Lectures on MEMS and Microsystems Design and Manufacture

Chapter 7
Materials for MEMS and Microsystems
This chapter will cover the materials used in silicon-based MEMS and
microsystems. As such, silicon will be the principal material to be studied.
Other materials to be dealt with are silicon compounds such as: SiO2,
SiC, Si3N4 and polysilicon.
Also will be covered are electrically conducting of silicon piezoresistors
and piezoelectric crystals for electromechanical actuations and signal
transductions.
An overview of polymers, which are the rising stars to be used as MEMS
and microsystems substrate materials, will be studied too.

Silicon an ideal substrate material for MEMS

Silicon (Si) is the most abundant material on earth. It almost always exists in
compounds with other elements.
Single crystal silicon is the most widely used substrate material for MEMS
and microsystems.
The popularity of silicon for such application is primarily for the following
reasons:
(1) It is mechanically stable and it is feasible to be integrated into electronics
on the same substrate (b/c it is a semiconducting material).
(2) Electronics for signal transduction such as the p or n-type piezoresistive
can be readily integrated with the Si substrate-ideal for transistors.
(3) Silicon is almost an ideal structure material. It has about the same
Youngs modulus as steel ( 2x105 MPa), but is as light as aluminum
with a density of about 2.3 g/cm3.

Silicon an ideal substrate material for MEMS-Contd

(4) It has a melting point at 1400oC, which is about twice higher than that of
aluminum. This high melting point makes silicon dimensionally stable
even at elevated temperature.
(5) Its thermal expansion coefficient is about 8 times smaller than that of
steel, and is more than 10 times smaller than that of aluminum.
(6) Silicon shows virtually no mechanical hysteresis. It is thus an ideal
candidate material for sensors and actuators.
(7) Silicon wafers are extremely flat for coatings and additional thin film
layers for either being integral structural parts, or performing precise
electromechanical functions.
(8) There is a greater flexibility in design and manufacture with silicon than
with other substrate materials. Treatments and fabrication processes
for silicon substrates are well established and documented.

Single-Crystal Silicon
For silicon to be used as a substrate material in integrated circuits and
MEMS, it has to be in a pure single-crystal form.
The most commonly used method of producing single-crystal silicon is the
Czochralski (CZ) method.
The Czochralski method for producing single-crystal silicon

Silicon
boule

Seed
crystal

Silicon melt

Graphite
susceptor

Heating element

Heating element

Quartz
crucible

Equipment: a crucible and a puller.

Puller

Procedure:
(1) Raw Si (quartzite) + coal, coke, woodchips)
are melted in the crucible.
(2) A seed crystal is brought to be in contact
with molten Si to form larger crystal.
(3) The puller slowly pulls the molten Si up
to form pure Si boule after the
solidification.
(4) The diameters of the bologna-like boules
vary from 100 mm (4) to 300 mm (12) in
diameters.

Chemical reaction for the process: SiC + SiO2 Si + CO + SiO

Pure silicon wafers

Pure silicon boules of 300 mm
diameter and 30 ft long, can
weigh up to 400 Kg.
These boules are sliced into
thin disks (wafers) using
diamond saws.

A pure silicon boule

200 mm
wafer

300 mm
wafer

Standard sizes of wafers are:

100 mm (4) diameter x 500 m thick.
150 mm (6) diameter x 750 m thick.
200 mm (8) diameter x 1 mm thick
300 mm (12) diameter x 750 m thick (tentative).

Single Silicon Crystal Structure

Single silicon crystals are basically of face-cubic-center (FCC)
structure.
The crystal structure of a typical FCC crystal is shown below:
z

Atoms

Lattice
b

Note: Total number of atoms: 8 at corners and 6 at faces = 14 atoms

Single Silicon Crystal Structure-Contd

Single crystal silicon, however has 4 extra atoms in the interior.
The situation is like to merge two FCC crystals together as shown below:

A
B

(a) Merger of two FCC

(b) Merged crystal structure

Total no. of atoms in a single silicon crystal = 18.

The unsymmetrical distribution of atoms within the crystal make pure
silicon anisotropic in its mechanical properties.
In general, however, we treat silicon as an isotropic material.

The Miller Indices

Miller indices are commonly use to describe the faces of crystalline materials.
z
P(x,y,z)

A plane intersects x, y and z-coordinates at

a, b and c.
A point on the plane located at P(x,y,z)
The equation defines the P(x,y,z) is:

x y z
+ + =1
a b c

(7.1)

Express Eq. (7.1) in a different form:

hx + ky + mz = 1

(7.2)

in which h = 1/a, k = 1/b and k = 1/c.

Miller indices involve:
(hkm) = designation of a face, or a plane;
<hkm> = designation of a direction that is perpendicular to the (hkm) plane.
NOTE: In a cubic crystal, such as silicon, a = b = c = 1

The 3 Distinct Planes of a Cubic Crystal

z

Figure A
Top face:

Plane (001)

Right face: Plane (010)

Front face: Plane (100)

Figure B
Diagonal face: Plane (110)

Figure C
Incline face:
Plane (111)

The 3 Principal Planes of a Silicon Crystal

(y) <001>

z
(001)

The (100) group

(010)

(100)
(x)<100>

(z)<010>

The (111) group

The (110) group

The 3 Principal Planes of a Silicon Crystal-Contd

0.768 nm

0.768 nm

(110) Plane

(111) Plane

0.768 nm

0.543 nm

(100) Plane

Inclined Plane

Diagonal Plane

Characteristics of silicon by principal planes:

(1) The (100) planes contain least number of atoms the weakest plane
easiest to work with.
(2) The (110) planes offers the cleanest surfaces in micro fabrications.
(3) The (111) contains shortest bonds between atoms strongest plane
toughest to work with.
Miller Index for Orientation

Youngs Modulus, E (GPa)

Shear Modulus, G (GPa)

<100>

129.5

79.0

<110>

168.0

61.7

<111>

186.5

57.5

NOTE: The (100) plane makes an angle of 54.74o with the (111) plane.

(Bulk) Mechanical and Thermophysical Properties of Silicon

Legend: y = yield strength; E = Youngs modulus; = mass density; C = specific heat;
k = thermal conductivity; = coefficient of thermal expansion, TM = melting point.

(109 N/m2)

(1011 N/m2)

(g/cm3)

C
(J/g-oC)

k
(W/cm-oC)

(10-6/oC)

TM
(oC)

Si

7.00

1.90

2.30

0.70

1.57

2.33

1400

SiC

21.00

7.00

3.20

0.67

3.50

3.30

2300

Si3N4

14.00

3.85

3.10

0.69

0.19

0.80

1930

SiO2

8.40

0.73

2.27

1.00

0.014

0.50

1700

Aluminum

0.17

0.70

2.70

0.942

2.36

25

660

Stainless Steel

2.10

2.00

7.90

0.47

0.329

17.30

1500

Copper

0.07

0.11

8.9

0.386

3.93

16.56

1080

GaAs

2.70

0.75

5.30

0.35

0.50

6.86

1238

1.03

5.32

0.31

0.60

5.80

937

0.76-0.97

2.66

0.82-1.20

0.067-0.12

7.10

1710

Ge
Quartz

0.5-0.7

* Principal source for semiconductor material properties: Fundamentals of Microfabrication, Marc

Madou, CRC Press, 1997

Silicon Compounds
There are 3 principal silicon compounds used in MEMS and microsystems:
Silicon dioxide (SiO2), Silicon carbide (SiC) and silicon nitride (Si3N4) each
Has distinct characteristic and unique applications.
Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
It is least expensive material to offer good thermal and electrical insulation.
Also used a low-cost material for masks in micro fabrication processes
such as etching, deposition and diffusion.
Used as sacrificial material in surface micromachining.
Above all, it is very easy to produce:
- by dry heating of silicon:

Si + O2

SiO2

- or by oxide silicon in wet steam: Si + 2H2O

SiO2

+ 2H2

Silicon dioxide (SiO2) contd

Properties
Density (g/cm3)
Resistivity (-cm)
Dielectric constant
Melting point (oC)
Specific heat (J/g/oC)
Thermal conductivity (W/cm/oC)
Coefficient of thermal expansion (ppm/oC)

Values
2.27
1016
3.9
1700
1.0
0.014
0.5

Silicon carbide (SiC)

Its very high melting point and resistance to chemical reactions make it ideal
candidate material for being masks in micro fabrication processes.
It has superior dimensional stability.

Silicon nitride (Si3N4)

Produced by chemical reaction:
3SiCl2H2 + 4NH3 Si3N4 + 6HCL + 6H2
Used as excellent barrier to diffusion to water and ions.
Its ultra strong resistance to oxidation and many etchants make it a
superioro material for masks in deep etching.
A
Also used
as high strength electric insulators.
Selected properties Si3N4 films are as follows:
Properties
Deposition temperature (oC)
Density (g/cm3)
Film quality
Dielectric constant
Resistivity (-cm)
Refractive index
Atom % H
Etch rate in concentrated HF
Etch rate in boillng HF
Poissons ratio
Youngs modulus (GPa)
Coefficient of thermal expansion, ppm/oC

LPCVD*

PECVD**

700-800
2.9-3.2
Excellent
6-7
1016
2.01
4-8
200 A/min
5-10A/min
0.27
385
1.6

250-350
2.4-2.8
Poor
6-9
6
10 -1015
1.8-2.5
20-25

* Low pressure chemical vapor deposition; ** Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition

Polycrystalline silicon
It is usually called Polysilicon.
It is an aggregation of pure silicon crystals with randomly orientations
deposited on the top of silicon substrates:
Random small
polysilicon grains
A few microns

Oxide layer
Silicon substrate

These polysilicon usually are highly doped silicon.

They are deposited to the substrate surfaces to produce localized
resistors and gates for transistors
Being randomly oriented, polysilicon is even stronger than single silicon
crystals.

Polycrystalline silicon contd

Comparison of Mechanical Properties of Polysilicon with Other Materials
Materials

As substrates:
Silicon
Alumina
Silica
As thin films:
Polysilicon
Thermal SiO2
LPCVD SiO2
PACVD SiO2
Aluminum
Tungsten
Polymide

Youngs modulus
(GPa)

Poissons ratio

Coefficient of
thermal expansion
(ppm/oC)

190
415
73

0.23

2.6
8.7
0.4

160
70
270

0.23
0.2
0.27

70
410
3.2

0.35
0.28
0.42

0.17

2.8
0.35
1.6
2.3
25
4.3
20-70

Silicon Piezoresistors
Piezoresistance

= a change in electrical resistance of solids when

subjected to stress fields. Doped silicon are
piezoresistors (p-type or n-type).

Relationship between change of resistance {R} and stresses {}:

{R} = [] {}

(7-6)

where {R} = { Rxx Ryy Rzz Rxy Rxz Ryz}T represents the
change of resistances in an infinitesimally small cubic piezoresistive
crystal element with corresponding stress components:
{} = {xx yy zz xy xz yz}T and [] = piezoresistive coefficient matrix.
Mechanical
y
load
yy

A silicon piezoresistance
subjected to a stress field:

yz
zy

p- or n-type
silicon

zz

y
z

yx
xy

xx

zx xz

Silicon Piezoresistors Contd

Due to equilibrium condition, there are six independent stress components:
3 normal stress components and 3 shearing stress components.
Consequently, the piezoresistive coefficient matrix has the components:
0
0
11 12 12 0

0
0
0

12
11
12

0
0
0
(7.7)
[ ] = 12 12 11

0
0
0
44 0
0
0
0
0
0
44 0

0
0
0
0
0
44
Expanding Eq. (7.6) result in the following:

R xx = 11 xx + 12 ( yy + zz )

R xy = 44 xy

R yy = 11 yy + 12 ( xx + zz )

R xz = 44 xz

R zz = 11 11 + 12 ( xx + yy )

R yz = 44 yz

Note: Only 3 piezoresistive coefficients are required; 11 and 12 associated

with normal stresses and 44 with shearing stresses.

Silicon Piezoresistors Contd

Numerical values of piezoresistive coefficients
Silicon piezoresistors at room temperature
Materials

Resistivity
(-cm)

11*

12*

44*

7.8
11.7

+6.6
-102.2

-1.1
+53.4

+138.1
-13.6

p-silicon
n-silicon

Silicon piezoresistors
Leads

y T-direction

p- or n-type Si

ion
t
c
ire
L-d

R
= L L + T T
R

Silicon Piezoresistors Contd

Numerical values of piezoresistive coefficients
Leads

y T-direction

tion
c
e
ir
L-d

R
= L L + T T
R

p- or n-type Si

Piezoresistive coefficients of p-type silicon piezorestors in various directions

Crystal Planes

Orientation
<x>

Orientation
<y>

(100)
(100)
(100)
(100)

<111>
<110>
<110>
<100>

<111>
<100>
<110>
<100>

+0.6644
+0.544
+0.544
+0.0244

-0.3344
0
-0.544
+0.0244

Estimate the change of resistance in silicon piezoresistors

attached to the diaphragm of a pressure sensor in Example 4.4.

Example 7.3

From Example 4.4, the corresponding maximum stress

at the mid-span of each of the 4 edges is:
max = 186.81 MPa with an applied pressure at 70 MPa.

Piezoresistor, A

(100 Plane)
C

We may thus let: L = T = max = 186.8 MPa, or

= 186.8x106 Pa (N/m2)
=
L

max

T = max

783 m
1085 m
2500 m

Since the diaphragm is on (100) face, the

two piezoresistive coefficients are:
266 m

L = T = 0.02 44

480 m

But 44 = 138.1 x 10-11 Pa-1 from the Table,

we thus have:

R
= L L + T T = 2 44 max = 2 0.02(138.1 10 11 )(186.8 10 6 ) = 0.01032 /
R

Temperature sensitivity of silicon piezoresistors

A major deficiency of silicon piezoresistors is its sensitivity of temperature
as indicated in the table:
Doping
concentration
(1018/cm3)

p-Type TCR
(% per oC)

p-Type TCP
(% per oC)

n-Type TCR
(% per oC)

n-Type TCP
(% per oC)

5
10
30
100

0.0
0.01
0.06
0.17

-0.27
-0.27
-0.18
-0.16

0.01
0.05
0.09
0.19

-0.28
-0.27
-0.18
-0.12

TCR = temperature coefficient of resistance;

TCP = temperature coefficient of piezoresistivity.

Example: a p-type silicon piezoresistor with a doping of 1019 atoms/cm3,

The loss of piezoresistivity is 0.27%/oC. In an operating temperature of 120oC,
It would lose (120-20)x0.27% = 27% of the value of the piezoresistivity coefficient.

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

GaAs is a compound simiconductor with equal number of Ga and As atoms.
Because it is a compound, it is more difficult to process.
It is excellent material for monolithic integration of electronic and
photonic devices on a single substrate.
The reason for being excellent material for photoelectronics is its high
electron mobility (7 times more mobile than silicon):
Materials

Electron Mobility, m2/V-sec

Aluminum

0.00435

Copper

0.00136

Silicon

0.145

Gallium Arsenide, GaAs

0.850

Silicon oxide

Silicon nitride

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)-Contd

GaAs is also a good thermal insulator.
Low yield strength (only 1/3 of that of silicon) bad.
A comparison of GaAs and silicon as substrate materials in
micromachining:
Properties

GaAs

Silicon

Opto-electronics
Piezoelectric effect
Piezoelectric coefficient (pN/oC)
Thermal conductivity
Cost
Bonding to other substrates
Fracture
Operating temperature
Optimum operating temp. (oC)
Physical stability
Hardness (GPa)
Fracture strength (GPa)

Very good
Yes
2.6
Relatively low
High
Difficult
Brittle, fragile
High
460
Fair
7
2.7

Not good
No
Nil
Relatively high
Low
Relatively easy
Brittle, strong
Low
300
Very good
10
6

Quartz

Z-axis

Quartz is a compound of SiO2.

The single-unit cell is in shape of tetrahedron:
Quartz crystal is made of up to 6 rings with
6 silicon atoms.

Si
O2

O2
O2

Properties

Value || Z

Value Z

Temperature
Dependency

Thermal conductivity
(Cal/cm/sec/oC)
Relative permittivity
Density (Kg/m3)
Coefficient of thermal
expansion (ppm/oC)
Electrical resistivity (/cm)
Fracture strength (GPa)
Hardness (GPa)

29x10-3

16x10-3

with T

4.6
2.66x103
7.1

4.5
2.66x103
13.2

with T

0.1x1015
1.7
12

20x1015
1.7
12

with T
with T

with T

Quartz-Contd
Quartz is ideal material for sensors because of its extreme dimensional
stability.
It is used as piezoelectric material in many devices.
It is also excellent material for microfluics systems used in biomedical
applications.
It offers excellent electric insulation in microsystems.
A major disadvantage is its hard in machining. It is usually etched in
HF/NH4F into desired shapes.
Quartz wafers up to 75 mm diameter by 100 m thick are available
commercially.

Piezoelectric Crystals
Piezoelectric crystals are solid ceramic compounds that produce
piezoelectric effects:

Mechanical force induced

electric voltage

Induced Mechanical
Deformation
Applied Voltage, V

Mechanical
Forces

Electric voltage induced

mechanical deformation

Natural piezoelectric crystals are: quartz, tourmaline and sodium

potassium tartrate.
Synthesized crystals are: Rochelle salt, barium titanate and lead
zirconate.

Piezoelectric Crystals Contd

Induced Mechanical
Deformation
Applied Voltage, V

Mechanical
Forces

Mechanical force induced

electric voltage

Electric voltage induced

mechanical deformation

Mechanical strain by electric field:

=dV

Electric field by stress:

V=f

where = induced strain

d = piezoelectric coefficient
V = applied voltage, V/m

1
=E
fd

where V = generated voltage in

volts/m
= applied stress in Pa

Piezoelectric Crystals Contd

Piezoelectric coefficients:
Piezoelectric Crystals

Coefficient, d
(10-12 m/volt)

Electromechanical
conversion factor, K**

Quartz (crystal SiO2)

2.3

0.1

Barium titnate (BaTiO3)

100-190

0.49

Lead zirconate titanate, PZT

(PbTi1-xZrxO3)

480

0.72

PbZrTiO6

250

PbNb2O6

80

Rochelle salt
(NaKC4H4O6-4H2O)

350

Polyvinylidene fluorid, PVDF

18

**K 2 = Output

of
Input of

mechanical energy
electrical energy

or

0.78

K2

Output of electrical energy

Input of mechanical energy

Example 7.4
A thin piezoelectric crystal film, PZT is used to transduce the signal in a micro
accelerometer involving a cantilever beam made of silicon. The accelerometer
is design for maximum acceleration/deceleration of 10 g.
The PZT transducer is located at the support of the cantilever beam where the
maximum strain exists (near the support) during the bending of the beam
as illustrated below.
Determine the electrical voltage output from the PZT film at a maximum
acceleration/deceleration of 10 g.

PZT crystal
(see detail A)

A
A
1000 m

Mass:
m = 10 mg

2 m

10 m
50 m

View A-A

10
m

am
e
B

max
4

max
Detail A

th
g
len

Example 7.4 Contd

Solution:
Use Newtons 2nd law to find the equivalent dynamic force with an acceleration
of 10 g: Peq = ma = (10x10-6)x(10x9.81) =981x10-6 N
Peq

L = 1000 m

The maximum bending moment is:

Mmax = PeqL = (981x10-6)(1000x10-6) = 0.981x10-6 N-m and it occurs at the built-in end

The corresponding maximum stress is:

(0.981x10 6 )(25 x10 6 )
6 Pa
=
=
235
.
36
x
10
max =
I
(0.1042 x10 18 )
235.36 x10 6

5
max
m/m
=
=
=
123
.
87
x
10

max
and the maximum strain is:
11
E
1.9 x10
M max C

The voltage generated in the PZT piezoelectric crystal is:

max 123.87 x10 5
7
Volts/m
0
.
258
x
10
V= =
=
=
12
d
d
480 x10
or

v = Vl = (0.258x107)(4x10-6) = 10.32 volts

Example 7.5
Determine the required electric
voltage for ejecting a droplet of ink
from an inkjet printer head using PZT
piezoelectric crystal as a pumping
mechanism.
The ejected ink will have a resolution of
300 dpi (dots per inch). The ink droplet
is assumed to produce a dot with a film
thickness of 1 m on the paper.
The geometry and dimension of the
printer head is illustrated below.
Assume that the ink droplet takes a
shape of a sphere and the inkwell is
always re-filled after ejection.

Teflon
Coating

Piezoelectric
Actuator
2000 m
V

10 m

Inkwell

Ejection nozzle
diameter, d

Ink droplet:
Sphere with diameter, d
1 m

Dot on paper
D

Paper

Example 7.5 Contd

Teflon
Coating

Solution:
Determine the ejection nozzle diameter, d:

Piezoelectric
Actuator
2000 m
V

The diameter of the dot film on the paper is:

10 m

Inkwell

D = 1/300 inch = 0.084666 mm = 84.67 m

By equating the volumes of the dot sphere
the flat dot on the paper, we have:

4 3 2
r = D (t )
3
4

Ejection nozzle
diameter, d

Ink droplet:
Sphere with diameter, d

from which, we get the radius of the

dot, r = 11.04x10-6 m, with D = 84.7 m and t = 1 m

1 m

Dot on paper
D

Paper

Example 7.5 Contd

We assume that:
Volume of an ink droplet
leaving the ink well

Volume created by vertical

expansion of the PZT cover

Teflon
Coating

Piezoelectric
Actuator
2000 m
V

10 m

Inkwell

Let W = vertical expansion of the PZT cover

induced by the applied voltage, V
= diameter of the PZT cover = 2000 m

Ejection nozzle
diameter, d

Ink droplet:
Sphere with diameter, d
1 m

We will have:

Dot on paper
D

4 x5629.21x10 18
12
W =
=
=
1791
.
83
x
10
2 3.1416(2000 x10 6 ) 2
4 V dot

Paper

Example 7.5 Contd

The corresponding strain in the PZT
piezoelectric cover is:
=

W 1791.83x10
=
L
10 x10 6

12

Teflon
Coating

Piezoelectric
Actuator
2000 m
V

= 179.183x10 6 m/m

10 m

Inkwell

The piezoelectric coefficient of the PZT

crystal is d = 480x10-12 m/v, leading to
the required voltage to be:
179.183x10 6
6 volts/m
V= =
=
0
.
3733
x
10
d
480 x10 12

Ejection nozzle

or

)(

diameter, d

Ink droplet:
Sphere with diameter, d

v = LV = 10 x10 6 0.3733 x10 6 = 3.733 volts

1 m

Dot on paper
D

Paper

Polymers
What is polymer?
Polymers include: Plastics, adhesives, Plexiglass and Lucite.
Principal applications of polymers in MEMS:
Currently in biomedical applications and adhesive bonding.
New applications involve using polymers as substrates with
electric conductivity made possible by doping.
Molecular structure of polymers:
It is made up of long chains of organic (hydrocarbon) molecules.
The molecules can be as long as a few hundred nm.
Characteristics of polymers:
Low melting point; Poor electric conductivity
Thermoplastics and thermosets are common industrial products
Thermoplastics are easier to form into shapes.
Thermosets have higher mechanical strength even at temperature
up to 350oC.

Polymers as industrial materials

Polymers are popular materials used for many industrial products for the
following advantages:
Light weight
Ease in processing
Low cost of raw materials and processes for producing polymers
High corrosion resistance
High electrical resistance
High flexibility in structures
High dimensional stability

Polymers for MEMS and microsystems

(1) Photo-resist polymers are used to produce masks for creating desired
patterns on substrates by photolithography technique.
(2) The same photoresist polymers are used to produce the prime mold with
desirable geometry of the MEMS components in a LIGA process in micro
manufacturing.
(3) Conductive polymers are used as organic substrates for MEMS and
microsystems.
(4) The ferroelectric polymers that behave like piezoelectric crystals can be used
as the source of actuation in micro devices such as in micro pumping.
(5) The thin Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) films can be used to produce multilayer
microstructures.
(6) Polymers with unique characteristics are used as coating substance to
capillary tubes to facilitate effective electro-osmotic flow in microfluidics.
(7) Thin polymer films are used as electric insulators in micro devices,
and as dielectric substance in micro capacitors.
(8) They are widely used for electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio
frequency interference (RFI) shielding in microsystems.
(9) Polymers are ideal materials for encapsulation of micro sensors and
the packaging of other microsystems.

Conductive Polymers
Polymers are poor electric conducting materials by nature.
A comparison of electric conductivity of selected materials are:
Materials

Electric Conductivity, S/m*

Conductors:
Copper, Cu
Carbon

106-108
104

Semiconductors:
Germanium, Ge
Silicon

100
10-4-10-2

Insulators:
Glass
Nylon
SiO2
Polyethlene

10-10-10-8
10-14-10-12
10-16-10-14
10-16-10-14

* S/m = siemens per meter = -1 = A2-s3/Kg-m2

Conductive Polymers Contd

Some polymers can be made electrically conductive by the following
3 methods:
(1) Pyrolysis:

at 600oC

Pyropolymer-base
Phthalonitrile resin

Amine

Conductive polymer
as high as 2.7x104 S/m

(2) Doping:
Introducing metal atoms into molecular matrices of polymers

Conductive polymers

Polymers groups

Dopants

Polyacetylenes (PA)

Br2, I2, AsF5, HClO4 and H2SO4 for p-type

Sodium naphthalide in tetrahydrofuran for n-type

Polyparaphenylenes (PPP)

AsF5 for p-type; alkali metals for n-type

Polyphenylene sulfide (PPS)

AsF5

(3) Insertion of conductive fibers:

Fibers made of Au, Ag, stainless steel, aluminum fibers and flakes.

Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) films

The process was first introduced by Langmuir in 1917 and was later
refined by Blodgett. That was why it is called Langmuir-Blodgett
process, or LB films.
The process involves the spreading volatile solvent over the surface-active
substrate materials.
The LB process can produce more than one single monolayer by depositing
films of various compositions onto a substrate to produce a multilayer
structure.
LB films are good candidate materials for exhibiting ferro (iron)- , pyro (heat)and piezoelectric properties. LB films may also be produced with controlled
optical properties such as refractive index and anti reflections.
They are thus ideal materials for micro sensors and optoelectronic devices.

Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) films Contd

Following are a few examples of LB film applications in microsystems:
(1) Ferroelectric (magnetic) polymer thin films:
The one in particular is the Poly-vinylidene fluoride (PVDF).
Applications of this type of films include:
- Sound transducers in air and water,
- Tactile sensors,
- Biomedical applications such as tissue compatibility,
cardio-pulmonary sensors and implantable transducers
and sensors for prosthetics and rehabilitation devices.
As a piezoelectric source. The piezoelectric coefficient of PVDF is given
in Table 7-14.
(2) Coating materials with controllable optical properties:
Broadband optical fibers that transmit light at various wavelengths.

Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) films Contd

(3) Microsensors:
Many electrically conducting polymeric materials are sensitive to the
exposed gas and other environmental conditions. So they are suitable
materials for micro sensors.
Its ability of detecting specific substances relies on the reversible and
specific absorption of species of interest on the surface of the polymer
layer and the subsequent measurable change of conductivity of the polymer.
Gas Sample
Dielectric

Conductive
Polymer

Plastic
Encapsulant
p-Silicon Substrate

A gas sensor:
Electrical conductivity changes
with absorption of the exposed
gas.

SU-8 Photoresists
It is a negative epoxy-based polymer sensitive to UV light ( = 350-400 nm)
It is used for thin-film production with thickness from 1 m to 2 mm
Reasons for it being popular in MEMS:
Can be built to thick films for 3-D MEMS structures (aspect ratio to 50)
Much lower production costs than thick films by silicon
It is commercially available in liquid form
SU-8 films can be produced by a spin-process:
Dispenser
Resist
puddle

Resist
spray
Wafer Catch cup

Edge
bead

Photoresist
Wafer

Vacuum
chuck

Vacuum chuck
Spinner
motor
To drain &
exhaust

Film thickness
(micrometer)

To vacuum
pump

SU8-100

SU8-50

250
200
150
100
50
0
1000

1500

2000

2500

Spin speed (rpm)

3000

Mechanical Properties of SU-8 Polymer

Youngs modulus

4400 MPa

Poissons ratio

0.22

Viscosity

0.06 Pa-s (40% SU-8 60% solvent)

1.50 Pa-s (60% SU-8 40% solvent)
15.0 Pa-s (70% SU-8 30% solvent)

Coefficient of thermal expansion*

0.183 ppm /oC

Thermal conductivity

0.073 W/cm-oC

Glass transition temperature

200oC

Reflective index

1.8 at 100 GHz

1.7 at 1.6 THz

Absorption coefficient

2/cm at 100 GHZ

40/cm a 1.6 THz

Relative dielectric constant

3 at 10 MHz

Source: Guerin 2005.

* in comparison to 2.33 ppm/oC for silicon

Typical Process Flow for Constructing SU-8 Films

(1)

Substrate
treatment

(2)

(e.g. silicon wafer, washed inH2SO4

+H2O2, baked at 200oC for 5 min)

(4)

Exposure to
UV light

(required time by supplier)

(7)

Rinse
& dry

(in de-ionized water)

(5)

(3)

Spin-coating
SU-8 photoresist

Soft
bake

(spin @ desired speed for 30 s)

Post expose
bake

(6)

(following instruction by supplier)

(8)

Hard
bake
(@150-200oC)

Develop
SU-8 photoresist
(in chemical
solvent)

(9)

SU-8 film
removal

(in special liquid bath, or laser

ablation, and pyrolosis, or as
instructed by the supplier)

Packaging Materials
Unlike IC packaging in which plastic or ceramic are extensively used as
encapsulate materials for the delicate IC circuits, MEMS packaging
involve a great variety of materials-varying from plastic and polymers
to stainless steel, as can be seen in a specially packaged micro
pressure sensor:
Cylindrical metal casing
Metal wires
& pad

Square silicon die

Adhesive die bond

SiO2 insulator
Pyrex glass
Constraint base

Metal interconnect pins