Globatr Bollywood

EDITED BY

Anandam P Kavoori and

Aswin Punathambekar

ulations of National Cultural Desire." ln The SAGE Handbook of Media Studies,

ed. f. D. H. Downing et al.,5r7-1;.4o. Thousand Oalcs, Calif.: Sage.
Orth, M. zoo4. The Importance of Being Famous: Behind the Scenes of the Celebrity-Industrial Complex. New York: Henry Holt.
Page, D., and W. Crawley. zoot. Satellites over South Asia. Thousand Oaks, Calif.;

Chapter

Songs from the Heart

Musical Coding, Emotional Sentiment,
and Transnational Sonic ldentity
in India\ Popular Film Music

Sage.

Pinney, C. zoor. "Public, Popular, and Other Cultures." ln Pleasure and the Nation: The History, Politics, and Consumption of Public Culture in India, ed. Q,
Pinney and R. Dwyer, r-34. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Scott, S., and S. |ackson. 1996. "Sexual Skirmishes and Feminist Factions: Twenty.
five Years of Debate on Women and Sexualityi' ln Feminism and Sexuality, ed,i,
S. Scott and S. fackson, r-34. New York Columbia University Press.
Sherawat, M. zoo5. "Come on India, Be Honestl' India Tbday n5, fanuary 3r.
Sreberny-Mohammadi, A. zooo. "The Global and the Local in International
municationsl' ln The Anthropology of Media, ed. K. Askew and R. R.
B7-j6. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell.
Virdi, I. zoo3. The Cinematic Imagination: lndian Popular Films as Social
New Brunswick, N.l.: Rutgers University Press.

Natalie Sarrazin

Hindi expression dil se (from the heart) is a common refrain found

in film dialogues, titles, and song lyrics that captures the
essence of Hindi
popular film melodrama and its music. Dramatically,
Indian cinema is
long known for its dependence on melodrama as a primary
vehicle of
expression. Abounding in romantic sentiment and
agonizing situations,
Hindi film's melodrama is a weil-discussed phenom-enon, ih.r"
orr"rThe

emotive acting and emotional subjectivity dominate plot

lines, characterizations, staging, dialogue, scenes, and songs.r Musically,
Indian cinema
is differentiated from other world cinemas due to its
enthusiastic inclusion of film songs, with five to seven in each film, and
their extra-cinematic popularity as the top-selling, independent popurar
music genre in

South Asia.
In this chapter, I identify some common traditional and contemporary
musical film song codes and their relation to melodrama,
exploring how

emotion and sentiments such as love are created and intensified

thiough
sound' In what ways does firm music construct and exhibit
aurar representations of "heart"? How have western aesthetics altered

Indian film

music expectations? what is the impact of the transnational

environ_
ment on musical and visual representations of sentiment?
I also

identifi
in film song sounds and codes for ways in which music
cngenders "heart" to negotiate a new sonic Indian iientity
in a grobal
recent changes

context.

SongsfromtheHeart

2O4 NATALIE SARRAZIN

"From the Heart"

2o5

country and that are laced with the appropriate nationalistic or romantic
sincerity.

According to Dissanayke, the term melodrama, derived from the G

word song, means a romantic and sentimental play that contains
and music deemed appropriate for enhancing the situations
on stage (Dissanayake 1993: r). Although the term dil se or "heart"
be understood within the context of Indian cinematic melodrama
makes "all interiority exterior" (Dwyer zooo: r5o), there is a diffe

between decoding all emotion as melodrama and understanding it as

tural sentiment. Song lyrics are certainly one logical and rich source
cultural and emotional analysis, but few expressive mediums convey
information than that of sound, where centuries of historical and c
resonance can be embedded in a single pitch, melody, rhlthmic cycle,
most specifically vocal and instrumental timbres. Film songs, ther
are in unique positions to aurally illustrate cultural concepts such as
tion and "heart" to their audiences, relying on pre-composed concepts

emotional sentiment and common codes of musical understanding.

From Purab aur Paschim (rgzo) to Swades (zoo+) and beyond,
ens of films have villified the West for its lack of "heart" by cinemati
reinforcing a selfless, loving, giving India with songs and dialogues
construct notions of proper Indian identity and values. In the ope
monologue of Subhash Ghails Pardes Gggz), for example, Non-resit
Indian (NRf) fitfrorilal (Amrish Puri), upon returning to India from
United States: "Today, my India may have something to offer [the
or not, but she has one thing in abundance, and that is love' In the
love means give and take, but in India, it means give, give, give!"
This message ties into one of the primary expectations of h
expression-which is the sincerity with which the message is delivt
The value of Kishorilal's invocation is his conviction and passion that
the tone for the remainder of the film. In this context, "heartl'
with the idea of love and giving selflessly, is understood metaphor

to include a sense of generosity, sacrifice, and renunciation-qualities

sociated with a nationalistic, feminized notion of long-suffering,
India (Mishra zoo2i 83). This metaphor is extended further in the song
Love my India" in which India is framed as the singer's homeland and
loved, and where the world is a bride, and India is the bindi (jewel) on
forehead. The remainder of the soundtrack follows suit with songs
blur the lines between the passionate love of lovers and passionate love

"Heart" also implies having the capacity to emote-a function well

suited to the expressive medium of music in general and singing in particular. Musically, principally in Indian classical music, voice is priviIeged as its sound is associated with the most fundamental human expressive characteristics. Cinematically, the embodied voice is one of the
most powerful forces to transmit and elicit emotion. In addition, the
ability to emote on screen conveys substantial character information to
the audience. The act of performing a song is a reflection of the moral
value of the characters themselves as well as the emotional content being
conveyed. It implies the proper ethics and behavior, upstanding values,
goodness, and the embodiment of Indian ideals as a hero or heroine.2
Celluloid villains, for example, are never given license to sing, prohibiting the characters from crucial access to a mode of expression that fully
humanizes them. Heroes and heroines, on the other hand, are required
to emote through song, and what they are required to emote is the accepted constructs of love.
"Heart" also denotes emotion or sentiment in general (rasa). Raghavan
states that for the audience '. . .the essential thing in poetry or drama is
not story and character as such, but the emotion that they embody. . . .
The emotional interest of a work centers on certain primary sentiments
felt by all human beings' $988:264-65). Emotionally, Hindi cinema's melodies are in a prime position to exploit this central idea of rasa as well as
to embody the performative aspects of "heartl' Many film songs are either raga based or are pseudo-ragas,3 which explore sentiments contained

in the cultural associations of that raga. A composition in sringar rasa,

therefore, may reverberate among knowledgeable listeners, conferring essential extra-musical aesthetics based in Indian historical codes. Even if a
raga per se is unrecognizable by name by the audience, the visual coding
and familiarity with romantic tales and couples will clue them in to their
proper response.n The actor's on-screen performance contributes as well
to the emotion-enhancing aspect of the song, as his or her emotions are
perceived to emerge spontaneously from the heart. Indeed, the seemingly
lmpulsive outbreak into song self-reinforces the concept in that the character is moved by strong emotion.
An intriguing example of this musico-emotional display can be found
ln Mani Ratnam's Dil Se Oggz), with music by A. R. Rahman. The film

SongsfromtheHeart

206 NATALIE SARRAZIN

itself is a vehicle through which central aspects of sringar rasa are examined. Each ofthe film songs represent the subtleties oflove, such as obsession, desire, etc., and each song in the film incrementally marks the protagonist's total surrender to the emotion, ending in his ultimate sacrifice
at the films culmination.
Given its contemporary usage in films, "heartl' emotion, and love'
seemed to be perceived as uniquely Indian constructs. And given a strong
cultural background that intertwines sound and emotion, music as a me'
dium is used to convey this primary emotional expression, where the
vehicle of the song and the singing of the song converge to amptify the
emotional experience for the audience. It is a form of identity that carrieq
cachet, can be negotiated, and can contain transformative Powers for ther
listener, as I will discuss further below.

2o7

is used in marriage celebrations. For example, in the song "Kabhi, Kabhid' (Sometimes, 1976, by the film of the same name) sung by Mukesh
and Lata Mangeshkar, the sound of the instrument is subtly placed but
indicates a powerful symbol of the couple's relationship. Two-thirds of
the way through the song, the two phrases "as the shehnai plays along
the way" and "it is my wedding night and I am lifting your veil" occurs
with the shehnai literally playing in between the two lines. By inserting
this shehnai in this location, the sound not only underscores the idea of
"marriage" by its mere presence and timbre, but it actually connects or
"marries" the two lines together in a rather literal or concrete way as it
metaphorically marries the on-screen couple. These interstitial timbres
and instrumentation are certainly not accidental, and occur frequently in
film song accompaniments to illustrate exactly such symbolic points.
Cultural codes can also be resignified over time depending on the

film and audience. As more films reach international audiences, sounds

Codes

As with all film, Indian cinema relies heavily on cultural, dramatic,

emotional codes to resonate the traditional and familiar. In a Hindi fil
the act of a man putting sindur on a woman's forehead, for example,
quires no further explication to an Indian audience that the couple
now married. Musical and cultural signifiers make film songs and s<
powerful indicators of Indian identity by including indigenous mr
aesthetics such as vocal timbre s, talas and ragas, instruments, forms
as gfuazal, bhangra, etc., familiar to its audiences.
In film picturizations, music is intensified through its conjunction
visual imagery as musical codes cement the relationship between
and filmic image.t While some codes are traditional, others are

newly created or reinforced through duplication

in other films or

combine aspects of both. The cultural, dramatic, and emotional codes

scribed below provide common examples found in films' Even wil

the aid of visuals, musical film codes conYey cultural, emotional, and
matic information. The sound of a single instrument such as the
for example, is enough to transmit the proper associations to the vie'
As a muiical cultural code, the sound of the oboe-like double-reed
strument shehnai has rich cultural connotations. Its sound is
with processions and royal court ensembles. Its auspicious nature and
sociation with royalty extends itself to the groom on his wedding day,

take on new meanings. For example, in the song 'Aaye ho meri zindagi
meirt''from Dharmesh Darshan's Raja Hindustani Q996), the sound of the
shehnai remains intact as a traditional code in that it signifies a wedding.
However, a few measures later, a sitar is heard as the camera shows a line
of village girls carrying water pots on their head. In this instance, the Indian classical instrument, which normally symbolizes Indian tradition
writ large, is extended to symbolize traditional tropes in general, including Indian village life.
Musical dramatic codes are used to affect the audience's interpretation
of the drama itself. These can enhance mood, suspense, and action. In the
case of Kamal Amrohit Pakeezah (rg7i, music is used to illustrate the
quick passage of time through use of a musical raga montaga The tawaif
singer is in musical training, and in addition to a series of visual cuts,
the music itself progresses through at least half a dozen ragas in jt:st a
few minutes. The exact indication of time is not given, but the viewer understands that many years have passed. In addition, the use of raga itself
implicates the classical nature of the learning, enhancing the historical dimensions and time period for the viewer.
Given the propensity for conveying "heart" in Hindi film, emotional
codes reign supreme. Some of the oldest and most prominent emotional
codes in Indian cinema are found in the romantic films, most notably in
the song duets. Love songs are associated with the predominant rasa sringar, which embodies love-in-union and love-in-separation with shades of

2O8 NATALIE SARRAZIN

SongsfromtheHeart 2o9

erotic or romantic sentiment. The popularity of the romantic film genre

relies on emotional love codes, which can embody associations with tra'
ditional Indian couples such as Radha and Krishna but also with roman:
tic couples such as Romeo and |uliet.6 Boy meets girl, falls in love, is sepa'

rated, and then reunites is the basic foundation of the romantic film genre
for both Indian and western romantic films.'
Love songs, either solos or duets,s are cinematically almost entirely

corporeal and embodied for maximum emotional impact-that is, the

camera frames the singer. Film love songs also intensify the couple's on'
screen intimacy and are coded as private (either sung by hero or heroine
or both) rather than communal or public, despite the context or
of people that might be included in the frame. Traditionally, a film's flrsti
haif is-dedicated to the private world of the lovers, and the second half'
to removing obstacles regarding caste, love marriage, family, class and/of
religious difference, as well as familial reconciliation (Dwyer zooo: 163). '
Visually, the couple is always alone, highlighting both intimacy
commitment. Although complicated by consumerist and material
and tourist spectacle (i.e., travel to exotic locations, product placement)
the duet retains traditional imagery and emotional resonances in
hero and heroine behaviors are reminiscent of the playfulness of
and Krishna's episodes with the gopls (milkmaids). Duet imagery
popular by directors such as Yash Chopra often includes pastoral
tings, nature, lush fields, and flowers' Nature and fruit symbolically r
a womaris fertility and/or the man's desire for children (Dwyer 2ooo: I
Cinematographically, a long shot and panoramic view capture the
in fields of flowers or vegetation, by oceans, waterfalls, and in other
sual "natural" settings.
The shot from above is important, as height or a rising up plays
in establishing almost a sacred or mythic transcendence for the

The visual metaphor of rising or height is associated with the rising

timents of the couple. Visual accompaniments in nature set the
upon hilltops, ridges of mountains, along gorges, or climbing rocks

the seashore. The actor's movements augment the freedom and intenS
of the moment, often with a long shot of the heroine running
blooming fields with the end of her sari ot dupatta (scarf) flowing in
breeze. In urban settings, they are on top ofbuildings or, as in the case
Dil Chahta Hai, tn a helicopter captured by crane shot above Sydney'
The sudden, rising orchestral violin "flourish" is the single most
sive iconic musical sound pattern used across films to accompany the

of height and frame the intimate love song. Found in the introduction of
the love song, this prominent upward flourish of the violins is encoded to
indicate sringar rasa, and can introduce the idea of budding romance or
intimate romantic union.
The musical flourish coupled with visual images of height is familiar
fare in Hollywood romances. But the rising violin motif or museme (musically representational meaning) used in Indian popular film has rong
outlived and out-impacted codes of other types. The swirling, upward
flourish was in regular use by Raj Kapoor's Sangam Og6+), although its
heyday was in the r96os-r98os.
The flourishs placement in the film also acts as a dramatic code in that
it is usually most evident as the opening strains of a love song or as a
cue to indicate an upcoming song. However, as the preponderant string
section fades with newer, lighter musical styles, the flourish can also be
found buried in the orchestration of a verse or refrain or may be eclipsed
almost immediately by other melodies.
The isolated nature of these musical, visual, and dramatic codes indicates that the couple is occupying a fantasy world unto themselves. Rarely
do others appear in the shot, and the wide vistas, cinematographic long
shots, and relative freedom of restraint from onlookers, and especially
from the eyes of disapproving relatives, returns the association to the music itself. The violin flourish, therefore, connotes this particular type of
romantic freedom, and sets up the ensuing song content to indicate romantic anticipation and its temporary abandonment of social strictures in
lieu of private romantic expression. This is an important emotional moment in Hindi film songs, and particularly important for an audience in
which such private moments with a lover are difficult to achieve even in
contemporary society.e The songs also tie into the historical snapshots of
the ragamala paintings, Radha and Krishna moments in which the frame
cxcludes outsiders and the lovers are prominent and isolated and free to
cxpress their relationship. Thus, despite the "love marriage" implication
in such songs, Radha and Krishna nuances provide traditional, historical
precedent for the social acceptability for such display. Because this code
can be read as both traditional and modern, its popularity is guaranteed
continuity.
Although still prevalent, this code is sometimes used only as an acknowledgment of the longstanding musical tradition. However, many of
tlre more recent love songs have dispensed with the string flourish and
rcly only on the visual rising to refer to this love code.

SongsfromtheHeart 2rt

21.O NATALIE SARRAZIN

Emotional and N arrativ e Intensification

Film songs not only introduce the audience to the proper emotion by
which to;espond, but also intensify that emotional experience through
use of familiar and new or established visual codes. Songs can, however,
further intensify emotions by subverting the films narrative by reposi''
tioning the viewer's understanding of the temporal flow and trajectorieo
of the storyline and its possible outcomes. Although a full examination of
Hindi film music and narrative is beyond the scope of this chapter, a
points are worth mentioning here in terms of this emotional intensifica''
iion. Songs have always been sites for flashback, memory, and spatial andr
temporal disjunctions in films (Gopalan zooz: n9)' In the context of a
film narrative's flow, songs are .upubl. of transforming the narrative by
manipulating the audience's perception of the story's trajectory. For ex
umple, Aditya Chopra's Q99) Dilwale Dulhania Le layenge, with music b:1
the team fatin-Lalit, was a surprise hit among NRIs and resident
alike. The film contains seven songs, three of which provide moments
this type of narrative transformation.
tn'ihe first song, "Meri khwabon haii' the heroine divulges
of her future husband to her mother. Desirable and appropriate shots
the film,s hero are then interjected into her emotional fantasy,
the audience privy to the specific images of her future partnet while
herself is not. This scene provides the possible but most likely narrt
trajectory of inevitable union, intensified by her unawareness of her
future.

During another number later in the film in which the couple is s

rated ("Na Iaane Mere"), the hero abandons the heroine at the train
tion without any indication of his return. The song is fiIled with fl
to important moments of the relationship, revealing images now
by the belief that she will never again see her lover' It is by expe
emotional turmoil in separation that the heroine ultimately realizes
she is in love. However, narrative tension is retained in that the
returns home and agrees to an arranged marriage to someone else tO
pease her traditional father.
The final revisiting of the relationship takes place when the hero
turns to her. His sound lures the heroine from her parents' home,
they meet surreptitiously in a field. This duet represents the capitula
during which ,i"rr", from the relationship are again replayed but
time are coded with images of the heroine as a "proper" Indian

wearing a sari, hence indicating her upcoming role as a proper Indian

wife. This song "Tirjhe Dekha" provides the audience with the assurance of

their eventual union. Recontextualization, or shifting the narrative frame

through song, provides opportunities for the viewer to re-experience alternative aspects of the plot through different emotional lenses, creating
temporary but crucial tensions in the process.

Signature Sounds: Old and New

I have previously discussed, Hindi films traditional, signature sound

as used in the love code flourish relied almost exclusively on the large
As

string orchestra, which became the normative sound in post-Independent

India (Arnold r99r: 166). Orchestral strings, associated with melodrama,
underscores dialogues and songs highlighting the music drama in order
to evince specific traditional emotions from audiences. For decades, film
soundtracks relied on codes or, as some might say, clich6s that seemed
resistant to change. Despite being known for its eclecticism, such as film
composers' Shankar-|aikishan's use of South American rhythms of rumba
and cha-cha in r95os Raj Kapoor films or R. D. Burman's use of electric
guitar or bongos in the r97os (Arnold 1988), Hindi film songs seemed reluctant to add new instruments or alter the song form or structure in any
appreciable way. Until the r99os, film song composers relied on one major type of orchestration-the full orchestra, replete with large string section that lent the type of melodramatic soundtrack reminiscent of Western romantic stage and screen. Other types of orchestration occasionally
used might include Indian traditional instruments, either folk or classical.
While swooping, full-orchestral sound in the background score helped to
propel the melodrama in the dialogues, for the listener, their impact on
song accompaniments was mixed. The heavy orchestral sound continues
to function as a melo-dramatic code, prompting the listener to disregard
or overlook its musical intricacies somewhat, thus casting more attention
on lyrics and the melody.
Contemporary music directors such as A. R. Rahman, Anu Malik,
Shankar-Ehsaan-Loy, and Himesh Reshammiya have radically changed
the core nature of this traditionally orchestral sound. In addition, these
composers have resignified the traditional codes or dispensed with them
oltogether, thereby altering the expectations ofdelineation of"Indianness"
ln both domestic and exported films.

212 NATALIE SARRAZIN

Contemporary Sound and the New Exoticism

Currently, Hindi film music straddlgs two worlds-traditional and con'
temporary, or rather national-oriented versus diasporic-oriented-and
there are parallel musical soundtracks composed to accompany each
them. Many composers, although fewer and fewer, still incorporate the
large orchestral sound and older codes in their film compositions. However, in films made during the r99os and early 2ooos, dramatic changes
in orchestration began to vary the musical texture. Changes include in.
creased experimentation with timbral colors including vocal timbres, cho'

ral harmony, and vocal ostinatos. Explicit instrumental codes associated

with particular cultures and meanings were always incorporated,
as rhythms from roch trance dance, disco, bhangra, ras garba,hi
cha-cha, rumba, and classical talas. B:ut an extended cultural wor
and its aesthetics means that the shakuhachi and west African drum
semble now replace the once exotic Western electric guitaq saxophone,
even bongos. Melodies may or may not be raga derived, but music di
tors such as A. R. Rahman, Anu Malih and others add chords and

lines and other musical devices that not only allude to functional
mony, as was the case several decades ago (Manuel 1988), but are
on functional harmony. Interestingly, the classical drone, which is left
of the film song almost entirely since its inception, is now back, albeit
a modified form. Drone is reinterpreted and then reintroduced usually
the form of an ostinato pattern. This is one of the only examples of a
incarnated" traditional sound added back into the Hindi film soun
rather than subtracted from the contemporary soundscape.
Nonlyrical song vocalizations (such as "ahl' 'boi' or vocables) in
songs have also increased, adding meaning through timbre, pitch,
melody rather than text. During the first interlude section of "|ane
from Farhan Akhtar's Dil Chahta Hai (zoot), for example, music di
Shankar-Ehsaan-Loy add a thickly layered orchestration i
a didgeridoo, harmony, ro-ck beat, and three different types of vocalii
tions. The first is a male vocal drone that is interspliced with the sound
helicopter blades that take the couple uP over Sidney (rising code)
female soloist and mixed chorus imitate an American gospel/light
sound respectively.
The assimilation of Western aesthetics and Indian codes is
place from the technological standpoint as well. Inclusion of
and digitized sounds reinforced rhythmic tracks and bass lines pump

Songs

from

the

Heart

2L3

film soundtracks, and are eyen further pumped up in dance re-mixes of

film soundtracks that inevitably follow. Global genres of Goan trance and
pop bhangra, Punjabi folk music transformed in London, New York, and
Delhi discos and sampled in hip-hop, are now soundtrack staples.
The contemporary, instrumentally "lighter" sound contains not only
highly westernized, digitized, and synthesized sounds but use of world
music sounds instruments as well as an increased use of regional Indian
sounds. Ironically, the heightened presence of global sounds and music
video filming and editing techniques are balanced by an increased use of
Iocal musics and references. The'discovery'' and inclusion of specific, local Indian styles and sounds such as Malayalam choral singing from South
India along with world beat sounds render the local as an exotic or foreign element. This "new exoticism" is a result of the changing aesthetics of
Hindi film sound, taking on the Western ideas of dabbling in intriguing
world music, even if those sounds come from within India itself.

Playback Authenticity and Timbre

Playback singing is still a mainstay in Indian films, despite increased authenticity in other areas of the industry. Indian audiences seem to take
little issue with it, and are able to minimize the discrepancy between the
split between image and sound. For over 50 years, playback singer Lata
Mangeshkar embodied the ideal in Indian femininity with a voice that
emerged from screen heroines regardless ofage.
Throughout the r99os, fuller female timbres became more commonplace, but were related to specific character types. Initially, this fuller vocal female sound was equated with a villager or folk/tribal woman whose
sound was distinctly different from the heroine's. This folk/tribal timber
had a throatier, rougher, richer quality, sometimes with an accent that approximates specific local dialects that evoke lower castes and class. Vis-

ually, she is pictured as a slightly older woman drawing her authority

from resemblance to a familiar elder such as an aunt or older sister-inlaw (bhabhi), but her jaded, aggressive, and sexualized demeanor strongly
suggest a powerful negative figure of mother-in-law or dakan (witch) invoking low caste, magic, and prophesy. A second female or tribal singer
may be present in the picturization as well. Her sound typically mediates
that of the first singer's, as can be seen in Raja Hindustani's "Pardesil' This

second female slngcr is deliberately identified with the heroine as her

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