Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION
Pond Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism
communities and the nonliving environment, interacting as a functional unit.
Remember that the organisms living in an ecosystem are broken down into
categories: producers, consumers,and decomposers.
A pond is a quiet body of water that is too small for wave action and too shallow
for major temperature differences from top to bottom. It usually has a muddy or
silty bottom with aquatic plants around the edges and throughout. However, it is
often difficult to classify the differences between a pond and a lake, since the two
terms are artificial and the ecosystems really exist on a continuum. Generally, in a
pond, the temperature changes with the air temperature and is relatively uniform.
Lakes are similar to ponds, but because they are larger, temperature layering or
stratification takes place in summer and winter, and these layers turnover in spring
and fall. Ponds get their energy from the sun. As with other ecosystems, plants are
the primary producers. The chlorophyll in aquatic plants captures energy from the
sun to convert carbon dioxide and water to organic compounds and oxygen through

the process of photosynthesis. Nitrogen and phosphorus are important nutrients

for plants. The addition of these substances may increase primary productivity.
However, too many nutrients can cause algal blooms, leading to eutrophication
(Read Ponds & Eutrophication for more information).

Producers
Phytoplankton, literally wandering plants, are microscopic algae that float in
the open water and give it a green appearance. They carry out photosynthesis using
carbon dioxide that is dissolved in the water and release oxygen that is used by the
bacteria and animals in the pond. Phytoplankton are not actually plants-they are
protists!

Periphytic algae are microscopic algae that attach themselves to substrates

and give the rocks and sticks a greenish brown slimy appearance. They also
carry outphotosynthesis and produce oxygen, often near the bottom of the
pond where it can be used by decomposers.

 Submerged plants grow completely under water

Floating plants include plants that float on the surface and plants that are
rooted on the bottom of the pond but have leaves and/or stems that float.
Emergent plants are rooted in shallow water but their stems and leaves are
above water most of the time.
Shore plants grow in wet soil at the edge of the pond. Consumers
Zooplankton are microscopic animals that eat phytoplankton or smaller
zooplankton. Some are single-celled animals, tiny crustaceans, or tiny
immature stages of larger animals. Zooplankton float about in the open
water portions of the pond and are important food for some animals.
Invertebrates include all animals without backbones. Macro invertebrates
are big enough to be seen with the naked eye. Some of them are only found
in clean water.
Vertebrates are animals with backbones. In a pond these might include fish,
frogs, salamanders, and turtles. Decomposers Animal waste and dead and
decaying plants and animals form detritus on the bottom of the pond.

Decomposers
Animal waste and dead and decaying plants and animals form detritus on the
bottom of the pond. Decomposers, also known as detritovores, are bacteria and
other organisms that break down detritus into material that can be used by primary
producers,

thus returning the detritus to the ecosystem. As this material

decomposes it can serve as a food resource for microbes and
invertebrates. During decay microbes living on detritus can pull
nutrients from the overlying water thus acting to improve water
quality.In the process of breaking down detritus, decomposers
produce water and carbon dioxide.

A pond is a body of standing water, either natural or artificial, that is usually

smaller than a lake. They may arise naturally in floodplains as part of a river
system, or they may be somewhat isolated depressions (examples include vernal
pools and prairie potholes). Usually they contain shallow water with marsh and
aquatic plants and animals. A few animals also make their home in ponds,
including both alligators and beavers. The type of life in a pond is generally
determined by a combination of factors including water level regime (particularly
depth and duration of flooding) and nutrient levels, but other factors may also be
important, including presence or absence of shading by trees, presence or absence
of streams, effects of grazing animals, and salinity.
Ponds are frequently human-constructed. In country side farmers and villagers dig
a pond in their backyard or increase the depth of an existing pond by removing
layers of mud during summer season. A wide variety of artificial bodies of water

are classified as ponds. Some ponds are created specifically for habitat restoration,
including water treatment. Others, like water gardens, water features and koi ponds
are designed for aesthetic ornamentation as landscape or architectural
features. Fish ponds are designed for commercial fish breeding, and solar ponds
designed to store thermal energy.
Standing bodies of water such as puddles, ponds, and lakes are often categorized
separately from flowing water courses, such as a brook, creek, stream or river.
Nutrient levels and water quality in ponds can be controlled through natural
process such as algal growth, or through artificial filtration, such as an algae
scrubber.

Technical definitions
A small artificial garden pond at theTaj Lake Palace in Udaipur, India
The technical distinction between a pond and a lake has not been universally
standardized. Limnologists and freshwater

biologists have

proposed

formal

definitions for pond, in part to include 'bodies of water where light penetrates to the
bottom of the waterbody,' 'bodies of water shallow enough for rooted water plants
to grow throughout,' and 'bodies of water which lack wave action on the shoreline.'
Each of these definitions has met with resistance or disapproval, as the defining
characteristics are each difficult to measure or verify. Accordingly, some

organizations

and

researchers

have

settled

on

technical

definitions

of pond and lake which rely on size alone.

Even among organizations and researchers who distinguish lakes from
ponds by size alone, there is no universally recognised standard for the maximum
size of a pond. The international Ramsar wetland convention sets the upper limit
for pond size as 8 hectares (20 acres),but biologists have not universally adopted
this convention. Researchers for the British charity Pond Conservation have
defined a pond to be 'a man-made or natural water body which is between 1 m 2 and
20,000 m2 in area (2 ha or ~5 acres), which holds water for four months of the year
or more.' Other European biologists have set the upper size limit at 5 ha (12 acres).
In practice, a body of water is called a pond or a lake on an individual basis, as
conventions change from place to place and over time. In North America, even
larger bodies of water have been called ponds; for example, Walden
Pond in Concord, Massachusetts measures 61 acres (25 ha), nearby Spot Pond is
340 acres (140 ha), while in between is Crystal Lake at 33 acres (13 ha). There are
numerous examples in other states of bodies of water less than 10 acres (4.0 ha)
being called lakes. As the case with Crystal Lake shows, marketing purposes may
be the driving factor behind some names.

Formation

Ponds can result from a wide range of natural processes. Any depression in the
ground which collects and retains a sufficient amount of precipitation can be
considered a pond, and such depressions can be formed by a variety of geological
and ecological events. Rivers often leave behind ponds in natural flood plains after
spring flooding, and these can be very important to breeding fish, particularly in
large river systems like the Amazon. Retreating glaciers can leave behind
landscapes filled with small depressions, each developing its own pond; an
example is the Prairie Pothole Region of North America. Many areas of landscape
contain small depressions which form temporary ponds after spring snow melt, or
during rainy seasons; these are called vernal ponds, and may be important sites
for amphibian breeding. Some ponds are created by animals. Beaver ponds are the
best known example, but alligators also excavate ponds as well. In landscapes with
organic soils, fires can also create depressions during periods of drought; these
become open water when normal water levels return.

Characteristics
During the last thirty years of his life, the main focus of Claude Monet'sartistic
production was a series of about 250 oil paintings depicting the lily pond in his
flower garden One of the most important features of ponds is the presence of
standing water, which provides habitat for wetland plants and animals. Familiar
examples might include water-lilies, frogs, turtles and herons. Often, the entire

margin of the pond is fringed by wetland, and these wetlands support the aquatic
food web, provide shelter for wildlife, and stabilize the shore of the pond. Some
grazing animals like geese and muskrats consume the wetland plants directly as a
source of food. In many other cases, however, the pond plants fall into the water
and decay. A large number of invertebrates then feed on the decaying plants, and
these invertebrates provide food for wetland species including fish, dragonflies and
herons. The open water may allow algae to grow, and these algae may support yet
another food web that includes aquatic insects and minnows. A pond, therefore,
may have combinations of three different food webs, one based on larger plants,
one based upon decayed plants, and one based upon algae. Hence, ponds often
have a large number of different animal species using the wide array of food
sources. They therefore provide an important source of biological diversity in
landscapes.
Vernal ponds are ponds which dry up for part of the year. Naturally occurring
vernal ponds do not usually have fish. They are called vernal ponds because they
are typically at their peak depth in the spring ("vernal" means to do with the
spring). The absence of fish is a very important characteristic, since it provides
amphibians with breeding locations free from predation by fish. Hence,
introducing fish to a pond can have serious detrimental consequences. In some
parts of the world, such as California, the vernal ponds have rare and endangered

plant species. On the coastal plain, they provide habitat for endangered frogs such
as the Mississippi Gopher Frog.

Conservation and Management

Ponds, being small, are easily disrupted by human activity such as hikers. Drainage
of ponds is a frequent problem in agricultural areas, such as in the prairie potholes
of North America. Although ponds are a useful source of water for cattle,
overgrazing and wading can turn a pond into a muddy hole. Nutrient sources such
as fertilized pastures, human sewage, and even lawn fertilizer can cause explosive
growth of algae, and the loss of rooted plants and many other aquatic species.
Roads near ponds can kill large numbers of amphibians and turtles that may
migrate to and from the pond as part of their annual breeding cycle. Many wellintentioned people introduce fish to ponds, being unaware that some species of fish
eat aquatic plants, stir up sediment and eat the young of amphibians and many
invertebrate species. The gentle slope of land into ponds also provides an expanse
of habitat for wetland plants and wet meadows. The construction of retaining walls,
or lawns, can severely degrade the life in a pond.
In some landscapes, ponds are artificially constructed, perhaps to provide wildlife
viewing opportunities, or to treat wastewater, or as part of a golf course. The
design of a pond determines how productive it will be for wildlife. In general,
gently sloping shorelines with broad expanses of wetland plants not only provide
the best conditions for wildlife, but they help protect water quality from sources in

the surrounding landscapes. It is also beneficial to allow water levels to fall each
year during drier periods. Roads and houses should be kept as far away as possible.
Another important way to add ponds back into landscapes is to restore rivers so
that they can flood and meander to create large numbers of natural ponds,
including vernal pools and wetlands, in river valleys.

Nomenclature

In origin, pond is a variant form of the word pound, meaning a confining

enclosure. As straying cattle are enclosed in a pound so water is enclosed in a
pond. In earlier times, ponds were artificial and utilitarian; as stew ponds, mill
ponds and so on. The significance of this feature seems, in some cases, to have
been lost when the word was carried abroad with emigrants. In the United States,
natural pools are often called ponds. Ponds for a specific purpose keep the
adjective, such as "stock pond", used for watering livestock.
Pond usually implies a quite small body of water, generally smaller than one would
require a boat to cross. Another definition is that a pond is a body of water where
even its deepest areas are reached by sunlight or where a human can walk across
the entire body of water without being submerged. In some dialects of English,
pond normally refers to small artificially created bodies of water.

Some regions of the United States define a pond as a body of water with a surface
area of less than 10 acres (4.0 ha). Minnesota, known as the 'land of 10,000 lakes'
is commonly said to distinguish lakes from ponds, bogs and other water features by
this definition, but also says that a lake is distinguished primarily by wave action
reaching the shore.

Pond in winter
The term is also used for temporary accumulation of water from surface
runoff (ponded water).
There are various regional names for naturally occurring ponds. In Scotland, one of
the terms is lochan, which may also apply to a large body of water such as a lake.
In North American prairies, they may be termed playas.

Uses
Globally, the most important service provided by a pond, at many scales, is the
production of fish and other wildlife. These are often also a source of food for
humans, as well as an important source of recreation. At the same time, these
ponds help maintain water quality by recycling nutrients.
In the Indian subcontinent, Hindu temples usually have a pond nearby so that
pilgrims can take baths. These ponds are considered sacred.

In medieval times in India, it was typical for many monastery and castles (small,
partly self-sufficient communities) to have fish ponds. These are still common in
India and in East Asia , where koi may be kept.
Waste stabilization ponds are used as a low-cost method for wastewater treatment.
In agriculture, treatment ponds may reduce nutrients released downstream from the
pond. They may also provide irrigation reservoirs at times of drought.

Chapter-2

LITERATURE REVIEW
Aquatic ecosystem, whether it is lentic or lotic, is one of the valuable natural
resource is whose quality has a vital concern for human welfare, socioeconomic
development and distribution of aquatic organisms. In general, fresh water bodies
include diverse types which include ponds, pools, streams, rivers, etc. In fact, such
freshwater bodies are of immense importance as they not only produce potable
water and fodder but also ensure the stability of the microclimate of the area,
ground water recharge, generating employment by boosting tourism, fisheries,
recreation, etc. (Parray et al., 2010) As a matter of fact freshwater resources all
across the globe are under sustained anthropogenic pressure owing to demotechnic
growth. The contamination of such biotypes with acute concentrations of pollutants
is the outcome of dumping of domestic, agricultural, municipal and industrial
waste into these ponds (Srivastava et al., 2003; Khan and Shah, 2004, Chowdyary
and Al Manur, 2006; Hassan and Paul, 2007; Zuber and Sharma, 2007). Since
water is the basic necessity of life such resources need to be managed for human
survival(Gupta and Deshpande, 2004).
Aquatic ecosystems are very productive ecosystems which help in the regulation of
biological cycles, maintenance of water quality, nutrient movement and support of
food chains. In addition they provide refuge for endangered species of plants and

animals and economic benefits such as fish breeding (Mini et al., 2003). The health
of lakes and their biological diversity are directly related to the health of almost
every component of ecosystem (Ramesh et al., 2007). The ecological status of
water bodies is assessed by the physical, chemical and biological characters
(Anand and Sharma, 2000; Shastri and Pendse, 2001). Considerable information
are available on the role of physio-chemical character of Indian freshwater bodies
(Prasad et al., 1985; Bhatt et al., 1999; Shanthi et al., 2003; Khan et al., 2007; and
Rajasulochana et al., 2008). Parameters such as temperature, pH, dissolved
oxygen, alkalinity, carbondi oxide, macro and micro nutrients and few heavy
metals are also involved in the assessment of water quality. Khare et al. (2007)
studied the water quality of natural water and he reported that pond water could be
substituted for the purpose of drinking by proper treatments. In several cases pond
water remains coloured due to the presence oforganic matter, mixing of effluents
and iron compounds (Reshma and Prakasam,2007). In general, water quality index
is used to assess the quality of water in theaquatic ecosystem. Ayyappan and Gupta
(1981) made a study on the perennial pond and pointed out a significant correlation
between plankton communities and physico-chemical parameters. In and around
Kashmir area, Yousuf and Shah (1988) made a study on Limnology. The water
quality of Thiruvannamalai, Tamilnadu was assessed by Ramakrishna et al. (1991).
Seasonal dynamics of physico-chemical parameters in a high attitude freshwater

pond in Tamilnadu was studied by Rao et al. (1993). There are several reports on
the environmental factors which affect the water quality (Singh, 1995; Jain et al.,
1996 and Kumar, 1997).
Ecological significance and biological characteristic features of freshwater bodies
in Mysore were highlighted by Bhatt et al. (1999). Jha and Barat (2003) studied the
hydrobiological characters of Minik lake at Darjeeling. Diurnal variation in the
water quality of Ayyanakere lake, the Western Ghats region of Chikmangalore,
Karnataka was studied by Thirumala et al. (2006).
Shamal and Balasingh (2007) also pointed out the diurnal variation of a tropical
pond. Seasonal variation of different nutrients in the Sullur pond at Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu was studied by Dhanalakshmi et al. (2008). She found high
temperature and dark brownish green colour of the water during the month
ofOctober 2002. The dissolved oxygen concentration of the water determines the
water quality and domestic waste mixing in ponds, streams and river systems
reduces the oxygen control. The different parameters of water quality around
Jaipur were studied by Srivastava et al. (2003). Water quality index was reported
from a wetland of degraded area by Chaulya et al. (2002). The biological oxygen
demand and dissolved oxygen content of a fresh water lake Bodhan, Andra was
reported by Solanki et al. (2007). The dumping of waste into the streams, ponds
and river systems accumulated enormously, causing pollution and damaging the

aquatic ecosystem was observed by Murugesan et al. (2003). The fluoride

concentration in the waters of north India was highlighted by Thakare et al. (2005).
Limnological studies with reference to water quality and plankton studies were
carried out byBais et al. (1997). Plankton communities and water quality
parameters withrespect to seasons were reported by Govindasamy et al. (2007).
In general, stagnant water bodies possess more unique features than running water
bodies. Prasad (2006) and Ranjan et al. (2007) pointed out the salient features of
Ghariyarwa pond of Birganj at Nepal. The water quality of Kalol city in Gujarat
was studied by Prajapati and Raol (2008).
The impact of urbanization on Bellandur lake Bangalore was reported by
Chandrasekhar et al. (2003). Abiotic factors of a freshwater pond in Kerala were
highlighted by Radhika et al. (2004). Solanki et al. (2007) studied the role of
dissolved oxygen and BOD of Bodhan lake. Water quality assessment of Khumph
Nimars lake at Madhya Pradesh was studied by Khare et al. (2007). Seasonal
variation, hydrographic parameters and distribution of nutrients were reported from
Veli Akkulam lake complex by Jacob et al. (2008). The hydrobiological
parameters of Unkal lake at Hubli were studied by Ansari and Fareed (2006).
Much work has been carried out on the physico-chemical characteristic features of
water qualityby experts like Dwivedi and Pandey (2002), Jeyaraman et al. (2003),
Ravishankar et al. (2006) Raveen et al. (2008), Jose et al. (2008) and Bindiya et al.

(2008). The hydrobiological parameters of Lonar lake water were observed by

Pawar (2010). In general the physico-chemical parameters of a pond or lake
depend upon the shape, size, topographic changes, biological community and
ropogenic activities (Adeyemo et al., 2008). Ramadasu and Sivakumar
(2010)pointed out the seasonal variation and water quality parameters in Perumal
lake, Tamilnadu. Chinnaiah and Rao (2011) reported the physico-chemical
characteristics of Pakhal and Ramappa lakes in Andhra Pradesh, India. The role of
sediment in assessing the water quality of fresh water ecosystem is an important
factor. It was reported that the bottom soil depends upon the pond age (Boyd,
1995). The sediment characteristic features of a freshwater body at Mangalore
were reported by Trivedi and Gupta (1999). Seasonal variation in physico-chemical
features of bottom soil of Lacustrine habitats of Jammu was reported by Anand and
Sharma (2000). The availability of metals and concentration of heavy metals in the
sediment were studied by Campbell and Tessier (1991) and Shanthi et al. (2003).
The qualities of sediment and pollution caused by them were highlighted by
Mohanraj et al. (2000).
The concentration of nutrient sources in the sediment and their impacts were
reported from Varuna river system by Agarwal et al. (2000). The phosphate
concentration in the bottom sediment was analysed by Sodergaard et al. (2003) and
Hupfer et al. (2004). The role of soil sediment in determining the productivity of

pond is well documented by Adhikari (2003). In any aquatic body primary

productivity gives information relating to the amount of energy available to
support the bioactivity of the system. Primary productivity of ponds is adversely
affected by anthropogenic activities which serve as an important tool and a
biological phenomenon in studying the effect. Productivity of the lake depends on
the plankton biomass. Environmental conditions, different concentrations of
nutrients and dissolved matters in the water bodies affect the diversity and the
physicochemical properties of water (Kumar, 1997). Several studies were carried
out on seasonal variation and productivity of various aquatic ecosystems (Pandey
et al.,1994).
Aquatic ecosystems like ponds, streams and rivers receiving enormous quantities
of waste materials from the surrounding areas, which carry sediments with heavy
metals. They are getting more attention due to their non-degradable nature and
causing deleterious effect on the biological systems. Power plants, thermal and
leather industries, fertilizer sources resulted in adverse effect and serious problems
to the environment specially to human beings (De, 2002). Though some of the
metals like Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Zn, etc. are essential micronutrients for life, metals like
Cd, Cr, Pb, Hg have no effect on physiological activity and they are proved to be
detrimental beyond a certain limit (Tharadevi and Santhakumari, 2005). Several
diseases are caused by some of the heavy metal accumulation in human bodies.

Therefore, safety assessment of aquatic ecosystems is important forthe human

health.
All aquatic ecosystems are provided with planktons which are microscopic,
cosmopolitan in distribution and play a prominent role as feed, food, agriculture
and as vitamin sources. Phytoplankton functions as the primary producers in the
food chain and fixing solar energy into Vitamin D. Moreover, it reoxygenates the
water, when they are growing and mainly used as food and feed to the aquatic
organisms in aquaculture field. There are two major groups, i.e. phytoplankton and
zooplankton (Venkateswarlu, 2006). Phytoplankton, the microscopic floating algae,
increase its growth in the aquatic ecosystem with sufficient nutrient and suitable
ecological conditions which play an important role in their availability and
abundance. It results in increased fish production (Shah, 2000). Their role in food
web is to provide proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals and vitamins to other
organisms. Reynold and Joworcki (1981) reported that the phytoplankton
community changes with the change in the environmental condition such as
nutrient levels, light intensity, temperature, predators and the type of water sources.
Majority of phytoplankton comprises the algal groups like Chlorophyceae,
Bacillariophyceae, Cyanophyceae, Dinophyceae and Eugeophycean (Mini et
al.,2003).

From the very earlier periods a host of workers have stated the influence of
nutrients and physico-chemical factors on algal diversity (Chaturvedi and Iqbal,
1995; Harikrishnan et al., 1999 and Huszar et al., 2006). The growth of algae in
sugar factory waste was reported by Jawale and Kumawat (2000). The
phytoplankton of lentic system in relation with the environmental factors have
been reported by Pandey et al. (2000). The diversity studies of algae in river Ganga
at Kanpur was reported by Tiwari et al. (2001). Chlorococeales, one among the
order of chlorophyceae was reported from the foot hills of Kumaon, Himalayas by
Habib (2001). Habib and Chaturvedi (2001) listed the desmids of the Himalayas.
Mahadev and Hosmani (2002) studied the phytoplankton in the two lakes of
Mysore city. The micro flora of a freshwater tank in Bangalore was reported by
Sukumaran (2002). The diversity studies on phytoplankton in Tiruvannamalai and
the relationship with environmental factors were carried out by Ramakrishnan et
al. (2000). Limnological studies on algae in Anar river of Maharashtra,
Vamanapuram and Karamana rivers in Kerala and their relationship with physicochemical parameters were reported by Subramani (2007). The freshwater algae
from Pashan lake was studied by Zaware and Pingle (2003). The growth of green
algae on distillery water was observed by Mohan et al. (2003). Murugesan et al.
(2003) studied the phytoplankton diversity on Porur lake. Misra et al. (2004) made
a report on the planktonic algae from Uttar Pradesh. The diversity of

Chlorophycean members was reported by Reshmi (2004) from the wet lands of
Satna. Fresh wateralgal diversity from various rivers and reservoirs was studied by
earlier workers.
Pingle and Deshmukh (2005) studied the algal biodiversity of Wilson dam. River
Punzara of Maharashtra was studied by More et al. (2005). Subha and Chandran
(2005) and Jose et al. (2008) studied the algal diversity of temple ponds.
Environmental paremeters in relation to algal bloom were reported by Mishra
(2007). Limnological and diversity studies were carried out in a tropical lake
Ayyanekere at Karnataka by Kiran et al. (2005). Several workers reported the
diversity, nutrient analysis and primary productivity of freshwater ecosystems
(Angadi et al., 2005; Tiwari and Shukla, 2007). Algal flora of Udaipur city at
Rajasthan was examined by Rathore et al. (2006). Esther and Shylaja (2006)
reported the algal distribution in a damp well at Osmania University College for
Women at Koti. Tiwari and Shukla (2007) highlighted the phytoplankton
composition, community structure and climate conditions of two tropical ponds in
India. Diversity studies and algal flora from different regions of freshwater
ecosystem were reported by several workers (John and Francis, 2007, Zacharias
and Joy, 2007; Tiwari and Chauhan, 2007; Mishra, 2007; Govindasamy et al.,
2007; Girijakumari and Abraham, 2007). The algal diversity in relations to factors

such as pH, temperature, light intensity, alkalinity along with micro nutrients of
Sunumbu Kalathour lake at Rajasthan was studied by Rajasulochana et al. (2008).
Several variation and nutrients were reported by Jacob et al. (2008), Tessy and
Srikumar (2008) and Sawant and Telave (2009). Much information was published
about the physico-chemical parameters, nutrient analysis along with planktonic
communities throughout India (Jawale and Patil, 2009; Misra et al., 2009; Bhagat
and Gupta, 2009 and Khanna and Yadav, 2009). Limnological parameters
including phytoplankton diversities in the different lakes of India were pointed out
by Ali et al. (2010), Mohar and Beena (2010) and Chakraborthy et al. (2010).
Algal diversity in a group of fifteen small lakes of Narasipur taluk, Mysore district
was highlighted by Umamaheswari (2011).
The phytoplankton studies were carried out by several researchers from other
countries also. Limnological studies and plankton abundance of Aksu Stream from
Turkey were studied by Ertan and Morkoyanlu (1998). The physico-chemical
parameters and phytoplankton diversity was reported by Ali et al. (2000) from
Pakistan. Leghari et al. (2001) highlighted the importance of filamentous green
algae from the reservoir of Sindh, in Pakistan. Nazmeen (2004) reported the
influence of hydro biological factors based on seasonal influences. Efe (2002)
studied the limnological features of water resources in Nigeria. The ecological
studies and taxonomical report of phytoplankton in shallow lakes in Turkey were

observed by Tas and Gonnol (2007). The diversity of phytoplankton and bloom
management in some freshwater bodies of Argentina was studied by Chalar (2009).
Akoma and Imoobe (2009) reported the diversity of phytoplankton from the lake
Tana of Ethiopia. Ehiagbonare and Ogunrinde (2010) has reported tha
physicochemical characters of a fish pond in Nigeria. A comparative study of the
algal composition and abundance of a lake and pond in Virginia was done out by
Burchardt and Marshall (2003). Limnological parameters and phytoplankton
dynamics of Nguru lake, one of the biggest lake in Nigeria, was analysed by
Indabawa (2009). He studied the monthly variation, phytoplankton periodicity,
nutrient levels, temperature changes, pH responsibility and transparency of the
lake. Moreover, six algal groups such as Cyanophyta, Chlorophyta, Euglenophyta,
Bacillariophyta, Dinophypta and Cryptophyta were also observed by him. Ali et al.
(2003) studied the biodiversity changes with reference to seasonal variation in
Punjab, Pakistan. He observed Chlorophyta, as the dominant group during summer.
Pond aquaculture, ecology of fresh waters, seasonal variations and physicochemical characteristics of mixed water were studied out by Mason (1991).
In several freshwater ecosystems eutrophication was formed Chlorophycean
members, diatoms and Cyanophycean members. Genus like Chlorococcum,
Scenedesmus, Chlorella, Navicula, Nitzchia, Spirulina, Microcystis and Anabaena
were observed as bloom forming algae. Karibasappa et al. (2009) observed the

different eutrophication levels in the lakes of Hosur. Different nutrient

concentrations in ponds, specially nitrate and phosphate contents, induced blooms
(Nandan and Patil, 1992). Mohan et al. (2003) reported that the formation of
blooms was mainly by sewage mixing. Eutrophication results in the replacement of
algal growth. By the excessive release of pollutants from organic waste,
agricultural runoff, industrial dumping and by other human activities adversely
affect the functioning of aquatic systems, making them imbalanced (Gupta and
Chakrapani, 2007). Algae such as Microcystis and Anabaena produce noxious
blooms in polluted water that tastes bad with unpleasant odour. Microcystis
aeroginosa was reported as a common bloom forming microalgae (Chalar, 2009).
Blooms indicate the tropical status of the water body (Zutschi 1976 and Johnson et
al., 2003). The distribution, abundance, species composition and species diversity
studies of the phytoplankton are used to assess the biological integrity of the water
body. A good number of indices were reported on species composition, seasonal
variation, pollution levels and trophic level of freshwater ecosystem (Nygaard,
1949; Shannon and Wiener, 1949; Palmer, 1969; Odum, 1971). Among the algal
groups Chlorophyta or green algae gained much importance as source of food and
feed to human beings as well as in the field of aquaculture.
Green algal diversity studies were carried out by several researchers. Murugesan
and Sivasubramanian (2008) observed the freshwater green algae from Porur lake.

A good account of Chlorophyta was published by Krishnamurthy (2000),

Deshmukh and Pingle (2006) and Sanap et al. (2008) made a report on the green
algal members from the river Godavari at Nashik of Maharashtra. Geeta and
Kerkar (2009) studied the green algal flora from Parsen (Goa). Since Chlorophyta
includes several orders, individual studies were also made by several researchers.

The rare chlorophycean members of river Yamma at Agra were reported by Tiwari
and Chauhan (2007). Vidyavathi (2007) made a study on the distribution and
biodiversity of desmids from freshwater ecosystems. Habib and Chaturvedi (2001)
studied the diversity of desmids from Kunam in Himalayas and Agra city. Naskar
and Naskar (2007) observed the members under the order Ulotricales in West
Bengal. Desmukh and Gundle (2007) observed the members of Chlorococcales
from Maharashtra. From the three freshwater bodies of Mysore city Mruthunjaya
et al. (2007) made a thorough study on the Chlorococcales members. The
pesticidal effects, taxonomical approaches, and antibacterial studies were studied
in the genus like Cladophora, Microsterias and Oedogonium were made
(Aseervadam and Vidyavati, 2007; Tessy and Sreekumar, 2007 and Dhande and
Jawale, 2008).
The distribution of Volvocales in Maharashtra was reported by Jawale et al. (2010).
In an aquatic ecosystem, physico-chemical parameters and quality of nutrients play

a significant role in the distribution pattern and species composition of plankton.

The penetration of light, temperature, salinity, pH, hardness, phosphate and nitrate
are the important factors for the growth and density of phytoplankton on which
zooplankton are higher consumer depend for their existence (Mohar et al.,2009).
A good management practice is essential for all aquatic ecosystems. Within the
past decade, there has been considerable interest in the relevance of limnological
information in the productivity, development and management of aquatic
environments (Vereshkumar and Hosmani, 2006; Tiwari and Shukla,2007).
In Bareilly district few reports were available on the diversity of phytoplankton.
Ida (2005) studied the limnology of some perennial water bodies. Species of
Oscillatoria, Chroococcus and Euglena were reported in a ephemeral pond of
Bareilly district (Shamal and Balasingh, 2007). A perennial pond diversity study
was carried out by Balasingh and Shamal (2007) with special reference to species
richness index. Seasonal abundance and phytoplankton diversity in a sacred grove
pond of the district was reported by Kavitha and Balasingh (2007). The green algae
Oedogonium echinospernum was used to remove toxic metals and reported as a
biological filter system from the aquatic environment by Prakash and Balasingh
(2008). Phytoplankton diversity and seasonal abundance of a perennial pond in
Bareilly district was highlighted by Balasingh (2010). In all the ponds the diversity

of Chlorophycean members remain different in this district and researchers have

shown more interest in the field of Phycology.

Chapter-3

MATERIAL AND METHODS