaseous
339
liquid jets alike. It was only after many years that the topic was then
taken up again by Brown (1935), who undertook a thorough study of jet
flow and its sensitivity to sound, observing, describing and explaining many
of the amazing consequences of sinusoidal excitation on jet flow, that were
then again re-visited and deepened some thirty years later. And then there
and
is the Coanda
(1934) effect,
which is based
on
flows, relating
(deflection) of free turbulent flows
of true wall bounded flows are
control
of
walls.
Early examples
by neaxby
the
Dubuat's paradox (Dubuat 1779), where
drag of a plate was found to
depend on the nature of the flow, i.e. whether the plate or the fluid was at
to the influence
turbulent
rest. Here
described
by
Prandtl
use
of
(1914),
trip-wire
to achieve
premature
transition
boundary layer
was
suction
as
separation.
Only after ca. 1970 there seems to be renewed interest and activity for
questions of flow control. This is clearly a consequence of the by then improved knowledge about the dominating structures in turbulent motion and
their handling and on the other hand of the economic and ecologic needs
which in this decade became an issue of worldwide recognition. Some of the
recent developments are summerized in reviewers by Fiedler and Fernholz
(1991a),
Next
Fernholz
we
(1993)
(1986).
1.5
improvements of flow
of
Control
processes in view of
tectmology,
ecology and economy. Since the use of control methods is mainly in industrial applications the demand for reliability provides a limiting condition of
priority.
In free turbulent flows there
are
three
principal
areas
for control
applica-
tion:
1.
Mixing
2. Noise
3. Entrainment
mixing and
its
Heinrich E. Fiedler
340
production: Source of aerodynamic noise is the non-linear dynamamalgamation process of coherent structures (Laufer 1983;
Alichalke 1978). Its underlying mechanism is, therefore, connected to the
large scales of the turbulent motion and thus directly amenable to control.
Here the major interest is in the reduction of noise production, where typical applications are in airplane technology and in air-conditioning. The
wish for increase of noise would be the exception, however conceiveable
for whistles, sirens or in the design of actuators for-again-flow control.
Note: Noise compensation by counter-noise is not flow control in the strict
2. Noise
ics of the
sense
!
the effect of which has
probably
recognized by
(1934) (coanda effect). It is primarily the
consequence of large scale mechanisms, its control is, therefore, possible
by direct means.
Among the many conceiveable applications of this effect the two major
ones are probably separation control and localized cooling, e.g. by jet
vectoring (see in Chap. 2). Some examples sketched in Fig. 3a/b.
3. Entrainment.- This is
phenomenon,
Coanda.
first been
According
(see
-
What Mean
1.6
to control
theory
the
simple,
we
distinguish
justments based
on
principles
(1979))
control, which
measurements
or
observations of
some
kind,
and
NOISE, MIXING
341
ENTRAINMENTI
I
Fig.
3.
a) Examples
ENTRAINMENT,
of control
application.
more
tinuous
elaborate CLOSED
adjustment
is
to maintain the
output
as
close
as
possible
to
desired value. A
special
'unstable', i.e. when any deviation is amplified (a situation which in common understanding is known as a
feedback). A feedback situation, which may be external or internal, is charac-
situation of
(b)
loop
is
and is-in
a
general-a
non-linear
signal
342
Heinrich E. Fiedler
(REDUCED) MIXING
ENTRAINMENT
ENTRAINMENT
DEFLECTION
7-77
C)
PRESSUR
7 B TILN
VIBRAT10ifl
Fig.
3.
b) Examples
of control
application.
controller H
plant G,
343
a)
M,
plant,
or
system I C
controlled
G1.
power
ol lerH E
measuring
device
if
controller H
C1
b)
Fig.
4. Block
diagrams of control
circuits:
a)
open
and input signal are of opposite phase a negative (or degenerative) feedback.
If both signals are of equal phase the feedback is positive (or regenerative).
As an example let us consider a plane mixing layer (the PLANT), which
is
I .the
frequency generator
(e.g.
the
sured at
2. the
RMS-output)
some
forcing
as
amplitude
periodic fluctuations, mea-
some
station in the
flow,
characteristic
or,
to drive
can
be
signal
(via amplifier)
is
case
feedback
an
provided by pressure
waves or
mechanical vibra-
wave
Up
'feedback-characteristic' length, Up
in the flow
(the 'structure'), f
(by
velocity
representing the number
2, 3,
of sound
...
of
loop.
various authors
where L is
the
amplifier, by
tions of the
by
(filtered)
unit
is controlled
which the
wave
of
is
phase velocity
transported upstream),
waves.
of the
feedback frequency,
and
1,
Heinrich E. Fiedler
344
This
can
be
expressed
as a
SF
with Ma
Uo/Up
+ Ma
The role of
CURVATURE
SENSORS
Fig.
ACTUATORS
5. Airfoil with
of
flows evokes
are
coherent
(CS)?
morphic
We may describe them as characteristic transient, metastructural entities or scenarios of quasi-regular repetition and exis-
tence
duration
structures
or
turnover times
over a
distinct
period
of time,
comparable to
few of their
(Fiedler 1988a).
those manifestations
measured in
as
an
w. COHERENT
VECTORMELD
Lr COHERENT
to its visual
U' STOCHASTIC
"a
.
'Zz
where the
manifestation,
U'V COHERENT
U0
345
Loot
kco
Pglki
LM _
ME
Zi
----
- -----
too
Leo
Mal
Z-.
N 'q9_
kcc
.0
Leo
WR
133
UT
-,U
-0,0
Cal
-W
A33
Q3
.167
-GA,
.11,
doa
-03
1 How
can a mean
profile
number of
questions, like:
be unstable?
Here
are
qualities,
e.g. shear
stress, is coherent?
(1) mean flow profile instability (leading to formation of coherent structures) may be understood when viewing it as a real flow profile with superimposed noise, of typical wave lengths an order
the instability wave, and therefore decoupled.
of
(2)
coherent energy
Heinrich E. Fiedler
346
Ecoherent/Etotal
Flow
mixing layer
jet
axisymmetric far jet
near
near
wake
25%
>25 %
10%
25%
20%
far wake
and for
20%
comparison:
<10 %
of
influencing
Flow stability, that is to say the stability of the coherent structures, obviously provides the key to control. It is responsible for such mechanisms
as the larninar/turbulent transition, as well as for the origin (the creation)
and to
as
some
extent the
consequence of the
FREE FLOW
347
1P
U2
Lh
DIFFUSION
PRODUCTION
scale
transverse
structure
small scale
large
longitudinal
structure
WALL FLOW
U,
c
qection
Streaks
117.717777
PRODUCTION
DFFUSION
(small scale)
Fig.
(large scale)
arylayer)
(bound-
flows.
can
manifest in various
of many,
major
and
more
regions of
reverse
flow.
is concerned
There
(see
are
also Monkewitz
1989).
Heinrich E. Fiedler
348
upstream-
I
T
Fig. 8. Amplification of
bility.
upstream-
downstream
perturbation
at
(a)
-downstream
convective- and
(b)
absolute insta-
of
tions -become
ties
are
often indicative of
amplifier
and Sohn
or as an
system behaves
as an
global
externally excitable
response
Monkewitz
1986).
Finally there are 'mixed' situations, where a flow has locally limited regions of absolute instability. Those may lead to a self excited global response
in
in
However, transient times in true feedback cases are typically shorter and the
flow is more easily irLfluenced by external forcing.
349
in
1. The
2.
position where the mean velocity profile is most unstable: The mean
velocity profile of a separating flow immediately at or downstream of the
trailing edge (nozzle) is still very much a wall boundary layer profile.
It needs a certain time, to develop into the more unstable "free" profile
(NEchalke 1972, 1990) and
where a given (absolute) perturbation provides maximum relative perturbation. This is the case for minimum profile thickness.
that
near
reasons
mammum
Fig.
9. Locus of maximum
receptivity in
mixing layer.
Rom this
provide
picture
way of
Heinrich E. Fiedler
350
Since control of turbulent flow is often synonymus with control of turquestion as to its efficiency may best be answered by
looking at the Major structural constituents and their specific role in the
flow-e.g. large scale for noise production and small scale for mixing. Thus
the problem reduces to the question of possible minimum- and maximum
states (saturation values of thoses structures, their specific stability (receptivity) and their interaction. What can be accomplished then depends on the
role of the structure under control in the physical process. Thus mixing, being
mainly controlled by small scale turbulence, may be increased by, say, 100 %
or more by destruction or deformation of the large coherent structures. At the
same tune effects of comparable magnitude are observed in noise reduction,
which is a direct consequence of the large. scales and their amalgamations.
Major limitations are by the fact that most control mechanisms affect the
flow only in a limited spatial range, which is particularly true for evolving
configurations as e.g. the turbulent jet, which develops from a wall boundary
layer first into a mixing layer and only asymptotically to its final state.
Distinction is often made between:
-
As
additives).
general
scale structures
mixing)
rule
we
(except
additives).
is therefore in most
cases
only
on
large
(important
for
way of control-
Depending on what
expected we may select
How
have
the
'place'
applied
(not
are
to be
we
method of control is
Laminar
flow
L/T
Fig.
351
Turbulence
-
Transition
Coherent
structures
'along'
the flow
Random
motion
development.
Control via
boundary
mostly done by winglets-leading to formation of longitusubsequent breakup of CS, by nozzle-/trailing edge shapes
Static control is
of
cause
stabilization
necessity
cases
or
come
into
destabilization of
of flow
play
confinement,
sense.
large
structures. Those
where the
primary flow
is
by
longer a
cases are
no
an
important
feature.
Of
flow
via
Heinrich E. Fiedler
352
premature transition of
laminar flow
or
to
breakup (randomization)
of
already turbulent.
inhomogeneities of the mean flow may have strong effects when influencing the stability characteristics (e.g. the'control cylinder'see Chap. 2)
While modification of the turbulence level provides only relatively small
effects (which, incidentally, may to some extent be rather considered as flow
management), control by tailoring the fluid characteristics may be more effective. A fluid is basically described by its density and its viscosity. Effects
from changing those chaxacteristics are well known; they are not control Parameters in the proper sense, as they provide direct access to the flow development (see 1.2). Additives, on the other hand, are perfect examples of
control agents. They act indirectly, where. strong effects are achieved with extremely small amounts of additives. Those additives suppress the small scale
structures in a turbulent flow, thereby reducing the dissipation rate of the
larger structures, which are thus stabilized. Bulk effects are a reduced spread
Slight
distortion
or
(which may be a desired feature for water jets) and a considerable reduction
of friction in boundary layers. This is known as Toms' effect (Toms 1948).
Figure
11 shows
as an
10-1
5
Prandtl
2
0
'Flo
0
:r_I
-2-
Hagen-P
Surf=tcnt
P-
.2
Habon
8rnM
80 Ic
L-
LL
2
10
'PP'
62.5 125
-313
10
Virk
SYMkMt
1
104
Reynoldsnumber
Fig.
Combinations.
Only
so
on
10*5
Re
friction factor in
numerous
pipe ffow.
conceiveable combinations
cases
increased effects
353
1.7
Compressibility
sense
that
Question of Effictency
LS
or Z$
it Worth the
Effort?
There
two different
are
aspects
1. A certain condition
is
to this
question:
to be met.-
case
the
to the
to be achieved-not with
Reliability
is
tions. However:
1.9
tified
-
a limiting condition, as is-in most cases-cost considerabreaking even is not always the important question!
as
given
flow is determined
by
its
stability
char-
acteristics
-
control is
be active
other
or
via the
-
control of small
control
are
outlined in the
13, 14).
the
354
Heinrich E. Fiedler
FLOW
DYNAMICS
(BLIND ROUTE)
BREAKUP OF CS
REDUGED SPREAD
Fig.
REDUCED NOISE
-INCREASEIDECREASE-F(f)
PU. ED:;SMALj.SCALe.:MIxjNQ
Fig.
condition.
Fig.
(polymere
additives
355
(Toms' effect).
Jets& Wakes
2
2.1
visualizations.
increasingly
particular
in the
case
are
Heinrich E. Fiedler
356
SUPERSONIC JET
Fig.
still
15.
a)
Jets-some visualizations.
configurations
-
we
distinguish between
Another distinction is
-
by geometry,
the
where
we
have
357
15.
b)
Wakes-some visualizations.
three-dimensional
variations and
Finally there
are
radial forms of
received
Next
detail.
we
some
which,
to the
knowledge
of this
author, only
the
jet
has
attention,
configurations-jets
and wakes-in
more
358
Heinrich E. Fiedler
C,
Def.:
qD
C, =Co>O
0<
C1<CO:
C,=O;co> 0:
Sp-
I-Sp.
C1<O;CO>O;1C11=1C :
C1<O;C >O;1C1[>1C4:
Fig.
2.2
16. Classification of
Stagnation point).
Jets
stimulation
is the
case
as
or
359
REGION
IRAnIhNI
rULLT
KtUIUN
Ur_*-Urru
rLUM
Fig.
17. Jet
regions.
easily controlled over a limited downstream range by various methods, e.g. by dynamic control, as by periodic forcing at one or more
frequencies of the flow near the nozzle exit-with its characteristic manifestations of 'flapping', 'blooming' and 'pulsating'; and by static control, which is
essentially imposed onto the flow by the nozzle geomety. Another possibility
of exerting some influence on the flow behaviour is provided by the turbulence
level of the primary stream. There are yet other possibilities of controlling
the jet via its entrainment flow e.g. by a different density of the entrained
medium. Jet development may be also influenced by a 'tailored' external
flow (e.g. a jet in a diffusor flow). Finally there is the control mechanism of
additives, particularly in the primary stream.
Many of these aspects have been investigated and a host of information
may be found in the literature. Essential for understanding of the phenomena
observed are the basic stability characteristics which lead to the dominant
vortex rings, line vortices, single- and multi-helices etc.-see
structures
Fiedler
(1988a). A great number of investigations reported in the ree.g.
two
decades, have provided us with a relatively detailed picture
cent, say,
of the coherent structures in the near-jet and in particular the characteristic
phenomenon of the preferred mode (e.g. Crow and Champagne 1977; ArmJets
can
be
Heinrich E. Fiedler
360
3-D
ROUND
PLANE
RADIAL
RADIA
Fig.
jet geometries.
et al.
1986).
Most studies
concerned with
some
depth.
The technical
in
jet engines,
in burners and
is obvious:
they
are
found
for material
cutting and
conditioning,
erosion
(manufacturing),
361
are
hancement
by
many
(ejectors)
(1976),
man
Kibens
and Toda
(1980),
(1969),
were
discussed
Roffet al.
(1986).
Some
Goals. When
control fife
1. control of laminar-turbulent,
2. control of
3. control of
of
jet
transition,
a question of mixing
symmetric-of jet-deflection, is also known as 'vectoring'.
and control applications in fluidics.
or-when
not
5.
immediately
layer
boundary
applications
that
this
turbulent
the
at
become
will
be
have
so
nozzle
the
in
trailing edge
laminar
of
Premature
transition
a
control aspect is rather limited,
boundary
layer is usually achieved by tripping devices (trip wire or the like in the
nozzle near the exit plane). The importance of the condition of the separating
bondary layer is in the subsequent evolution of the turbulent mixing layer
and in paxticular its mixing potential.
MiXtng is one of the most important aspects of jet flow control. It is central for combustion as well as in chemical engineering and wherever diffusive
processes play a dominat role. Mixing is related to the size of the contact
surface between the species to be mixed. Good mixing is achieved when this
contact surface is maximized, which is the case at small turbulent scales.
Control of mixing therefore has to aim at controlling the small scale structure of turbulence, which is typically possible only by indirect means via a
forced breakup of the controllable large scales.
So far we have no generally accepted criterion for the quantification of
turbulent mixing on the basis of flow- or turbulence characteristics and some
criteria used are questionable. As an example, the often used spread rate
of the mean flow is not always a useful criterion for turbulent mixing: In
periodically excited flows strong spread is observed in regions of formation of
large vortices, which are relatively stable and therefore rather suppress the
small scale mixing process.
L- T- Transition control is concerned with the state of the flow
at
or near
the
Heinrich E. Fiedler
362
Noise
production is understood
teractions of large-scale (coherent)
experience
region, where consequently also the
strongest source of noise is found. Noise is thus a large scale effect and can
be controlled (reduced) directly by tailored upstream boundary conditions
designed for premature breakup of those structures.
their strongest manifestations in the
core
numbers given in
approximately
Fig.
round
owing
at
d--
-X
V-
12.8
44.5
17.0
79.0
21.3
124.0
V,
d(V. /
-
d(x / d)
0235
(roundjit)
0225
Fig.
ume
flux
-JX-/d (Planeiet)
plane jet.
multiple
of vol-
Fig.
(taken
fo
A flow visualization
from Van
showing
20
Dyke 1982).
on
Stability and Structures. Figure 21 shows the neutral stability curves for
jet and mixing layer (core region of the jet) flow as given by Joseph (1976).
Obviously, the critical Reynolds numbers are at very low values, which shows
that technologically interesting jets will be typically turbulent from the nozzle
on.
Fig.
round
363
jet.
Fig. 22, which was given by Michalke (1972), demonstrates the influence of the Reynolds number on the stability of the Ith (helical) instability mode in the axisymmetric far jet. Again, for most cases of
practical or technological interest only the dashed line giving the distribuThe
diagram
tion for Re
oo
in
0 A 1 For a jet in
instability based on the jet momentum thickness 0 is Se
still surrounding this leads to a Strouhal number based on the downstream
0.5. The stability for different modes depending on the
coordinate of S.,
mean velocity proffle shape as expressed by the ratio i9IR (where 19 denotes
again the momentum thickness of the velocity profile and R its half velocity
radius) is given in Fig. 23. We find that the near jet is unstable for both, the
Oth (symmetric) and the 1st mode, while the far jet is only unstable for the
=
Ist mode.
According
to the
specific instability
behaviour
as
discussed above
we ex-
results of
as
well
as some
mechanisms and
by Boundary Conditions. The region which can be conupstream boundary conditions is relatively limited, extending
the core region, i.e. the first few diameters downstream
over
approximately
Static Control
trolled
by static
of the nozzle.
in
Fig.
even
24.
sup-
Heinrich E. Fiedler
364
1.4
1.2
(a)
1-0
0.8
Bickley jet
13ickley
Sh r laye r
Shearlayer
110.6
(a)
co entional C
Orr-Sommerfeld equation
(a) Conventional
Modified
d
Orr-S
(b )M
(b)
Orr-Somirkierfeld
equation
0.4
:1
(b)
0.2
to
-70
30
40
Fig.
21. Neutral
stability
curves
pressing the formation of the large coherent structures by introducing threedimensionalities directly (by vortex generators) or indirectly by non-circular
or non-symmetrical nozzle shapes: The primary structures which are forming past a non circular nozzle are unstable and are quickly distorted and
disrupted
Control
measures
as
is sketched in
of this nature
are
Fig.
24.
to increase
the
Another way to control turbulence in a liquid jet is by introducing addi(long chain polymeric molecules-e.g. 'Sapran, Tolyox') into either the
jet flow, the entrained fluid or in both. A major effect of this is the damping
tives
of small
scales, which
in turn
provides
con-
365
0.020
Proffle 4
R/O
0.015
Sx
2.185.
_
1")
SxJ
4.3 5
Se
0.5
// Re=0.010
257.4
128-7
-ai E)
0.005
12 7-2
64.4
0
0.111-0.11
0.2
0.3
S =WO/U
a
max
Fig.
22. Influence of
Reynolds
M.
stability
of the
sequently reduces the spread. This effect is strongest when the additives are
only in the jet fluid and smallest when it is only in the entrained fluid (Gyr
1997).
Density inhomogeneities,
equalized.
(temperatures)
of jet- and
density
differences
care
of
are
by
influence, since
quickly decaying
a
shifted virtual
origin.
is, however, a strong dynamic effect when Piet /Pambient < 0.72: Self
0.44-0.47
periodicity of stable frequency of Strouhal number S
and high stability against external perturbation sets in as the flow is becoming absolute unstable. This effect is accompanied by formation of strong
sidejets and a stepwise spread of the the visual jet diameter (scalar) however
insignificant changes in velocity distribution and entrainment (Fig. 26).
Absolute instability in a jet achieved by upstream control was demonstrated by Strykowski and Niccum (1991), who applied suction in a circumferential slit around the jet nozzle, thereby creating a shear layer profile immediately downstream of the nozzle which fulfills the condition for absolute
instability for a mixing layer (Fig. 27).
There
sustained
Dynamic
Control via
Boundary Conditions
may be stochastic
or
pe-
riodic:
Stochastic control is
in
desired
direction,
scarcely used
as
since it is neither
overly
effective
nor
given flow
specific.
It is
Heinrich E. Fiedler
366
small EVR
-->
dominating
I
large E)/R -+ few modes,
stable against Oth mode
-Y
dominating-,
1 st mode
LU
FAR JET:
0.015
V
0.01
0.005
-CLi
M=1
/A
0
Profile 2
R / E)
-G.005
2.5
Prof Re .4
R/E)
2.19
-0.01
0
0.3
0.2
0.1
wE)/U.
Fig. 23. Spatial growth rates of Oth and
0.5
0.4
0.7
0,6
1984).
more
often
an
consequences. Its
entrainedon
or
the
high and
would
only like
preferably a high
primary jet fluid. The comparatively weak
as
to know its
means are
level is
one
well
as on
effect depends
same
order of magnitude
as
the structural
global
spread, which
in
effect in
essence
amounts to
367
Forms:
31-
Vortex-dynamics
triangular jet9
e-
Fig.
24.
Non-symmetric
nozzle
forms, and
vortex
dynamics
of
primary
structure
E111PUCIet
-
seZons
'-
AQ,
000
IJ
IJ
X/Dh
Fig.
Ho and Gutmark
1987).
Heinrich E. Fiedler
368
'6T
D
'Cr
C3
one
Poo
10
Et_
x1D
absolutely unstable jet (after Monkewitz
Fig.
Fig.
Niccum
The
et al.
1990.)
(Strykowsld
and
1991).
more
turbulent jet is
dynamically controlling
by
amplitude
man-
369
ifestation of the.
---
Control of the
preferred
shear
core
region (x/d
mode:
0.2 <
layer mode:
plane jet:
< 0.6
region
-0
SX,MI.X fE--/Umax(x)
(asymmetile. mode) (Fig. 29)
(Ist
Attenuation of turbulence
Fig.
6):
fEd/UO
0.8 <
Hussain
<
was
=:
fEx/U.,,x(x),;z:
helica-i
0.5
mode)
observed at
and
1981).
28. Round
Wehrmann
1964).
Heinrich E. Fiedler
370
b)
a)
unexcited
excited
xS
Sxs" fEXSIUo'w1-O
Fig.
jets with Ist mode excitation. (a) Averaged spread (from Korschelt
(b) trajectory of deflected jet (from Hilberg 1996).
29. Plane
1980 and
Osthues
are
achieved. This
was
demonstrated
1986)-
1995).
Many of other specific effects can be achieved by forcing with single frequencies or frequency combinations, as e.g. the so called 'blooming' or 'bi-/
tri-/ n-furcation' by double mode excitation as was reported by Lee and
Reynolds (1985) (see Fig. 31) or the deflection of a jet ('vectoring') by forcing only part of the jet's circumference and thereby causing an asymmetrical
distribution of the entrainment, strength.
We summarize the effects achieved by periodic forcing as follows:
-
Periodic
forcing leads
d
Fig.
371
30. Deformation of
(small amplitude).
a:
no
--
-2/2-after
Major
-
Paschereit et al.
consequences
(1992)
are:
non-linear-locally increased-spread
influence
on
creasing)
Special
At
effects achieved:
deflection
forcing by
subharmonic
resonance
effects of control
by periodic forcing
are
achieved.
Most
372
Heinrich E. Fiedler
blooming jet
-->
............
Vortex
let
ring
(b)
(a)
(d)
(C)
2.3
excitation
(Lee
Wakes
Wakes in
constant
multitude of modal
the two-dimensional
varicose
are
nized with
towards
velocity
case
the two
373
(Fig. 32).
JNEAR KE
CD
FD
(2
RU.
Sz:0.2lc,,3"
(cylinder)
-::"l
FAR WAKE:
Fig.
Goals. There
terest. This is
are
32. Wakes:
three
PLANE:
symmetric / varicose
ROUND:
multiple
mode
modes
is of in-
Heinrich E. Fiedler
374
Reduction of drag
(reducing
of vortex
suppression
tical problem, and
increase
or
reduction of heat
transfer-again
medium
Reynolds
are
numbers. Let
Reynolds-Number
us
an
energy
also of technological
therefore look at
Reynolds number
problem.
importance
some
at low
characteristics
ranges:
Effects
limited
(46)
possible
possible.
up to 90 is
Suppression
shedding
preferably by periodicity
Synchronization of vortex shedding by periodic excitation is possible.
There is a limited possibility of suppression of
vortex shedding by periodic excitation with large
amplitudes.
Excitation of separated shear layers in the neax wake
with high frequenc forcing may be useful.
Stationary methods to influence the near-wake
stability, (base bleeding, control wire) is superior to dynamic methods
of vortex
is
Control is
Stability Characteristics of the Near Wake. They depend on the geometry of the wake producing body. As an example let us consider only the
near wake behind a circular disc, which-according to Berger et al. (1990) is
dominated by three instability modes (Fig. 33):
-
The
SSL
-
JsLDIU; -,
The Low
Sp
'shear
High Requency
--:::::
--
0.5
Frequency 'pumping
mode':
0.05
controlling the
near
;: -,
are
0. 135
or
passively
wake flow:
or
375
Shear
Layer Instability
f, sj
0; 1;
190 Hz
2
Bubble
mode
m
f,
pumping
0 mode dominant
2 Probes HW
r,
or
5 Hz
f
--
0,,, '_
r2
VP2
P2
U_
D= 20
'2
r2
cm
'
=0
.
.
.!
.. '
Z15m/s
Helical
f,
Recirculation Bubble
Fig.
circular
disk-(a)
rn
Three
Vortex
=
12
1 mode
regions/modes
Structure
15 Hz
dominant
of
instability; (b)
1 excitation.
By the second kind the flow field is slightly modified such that the coninstability are violated and the flow becomes only conThis
unstable.
vectively
group encompasses control of the density field by
the
of
body (in gas flows) or cooling it (in liquid) and the control
heating
discussed
wire as
by Strykowski and Sreenivasan (1990).
ditions for absolute
are
Reynolds
high-technologically
sheedding
suppression
numbers,
relevant-Reynolds numbers (e.g. masts, chimneys, offshore structures) is
effective
of Vortex
at
Heinrich E. Fiedler
376
0.2
----------------
000
65
95
00
110
-0.2
Cb-
.10
I
-0.4
'0
-0.6 -1
10
25
45
105
125
145
165
Re-
Fig.
Schumm
1991).
velocity, U,,.
free-stream
velocity,
slit
Cb
(UblU,,.)
hight, D
suction
(h1D).
cylinder (wakes)
-
Ub
(after
control
diameter.
Dynamic
be controlled
by external periodicity.
Stability
convectively
therefore, as was only recently shown by Wygnanski et al.
(1986), be dynamically controlled to the same degree as the mixing layer,
where again the characteristic three regions (1, 11, 111) as described by Fiedler
et al. (1981) are found. An obvious practical aspect to this is the inherent
possibility of changing the signature of wake- producing (aquatic) vehicles.
unstable. It
can
Static Control. In
Dynamic
practical
Control. Stochastic
and Fink
causes
(1978)- Fig.
jet, the
increase of the
Since, however,
a
this is
36.
sense
the
structures
Structure
deformation,
longitudinal
377
larger
production body
periodic rotation of the wake production body
periodic blowing/suction through slots in the body's
transverse vibration of the wake
surface.
Heinrich E. Fiedler
378
15
10
Y1/2
0.
D=
D=
10mm 20rr
no
gridl
grid
qrid 2
500
Specifies
of external turbulence.
PI-JU,=A(x/M)-",
A/M
Grid
=C(x1M)0
1000
X/e.
K(CM)
1.53
0.158
0.613
0-100
0358
10.00
0.397
0.688
0238
0155
stream
on mean
spread
of
is not located at
some
monic(s).
Still, a reduction of the coherent energy by approx. 40 % can be
while the stochastic energy content remains essentially unaffected
al.
achieved,
(Heine
et
1997).
2.4
interesting and revealing to compare and juxtapose the different beexposed to periodic excitations of, say, the Oth,
above. Obviously, the effect of forcing a
discussed
mode
Ist
the
was
as
or
structure must depend to a large extent on the ratio between vortex velocity and the velocity by which the structures are transported (other than by
their own induction). Or to be more specific: the velocity field of the jet in
It is
379
FEEDBACK
PROBE
U *
ANEMOMETER
BAND PASS
FILTER
ANIPLIFIER
Fig.
1.4
PHASE SHIFTER
Consequently,
field.
excitation of
jet
structure is of
comparatively strong
effect.
wake, with
its
themselves constitute
as
shown in
Heinrich E. Fiedler
380
higly unstable flow for R > 1.4 where control by periodic forcing at reasonable amplitudes is of no visible effect, since the random motion of the flow in
the stagnation region is of high amplitude, thereby causing phase scrambling
of any periodic wave imposed onto the flow. For R < 1.4 the jet immediately
wraps around the nozzle and creates a wake of some receptivity to periodic
A
Mixing Layers
Mixing layers have for long time been the favourite objects for turbulence
researchers, surpassed in the number of papers devoted to them only by
those on wall boundary layers. This is easily understood since the mixing
layer represents the cleanest scenario for a free turbulent, non-decaying flow,
being somewhat of a hybrid between jet and wake. For both flows the mixing
layer provides the first configuration of transient and finite extent. General
introductions and surveys on mixing layers were given by Birch and Eggers
Fiedler et al.
(1988b),
Browand and
Ho
3.1
Mixing layers
are
basic
building
blocks of
large variety
plane mixing layer between parallel streams of 'infinite' extent and the axisymmetric layer-two flows of limited self similarity-see Fig. 38. In the
general case the layer is formed between two streams of different velocity U,
and U2 (< Ul) showing linear spread in the case of constant pressure. There
is sufficient experimental support for the general validity of a transformation
widely known as the 'Abramovich-Sabin-rule' (Abramovich 1963; Sabin
1963) -by which the results for mixing layers between stream of different
ratios U2/U1 can be reduced and generalized. Introducing a velocity param-
eter A
general
(Ul
case
U2)/(Ul
U2)
to be described
AUIZU
we
by
b
Abo
gives
some
width of the
single
stream
381
parallel primary
extended, following a growing interest in'more complex configurations and their control. Thus, constraining and distorting geometries
were looked into and finally the study of general three-dimensional mixing
layers between two non-parallel streams in parallel planes was taken up.
streams
on
was
%Y)
X
......
Jet:
Step:
WQke:
.
.
.
..
Building:
other,
more
Purpose of Control-Goals
3.2
There
are numerous
blocks of
enhancement
or
locally,
or
examples
as
mixing layer
ones are
reduction of turbulent
i.e. 'tailored to
tive processes
-
modification
modelling
or
and
control of entrain-ment,
as
well
as
for
which is
closely
related to
structures. This
provides
Heinrich E. Fiedler
382
1.0
U2
15%111%
dx
de
-6W
0.2
db
dx
0.16k
0.5
0.
0.032 X
dx
-0.1
o.f'*-,
Y-Yo
X-X,
MONENTUM TIRCKNESS:
E)
fU-U,
U'-U'
I-
control of noise
Since,
as we
have
VORTICrry TFUCKNESS:
(U-U,
dy
5.
ALT1.2
(I
au/-
/ dy
velocity characteristics
mean
1-)
and
-1
WU)TH:
b
yo.,
YO.95
spread parameters
of the
production
already
have seen, control is essentially based on manipumaldng use of the stability characteristics of the
controlled,
Stability and
3.3
we
Structures
A mixing layer
provides a perfect example for a Rayleigh-unstable flow. Figoamplification curves for various velocity ratios-expressed by
the How parameter A, as obtained by Monkewitz and Huerre (1982) for spatial
amplification of a laminar flow. Its applicability to a turbulent flow was shown
by Gaster and Kit and Wygnanski (1985). Obviously the one-stream layer
(A 1) is the most unstable configuration. The value for maximum amplification is gradually reduced for lower values of A, approaching the temporal
amplification curve for A ---> 0.
The evolving coherent structures, appear in a comparatively simple scenario, as can be seen in shadowgrapbic. flow visualizations (Fig. 41). Many
streakline visualizations have shown the typical spanwise structures of large
scale and the superimposed longitudinal vortices, where the latter are often
triggered and their spacing determined by minute upstream irregularities in
ure
40 shows
==
the
turbulent
383
0.1
ai
X
0.05
0 _F
0
Fig.
40.
61
Amplification
62
-a,
vs.
frequency,
0.7,
as
curves
Huerre
d-t
follows:
(after
w
-
for
A
Monkewitz and
primary
structure is
parallel to the trailing edge, which forms as a conseRayleigh-instability of the basic flow. Those primary structures are
called 'rollers'. Soon after their formation, secondary instability sets in, which
leads to their spanwise undulation, followed by the formation of secondary
structures, so called 'streaks. Those are longitudinal counterrotationg vorthe line vortex with axis
quence of
tex
pairs with
length)
average
of the rollers. A
is shown in
Fig.
42.
Although beyond an overall Reynolds number of order Re,, > 105 the
global rate of spread of the flows seems to have achieved its asymptotic,
Re-independent value (Birch and Eggers 1972) there is a 'diffusion critical
Reynolds number' (defined by Konrad 1977),
'AU2
Re,6,crit
1,2
ay
104
max
below which turbulent mixing is at a very low level. This critical Reynolds
number was first determined from the 'unmixedness' distribution and is related to the
in
Fig.
43
development
(after
Dimotakis
1991).
as
shown
Heinrich E. Fiedler
384
Fig.
41.
Roshko
Shadowgraph
of
1974).
IU-
Iu
Fig. 42.
1986.)
Control via
3.4
385
Boundary Conditions
In the
Upstream. The condition of the separating splitter-plate boundlayer is the most basic parameter of influence for the evolving mixing
layer, a condition which had been overlooked in many early investigations
and gave rise to controversies. Only as late as in the 70's Batt (1975) and
Foss (1977) investigated the different developments of turbulent mixing layers starting from laminar and from turbulent (tripped) wan boundary layers.
Later investigations concerning the effect of splitter plate geometry and of
the boundary layer(s) were done by Hussain and Zedan (1978a), Hussain and
Static
ary
Zedan
(1978b),
(1985),
(1979),
Dziomba
(1981),
Gurecki
(1981),
(1992).
- Xasymptotic/XO
<
600
where 1e
=:
Re
dU
> 900
where d
variable in
x-y-direction
sawtooth
geometries
Heinrich E. Fiedler
386
variable in x-z-direction
Lasheras and
vortex
44. Formation of
Fig.
to
certain downstream
Fiedler
1985).
possibilities
for
control;
an
obvious
one
by pressure gradients:
1.
ma.
2E
transverse pressure
flow in the
x-z-plane.
downstream direction.
gradient
This will
is achieved
cause a mean
Thus, apart
from
by
2.
-*
the
mean
the structure. We
flow remains
distinguish
two-&mensional;
between
curvature of the
pointing
in
r l
I ay I
swirl vector
mean.
the influence is
stablilizing
curvature
only
on
(towards
387
22.5
0
15
turbulent
[MM 1
sep
self-similar
7.5
laminar
region
separation
1000
500
2000
1500
_X" IMMI
45.
the low
velocity side)
bilizing
3.
ax
-4
(Ki5nig
mean
dynamics
and Fiedler
two-dimensionality.
mean
hanced
again the
there
and laminar
1995);
versa.
In
For
de-
is
enmixing capacity
scale
large
dynamics and reducing the small
vortex
scale
Figure
48 sketches the
influence of various
flow
passively controlling
or
confinement. Here
1. Distortion: The
ing
cross
the
are
(p :/ p(x, y, z)
development of
two examples:
pressure
The
Another way of
is by flow distortion
const.).
mixing layer
in
gradients.
chang-
influenced
or
controlled
by
axial strain
on
mean
spread
Heinrich E. Fiedler
388
200
10
IMMI
Liepmann
& Laufer
10
1 50-
500
X
Fig.
46. Mean
spread
of
1500
2000
[MMI
X.
0-2
u2-uj
0.1
C3-----iU
0
BL
I Exp.1
1-0.05 mm
laminar
137
II
mm
lamingr
138
mm
larninar
140
01::0
2
2
mm
nom-
mm.
turbutent -1141
lafm
mm
100
mm
-150
-
500
1()
1000
X
IM.M]
mm
43
Fig.
139
x.
-250
mm
mm
1
1500
2000
47.
Keffer et al.
2.
(1978).
layer (A
1)
were
(where
see
a one
1976):
Fig. 51)
periodicity develops
in the
spectrum, accompanied by
con-
389
aptax
48. Pressure
Fig.
gradients-three
different
configurations.
E7,%"
ad a.
Fig.
ap I ax; - 0
aolax =0
longitudinal
pressure
gradients by
DVS
(Spieweg
1994).
siderable, increase of
saturation for A >
and less
have
so
a case
in the
waves
was
waves are
a
we
trailing edges of
the trailing edge of the mixing layer (as
of feedback of pressure
of S
fLIU1
1.0.
Heinrich E. Fiedler
390
db/b
j11
..
800
const
so
stretched. theory
parallel.' theory
compressed. theory
Emm]
60
stretched, measured
X.
,1C
paraReL measured
gMpCe sed, measured
Af
40
'..
_X,
20
0-300
Fig.
50. Distorted
Suppression
tion of the
or
600
300
Emm]
signal,
(energy absorbing) or by
sources
900
loop
is
some
results-
was
probably the
first conscious
application
case
of
date
391
X\
0.57
B
bz(B=.200)
L
U.
H
B
L
h
2
175
20
-5LO
300
mm
=
=
650
Ab/L
10
B, bz[mml
e
10mlsec
300 MM
1200-1450 mm
01
0
0.03
Ab/L--O,l
mm
Fig.
51. Confined
'50s, yet only in the '70s did this technique attract serious interest and detailed investigation in plane flow were then undertaken (Bechert
and Michel 1975; Oster et al. 1978; Fiedler et al. 1978a). Many aspects were
clarified by a host of investigations to follow, the major results of which are
summarized by Ho and Huerre (1984). Here we mention only a the work
back to the
by Bechert (1985), Bechert and Stahl (1988), Dziomba and Fiedler (1985),
Fiedler and Mensing (1985), Fiedler and Thies (1978b), Oster and Wygnanski (1982), Weisbrot and Wygnanski (1988), Wygnanski and Petersen
(1985),Michalke (1965), Ho and Huang (1982b).
By periodically exciting the flow with f, at the trailing edge an (in z coherent) instability wave is triggered and subsequently amplified-according
to the amplification curve shown in Fig. 40-to reach its most amplified state
near the position of the characteristic frequency f, of the mixing layer flow,
Heinrich E. Fiedler
392
where in the
plane
and p
f,;
11x. Thus,
with
periodic forcing
stability of the Rollers. The most obvious effect
of single-frequency forcing is a local widening of the How of up to 100%,
accompanied by an increase of the Reynolds stresses and the, coherence (stabilization) of the dominating structures.
we
case
const.
oc
Aufrollen
von
Wirbe[n
Anfachungsbereich
Sdt-tigungsbereich
O's
1.0
Zerfallsba erel,ch
IS
!' Jx -xr
U,
Spacial amplification
0.1
Temporal amplification
(Theory Micholke)
(LiG
Evaluation
from
0
0.01
meas.
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
S
0
0.5
SE
Fig.
52.
----------11.0
Fiedler et al-
1981.)
393
Figure
high excitation amplitudes we even may find small regions of negative spread rate and negative production. The development of the amplified
signal along x is -when properly normalized-self similar in a wide range of
forcing amplitudes (Fig. 53). The entrainment flux undergoes a maximum,
followed by a minimum, after which the flow asymptotically returns to its
neutral state. The essence of this is sketched in Fig. 54 (see Ho and Huang
1982b; Roberts 1985).
For very
1.0P
3.2 6
71.045
(S/Ss)
AM
ca.
J?
10, i0' /U
-
Po
0.10
7.8
6.5
5.2
3.9
f,-(x -X )
U,
2-6
t3
0.5
0.011
0
0.5
to
3.0
S/SS
Fig.
53. Generalized
development
(forcing) amplitudes. S,
(1985).
of
amplified
Mensing
as
There
are
many
uses
of
production (coherent
pressure
as
e.g. in
fluctuations)
mixing,
as
well
entrain-
as
in sta-
Heinrich E. Fiedler
394
Alvffl=E
GROWM R&XE
1.0
a)
f"X
U,
VE
UO
G.035
b)
Fig.
b)
tude.
Periodic
tures
by
transverse
Some
-
forcing
can
also be
applied
i.e.
three-dimensionality,
specific aspects-.
Introduction of the
(1975)
(loudspeaker)-see
(1992)
well
can
(1988),
be done
by
remote
as
as more
are
intensity
or
vorticity fluctu-
mean
395
72-
AU12
0.10
77
_VT
aul12 ',&U, V
0.05
.-Z
AU12
0
1.0
1
_0J)6
2.0
-0.2S
3.0
AU
E, [VI
4.0
-,001%j
Fig. 55. Influence of excitation amplitude on flow (from Fiedler et al. 1991b). Region L stabilization of periodicity. Region IL 'filling up' of structural intermittency.
Region III: influence on structure itself.
some
results
(see
1995).
Heinrich E. Fiedler
396
2.5
e
-Lel
Pde
2-0
0.4...
0.3
15" -Of6
0.7
0.8
0.9
,dD
Ar
A'
11
13
M(
1.0
CL
-d
o4
is
0.5
0.3
0.4
----+
a-r;
it- --P 6
l.
a)
b)
C)
d)
el
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.9
IIS
--
in
cases
(c)
and
(d),
and 6.5 % in
case
(e).
Actuators:
useful in the
sense
that
serves
for
case
of combustion-the flame
also Monkewitz
397
VIBRATION
Membrane
ROTATION
Injection
RESONANCE
Flap
CI)
Fig.
3.5
b)
d)rnaniic forcing
Static. Dens?.'ty
effects:
of the flow.
(a)
active
(b) passive.
Field Effects
Influences of
density
the
strength
(e.g.
Rebollo
Heinrich E. Fiedler
398
Flow
Fig.
low
density
58. Block
diagram
Nottmeyer
:--
spread
was
Fig.
60.
Dynamic. Periodic control by the overall flow field-as introduced by, say,
a periodically fluctuating external stream-is, because of the receptivity at
the trailing edge, tantamount to forcing at the upstream boundary. This is
also the case for a periodicity embedded in random turbulence of the basic
stream(s), as e.g. from a blower or some other vibrating component in the
flow conduit. Only small effect on the flow development is from
Random tui-bulence: Dubuat's paradox, according to which the drag of
a body at rest in a moving fluid exceeds that of a moving body in a fluid
at
rest,
trol
by
at closer
inspection turned
out to be
(high
an
early example
turbulence
level).
of flow
Dziomba
con-
(1981),
0.4
ff
[A
0.3
-Mi
XP
X =1
U
fco-gradient)
-0.7575
-&
-0.5681
-0.3788
-0-1894
'0
0.2
0.1
399
0.1894
0.3788
0.5681
0.7575
-0.1
0
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
P
Fig.
1989,
see
Ap
the
on
stability
of
1987).
E
J3
0
0
00
X
Fig.
60.
Spread
some
of
(1987),
an
IMMI
additive-controlled mixing
Chandrsuda et al.
(1978)
layer.
and Tanner
(1989)
primary streams
on
the
an
Heinrich E. Fiedler
400
seem
(spontaneous)
cre-
development
findings reported
spread rates for different external turbulence levels, which he finds strictly
on theoretical grounds. His results (which need experimental corroboration)
show, that in any case-according to expectation-increased external turbulence levels give rise to increased spread. The overall effect depends on the
1, becoming, however,
velocity parameter A. It is almost negligible for A
A
and
of
100
values
%
small
for
cause
spread increase for,
significant
may
ation and
to the
--)-
respectively. There
is
is then
apparently
the
equilibrium
equally low and
turbulence level
may
3.6
Three-Dimensional
(see
1992).
Effects
(1997);
Fiedler
1995):
swept wings, sails, tilted roofs, corners; over and past tapered
cylinders or bodies of non-axisymmetric shape (wind engineering).
Flow
over
Confined flows
flow
Aerodynamic flow,
over
or
2-D nozzles.
Jets in crossflow.
Basic elemens of turbulent and transitional flow.
Meteorology.
401
Three dirnensionalities in mixing layers is always found in random turbulence, unless suppressed by, say, MIFID forces or buoyancy. It is also characteristic for large scale structural elements, unless control by periodic forcing
is applied (stabilization of the rollers), and it may be a characteristic of the
mean
flow
(primary three-dimensionality).
Here is
a more
Detailed Classification.
1.
or
boundary
condition:
excitation with
flows not at
2.
or
frequency
or
three-di-
non-parallel streams
non-homogeneous streams-including separating boundary layers
3.
Secondary three-dimensionality by
deformation of rolls
--+
development:
formation of 'streaks'
structural
combinations
or
of
jet)
as
reconstructed from
series of LIF
visualizations.
A definition of three-dimensional
shall discuss
a
Following we
dimensionality, and possibilities for
Four
between
Mixing layer
mean
Tf2
some
detail:
their control in
(pIrtmary three-dimensionality--see
uration
Tf,
Cases.
Special
The
few
velocity field
15'/30'
and
1995;
is described
by C
C,
1997)
JU; V(x, y); W(x, y),
C2
m/s. Figure 63
where
and visualizations.
This is
now a
z-direction)
-
Primary
structures
develop
as
spatially steady
Helical
vortex
layer (in
with the
pairing
helices with
-axes
par-
Heinrich E. Fiedler
402
Fig.
61. Reconstruction of
transitional
near
jet-development
of structural
three-dimensionalities.
Y-Y*
/"0
C22 (Z*)
Fig.
of three-dimensional
mi)dng layers.
403
three-dimensional
mixing layers between oblique streams are qualitatively similar to two-dimensional mixing layers regarding their bulk
quantities, e.g. spread, their structural development and their control
behaviour.
Well
parameter
ILI E21
1 UI + Q21
-
A,
Fig.
(a)
2.
63.
cross-section
view.
Heinrich E. Fiedler
404
special characteristics,
as
e.g.
Structures in the
layer.
Oblique waves parallel to the trailing edge may develop when periodic
forcing is applied. This was not found in naturally evolving flows.
sional mixing
-
In numerical simulation of
tern of structures in the
the
mean
vorticity
forced flow
top-view.
we
find
checkerboard pat-
instability
(i.e.
wave are
not
parallel.
ity lines)
3.
are
Secondary three-dimensionalities
layer, with mean velocity field C
in
=
often
found, developing
from im-
place
perfections in the test section and the primary
they tend to influence the separating boundary layer and in particular
their Ian-jinar-turbulent transition. In the mixing layer flow downstream
of the splitter plate those inhomogeneities are amplified to affect the turbulence structures over a long region.
This effect may be eliminated by a trip wire upstream of the trailing edge,
which homogenizes the boundaxy layer (see Fig. 65).
Primary three-dimensionalities by three-dimensional periodic forcing:
This offers many possibilities for enhancement of turbulent mixing. Here
flows. In the first
4.
are a
-
few
cases:
seems
(1991)
Figure
adjusted.
66 shows four
cases
This
(Spieweg 1994)
of
405
trailing edge
vortex line
wave
b)
Fig.
64.
(a) Configuration
........
-0.5
-0.4
-0.3
.......... ......
-0.2
-0.1
0.1
......
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
z/B
Momentum-thickness
over z
dotted line:
untripped.
of
solid line:
400mm
tripped,
trip
wire
on
the
splitter
406
Heinrich E. Fiedler
depth (step change of amplitude along z), and (4) the same situation as
in (3) yet with oblique forcing at constant amplitude over one half of
the flow depth. There is enhanced vortex dynamics and production of
small scale in the wedge developing between the neighboring conditions,
in the angle of which corresponds approximately to the spread angle of
the natural flow. Continuous succession of alternating forcing amplitude
then may be expected to provide a versatile way to control the mixing
layer for better mixing.
DISCRETE VORTEX SIMULATIONS
NATURALFLOW:
<
OBLIQUE
EXCITATION:
VORT.
WAVE
.............
1/2 PLANE
EXCITATION:
M?
up
-tL
W.,
R, t"' '
ON
-
9,
S7
1/2 OBLIQUE
EXCITATION:
11
uWW
N i",
J"l
U11,
Th 4
A
of mixing
9'
related to and
consequence of their
407
we
observe in the experiment primary structures which are also found in stability calculations (Luo and Fiedler 1997), ranging from rolls with axes parallel
to the
trailing edge
in
normal to the
we
V'Flz-f
'F1
T2
T 1-"'2
C
I-
T2`1 0
MR,
on'
cii
T
'2
T
I r
Z2
on
Y1
C.2
-Cco.
o:
on
a)
b)
Fig.
67.
Symmetric
(d): asymetric
and
cases;
Control. There
(b)
are
two
possibilities:
general
by
S?
The
temporal
Z2
d)
instability.
introduction of
(e.g. by flap
fl (z) sin(wt
applied
or
loudspeaker),
fluctu-
where
kz)
periodic
to
periodic vorticity
wave
travelling
in down-
Heinrich E. Fiedler
408
2. Indirect control
can be done by manipulating the mean flow field by as e.g. by suction
blowing through the trailing edge. In this way it is possible to suppress
the instabilities and the subsequent formation of structures by the wake
past the splitter plate, thereby stabilizing the mixing layer structures.
This
or
are
many other
us
have
quick
1.54
1.0
IT
0
0.5
1.0
0.5
1.5
Fig.
ber
68. Attenuation of
(after
Barre et al.
nuin-
1994).
409
Mixed Cases
Introduction
4.1
Separating/Separated Flows
(Mixing Layer with Wall Effects)
4.2
we
where the former encompasses all cases of undefined, i.e variable, separation
locations, while the latter describes flow situations with fixed separation. In
this
sense
strong
or
as
weak
those
as
cases
or
cases we
chapter only
are
Weak
of jets
(Gad-el-Hak
an
with
extent
and Bushnell
(Undefined) Separation.
1991).
same
time
flow of high
Heinrich E. Fiedler
410
success
entraiinment
on
boundary layer
and investigated, e.g.
ity
into the
1.
vibrating flaps
as
e.g.
near
its
by piezoelectric
actuator
(Nishri
and
Wygnanski
1996),
2. acoustic
or
3.
Wygnanski 1996; Seifert et al. 1993a, 1993b) and provides one of the
best ways of separation control of high efficiency. At, elevated Mach numbers
(Ma > 0.3) steady blowing is of reduced effect. An even more efficient way
of introducing periodicity is by piezoelectric actuators. There, however, it is
important to choose the proper location of the flap, since its efficiency is only
guaranteed when it is upstream and near to the. point of separation. The
effect of periodic tangential blowing is on the other hand less sensitive to its
location, which is typically near the leading edge of the profile (Fig. 69).
In fact, an excited separated boundary layer (becoming a mixing layer
when separated) will approximately follow the curved surface contour, thereby
causing a press-Lire distribution on the surface which in turn provides considerable lift increase although true reattachement may never be achieved. If
separation is achieved, it is importand to observe the fact, that the lift characteristic (CL)vs. angle of attack (a) is typically hysteretic: Once the flow
staffs at a given a, the angle of attack has to be taken back to much smaller
values to achieve reattachement-see Fig. 70.
and
separation of
technological
nearby
a
smooth
flows
or
over
through diffusors
ramps
applications. While separating
under
'weakly.' sepa(two- and- three-dimensional) may still be categorized
rating flows, whenever those ducts have sharp edges-as will be mostly the
case for manufacturing reasons-the separation is fixed to those edges.
Strong (Defined) Separation. Cases of strong,
flow which is influenced by
A classical model
case
wall
are
i.e. defined
abundantin
two-dimensional configuration
has been
411
FLAP
SLOT
Fig.
69.
Typical
locations of actuators
on
wing
surface.
(a)
CL
M
C(
Fig.
(b)
70. Lift
hysteresis
(a) separation,
reattachment.
boundary conditions and parameters. To control this flow with the major
purpose of reducing its pressure loss (e.g. for a sudden axpansion in a pipe) or
its drag as in the case of a truck or a train, we have the following possibilities
at our command (for configurations see Fig. 71):
1. Passive control
-
an
2. Active control
-
by
suction
periodic
by
and/or blowing,
by
separated flow.
or
excitation of the
The
Heinrich E. Fiedler
412
U..
3w-
--0-
St-[
Fig. 71. Configurations
(2)
CUSP
CHANNEL
RAMP
with step
were
done in
of backward
wind tunnel at Re
facing step.
as
'*
3 -ti-sbUo
5
0
4.2%
8.5%
12-7%
6.9%
4
Ln
+21 2%
.
V*
y
y
XR /S=1.5
0
.
Fig.
72.
a)
40
30
20.
IV*(%)
10
1 25S
50
00
4.2%
12-7%
16.9%
21.2%
4
CI
0."
.9
"
Ln3
11
'
'%OPEI&O
0.
10
15
25
20
30
'p
"0
35
1 -m
Fig.
72.
ports.
b) Step
with extended
of
cusp)-two
suction
Fig.
Fig.
72.
d)
72.
c) Cusp
with
one
suction port.
through port
413
as
achieved in the
Heinrich E. Fiedler
414
(2)
are
shown in
Fig.
(a,b).
74
4
Ln
cc
Ln
Slit
4
1
3
2
0
0
15
10
Re =27000
Re = 15000
a:
20
periodic
p
Re
-
Based
10
performance
-
15
20
(b)
on
4800
V* %
L-----j
------
V* N
Fig.
forcing (40%)
by
suction
on
'*
the reattachement
on
< 10
%;
for
'*
> 10
small.
-
as
-
1.5 for
more
-
'*
5. Nfiniinum reattachement
length which
xRIS
the TE is
or near
long as
'* <
With
;z
Strong
tension. Better
stabilization,
corner
step without
ex-
extension of TE.
-
The effect of
cusp form
as
well
as
of
TE-extension
on
XR is
insignifi-
cant.
-
Suction with
'*
> 20
near
causes
duced.
-
With respect to
suction is
by
Extreme situations,
only
to
via
as
steady suction,
XR/Smin
;:z
415
while the
2.
some
technical
pressure, it
et al.
(1993).
Split-Film
FLOW m0i"
T
Ac7ti
Acoustic
ous
Pulsation
u1sat:ion
Fig.
4.3
75.
a) Sung
Sensor
Reattachment
R
Recirculoting
Point
Ri
Region
and Chun's
(1996)
Confined Flow
(1974)
ably influenced by
free
mixing layer
(1981).
The influence of
confined shear
are
layer
was
found to be consider-
cause
undesired
perturbations
in
Heinrich E. Fiedler
416
0.5
U
U:
U.
U.
0.4
amlsecf.
-35HZ
sm/secJ, -75HZ
I4m/zer-f,
I4m/secf,
=35Hz
.475He
0.3
CC
0.2
CC
0.0
U f (MIS)
Fig.
75.
b)
excitation
(Sung
and Chun
1996),
versus
length
pulsating velocity.
(A
--
1)
were
for two-dimensional
back interaction
4.4
(1987).
Combined Flows
basic model
layer
potential
for
flow there is
mbdng layer in
and pipe flow, and visualization discloses
far are not explained. This is particularly
excitatiation at low
Reynolds numbers
mixing phenomena,
which
and
are
are
one
observes
simple pipe
where
flow
417
(Wang
singular critical
'ordinary' mixing layer
and
Fiedler).
Flow-Body/Surface-Interaction-Impinging Flows.
A summary of ba-
configurations and possibilities for natural feedback in flows with flowbody interaction was presented by Rockwell and Naudascher (1979). The
configurations shown in Fig. 76 which are taken from this paper may be useful for designing control actuators; they may in other situations obviously be
sic
an
pressure loss
parameter
as a
for
given expansion
ARISVIAWMIC
ATS
PLANAR
ills
Y.
d
ratio of
relative
PLANAR AND
AAISVMMEIRIC
MIMNO LAYERS
(y)
JET-EDGE
JET-MNG
(EDGE-IONE)
(RIW -TONE)
WING LAYER-EDGE
(SHEAR-TONE)
JET-StOT
AT-CYLINDER
JET-HOLE
RECTANGULAR
(HOtt-IONE)
CAVITY
JET-PLATE
'AXISYMMETRIC
CAVITY
XT- SURFACE'
Fig.
76. Basic
configurations
JE I
of flow
fLAP
SPECtALCAVITY
(GATE MTH LIP)
(1979).
fluctuations
Heinrich E. Fiedler
418
Cl= 5.6mls
d
t;
"
LP
110
<
=
=
2.5
cm
5.6
cm
Red=9 104
3'.0
d*1d
1 -2
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.4
dTT
Fig.
4.5
1.5
77. Control of
sudden-expansion
flow in
pipe by diaphragm
insert.
Summarizing Remarks
2.
3.
instability).
4. Low
5.
5
In
General
trying
Surnmary
be re-traced to two
1. turbulent
problem
key phenomena:
tally:
creation/destruction, with
laminar/turbulent transition,
2. turbulence
-
forc-
production,
dissipation.
more
can
ftindamen-
What
1. the
2. the
can
accomplished by
be
control
depends entirely
419
on
and
the
Thus, increasing
spread
of
comparatively
easy task if one uses the proper 'tool': periodic excitation-thereby controlling the (creation and stabilization of) coherent structures. This may often
provide the best results. And indeed also the mixing process, which is primarily related to the smaller eddies, "trapped' as it were in the large coherent
ones, are controlled, however indirectly, by controlling the large ones. Other
indirect ways of control, e.g. via entrainment (turbulence level of the primary streams) is, by comparison, only of small effect. The situation may be
inverted for flows of strongly reduced instability, e.g. for mixing layers with
low values of A. Another parameter of influence is the ratio of convection to
diffusion in a flow as discussed in the comparison of jet- and wake flow.
characteristics, e.g. spread, on the other hand apequally true for free flows and even more
so for wall bounded flows, where the achievable reduction in frictional drag
seems to be limited to approximately 10 %. What is of importance in any
case is how, i.e. to what extent, the quality to be controlled depends on the
quality which is (most easily and effectively) controllable.
There are two general spects to control: (1) Control proper: Initiation of
control manifestations-instability modes ('tickling of flow' with high amphReductions of certain
pears to be
fication
gain)
boundary
limited. This is
more
and
(2)
conditions.
influencing the stability characteristics of the basic flow (walls, field effects), by modifying the mean velocity field, by
influencing the stability of the basic coherent structure (wall geometry,
field effects, upstream boundary conditions), thereby-in certain cases-,
by
influencing the feedback characteristics of the flow.
Finally:
In mixed
cases
control-adapted design.
combining
Heinrich E. Fiedler
420
Acknowledgement.
(DFG)
grateful
am
some
to Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft
presented, to the authors and
this text for their permission to do
of the work
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Zaman K. B. M.
shear flows
by
in ftee
D.,
Heine
Andrew Pollard
of Mechanical
Department
at
Kingston, Ontario,
K7L-3N6 CANADA
on
which include
and selective
within
boundary layer.
Introduction
The effects of wall roughness on the transfer of momentum, heat and mass
has been central to many investigations; however, most of these, at least to
the early 1950's, were concerned with maximizing heat/mass transfer and
accepting the drag penalties that arise therefrom, Jayatilleke (1969). The
data, which included both two and three dimensional roughness elements, gives some evidence that skin friction reduction
is achieved, although this is dismissed as possible poor experimental control.
Heat and mass transfer studies normally have been conducted with the view
to significantly enhancing their rates over smooth surfaces. In the last decade
and the
or so, insight into the structure of turbulence in boundary layers
structure near-walls in particular has increased to the point that certain inherent features have been identified and cause-effect relationships suggested.
This opens the possibility of control of these structures to effect changes in
collection and assessment of
In this
contribution,
mass
various
transfer.
techniques
are
ability
native and
complementary techniques
through both passive
these structures
Riblets
for
figure 1,
affect the
magnitude
aligned micro-groove
striations
or
riblets,
432
Andrew Pollard
(1992). The investigations include many experiments, aimed at either measuring the skin friction Wilkinson et al. (1989) or understanding the details
of the turbulence structure and the
(see,
a
for
small
QSWV,
Baron et al.
example,
portion of
Robinson
the structure
1991)
and again
Robinson
1991)
(1991)
and
(1992).
and Bartenwerfer
(1989),
Luchini et al.
(1991).
Tang
that
can
be
Large Eddy Simulation, LES, to the author's knowledge has not been
applied to flows on walls populated by riblets. The technique has been applied to transitional, low and high Reynolds number flows, but many authors
have conveniently overlooked the near-wall region by introducing a simplified
log-law or wall function model to link the wall to the interior, Klein and Ikeidrich (1989), Rizk and Menon (1988). At low Reynolds numbers, the need
for wall functions is deemed unnecessary Germano ct al- (1991), Yang and
Ferziger (1993) and Zang et aL (1993); however, there are still some considerable differences between the LES calculations and results from either direct
433
1. Profile of v-groove
numerical simulations
Ferziger (1993)
Zang et aL (1993). At very high Reynolds numbers, the recent work by Manhardt and Wengle (1993) is encouraging. However, the maturity of LES will
be realised only when sub-grid scale models more fully reflect and accomor
modate and link the resolvable scales. An attempt in this direction has been
suggested by Sullivan and Pollard (1994), which incorporates Gram-Charlier
reconstruction, linear stochastic estimation and wavelet filters thereby perrrAtting the sub grid scales to be reconstructed through de-convolving of the
filtered
velocity
Two alternative
either smooth
or
approaches
riblet walls,
for
are
modelling
turbulent
boundary layer,
on
(DNS)
simplified model
must have
of the wall
Andrew PoUard
434
complementarily,
there is value in
Here
to
an
important
over
approaches
on
be otherwise achieved.
Methods for
2.1
Simulating Flow
turbulent flow
Over Riblets
over
which
to create
riblet-like
The basic parameters used in the simulations of flow over riblets are summarised in Table 1, to which reference will be made in the following sections.
Spectral-Element-Fourier
2.2
One way of
09pui
Nis to
assume
U(X,t)
Methods
the
velocity field
5-1/2-1
axi
can
M12-1
(9p
axi
a
+
be created
n=-N/2XZ=-M/2 XP
P=O
nmp
aui
IL
axj axj
(1)
using:
TP
(Y),i(2rnx/L,,,+27rmz/L.)
(2)
where
Tp(y)
cos(p cos-1y)
(3)
Chu &
435
Queen's
Brown
Stanford
Princeton
Parameter
1993a,b,
1995
Karniadakis
1994
1993
3500
U,e(f112)1v
UHIV
4200
Re,,
L+ (stream)
L,+ (norm)
X
3684
5600(?)
131
180
125
Various
677
570
1250
1215
250
:5 50
100
3607
271
L+ (span)
Ax+
271
160
375
42
35
26
Ay+
0.43
0.1
0.15
0.7
0.42
0.64111.28
1.5
0.6
500
231
AZ+
T1+
T+
t
h+
S+
t(H12)1Ue
tV/U,2
Shape
300
4000
100
243
17.1
5.3119.4
181111.7
Various
17.1
20,34.61110,17.3
40,401120,20
V-groove
V-groove
V-groove
10
4118
21
3- 8
Cray
Cray
Cray
SGI IRIS
No. of Riblets
Computer
Various
V, U, L,
etc.
iPSC 860
refers to channel
Tp(y)
(periodic)
is
directions-
(first
three columns of
a pressure drop
by specifying
wise direction. In the latter case, the pressure is
aictional changes are then reflected in either
tained
or
either
or a mass
tablel),
the flow is
sus-
gradient.
Karniadakis and his group (Princeton entry) consider a channel with one
wall populated by v-groove riblets. The Navier Stokes equations are solved
using spectral-elements in the cross-stream direction and spectral Fourier
Andrew Pollard
436
expansions
in the
homogeneous
as
as
direction,
certainly can
here-in, 16 modes are used. While the computational parameters
those calculations reported seem to be consistent with those of
in
employed
the
time
over which statistics have been gathered appears short, since
others,
the average eddy turn over time is about equal to the computational time
used. It would appear that Chu and Karniadakis paid particular attention to
the resolution requirements around the riblet peaks, although the grid spacing seems a little large in the streamwise direction. As noted in table 1, the
domain considered here (and by the Stanford group) is limited in streamwise
extent. QSWV have a spectrum of diameters (5 < d+ < 115, mean value
30, Robinson 1991) and their approximate length of about 100 200 Y+,
Robinson (1991), or even larger Lyons et al. (1989), but retain their identity
as they are convected downstream over several channel widths. It is difficult
to say what effect the domain length has on the calculations. Recent investigations of a temporally evolving wake indicate that the evolution of the large
scale structures is not at the same rate as those at smaller scales as predicted
by similarity arguments, and thus their evolution is probably. influenced by
the calculation domain size being too small, Mellwain et aL (1996).
scales
ences
cited
(1987) applied
to
use
the method
surface,
on one
The finite volume method, as employed by Choi et aL (1992) (1993) (Stanford, table 1) solves Equation (1), over physically defined riblets on one wall
of a plane channel. A non-orthogonal mesh is employed with concentrations
of the grid around the riblets peaks. Second order central differencing is
used for all spatial derivatives. Advancement in time is accomplished using
a ftflly implicit method. Thus, the Courant-Riedrichs-Lewy (CFL) number
([Z(l ui J)1,Axj]At) that normally limits the time step for explicit methods,
can be violated. However, the time stepAt+, or more precisely the CFL number, is shown to have considerable effect on the results. When compared to
results from using spectral methods, the centreline (at y+
80) rms velocities
are over-predicted (streamwise, u), and underpredicted (wall normal v) and
(spanwise w) by about 30%, 12.5% and 22% respectively as 0.5 < CFt < 3
or 0.2 <,At+ < 1.2, Choi et aL (1992). Interestingly, when CFL > 4, a laminar How solution is obtained. The-time step (6t+
0-4, CFL
1) is chosen
=
437
from agreement with spectral results for plane channel flow and deemed appropriate for the flow over riblets. The sensitivity of the results as a function
of the CFL number is a little disturbing because, as is known, the shear
stress around the riblet peaks is much larger than that found for plane walls;
thus, from the definition of the CFL number, the ratio of velocity to grid
spacing will be significantly elevated around the riblet peaks (relative to that
for a flat wall), requiring a much smaller time step to properly resolve the
time evolution of the flow. There probably exists in the flow locally laminar
regions that will, when integrated over time, have the effect of damping the
turbulence.
Viscous Wall
2.4
Region Modelling
Clark
wall
region.
(z)
fluctuating velocities
one
are
Andrew Pollard
438
is
roughly
spacing and
larger
large
boundary conditions, as given by Nikolaides (1984)
U,
W,
(
(TI
(Ti
27r
rj, + ii i Cos
V,
==
bl Cos
7.bl Cos
scale
accounting for
specified
T,
TZ+i12COS
Cos
27r
t+
27r
Ov I
t+
21r
Owl
COS
sin
A,
27r
A1
2 COS
7b2
(
(
27r
T2
t+
27r
T2
t+
27r
COS
T2
t+
Ou2
Ov2
Ow2
2T
COS
-T2-
1T
COS
sin
A2
21rZ
A2
(4)
(5)
(6)
U,
and w,
21r
t+0.1
is:
v,
are
the
and
the
choices,
based
on
specified
and
the time
are
NVV'
upper
by
originators,
are
are
outlined below
expressed
as
continuity.
amplitudes of
the
velocity
or vortex pair.
larger spanwise scale (A2) accounts for the influence of larger scale
streamwise vortices, paxticularly on the spanwise velocity fluctuations (w).
Nikolaides used a representative value of A2
400, based on a rough evaluameasured
correlations
tion of the
by Grant (1958) and Tritton
Az)
did
select
not
a specific value for the size of
(1967). Chapman and Kuhn
the /X2 scale. Instead, only the smaller scale eddies were considered to have a
spanwise periodicity, The value of the spanwise periodicity of the larger scale
is then effectively infinite N
00)
streamwise vortex
The
The time
periods T,
and
T2
was
are
usually
set to
Parameter
M(A-d
Chapman & Kuhn Nikolaides-I Nikolaides-2
100
too
00,-'00
T,
143
T2 (u, v, w)
143,-,286
E,,,l
0.34
0.2025
0.15
E,j
0.75
E,,,,l
0.74
0.4
252'
216'
150'
194.4"
72'
36'
0.1
Ou2
400,
-,
400, 400,
100
400,
(reference)
0"'1.
Ov2
0.1
Ow2
flat wall
100
Al-
1 2(U ViW)
Table 2.
439
-,
400, 400,
900
(reference)
400
90,
400
100
(reference)
270'
120'
viscous model
in all of the
models.
Chapman
T.. 2
scale
and Kuhn
2T,,,2 which
eddy
velocity components
hypothetical statistically staggered large
of T,,2 is specified from the mean streamwise au-
use
is based
on
tocorrelation data:
T+
56
(7)
U.
This
means
that
--
--
--
The selection of the energy fractions for the v and w velocities is based on the
assumption that the most (or nearly all) of the vertical momentum transport
Andrew Pollard
440
for at least
momentum
transport.
phase angles (O's) between the various periodic terms are selected
the experimental measurements of the average size of the near-wall
eddies and the use of computer optimisation. Since the phase angles are only
relative values, a reference 0 value must be specified. Chapman and Kuhn
selected both 0,,, and 0,1 as the reference values. A value of 0"',
90' was
chosen to match experimental values for the slope of dP/dy at the upper edge
of the domain. Computer optimization was used to select the values for Ou2
and Ow2 to provide as good agreement as possible for the mean streamwise
velocity profile, the Reynolds shear stress distribution and the streamwise
The
based
on
--
skewness levels.
The parameters that describe the near-wall viscous model (NWVM) are
reported here, the model of Chapman and
(essentially their
1)
model
was
used
exclusively.
over
coupling
can
are
triangular shaped control volumes that precisely outlines the cross sectional shape of any riblet (within the limit of small straight
lengths) and that local grid refinement can be used, especially around the riblet peaks. The equations are discretised using standard finite-volume methods Tullis (1992), Masson et al. (1994). The method integrates the restricted
form of equations I (periodic in time and spanwise spatial direction) using
non-dimensional time steps At
2, chosen after extensive testing alternative
Tullis
The
parabolic nature of the method causes the initial
values,
(1992).
conditions (Laplacian equation for downstream momentum in the cross flow
plane) to have significant effect on the results, so the equations are solved over
5 large eddy turn over times
discarding the results from at least the first
three of these times before gathering the statistics. The convective terms
in the equations are discretised using a flow oriented, equal order method
that incorporates elemental (grid) Peclet numbers, thereby
Ing false
diffusion effects, Tullis (1992).
method is the
use
of
CVFEM, which incorporates the NWVM models, assumes periodicspanwise and streamwise (in time) direction. It therefore can not
any three dimensionality resulting from mean shear gradients and so
The
ity
in the
create
turbulence
conditions.
can
not be
self-sustaining:
it is driven
by
the
out-edge boundary
441
2.5
The structure, the dynamics and the etiology of near-wall turbulence is perhaps best summarised, to -1990, by Robinson (1991), Smith et al. (191),
Falco
(1991)
(1992).
The features
so
educed
are
used
the
signal.
Since these
peaks will represent either accelerations or deceleraspatially or temporally in the signal, VITA will detect shearing
events, not the peak of the acceleration or deceleration. As shearing events
do not necessarily have a unique phase relationship with structure passage,
this makes identification problematic, see, for example, Morrison et al. (1989)
tions either
(1995),
a
identification method
The
wA
mean
axial
wavelet basis
(see
velocity
at the riblet
valleys,
friction, and
is
an
extension to
is
volume).
on a
flat
common
changes in
configurations that
valleys, Bechert and Bartenwerfer (1989), Luchini et al. (1991). Thus, plotting
the drag reduction gained as a function of the riblet spacing s+, as s+
0,
the drag must equal the smooth wall behaviour at a rate that is dependent
on the limiting laminar flow within that riblet geometry, see, for example,
figure 6 of Bruse et al. (1993). Indeed, the ultimate goal of any riblet shape
must be to optimise the way in which the structural component of the flow is
permitted to merge with the laminar asymptote. Thus, the ability of riblets
to keep the wall isolated from the turbulence is a key component to their
successful operation, Tullis and Pollard (1991), (1993a,b), (1994), Pollard et
al. (1994), Bruse et al. (1993). Of course, turbulence will invade the valleys,
exchanging high for low momentum fluid and destroy the relatively docile
behaviour of the valley flow. A measure of this activity, is revealed by the
higher order statistics of the turbulence field.
The statistics of the velocity fluctuations are considerably modified by the
presence of riblets. In the case of triangular riblets, which have received the
most attention, the general findings from all simulations and experiments,
confirm, for the most part that, when drag reduction is achieved, the intensities of all velocity components are lower than those at the same nondimensional distance from a flat wall. As well, the Reynolds shear stress, at
least U-v, also displays a diminution in the valleys (in fact, it is almost zero)
Andrew Pollard
442
while
achieving large
deed,
the cross-stream
gradient
within the
valleys
is
so
the
over
peaks.
In-
that, unlike the drag reducing situation, which appear to displace the wall
transfer, the drag neutral riblets protrude into the
an
peaks. There
are no
data available
on
either the UT
events, outside the standard deviation. The skewness in the streamwise velocity becomes significantly greater than the flat wall values (see, also, Tardu
et aL 1993) as the riblet sizes (s- -) change from the drag reducing to drag
increasing size, except in the riblet valleys; and the skewness of the wall -normal or transverse velocity is more greatly affected and outside the valleys
becomes large and positive, especially below y4- < 20. In the valleys, the
skewness becomes large and negative. The skewness in the lateral velocity is
largely unaffected, although, in the DNS results, a small negative value could
be a direct result of the periodic boundary conditions. These trends are dis-
played in figure 2 taken from Choi et aL (1992) and Chu (1992. Experimental
evidence, using a both orthogonal X and V array hot wires give somewhat
contradictory evidence of the skewness distribution of the lateral and wall
normal velocity, Paxk (1992). A comparison between the DNS data Chu and
Karniadakis (1993), Choi et aL (1993) indicates a possible Reynolds number
dependence (intensities are too low, due, possibly to the CFL number problem identified earlier) as even the flat wall data for all velocity components
are not in agreement either against themselves or against those data of Park
(1992),
Flatness,
of
(1982).
distribution relative to
velocity
normal
one
is
a measure
(flatness
factor
of the
=
peakedness
3) and, hence,
indicates the relative importance of the small events in the tails of the distribution (large deviation from the mean or intermittency). The flatness in
the streamwise
riblet sizes
as
the
except
valleys. This
aL
decrease in the
increasing diminution with increasing riblet size, see figure 2. It is interesting to note that Hooshmand (1985), as quoted by Walsh (1990), found
is
an
443
GG
77
(a)
Fig.
2.
in streamwise
(u),
wall normal
S+
40, h+
(v)
and
34.6,
span
and centre column s+
17.3, both from Choi etal. (1992) and right
20, h+
flat wall;
column s+
17.1, Chu (1992). For Choi etal.
17.1, h+
above mid-height of riblet
above valley;
above tip;
(w)
over
----
.....
argument.
implies that wallward directed fluid (a splat), occurring occasionally, but with large amplitude, reaches
The above behaviour of skewness and flatness
Andrew Pollard
444
cavity. On
flat
this
wall,
splat
would
to the
spread
negative
out
radially; the
valley
streamwise
and
DNS have only been applied to simple geometries, the computational cost
probably acting as a deterrent to investigation of more interesting possible
arrangements. The NWVM, on the other hand, has been applied to a variety
of riblet shapes, as seen in table 3. From these studies, the effects of splatting (a non-continuous event) on the expulsion of low momentum fluid from
the valleys has been found to be reduced if compound riblets are used. That
is, replacing a full,-height riblet by one that is, for example, half its height
reduces the wetted area. Furthermore, in line with the idea that laminar
conditions are ideal, the compound riblets act to further intervene with the
sporadic motions of the structures so that any secondary flow engendered by
the splats interacting with the riblets is quickly damped by the laminar-like
fluid contained and constrained by the sub-riblet, as can be inferred from
the results of the NWVM applied to thin element riblet/sub-riblet geometries, figure 5. Some data (obtained in very carefully controlled experimental
conditions) exist on skin friction for this general concept, Bruse et aL (1993),
which indicate that the additive effects of the riblet and sub-riblet are slightly
advantageous (maximum skin friction reduction 10.2%). It is significant to
0.25 the extent over
note that for (see table 3) h21SI -- .25., and sj1hj
=
are
(s+
h+
12)
(of
active
length &
8.6)
so some
caution
cross
the
zero
axis at about z+
;zz;
30 and reach
into the
flow,
over
v-groove and
light
areas
445
regions
minimum
size
on
seems
the results
some
effect
on
the
correlations,
Andrew Pollard
446
into the
groove
as
splat
causes
boundary
flaw
can
be recreated
(1995)
conditions
are
imposed.
It is interesting to
on the
by damping
the lateral
or
spanwise velocity,
at
some
Fig.
447
location above the riblets (this will be more fully explored below) that "displace the streaks upward", which is synonymous with concept of a protrusion
height Bechert and Bartenwerfer (1989) and in accord with the idea that the
QSV%TV need to be displaced and kept apart, Pollard (1994). The spanwise
correlation coefficients are certainly very similar, at least close to the riblet
"surfacd'.
Alternative and
Complementary Techniques
Up
to this
Andrew Pollard
448
Iffiblet
Shape
h +1
16.7
33.3
4.7
16.7
16.T
3.6
15
20
3.28
16-T
33.3
6A
15
20
3.84
16.7
3.2
8.31
U
Me.
S+1
3.
3.1
16.7
33.3
2.4
6.0
1-5.0
20.0
4.41
10.0
12.5
1.0
2.3
2.5(?)
20.9
33.3
1.0
5.83
15.0
20.0
3.99
9.0
14.3
2.79
Cross-sectional
NOn-dilnensional sizes
t+ refers
Table
to riblet thickness.
or
Humplets
turbulent
some
skewing
of the sh6ar stress contours with respect to the streamwise dinon-symmetric wallward sweeps or splats. The
PrOPensitY
for structures to be
three-dimensional,
whose
birth, evolution
and
death
are
449
dimensional
exclusively
examined to
date, the
reason
ometries of
relative to the
mean
insights
into
flow direction is
advisable)
The best indication for active control and the most recent evidence of
applying simulation methods to humplets has been the work of Carlson (1995)
and Carlson and Lumley (1996). They used direct numerical simulation to
predict the time dependent effects of raising a humplet from a wall into
a turbulent boundary layer (channel flow), the intrusion being limited to
y+ < 12. Three calculations were performed: a rising symmetrical Gaussian
shaped humplet underneath a low speed streak and under a high speed streak
and a Gaussian shaped humplet with aspect ratio about 2:1 with the longer
dimension aligned with the spanwise flow direction rising underneath the high
speed streak. This idea of using a broader shaped humplet is in keeping with
suggestions by Pollard (1994) that minimum drag should be attainable if the
QSWV are kept apart, away from the wall and are well separated to mininlise
their interaction. The humplets rise from the wall as the calculation proceeds,
thereby allowing their influence on the dynamics of the near-wall flow to be
quantified. In the case where the humplet rises under a low speed streak,
there is a small drag penalty, see figure 7. When rais--d under a high speed
streak, there is about an equal but opposite amount of drag benefit. In the
case of a non-symmetric actuator, the drag benefit increases over the whole
cycle of theactuator movement, so that an estimated 7% reduction in skin
450
Fig.
Andrew Pollard
6. A
can
be viewed
as a
humplet, courtesy
of C.
Liu,
Louisiana Tech.
implemented,
micro-electromechanical systems,
3.2
can be practically
regard, especially using
Wall Oscillation
event and
Mcginley (1989)
Turbulent flow,
and Wilkinson
(see,
for
example,
Bushnell and
(1990).
normally
on a
less than
streamwise
451
1.08
1.06
1.04
1.02
Cn
T- 1 35 2 3
.
LLI
1.00
U)
CC
<
LU
.......
CASE 0 :
0.98
CASE 1:
U)
CASE 2:
< 0.96
..............
------
T 71349,3
-
0.94
T, =1352.3
0.92
0.90
1360
1355
1350
1345
1375
1370
1365
1.08
1.04
CASE 0:
CASE 3
..........
1.00
CO
CO
W
0'
i(n
<
LU
U)
0.98
0.94
0.92
0.90
0.88
0.86
0.84
0-82
1346
1349
1352
1355
1358
1361
1364
1367
1370
1373
1376
1-79
'282
TIME
over rising Gaussian-shaped humplets. Solid
wall; case 1 for humplet rising underneath a high speed streak, case 2
for under a low speed streak; case 3 for broad Gaussian humplet rising under high
12)
speed streak. The humplet begins to rise at Ts and reach their fall height (Y- at TF. Note the extended period, in the latter case, where skin friction reduction is
Fig.
(1995)
Andrew Poflard
452
Jung et aL (1992) oscillated, in the lateral direction, the lower wall of channel, using DNS. They found that for oscillation periods 25 < TLO tu'r2/1, <
100. The
500 produced drag reductions of up to 40%, the maximum at TLc
normal and Reynolds shear stresses were both significantly damped (streamwise, u, 14% reduction; wall normal, v, 30% reduction; lateral, w, 35% reduction; uv 40% reduction) and th4t the maxima in each stress moved away
from the wall toward, but never reaching, the centreline- The mean velocity profile, under maximum skin friction reduction conditions, shows a small
logarithmic region, with a concomitant increase in the thickness of the buffer
y+). It is argued
layer and an almost non-existent linear shear region (u+
that a reduction in the number and intensity of turbulent bursts is responsible for the observed behaviour. This was deduced, it seems, from noting a
significant increase in the spatial homogeneity of constant vorticity magnitude (I w 1= l.lu2/,,) with the introduction of wall oscillation. This implies
that the wall oscillation reduces the flow to more or less two dimensions,
since spanwise variation is significantly reduced. Interestingly, in the conference presentation of the same work Akhavan et aL (1992), when the contour
value of constant vorticity is increased (I w 1= 1.2u,2/v) the rather flat, carpet
-like surface seen above is replaced by streaks the distance between them is
wider than in the natural wall case, but also, the streaks tend to merge together. These results seem contradictory and experimental evidence needs to
be gathered to clarify this issue. Breuer et aL (1989) use membranes stretched
transversely to the main flow, each separated by small spanwise solid surface
gaps. They demonstrate the evolution and control of a large -amplitude and
highly three-dimensional disturbance in a laminar boundary layer (a turbulent spot). Activating the membranes decreases the amplification rate of
spanwise v6rticity and thus delays the formation of the spot- In view of Jung
et aL
perhaps it is appropriate to repeat the experiment with the active
=
3.3
453
Selective Interference
(1995)
Goldstein et al.
find that
distribution of R,,,,
(spanwise
reaches
control
(v)
not
is
that obtained
z+
the
zero
axis at about
z+
;Z ;
100 and
y+
minimum
shape does
crosses
(of ;:z
seem
-0. 1) at
to be altered
150 and at
Pe,
as
200
0 at Ax+
severely shortened in streamwise extent (for h ;--- 0. 2, R,,,,
>
Axas
coefficient
the
zero
without
800).
whereas
approaches
control,
This implies that control (of the type employed) de-correlates the "normal"
wall turbulence, at least in the longitudinal direction very close to the wall.
When spanwise control is used, the strearnwise extent of R."', is larger than
without control, especially when the control is sensed at y+ pe, 5. R,, and
R,,.,, are little affected in all cases, implying that effects of applying control, in
the simulations, may be a direct result of satisfying continuity Interestingly,
the spanwise two-point spatial correlation coefficient with polymer addition
to the sub-layer, Fortuna and Han-ratty (1972), shows an increasing spatial
separation between the structures. Indeed, as the drag reduction saturates to
its maximum, the correlation length remains positive.
An interesting aspect of the above is revealed in a series of papers by
Sirovich et al.
(1990) (1991)
(1993).
believe,
generated using equation (2). It can be reconstructed using the
Karhunen-Lo6ve procedure, or Proper Orthogonal Decomposition, Lumley
(1967), (1970), which generates empirical eigenfunctions from the velocity
correlations. Rom these, various eigem-nodes can be identified that make up
the velocities in the three coordinate directions. It turns out that a significant amount of the energy in the flow is contained in the non-propagating
provides,
ity field
is
contained in the
is the limited
(streaky structure),
propagating
quadrant analysis, (see Willmarth 1975)
transverse
wave
that demonstrates,
Andrew Pollard
454
Sirovich et al.
(1990)
the spectrum of
occurrences
of the
Q2
events
can
only
are
Q2 activity, which clearly indicates that the ejection mechanism and the
concomitant production of both Reynolds and wall shear stress should be
reduced, Willmarth (1975).
tle
Handler et al.
eigenmodes of
frequencies. They claim upwards of 58% drag reduction, which is similar to
polymer addition, Lumley (1969), Virk (1975), by just random forcing of a
relatively small subset of the available Fourier modes in the DNS simulation
and thereby, it is speculated, destroying the "coherence' of the turbulence
producing structures. Since these turbulence producing structures are propagating modes, associated with waves at angles to the roll modes, it is inferred
by the present author that removing the interaction reduces the flow to spanwise periodic two dimensional flow. Unpublished work by Handler (private
communication 1993) claims that a non-random or constant phase shift gives
drag reduction; moreover, drag increase is achieved if the phase relationships
are maintained between the wave modes. Experiments are currently underway
to see if phase randomization can be achieved (Levich, private communica-
tion).
emphasized feature of the results, Handler et al. (1993), is the
dramatic change in the magnitudes and wall-normal distributions of the three
RMS velocity fluctuations. At aro-und maximum drag reduction (the shortest
time between randomizing the modes) the maximum in both the spanwise and
An little
y+
Y+
maximum
moves
from
the lon-
well,
125,
gitudinal velocity component approximately doubles in magnitude; however,
its maximum remains at y+ < 25. Physically, this implies that the production of turbulence is shifted away from the wall and the flow is approaching a
laminar-like condition (see below). Indeed, the spanwise, wave-number spectrum of the streamwise velocity component, which highlights the spanwise
streaky structure, shows, for the smallest period between mode randomiza;: ;
tion
25 to
(y+
; _-
14.8),
in the smaller
wave
destruction of smaller
numbers. For
sc ales
larger periods
(to
and
concomitant increase
between
randomization,
its maximum of
58%)
for
before
(1992),
seems
same
function
(as demonstrated
they do
so, but
the
455
liquids (u+
11.7 1n
y+
--
--
25
20
15
+
10
lop
Y+
and wall
Fig. 8. U+vs.Y+ for flat wall turbulence (-), with spanwise
normal (
) control, Choi etal. (1992); with phase randomization, run LK(2) (0),
Handler etal. (1993); Virk's (1975) asymptote (A) for polymer addition; spanwise
----
control
1,(2)
and
-2,(0),
Jimenez
(1994)
Illustrated, as well are the results from Jimenez (1994) (note the claim
is made in this paper- that riblets increase the spanwise width between the
streaks; significant contradictory evidence in the literature exists on this).
Andrew Pollard
456
by Jimenez (w(x, 0, z)
0,W(X7 h, z), etc.) were the
-2 implies a local
a < 1, which, for a
reorganization of the spanwise velocity (substantial acceleration of flow on
the wall in the direction opposite to that at the detection point at h
10)
produces a greater diminution in the size of the log-law region. In addition,
this control strategy moves the structures away from the wall, confirming the
speculations on the action of riblets. It is difficult to imagine the effect of this
type of boundary condition since it is sporadic; however, simply, as illustrated
in figure 9 the fountain-like eruption of fluid from the impingement of two
high speed streams could move a pair of QSWV further out into the core of
the flow since the eruption is between the pair, the sense of rotation of which
is opposite and toward the wall. Opposite to this is the elimination of the
high shear region between a pair of QSWV and the wall and the inflectional
velocity profile so engendered (a
1, or pure slip control) would seem to
play an important role in generating shear stress, since the velocity profile
is dramatically altered to consist entirely of a logarithmic region. That is,
again simply, figure 9, the imposition of wall velocities in-phase with that
The parameters used
Choi et aL
same as
=:
but -2 <
It is
above,
(1991)
interesting
to
speculate
log-law region
noted
layer, upon which there are located what has been often referred to as his
"typical" eddies are important in the dynamics of the boundary layer. As the
Reynolds number increases, both the longitudinal rm velocity fluctuation
and the Reynolds shear stress, when normalised with wall shear velocity,
fail to scale with y+ for y+ > 15. However, when normalised using length
and velocity scales deduced from an average "typicaV eddy, then for wall
equivalent scaling 15 < y+ < 200, and the maximum extent increasing with
increasing Reynolds number, scaling is achieved. The minimum extent (y+
15) maybe reducible (but not to zero), so that, it is argued, the "typical"
eddies influence the wall region as well. This implies (but does not necessarily
confirm) that the logarithmic region dynamics are altered when control or
phase randomisation are employed by interfering with the transport of events
to or from this region. Interestingly, Orlandi and Jimenez (1994), using a
variant of the NWVM approach, argue that the wall shear in turbulent flows
is larger than that in laminar because (over very short times t+ < 1) any
spanwise velocity imposed on an initial uniform shear serves to increase the
average wall shear stress. As well, the
the wall is thus more important than
it, this
is
457
Fig.
on
9. Cartoon of
lower
3.4
Selective Introduction
Tecliniques
The skin friction benefits obtained from lateral oscillation of a channel wall
Jung et aL 1992) or phase randomization Handler et aL (1993) introduces
(LEBU),
1992) gives
rise to
a ribbon, vibrating
produces spanwise variations in the RMS amplivelocity, see, for example Kachanov (1994), and the
Andrew Pollard
458
of these fluctuations
can
be
there exists
Of course,
(1967).
aL
In essence, the phase randomization and spanwise wall oscillation reorganises and diminishes the bursting events, in a manner not yet understood,
body
can
introduce
velocity.
possible to introduce into the nearwall region a spectrum of scales, with streamwise oriented vorticity, with the
"right" length scales, that will. interact in the manner appropriate to decreasing the spatial coherence of the near-wall structures?
Osaka and F`ukushima (1994) use plates of various sizes and lateral periodicity and alter their location to be either inside or outside the entrainment
boundaxy of a turbulent boundary layer. The results from this study are encouraging, showing that widely spaced airfoils can generate significant spanspanwise
wise
variations in the
variations
in
Is it
wall shear stress and that the effect of these airfoils extend
150
in
tubes.
A variety of scales
can
in the
ribbon
obtained data that gave some hint that the wall skin friction could be forced
to be below that obtained using a stationary ribbon, but perhaps the real
benefit will be derived &om
Concluding
We have reviewed
Remarks
controlling
near-wall
turbulence, using
over
reason
both
passive and
give only
that riblets
predominant
feature of near-wall
turbulence;
and it
the flow-
The
the
ability
to handle and
amount of "data"
459
generated by
them. Even so, there continues to exist computational limitations that may
have produced results that are not, devoid of errors: as with other experiments,
Laboratory,
Carg6se, Corsica, June 24-28, 1996 and at the University of Notre Dame,
September 9-13, 1996. This contribution has used material excerpted from
the
same
Choi,
authors' contributions to
Truong (eds.)
publication, 1997.
Prasad and
submitted for
1996 and
Acknowledgments
Funding for the work was provided in part by: a NATO Collaborative Research Grant, Natural Science and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
References
W.J. and
Mangiavacchi,
N.
(1992):
Turbulence
con-
don.
460
Andrew Pollard
R. and
over
461
Theoretical and
250:1-42.
Clark,
D.G.
surface. Technical
on a
riblet
University of London.
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Tullis,
S. and
Pollard, A. (1994):
The time
dependent
flow
over v
and
C. and
structures in turbulent
152.
Combustion Enhancement
by
Active Control
E.
0.
Haile,
Laboratoire
Delabroy, D. Durox,
EM.C., &ole
Centrale
F.
Lacas, and
Paris,
92295
S. Candel
Chitenay-Malabry Cedex,
Rance
Abstract. Active control has many potential applications in the domain of cominstability control has been successfully demonstrated in a variety
bustion. Active
of
laboratory
practical
use
is
margin of the system, reduce the pollutant emission levels, augment the combustion
and thermal efficiency, or modify the temperature distribution in the exhaust gases.
This article describes applications of active control towards improving combustion,
paid to pollutant emissions reduction. Some background magiven, along with a discussion of strategies
for NO,. reduction, and a review of experiments on flame interactions with external
perturbations. The possibilities for active management of the reactive region are
described. Applications of active control are illustrated by typical results obtained
in recent experiments.
with
specific
terial
on
attention
Introduction
subject of current ftmdamental and technological interest. The general objective of active control is to improve combustor
operation. One wishes, for example, to augment the stability of the flame,
enhance the rate of conversion of the reactants, improve the temperature
distribution at the combustor exhaust, or diminish the levels of pollutant
en-jission. Control is also seen as a means for monitoring the proper operation
of
system.
investigated
in
laminar flame
waves.
was
E.
468
not
Haile,
0.
Delabroy,
to
D.
Durox,
F.
Lacas,
and S. Candel
ity control
are
not covered
reviewed
extensively
by
in
McManus et al.
(1993),
therefore this
topic is
applications
reduction of pollutant
specifically
on
other
emissions.
A first
case
reduce gas turbine exhaust emissions. These modern devices have excellent
emission characteristics and bring a significant reduction of nitric oxide levels.
the lean
Unfortunately,
to pressure
waves
premixed mode
of
sensitive
flashback or flame blowout. Active control may then be used to avoid unstable
operation, or at least augment the stability margin of the combustor. This is
an
indirect
non-premixed
case
of interest
concerns
standard combustors
are
introduced
operating in the
separately, often leading
to poor mixing and long flames with large regions at elevated temperatures.
Emission levels may be quite high in such circumstances. Active control can
reactant conversion
in order to
are
reduction
(mixing enhancement,
flame structure
modification)
in
light
of the
System
review
on
(1858),
by a celloflames, or
Combustion Enhancement
by Active Control
469
was
to follow the
transition.
2.1
Background
Flames
are
material
of rocket motors
coupling
mechanisms
velopment
on
large
engines,
resonant
cou-
coupled
on
can
its second
with the
pogo oscillations.
The measurements made on real motors and
large-amplitude
rise to
system instabilities, characterized by oscillations involving all of the system components, from the reservoirs to the exhaust;
chamber instabilities, that only concern the combustion chamber, the
characteristic dimensions being smaller, the instability frequencies are
higher and transverse oscillation modes generally present;
intrinsic instabilities, involving chemical kinetics and transport mechanisms, and having very high characteristic frequencies.
Reardon
(1972),
Culick
(1988),
Clavin et al.
dp
dt
du
P
dt
dT
PCV
dt
PV
+VP
+PV
=:
(1994))
in
(1)
(2)
(3)
E.
470
HaHe,
0.
Delabroy,
D.
Durox,
F.
and S. Candel
Lacas,
where p, u, T and p respectively designate fluid density, velocity, temperature and pressure. The unsteady energy source term 4 appears in the energy balance. In these expressions, d1dt is the material derivative defined as
d1dt
-=
al& + u
V. A
related,
mass source
example,
for
to the
evaporation
condensed
a
phase appears in the mass balance, and a force F acts as
momentum source. These last two terms will be neglected in what follows.
of
the
Using
equation of
mass
for
for
pressure:
dp
dt
-ypV
--
ThrT +
(-y
(4)
1)
may be
This
au
P
ap
i-
+VP
PC'V
(-Y
al&.
(5)
;: :;
1)4
(6)
c
vf--y T is the isentropic speed of sound. By taking the divergence of
equation (5), deriving equation (6) with respect to time, and by subtracting
the resulting expressions on obtains the inhomogeneous wave equation:
where
--
a2p
_
at2
C2V2P
(,y
1)
N
&
(7)
the pressure, energy is subtracted from the system, and the fluctuations are
damped. The system is subsequently stable. The exact mechanism through
which pressure waves are coupled to unsteady heat release must be determined and modeled to predict the occurrence of instability. Several possible
(1968),
Culick
understanding
1. The acoustic
are
Candel
what follows:
velocity
(1991), Cambray
& Joulin
(1994))
Combustion Enhancement
by Active Control
471
hydrodynamic instabilities or induce the shedding of large-scale vortices. These, in turn, change mixture rates and can
lead to unsteady combustion (Smith & Zukoski (1985), Poinsot et al.
2. Acoustic
(1987),
may excite
waves
Yu et al.
(1987)).
(7) given
depart
simplified
equa-
above.
In many practical situations (see for example Candel (1992)), the flame
response is controlled by hydrodynamic instabilities. These instabilities are
can
structures induce
mixing of the
leading
to
or
with thecham-
strong turbulent
impulsive
heat release.
created travels upstream, triggering the shedding of another vortex (Menon & Jou (1990)). If no obstacle exists in the chamber, the
The pressure
wave
ignition
can
then be observed
combustion in the
core
creates
(Th6venin
pressure
products
into its
& Candel.
wave
core.
(1995)).
Vortex
The
rapid
resonance loop.
dynamic counter-reaction can be tentatively modeled by a resonant
feedback loop (fig. 1). The system (in dashed lines) is perturbed at its entry
by pressure or heat release fluctuations. These fluctuations are converted
E.
472
Haile,
0.
Delabroy,
D.
Durox,
F.
Lacas,
and S. Candel
pressure
the
and
outputs.
----------------------------------
------------------------------------
Fig.
1. Schematic
in combustion chambers.
The linear filters A and B determine the degree of coupling between pressure oscillations and variations in heat release rate.
Pulse combustion
2.2
The
coupling
are
equally present
in
see
Zinn
(1992),
walls,
pulse
combus-
(increased
heat
reduced
Keller et al.
2.3
are
similar to those
can
be used to stabilize
an
unstable
Combustion Enhancement
by Active Control
473
stable
burner
(Tsien (1952),
Marble
(1953),
instability control
Marble & Cox
were
(1955)),
technological advances
of the
1980S
simplest form, active combustion instability control can be summaFig. 2. A sensor is placed somewhere in the system to measure a
signal representative of the instability (pressure oscillations, chemiluminescent intensity variations). The sensor signal serves as input to the control
algorithm. The amplified and retarded signal is then re-injected upstream
of the combustor by means of an actuator (for example, an acoustic driver
unit), which creates fluctuations in pressure or heat release out of phase
with respect to the instability. This technique is inspired by the principles of
anti-noise as developed, for example, by Ffowcs Williams (1984). However,
active instability control acts at the source of the phenomenon that is to
be controlled. As such, less energy is required. Initial demonstrations were
carried out by Heckl (1985) on Rijke tube geometries and by Bloxsidge et al.
In its
rized
as
(1987)
fully
in
on
demonstrated
others)
More
(1987)
success-
(1992) (among
premixed flames. Poinsot et al. (1989) and Bil(1992) applied this technique to turbulent non-premixed flames.
in the
loud et al.
by Lang
et al.
case
of laminar
recently,"Hermann
et al.
reported by
(1996)
(1996)
have
case
exare
gain and delay necessary to control the instability are not known
adaptive control strategies may provide a solution (fig. 3). In this
prio
another
sensor detects the global response of the system to the control
case,
This
effort.
signal is then used to update the parameters of the controller in
order to minimize some error function (see Widrow (1970)). Active adaptive
instability control has been successfully tested by Billoud et al. (1992) on
a laboratory mock-up. This algorithm has certain limitations, however. Notably, in the experience of the authors, if the auxiliary path of the filtered-U
algorithm is unknown, it must be identified before control can be attempted.
If the
Adaptive
suppression of instability
complicated adaptive
of several system
control
algorithms
parameters, taking
longer than
the
is not the
exist which
E.
474
Haile,
0.
Delabroy,
D.
Durox, F. Lacas,
and S. Candel
System
-----
-------------------
Sensor(s)
Actuator(s)
Control
loop
Algorithm
----------------------------------------
Fig. 2. Principle
of
closed-loop
active control. A
(1993)
by
signal detected
in the system is
the controller.
feasibility of low-frequency
et al.
(1995)).
adaptive
Allen et al.
control of a turbu-
lent spray flame using artificial neural networks. This result opens the way to
new complex control strategies and to the control of more complex systems.
2.4
System identification
Figure 3 contains a filter representing an "auxiliary patW' in the adaptive control loop. This component, essential to the filtered-U algorithm, is a model of
the system to be controlled, incorporating the response of the system to the
actuator's signal, and the sensor's detection of this response. The determination of this transfer function, known as system identification, may be carried
out by exciting the combustor at very small amplitudes and recording its response. Given the excitation signal and the sensor signal, the corresponding
transfer function can be inverted to filter the algorithm inputs. This tedious
step is necessary for the convergence of the controller. The quality of the condepends critically on the precision of the system representation
auxiliary path transfer ftmction. The principle of system identification
shown schematically in Fig. 4.
trol obtained
by
is
the
Combustion Enhancement
by Active Control
475
System
-----
--------------------
I-----
---------------
Sensor
Actuator(s)
Sensor
Algorithm
I-
Auxiliary
path
Control
loop
-------------------------------------------------------
Fig.
3.
Principle
of active
of the control
algorithm.
Y- )
System
Sensor(s)
Actuator(s)
Imaging
Algorithm
Fig.
2.5
4. The
principle
open-loop
control.
suppression
possibilities offered by active fluid mechanics, or flow control. This new field employs the
techniques of active control to modify the development of a given flow. The
properties of a fluid medium can be changed, increasing entrainment, drag
or turbulence levels, for example. The work of Long-n-Are & Eaton (1994) has
shown that it is possible to actively control the dispersion of particles in a jet
Active combustion control
of instabilities. Gad-el-Hak
can
(1994) gives
review of the
new
476
E.
Haile,
0.
Delabroy,
D.
Durox,
F.
Lacas, and
S. Candel
Gutmark et al.
(1989) and,
more
recently,
Chao &
Jeng (1992)
have used
excitation is
Willis et al.
(1994)
disposal efficiency
of their incinerator
Coherent vortices
are
(1996)
McManus et al.
(1990))
have tested
different types of actuators to excite the shear layer behind a dump plane in
a combustion chamber. Like Yu et al. (1991), in this case, they noted the
in
techniques, they were able to increase the volumetric heat release rate in the
chamber- The dynamic response of premixed flames subjected to acoustic
fluctuations has been studied by Durox et al. (1996). They have shown that it
is
possible
to
change the
average flow
average
Combustion Enhancement
by
Active Control
477
in combustor
performance reported
in the literature
are
changes can be
explained by local effects. A more compact flame reduces the residence time
of nitrogen molecules in the high temperature reaction zone, thereby reducing the formation of NO through the thermal Zel'dovich mechanism. Lovett
& Turns
(1990)
turbulent
non-premixed
(1993)
gaseous flames subjected to external acoustic forcincrease in the entrainment of the jet which diluted the
Fig.
5.
Principle of closed-loop control with adaptive adjustment of external modscheme, the algorithm serves to optimize the combustor operation.
ulation. In this
variety
the different
were
strategies
effectively tested.
and to
give
few
be
successfully achieved
possible
classify
indications on how these strategies
of configurations. It is however
can
and instructive to
E.
478
optimization
objective of the control strategy may be (NO., or soot reduction, efficiency, toxic waste elimination, flame stabilization, etc.), one is faced
with two major issues. The first is the choice between open (Fig. 4) and
closed-loop (Figs. 2, 3 and 5) control strategies. The second issue is technical and concerns actuators and sensors. Both are, in fact, linked as will be
apparent from the following discussion.
Whatever the
Actuators
3.1
rate
(see
Table
1),
sought,
sufficient amount
of energy must be added to the flow. Flames are quite susceptible to acoustic
perturbations, as will be shown later, so that one may use acoustic drivers to
Higher levels of modulation may be obtained with electropneumatic actuators or rotating valves. Acoustic drivers have been used most
extensively (see Table I and especially Table 2), due to their extended fremodulate the flow.
ease
of
use.
In
some
one
Closed-loop
3.2
Combustion Enhancement
by Active Control
479
control
Table I.
Authors
Control
Sensor
objective
Imaged
or
Actuator
Modified
Flow
radical
Brouwer et al.
(1990)
CH*, C2*1
(1990)
et al.
Gutmark
Stabilize
(1991)
et al.
driver
Acoustic
flame
OH*
Optimize NO
& S amuelsen & efficiency
Gas
(1995)
Burkhardt
Optimize
heat release &
noise
ANN
(1-995),
et al.
Premixed
Atomizing
Valves
analysis
Magnetic
air
Excess air
valves
swirl
(1994)
et al.
Air flow
primary
StJohn
Padmanabhau
Atomizing
primary air
driver
(1993)
& Acoustic
OH*
et al. ANN
Allen
soot
ANN
Gutmark
Servo-valves
Piezoelectric
Loudspeaker
transducer,
photodiode
Chemilumi-
Valves
Piezo-
Liquid
fuel
Liquid
fuel
Premixed
nescence
Burkhardt
(1996)
Hermann
et al.
(1996)
Hantschk
et al.
(1996)
Control
OH*
instability
Control
actuator
OH*
Servo-valve
instability
(1990), Allen et
(1996)), or both
al.
closed-loop control is given in Table 1. Combusby modulating the flow rates of air (Brouwer et al.
(1993)),
fuel
(Hermann
et al.
(1996),
Hantschk et al.
non-premixed configurations.
rapid acoustic modulations and slower optimization of the
burner operating point. The strategy used to slowly modify the operating
point corresponds to that presented in Fig. 5. In such applications, the control strategy is not a direct feedback closed loop like that used in active
combustion instability control (Figs. 2 and 3), in the sense that the sensor
signal is not delayed, amplified, and re-injected into the system by the actuator. Instead, this information is used to optirnize the combustor operating
point or the parameters of an open-loop strategy like that depicted in Fig. 4.
guish
between
in
E.
480
Halle,
0.
Delabroy, D. Durox,
In most of these
applications,
F.
mean
if
change
brought
to
essentially a
operating
a new
e a
approach is -then well adapted to closed-loop operation, since in-depth understanding of the mechanisms involved is not necessary. The control strategy
is often reduced to minimizing a cost function or maximizing a performance
index evaluated from variables like C02, CO or NO mole fractions, thermal efficiency, volumetric heat release rate or sound pressure levels (Brouwer
et al.
(1990),
(1994),
Padmanablian et al.
(1995)).
Var-
et al.
(1995),
Burkhardt
(1996)).
an
3.3
Open-loop
control
example.
experiments
serves as
model of the
tuator,
as
Combustion Enhancement
in
by Active
481
Control
of
ac-
discussed above.
Imaging systems are often used in lieu of sensors (Table 2). Images can
provide useful information about flame stabilization-(Gutmark et al. (1989b),
Gutmark et al. (1990), Chao & Jeng (1992)), reactant mixing and flame structure
(Gutmark
and
pollutant
Raile et al.
formation
response to external
perturbations
and
pollutant
control will be
developed
in
open-loop control can also be used as a finished product. For exarnple, system driving or forcing has been used in incineration for years to
eliminate particle deposition on the infrastructure of large industrial installations. It is also claimed (but yet to be independently proven) that infrasonic
excitation of these incinerators increases burning rates and reduces pollutant
emissions, mainly by improving mixing in fluidized beds. This type of control can be rendered adaptive by adding a sensor that measures the global
response of the system to the external forcing. The information could then
be used to modify the forcing frequency or amplitude until a minimum was
found, as Padmanabhan et al. (1995).
Haile,
E.
482
0.
Delabroy,
D.
Durox, F. Lacas,
Open-Loop Combustion
Table 2.
and S. Candel
Enhancement
Open-Loop
Authors
Control
Sensor
objective
Irnaged
or
Modified
Actuator
pararneter
radical
(1982) 1
(1989b) I
(1990) Ivortices
(1990) 1
et al.
Shear
McManus
et al.
1993)
JControl
Schadow
et al.
(1992)
Chao &
Jeng
(1992)
Gutmark
et al.
(1994)
et al.
YU
(1996)
linstability
1
1
Stabilization
Stabilization
et al.
Willis
Soot
Acoustic
driver
ation
rate
(1996)
NO.
Compact
CH* &
Acoustic
pressure
drivers
PLIF
OR
Lin Structure
(1995)
Haile
(1996)
et al.
Fuel
Premixed
Acoustic
Gas
(liquid)
tructure
Premixed
analysis, Acoustic
OH*,
PLIF driver
NO, PIV
CH*,
Acoustic
Schlieren
driver
Rotary valve
analysis
(1996a,
&
Fuel
anal- Acoustic
Gaz
Premixed
Air
b)
D avis
Premixed
valves
Delabroy
et al.
Schlieren &
PLIF OH
driver
Iflame
et al.
driver
driver
(1994), Pont
et al. (1996)
Durox:
Premixed
Acoustic
(1990,
Turns
Acoustic
ollutants
Lovett
OH*
driver
Stabilization
Gutma,rk
et al.
driver
Stabilization
Gutmark
et al.
Dilution air
Temperature Acoustic
Mixing
Vermeulen
Laser
Acoustic
deviation
driver
CH*
Acoustic
driver
Air
Air
Combustion Enhancement
The response of
by Active Control
483
perturbations
building
designing an active control system. Clearly the flame response will be
highly dependent on the specific geometry, injection scheme, type of fuel, flow
regime, etc. In general, the external excitation modifies entrainment, mixing
and flow pattern. It also organizes the flame by setting a phase reference. Even
small perturbations have a pronounced effect on the flame pattern, as will be
shown below. Flames are generally quite sensitive to external perturbations
because they often develop in a flow which is hydrodynamically unstable.
The possible resonance of the confinement chamber may also enhance the response to a weak input. The large number of possible flame interactions are
illustrated below by some typical examples. We successively consider laminar
premixed flames interacting with upstream flow oscillations, premixed turbulent ducted flames forced by longitudinal acoustic modes, and turbulent
spray flames subjected to air flow modulations. We also consider a case where
both the liquid fuel and the air stream are simultaneously modulated. These
three examples illustrate the possibilities of control.
block in
4.1
quite informative
to consider the
mean
be
tuations
as a
traveling hydrodynamic
along the front at a
E.
484
Fig.
6.
Haile,
Image
of
0.
Bunsen flame
acousticaRy
S. Candel
forced at 200 Hz
(17.2%
fluctuation
is 30
phase speed which is a fraction of the flow velocity (De Soate (1964)). More
precisely, Boyer & Quinard (1990) have observed that the phase velocity of
undulations is roughly equal to the local unburned gas velocity parallel to
the flame front. Baillot et al. (1992) have improved upon this result through
kinematic calculations. Their results underline the
acteristic
propagation
velocities: the
mean
flow
importance
of two char-
the
flame front Vcos a, and the phase speed of the flame front perturbations
V/ cos a. V is the mean flow velocity and a the half-angle of the steady flame
cone.
velocity is prevalent.
by Active
Combustion Enhancement
Control
485
area. The agreement in phase and ampliexcellent, even for large acoustic velocity amplitudes. This result is
true only when integrated over the entire reaction zone, since heat release
can vary locally as a result of differential diffusion effects. Integrated over the
entire flame surface, these local effects are compensated.
are
as
intensity
on a
burner 22
by
can
be
compared
Poinsot et al.
mm
are
in diameter with
not
fluctu-
perturbed. This
cut-off
(1990)
and
experimentally investiforcing is
sensitivity
gated by Roberts et al. (1993).
also influenced by the equivalence ratio of the mixture- Tests carried out at
different equivalence ratios show that lean methane-air flames are more easily
The
(Law (1988)).
unity (which
A first
than
analysis
is the
capacity
can
case
of flames to acoustic
be made based
on
flames),
the
competition
(1993)
(1995).
wrinkle
more
imposed on the upstream side of the flame) in situations where the flame can
of the
no longer be considered infinitely small with respect to the wavelength
disturbances created by the oscillating acoustic pressure.
At higher frequencies (typically around I kHz) and for large amplitudes
of oscillation, the flame responds in a very different way. In some cases, the
flame front takes a flat hemispherical shape as shown in Figure 7. In this
example, it has been demonstrated that the acoustic field imposes the flame
position (Durox et al. (1996)). The flarae front lies on an equipotential. of the
the laminar flame
pressure field and, in order to maintain equality between
the
to
flow
the
and
strongly deflects
front,
perpendicular
component
velocity
the flow at the burner outlet. The flow pattern is, in this case, completely
modified by the presence of the. high-frequency large-amplitude oscillations
of the
incoming flow.
In this second
shaped
flame
example, a premixed turbulent flame is anchored on a Vplaced in a rectangular combustor. The channel is fed
flame holder
E.
486
Haile,
0.
Delabroy, D. Durox,
F.
Lacas,
and S. Candel
Fig. 7. Image of the same Bunsen flame forced at 1000 Hz. A parametric instability
excited, radically changing the flame structure and average flow field. The burner
is
exit diameter is 22
with
of
mm.
mixture of air and propane. Experiments were carried out for a set
ratios (0.6 < 0 < 0.9) and mass ffow rates (see Yu et al.
equivalence
(1991)
for further
details).
by
the upstream channel, producing longitudinal acoustic modes. Weak pressure oscillations produce a striking wrinkling of the turbulent flame front (as
on
illustrated in
with
Figure 8).
maximum for
velocity
The flame
at the stabilizer
lip
St
(300
to 1800
to the
4.3
Hz).
responds
over a
fhlU
on
of order
essentially flat
one.
It is
over a
quite remarkable
spectral range
broad
hydrodynamic
Modulation of
While gaseous flame forcing has been studied rather extensively, much less
has been done on spray flames. This topic is of special interest because many
combustors
or
on a
are
fed with
is
Combustion Enhancement
by Active Control
487
d Flow
low
by acquiring phase-locked
reorganizes the
flame structure
as
shown in
Figure
11.
reaction
They mix the fuel that is located close to the burner axis with
and combustion products- What is more, the droplet mechanical
zone.
relaxation time should be less than the turn-over time of these coherent strucfresh air
tures, so that they can be effectively entrained and mixed with the
and
products.
may
explain
in
part
E.
488
Haile,
0.
Delabroy,
D.
Durox,
F.
k ..Z*,
Lacas,
and S. Candel
Liquid spray
6 slit flame holder
Iajector
Air
Liquid Fuel
Fig.
9. Direct view of the unforced turbulent spray flame CH* radical emission.
intense)
to blue
linearly proportional
(most intense).
to the emission
the cut-off
phenomenon
reductions
(Delabroy et
al.
(1996a)).
Using the liquid-fuel actuator, it is possible to stage actively the fuel distribution in the combustion chamber, and to synchronize fuel injection with
the roll-up of the coherent vortices organized by the acoustic forcing. Figure 10 shows how this is accomplished experimentally. The loudspeaker is
driven as before, and the acoustic excitation organizes the reaction zone into
periodic coherent vortices. A microphone mounted on a wave guide at the
burner exit plane on the chamber wall measures the acoustic pressure osciuations inside the combustor. Its signal is pass-band filtered around the forcing
frequency. The liquid-fuel actuator is then used to synchronize the ir jection
of the spray into the chamber with this signal. Both actuators operate at
the same frequency, but their relative phase (measured between the valve's
opening and the positive zero-crossing of the acoustic pressure signal) can be
varied.
Figure 12 (taken from Haile et al. (1997)) shows the results obtained by
forcing the flame acoustically and staging the liquid fuel injection at 124
Hz. The relative phase between the liquid-fuel actuator's opening and the
microphone signal changes by 45' between each image. The relative phase
is nil in image 12(a)- The images were acquired in phase with the liquid
Combustion Enhancement
by Active
Control
489
Mi
pass-band filter
fuel actuator,
while the
so
that the
by 45',
packet
image,
center of each
phase
as
shown
by
next section.
E.
490
Haile,
0.
Delabroy,
D.
Durox,
F.
Lacas,
and S. Candel
Fig. 11. CH* emission image of the flame under acoustic modulation. The image
acquired by phase-locking the camera with the excitation signal. The flame is
excited at 82 Hz 5 Pa zero-peak. Each image corresponds to a different phase of
the acoustic cycle, sepaxated by 90' from its neighbors. The color scale is the same
as in figure 9.
is
Application
to
pollutant
emission
flame and
section, have
large-scale
coherent structures,
as
de-
major impact
pollutant
Long-term research effort is needed to design and commercialize new lowNO, burners, while there is an urgent need for solutions to industrial applications faced with more demanding regulations on pollutant emissions.
Active control can be used to retrofit a variety of existing burner configurations to comply with new legislation. It appears then as a viable alternative
to acquiring completely new burners. This approach has been developed for a
20 kW liquid-fueled burner (Delabroy et al. (1996b)) and for a larger 900 kW
system'(Delabroy et al. (1996a), Delabroy et al. (1997)).
The goal of this section is to describe how active combustion control can
lead to the observed NO., emission reductions, using the results presented
in the
on
emission.
Combustion Enhancement
by Active Control
491
12. Phase-locked
scale is the
same as
in
sions
are
achievable
al.
(1996b)).
can
(Delabroy et
5.1
=_
be
control
E.
492
Haile,
0.
Delabroy,
D.
Durox,
F.
Lacas,
and S. Candel
important
to examine
5.2
The
non-premixed flame
which
develops in the combustion chamber downwrapped-up in the braids of the coherent vortex
educed by the acoustic excitation (Fig. 11(b & c)). Here, the flame is subjected to high strain rates (Th6venin & Candel (1995)). Thermal NO., formation rate decreases with increasing strain rate (Drake & Blint (1989), Vranos
stream of the flame-holder is
& Hall
(1993)),
rates
(Fig. 11(d
&
in
existing
a)),
(1994)
pulse combustors
were
entraining
fuel
and air into its core, where a lean premixed flame ignites. The temperature
field is more homogeneous and lower temperatures are attained than in diffusion flames. Such conditions reduce thermal NO
CH + NO
-4.
HCN +
0,
HCO,
CH + NO
N +
CH + NO
CNO + H.
inducing
internal
Combustion Enhancement
by Active Control
493
NO is consurnmed by CIE
CIE
NON-PREMIXED
The. CM radicals
FLAIM
are,
centrifinged
Production ofNO
_P"ducti"ofN0
-Production ofHCN
Zi
-PmductionofHCN
Production ofCFE
Rich Zone
((
)I
"
A
AIR
Primary Flame
Productim of CM
Burns all the --Ygen from the
rentralietofair
-Vaporizes thefueldEoplets
Internal
Reference flarne
Fig.
Rich Zone
Primary Flame
(left)
staging "Reburning"
-
and with
(right)
control.
Conclusions
potential
in combustion.
Exper-
small and medium scale systems indicate that active control may be used to reorganize the flame region, improve mixing,
modify the flame volume, or obtain a dynamic staging of the reaction zone.
iments carried out
on
Open-loop
control has
which appear under unstable conditions may then lead to flashback or flame
blowout. Active control might be -useful in preventing this unacceptable dynamical response and, in this sense, it might also help enhance the operation
of the combustion system. Practical application of active control concepts
It will require further studies of basic mechanisms,
problems, as well as more technological investigations
focusing on sensors, actuators, and control algorithms. Reliability concerns
in hostile environments will have to"be treated carefully.
is not
straightforward.
examination of scaling
494
E.
Haile,
0.
Delabroy,
D.
Durox,
F.
Lacas,
and S. Candel
Acknowledgments
gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by the
European Community, ADEME, MENESR, DRET and Bertin & Cie., and
the technical support of the team of engineers and technicians at EM.C.
The authors
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Yu,
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mixed flame
Chaos, Coherence
and Control
T oy Shinbrot
University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, U.S.A.
Northwestern
to have said
(Gleick, 1988)
turbulence?"
Specifically,
or
we
try
to understand
to be
an
So
study it
agenda,
here we discuss two things. First, we review progress over the past decade on the
control of low-dimensional, temporally chaotic dynamics. Second, we explore recent
work which demonstrates how the dynamics of spatially chaotic, but temporaRy
regular, systems can be manipulated. We conclude by very briefly discussing the
prognosis of this research for the control of truly turbulent problems, which are
and to
ambitious
unpredictable
Historical
Setting
problem:
two
the
was
to be contradicted in 1890
problem
larger bodies. In
of
a
an
infinitesimal
200 page
problems
such
as
moon
stable.
Our story would end there, except for one thing: Poincar6's proof was
Poincar6 provided the correct proof
In a later, 270-page paper,
wrong.
1957), which demonstrated that celestial orbits can in fact be
(Poincar,6,
copies of his earlier work were systematically sought out and destroyed (Peterson, 1993). Poincar6's proof in itself was controversial (Poincar6,
18 9 6), though the controversy was moderated somewhat by his demonstration
unstable. All
T oy Shinbrot
502
(Sternberg, 1969)
asymptotically describe
(Poincar6, 1893; Schlissel, 1977). Nevertheless
his proof presented a profoundly disconcerting idea, for as Poincare pointed
out,' "perhaps one day a mathematician will show by rigorous reasoning that
the solar system is unstable." Thus one day, the moon could crash into the
earth-or the earth could escape from the solar system altogether. More disconcerting still, given no amount of resourcescan we compute whether or not
these catastrophes will occur. The fateful day presaged by Poincar6 did -not
for practical purposes come until quite recently --a. century after Poincar6's
semmal proof-when careful computations showed conclusively that chaoslong term unpredictability-is readily to be found in the solar system (Laskar,
1989; Sussman and Wisdom, 1992).
The words of Poincar6, recognized at the time as the "greatest living
the motion of the three bodies
mathematician!'
(Segr6, 1980),
a man
ever
presi-
(1950),
the standard Classical Mechanics text. On page 12 of Goldstein's classic, one finds the double pendulum (sketched in inset to Figure I)-one of the
simplest of physical devices-described as an example of coupled oscillation.
Professor
theme that
Control of
Temporal Chaos
Apparently very simple systems can be extremely sensitive to tiny perturbations. There are many examples; the double pendulum is just one. The
question that several teams of researchers have raised over the past decade
is, "can this sensitivity be used to control chaotic systems?"
"...
que la
503
100
col
C-1
10
0
-
0
13
0.1
0.0
0.2
Time
0.4
0.6
0.5
(seconds)
The first
practical
chaotic system
came
from NASA (Wisdom, 1987). A little over a decade ago, NASA had an interesting problem. The comet Giaccobini-Zinner was due to travel through
solar system, and NASA scientists wanted to send a spacecraft through
time, this had never been done before. But NASA couldn't
our
budget
spacecraft
to do
this;
was a
sun
the
cancel out.
amounts of residual
hydrazine fuel
left
over
important to stress that this was made possible only by the nonlinearity
body problem; NASA's maneuver would not have been possible in
a linear system. In a linear system, a large effect requires a proportionately
large control. Only in a nonlinear system can one achieve disproportionately
large effects using small controls.
is
of the 3
504
T oy
Shinbrot
NASA's method
Dunham and
et
weather models. In his seminal paper (Lorenz, 1963), "Deterministic Nonperiodic Flow," Lorenz sought to study convection in a computational fluid
model. This model involved
modal
set of ODE's
"
the Fourth of
2.1
Using
sure
that
no
July picnic."
Chaotic
Sensitivity
Clearly the spirit, if not the precise implementation, of the control of chaos
has a long history. In the remainder of this section we will describe a few
generic methods for the control of temporally chaotic systems.
As we have shown, chaotic systems are extremely sensitive to tiny per0 we can adjust some parameter in a chaotic
turbations- So if at time t
system, we expect generically that the future trajectories of the system will
diverge exponentially in time as indicated on the sketch shown in Figure 2.
Here we see that if a particular chaotic trajectory follows the solid curve at
the nominal parameter value, p
p, then by perturbing the system a littlethe
to
i.e. by changing
parameter
p
p,, + 6p -we expect the trajectory to
veer away exponentially, as shown in the dashed curve. This means that by
choosing a suitable perturbation between 0 and 6p, we can reach any point
=
--
X(t=to)
505
X(t=to)
P=PO
.0
P=PO+8P
on some
grey
curve
shown in the
figure. Thus if we
want to reach
particular
job
2.2
Implementations
Let's
see
Figure
we
show
everyone's
favorite at-
study
as we
mentioned, the attractor defines the state of convection rolls in the chaotic
regime. Indeed, the Lorenz equations can be used to describe the motion of
a narrow upright torus filled with fluid and heated from below (Yorke et al.,
1987) (sketch to right of Figure 3).
We imagine that we want to direct the trajectory from any arbitrary
starting point on the attractor to, say, a neighborhood of the unstable stationary point of the flow, the origin (encircled region in Figure 3). This is
an interesting region because it contains exceedingly low measure: only 1 in
1010 orbits around either lobe of the attractor falls within the target region
shown. To put this in perspective, the probability that a flipped coin Will end
up resting on its edge is a factor of a million greater than this (Murray and
Teare, 1993).
As in any real physical problem, we imagine that we have control over
some parameter, p -some knob or flow control, say. For our problem, we
imagine that the parameter represents an asymmetric heating rate in the
noy Shinbrot
506
Fig. 3. Lorenz
attractor
(left)
(right),
which Lorenz
equations
be used to model.
can
Lorenz system.
is written:
-k
0-
(Y
X)
(1)
Y=-xz+rX-Y+p(t)
,=XY-bZ
8/3.
28, and b
We trace these two trajectories forward in time until they eventually fallon opposite sides of the target. We can identify these events by placing planes
through the origin, labelled Y< and Y> in the figure, and noting when a trajectory passes through one or the other plane. Once the trajectory associated with p
6p strikes one plane and the trajectory associated with
p,,
and
p,, + 6p strikes the other, if our system is sufficiently low-dimensional
p
between
the
in
well behaved, then we expect that some perturbation
range
6p and p,, + 8p will. strike the target. All that remains is to refine the
p,,
estimate of the correct perturbation, which can easily be done, for example
by successively halving the parameter range and choosing the halves which
where
we use
a-
10,
Readers may
here is that this
Chaos, Coherence
and Control
507
we
is
50-
Starting
point
0
I-V
Y<
Y>
//0
-20
20
X
Fig.
4.
Targeting
of
origin
in Lorenz
system
Figure 4 we show a typical trajectory brought to the origin in a nuexperiment including additive noise. The same trajectory without
control leads nowhere near the origin in any sensible amount of time (cf. Figure 3) -. Again, our recipe is to calculate a perturbation in a 'model' Lorenz
system, and then to apply the perturbation in a separate 'real' system including additive noise.2 To deal with noise, we re-apply the targeting algorithm
periodically to obtain mid-course corrections. This is the same thing that
In
merical
For
experiments done
on
this system,
see
Singer
et al.
(1991).
noy Shinbrot
508
ISEE-3/ICE-3
con-
does, and it can easily be shown that through these corrections we can
reduce the exponential growth of errors to a growth that is no worse than
troller
linear.
we are playing both sides of the street here: because this Syschaotic, we can make use of exponential sensitivity to rapidly steer
trajectories to highly improbable states. But because we correct the trajectory regularly, we can prevent the exponential build-up of errors in the
trajectory.
There is, of course, nothing magic about the origin as a target; any other
accessible state would work as well. For example, in Figure 5 we show a
chaotic trajectory which is brought to a figure-eight unstable orbit. Unlike
targeting of the origin, in this case we only need one plane, and we identify
trajectories which strike one or the other side of the target point on this
single plane.
Notice that
tem is
50
0 i
-20
20
X
Fig.
Once
near
5.
this orbit
we can
apply
the
same
in Lorenz systein
targeting algorithm
to
bring
same
one
implementation which
assigned
to
a one.
By targeting
one
has
been developed,
509
one
switch the system state in such a way as to send digital information. Indeed,
since there are typically an infinite number of periodic orbits embedded in a
chaotic attractor
can
et
2.3
Higher Dimensionality
We have so far shown that straightforward techniques can be used to steer trajectories to a desired state in simple, temporally chaotic systems like a heated
fluid loop. For problems of this kind, it should not be surprising that control
is possible. Indeed recent research has proven that there is an intimate relation betvveen ergodicity-a hallmark of dissipative chaos-and controllability
(Colonius and Kliemann, 1993). For the Lorenz case, this relation is facilitated by the low dimensionality of the problem: the correlation dimension
(Schuster, 1989) of the Lorenz attractor for the parameters used in Figure 3
is 2.06. The technique we have described works by detecting intersections
between the flow and surfaces of section (e.g. the plane shown in Figure 5),
on which the dimension is 1.06. So we have a nearly one-dimensional problem
which we are controlling using one parameter (Shinbrot et al., 1992). It comes
as no surprise that control is readily achievable.
What about higher-dimensional problems? Here we can play the following
game, which we illustrate using the H6non system:
X,,+,
Y.+1
where
we use a
Y,
p + 0.3
X,2,
(2)
X"'
(Xn, Y,)
Equations (2)
1.4.
at times
n.
The chaotic
control parameter,
F1 (A)
in
length
of the
we can
6 (b).
curve
is
this segment
on
For the
where
sweep out
(0.94228972, 0.8512537).
0.001p,,,
Troy Shinbrot
510
F5(A)
2-
2-
-F3(A)FI(A)
F 7(A)
F7(A)
Yn
Yn
-2
(A)
P(A)
(b)
WI___
-21
-2
-1
-2
-1
Xrl
Xn
2-
1-
1-
F-I(B)
F-2(B)
Yn
Yn
0Intersection
F-3(B)
0-
-4,
-2
-2
-1
-2
-1
Xn
we
6.
Targeting
dimensional'problems
XrL
Fig.
Next,
in H6non system
point with
hyper-surface),.
time, using the inverse map, F-1. For the H6non map (2), this inverse is
unique; for other problems multiple branches may result, but the same idea
still holds for any given branch (Kostelich et al., 1993). We repeat this process until, once again, the size of the circle is on the order of the attractor
size. We then search for intersections between the forward iterates emanat-
ing from A and the backward iterates from the circle surrounding B. These
intersections represent trajectories that start at A and end near B. Intersections typically exist due to the hyperbolic structure of stable (Figure 6(c))
and unstable (Figure 6 (a)) manifolds characteristically found in chaotic systems. Moreover, because of the exponential growth which is characteristic of
chaotic systems in both forward and backward evolutions, the time required
to reach a target using this technique is exceedingly short, and goes only as
the logarithm of the target size (Shinbrot et al-, 1990).
4In
the
example shown, we use the target point, (0-5999968,-1.58540), and surby a circle of radius 0.01 (in units defined by Equations (2)).
511
Control of
In this section
the
mixing
we
Spatial
focus
on a
mechanism which
straightforward question
any way. If
Chaos
we
can
sometimes counteract
can
certain
be controlled in
region,
our
first
be to make
use
of
chaos control
fluid.
...
...
Y,,+,
Y,,
X',+1
X.
....
(3)
sin(X,,)
Y.+1
convenient
With notable
exceptions such
as
Sommerer
(1993)
(1995).
Troy Shinbrot
512
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
-2.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
-1.0
0.0
X
Fig. 7. Hyperbolic stretching
in standard map
one iteration of the map (grey quadrillateral in Figure 7), the set will be
drawn away along the unstable manifold of the point. If we apply control, any
one point in the initial set can be brought to the hyperbolic point, but all of
after
same
See,
for
point
so
as
to
keep
the cluster
together
within the
sur-
513
rounding chaotic sea. How might this be done? It so happens that nature has
provided us with copious,examples, not just in spatially chaotic flows, but in
actual turbulent flows
as
well.
Great Red
on
more
than three hundred years. Thus we ask: "how has this spot persisted within
Jupiter's turbulent atmosphere? Given its presence, why hasn't the surround-
Great Red
For
in the
1978).
the
damage
was
driven to
were
Coherent structures appear in virtually every scientific discipline: in catalytic chemistry; in epidemiology; in meteorology; in the study of Josephson
What do these very different probjunction arrays; in neural processing
lems have in common? No one would be surprised to see regular structures
in regular flows, but why do they always seem to crop up in irregular flows?
....
So this is
there
are
spatially
set of ftmdamental.
practical questions
that
questions that
we
must
we
answer
if we
chaotic systems.
particular, given that coherent structures often do pop up in complicated flows, we want to study what holds them together. Given that we might
want to control chaotic fluid flow, can coherent structures be made to appear
or vanish under our control? What underlying mechanisms keep one region
of fluid in a,chaotic flow intact, while fluid all around is quickly dispersed?
And supposing that a structure already exists, what do its internal dynamics
depend on? Can we vary the mixing within a structure, for example? Can we
put a spot of reactant dye in a bucket tank of polymer and mix the polymer
all around the reactant, keeping the reactant intact? And can we then mix
the reactant with the polymer inside a little region, and then if we choose
perhaps parcel out aliquots of diluted reactant?
In
514
Troy Shinbrot
3.1
Horseshoes in
Mbdng
Flows
are
also
consider the
(4)
L,, (n + 1)
L,,
stretching on
seconds,
the
mean
stretching
is
by
factor < A
6.
Linear Stretching
4A>
4A>
4A>
-=
,A>
=-
<A>
=-
8.
bottom
Top:
Linear
moves
stretching
in box
fixed distance to
same
region
as
is
Chaos, Coherence
termed
'horseshoe,'
near
and Control
515
rectangle is stretched by
stretching is given
length L,, will grow after n
second,
so
that after
seconds the
L,,
(5)
total
Smale Horseshoe
<A>
<A>
<A>
<A>
16
<A>
32
Top: Horseshoe stretching and folding. Each time unit the rectangle is doulength and then folded over into shape shown. This is the situation encountered in simple chaotic flows. Bottom: Results of repeated applications of horseshoe
on box initially half grey, half white. The mean stretching after the final time step
Fig.
9.
bled in
is <A>= 32.
control, the thing to notice here is that the horsestretching and folding. In conjunction, these two
lead
to
exponentially fast mixing, but by separating the two operoperations
ations from one another, we can achieve a new type of control. That is, rather
than putting the fold any old place, we can choose to put a fold where we
want a coherent structure. This idea is shown in its simplest manifestation
in Figure 10- Now we include a second fold, on the left of the rectangular
region, resulting in two topologically identical horseshoe maps, one shown in
light grey and the second in dark grey. Each time we stretch the fluid, we
it
may double its length, but each time we fold it, we halve the length. So
should come as no great surprise that systems which compose stretching with
folding exhibit chaotic regions side by side with coherent ones, which come
or go depending on the happenstance of fold location
For the purposes of
T!toy Shinbrot
516
Twin Horseshoes
<A>
cA>
<A>
4A>
16
<A>
32
Top: Twin horseshoes, resulting in two separated mixing regions. BotStretching is still exponential in time within either region, but there is no
interpenetration between regions.
Fig.
10.
tom:
517
Fig. 11. Top: Horseshoe in box periodic at left and right. Point in center, P*,
hyperbolic. Bottom: Additional V shaped horseshoe included in central region
resiAts in two separated mixing regions indicated by light and dark grey. P* is again
hyperbolic, and mixing within each region is chaotic.
is
stretching and folding occurs in physical space where we can readily visualize
it; in other problems it occurs in phase space. Nevertheless, any systern that
stretches and folds can in principle be manipulated in this way to create
coherent structures in the presence of repeated stretching. The location of
the fold is the key.
Moreover, instead of repeatedly folding the region from bottom to top
again and again, we can fold from bottom to top the first time, and then
from top to bottom the next. By repeating this protocol, we can change the
dynamics within the structure from something that repeats once per cycle
or eight
or three cycles
to something that repeats once in two cycles
In addition, effective stretching only occurs on the legs of the horseshoe.
In the fold itself, the fluid can circulate, but need not stretch chaotically. By
varying the proportion of fluid in the fold compared with the legs, the fraction
of material that is chaotic or regular can be changed correspondingly. Thus
by studying the horseshoes-which are known to underlie complicated flows
(Ottino, 1994)-we can develop strategies to control the topology, mixing
.
...
....
Implementations
3.2
Let's
see
few
problems. We'll
finally
map, shown in
we'll
apply
Figure 12(a).
noy Shinbrot
518
X,
40
20
Equation (6)
X.+1
Thus
60
Iterate,
X"
X,,
(1
near
X,)
if -1
2
80
100
(6)
<xn<1
quantity, X, at discrete
Figure 12. On the left we
plot the functional form determined by Equation (6), and on the right we
show the evolution of a point starting near the origin: X,,
0.01. This map
stretches a typical neighborhood by a factor of 2 in length-thus a point very
near to X,, would diverge over time from the state Xn according to Equation
(5). Now suppose we want to add a 'fold' to break this map into two disjoint
domains. We can do this by shifting the map by a phase, a:
times
n.
are
shown in
X.+1
2
2
(a Xn)
(X,, a)
(1 +
X,)
-
Xn < a
lyn < (-1
+
2
+
Xn <
if 0 <
if
if
(-L2
(7)
<
This map and its evolution are shown in Figure 13. The new fold is visible
Y shape in the lower corner of the plot on the left, and the effect of
as a
initial
Chaos,
519
also shown
upper right of map shown in Figure 13; corresponding trajectory
as dotted line in evolution plot to right) in one of the maps, or if the map
one of the grey boxes leaves the box (dashed line in lower left of map),
then the maps in the two regions can interact to whatever degree we choose.
Although neither of these modifications are area preserving in the 1D case,
in
these behaviors
can
be
seen
7,_
in
0.8-
0.6-
0.4-
0.2-% NNNIINNki,
V
01
0.0
0
*.
-,---
_-,
LIN, Nhl'\,
-
40
20
..
60
Iterate,
Xn
..,
-A
80
.4
-
100
Fig. 13. Left: Shifted tent map. Right: Evolution of same point near origin as shown
Figure 12. Now dynamics within light and dark grey regions are separated. Dotted lines indicate possible modification in dynamics within dark grey region; dashed
line indicates mechanism to permit controlled intermixing between two regions.
in
3.3
Map
2D
(k
2.5).
Can folds
noy Shinbrot
520
ing, which
stretching.
factor of 5 to
factor of
5/4-or
little
the
vicinity of the folds. This is shown in Figure 15, where we expand the
region of Figure 14. Here we see clearly that there is an overlapping
the initial rectangle (white) and the folded region (grey) that
between
region
results from the application of the modified map. If we examine trajectories
in this region (inset to Figure 15), we find that they remain trapped within a
region of overlap between the original rectangle and the fold (outlined in main
plot of Figure 15). If you looked closely, you'd find that there are stochastic
regions as well as stable islands within this structure, which is what you'd
expect. By changing the details of the folds, you can modify these features
central
as
from the
new
structure
unchanged.
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
-2.0
-1.0
0.0
X
Fig.
sinusoidal
nonlinearity
incorporated
into
Chaos,
521
-------------------------
'W.
0.3
M.,
0.2
0.1
------- T
----------------
-0
-0
-0
2.8
3.2
3.1
3.0
2.9
3.3
3.4
3.5
X
Fig. 15. Expanded view of folded region in modified standard map. Inset: Coherent
overlap between fold and original rectangle.
3.4
As
we
have
problem
ure
16
indicated,
we
it is
possible
to insert folds
analytically
into
model
the standard map, but what about real problems? In Figshow an example: flow of a viscous liquid held between two eccentric
such
as
between the
coherent structures
chaotic mixing
we show how a
(Bresler
et
so
al., 1997;
these folds
al., 1994),
and in many
identified. In
Figure 16(a),
Ottino et
readily
problems
rectangle of dye drawn into the fluid becomes deformed after
8
The deformed
one cycle of slowly rotating the inner and outer cylinders.
rectangle takes the shape of a stylized 'z,' with folds lying far from the initial
rectangle. This is the situation shown in the top sketches of Figure 11, and
as we would expect, there is good chaotic mixing in the region surrounding
7'
are
Here
T!roy
522
the
Shinbrot
rectangle.
small blob of
This is demonstrated in
dye
we
show how
(b)
(a)
Fig. 16. (a) 'z' shaped Smale horseshoe between two eccentric cylinders rotated
according to prescribed protocol. Initial rectangle of marker particles shown. (b)
Resulting global chaotic advection of small blob of markers after 14 rotation cycles.
By contrast,
if
we
perform the
same
cylinder,g
we can
periodic point,
so
that
points
in
given
region
fold,
so
that the
points
are
Now
we
-170',
and
finaUy
the inner
inner
by -1080', the
outer
by
523
(b)
(a)
17.
(a)
'z'
There is
emphasis.
First, the analysis that we have presented has been based entirely on
global arguments. No amount of local analysis-for example around P* in
Figure 16 or 17-will tell us anything whatsoever about the global behavior
in the surrounding structure. The behavior of folds, for example, does not
depend on the local behavior in the interior of the horseshoe-we saw this in
the tent map example, where we could make the interior dynamics within a
coherent region anything we wanted-for example an attractive fixed pointwithout affecting the barrier to mixing between regions. We saw this again in
the standard map, where the stretching rate was 5 within a coherent region,
and we see this once more in our chaotic fluid flow example by examining the
structure shown in Figure 17(b). This structure contains two elliptic islands
surrounding a hyperbolic point. The hyperbolic point is actually the remnant
of P*, which was hyperbolic before the creation of the coherent structure as
well as after. That is, we can keep this point hyperbolic and create, destroy
have described
or modify the surrounding structure in the ways that we
central
the
of
character
local
point. Local
without changing the underlying
behavior.
local
about
but
only
expansions can tell us many useful things,
folds-can
we hope
Only by global analysis-in this case of the surrounding
to understand global features of fluid behavior. It is these global features
that dictate important structural features which can dominate complex flow
deserve
dynamics.
Second,
in
real
an
approximate model,
the struc-
'IYoy Shinbrot
524
predict,
but if
vanish
or
suitable fold
precisely
can
at the
be moved
by adjusting
we
parameter, then
expect that
created
that the
or
mere
could tell
fact that
as
chaos; rather,
be caused
by
simply
an
alternative to
an
us
both
we
have
aberration in chaotic
coherence
can
chaos.
Prognostication
It
was
knowledge
to achieve
billion-fold
improvement
us
to achieve
structure of
targeting
in
systems.
-
And it
was
knowledge
of the
topology
spatially chaotic
us
sea.
to
of horseshoes in conservative
predictably manipulate
dy-
coherent
Chaos, Coherence
and Control
525
challenge for the field in the decades to come is to dehow spatially and temporally chaotic problems can be
controlled or manipulated as well. Here again, progress in the control of turbulent systems can only occur through an understanding of the structure of
these problems.
Progress to date in this field already shows the importance of structure:
The essential
termine whether
or
number of authors have been able to find systems whose apparent dimenhigh or infinite, but whose actual dynamics live in a controllable,
sion is
knows what I
References
Aref H.
(1984): Stirring by
Barreto
E.,
Kostelich
143, 1-21.
E., Yorke, J.A. (1995): Efficient SwitchPeriodic Orbits in Higher Dimensional Chaotic
Ott
noy Shinbrot
526
Efron
J. Astronautical Sci.
ISEE-3/ICE
eds.
(1953):
Oeuvres de Henri
33,
Poincar6,
8.
235-254.
(Gauthier-Villars,
Paris).
Z., Iwata C., Roy R., Schwartz I.B., Triandaf 1. (1992): 'R-acking Unstable
Steady States: Extending the Stability Regime of a Multimode Laser System.
Phys. Rev. Lett. 69, 3169-3172.
Gills
Goldstein H.
Hayes S., Grebogi C., Ott E. (1994a): Communicating with Chaos. Phys.
70, 3031-3040.
Hooke R.
Rev. Lett.
February,
of
New
Scientist,
10.
(1665-6):
Spot
in
one
of the Belts of
Jupiter,
Phil. Trans.
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