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DESIGN AGAINST FLUCTUATING

LOADS

Don Bosco College of Engineering & technology, Guwahati (Assam)

A group presentation report on MACHINE DESIGN

Submitted by-

NIRAJ KAKATI

DC2013BTE0142

RUPJYOTI BARUAH

DC2013BTE0263

FEROZ AHMED MAZUMDER

DC2013BTE0017

RIJUAN HUSSAIN

DC2013BTE0134

6th semester - 2016

Department of Mechanical engineering, School of Technology, ASSAM DON BOSCO
UNIVERSITY

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Sl no.

Contents

Page no.

1.

Declaration

2.

Certificate

ii-iii

3.

Abstract

iv

4.

Acknowledgement

Sl no.

Contents

Page no.

1.

Introduction

2.

Stress concentration

2-4

3.

Reduction of Stress concentration factor

5-8

4.

Fluctuating stresses

9-10

5.

Fatigue failure

11-12

6.

Endurance limit

13-18

7.

Low cycle and high cycle fatigue

8.

Notch sensitivity

20-21

9.

Soderberg & Goodman lines

22-25

10.

Gerber line

26

11.

Conclusion

27

12.

Reference

28

19

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UNIVERSITY

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY)
ASSAM DON BOSCO UNIVERSITY
GUWAHATI 781017

DECLERATION
We hereby declare that the dissertation work entitled DESIGN
AGAINST FLUCTUATING STRESSES
STRESSES submitted to the Department of Mechanical
Engineering at Don Bosco School of Technology, Guwahati, Assam,
Assam, in partial fulfilment of
the requirement for the Presentation Seminar in MACHINE DESIGN, is an original work
done by us under the guidance of Sir. TAPAS KALITA.

---------------------------------------------FEROZ AHMED MAZUMDER

DC2013BTE0017
-----------------------------------------------RIJUAN HUSSAIN
DC2013BTE0134

---------------------------------------------NIRAJ KAKATI
DC2013BTE0142
------------------------------------------------RUPJYOTI BARUAH
DC2013BTE0
DC2013BTE0263

Department of Mechanical engineering, School of Technology, ASSAM DON BOSCO

UNIVERSITY

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY)
ASSAM DON BOSCO UNIVERSITY
GUWAHATI 781017

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the presentation Report entitled
DESIGN
DESIGN AGAINST FLUCTUATING STRESSES
STRESSES submitted by RIJUAN
HUSSAIN (DC2013BTE0134),
(DC2013BTE0
NIRAJ KAKATI (DC2013BTE0
(DC2013BTE0142), FEROZ
AHMED MAZUMDER (DC2013BTE0017), and RUPJYOTI BARUAH
(DC2013BTE0263),, as an assignment for MACHINE DESIGN in Mechanical
engineering 6th semester,, is a bona fide record of the presentation work carried
out by them under my supervision during the year 2016.

----------------------------------------------------Sir. TAPAS KALITA,

Assistant Professor,, Mechanical Engineering
School of Technology,
Assam Don Bosco University

Department of Mechanical engineering, School of Technology, ASSAM DON BOSCO

UNIVERSITY

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY)
ASSAM DON BOSCO UNIVERSITY
GUWAHATI 781017

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the seminar project
roject entitled DESIGN
AGAINST FLUCTUATING STRESSES
STRESSES is submitted by FEROZ AHMED
MAZUMDER-(017),
(017), RUPJYOTI BARUAH-(263),
BARUAH (263), NIRAJ KAKATI
KAKATI-(142),
th
RIJUAN HUSSAIN-(134)
(134) are the students of 6 Semester, in partial fulfillment
of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering of Assam
Don Bosco University, Guwahati is a bonafide
bonafid record of their presentation work
carried out by them during the academic year 2016.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Dr. Mrs. LEENA H. NEMADE

Head Of Department, Mechanical Engineering
School of Technology,
Assam Don Bosco University

Department of Mechanical engineering, School of Technology, ASSAM DON BOSCO

UNIVERSITY

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY)
ASSAM DON BOSCO UNIVERSITY
GUWAHATI 781017

ABSTRACT
The purpose of our project
project is to study and explain the various
considerations required during Design against Fluctuating loads
loads. Our project
work is based on the Machine Design which works under fluctuating loads
loads. In
such designs the principles are based according to various cyclic and continuous
loads where the components subjected to forces are not
not static, but vary in
magnitudes with time. It is observed that about 80% of failures of mechanical
components are due to 'fatigue failures' resulting from fluctuating stresses
stresses. In
practice, the pattern of stress variation is irregular and unpredictable, aas in case
of stresses due to vibrations. For the purpose of design analysis, simple models
for stress-time
time relationships are used.

Keywords:
stress concentration and stress factor, reduction of stress
concentration, fluctuating stresses, endurance limit, soderberg, goodman lines,
gerber equations and modified goodman diagrams.

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY)
ASSAM DON BOSCO UNIVERSITY
GUWAHATI 781017

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gave us immense pleasure and satisfaction in giving away
our group project report as a reflection of our hard work and sincerity
sincerity.
However, it would not have been possible without the kind support and help of
many individuals. We would like to extend our sincere thanks to all of them
specially our group members. We are really very much thankful to our subject
teacher, Sir. Tapas Kalita , (Asst. Professor MNE) for his guidance and
support as well as for providing necessary information regarding the topic
which really helped us in completing our project report. We extend our heartfull
gratitude to Dr. Manoranjan Kalita (Principal) Mrs. Leena
na H. Nemade
(Head of Department, Mechanical Dept.) and other teachers of the department
at the Don Bosco School of Technology for their valuable support and guidance.
Our sincere thanks and appreciations are also for our class-mates
class mates for lending us
their views
iews in developing the report and people who have willingly helped us
out with their abilities.
Lastly, we would like to thank everybody and The Almighty
for helping us out in our hard times throughout the group presentation rep
report
work.
Thank You,
With regards,
Rupjyoti Baruah- (DC2013BTE0263)
(DC2013BTE0263
Niraj Kakati- (DC2013BTE0142)
Rijuan Hussain- (DC2013BTE0134)
Feroz Ahmed MazumderMazumder (DC2013BTE0017)
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1. INTRODUCTION
MACHINE DESIGN- Machine design is defined as the use of scientific principles,
technical information and imagination in the description of a machine or a mechanical system
to perform specific functions with maximum economy and efficiency.
In designing a machine component, it is necessary to have a good
knowledge of many subjects such as Mathematics, Engineering Mechanics, Strength of
Materials, Theory of Machines, Workshop Processes and Engineering Drawing. A machine
element, after design, requires to be manufactured to give it a shape of a product. Therefore,
in addition to standard design practices like, selection of proper material, ensuring proper
strength and dimension to guard against failure, a designer should have knowledge of basic
manufacturing aspects. First and foremost is assigning proper size to a machine element from
manufacturing view point. As for example, a shaft may be designed to diameter of, say, 40
mm. This means, the nominal diameter of the shaft is 40 mm, but the actual size will be
slightly different, because it is impossible to manufacture a shaft of exactly 40 mm diameter,
no matter what machine is used. In case the machine element is a mating part with another
one, then dimensions of both the parts become important, because they dictate the nature of
assembly. The allowable variation in size for the mating parts is called limits and the nature
of assembly due to such variation in size is known as fits.

The above equations are called elementary equations. A plate with a

small circular hole, subjected to tensile stress and the distribution of stress near the hole can
be seen by photo-elastic techniques. Here, we specially discuss about fatigue failure which
results due to fluctuating stresses.
The majority of engineering failures are caused by fatigue. Fatigue
failure is defined as the tendency of a material to fracture by means of progressive brittle
cracking under repeated alternating or cyclic stresses of intensity considerably below the
normal strength. Although the fracture is of a brittle type, it may take some time to propagate,
depending on both the intensity and frequency of the stress cycles. Nevertheless, there is very
little, if any, warning below failure if the crack is not noticed. The number of cycles required
to cause fatigue failure at a particular peak stress is generally quiet large, but it decreases as
the stress is increased. For some mild steels, cyclical stresses can be continued indefinitely
provided the peak stress (sometimes called fatigue strength) is below the endurance limit
value. A good example of fatigue failure is breaking a thin steel rod or wire with your hands
after bending it back and forth several times in the same place. Another example is an
unbalanced pump impeller resulting in vibrations that can cause fatigue failure.

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2. STRESS CONCENTRATION
Mathematical analysis and experimental measurement show that in a
loaded structural member, near changes in the section, distributions of stress occur in which
the peak stress reaches much larger magnitudes than does the average stress over the section.
This increase in peak stress near holes, grooves, notches, sharp corners, cracks, and other
changes in section is called stress concentration. The section variation that causes the stress
concentration is referred to as a stress raiser. In order to consider the effect of stress
concentration and find out the localised stresses, a factor called stress factor is used. There
are many reasons for rise of stress concentration.

Locally high stresses can arise due toAbrupt changes in section properties (hole, corner)
Contact stresses (bearing, gear, etc)
Material discontinuities
Initial stresses due to manufacturing process
Cracks
Stress concentration is defined as the localization of high stresses due
to the irregularities present in the component and abrupt changes of the cross section. In the
figure below it can be seen the stress concentration at the corners, due to change in the
dimensions.

Structure is often designed without considering them followed by

local fixes. Instead we often assume some defects of given size as safety measure.
Geometrical features such as notches and corners give rise to stress concentrations. In
industrial components these features are often designed with a constant radius, however it is
already known that a more complex shape, having a variable radius, can have a much lower
stress concentration factor. In this paper we describe two new approaches for obtaining useful
variable-radius notches. The first approach, which we call the Local Curvature Method
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(LCM) involves post-processing results of a stress analysis conducted on a constant-radius

notch, altering the local curvature as a function of the local surface stress. This method is
being described here for the first time: it was found to be very successful, reducing the
maximum stress at a 90o fillet by about a factor of 2. The second approach involved using
commercial software (mode Frontier) to carry out a more systematic search of possible
variable-radius designs using multiple finite element models. This approach, though much
more expensive in terms of computing resources, was able to find slightly better solutions.
Our findings were verified by conducting experimental tests to measure brittle fracture
strength and high-cycle fatigue strength.
The below figure with a hole in middle section can have a high value of
stress concentration and it can be found out by following equations- (Kc= stress concentration
factor).

Engineering components and structures almost invariably contain

regions of high local stress, created by a combination of geometry and loading. For
convenience we will refer to these stress concentration features as notches, though the work
described here is applicable to all geometric features, including holes, corners, bends and
keyways. Such features are normally designed with constant radii. The resulting stress
concentration factor Kt or Kc is a function of the notch radius as well as other parameters
related to the component geometry and loading. However, it has already been established that
the constant radius notch is not the best solution variable radius notches, defined as notches in
which the radius varies from place to place along the notch surface, can have much lower Kt
factors.

STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR

Stress concentration factor can be defined as the ratio of Highest value
of actual stress near discontinuity to the nominal stress obtained by elementary equations for
minimum cross- section. It is denoted by Kt or Kc.
The causes of stress concentration are as follows1. Variation in properties of materials.
2. Load application.
3. Abrupt changes in cross sections

4. Discontinuity in the component

5. Machining scratches.

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Below figure shows a large plate that contains a small circular hole. For
an applied uniaxial tension the stress field is found from linear elasticity theory. In polar
coordinates the azimuthal component of stress at point P is given as-

The maximum stress occurs at the sides of the hole where = r and = 12 or
= 3 2. At the hole sides,

= 3

fig- Infinite plate with a small circular hole.

The peak stress is three times the uniform stress . To account for
the peak in stress near a stress raiser, the stress concentration factor or theoretical stress
concentration factor is defined as the ratio of the calculated peak stress to the nominal stress
that would exist in the member if the distribution of stress remained uniform that is-

The nominal stress is found using basic strength-of-materials

formulas, and the calculations can be based on the properties of the net cross section at the
stress raiser. Sometimes the overall section is used in computing the nominal stress. If is
chosen as the nominal stress for the case shown in Fig., the stress concentration factor is-

The effect of the stress raiser is to change only the distribution of

stress. Equilibrium requirements dictate that the average stress on the section be the same in

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the case of stress concentration as it would be if there were a uniform stress distribution.
Stress concentration results not only in unusually high stresses near the stress raiser but also
in unusually low stresses in the remainder of the section. When more than one load acts on a
notched member (e.g., combined tension, torsion, and bending) the nominal stress due to each
load is multiplied by the stress concentration factor corresponding to each load, and the
resultant stresses are found by superposition. However, when bending and axial loads act
simultaneously, superposition can be applied only when bending moments due to the
interaction of axial force and bending deflections are negligible compared to bending
moments due to applied loads.
We can reduce the stress concentration by many ways like, additional
notches, fillet radius, drilling in the shafts, etc.

3. REDUCTION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION

A qualitative discussion of techniques for avoiding the detrimental effects
of stress concentration is given by Layer. As a general rule, force should be transmitted from
point to point as smoothly as possible. The lines connecting the force transmission path are
sometimes called the force (or stress) flow, although it is arguable if force flow has a
scientifically based definition. Sharp transitions in the direction of the force flow should be
removed by smoothing contours and rounding notch roots. When stress raisers are
necessitated by functional requirements, the raisers should be placed in regions of low
nominal stress if possible.
It is well known in contact problems that a stress singularity exists at the
sharp corner of a wedge indenter compressing a semi-infinite body. The power of the
singularity depends on the angle of the wedge and on the friction between the indenter and
the body. The investigations reported here describe how the singularity (stress concentration)
can be controlled and eliminated by relief cuts (notches) either along the free edges of the
indenter or along the interface edge of the half-plane. An indenter with fight angle corners is
investigated. Research on this problem is motivated by the difficulties associated with the
design of the upper end of an engine connecting rod, where the rod is shrunk on the wrist pin.
A related, purely asymmetric case, is that of shrink fit of a turbine disk on a shaft. The use of
notches (circular grooves) in the shaft as a stress relief device is known in the steam turbine
industry.' Although the current tests are done with plane-stress conditions, the results shed
light on the related asymmetric case.

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When notches are necessary, removal of material near the notch can
alleviate stress concentration effects, where removal of material improves the strength of the
member. A type of stress concentration called an interface notch is commonly produced
when parts are joined by welding and interface notches and one way of mitigating the effect.
The surfaces where the mating plates touch without weld metal filling, form what is, in effect,
a sharp crack that causes stress concentration. Stress concentration also results from poor
welding techniques that create small cracks in the weld material or burn pits in the base
material.

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Through various experiments the stress concentration can be predicted. Some of them are1. Brittle coatings
2. Photo elasticity

3. Thermo elasticity
4. Strain gages.

Brittle Coating Technique: A brittle coating is sprayed on the surface and allowed to
dry. Crack patterns developed by the loading and their relation to a calibration coating
indicate regions and magnitudes of stress concentrations.
Photo elasticity Technique: A specimen with identical geometry to the actual
notched part is made of a certain transparent material. Changes in optical properties of the
transparent material under load, measured by a polar scope, indicate stress distributions and
magnitudes.
Thermo elasticity Technique: Stress distribution is obtained by monitoring small
temperature changes of the specimen or component subjected to cyclic loading.
Electrical Resistance Strain Gage: The most common experimental
measurement technique A strain gage is bonded to the surface in the region of interest.
Applied load causes dimensional changes of the gage resulting in changes to electrical
resistance, which in turn indicates the existing strain.

REDUCTION OF STRESS CONCENTRATIONS(i) Additional notches and holes in tension member:- A flat plate with Vnotch subjected to tension force, where a single notch shows high value of stress
concentration. This can be removed by- Use of multiple notches, drilling additional
holes, removal of undesired materials. In these three ways, the sharp bending of a
force flow line can be reduced and it follows a smooth curve, as shown in figure.

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(ii) Fillet radius, undercutting and notch for members in bending:- A bar
of circular cross- section in which its shoulder creates a change in cross section of the
shaft, which results in stress concentration. There are three methods to reduce stress
concentration at the base of this shoulder. The fillet radius results in gradual transition
from small diameter to a larger diameter. The increase in undercutting the shoulder
also can reduce the stress concentrations. A notch above the bigger diameter shaft can
also results in reduction of stress concentrations.

(iii) Drilling additional holes for shaft:- A transmission shaft with a key way is a
discontinuity and results in stress concentrations. In case of fillet radius in the inner
corner of shaft, drilling two symmetrical holes on the sides of the keyway can reduce
stress concentrations.

(iv) Reduction of stress concentrations in threaded members:- A threaded

member with thread joins is shown that the force flow lines are more at the bent as it
passes from the shank portion to threaded portion of the component. This results in
stress concentrations. A small undercut between the shank and the threaded portion
can reduce the stress concentrations. Or we can reduce the shank diameter equal to the
core diameter of the thread. In such case the force flow line is almost straight an there
is no stress concentrations.

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4. FLUCTUATING STRESSES
In many applications of designs, the stresses are based according to
various cyclic and continuous loads where the components subjected to forces are not static,
but vary in magnitudes with time. It is observed that about 80% of failures of mechanical
components are due to 'fatigue failures' resulting from fluctuating stresses. In practice, the
pattern of stress variation is irregular and unpredictable, as in case of stresses due to
vibrations. For the purpose of design analysis, simple models for stress-time relationships are
used. The most popular model for stress-time relationship is the sine curve. A typical stress
cycle is shown in figure below where the maximum, minimum, mean and variable stresses
are indicated. The mean and variable stresses are given by,

mean= mean stress; variable= mean amplitude

fig- A typical stress cycle showing maximum, mean and variable stresses.

Conditions often arise in machines and mechanisms when stresses fluctuate

between a upper and a lower limit. For example in figure below, the fibre on the surface of a
rotating shaft subjected to a bending load, undergoes both tension and compression for each
revolution of the shaft.

figure- Stresses developed in a rotating shaft subjected to a bending load.

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Any fibre on the shaft is therefore subjected to fluctuating stresses.

Machine elements subjected to fluctuating stresses usually fail at stress levels much below
their ultimate strength and in many cases below the yield point of the material too. These
failures occur due to very large number of stress cycle and are known as fatigue failure.
These failures usually begin with a small crack which may develop at the points of
discontinuity, an existing subsurface crack or surface faults. Once a crack is developed it
propagates with the increase in stress cycle finally leading to failure of the component by
fracture. There are mainly two characteristics of this kind of failures:
(i)

Progressive development of crack.

(ii)

Sudden fracture without any warning since yielding is practically absent.

Fatigue failures are influenced bya)

b)
c)
d)

Nature and magnitude of the stress cycle.

Endurance limit.
Stress concentration.
Surface characteristics.

These factors are therefore interdependent. For example, by grinding

and polishing, case hardening or coating a surface, the endurance limit may be improved. For
machined steel endurance limit is approximately half the ultimate tensile stress.
There are 3 types of mathematical models for cyclic stresses :1. Fluctuating stresses or Alternating stress.
2. Repeated stresses.
3. Reversed stresses.
The fluctuating stresses varies in a sinusoidal manner with respect to
time. It has some mean value as well as amplitude values. It fluctuates between maximum
and minimum values of stress. The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum
value of the same nature, (i.e. tensile or compressive) are called fluctuating stresses.
Repeated stress also varies in a sinusoidal manner with respect to time, but the variation is
from zero to some maximum values. The stresses which vary from zero to a certain
maximum value are called repeated stresses. The minimum stress is zero in this case and
therefore, amplitude stress and mean stress are equal. The stresses which vary from a
minimum value to a maximum value of the opposite nature (i.e. from a certain minimum
compressive to a certain maximum tensile or from a minimum tensile to a maximum
compressive) are called alternating stresses. The stresses which vary from one value of
compressive to the same value of tensile or vice versa, are known as completely reversed or
cyclic stresses. Reversed stress also varies in a sinusoidal manner with respect to time, but it
has zero mean stress. In case, half portion of the cycle consists of tensile stress and the
remaining half of compressive stress. There is a complete reversal from tension to
compression between these two halves and therefore, the mean stress is zero. The below
figure explains the three stresses.

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In the analysis of fluctuating stresses, tensile stress is considered as

positive, while compressive stress as negative.

5. FATIGUE FAILURE
Often, machine members are found to have failed under the action of
repeated or fluctuating stresses; yet the most careful analysis reveals that the actual maximum
stresses were well below the ultimate strength of the material, and quite frequently even
below the yield strength. The most distinguishing characteristic of these failures is that the
stresses have been repeated a very large number of times. Hence the failure is called a fatigue
failure. When machine parts fail statically, they usually develop a very large deflection,
because the stress has exceeded the yield strength, and the part is replaced before fracture
actually occurs. Thus many static failures give visible warning in advance. But a fatigue
failure gives no warning! It is sudden and total, and hence dangerous. It is relatively simple to
design against a static failure, because our knowledge is comprehensive. Fatigue is a much
more complicated phenomenon, only partially understood, and the engineer seeking
competence must acquire as much knowledge of the subject as possible.
In narrow sense, the term fatigue of materials and structural
components means damage and damage due to cyclic, repeatedly applied stresses. In a wide
sense, it includes a large number of phenomena of delayed damage and fracture under loads
and environmental conditions. It is expedient to distinguish between high-cycle (classic) and
low-cycle fatigue. Plastic deformations are small and localized in the vicinity of the crack tip
while the main part of the body is deformed elastically, then one has high-cycle fatigue. If the
cyclic loading is accompanied by plastic deformation in the bulk of the body, then one has a
low-cycle fatigue. Usually we say low-cycle fatigue if the cycle number up to the initiation of
a visible crack or until final fracture is below 104 or 5.104 cycles.
Fatigue fracture typically occurs in material of basically brittle nature.
External or internal cracks develop at pre-existing flaws or fault of defects in the material
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these cracks then propagate and eventually they lead to total failure of part. The fracture
surface in fatigue is generally characterized by the term beach marks.
It is expedient to distinguish between high-cycle (classic) and lowcycle fatigue. Plastic deformations are small and localized in the vicinity of the crack tip
while the main part of the body is deformed elastically, then one has high-cycle fatigue. If the
cyclic loading is accompanied by plastic deformation in the bulk of the body, then one has a
low-cycle fatigue. Usually we say low-cycle fatigue if the cycle number up to the initiation of
a visible crack or until final fracture is below 104 or 5.104 cycles.
A fatigue failure has an appearance similar to a brittle fracture, as the
fracture surfaces are flat and perpendicular to the stress axis with the absence of necking. The
fracture features of a fatigue failure, however, are quite different from a static brittle fracture
arising from three stages of development.

Stage I is the initiation of one or more micro cracks due to cyclic plastic deformation
followed by crystallographic propagation extending from two to five grains about the origin.
Stage I cracks are not normally discernible to the naked eye.

Stage II progresses from micro cracks to macro cracks forming parallel plateau-like fracture
surfaces separated by longitudinal ridges. The plateaus are generally smooth and normal to
the direction of maximum tensile stress. These surfaces can be wavy dark and light bands
referred to as beach marks or clamshell marks, as seen in Fig. 61. During cyclic loading,
these cracked surfaces open and close, rubbing together, and the beach mark appearance
depends on the changes in the level or frequency of loading and the corrosive nature of the
environment.

Stage III occurs during the final stress cycle when the remaining material cannot support
the loads, resulting in sudden, fast fracture. A stage III fracture can be brittle, ductile, or a
combination of both. Quite often the beach marks, if they exist, and possible patterns in the
stage III fracture called chevron lines, point toward the origins of the initial cracks.

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Fatigue failure is due to crack formation and propagation. A fatigue

crack will typically initiate at a discontinuity in the material where the cyclic stress is a
maximum.
Discontinuities can arise because of:1. Design of rapid changes in cross section, keyways, holes, etc. where stress
concentrations occur.
2. Elements that roll and/or slide against each other (bearings, gears, cams, etc.)
under high contact pressure, developing concentrated subsurface contact stresses,
that can cause surface pitting or spalling after many cycles of the load.
3. Carelessness in locations of stamp marks, tool marks, scratches, and burrs; poor
joint design; improper assembly; and other fabrication faults.
4. Composition of the material itself as processed by rolling, forging, casting,
extrusion, drawing, heat treatment, etc. Microscopic and sub microscopic surface
and subsurface discontinuities arise, such as inclusions of foreign material, alloy
segregation, voids, hard precipitated particles, and crystal discontinuities.
Various conditions that can accelerate crack initiation include residual
tensile stresses, elevated temperatures, temperature cycling, a corrosive environment, and
high frequency cycling. The rate and direction of fatigue crack propagation is primarily
controlled by localized stresses and by the structure of the material at the crack. However, as
with crack formation, other factors may exert a significant influence, such as environment,
temperature, and frequency.
In many applications, the behaviour of a component in service is
influence by several other factors besides the properties of the material used in its
manufacture. This is particularly true for the cases where the component or structure is
subjected to fatigue loading, the fatigue resistance can be greatly influenced by the service
environment, surface condition of the part, method of fabrication and design details. In some
cases, the role of the material in achieving satisfactory fatigue life is secondary to the above
parameters, as long as the material is free from major flaws.

6. ENDURANCE LIMIT
The fatigue or endurance limit of a material is defined as the
maximum amplitude of completely reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for
an unlimited number of cycles without fatigue failure. It is the fatigue strength of a material.
Fatigue strength is defined as the maximum stress that can be endured
for a specified number of cycles without failure. Low cycle fatigue strength approaches the
static strength. When the cycle number exceeds to one limit, the fatigue strength falls to
fraction of the static strength. The fatigue strength is the value of the alternating stress that

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results in failure by fracture a specific number of cycles of load application. It can also be the
ordinate of the -n (stress versus number of cycles to failure) curve. The fatigue behaviour of
a specific material, heat treated to a specific strength level is determined by a series of
laboratory tests on a large number of apparently identical samples of those specific materials.
The specimens are machined with shape characteristics which
maximize the fatigue life of a metal, and are highly polished to provide the surface
characteristics which enable the best fatigue life. A single test consist of applying a known,
constant bending stress to a round sample of the material, and rotating the sample around the
bending stress axis until it fails. As the sample rotates, the stress applied to any fibre on the
outside surface of the sample varies from maximum-tensile to zero to maximum compressive
and back. The test mechanism counts the number of rotations (cycles) until the specimen
fails. A large number of tests is run at each stress level of interest, and the results are
statistically massaged to determine the expected number of cycles to failure at that stress
level. The cyclic stress level of the first set of tests is some large percentage of the Ultimate
Tensile stress (UTS), which produces failure in a relatively small number of cycles.
Subsequent tests are run at lower cyclic stress values until a level is found at which the
sample will survive 10 million cycles without failure. The cyclic stress level that the material
can sustain for 10 million cycles is called the Endurance limit (EL).

FATIGUE FAILURE TESTINGThe R. R. Moores high-speed rotating beam machine is used to

performing a fatigue test. The specimen, shown in Fig. below, is rotating with a constant
angular speed. The specimen is subjected to pure bending by means of weights. The intensity
of the reversed stress causing failure after a given number of cycles is the fatigue strength
corresponding to that number of loading cycles. The fatigue strengths considered for each test
are plotted against the corresponding number of revolutions. The resulting chart is called the
strength-life, S-N, diagram. The diagram depicts the fatigue strength versus cycle life N of a
part. The S-N curves are plotted on log-log coordinates.

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Suppose that a particular specimen is being fatigue tested. Now

suppose the fatigue test is halted after 20% to 25% of the expected life of the specimen, and
the surface condition is restored to its original state. Now the fatigue test is resumed at the
same stress level as before. The life of the part will be considerably longer than expected. If
that process is repeated several times, the life of the part may be extended by several hundred
percent, limited only by the available cross section of the specimen. That proves fatigue
failures originate at the surface of a component.
A failure that results from such cyclic loads is called a fatigue
failure. Since many structural components are subjected to cyclic loads it is necessary for the
design engineer to have some quantitative measure of the materials ability to withstand such
repeated loads. Quantitative data for the fatigue properties of a given material are obtained by
subjecting a number of standard specimens to cyclic loads until fracture occurs. (Joseph
Datsko, 1997) The objective of the fatigue strength or fatigue limit test is to estimate a
statistical distribution of the fatigue strength at a specific high-cycle fatigue life. Among
many fatigue strength tests methods, the staircase method (often referred as the up-and-down
method) is the most popular one that has been adopted by many standards to asses statistical
of a fatigue limit. In this test, the mean fatigue limit has to first estimated, and a fatigue life
test is the conducted at a stress level a little higher than the estimated mean. If the specimen
fails prior to the life of interest, the next specimen has to be tested at a lower stress level.
Therefore, each test is dependent on the previous test results, and the test continuous with a
stress level increased or decreased.

FATIGUE DAMAGE PROCESS

Fatigue is gradual process of damage accumulation that proceeds
on various levels beginning from the scale of the crystal lattice, dislocations and other objects
of solid state physics up to the scales of the structural components. Three or four stages of
fatigue damage are usually distinguishable. In the first stage, the damage accumulation occurs
on the level of grains and inter granular layers. The damage is dispersed over the volume of a
specimen or structural component, or at least, over the most stressed parts. At the end of this
stage, nuclei of microscopic cracks originate, example, such aggregates of micro cracks that
are strong stress concentrators and under the following loading, have a tendency to grow.
Surface nuclei usually can be observed visually (at least with proper magnification). The
second stage is the growth of cracks that depth is small compared with the size of cross
section. At the same time, the sizes of these cracks whose depth is small compared with the
size of the cross section. At the same time, the sizes of these cracks are equal to few
characteristics scales of microstructure, say, to several grain sizes. Such cracks are called
small cracks. Most of them stop growing upon meeting some obstacles, but one or several
cracks transform into microscopic, long fatigue cracks that propagate in a direct way as
strong stress concentrators. This process forms the third stage of fatigue damage. The fourth
stage is rapid final fracture due to the sharp stress concentration at the crack front and/or the
expenditure of the materials resistance to fracture.

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The results of the test done in the rotating beam fatigue testing
machine can be plotted in graph by means of an S-N curve. The S-N curve is a graphical
representation of stress amplitude Sf verses the number of stress cycles N before the fatigue
failure on a log-log graph paper. The S-N curve for steels is illustrated in the graph below fig.

ENDURANCE LIMIT APPROXIMATION:Two separate notations are used for endurance limit,

Se' = Endurance Strength of material specimen under laboratory condition

Se = Endurance Strength of material specimen under actual running condition
We have some relations for Se & Se'

Se'= 0.5 Sut (for steel)

Se'= 0.4 Sut (for CI & cast steel)
Se'= 0.4 Sut (for wrought Al alloys)
Se'= 0.3 Sut (for cast Al alloys)
These relationship is based on 50% reliability. The relation between Se' & Se

Se = Ka * Kb * Kc * Kd * Se'
Where, Ka = Surface Correction factor
Kb = Size Correction factor
Kc =Reliability Correction factor
Kd = Temperature Correction factor
Se' = Endurance Strength of material specimen under laboratory condition

Se = Endurance Strength of material specimen under actual running condition

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Surface finish factor Ka

The surface finish factors in the figure are based on large number of experiments on wrought
steels and are not applicable to other ductile materials like aluminium. Cast iron is generally
not used for machine components under fluctuating loads; but if needed ka may be used as 1
because even the mirror finished. Cast-iron specimen will have graphite flakes and other
discontinuities. (Ka = 1 for cast iron)

Size factor Kb for rotating circular parts

The diameter of a rotating-beam specimen is only 7.5 mm; machine part having larger
diameters are likely to have lower endurance strength than Se because larger the part, greater
the possibility of a flaw in the part. Therefore the chances of fatigue failure originating from
any one of those flows are more. Thus, the endurance limit of machine member is reduced by
the size factor Kb as shown in the table

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Reliability Factor Kc
The published fatigue strength data has a scatter, and the SN curve is plotted through the
mean of the scatter points. It means that the endurance limit has a reliability of 50%, i.e., 50percent components may fail earlier than the one million stress cyber. The standard deviation
of the data points for steels is limited to 8% of the mean value. Using this value of standard
deviation, reliability factor Kc for a desired reliably is calculated below:

K d = modifying factor for stress concentration

The endurance limit is reduced due to stress concentration and the factor used for cyclic
loading is less than the theoretical stress concentration factor due to notch sensitivity. To
reduce the endurance limit we can increasing the stress amplitude or reducing the endurance
limit. The difference between the actual increase in stress and the theoretical increase in
stress is related by notch sensitivity factor q as follows:

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7. LOW CYCLE AND HIGH CYCLE FATIGUE

It is expedient to distinguish between high-cycle (classic) and lowcycle fatigue. Plastic deformations are small and localized in the vicinity of the crack tip
while the main part of the body is deformed elastically, then one has high-cycle fatigue. If the
cyclic loading is accompanied by plastic deformation in the bulk of the body, then one has a
low-cycle fatigue. Usually we say low-cycle fatigue if the cycle number up to the initiation of
a visible crack or until final fracture is below 104 or 5.104 cycles. In material science, fatigue
is the progressive, localized, and permanent structural damage that occurs when a material is
subjected to cyclic or fluctuating strains at nominal stresses that have maximum values less
than (often much less than) the static yield strength of the material. The resulting stress may
be below the ultimate tensile stress, or even the yield stress of the material, yet still cause
catastrophic failure. A practical example of low-cycle fatigue would be the bending of a
paperclip. A metal paperclip can be bent past its yield point without breaking, but repeated
bending in the same section of wire will cause material to fail.
The S-N curve above has 2 region of curve namely, high cycle and
low cycle fatigue. The difference of these two are1. Any fatigue failure when the number of stress cycles are less than 1000, is called-low
cycle fatigue. Any failure when the number of stress cycles are more than 1000, is called
high-cycle fatigue.
2. Failure of studs on truck wheels, failure of setscrews for locating gears on shafts or failure
of short-lived devices such as a missile is the example of low cycle fatigue. And
components like springs, ball bearings, gears etc are high cycle fatigue failures category.
3. The low cycle involves fatigue with plastic yielding at the localized areas of the
components.
4. Components subjected to high cycle fatigue are designed on the basis of endurance limit
stress.

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High-cycle fatigue involves a large number of cycles (N4105 cycles)

and an elastically applied stress. High-cycle fatigue tests are usually carried out for 107 cycles
and sometimes 5.108 cycles for nonferrous metals. Although the applied stress is low enough
to be elastic, plastic deformation can take place at the crack tip. High cycle fatigue data are
usually presented as a plot of stress, S, versus the number of cycles to failure, N. A log scale
is used for the number of cycles. The value of stress, S, can be the maximum stress, Smax, the
minimum stress, Smin, or the stress amplitude, Sa.
The S-N relationship is usually determined for a specified value of
the mean stress, sm, or one of the two ratios, R or A. The fatigue life is the number of cycles
to failure at a specified stress level, while the fatigue strength (also referred to as the
endurance limit) is the stress below which failure does not occur. As the applied stress level
is decreased, the number of cycles to failure increases. Normally, the fatigue strength
increases as the static tensile strength increases. For example, high strength steels heat treated
to over 1400 MPa (200 ksi) yield strengths have much higher fatigue strengths than
aluminium alloys with 480 MPa (70 ksi) yield strengths. A comparison of the S-N curves for
steel and aluminium. Note that steel not only has a higher fatigue strength than aluminium,
but it also has an endurance limit. Below a certain stress level, the steel alloy will never fail
due to cyclic loading alone. On the other hand, aluminium does not have a true endurance
limit. It will always fail if tested to a sufficient number of cycles. Therefore, the fatigue
strength of aluminium is usually reported as the stress level it can survive at a large total
number of cycles, usually 5108 cycles. It should be noted that there is a considerable amount
of scatter in fatigue test results. It is therefore important to test a sufficient number of
specimens to obtain statistically meaningful results.

8.NOTCH SENSITIVITY
It is observed that the actual reduction in the endurance limit of a
material due to stress concentration is less than the amount indicated by the theoretical stress
concentration factor Kt. Therefore, two separate notations, Kt and Kf are used for stress
concentration factors. Kt is theoretical stress concentration factor, which is applicable to ideal
materials that are homogeneous, isotropic and elastic. Kf is the fatigue stress concentration
factor, which is defined asthe ratio of endurance limit of the notch free specimen to the endurance limit of the
notched specimen.
The factor Kf is applicable to actual materials and depends upon grain size of
the material. It is observed that there is a greater reduction in the endurance limit of fine
grained materials as compared to coarse grained materials, due to stress concentration.
Notch sensitivity can be defined as the susceptibility of a material to succumb
to the damaging effects of stress raising notches in fatigue loadings.
The notch sensitivity is given as=
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actual stress= Kf * o where, o= nominal stress

theoretical stress= Kt * o
so increase in actual over nominal stress is = Kf * o - o
and increases in theoretical over nominal stress is = Kt * o - o
Therefore,

o
Kt o

o
o
Kf 1
=
Kt 1
Kf

= 1+ (

1)

when the material has no sensitivity to notches, q=0; Kf=1 and

when the material is full sensitive to notches, q=1; Kf=Kt

DESIGN FOR FINITE AND INFINITE LIFE TIME:When the components are subjected to fluctuating stresses but not
completely reversed stress, the mean stress is not zero. The stress can be purely tensile,
purely compressive or mixed depending upon magnitude of mean stress. Such problem are
solved with the help of modified Goodman diagram.
The design problem for completely reversed stress are further divided into 1. design for finite life .
2. design for infinite life.
Case I- Here the endurance limit is the criteria of failure. therefore the design stress (mean
stress) should be lower than the endurance limit stress in order to withstand infinite number
of cycles. So, the component are design by finding the mean value of stress.
Limited cycle fatigue for finite life design is the life between 103 to 106 cycles, for which a
line connecting points (3, 0.9 Su) and (6, Se) is drawn. From this line, life of a component
can be estimated.
Case II- When the component is designed for finite life, the S-N curve for steel is used to
design the component.
One significant limitation of the S-N curve is that the resulting plot is highly
dependent on the test conditions (e.g. the stress ratio Smin/Smax, sample geometry, sample
surface condition, and material). Using an S-N curve to predict real-world life when
conditions do not match the test conditions under which the curve was developed is dubious
at best. This severely limits the use of S-N curves in product design. On the other hand, the
ease of construction makes the S-N curve a simple and valuable tool in making relative
comparisons between materials or process variations.

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9. SODERBERG AND GOODMAN LINES

When a component is subjected to fluctuating stresses there is
mean stress (m) as well as stress amplitude (a) also. It is observed that the mean stress
component has an effect on fatigue failure when it is present in combination with an
alternating component. The fatigue diagram is shown in the figure below. Here the mean
stress is plotted the abscissa. The stress amplitude is plotted in the ordinates. The magnitudes
of the m & a depend on the magnitudes of the maximum and minimum forces acting on
the components. When stress amplitude is zero, the load is purely static and the criterion for
failure is Sut and Syt . These limits are plotted on the abscissa. When the mean stress is zero
the stress is completely reversing and the criterion for failure is the endurance limit Se that is
plotted on the ordinates. When the component is subjected to both components of stress

& a , the actual failure occurs at different scattering points shown in the figures. There exist
a border, which divides safe region from unsafe region for various combinations of m & a .
Different criterions are proposed to construct the borderline dividing safe zone and failure
zone. They include GERBER LINE, SODERBERG LINE AND GOODMAN LINE.

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GERBER LINE- A parabolic curve joining Se on the ordinate to Sut on the abscissa is called
gerber line.
SODERBERG LINE- A straight line joining Se on the ordinate and Syt on the abscissa is
called the soderberg line.
GOODMAN LINE- A straight line joining Se on the ordinate and Sut on the abscissa is
called goodman line.

Fig- soderberg, goodman line.

The Gerber parabola fits the failure points of test data in the best
possible way. The Goodman line fits beneath the scatter of this data. Both Gerber and
Goodman line intersect at Se on the ordinate to Sut on the abscissa. However, the Goodman
line is more safe from design considerations because it is completely inside the Gerber
parabola and inside the failure points. The Soderberg line is a more conservative failure
criterion and there is no need to consider even yielding in this case. A yield line is
constructed connecting Syt on both the axes. It is called the limit of first cycle of stress. This
is because if a part yields, it has failed, regardless of its safety in the fatigue.
We will apply following form for the equation of a straight line,

Where a and b are the intercepts of the line on the X and Y axes respectively. Applying the
above formula, the equation of the Soderberg line is given by,

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Similarly the Goodman equation will be-

The Goodman line is widely used as the criterion of fatigue failure

when the component is subjected to mean stress amplitude. It is because of the following
reasons(i) the Goodman line is safe from design consideration because it is completely inside the
failure points of test data.
(ii) The equation of a straight line is simple compared to the equation of a parabolic
curve.
(iii) It is not necessary to construct a scale diagram and a rough sketch is enough to
construct fatigue diagram.

MODIFIED GOODMAN DIAGRAM:The components which are subjected to fluctuating stress are
designed by constructing the Modified Goodman diagram. For the purpose of design, the
problems are classified into two groups(i) Components subjected to fluctuating axial or bending stresses.
(ii) Components subjected to fluctuating torsion shear stresses.

Components subjected to fluctuating axial or bending stressesHere the Goodman line is modified by combining the fatigue
failure with failure by yielding. In the diagram below given, the yield strength Syt is plotted
on both the axes, and a yield line CD inclined at 450 is constructed to join these two points to
define failure by yielding. Similarly the line AF is joined Se on the ordinate with Sut on the
abscissa, which is the Goodman line. Both the lines intersect at point B. The area OABC is
called the region of safety for the components subjected to the fluctuating stresses. The
region OABC is called Modified Goodman diagram. All the points inside the Modified
Goodman diagram should cause neither fatigue nor yielding. The Modified Goodman

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diagram combines fatigue criteria as represented by the Goodman line and yield criteria as
represented by the yield line.
If the mean component of stress is very large and the alternating
component is very small, their combination will define a point in the region BCF that would
be safely within the Goodman line but would yield on the first cycle, this will result in
failure. This is the reason to modify the Goodman line.

While solving problems, a line OE with a slope of tan is constructed in such a way that,
=

=
The magnitudes of Pa and Pb can be determined from max and min forces acting on the
component. Similarly it can be proved that,
( )
=
( )
The magnitudes of the ratios can be determined from max and min bending moment acting
on the component.
The point of intersection of lines AB and OE is X. The points X
indicates the dividing lines between the safe region of failure. The coordinates of the points X
represent the limiting values of stresses, which are used to calculate the dimensions of the
component. The permissible stresses are as follows=

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Components subjected to fluctuating torsion shear stresses-

The modified Goodman diagram for fluctuating torsional shear stress is

shown below. In this diagram, the torsional mean stress is plotted on the abscissa while the
stress amplitude on the ordinates. The torsional yield stress is plotted on abscissa and the
yield line on the ordinates., which is inclined at 450 to a certain abscissa. It is interesting that
up to a certain point, the torsional mean stress has no effect on the torsional endurance limit.
Therefore, a line is drawn through Sse on the ordinate and parallel to the abscissa. The point
of intersection of this line and the yield line is B. The area OABC represents the region of
safety. A fatigue failure can be indicated if,

The permissible stress are as follows:-

10. GERBER LINE

The Soderberg and Goodman lines are the straight lines. The
theories using such straight lines for predicting fatigue failure are called linear theories. There
are some theories that use parabolic or elliptical curves instead of straight lines. These
theories are called non linear theories. One of the most popular non-linear theories is the
Gerber theory that is based on parabolic curve. The Gerber curve is shown in the figure
below.

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The equation for the Gerber curve is as follows:-

=1

Theories based on the Soderberg line or the Goodman line, as

failure criteria are conservative theories. This results in increased dimensions of the
component. The Gerber curve takes the mean through failure points. It is therefore more
accurate in predicting fatigue failure.

11. CONCLUSION
In the above report we have discussed about various conditions under
which the design against fluctuating stress can be done. The main focous before our design
will be the fatigue tests. We should keep consideration about various notch sensitive points as
well. Thus we have expalined various conditions under which we can design a component
under cyclic loads. We have also seen some of the formulas for the design consideration. We
have to take into account the Modified Goodman equations also.
If we consider this factors during our design a component for cyclic stress
then we can design in a better and more economic way.

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12. REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

V. B. Bhandari "Design of Machine elements" ;by McGrew hill education.

Dr. P. C. Sharma & Dr. D. K. Aggarwal "Machine Design (SI units), 11th edition
reprint 2011
R. K Jain "Machine Design", pdf formats.
S. G Kulkarni "Machine Design", pdf formats.
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/fatigue_(material)
www.wikipedia.org/wiki/stress_concentration_notches
Shigley, J.E., C.R. Mischke, Mechanical Engineering Design, 5th Ed., McGraw-Hill,
Inc., New York, 1989.

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