L14 PPT IVSem

Lecture- 14
File
Structures
Sequential Files,
Indexed Sequential Files
OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, we should
be able to:
Understand the file access methods.
methods.
Describe the characteristics of a sequential file.
file.
Describe the characteristics of an indexed file.
file.
Describe the characteristics of a hashed file.
file.
Distinguish between a text file and a binary file
file..
File
Fil
A file is an external collection of related data
treated as a unit.
Files
Fil are stored
t d iin auxiliary/secondary
ili /
d
storage devices.
Disk
Tapes
A file is a collection of data records with

each record consisting
g of one or more fields.
13.1
ACCESS
METHODS
Figure 13-1
Taxonomy of file structures
The access method
determines how records can be retrieved:

sequentially
ti ll or randomly.
d l
One record after another,

from beginning to end
Access one specific record

without having to retrieve all records before it
SEQUENTIAL
FILES
Figure 13-2
Sequential file
Sequential file
records can only
onl be accessed sequentially,
seq entiall
one after another, from beginning to end.
Program 13.1
13 1 Processing records in a sequential file
While Not EOF
{
Read the next record
Process the record
}
A li ti
Applications
Applications
that need to access all records from beginning to end.
Personal
information
Because you have to process each record,

sequential
q
access is more efficient and easier than
random access.
Sequential file is not efficient for random access.
Updating sequential files
sequential files must be updated periodically to

reflect changes
g in information.
The updating process
all of the records need to be checked and updated
(if necessary) sequentially
sequentially.
New Master File
Old Master File
Transaction
T
i Fil
File
contains changes to be applied to the master file.
Add transaction
D l t ttransaction
Delete
ti
Change transaction
A key is one or more fields that uniquely identify the data in the file.
Error
Report File
Updating a sequential file
Updating sequential files
To make updating process efficient, all files are

sorted on the same key
key.
The update process requires that you compare :
[transaction file key] vs.
vs [old master file key]
<
: add transaction to new master

= :
>
Change content of master file data (transaction code = R(revise) )

Remove data from master file (transaction code = D(delete) )
: write
it old
ld master
t fil
file record
d tto new master
t fil
file
(transaction code = A(add) )
Updating process
INDEXED
FILES
Mapping in an indexed file
To access a record in a file randomly,

y
you need to know the address of the record.
An index file can relate the key to the record address.
Indexed files
An index file is made of a data file, which is a sequential file,

and an index.
Index a small file with only two fields:
To access a record in the file :

1.
2
2.
3.
4.
The key of the sequential file

The address of the corresponding record on the disk
disk.
Load the entire index file into main memory.
S
Search
h the
th iindex
d fil
file to
t find
fi d th
the d
desired
i d kkey.
Retrieve the address the record.
Retrieve the data record. (using the address)
Inverted file
yyou can have more than one index,, each with a different key.
y
i
inverted
t d file
fil
A file that reorganizes the structure of an existing data file to enable

a rapid search to be made for all records having one field falling
within set limits.
For example, a file used by an estate agent might store records on

each house for sale, using a reference number as the key field for
sorting. One field in each record would be the asking price of the
house To speed up the process of drawing up lists of houses falling
house.
within certain price ranges, an inverted file might be created in which
the records are rearranged according to price. Each record would
consist of an asking price, followed by the reference numbers of all
the houses offered for sale at this approximate price
price.
Logical view of an indexed file
HASHED
FILES
Mapping
pp g in a hashed file
A hashed file uses a hash function to map the key to the

address.
Eliminates the need for an extra file (index).
There is no need for an index and all of the overhead
associated with itit.
Hashing
g methods
Direct Hashing
the keyy is the address without anyy algorithmic
g
manipulation.
p
Modulo Division Hashing (Division remainder hashing)

divides the key by the file size and
use the remainder plus 1 for the address.
Digit Extraction Hashing

selected digits are extracted from the key and used as the
address.
Direct hashing
Direct Hashing
the key is the address without any algorithmic manipulation.
Direct Hashing
g
the file must contain a record for every possible key.

Adv. no collision.
Disadv. space is wasted.
Hashing techniques
map a large population of possible keys into
a small address space.
Modulo division
address = key % list_size + 1

list_size : a prime number produces fewer collisions
A new employee
p y numbering
g system
y
that will handle 1 million employees.
Digit
g Extraction Hashingg
selected digits are extracted from the key

and used as the address.
For example :
1,3,4
6 di it employee
6-digit
l
number
b 3-digit
3 di it address
dd
125870 158
122801 128
121267 112
123413 134
Collision
Because there are many keys for each address in the file,
there is a possibility that more than one key will hash to the
same address in the file.
Synonyms the set of keys that hash to the same address
address.
Collision a hashing algorithm produces an address for an
insertion key, and that address is already occupied.
Prime area the part of the file that contains all of the home
addresses.
Home address
Collision Resolution
With the exception of the directed hashing,

none of the methods we discussed creates one-to-one
mapping.
mapping
Several collision resolution methods :
Open addressing resolution

Linked list resolution
Bucket hashing
g resolution
Figure 13-11
Open addressing resolution
Resolve collisions in the prime area.

The prime area addresses are searched for an open or
unoccupied
i d record
d where
h
th
the new d
data
t can b
be placed.
l
d
One simplest strategy
the next address ((home address + 1))
Disadv.
each collision resolution increases the possibility of future
collisions.
collisions
Linked list resolution
The first record is stored in the home address (prime area),

but it contains a pointer to the second record. (overflow area)
Figure 13-13
Bucket hashing resolution
Bucket
a node that can accommodate more than one record.
TEXT
VERSUS
BINARY
Text and binary interpretations of a file
A file stored on a storage device

is a sequence of bits that can be interpreted by an
application program as a text file or a binary file.
file
Text vs. Binary
Text files
A file of characters.
C
Cannot
t contain
t i iintegers,
t
fl
floating-point
ti
i t numbers,
b
or any other
th d
data
t
structures in their internal memory format.
Encoding system ASCII or EBCDIC
Binary files
A collection of data stored in the internal format of the computer.

Contain data that are meaningful
only if they are properly interpreted by a program.

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Lecture- 14

A file is a collection of data records with

Taxonomy of file structures

The access method

determines how records can be retrieved:

One record after another,

Access one specific record

Because you have to process each record,

Sequential file is not efficient for random access.

Updating sequential files

sequential files must be updated periodically to

contains changes to be applied to the master file.

Updating a sequential file

Updating sequential files

To make updating process efficient, all files are

: add transaction to new master

Change content of master file data (transaction code = R(revise) )

Mapping in an indexed file

To access a record in a file randomly,

An index file is made of a data file, which is a sequential file,

To access a record in the file :

The key of the sequential file

A file that reorganizes the structure of an existing data file to enable

For example, a file used by an estate agent might store records on

Logical view of an indexed file

A hashed file uses a hash function to map the key to the

Modulo Division Hashing (Division remainder hashing)

Digit Extraction Hashing

the file must contain a record for every possible key.

address = key % list_size + 1

selected digits are extracted from the key

With the exception of the directed hashing,

Several collision resolution methods :

Open addressing resolution

Open addressing resolution

Resolve collisions in the prime area.

Linked list resolution

The first record is stored in the home address (prime area),

Bucket hashing resolution

Text and binary interpretations of a file

A file stored on a storage device

Text vs. Binary

A collection of data stored in the internal format of the computer.

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