Endoscopic

Tec h n i q u e s i n Or a l
and Maxillofacial
Surgery
Fred Pedroletti, DMDa,*, Brad S. Johnson, DMDa,b,
Joseph P. McCain, DMDa,c
KEYWORDS
 Endoscopy  Minimally Invasive  Teaching
 Sialoendoscopy  Orthognathic  Trauma

TRAUMA
Accurate repair of complex craniomaxillofacial
trauma can be a challenge. Access can be difficult,
and endoscopic techniques can expand the
surgeons view and capabilities in certain situations. The endoscope is a useful tool in these situations, and advances in this technology have
provided some new opportunities in the management of patients. The use of this unique tool has
been described in a wide range of surgical treatments, including fractures and orbital, frontal
sinus, and other maxillofacial injuries.

Orbital Floor Fractures

Techniques for the use of the endoscope in orbital
fractures have been refined since the 1970s.7 With
this tool, a minimally invasive procedure can be
performed to evaluate the extent and severity of
the fracture from a transantral approach. A
surgeon can easily identify the location and size
of the defect without invading the content of the
orbit.8 With superior visualization a well-informed
decision can be made regarding the extent of
reconstruction necessary and the approach to
repairing the fracture.

a
Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Broward General Medical Center/Nova Southeastern University, Fort
Lauderdale, FL 33301, USA
b
Currently in Private Practice in Eastern Tennessee, USA
c
8940 N. Kendall Dr #604E, Miami, FL 33176, USA
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fpedroletti@yahoo.com

Oral Maxillofacial Surg Clin N Am 22 (2010) 169182

doi:10.1016/j.coms.2009.11.002
1042-3699/10/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

oralmaxsurgery.theclinics.com

There have been many advancements in endoscopic surgery since Takagi first used the
technique in 1918.1 The endoscope has been
described as an extra set of eyes, and is the
basis for innovation across multiple surgical disciplines and the fabrication of a new class of instruments and surgical techniques. As a teaching tool,
endoscopically assisted surgery allows trainee
surgeons to follow the surgery, and for the
teaching surgeons to describe the procedure in
real time and preserve the experience on video.
Although there is a learning curve, teaching of
the technique is improving, and various other techniques continue to be introduced with this surgical
adjunct.24 Some surgical procedures may also be
completed with less morbidity and, perhaps, with
a greater margin of safety (ie, avoiding technical
error) with the use of an endoscope.5,6 Increasingly, more endoscopic procedures are being
described in the craniomaxillofacial region. This
article reviews the present use of endoscopic
techniques for the treatment of craniomaxillofacial
trauma, orthognathic deformities, obstructive salivary gland disease, maxillary sinus disorders,
trigeminal nerve injury, and temporomandibular
joint (TMJ) disorders.

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In traditional periorbital approaches, the posterior margin of the defect may be difficult to visualize.9 These approaches require significant
manipulation of the orbital tissues, and result in
inflammation and the possibility of an ectropion
or entropion. By using the transantral approach,
these disadvantages are minimized. The transantral approach is technique sensitive and requires
training and experience to be performed proficiently. Once experience is gained, the result can
be comparable with that of the periorbital
approaches.9

TRANSANTRAL ORBITAL FRACTURE

REPAIR TECHNIQUE
The literature illustrates multiple approaches for
repair of orbital floor fractures, including the use
of a pure periorbital approach, a purely transantral
approach, or a combination of the two.10,11 The
authors recommend that a purely transantral
approach can be effective for the repair of the
orbital blow-out fracture. With this technique, the
posterior shelf of bone may be easily visualized
(Fig. 1), and an implant placed transantrally to
reconstruct the floor. This approach has the
potential benefit of less manipulation of the orbital
contents and periorbital tissues. Care is taken
when manipulating the intraorbital contents from
the antrum to avoid impingement of the musculature, periorbita, and optic nerve. It is important to
reconstruct the posterior bulge of the orbital floor
to restore orbital volume appropriately and avoid
enophthalmos. Based on intraoperative findings,
the surgeon should be prepared to access the

orbital floor from a periorbital approach as

needed.10
A simple maxillary vestibular incision is used. An
osteotomy in the anterior antral wall is performed.
The endoscope is placed into the sinus, which acts
as a natural optical cavity. A 30 , 4-mm-diameter
endoscope (Karl Storz, Tuttlingen, Germany) with
a xenon light source is preferred; a 0 , 45 , or
70 endoscope may also be used. A sinusotomy
of the sinus roof/orbit floor is completed, sharp
bone fragments are removed, and the margins of
the fracture are identified. Each shelf is carefully
dissected and the orbital contents replaced back
into the orbit. If fractured segments can be
reduced, they can be stabilized with a titanium
mesh or other material. If the fractured bone
cannot be salvaged, the orbital contents are
reduced, and an implant placed onto the orbital
side of the fracture. The implant is tested for
stability with a forced duction test and an ocular
pulse test. Mesh or other implant material can be
adapted onto the antral side of the fracture and
stabilized. It is important to provide adequate
support for the orbital contents by recreating the
appropriate anatomy with suitable material.

Mandibular Angle Fractures

The mandibular angle fracture is one of the most
common injuries of the maxillofacial region,12
and may be treated in various ways.13 Several
factors contribute to the high reported rate of
complications.14 When using an intraoral
approach, it may be difficult to position fixation
with a high degree of precision because of limited
access. With the adjunct of the endoscope,
a surgeon may fixate the mandible with a superior
and inferior border plate with a higher degree of
certainty of its placement. With the aid of the endoscope, anatomic reduction by visualization of the
entire fracture line to include the inferior border is
simple.
Endoscopically assisted mandibular angle fractures all but eliminate the risk of injury to the facial
nerve. The authors experience shows that the
procedure can have several advantages, including
efficiency, when compared with the extraoral technique. In the authors opinion, advantages include
allowing the patient to function immediately rather
than endure closed reduction, the patient suffers
less pain than with extraoral incisions, and the
scar is much less visible.

TECHNIQUE
Fig. 1. Endoscopic view of the orbital floor from
a transantral approach. Note the orbital content
herniation into the sinus cavity.

There has been limited discussion of endoscopicassisted open reduction and internal fixation
(ORIF) of the mandibular angle fracture. When

Endoscopic Surgery
using the endoscope, the incision is similar to that
of the standard intraoral incision for ORIF of the
mandibular angle. A subperiosteal dissection is
performed for creation of the optical cavity. The
30 , 4-mm-diameter endoscope, xenon light
source, and a standard mandibular fracture instrumentation tray are used. A recommended specialized instrument is a retractor with an endoscopic
sleeve to improve visualization and decrease
instrumentation in the cavity. The endoscope
allows for easy visualization of the fracture and
inferior border of the mandible. Superior tension
and inferior fixation plates are positioned and
fixated using a single transbuccal trocar technique. The authors prefer a locking cannula as it
aids in precise placement of the fixation hardware.
Once optimal fixation is placed and the reduction
is confirmed with the scope, appropriate documentation may be recorded, and closure is
completed.

Subcondylar Fractures
When considering the management of all craniomaxillofacial fractures, the greatest controversy
concerns the management options of the subcondylar fracture. The incidence of this fracture is
significant, representing 9% to 45% of mandibular
fractures.1517 The literature about subcondylar
fracture repair supports open and closed reduction techniques.15,1825 Indications for ORIF of
this type of fracture have been debated at
length,2630 and are beyond the scope of this
article. Level I evidence is lacking to provide
a definitive answer regarding which modality is
better in a particular clinical scenario.
The endoscope has changed the discussion and
debate in that there is now a third choice for the

management of this type of fracture with the

advantages of the open technique, but without
the major disadvantages (ie, external scar, facial
nerve injury).
Endoscopically assisted reduction and internal
fixation of subcondylar fractures have many
purported advantages over conventional ORIF.
Miloro30 reported that the technique improved visibility in an illuminated and magnified field of view,
with decreased bleeding, and better anatomic
reduction, and decreased postoperative morbidity
(ie, pain, edema, and limited opening). He further
suggested that these reasons make endoscopy
an attractive surgical adjunct. Because the technique is mostly performed with intraoral incisions,
there is minimal risk for facial nerve injury, salivary
fistula formation, or visible scarring. Although the
advantages have been presented by many,
endoscopic-assisted repair does have some
disadvantages. As with many new technologies,
and especially when dealing with this type of fracture, there is a steep learning curve. Operative
times can be expected to double when first attempting this technique.31 Despite the sensitivity
of the technique, this surgical option has significant advantages once the surgeon becomes proficient (Table 1).

TECHNIQUE
Endoscopic-assisted treatment of the subcondylar
fracture can be performed as an extraoral or
a transoral procedure.32 The authors recommend
a transoral approach whenever possible to avoid
the disadvantages of an open incision. The extraoral
approach should be performed when the
complexity of the fracture eliminates the transoral

Table 1
Improvement in operating time for similar procedures for a small number of cases

Reprinted from Miloro M. Endoscopic-assisted repair of subcondylar fractures. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol
Endod 2003;96(4):38791; with permission.

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Pedroletti et al
approach as a feasible technique (ie, severe fracture
override, severely oblique fracture, or comminution).
The incision for the transoral approach consists
of a lateral vestibular incision similar to that for
a sagittal split osteotomy. A subperiosteal dissection to the proximal mandibular segment is performed for creation of the optical cavity. The
authors prefer a 30 , 4-mm-diameter endoscope
and a xenon light source. The Synthes subcondylar fracture tray (Synthes, ADI/AO Development
Institute, Davos, Switzerland) has helpful retractors and instruments designed specifically for
this procedure. It is important not to place the
patient into maxillomandibular fixation to allow
for manipulation of the proximal and distal
segments of the mandible to facilitate reduction.
Helpful points include the use of the specialized curved retractors, reduction-manipulation
forceps, and placement of a clamp at the angle of
the mandible percutaneously for control of the
distal segment. A trocar is used to deliver the drill
and screws for rigid fixation. The number of plates
used for fixation can vary. Although use of this
technique remains controversial, those individuals
who become proficient may be able to avoid
external incisions and provide stable fixation for
various mandible fractures.

Frontal Sinus Fractures

Frontal sinus fractures represent about 5% of all
facial fractures,33 and one-third of those are isolated to the anterior table.34 Frontal sinus fractures
are typically associated with a significant force and
usually involve other intracranial or facial injuries.
Bicoronal, open-sky, or gull-wing approaches
allow for proper reduction and reconstruction
under direct visualization. Fractures that are
complex or require detailed reduction and fixation
techniques to gain stability should be repaired with
open techniques. However, when faced with an
isolated anterior table fracture that is minimally
displaced and lacks comminution, the endoscopic
approach may provide an alternative surgical
option. The endoscopic approach avoids large
incisions that may cause alopecia, paresthesia,
scarring, or nerve injury.35 This technique provides
visualization of the sinus wall fracture, and can be
used to evaluate the integrity of the nasofrontal
duct (Fig. 2) and posterior wall of the sinus.36

TECHNIQUE
Limited incisions in the scalp or a transnasal
approach may be used. As with the other techniques, a 30 , 4-mm-diameter endoscope and
a xenon light source are used. An endoscopic
brow-lift instrumentation tray or other endoscopic

Fig. 2. Endoscopic visualization of the nasofrontal

duct.

surgical instruments should be used to help

manipulate the fracture segments.
One approach is via transnasal reduction after
frontal sinusotomy37 and insertion of a balloon
catheter for reduction and support of the fractured
segments. Another technique includes an incision
through the eyebrow and a trephine bur hole into
the sinus with endoscopic examination of the
frontal sinus and subsequent reduction of the
fracture.36 The brow-lift approach, in which 2 incisions are placed in the hair-bearing area, can
also be used. A subperiosteal dissection to the
fracture followed by reduction with endoscopic
instruments and plating may be performed for
stability.3739 At times, particularly with younger
individuals, reduction and fixation can be technically difficult because of the greensticking that
typically occurs in this anatomic region.

ORTHOGNATHIC SURGERY
The endoscope has been used to assist with
various orthognathic procedures in an attempt to
gain better visualization and improve technical
aspects of the procedure. The authors experience
suggests that this increased ability to visualize
various aspects of the osteotomy can minimize
complications. Visualizing the inferior border or
medial cut during a sagittal split osteotomy may
prevent an improper split. In addition, evaluating
the posterior maxillary or mandibular anatomy
before or after the osteotomy can aid the surgeon
during positioning or fixation procedures. As the
technology improves, the adjunctive uses of the
endoscope become increasingly more common.

Sagittal Split Osteotomy

A deficient medial cut is often responsible for unfavorable fractures during a sagittal split osteotomy.

Endoscopic Surgery
At times, an unfavorable fracture anterior to the
lingula leaves the inferior alveolar nerve in the
proximal segment.40 A poorly oriented medial
osteotomy puts the coronoid process at risk of
fracture.41 Another area of potential complication
is at the inferior border osteotomy. An insufficient
osteotomy in this area often leads to a buccal
cortical plate fracture.42,43
Kim and McCain5 reported the use of an endoscope during mandibular orthognathic surgery.
After dissecting medially and visualizing the lingula
with the endoscope, the surgeon can then apply
soft-tissue protection and direct the angulation of
the medial cut with appropriate anatomic cues.
Aside from the small risk for inferior alveolar nerve
stretch injury, the authors have seen few associated complications as a result of the isolation
and direct visualization of the osteotomy site.
This report also described the ability to verify the
inferior border osteotomy with the help of number 3
myringotomy suction. The surgeon can reduce
complications at this site by visualizing a completed
inferior border osteotomy, thereby reducing the
possibility of a buccal plate fracture (Fig. 3).

serves as a muscular attachment tubercle.45,46

Complications of the traditional technique include
bleeding, nerve damage, or an unfavorable osteotomy, often based on poor anatomic judgments at
the time of osteotomy. Excessive bleeding is typically associated with transection of the inferior
alveolar, masseteric, or maxillary arteries. Similarly, nerve damage usually involves transection
of the inferior alveolar nerve as it enters the
mandible, secondary to an osteotomy completed
too far anteriorly. In an effort to protect these
structures by overcompensating, sometimes the
osteotomy is placed too far posteriorly, and a subcondylar osteotomy may occur. Using the endoscope can limit these misjudgments and improve
visualization before making the osteotomy.
Endoscopically assisted vertical ramus osteotomies have been described via a modified Risdon
approach,47 and via intraoral incisions.48 The
authors prefer the intraoral approach. If intraoral
incisions are used, not only is visualization
improved with the endoscope, but the medial
aspect of the ramus can be explored, and appropriate protection of neurovascular structures
improves accuracy of the osteotomy (Fig. 4).

Vertical Ramus Osteotomy

The traditional vertical ramus osteotomy is
frequently used for mandibular setback. The location of the osteotomy is based on radiographic
interpretation of the mandibular canal, and a landmark, the antilingula, which identifies the entry of
the inferior alveolar nerve.44 However, the antilingula is not reliable in this regard. It was reported
in 2006 that the antilingula has no anatomic
relationship to the mandibular canal, but rather

Fig. 3. Endoscopically assisted cut of the inferior

border of the mandible in a sagittal split osteotomy.

LeFort I Osteotomy
Lefort I osteotomy is a predictable operation for
repositioning the mid-face and upper arch of dentition. However, there are occasional complications,
such as significant bleeding or unfavorable fractures. The endoscope can be used as a teaching
tool during this procedure to allow trainees to visualize various aspects of the posterior anatomy and
various views not typically available to assistants or

Fig. 4. Endoscopic view of the left medial mandible.

Isolation for a vertical ramus osteotomy or medial
cut of a sagittal split is completed from this view.

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Pedroletti et al
observers. With 30 and 70 endoscopes, the pterygomaxillary junction, ptyergoid plates, nasal
septum, and other relevant anatomic points can
be visualized. A 0 scope can be used to visualize
the posterior maxillary wall and the neurovascular
bundles. Although not necessary to complete the
procedure, the endoscope can be a useful aid for
teaching the procedure and avoiding complications as trainees learn the relevant anatomy associated with this and other osteotomies.

SIALOENDOSCOPY
Surgical treatment of obstructive pathologic
conditions of the salivary gland were, until
recently, limited to open surgery. Although complications of salivary gland excision occur at a low
rate (from 2% to 9%),49 some of these sequelae
are problematic for patients. Potential complications such as excessive scarring, nerve damage,
hemorrhage, xerostomia, and gustatory sweating
are reported with open techniques.50
Like other minimally invasive techniques for oral
and maxillofacial surgery, endoscopic assistance
in the treatment of pathologic conditions of the
salivary gland is new, as endoscopes only recently
achieved the degree of miniaturization necessary
to navigate these fine structures. First described
in 1991 by Katz,51 the technique is still developing
as optics and instrumentation improve. Nahlieli,
Marchal, and other endoscopists have contributed
significantly to this development.52
Sialoendoscopy provides the ability to diagnose
and treat obstructive salivary gland disease
without subjecting the patient to redundant testing
and more invasive procedures.
Various modalities are available to diagnose an
obstructive salivary gland condition. Various
imaging techniques have been used with success,
such as plain film, ultrasound, magnetic resonance
imaging, computed tomography, and sialography.
Each of these has its drawbacks. Some are cost
prohibitive, whereas others do not have positive
predictive value to warrant regular use. Approximately 20% of submandibular stones, 60% of
parotid stones, and 80% of sublingual obstructions
are not visualized with typical diagnostic tools.53
Sialoendoscopy allows the surgeon to visualize
the duct system and contents to diagnose the
problem. Nahlieli and Marchal have independently
reported success rates greater than 80%52 in
treating obstructive pathologic conditions of the
salivary gland using minimally invasive techniques.
The growth of sialoendoscopy began with Katz54
and the use of a flexible endoscope combined
with a blind technique to grab the obstruction
from the ductal system. The technique was

considered blind because of the poor quality of

the picture. These issues resolved as optics
improved. Some argued that a flexible scope
would be more beneficial when approaching the
duct at the severe turn around the submandibular
gland, a torturous duct, or a tight piercing of a duct
through the buccinator. However, Arzoz55 reported success using a rigid urethroscope to navigate the duct. He favored the working channel to
fit other instruments for treatment purposes. By
using a rigid scope, lighting was no longer
a problem. Nahlieli followed with his rigid endoscope, although it occasionally caused trauma to
the duct and other soft tissues.
Subsequently, the rigid scope was modified to
be semirigid or semiflexible, and the addition of
a working channel and improved diameter of the
endoscope made this technique more practical.
Since Marchal56 introduced the semiflexible
design in 1998, there have been few modifications.
Diagnostic and interventional sialoendoscopy
kits are available. The irrigation channel was introduced to the design in 1999 by Nahlieli.55 The
diameter of the scope varies (0.82.7 mm). The
considerable variability in size is usually because
of the presence of a working port.
The most used designs are semiflexible, with
a 0.25-mm irrigating channel, a 0.8-mm working
channel, and a diameter of 1.6 mm.51 The authors
prefer an endoscope that has a 0.90-mm optic and
a 1.3-mm channel.51 Wire baskets, grasping
forceps, microburs, catheters, and stents are all
available.
In many cases, imaging is still necessary in the
diagnostic process to exclude contributory pathologic conditions. However, diagnostic sialoendoscopy can sometimes replace the need for
expensive, often nondiagnostic studies. Situations
remain in which sialoendoscopy is not warranted.
These situations include nonobstructive sialadenitis that resolves with antibiotics, spontaneous
expulsion of the obstruction, and large stone size,
and proximal location of a stone. Stones that are
seen within the gland, or extraglandular, are not
amenable to endoscopic treatment. These stones
are usually managed with excision of the gland,
and sialodochoplasty.57 However, for routine
obstruction, if medical management is unsuccessful, sialoendoscopy can be considered. Marchal
and colleagues58 showed no correlation between
frequency or duration of infection and glandular
histology. They inferred that the gland had normal
function even after chronic obstructive disease.
This finding contradicts an accepted indication for
gland removal after chronic obstruction, and
consequently may allow some patients to undergo
a sialoendoscopy procedure to salvage the gland.

Endoscopic Surgery

Sialoendoscopy begins with preoperative evaluation of the patient to ensure that the procedure
can be performed with an expectation of success.
Trismus from pathologic conditions of the TMJ or
active infection are contraindications for this technique. In the authors experience this procedure

can be performed with local anesthetic, intravenous sedation, or general anesthesia. More difficult cases warrant an operative field that is well
controlled and gives the surgeon the opportunity
for conversion to open surgery as needed. General
anesthesia is suggested for obstruction that has
significant complexity. Patients with submandibular gland obstruction are approached by locating
and cannulating the duct. The use of methylene
blue to help locate the duct has been described,
and the authors find this technique particularly
useful.67 The dilating process using probes allows
the surgeon to prepare the duct for the introduction of the endoscope. There are situations in
which the duct does not dilate, and a papillotomy
can be used. An 11-blade incision is made through
1 edge of the duct, allowing for a larger aperture to
accept the scope. Once the scope is passed into
the duct, forceps can be used to maintain countertension on the duct. Water-soluble lubrication may
help during the dilation and scope placement.
Isotonic saline is used as irrigation and navigation
through the ductal system is achieved.
Multiple paths may be found during the procedure, and each must be evaluated for obstruction.
In cases of chronic sialodenitis, copious irrigation
through the ductal system is helpful.68 If the
obstruction is visualized, a Fogarty catheter may
be passed through the working port beyond the
obstruction, instrumented, and retrieved. Otherwise, a basket or clasp may be used. If a holmium
laser is available, laser lithotripsy can be
completed at this time as needed (Fig. 6).68
To prevent ductal stenosis, a 2-mm polyethelene
stent is placed into the duct and stabilized with

Fig. 5. Recurrent sialodenitis, without radiographic

findings. View of a mucous plug. Note the field of
view is smaller with sialoendoscopy equipment.

Fig. 6. Laser lithotripsy on a large salivary gland

stone. The stone is obstructing 1 of the canals of the
ductal system.

Definitive management can be determined

based on diagnostic sialoendoscopy. Mucous
plugs, strictures, and radiolucent stones may be
visualized during the diagnostic phase, allowing
for intervention when appropriate. Smaller stones
or obstructions can be washed out (Fig. 5), or
retrieved using simple techniques. If larger stones
are present or the location is more proximal (eg,
within the hilum of the duct) open surgery may be
indicated, but lithotripsy can also be considered.
Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy is a noninvasive technique that has been described in the
urologic literature and applied to salivary gland
stones. The lithotripsy uses shock wave therapy
to ablate the obstruction. Problems include the
need for repeat treatment and the need for
retrieval of the stones that do not flow freely out
of the system.5963 Intracorporeal lithotripsy
(endoscopically assisted) is a minimally invasive
technique used in the treatment of salivary gland
stones.64 An 0.8-mm pneumoblastic lithotriptor
probe is used in the working channel to ablate
the stone. Laser lithotripsy with endoscopic assistance was initially described by Konigsberger65 in
1990, and successful results were reported by
Arzoz66 in 1994.

Techniques

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Pedroletti et al
a temporary nonresorbable suture. The stent
should remain in place for 4 weeks postoperatively.
The patient is given appropriate antibiotics and
postoperative instructions to optimize salivary flow.
Although the technique is safe and effective,
complications may arise. The incidence of complications is reported to be less than 10%, and most
complications are considered minor.69 Most
frequently, swelling of the gland is seen secondary
to the copious irrigation process. Extravasation of
irrigation fluid can occur into the floor of the mouth
and the surrounding tissues. This extravasation
can occur with an iatrogenic perforation of the
duct. Transient paresthesia to the lingual nerve
may occur, usually from instrument manipulation
beyond the confines of the duct. If a perforation
is suspected, the endoscopic technique should
be aborted and another treatment modality
considered. An iatrogenic ranula or infection may
also result. The papilla may experience local
trauma from manipulation and become ulcerated.
Stricture of the duct may occur, and has been
noted in 4% of cases.70
Sialoendoscopy is a technique-sensitive procedure that can be used for the treatment of obstructive salivary gland disease. Advances in the
armamentarium are making this procedure more
frequent. Thus far, the complication rates have
bee low and good outcomes have been achieved.
Sialoendoscopy will likely play a larger role in the
treatment of obstructive salivary gland disease.

TMJ SURGERY
TMJ pathology is 1 of the areas of oral and maxillofacial surgery that has gone through a considerable
transformation in recent decades. The use of technology in this area has not always provided positive
outcomes. Since the Teflon-Proplast joint prosthesis failures became evident, the profession has
been slowly making advances, and a new viewpoint
on incorporation of technology has developed.
Various individuals have contributed to understanding of the pathophysiology present in TMJ
disease, and understanding continues to grow.7176
For the most part, surgery of the TMJ has been
directed at the physical manipulation of tissues
that have anatomic abnormalities, such as degenerative joint disease and internal derangements.
Among these procedures is endoscopic TMJ
surgery. Arthroscopic surgery has been a mainstay
in the diagnosis and treatment of TMJ problems
for the past 25 years, and its advancements have
paralleled those in the orthopedic literature. The
armamentarium has steadily improved in design,
as have the optics, making operative intervention
via the scope more possible.

As a diagnostic tool, arthroscopy provides the

surgeon with information not currently available
via imaging modalities. It is also a straightforward
procedure. Surgical techniques have improved
as the technological advancements of smaller
instrumentation and better optics have been
applied from other areas. Some experience has
shown that minimally invasive techniques seem
to have similar results compared with their open
counterparts.77
TMJ arthroscopy equipment remains relatively
unchanged in the United States secondary to its
small commercial market. Various techniques have
been described using this instrumentation.77
However, the advances in technology have made
these devices less expensive and portable, and
office systems are now available. The OnPoint
system (Fig. 7) (Biomet, Jacksonville, FL, USA) is
among the most recent additions. OnPoint is a diagnostic arthroscopy system that uses a 1.2-mm
scope at 0 . With a high-quality resolution and
a portable unit amenable to surgical operation, this
system makes diagnostic arthroscopy useful in the
outpatient setting, with considerable cost savings
for the patient.
The goal of treating all surgical arthroscopy
patients in the office is impractical because of
the complications that may occur requiring more
extended surgical techniques. However, further
advances may allow for double-puncture surgery
in the office setting.
A thorough understanding of the pathologic
conditions of TMJ is necessary before initiating
surgical treatment. Chronic facial pain of various

Fig. 7. OnPoint in office arthroscopy unit. Note its

simple design and portability. (Courtesy of Biomet,
Jacksonville, FL; with permission.)

Endoscopic Surgery
types, such as temporal arteritis and trigeminal
neuralgia, may have the same symptoms as TMJ
conditions. Other types of pathologic conditions,
such as tumoral, neurogenic, muscular, or
psychological conditions, must also be evaluated
appropriately and treated by other means.
However, patients with intra-articular TMJ conditions may be candidates for endoscopic surgery.
For patients with internal derangement, nonsurgical treatment, including medical management,
physical therapy, and orthotic treatments, can be
initiated. Once evaluation is completed, definitive
diagnosis can be attained via arthroscopic
surgery. The Wilkes classification is used to evaluate and treat patients with internal derangements
of the TMJ.78 The literature supports arthoscopic
lysis and lavage as an effective treatment in 70%
of Wilkes III, IV, and V patients for decreasing
pain, increasing mobility, improving diet, and
reducing the use of medication.79 For patients
with mild synovitis or other inflammatory-type pathosis, synovectomy and reducing inflamed tissue
can be completed with a laser.80 For antiinflammatory therapy, endoscopically assisted injection of
corticosteroids or hyaluronic acid into the retrodiscal tissue allows for placement of intra-articular
medical therapies.
Geert Boerings thesis on the natural progression of disease81 should be considered before
making the decision of immediate debridement
or observation after lysis and lavage. If after initial
lysis and lavage, decreased function and pain are
no longer complaints, proceeding to a debridement may be harmful. However, when indicated,
debridement of the joint space can be achieved
with the use of various instruments placed through
the working port, including forceps, motorized
shavers, electrocautery, or the holmium:yttriumaluminum-garnet laser.82,83 The use of the additional instrumentation allows for effective removal
of adhesions and fibrocartilagenous scuff and
sculpting of disk perforation margins. These
surgical maneuvers are designed to optimize the
motion of the joint and remove impediments to
smooth function.
If diagnostic arthroscopy yields a Wilkes II to IV
diagnosis, then the patient may benefit from
a disk-repositioning procedure. McCain and
Podransky84 and Tarro85 have described the technique endoscopically. The learning curve is
considerable, but the technique may have advantages that warrant a discussion with patients
considering open procedures. The authors have
had excellent experience with this technique.
Level III evidence is available in the literature to
support its use, and additional outcome studies
are under way in several centers.

At times the patient may have functional problems because of a hypermobile joint. These patients
can frequently have open lock, which requires
active reduction by a health care practitioner. Treatment modalities include bone augmentation of the
eminence,86 eminectomy,87 injection of a sclerosing
agent,88 injection of autologous blood into the joint
space,89,90 or a posterior contraction procedure.1
Of these options, all but the block graft and eminectomy procedures can be completed with arthroscopic assistance (Fig. 8). Posterior contraction of
the retrodiscal tissue can be completed with the
assistance of a laser, followed by a period of
elastophysiotherapy.
Complications associated with athroscopy are
rare. Complications occur in 1.3% of cases, and
most are minor.91 The most common complication
is scuffing of the fibrocartilage during placement of
the instruments into the joint, causing an iatrogenic
injury.92 Trauma to this tissue can lead to hypomobility of the joint. Extravasation of fluid can occur
during prolonged surgeries. Severe complications
such as pulmonary edema have also been reported
after TMJ arthroscopy.93 Careful attention to the
pressure of irrigation and the functioning irrigating
ports throughout the procedure can minimize these
events. The periorbital tissues, masseter, and soft
palate are common locations of collection. The
surgeon should consider evaluating the oral cavity
for soft-tissue edema post surgery. Deviation of
the uvula can indicate extravasation. Temporary
facial nerve paresis can be noted postoperatively,
and in most cases is from local anesthetic injection
around the major branches of the facial nerve.94 It
has also been hypothesized that prolonged paresis
is the result of scar tissue that has formed near
branches of the facial nerve near the surgical
site.1 Iatrogenic injury secondary to placement of

Fig. 8. Using direct visualization to place medicament.

In this case, autologous blood was injected into the
superior joint space. Endoscopic view confirms the
precise placement.

177

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Pedroletti et al
the portals can also result in damage to facial
nerves, but this is usually avoided with careful technique.94 Appropriate patient positioning is helpful
to appreciate appropriate landmarks and avoid
technical complications.1,80
Damage to the cartilaginous or bony ear canal is
also possible. This damage can occur because of
patient positioning and a lack of perspective when
the patient is fully draped. Occasionally, patients
with complex degenerative joint diseases and
other orthopedic issues present with limited neck
mobility. If patients with limited neck mobility
require TMJ arthroscopy, the surgeon may
consider arthroscopy in a hospital setting to facilitate a more appropriate bed-tilt maneuver, which
allows for a more appropriate operative field with
good anatomic cues.
Bleeding can occur during an arthroscopy
procedure, particularly during an anterior release
procedure. This complication has been noted in
2% of cases.95 Closing the patients mouth to tamponade the bleed may be helpful. The authors
suggest that the joint be re-entered and the clots
removed as hemarthrosis can negatively affect
mobility. Alternatively, persistent bleeds may be
addressed with the placement of an occlusive
balloon catheter via the second puncture portal
into the anterior disk space for 5 to 7 minutes.
However, the surgeon must always be prepared
for open surgery or the use of interventional radiologic techniques if there is uncontrollable bleeding.
Perforation into the glenoid fossa has also been
reported.95,96 Although there have been no reports
of death, appropriate imaging, neurosurgical
consultation, and close observation are required.
The failure of instrumentation is a rare complication but it does occur occasionally; it is important
to have good visibility of the instrument and to
retrieve it endoscopically if possible. Open

Fig. 9. Endoscopic view of a bullet fragment during

initial debridement of a self-inflicted gunshot wound.

Fig. 10. By removing the scope from the lens, any unit
can be used as a camera during surgery. This image
served as our postreduction documentation of a lower
rim and orbital floor repair.

procedures can be considered if the fragments

are not easily retrieved through the working
port.1,97 Careful patient positioning, attention to
detail, and understanding surgical anatomy help
prevent many of these complications.
Arthroscopic management of pathologic conditions of the TMJ requires a thorough understanding of the mechanical principles and
anatomy of the system, and the pathophysiology
of TMJ disease. In the authors opinion, effective
management can be completed with the aid of
an endoscope in most cases. Although some of
the procedures described are technically challenging and require special skills of the surgeon,
they often have clear benefits compared with their
open counterparts.

Fig. 11. View during a neurectomy of the inferior

alveolar nerve to treat a patient suffering from
peripheral trigeminal neuralgia.

Endoscopic Surgery
REMOVAL OF FOREIGN BODIES
Occasionally, the endoscope can be used to help
retrieve foreign bodies. A Smith & Nephew
(Dyonics, Andover, MA, USA) scope (2.7 mm or
4.0 mm diameter) gives a larger field of vision
and can be used as an adjunct in the removal of
foreign bodies in the craniomaxillofacial region
(Fig. 9). Its use as a sterile still image and video
camera (Fig. 10) (Video 1, see online within this
article at http://www.oralmaxsurgery.theclinics.
com, February 2010 issue), allows visualization of
important anatomy without extensive incisions
(Fig. 11).

SUMMARY
The oral and maxillofacial surgeons are finding
advantages and new applications for endoscopically assisted maxillofacial surgical procedures.
Decreased complication rates, comparable
success rates, diverse functionality, and efficiency
make the endoscope a helpful instrument in
a surgeons armamentarium.

APPENDIX: SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL

Supplementary material can be found, in the online
version, at doi:10.1016/j.coms.2009.11.002

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