1301 LabManual

1301 Lab Manual
Table of Contents
Introduction
Laboratory 1: Description of Motion in One Dimension

Problem 1a: Intro to Measurement and Uncertainty
Problem 1b: Constant Velocity
Problem 2: Motion Down an Incline
Problem 3: Motion Up and Down an Incline
Problem 4: Motion Down an Incline with an Initial Velocity
Problem 5: Mass and Motion Down an Incline
Problem 6: Mass and the Acceleration of a Falling Ball
Problem 7: Acceleration of a Ball with an Initial Velocity
Problem 8: Motion on a Level Surface With an Elastic Cord
Laboratory 1 Cover Sheet
7
17
25
29
33
37
41
45
49
53
Laboratory 2: Conservation of Momentum & Energy

Problem 1: Collisions When Objects Stick Together
Problem 2: Collisions When Objects Bounce Apart
Problem 3: Acceleration of an Object Down an Incline
Problem 4: Velocity and Energy
Problem 5: Kinetic Energy and Efficiency I
Problem 6: Kinetic Energy and Efficiency II
Problem 7: Spring Mechanical Energy
Problem 8: Spring Mechanical Energy II
Problem 9: Energy and Friction
55
59
63
67
71
75
79
83
87
91
Laboratory 3: Forces
Problem 1: Force and Motion
Problem 2: Forces in Equilibrium
Problem 3: Frictional Force
Problem 4: Normal and Kinetic Frictional Force I
Problem 5: Normal and Kinetic Frictional Force II
Problem 6: Measuring Spring Constants - Hookes Law
Problem 7: Force, Impulse and Momentrum
Table of Coefficients of Friction
93
97
101
105
109
113
115
119
121
Laboratory 4: Description of Motion in Two Dimensions

Problem 1: Projectile Motion and Velocity
Problem 2: Bouncing
Problem 3: Acceleration and Circular Motion
Problem 4: A Vector Approach to Circular Motion
Problem 5: Acceleration and Orbits
123
127
131
135
139
143
Laboratory 5: Rotational Kinematics

Problem 1: Angular Speed and Linear Speed
Problem 2: Rotation and Linear Motion at Constant Speed
Problem 3: Angular and Linear Acceleration
145
149
153
159
Laboratory 6: Rotational Dynamics

Problem 1: Moment of Inertia of a Complex System
Problem 2: Moment of Inertia about Different Axes
Problem 3: Moment of Inertia with an Off-Axis Ring
Problem 4: Forces, Torques, and Energy
Problem 5: Conservation of Angular Momentum
Problem 6: Designing a Mobile
Problem 7: Equilibrium
161
165
169
173
177
181
185
189
Laboratory 7: Mechanical Oscillations

Problem 1: Measuring Spring Constants
Problem 2: The Effective Spring Constant
Problem 3: Oscillation Frequency with Two Springs
Problem 4: Oscillation Frequency of an Extended System
Problem 5: Driven Oscillations
191
195
199
203
207
211
Appendix:
Appendix:
Appendix:
Appendix:
Appendix:
Appendix:
Appendix:
213
227
255
259
267
275
281
Equipment
Software
Significant Figures
Accuracy, Precision and Uncertainty Error Analysis
Review of Graphs
Guide to Writing Lab Reports
Sample Lab Reports
WELCOME TO THE PHYSICS LABORATORY

Physics is ou r hu m an attem p t to exp lain the w orkings of the w orld . The su ccess of that attem p t is evid ent
in the technology of ou r society. You have alread y d evelop ed you r ow n p hysical theories to u nd erstand
the w orld arou nd you . Som e of these id eas are consistent w ith accep ted theories of p hysics w hile others
are not. This laboratory m anu al is d esigned , in p art, to help you recognize w here you r id eas agree w ith
those accep ted by p hysics and w here they d o not. It is also d esigned to help you becom e a b etter p hysics
p roblem solver.
You are p resented w ith contem p orary p hysical theories in lectu re and in you r textbook. In the laboratory
you can ap p ly the theories to real-w orld p roblem s by com p aring you r ap p lication of those theories w ith
reality. You w ill clarify you r id eas by: answ ering qu estions and solving p roblem s before you com e to the
lab room , p erform ing exp erim ents and having d iscu ssions w ith classm ates in the lab room, and
occasionally by w riting lab rep orts after you leave. Each laboratory has a set of p roblem s that ask you to
m ake d ecisions abou t the real w orld . As you w ork throu gh the p roblem s in this laboratory m anu al,
rem em ber: the goal is not to make lots of measurements. The goal is for you to exam ine you r id eas
abou t the real w orld .
The three com p onents of the cou rse - lectu re, d iscu ssion section, and laboratory section - serve d ifferent
p u rp oses. The laboratory is w here p hysics id eas, often exp ressed in m athem atics, m eet the real w orld .
Becau se d ifferent lab sections m eet on d ifferen t d ays of the w eek, you m ay d eal w ith concep ts in the lab
before m eeting them in lectu re. In that case, the lab w ill serve as an introd u ction to the lectu re. In other
cases the lectu re w ill be a good introd u ction to the lab.
The amount you learn in lab w ill depend on the time you spend in preparation before coming to lab.
Before coming to lab each week you must read the appropriate sections of your text, read the assigned problems to
develop a fairly clear idea of what will be happening, and complete the prediction and method questions for the
assigned problems.
Often, you r lab grou p w ill be asked to p resent its p red ictions and d ata to other grou p s so that everyone
can p articip ate in u nd erstand ing how sp ecific m easu rem ents illu strate general concep ts of p hysics. You
shou ld alw ays be p rep ared to exp lain you r id eas or actions to others in the class. To show you r instru ctor
that you have m ad e the ap p rop riate connections betw een you r m easu rem ents and the basic p hysical
concep ts, you w ill be asked to w rite a laboratory rep ort. Gu id elines for p rep aring lab rep orts can be
fou nd in the lab m anu al ap p end ices and in this introd u ction. An exam p le of a good lab rep ort is show n in
Ap p end ix E. Please d o not hesitate to d iscu ss any d ifficu lties w ith you r fellow stu d ents or the lab
instru ctor.
Relax. Exp lore. Make m istakes. Ask lots of qu estions, and have fu n.
WHAT TO D O TO BE SUCCESSFUL IN THIS LAB:

Safety comes first in any laboratory.
If in d ou bt abou t any p roced u re, or if it seem s u nsafe to you , STOP. A sk you r lab
instru ctor for help .
A.
What to bring to each laboratory session:

1.
Bring an 8" by 10" grap h -ru led lab jou rnal, to all lab sessions. You r jou rnal is you r "extend ed
m em ory" and shou ld contain everything you d o in the lab and all of you r thou gh ts as you are
going along. You r lab jou rnal is a legal d ocu m ent; you shou ld never tear p ages from it. You r lab
INTRODUCTION
jou rnal must be bou nd (as University of M innesota 2077-S) and m u st not allow p ages to be easily
rem oved (as sp iral bou nd notebooks).
B.
2.
Bring a "scientific" calcu lator.
3.
Bring this lab m anu al.
Prepare for each laboratory session:

Each laboratory consists of a series of related p roblem s that can be solved u sing the sam e basic
concep ts and p rincip les. Som etim es all lab grou p s w ill w ork on the s am e p roblem , other tim es
grou p s w ill w ork on d ifferent p roblem s and share resu lts.
1. Before beginning a new lab, carefu lly read the Introd u ction, Objectives and Prep aration sections.
Read sections of the text sp ecified in the Preparation section.
2. Each lab contains several d ifferent exp erim ental p roblem s. Before you com e to a lab, com p lete
the assigned Prediction and M ethod Questions. The Method Qu estions help you bu ild a p red iction
for the given p roblem . It is u su ally help fu l to answ er the Method Qu estions before m aking the
p red iction. These individual predictions w ill be checked (graded) by your lab instructor
immediat ely at the beginning of each lab session.
This p rep aration is cru cial if you are going to get anything ou t of you r laboratory w ork . There
are at least tw o other reasons for p rep aring:
a) There is nothing d u ller or m ore exasp erating than p lu gging m ind lessly into a p roced u re you
d o not u nd erstand .
b) The laboratory w ork is a group activity w here every ind ivid u al contribu tes to the th inking
p rocess and activities of the grou p . Other m em bers of you r grou p w ill be u nhap p y if they
m u st consistently carry the bu rd en of som eone w ho isn't d oing his/ her share.
C.
Laboratory Reports
At the end of every lab (abou t once every tw o w eeks) you w ill be assigned to w rite u p one of the
exp erim ental p roblem s. You r rep ort m u st p resent a clear and accu rate accou nt of w hat you and you r
grou p m em bers d id , the resu lts you obtained , and w hat the resu lts m ean. A rep ort m u st not be
cop ied or fabricated . (That w ou ld be scientific frau d .) Cop ied or fabricated lab rep orts w ill be
treated in the sam e m anner as cheating on a test, and w ill resu lt in a failing grade for the course and
possible expulsion from the University. You r lab rep ort shou ld d escribe you r p red ictions, you r
exp eriences, you r observations, you r m easu rem ents, and you r conclu sions. A d escrip tion of the lab
rep ort form at is d iscu ssed at the end of this introd u ction. Each lab report is due, w ithout fail,
w ithin tw o days of the end of that lab.
D.
Attendance
Attend ance is requ ired at all labs w ithout exception. If som ething d isastrou s keep s you from you r
sched u led lab, contact you r lab instru ctor immediately. The instru ctor w ill arrange for you to attend
another lab section that sam e w eek. There are no make-up labs in this course.
E.
Grades
Satisfactory com p letion of the lab is requ ired as p art of you r cou rse grad e. Those not completing all lab
assignments by the end of the quarter at a 60% level or better will receive a quarter grade of F for the entire
INTRODUCTION
course. The laboratory grad e m akes u p 15% of you r final cou rse grad e. Once again, w e em p hasize
that each lab report is due, w ithout fail, w ithin tw o days of the end of that lab.
There are tw o p arts of you r grad e for each laboratory:
(a) you r laboratory jou rnal, and (b) you r
form al p roblem rep ort. You r laboratory jou rnal w ill be grad ed by the lab instru ctor d u ring the
laboratory sessions. You r p roblem rep ort w ill be grad ed and retu rned to you in you r next lab
session.
If you have m ad e a good -faith attem p t bu t you r lab rep ort is u naccep table, you r instru ctor m ay allow
you to rew rite p arts or all of the rep ort. A rew rite m u st be hand ed in again w ithin tw o d ays of the
retu rn of the rep ort to you by the instru ctor.
F.
The laboratory class forms a local scientific community.

conducting business in this laboratory.
1.
2.
There are certain basic rules for
In all discussions and group w ork, full respect for all people is required. All d isagreem ents
abou t w ork m u st stand or fall on reasoned argu m ents abou t p hysics p rincip les, the d ata, or
accep table p roced u res, never on the basis of p ow er, lou d ness, or intim id ation.
It is OK to make a reasoned mistake. It is in fact, one of the most efficient ways to learn.
This is an acad em ic laboratory in w hich to learn things, to test you r id eas and p red ictions by
collecting d ata, and to d eterm ine w hich conclu sions from the d ata are accep table and reasonable
to other p eop le and w hich are not.
What d o w e m ean by a "reasoned m istake"? We m ean that afte r carefu l consid eration and after a
su bstantial am ou nt of thinking has gone into you r id eas you sim p ly give you r best p red iction or
exp lanation as you see it. Of cou rse, there is alw ays the p ossibility that you r id ea d oes not
accord w ith the accep ted id eas. Then som eone says, "N o, that's not the w ay I see it and here's
w hy." Eventu ally p ersu asive evid ence w ill be offered for one view p oint or the other.
"Sp eaking ou t" you r exp lanations, in w riting or vocally, is one of the best w ays to learn.
3. It is perfectly okay to share information and ideas with colleagues. M any kinds of help are okay. Since
members of this class have highly diverse backgrounds, you are encouraged to help each other and learn
from each other.
How ever, it is never okay to copy the w ork of others.
H elp ing others is encou raged becau se it is one of the best w ays for you to learn, bu t cop ying is
inap p rop riate and u naccep table. Write ou t you r ow n calcu lations and answ er qu estions in you r
ow n w ord s. It is okay to m ake a reasoned m istake; it is w rong to cop y.
N o cred it w ill be given for cop ied w ork. It is also su bject to University ru les abou t p lagiarism
and cheating, and m ay resu lt in d ism issal from the cou rse and the University. See the
University cou rse catalog for fu rther inform ation.
4.
Hundreds of other students use this laboratory each week. A nother class probably follows directly after
you are done. Respect for the environment and the equipment in the lab is an important part of making
this experience a pleasant one.
INTRODUCTION
The lab tables and floors shou ld be clean of any p ap er or "garbage." Please clean u p you r area
before you leave the lab. The equ ip m ent m u st be either retu rned to the lab instru ctor or left
neatly at you r station, d ep end ing on the circu m stances.
A note about Laboratory equipment:
At tim es equ ip m ent in the lab m ay break or m ay be fou nd to be broken. If this hap p ens you shou ld
inform you r TA and rep ort the p roblem to the equ ip m ent sp ecialist by send ing an em ail to:
labhelp @p hysics.u m n.ed u
Describe the p roblem , inclu d ing any id entifying asp ects of the equ ip m ent, and be su re to inclu d e you r lab
room nu m ber.
If equipment appears to be broken in such a w ay as to cause a danger do not use the equipment and
inform your TA immediately.
In su m m ary, the key to m aking any com m u nity w ork is RESPECT.

Respect you rself and you r id eas by behaving in a p rofessional m anner at all tim es.
Respect you r colleagu es (fellow stu d ents) and their id eas.
Respect you r lab instru ctor and his/ her effort to p rovid e you w ith an environm ent in w hich you can
learn.
Respect the laboratory equ ip m ent so that others com ing after you in the laboratory w ill have an
ap p rop riate environm ent in w hich to learn.
LAB 1 PROBLEM 1a: INTRODUCTION TO MEASUREMENT

AND UNCERTAINTY
Welcome to 1301 Physics Laboratory! This lab exercise is meant to introduce you to
measurement procedures, uncertainties in measurement, and the computer software
that you will be using throughout the course. It will be worth your time to read
through this entire lab and the next one as there are many helpful tips and references
that you may want to use in later labs.
I-YOUR LAB NOTEBOOK

Keeping a neat and complete laboratory notebook is an essential skill for this class. The
ability to keep a good notebook will help you in your future academic and professional
career.
As a general rule, all of your original work must be preserved in your lab notebook.
Never tear pages out of your lab notebook. When you make a mistake, just neatly cross
out that part. Make sure that you can still read it, just in case there is useful information
there. When you are asked to turn in copies of work from your notebook, you must
either make photocopies or turn in a carbon copy. (A carbon copy notebook is
recommended; it will save you trips to the copy machine.) Remember to turn in the
copies and keep the originals.
All your answers to Warm-up questions, raw data, calculations and conclusions must
be recorded in your lab notebook. You must use a bound quadrille ruled notebook for
this course, 2077-s, or its equivalent. Think of this lab notebook as a journal in which
you will record all activities related to the lab, including calculations or analysis that is
carried out at home.
It is useful to keep a few pages at the beginning of the notebook blank to later fill them
in as a table of contents. For the purpose of organization, skip a few pages at the end on
one lab and start the next lab with a title page with the lab number and a title.
You should include not only all raw data, graphs, etc. but also sketches of the
experimental setup with appropriate explanations. Graphs should have properly
labeled axis with units. It is always a good idea to cut out a printed graph and tape it in.
You should include the numerical data in addition to the graphs. Computers fail and
you should not depend on a computer to retain your data. Write important things
down.
Remember that it is difficult to anticipate what information will or will not be needed
for later analysis. It is better to record too many details than not enough
The only thing entered into your lab notebook before a particular lab should be the
required Warm-up questions and prediction. The rest should be a running record of
what you do in the course of the lab.
MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTY
II- PREPARATION TO BE DONE BEFORE THE LAB MEETS

These are your first lab Warm-ups, to be done before the lab meets, written in your
lab notebook, and turned into your TA as specified by the course syllabus. You may
want to refer back to the appendices during the lab.
WARM UP
1) Read the appendix Significant Figures. Do the exercises at the end and write the
results in your lab notebook under a section called Warm-ups.
2) Read the appendix Accuracy, Precision and Uncertainty and write the answers to the
exercises in your lab notebook.
3) Read the appendix Review of Graphs.
You should also start reading the section Video Analysis of Motion in the Software
appendix and Video Cameras Installing and Adjusting in the Equipment appendix. You
will be using the software and equipment described at the very end of this lab and more
extensively later on.
III-MEASURMENT
1) Length
Equipment: two wood blocks and two different rulers
Measure the length of two blocks, but vary the procedure in several different ways.
Have each person in the group measure each block using different rulers and different
sections of each ruler, giving 4 measurements per person per block. For example, you
might measure the block by aligning the end of the block with the end of the ruler and
then measure by aligning the 1cm mark with the end of the block. Try variations on this
theme. Individually record measurements and then combine them after everyone is
done. Mixing measurement methods helps to illuminate any sources of bias in the
measurements. Record your procedure and associated measurements in your lab
notebook.
What is your estimated uncertainty in your measurement? What qualities of your ruler
and block can help you estimate the uncertainty in your measurement?
Using the instructions in the appendix Accuracy, Precision and Uncertainty, calculate
the mean and average deviation of the combined data set for the length of each block.

Compare your estimated uncertainty to your average deviation. Do they agree within
significant figures?
Refer to the section on comparing two values in the appendix Accuracy, Precision and
Uncertainty. Do you find the lengths of the two blocks to be the same, different, or are
you unable to determine the answer to your satisfaction? How does the average
deviation help you answer this question?
Note on Assumptions:
When physicists are trying to solve a problem, they often make assumptions about the situation.
Depending on how accurate the results need to be (i.e. how small the uncertainty), making
estimates saves a lot of time if it turns out to be good enough for the task. You will see phrases
such as friction is negligible, ignoring air resistance, or assuming that earth is a sphere in
your textbook or in class. The assumptions made must always be stated since it gives the
audience important information about the precision of the results.
2) Time
Equipment: track, wood block, non-motorized cart, and stopwatch.
Create a slight incline by propping your aluminum track on a wood block. Have one
member of your group hold the cart at the top of the ramp and have another use the
stopwatch. When the first person lets go of the cart, start the stopwatch and stop it
when the cart reaches a pre-determined distance. Catch the cart at the bottom!
(Communication is important!) Repeat this at least 4 times, with everyone making at
least two time measurements. Use the same distance for every trial.
Calculate the mean and average deviation of the times for the cart.
Note on rejecting data:
One must be very careful about rejecting data. In general, you should keep all of your data even
if it does not seem to match with what you are expecting. For this class, the only reason you
might throw away data is if you can say EXACTLY what was wrong with it. For example, if
you just did a run with the cart and someone forgot to say Go! at the right time, then you
know that time measurement is wrong. You may not, however, ignore the data points that just
seem too big or too small. Hopefully you see by now that ALL MEASUREMENTS HAVE
UNCERTAINTY. This is nothing to apologize for as it is expected for any measurement.
Did the measurements become more or less consistent as each person did more trials?
Did you formalize the procedure after the first couple trials (e.g. agree upon the start
procedure, decide what viewing angle to measure from)? Could you make the average
deviation smaller with this equipment or are you close to the limit of the accuracy that
can be expected?
Each lab will have an Exploration section before the Measurement section. This is
where you can run informal trials to develop your procedure and see how the
equipment responds to the activity. The data from these exploratory trials do not need
to be included in your final data set.
3) Constant Velocity
Equipment: a motorized toy car, track and stopwatch.
Set your aluminum track on a level surface. Mark off four widely separated distances
along the track. Start the car at the zero on the track and let it run to the shortest
distance. Record the time this takes. Take at least 4 time measurements for each of your
4 distance marks. You will want to format the data in a 4x4 table. Find the average time
and the average deviation of times for each distance.
Which point on the car are you using for your measurement? This kind question might
seem trivial, but it is an example of the amount to detail you should be recording in
your notebook.
Use an entire page of your lab notebook to make a graph with time along the vertical
axis and (the more accurate) distance along the horizontal axis. (This does not make
your graph look like those in the Review of Graphs appendix; usually we put time
along the horizontal axis.) Plot your average time for each distance with the error bars
on the graph. The error bars are the range of the average deviation of the measurement.
Example: If your time is 3.40.4 seconds, then you should put a dot at 3.4, a vertical line
through the dot that extends from 3.0 to 3.8, and cross the line at the top and bottom.
Now draw your best fit line through the four data points, as directed in the Review of
Graphs appendix. You are now able to find the average speed from the best fit line.
10
To get the uncertainty of the measured speed, make the steepest straight line that fits
inside the error bars. The slope of this line corresponds to the lowest speed (remember
we are graphing time vs. distance). Now draw a line that has the least possible slope
that fits inside the error bars. This corresponds to the greatest possible speed.
Use these values to quote your average speed plus or minus the uncertainty.
You could graph the same information except with time on the horizontal axis and
distance on the vertical axis. If your distance measurements are accurate but your time
measurements are not, the error bars will lie in the horizontal direction. This is OK! If
your time measurements were accurate but your distance measurements were not, then
the error bars would lie in the vertical direction.
Think about it:
Which of the three measurements (length, time, or speed) gives the most uncertainty of
measurement? Would you consider this uncertainty significant, moderate or
insignificant? Why?
IVTHE COMPUTERS AND VIDEO CAMERAS

1) Practice Fitting
Log on to the computer using a university account. Open the PracticeFit program in the
PhysLab folder on the desktop. The Instruction box provides instructions that change
as you progress. Holding the mouse over a button or the graph also provides some
help.
Select Mystery Functions from the number menu (1-10). These are functions
(constant, linear, quadratic, sine, exponential, etc.) that commonly appear in physics
problems. Each equation will have randomly chosen parameters for you to figure out
by fitting functions to them. Select the appropriate Fit Function which appears to
describe the Mystery Function curve from the menu on the screen by changing either
the function and/or the constants. This is similar to the procedure used for fitting data
in later labs. Do you need to zoom in or zoom out (rescale the axes) in order to get a
better view of your Mystery Function?
You can change the range of the graph by typing in new maximum or minimum values
at the top and bottom values of the axes.
Have each group member fit one function, but you can discuss in your group about the
best way to fit the Mystery Function.
Write down your best fit values and actual fit values for the functions.
11
Discuss the answer to the following questions as a group:

1. Will the two functions match over a very long range?
2. What is the function for a line? What do the constants represent on the graph?
3. What is the function for a parabola? How do the constants A, B and C affect the
function? Explore different values to determine this.
4. What does the sign (+ or -) of the constants do to the function? Does the parabola
open up in the direction you expect and have the correct behavior with respect
to the origin?
When fitting real data, the constants A, B, C, etc. represent physical quantities such as
position, velocity, and acceleration. In the video analysis software, the z-axis always
represents time.
2) The Video Cameras; Distortion

The goal of this exercise is to gain familiarity with the video cameras and explore the
uncertainty of their measurement, which could possibly show up as distortion in the
image. The primary way to accidentally introduce distortion into a measurement is
through perspective. If you are interested in a measurement three feet away from the
camera, and you calibrate it using an object ten feet away from the camera, your results
will be different than expected by an unknown factor.
Equipment: meter stick, wood block, cart, and VideoRECORDER
Consider the relative size of the
objects in the photo. If your
brain didnt tell you otherwise,
you would either assume that
the buildings in downtown
were several inches tall or that
the pop can was several
hundred
feet
tall.
This
illustrates the need to calibrate
(or scale) your camera with
items that are the same distance
from the camera as the motion
of the object being recorded.
12

Similarly, if you are interested in the motion of a cart, it is important that it moves
roughly the same distance in front of the camera the whole time. In this exercise, you
will explore the visible effects of perspective on meter sticks and then practice
calibration.
Open the VideoRECORDER application in the PhysLab folder.

(If a camera does not appear send a request for assistance to labhelp@physics.umn.edu,
include the room and the machine name and location.)
Position a meter stick in front of the video camera. Experiment with holding it in
different orientations, at different heights relative to the camera, and at different
distances. In what position would it best function as a smaller or larger "meter stick" for
your monitor? How much distortion is visible in that position? Is the camera focused?
Try focusing the lens by turning the housing around the lens.
Place the meter stick and a toy car on the table. Align them so that the minimal amount
of distortion is visible.
You ALWAYS need to have a calibration object in your video at roughly the same
distance from the camera as the plane of motion. Any object that has a known length
will work for this. When you analyze your video, you need to select the ends of this
known object using your mouse and state its length. This tells the software how big
everything in the plane of motion is.
3) Video Cameras and Motion

Make sure everyone in your group gets the chance to operate the camera or the
computer.
Practice taking videos of the toy car moving across the table. When you are satisfied
with your video, save it in the Lab Data folder on the desktop, use a unique name you
will remember. Quit VideoRECORDER and open MotionLab to analyze your movie.
Although the directions to analyze a video are given in the instructions box in the upper
left corner within MotionLab, the following is a short summary that will be useful to do
the exploration for this and any other lab video (You should also read the appendix
section Video Analysis of Motion in the Software appendix at least once).
1.
Once MotionLab is started you will be prompted to open a movie file.
13

2.
With the video loaded, a calibration screen automatically opens. Advance the
video with the Fwd > button in the Video Controls to the frame where the
first data point will be taken. This step is very important because it sets up
the origin of your time axis (t=0).
3.
To tell the analysis program the real size of the video images, select the
calibration object in the plane of motion that you can measure. Drag the red
cursor, located in the center of the video display, to one end of the calibration
object. Make sure to use the same part of the cursor for each point selected,
either the central circle or the tip of one of the cross-hairs will work the same if
used consistently. Click the Accept > button when the red cursor is in place.
Move the red cursor to the other end and select Accept >. Enter the length of
the object in the Length box and specify the Units then select Accept >.
You do not need to rotate the reference frame for this lab. Select the Quit
Calibration button to complete the calibration sequence.
4.
Enter your prediction equations for how you expect the position to behave. This
is the same procedure that you used for the PracticeFit exercise, but now you
will enter your prediction based on the data you took by hand earlier. For the xposition graph, use the function that matches the kinematic equation relating
position, velocity and time (*Remember! z is time!). Fill in the function with
your previous measurement values. Make sure the units all agree! Once your xposition prediction is ready, select Accept > and repeat the procedure for the
y-position. (Do you expect the cart to move in the y-direction?)
5.
Once you have made predictions for the x- and y-position, a data acquisition
screen will automatically open. Select a specific point on the cart. Drag the red
cursor over this point and click the Add Point button and you will see the
data on the appropriate graph on your computer screen. The video will
automatically advance one frame. Again, drag the red cursor over the same
point selected on the object and accept the data point. Experiment with
advancing the video several frames and taking a data point. Should that change
your results? Decide how many data points are necessary for reliable results.
6.
Once you have added enough points, click the Quit Data Acq button and fit
your data. Sometimes you will not see your data because the scale of the graph
is not in the right place. If you click the buttons in the center of the screen called
Autorange x, Autorange y, etc. the graph will automatically scale to the
data points. This may not include the prediction equation in the newly scaled
window. You may need to further re-scale the axes by highlighting the highest
or lowest value on the graph and typing in values to expand the ranges. Decide
which equation and constants are the best approximations for your data and
accept your x-fit and y-fit.
14

7.
The program will ask you to enter your prediction for velocity in the x- and ydirections. Choose the function that matches the kinematic equation relating
velocity and time. Fill in your prediction values (NOT the best fit value from the
position graph). Accept your vx and vy predictions, and you will see the data on
the last two graphs.
8.
Fit your data for these velocities in the same way that you did for position.
Accept your fit and click the Print Results button to view a PDF document of
your graphs that can be e-mailed to you and your group members. You must
save the file on the computer in order to send it.
What would happen if you calibrate with an object that is not on the plane of the
motion (too close or far away for the camera)? What would happen if you use
different points on your car to get your data points?
If you made a mistake in this first try, dont worry! Make sure you have an idea about how to
correct it for next time!
4) Analysis
When you have finished making a fit equation for each graph, rewrite the equations in a
table but now matching the dummy letters with the appropriate kinematic quantities. If
you have constant values, assign them the correct units.
Compare the average speed of the car from your stopwatch and meter stick
measurements and the one found with the computer analysis. Do the measurements fall
within the expected uncertainty? Determine if the speed is constant within your
measurement uncertainties.
Can you see the effects of the camera distortion in your data? Which data points have
the lowest uncertainty associated with them? What other measurement uncertainty is
introduced by using the computer analysis software?
Why do you have fewer data points for the velocity vs. time graph than the position vs.
time graph?
5) Conclusion
Compare the cars speed measured with video analysis to the measurement using a
stopwatch. Do your graphs match what you expected for constant velocity motion?
15

Do measurements near the edges of the video give the same speed as that as found in
the center of the image within the uncertainties of your measurement? Does this affect
what will you do for future measurements?
Why is there one less data point in a velocity vs. time graph than in the corresponding
position vs. time graph?
16
LAB 1 PROBLEM 1b: - CONSTANT VELOCITY

Since this physics laboratory design may be new to you, this first problem, and only this one,
contains both the instructions to explore constant velocity motion and an explanation of the
various parts of the instructions. The explanation of the instructions is preceded by the double,
vertical lines seen to the left.
These laboratory instructions may be unlike any you have seen before. You will not
find worksheets or step-by-step instructions. Instead, each laboratory consists of a set
of problems that you solve before coming to the laboratory by making an organized set
of decisions (a problem solving strategy) based on your initial knowledge. The
prediction and warm up questions are designed to help you examine your thoughts
about physics. These labs are your opportunity to compare your ideas about what
"should" happen with what really happens. The labs will have little value in helping
you learn physics unless you take time to predict what will happen before you do
something.
While in the laboratory, take your time and try to answer all the questions in this lab
manual. In particular, answering each of the exploration questions can save you time
and frustration later by helping you understand the behavior and limitations of your
equipment before you make measurements. Make sure to complete the laboratory
problem, including all analysis and conclusions, before moving on to the next one.
The first paragraphs of each lab problem describe a real-world situation. Before coming to lab,
you will solve a physics problem to predict something about that situation. The measurements
and analysis you perform in lab will allow you to test your prediction against the behavior of the
real world.
You have an internship managing a network of closed-circuit Freeway cameras for
MnDOT Metro Traffic Engineering. Your boss wants to use images from those cameras
to determine velocities of cars, particularly during unusual circumstances such as traffic
accidents. Your boss knows that you have taken physics and asks you to prepare a
presentation. During the presentation, you must demonstrate possibilities for
determining a cars average velocity from graphs of its position vs. time, instantaneous
velocity vs. time, and instantaneous acceleration vs. time. You decide to model the
situation with a small digital camera and a toy car that moves at a constant velocity.
General Instructions for each lab: Before lab, read the laboratory in its entirety as well as the
required reading in the textbook. In your lab notebook, respond to the warm up questions and
derive a specific prediction for the outcome of the lab. During lab, compare your warm up
responses and prediction in your group. Then, work through the exploration, measurement,
analysis, and conclusion sections in sequence, keeping a record of your findings in your lab
notebook. It is often useful to use Excel to perform data analysis, rather than doing it by hand.
Read: Mazur Chapter 2.
17
CONSTANT VELOCITY MOTION
EQUIPMENT
This section contains a brief description of the apparatus you can use to test your
prediction. Working through the exploration section will familiarize you with the
details.
You have a motorized toy car, which moves with a constant velocity on an aluminum
track. You also have a stopwatch, a meter stick, a video camera and a computer with
video analysis applications written in LabVIEW to help you analyze the motion.
Read the section MotionLAB & VideoRECORDER in the Software appendix. You will be
using this software throughout the semester, so please take the time now to become
familiar using them.
Read the section Video Cameras Installing and Adjusting in the Equipment appendix.
Read the appendices Significant Figures, Accuracy, Precision and Uncertainty, and
Review of Graphs to help you take data effectively.
If equipment is missing or broken, submit a problem report by sending an email to
labhelp@physics.umn.edu. Include the room number and brief description of the
problem.
WARM UP
Warm-up Questions are a series of questions intended to help you solve the problem
stated in the opening paragraphs. They may help you make the prediction, help you
plan how to analyze data, or help you think through the consequences of a prediction
that is an educated guess. Warm Up questions should be answered and written in
your lab journal before you come to lab.
To find schemes for determining a cars velocity, you need to think about representing
its motion. The following questions should help.
1. How would you expect an instantaneous velocity vs. time graph to look for an
object with constant velocity? Make a rough sketch and explain your
reasoning. Assign appropriate labels and units to your axes. Write an
18

equation that describes this graph. What is the meaning of each quantity in
your equation? In terms of the quantities in your equation, what is the
velocity?
2. How would you expect an instantaneous acceleration vs. time graph to look for
an object moving with a constant velocity? Make a rough sketch and explain
your reasoning. Remember axis labels and units. Write down an equation
that describes this graph. In this case, what can you say about the velocity?
3. How would you expect a position vs. time graph to look for an object moving
with constant velocity? Make a rough sketch and explain your reasoning.
What is the relationship between this graph and the instantaneous velocity
versus time graph? Write down an equation that describes this graph. What is
the meaning of each quantity in your equation? In terms of the quantities in
your equation, what is the velocity?
PREDICTION
Everyone has "personal theories" about the way the world works. One purpose of this
lab is to help you clarify your conceptions of the physical world by testing the
predictions of your personal theory against what really happens. For this reason, you
will always predict what will happen before collecting and analyzing the data. Your
prediction should be completed and written in your lab journal before you come to
lab.
Spend the first few minutes at the beginning of the lab session comparing your
prediction with those of your partners. Discuss the reasons for differences in opinion.
It is not necessary that your predictions are correct, but it is absolutely crucial that
you understand the basis of your prediction.
Sketch graphs of position vs. time, instantaneous velocity vs. time, and instantaneous
acceleration vs. time for the toy car. How could you determine the speed of the car
from each graph?
Sometimes your prediction is an "educated guess" based on your knowledge of the
physical world. In these problems exact calculation is too complicated and is beyond
this course. However, for every problem its possible to come up with a qualitative
prediction by making some plausible simplifications. For other problems, you will be
asked to use your knowledge of the concepts and principles of physics to calculate a
mathematical relationship between quantities in the experimental problem.
19
EXPLORATION
This section is extremely importantmany instructions will not make sense, or you may
be led astray, if you fail to carefully explore your experimental plan.
In this section you practice with the apparatus and carefully observe the behavior of
your physical system before you make precise measurements. You will also explore
the range over which your apparatus is reliable. Remember to always treat the
apparatus with care and respect. Students in the next lab section will use the
equipment after you are finished with it. If you are unsure about how equipment
works, ask your lab instructor. If at any time during the course of this lab you find a
piece of equipment is broken, please submit a problem report by sending an email
to labhelp@physics.umn.edu.
Most equipment has a range in which its operation is simple and straightforward. This
is called its range of reliability. Outside that range, complicated corrections are
needed. Be sure your planned measurements fall within the range of reliability. You
can quickly determine the range of reliability by making qualitative observations at
the extremes of your measurement plan. Record these observations in your lab
journal. If the apparatus does not function properly for the ranges you plan to
measure, you should modify your plan to avoid the frustration of useless
measurements.
At the end of the exploration you should have a plan for doing the measurements that
you need. Record your measurement plan in your journal.
This exploration section is much longer than most. You will record and analyze
digital videos many times during the semester.
If necessary, try leveling the table by adjusting the levelers in the base of each table leg.
You can test that the table is level by observing the motion of a cart on a level track.
Place one of the metal tracks on your lab bench and place the toy car on the track. Turn
on the car and observe its motion. Qualitatively determine if it actually moves with a
constant velocity. Use the meter stick and stopwatch to determine the speed of the car.
Estimate the uncertainty in your speed measurement.
Turn on the video camera and look at the motion as seen by the camera on the
computer screen. Go to the Software appendix for instructions about using the
VideoRECORDER software.
Do you need to focus the camera to get a clear image? Each camera has adjustable
focus, make sure yours is working correctly. Move the camera closer to the car. How
20

does this affect the video image? Try moving it farther away. Raise the height of the
camera tripod. How does this affect the image? Decide where you want to place the
camera to get the most useful image.
Practice taking videos of the toy car. Write down the best situation for taking a video in
your journal for future reference. When you have a good movie, make sure to save it in
the Lab Data folder on the desktop.
Quit VideoRECORDER and open MotionLab to analyze your movie.
Although the directions to analyze a video are given during the procedure in a box with
the title INSTRUCTIONS, the following is a short summary of them that will be
useful to do the exploration for this and any other lab.
1.
Open the video that you are interested in by clicking the AVI button.
2.
Advance the video with the Fwd > button to the frame where the first data
point will be taken, then select Accept from the main controls. This step is
very important because it sets up the origin of your time axis (t=0).
3.
To tell the analysis program the real size of the video images, select some object
in the plane of motion that you can measure. Drag the red cursor, located in the
center of the video display, to one end of the calibration object. Click Accept
button when the red cursor is in place. Move the red cursor to the other end
and select Accept. Enter the length of the object in the Length box and
specify the Units. Select the Accept button again, then select the Quit
Calibration button to exit the calibration routine.
4.
Enter your prediction equations of how you expect the position to behave.
Notice that the symbols used by the equations in the program are dummy letters,
which means that you have to identify those with the quantities involved in
your prediction. In order to do the best guess you will need to take into account
the scale and the values from your practice trials using the stopwatch and the
meter stick. Once your x-position prediction is ready, select Accept in the
main controls. Repeat the previous procedure for the y-position.
5.
Once both your x and y position predictions are entered, the data collection
routine will begin. Select a specific point on the object whose motion you are
analyzing. Drag the red cursor over this point and click the Add Point button
from the data acquisition controls and you will see the data on the appropriate
graph on your computer screen, after this the video will advance one frame.
Again, drag the green cursor over the selected spot on the object and select
Add Point. Keep doing this until you have enough data, then select Quit
Data Acq.
21
6.
Decide which equation and constants are the best approximations for your data,
and then select Accept from the main controls.
7.
At this level the program will ask you to enter your predictions for velocity in xand y-directions. Choose the appropriate equations and give your best
approximations for the constants. Once you have accepted your vx - and vy
predictions, you will see the data on the last two graphs.
8.
Fit your data for these velocities in the same way that you did for position.
Accept your fit and click the Print button to get a hard copy of your graphs.
Now you are ready to answer some questions that will be helpful for planning your
measurements.
What would happen if you calibrate with an object that is not on the plane of the
motion? What would happen if you use different points on your car to get your data
points?
MEASUREMENT
Now that you have predicted the result of your measurement and have explored how
your apparatus behaves, you are ready to make careful measurements. To avoid
wasting time and effort, make the minimal measurements necessary to convince
yourself and others that you have solved the laboratory problem.
1. Record the time the car takes to travel a known distance. Estimate the uncertainty in
time and distance measurements.
2. Take a good video of the cars motion. Analyze the video with MotionLab to predict
and fit functions for position vs. time and velocity vs. time.
If possible, every member of your group should analyze a video. Record your
procedures, measurements, prediction equations, and fit equations in a neat and
organized manner so that you can understand them a month from now. Some future
lab problems will require results from earlier ones.
ANALYSIS
Data by itself is of very limited use. Most interesting quantities are those derived from
the data, not direct measurements themselves. Your predictions may be qualitatively
correct but quantitatively very wrong. To see this you must process your data.
22

Always complete your data processing (analysis) before you take your next set of data.
If something is going wrong, you shouldn't waste time taking a lot of useless data.
After analyzing the first data, you may need to modify your measurement plan and redo the measurements. If you do, be sure to record the changes in your plan in your
journal.
Calculate the average speed of the car from your stopwatch and meter stick
measurements. Determine if the speed is constant within your measurement
uncertainties.
As you analyze data from a video, be sure to write down each of the prediction and fit
equations for position and velocity.
When you have finished making a fit equation for each graph, rewrite the equations in a
table but now matching the dummy letters with the appropriate kinetic quantities. If you
have constant values, assign them the correct units.
CONCLUSIONS
After you have analyzed your data, you are ready to answer the experimental problem.
State your result in the most general terms supported by your analysis. This should
all be recorded in your journal in one place before moving on to the next problem
assigned by your lab instructor. Make sure you compare your result to your
prediction.
Compare the cars speed measured with video analysis to the measurement using a
stopwatch. Did your measurements and graphs agree with your answers to the Warmup Questions? If not, why? Do your graphs match what you expected for constant
velocity motion? What are the limitations on the accuracy of your measurements and
analysis?
23
24
LAB 1 PROBLEM 2: MOTION DOWN AN INCLINE

You have a job working with a team studying accidents for the state safety board. To
investigate one accident, your team needs to determine the acceleration of a car rolling
down a hill without any brakes. Everyone agrees that the cars velocity increases as it
rolls down the hill but your teams supervisor believes that the car's acceleration also
increases uniformly as it rolls down the hill. To test your supervisors idea, you
determine the acceleration of a cart as it moves down an inclined track in the laboratory.
Instructions: Before lab, read the laboratory in its entirety as well as the required reading in the
textbook. In your lab notebook, respond to the warm up questions and derive a specific prediction
for the outcome of the lab. During lab, compare your warm up responses and prediction in your
group. Then, work through the exploration, measurement, analysis, and conclusion sections in
sequence, keeping a record of your findings in your lab notebook. It is often useful to use Excel to
perform data analysis, rather than doing it by hand.
EQUIPMENT
You have a stopwatch, meterstick, endstop, wood block, video camera and a computer
with video analysis software. You will also have a cart to roll down an inclined track.
problem.
25
MOTION DOWN AN INCLINE
WARM UP
The following questions should help you to explore three different scenarios involving
the physics given in the problem.
1. How would you expect an instantaneous acceleration vs. time graph to look for a cart
moving with a constant acceleration? With a uniformly increasing acceleration?
With a uniformly decreasing acceleration? Make a rough sketch of the graph for each
possibility and explain your reasoning. To make the comparison easier, it is useful to
draw these graphs next to each other. Remember to assign labels and units to your
axes. Write down an equation for each graph. Explain what the symbols in each of
the equations mean. What quantities in these equations can you determine from
your graph?
2. Write down the relationship between the acceleration and the velocity of the cart.
Use that relationship to construct an instantaneous velocity versus time graph just
below each of your acceleration versus time graphs from question 1, with the same
scale for each time axis. Write down an equation for each graph. Explain what the
symbols in each of the equations mean. What quantities in these equations can you
determine from your graph?
3. Write down the relationship between the velocity and the position of the cart. Use
that relationship to construct a position versus time graph just below each of your
velocity versus time graphs from question 2, with the same scale for each time axis.
Write down an equation for each graph. Explain what the symbols in each of the
equations mean. What quantities in these equations can you determine from your
graph?
PREDICTION
Consider the questions printed in italics, below, to make a rough sketch of how you
expect the acceleration vs. time graph to look for a cart under the conditions given in the
problem. Explain your reasoning.
Do you think the cart's acceleration changes as it moves down the track? If so, how does the
acceleration change (increase or decrease)? Or, do you think the acceleration is constant (does
not change) as the cart moves down the track?
26
EXPLORATION
You can test that the table is level by observing the motion of the cart on a level track.
You will use a wood block and the aluminum track to create an incline. This set up will
give you an angle with respect to the table. How are you going to measure this angle?
Hint: Think trigonometry!
Start with a small angle and with the cart at rest near the top of the track. Observe the
cart as it moves down the inclined track. Try a range of angles. BE SURE TO CATCH
THE CART BEFORE IT HITS THE END STOP! If the angle is too large, you may not
get enough video frames, and thus enough position and time measurements, to
measure the acceleration accurately. If the angle is too small the acceleration may be
too small to measure accurately with the precision of your measuring instruments.
Select the best angle for this measurement.
Where is the best place to release the cart so enough of its motion captured on video?
When placing the camera, consider which part of the motion you wish to capture. Try
different camera positions until you get the best possible video. Make sure you have an
object in your video to calibrate with. Hint: Your video may be easier to analyze if the
motion on the video screen is purely horizontal. Why? It could be useful to rotate the camera!
What is the total distance through which the cart rolls? How much time does it take?
These measurements will help you set up the graphs for your computer data taking.
Write down your measurement plan.
MEASUREMENT
Follow the measurement plan you wrote down.
Record all of your measurements; you may be able to re-use some of them in other lab
problems. Be sure to record your measurements with the appropriate number of
significant figures and with your estimated uncertainty. Otherwise, the data is nearly
meaningless.
When you have finished making measurements, you should have printouts of position
and velocity graphs and good records (including uncertainty) of: your determination of
the incline angle, the time it takes the cart to roll a known distance down the incline
27

starting from rest, the length of the cart, and prediction and fit equations for position
and velocity.
Make sure that everyone gets the chance to operate the computer.
ANALYSIS
Calculate the carts average acceleration from the distance and time measurements you
made with a meter stick and stopwatch.
Look at your graphs and rewrite all of the equations in a table but now matching the
dummy letters with the appropriate kinetic quantities. If you have constant values, assign
them the correct units, and explain their meaning.
From the velocity vs. time graph, determine if the acceleration is constant, increasing, or
decreasing as the cart goes down the ramp. Use the function representing the velocity
vs. time graph to calculate the acceleration of the cart as a function of time. Make a
graph of that function. Is the average acceleration of the cart equal to its instantaneous
acceleration in this case?
Compare the accelerations for the cart you found with your video analysis to your
acceleration measurement using a stopwatch.
CONCLUSION
How do the graphs of your measurements compare to your predictions?
Was your boss right about how a cart accelerates down a hill? If yes, state your result in
the most general terms supported by your analysis. If not, describe how you would
convince your boss of your conclusions. What are the limitations on the accuracy of
your measurements and analysis?
28
LAB 1 PROBLEM 3: MOTION UP AND DOWN AN INCLINE

A proposed ride at the Valley Fair amusement park launches a roller coaster car up an
inclined track. Near the top of the track, the car reverses direction and rolls backwards
into the station. As a member of the safety committee, you have been asked to describe
the acceleration of the car throughout the ride. The launching mechanism has been well
tested. You are only concerned with the roller coasters trip up and back down. To test
your expectations, you decide to build a laboratory model of the ride.
EQUIPMENT
You have a stopwatch, meterstick, track endstop, wood block, video camera and a
computer with video analysis software. You will also have a cart to roll up an inclined
track.
problem.
29
MOTION UP AND DOWN AN INCLINE
WARM UP
The following questions should help you examine the situation.
1. Sketch a graph of the instantaneous acceleration vs. time graph you expect for the cart
as it rolls up and then back down the track after an initial push. Sketch a second
instantaneous acceleration vs. time graph for a cart moving up and then down the track
with the direction of a constant acceleration always down along the track after an
initial push. On each graph, label the instant where the cart reverses its motion near
the top of the track. Explain your reasoning for each graph. Write down the
equation(s) that best represents each graph. If there are constants in your equations,
what kinematics quantities do they represent? How would you determine these
constants from your graphs?
Use that relationship to construct an instantaneous velocity vs. time graph just below
each of acceleration vs. time graph from question 1, with the same scale for each
time axis. (The connection between the derivative of a function and the slope of its
graph will be useful.) On each graph, label the instant where the cart reverses its
motion near the top of the track. Write an equation for each graph. If there are
constants in your equations, what kinematics quantities do they represent? How
would you determine these constants from your graphs? Can any of the constants
be determined from the constants in the equation representing the acceleration vs.
time graphs?
that relationship to construct an instantaneous position vs. time graph just below each
of your velocity vs. time graphs from question 2, with the same scale for each time
axis. (The connection between the derivative of a function and the slope of its graph
will be useful.) On each graph, label the instant where the cart reverses its motion
near the top of the track. Write down an equation for each graph. If there are
would you determine these constants from your graphs? Can any of the constants
be determined from the constants in the equations representing velocity vs. time
graphs?
4. Which graph do you think best represents how position of the cart will change with
time? Adjust your prediction if necessary and explain your reasoning.
PREDICTION
Make a rough sketch of how you expect the acceleration vs. time graph to look for a cart
with the conditions discussed in the problem. The graph should be for the entire
30

motion of going up the track, reaching its highest point, and then coming down the
track.
Do you think the acceleration of the cart moving up an inclined track will be greater than, less
than, or the same as the acceleration of the cart moving down the track? What is the
acceleration of the cart at its highest point? Explain your reasoning.
EXPLORATION
What is the best way to change the angle of the inclined track in a reproducible way?
How are you going to measure this angle with respect to the table? (Think about
trigonometry.)
Start the cart up the track with a gentle push. BE SURE TO CATCH THE CART
BEFORE IT HITS THE END STOP ON ITS WAY DOWN! Observe the cart as it
moves up the inclined track. At the instant the cart reverses direction, what is its
velocity? Its acceleration? Observe the cart as it moves down the inclined track. Do
your observations agree with your prediction? If not, discuss it with your group.
Where is the best place to put the camera? Which part of the motion do you wish to
capture?
Try different angles. If the angle is too large, the cart may not go up very far and will
give you too few video frames for the measurement. If the angle is too small it will be
difficult to measure the acceleration. Take a practice video and play it back to make
sure you have captured the motion you want Hint: To analyze motion in only one
dimension (like in the previous problem) rather than two dimensions, it could be useful to rotate
the camera!
What is the total distance through which the cart rolls? Using your stopwatch, how
much time does it take? These measurements will help you set up the graphs when
using the computer, and can provide for a check on your video analysis of the carts
motion.
MEASUREMENT
Follow your measurement plan to make a video of the cart moving up and then down
the track at your chosen angle. Record the time duration of the carts trip, and the
distance traveled. Make sure you get enough points for each part of the motion to
31

determine the behavior of the acceleration. Don't forget to measure and record the angle
(with estimated uncertainty).
Work through the complete set of calibration, prediction equations, and fit equations for
a single (good) video before making another video.
Make sure everyone in your group gets the chance to operate the computer.
ANALYSIS
From the time given by the stopwatch and the distance traveled by the cart, calculate its
average acceleration. Estimate the uncertainty.
Look at your graphs and rewrite all of the equations in a table but now matching the
dummy letters with the appropriate kinetic quantities. If you have constant values, assign
them the correct units, and explain their meaning.
Can you tell from your graph where the cart reaches its highest point?
From the velocity vs. time graph determine if the acceleration changes as the cart goes up
and then down the ramp. Use the function representing the velocity vs. time graph to
calculate the acceleration of the cart as a function of time. Make a graph of that
function. Can you tell from this instantaneous acceleration vs. time graph where the cart
reaches its highest point? Is the average acceleration of the cart equal to its
instantaneous acceleration in this case?
Compare the acceleration function you just graphed with the average acceleration you
calculated from the time on the stopwatch and the distance the cart traveled.
CONCLUSION
How do your position vs. time, velocity vs. time graphs compare with your answers to
the warm up questions and the prediction? What are the limitations on the accuracy of
Did the cart have the same acceleration throughout its motion? Did the acceleration
change direction? Was the acceleration zero at the top of its motion? Describe the
acceleration of the cart through its entire motion after the initial push. Justify your
answer with kinematics arguments and experimental results. If there are any
differences between your predictions and your experimental results, describe them and
explain why they occurred.
32
LAB 1 PROBLEM 4: MOTION DOWN AN INCLINE WITH AN

INITIAL VELOCITY
Because of your physics background, you have a summer job with a company that is
designing a new bobsled for the U.S. team to use in the next Winter Olympics. You
know that the success of the team depends crucially on the initial push of the team
members how fast they can push the bobsled before they jump into the sled. You
need to know in more detail how that initial velocity affects the motion of the bobsled.
In particular, your boss wants you to determine if the initial velocity of the sled affects
its acceleration down the ramp. To solve this problem, you decide to model the
situation using a cart moving down an inclined track.
EQUIPMENT
You have a stopwatch, meterstick, endstop, wood block, video camera and a computer
with video analysis software. You will also have a cart to roll down an inclined track.
problem.
33
MOTION DOWN AN INCLINE WITH NON-ZERO INITIAL VELOCITY
WARM UP
The following questions should help you (a) understand the situation and (b) interpret
your measurements.
1. Sketch a graph of instantaneous acceleration vs. time graph when the cart rolls down
the track after an initial push (your graph should begin after the initial push.)
Compare this to an instantaneous acceleration vs. time graph for a cart released from
rest. (To make the comparison easier, draw the graphs next to each other.) Explain
your reasoning for each graph. Write down the equation(s) that best represents each
of the graphs. If there are constants in your equations, what kinematics quantities
do they represent? How would you determine the constants from your graphs?
Use that relationship to construct an instantaneous velocity vs. time graph, after an
initial push, just below each of your acceleration vs. time graphs from question 1. Use
the same scale for your time axes. (The connection between the derivative of a
function and the slope of its graph will be useful.) Write down the equation that best
represents each graph. If there are constants in your equations, what kinematics
quantities do they represent? How would you determine the constants from your
graphs? Can any of the constants be determined from the equations representing
the acceleration vs. time graphs?
that relationship to construct a position vs. time graph, after an initial push, just below
each velocity vs. time graph from question 2. Use the same scale for your time axes.
(The connection between the derivative of a function and the slope of its graph will
be useful.) Write down the equation that best represents each graph. If there are
would you determine these constants from your graphs? Can any of these constants
be determined from the equations representing the velocity vs. time graphs?
PREDICTION
Do you think the cart launched down the inclined track will have a larger acceleration,
smaller acceleration, or the same acceleration as the cart released from rest?
EXPLORATION
34

Slant the track at an angle. (Hint: Is there an angle that would allow you to reuse some
of your measurements and calculations from other lab problems?)
Determine the best way to gently launch the cart down the track in a consistent way
without breaking the equipment. BE SURE TO CATCH THE CART BEFORE IT HITS
THE END STOP!
Where is the best place to put the camera? Is it important to have most of the motion in
the center of the picture? Which part of the motion do you wish to capture? Try taking
some videos before making any measurements.
Write down your measurement plan. Make sure everyone in your group gets the
chance to operate the camera and the computer.
MEASUREMENT
Using the plan you devised in the exploration section, make a video of the cart moving
down the track at your chosen angle. Make sure you get enough points for each part of
the motion to determine the behavior of the acceleration. Don't forget to measure and
record the angle (with estimated uncertainty).
Choose an object in your picture for calibration. Choose your coordinate system. Is a
rotated coordinate system the easiest to use in this case?
Why is it important to click on the same point on the cars image to record its position?
Estimate your accuracy in doing so.
Make sure you set the scale for the axes of your graph so that you can see the data
points as you take them. Use your measurements of total distance the cart travels and
total time to determine the maximum and minimum value for each axis before taking
data.
ANALYSIS
Choose a function to represent the position vs. time graph. How can you estimate the
values of the constants of the function from the graph? You may waste a lot of time if
you just try to guess the constants. What kinematics quantities do these constants
represent?
35

Choose a function to represent the velocity versus time graph. How can you calculate
the values of the constants of this function from the function representing the position
versus time graph? Check how well this works. You can also estimate the values of the
constants from the graph. Just trying to guess the constants can waste a lot of your
time. What kinematics quantities do these constants represent?
From the velocity versus time graph, determine the acceleration as the cart goes down
the ramp after the initial push. Use the function representing the velocity versus time
graph to calculate the acceleration of the cart as a function of time. Make a graph of that
function.
As you analyze your video, make sure everyone in your group gets the chance to operate the
computer.
CONCLUSIONS
Look at the graphs you produced through video analysis. How do they compare to
your answers to the warm-up questions and your predictions? Explain any differences.
What are the limitations on the accuracy of your measurements and analysis?
What will you tell your boss? Does the acceleration of the bobsled down the track
depend on the initial velocity the team can give it? Does the velocity of the bobsled
down the track depend on the initial velocity the team can give it? State your result in
the most general terms supported by your analysis.
36
LAB 1 PROBLEM 5: MASS AND MOTION DOWN AN

INCLINE
Your neighbors' child has asked for your help in constructing a soapbox derby car. In
the soapbox derby, two cars are released from rest at the top of a ramp. The one that
reaches the bottom first wins. The child wants to make the car as heavy as possible to
give it the largest acceleration. Is this plan reasonable?
EQUIPMENT
You have a stopwatch, meterstick, track endstop, wood block, camera and a computer
with video analysis software. You will also have a cart to roll down an inclined track
and additional cart masses to add to the cart.
problem.
37
MASS AND MOTION DOWN AN INCLINE
WARM UP
your measurements.
1. Make a sketch of the acceleration vs. time graph for a cart released from rest on an
inclined track. On the same axes sketch an acceleration vs. time graph for a cart on the
same incline, but with a much larger mass. Explain your reasoning. Write down the
equations that best represent each of these accelerations. If there are constants in
your equations, what kinematics quantities do they represent? How would you
determine these constants from your graphs?
Use that relationship to construct an instantaneous velocity vs. time graph for each
case. (The connection between the derivative of a function and the slope of its graph
will be useful.) Write down the equation that best represents each of these velocities.
If there are constants in your equations, what kinematics quantities do they
represent? How would you determine these constants from your graphs? Can any
of these constants be determined from the equations representing the accelerations?
that relationship to construct a position vs. time graph for each case. The connection
between the derivative of a function and the slope of its graph will be useful. Write
down the equation that best represents each of these positions. If there are constants
in your equations, what kinematics quantities do they represent? How would you
determine these constants from your graphs? Can any of these constants be
determined from the equations representing the velocities?
PREDICTION
Do you think that increasing the mass of the cart increases, decreases, or has no effect
on the carts acceleration?
EXPLORATION
Slant the track at an angle. (Hint: Is there an angle that would allow you to reuse some
of your measurements and calculations from other lab problems?)
Observe the motion of several carts of different mass when released from rest at the top
of the track. BE SURE TO CATCH THE CART BEFORE IT HITS THE END STOP!
38

From your estimate of the size of the effect, determine the range of mass that will give
the best results in this problem. Determine the first two masses you should use for the
measurement.
How do you determine how many different masses do you need to use to get a
conclusive answer? How will you determine the uncertainty in your measurements?
How many times should you repeat these measurements? Explain.
Make sure everyone in your group gets the chance to operate the camera and the computer.
MEASUREMENT
Using the plan you devised in the exploration section, make a video of the cart moving
down the track at your chosen angle. Make sure you get enough points for each part of
the motion to determine the behavior of the acceleration. Don't forget to measure and
record the angle (with estimated uncertainty).
Choose an object in your picture for calibration. Choose your coordinate system. Is a
rotated coordinate system the easiest to use in this case?
the total time to determine the maximum and minimum value for each axis before
taking data.
Make several videos with carts of different mass to check your qualitative prediction. If
you analyze your data from the first two masses you use before you make the next
video, you can determine which mass to use next. As usual you should minimize the
number of measurements you need.
ANALYSIS
values of the constants of the function from the graph? You may waste a lot of time if
39

you just try to guess the constants. What kinematics quantities do these constants
represent?
Choose a function to represent the velocity vs. time graph. How can you calculate the
values of the constants of this function from the function representing the position vs.
time graph? Check how well this works. You can also estimate the values of the
time. What kinematics quantities do these constants represent?
From the velocity vs. time graph determine the acceleration as the cart goes down the
ramp. Use the function representing the velocity-versus-time graph to calculate the
acceleration of the cart as a function of time.
Make a graph of the carts acceleration down the ramp as a function of the carts mass.
Do you have enough data to convince others of your conclusion about how the
acceleration of the cart depends on its mass?
computer.
CONCLUSION
Did your measurements of the cart's motion agree with your initial predictions? Why
or why not? What are the limitations on the accuracy of your measurements and
analysis?
What will you tell the neighbors' child? Does the acceleration of the car down its track
depend on its total mass? Does the velocity of the car down its track depend on its
mass? State your result in the most general terms supported by your analysis.
40
LAB 1 PROBLEM 6: MASS AND THE ACCELERATION

OF A FALLING BALL
You have a job with the National Park Service. Your task is to investigate the
effectiveness of spherical canisters filled with fire-retarding chemicals to help fight
forest fires. The canisters would be dropped by low-flying planes or helicopters. They
are specifically designed to split open when they hit the ground, showering the nearby
flames with the chemicals. The canisters could contain different chemicals, so they will
have different masses. In order to drop the canisters accurately, you need to know if
the motion of a canister depends on its mass. You decide to model the situation by
measuring the free-fall acceleration of balls with similar sizes but different masses.
EQUIPMENT
You have a collection of balls each with approximately the same diameter. You also
have a stopwatch, meterstick, camera and a computer with video analysis software.
problem.
41
MASS AND THE ACCELERATION OF A FALLING BALL
WARM UP
1. Sketch a graph of acceleration as a function of time for a constant acceleration. Below it,
make graphs for velocity and position as functions of time. Write down the equations
that best represent each graph. If there are constants in each equation, what
kinematics quantities do they represent? How would you determine these constants
from your graphs?
2. Make two more sketches of the acceleration vs. time graph: one for a heavy falling ball
and another for a falling ball with one quarter of the heavy ones mass. Explain your
reasoning. Write the equation that best represents each of acceleration. If there are
would you determine the constants from your graphs? How do they differ from
each other, and from your constant acceleration graph?
3. Use the relationships between acceleration and velocity and velocity and position of
the ball to construct an instantaneous velocity vs. time graph and a position vs. time
graph for each case from the previous question. The connection between the
derivative of a function and the slope of its graph will be useful. Write down the
equations that best represent each graph. If there are constants in your equations,
what kinematics quantities do they represent? How would you determine these
constants from your graphs? Can any of these constants be determined from the
constants in the equations representing the acceleration and velocity?
4. Compare your graphs to those for constant acceleration. What are the differences, if
any, that you might observe in your data? The similarities?
5. Write down an outline of how you will determine the acceleration of the object from
video data.
PREDICTION
Make a sketch of how you expect the average acceleration vs. mass graph to look for falling
objects such as the balls in the problem.
Do you think that the free-fall acceleration increases, decreases, or stays the same as the mass
of the object increases? Make your best guess and explain your reasoning.
EXPLORATION
Review your lab journal from earlier problems. Position the camera and adjust it for
optimal performance. Make sure everyone in your group gets the chance to operate the camera
and the computer.
42

Practice dropping one of the balls until you can get the ball's motion to fill the screen.
Determine how much time it takes for the ball to fall and estimate the number of video
points you will get in that time. Are there enough points to make the measurement?
Adjust the camera position to give you enough data points.
Although the ball is an obvious choice to use to calibrate the video, you might have
better results calibrating on a larger object. For calibration purposes, you can hold an
object of known length in the plane of motion of the ball, near the center of the balls
trajectory. Where you place your reference object does make a difference in your
results. Check your video image when you put the reference object close to the camera
and then further away. What do you notice about the size of the reference object in the
video image? The best place to put the reference object to determine the distance scale
is at the position of the falling ball.
Step through the video and determine which part of the ball is easiest to consistently
determine. When the ball moves rapidly you may see some blurring of the image. You
can adjust the exposure setting in VideoRecorder to give you a discrete image.
MEASUREMENT
Measure the mass of a ball and make a video of its fall according to the plan you
devised in the exploration section.
Record the position of the ball in enough frames of the video so that you have the
sufficient data to accomplish your analysis. Make sure you set the scale for the axes of
your graph so that you can see the data points as you take them. Use your
measurements of total distance the ball travels and total time to determine the
maximum and minimum value for each axis before taking data.
Complete your data analysis as you go along (before making the next video), so you can
determine how many different videos you need to make. Dont waste time in collecting
data you don't need or, even worse, incorrect data. Collect enough data to convince
yourself and others of your conclusion.
Repeat this procedure for different balls.
ANALYSIS
values of the constants of the function from the graph? You can waste a lot of time if
43

you just try to guess the constants.
represent?
What kinematic quantities do these constants
time. What kinematic quantities do these constants represent?
From the velocity vs. time graph(s) determine the acceleration of the ball. Use the
function representing the velocity vs. time graph to calculate the acceleration of the ball as
a function of time. Is the average acceleration different for the beginning of the video
(when the object is moving slowly) and the end of the video (when the object is moving
fast)?
Determine the average acceleration of the object in free fall for each value of its mass
and graph this result. Do you have enough data to convince others of your conclusions
about your predictions?
CONCLUSION
Did the data support your predicted relationship between acceleration and mass?
(Make sure you read the Review of Graphs appendix to determine if your data really
supports this relationship.) If not, what assumptions did you make that were incorrect?
Explain your reasoning.
Do your results hold regardless of the masses of balls? Would the acceleration of a
falling Styrofoam ball be the same as the acceleration of a falling baseball? Explain your
rationale. Make sure you have some data to back up your claim. Will the acceleration of
a falling canister depend on its mass? State your results in the most general terms
supported by your analysis.
44
LAB 1 PROBLEM 7: ACCELERATION OF A BALL

WITH AN INITIAL VELOCITY
You have designed an apparatus to measure air quality in your city. To quickly force
air through the apparatus, you will launch it straight downward from the top of a tall
building. A very large acceleration may destroy sensitive components in the device; the
launch systems design ensures that the apparatus is protected during its launch. You
wonder what the acceleration of the apparatus will be once it exits the launcher. Does
the objects acceleration after it has left the launcher depend on its velocity when it
leaves the launcher? You decide to model the situation by throwing balls straight down.
EQUIPMENT
You have a ball, stopwatch, meterstick, camera and a computer with video analysis
software. The launcher is your hand.
problem.
45
ACCELERATION OF A BALL WITH AN INITIAL VELOCITY
WARM UP
The following questions will help you examine three possible scenarios. They should
help you to understand your prediction and analyze your data.
1. How would you expect an acceleration vs. time graph to look for a ball moving
downward with a constant acceleration? With a uniformly increasing acceleration?
With a uniformly decreasing acceleration? Sketch the graph for each scenario and
explain your reasoning. To make the comparison easier, draw these graphs next to
each other. Write down the equation that best represents each graph. If there are
would you determine these constants from your graph?
2. Write down the relationships between the acceleration and the velocity and the
velocity and the position of the ball. Use these relationships to construct the graphs
for velocity vs. time and position vs. time just below each acceleration graph from
question 1. Use the same scale for each time axis. Write down the equation that best
represents each graph. If there are constants in your equations, what kinematics
quantities do they represent? How would you determine these constants from your
graphs? Can any of the constants be determined from the equations representing
the acceleration and velocity graphs?
3. Does your prediction agree with one of the scenarios you just explored? Explain
why or why not.
4. Write down an outline of how you will determine the acceleration of the object from
the video data.
PREDICTION
Sketch a graph of a balls acceleration as a function of time after it is launched in the
manner described above. How will your graph change if the object's initial velocity
increases or decreases?
Do you think that the acceleration increases, decreases, or stays the same as the initial
velocity of the object changes? Make your best guess and explain your reasoning.
EXPLORATION
Review your lab journal from earlier problems. Position the camera and adjust it for
optimal performance. Make sure everyone in your group gets the chance to operate the camera
and the computer.
46

Practice throwing the ball straight downward until you can get the ball's motion to fill
most of the video screen after it leaves your hand. Determine how much time it takes
for the ball to fall and estimate the number of video points you will get in that time. Is it
sufficient to make the measurement? Adjust the camera position to get enough data
points.
Although you could calibrate on the ball, you might have better results calibrating on a
larger object. For calibration purposes, you can hold an object of known length in the
plane of motion of the ball, near the center of the balls trajectory. Where you place your
reference object does make a difference in your results. Check your video image when
you put the reference object close to the camera and then further away. What do you
notice about the size of the reference object in the video image? The best place to put
the reference object to determine the distance scale is at the position of the falling ball.
MEASUREMENT
Make a video of the ball being tossed downwards. Repeat this procedure for different
initial velocities.
Record the position of the ball in enough frames of the video so that you have sufficient
data to accomplish your analysis. Make sure you set the scale for the axes of your
graph so that you can see the data points as you take them. Use your measurements of
total distance the ball travels and total time to determine the maximum and minimum
value for each axis before taking data.
Graph your data as you go along (before making the next video), so you can determine
how many different videos you need to make and how you should change the ball's
initial velocity for each video. Dont waste time collecting data you don't need or, even
worse, incorrect data. Collect enough data to convince yourself and others of your
conclusion.
Repeat this procedure for different launch velocities.
ANALYSIS
values of the constants of the function from the graph? You can waste a lot of time if
47
you just try to guess the constants.

represent?
What kinematic quantities do these constants
time. What kinematic quantities do these constants represent? Determine the launch
velocity of the ball from this graph. Is this value reasonable?
From the velocity vs. time graph(s) determine the acceleration of the ball. Use the
function representing the velocity vs. time graph to calculate the acceleration of the ball as
a function of time. Is the average acceleration different for the beginning of the video
(just after launch) and the end of the video?
Determine the acceleration of the ball just after launch and at the end of the video. How
do they compare with the gravitational acceleration? Do you have enough data to
convince others of your conclusions about your predictions?
Repeat the analysis for another launch velocity and compare the results.
CONCLUSION
Did the data support your predicted relationship between acceleration and initial
velocity? (Make sure you read the Review of Graphs appendix to determine if your
data really supports this relationship.) If not, what assumptions did you make that
were incorrect? Explain your reasoning.
Will the survival of your apparatus depend on its launch velocity? State your results in
the most general terms supported by your analysis.
48
LAB 1 PROBLEM 8: MOTION ON A LEVEL SURFACE

WITH AN ELASTIC CORD
You are helping a friend design a new ride for the State Fair. In this ride, a cart is
pulled from rest along a long straight track by a stretched elastic cord (like a bungee
cord). Before building it, your friend wants you to determine if this ride will be safe.
Since sudden changes in velocity can lead to whiplash, you decide to find out how the
acceleration of the cart changes with time. In particular, you want to know if the
greatest acceleration occurs when the sled is moving the fastest or at some other time.
To test your prediction, you decide to model the situation in the laboratory with a cart
pulled by an elastic cord along a level surface.
EQUIPMENT
You have a stopwatch, meterstick, camera and a computer with video analysis software.
You also have a cart to roll on a level track and elastic cord.
problem.
49
MOTION ON A LEVEL SURFACE WITH AN ELASTIC CORD
WARM UP
your results.
1. Make a qualitative sketch of how you expect an acceleration vs. time graph to look for
a cart pulled by an elastic cord. Explain your reasoning. For a comparison, make an
acceleration vs. time graph for a cart moving with constant acceleration. Point out the
differences between the two graphs.
Use that relationship to construct a qualitative velocity vs. time graph for each case.
(The connection between the derivative of a function and the slope of its graph will
be useful.) Point out the differences between the two velocity vs. time graphs.
that relationship to construct a qualitative position vs. time graph for each case. (The
connection between the derivative of a function and the slope of its graph will be
useful.) Point out the differences between the two graphs.
PREDICTION
Make a qualitative sketch of how you expect the acceleration vs. time graph to look for a
cart pulled by an elastic cord. Just below that graph make a qualitative graph of the
velocity vs. time on the same time scale. Identify on each graph where the velocity is
largest and where the acceleration is largest.
EXPLORATION
Test that the track is level by observing the motion of the cart. If necessary, try leveling
the track by adjusting the levelers in the base of each table leg.
Attach an elastic cord to the cart and track. Gently move the cart along the track to
stretch out the elastic. Be careful not to stretch the elastic too tightly. Start with a
small stretch and release the cart. BE SURE TO CATCH THE CART BEFORE IT HITS
THE END STOP! Slowly increase the starting stretch until the cart's motion is long
enough to get enough data points on the video, but does not cause the cart to come off
the track or snap the elastic.
Practice releasing the cart smoothly and capturing videos.
Make sure everyone in your group gets the chance to operate the camera and the computer.
50
MEASUREMENT
Using the plan you devised in the exploration section, make a video of the carts
motion. Make sure you get enough points to determine the behavior of the acceleration.
Choose an object in your picture for calibration. Choose your coordinate system.
total time to determine the maximum and minimum value for each axis before taking
data.
ANALYSIS
Can you fit your position-versus time data with an equation based on constant
acceleration? Do any other functions fit your data better?
From the position vs. time graph or your fit equation for it, predict an equation for the
velocity vs. time graph of the cart.
From the velocity vs. time graph, sketch an acceleration vs. time graph of the cart. Can you
determine an equation for this acceleration vs. time graph from the fit equation for the
velocity vs. time graph?
Do you have enough data to convince others of your conclusion?
computer.
CONCLUSION
How does your acceleration-versus-time graph compare with your predicted graph?
Are the position-versus-time and the velocity-versus-time graphs consistent with this
behavior of acceleration? What is the difference between the motion of the cart in this
problem and its motion along an inclined track? What are the similarities? What are
the limitations on the accuracy of your measurements and analysis?
51

What will you tell your friend? Is the acceleration of the cart greatest when the velocity
is the greatest? How will a cart pulled by an elastic cord accelerate along a level
surface? State your result in the most general terms supported by your analysis.
52
PHYSICS LAB REPORT RUBRIC

Name:
Course, Lab, Problem:
Date Performed:
Lab Partners' Names:
ID#:
Earns No Points
Earns Full Points

Argument
no or unclear argument
logic does not flow
gaps in content
leaves reader with questions
complete, cogent, flowing

argument
content, execution, analysis,
conclusion all present
leaves reader satisfied
Technical Style
vocabulary, syntax, etc.

inappropriate for scientific writing
necessary nonverbal media absent
or poorly constructed
subjective, fanciful, or appealing to
emotions
jarringly inconsistent
no or confusing sections
language appropriate for scientific

writing
nonverbal media present where
appropriate, well-constructed, well
incorporated
objective, indicative, logical style
consistent
division into sections is helpful
Use of Physics
predictions unjustified
experiment physically unjustified
experiment tests wrong
phenomenon
theory absent from consideration of
premise, predictions, and results
predictions justified with physical

theory
experiment is physically sound and
tests phenomenon in question
results interpreted with theory to
clear, appropriate conclusion
Quantitativeness
statements are vague or arbitrary

analysis is inappropriately
qualitative
uncertainty analysis not used to
evaluate prediction or find result
numbers, equations, units,
uncertainties missing or
inappropriate
consistently quantitative
equations, numbers with units,
uncertainties throughout
prediction confirmed or denied,
result found by some form of
uncertainty analysis
results, conclusions based on data
Total
53
Possible Earned
54
LAB 2 PROBLEM 1: COLLISIONS WHEN OBJECTS

STICK TOGETHER
You work with the Minnesota Traffic Safety Board helping to write a report about
different kinds of traffic accidents. Your boss wants you to concentrate on the scenario
where a moving vehicle hits a stationary vehicle and they stick together.
For the report, you are asked to determine the velocity of these vehicles once they have
collided in terms of their masses and the initial velocity of the moving vehicle. One of
your team members believes that if the combined mass of the vehicles is constant, the
final velocity doesnt depend on which car is more massive. You decide to determine
this by measuring the final velocity of three different cart collisions: one in which the
moving cart is more massive, one in which the stationary cart is more massive, and one
in which the moving and stationary carts are equally massive.
You know that in a traffic collision, some of the initial energy of motion is "dissipated"
in the deforming (damaging) of the vehicles. Given a constant combined mass of the
vehicles, your boss is also interested in investigating whether the damage done depends
on the distribution of mass between cars.
EQUIPMENT
You have a track, set of carts, cart masses, meterstick, stopwatch, two endstops and
video analysis equipment.
For this problem, cart A is given an initial velocity towards a stationary cart B. Velcro at
the end of each cart allow the carts to stick together after the collision.
problem.
55
COLLISIONS WHEN OBJECTS STICK TOGETHER
WARM UP
The following questions will help you with your prediction and with the analysis of
your data.
1. Draw two pictures, one showing the situation before the collision and the other one
after the collision. Is it reasonable to neglect friction? Draw velocity vectors on your
sketch. Define your system. If the carts stick together, what must be true about their
final velocities?
2. Write down the momentum of the system before and after the collision.
3. Write down the energy of the system before and after the collision.
4. Which conservation principle (energy or momentum) should you use to predict the
final velocity of the stuck-together carts? Do you need both? Why? Write your
equation for final velocity in terms of the cart masses and initial velocity of cart A.
3. Write an equation for the efficiency of the collision in terms of the final and initial
kinetic energy of the carts, and then in terms of the cart masses and their initial and
final velocities. Combining this efficiency equation with the final velocity found in
question 4, what does variables does your efficiency depend on?
PREDICTION
Consider the three cases described in the problem, with the same total mass of the carts
for each case (mA + mB = constant).
Calculate the final velocity of the combined carts for each case.
Rank the collisions from most efficient to least efficient. Use your calculations to
determine which collision will cause the most damage.
EXPLORATION
Practice rolling the cart so the carts will stick together after colliding. Carefully observe
the carts to determine whether either cart leaves the grooves in the track. Minimize this
effect so that your results are reliable.
Try giving the moving cart various initial velocities over the range that will give reliable
results. Note qualitatively the outcomes. Choose initial velocities that will give you
useful videos.
56

Try varying the masses of the carts so that the mass of the initially moving cart covers a
range from greater than the mass of the stationary cart to less than the mass the
stationary cart while keeping the total mass of the carts the same. Is the same range of
initial velocities useful with different masses? If the moving cart should have
approximately the same kinetic energy for each collision, how should its speed depend
on its mass? What masses will you use in your final measurement?
MEASUREMENT
Record the masses of the two carts. Make a video of the collision. Examine your video
and decide if you have enough frames to determine the velocities you need. Do you
notice any peculiarities that might suggest the data is unreliable?
Analyze your data as you go along (before making the next video), so you can
determine how many different videos you need to make, and what the carts' masses
should be for each video. Collect enough data to convince yourself and others of your
conclusion about how the final velocity and energy efficiency of this type of collision
depends on the relative masses of the carts.
ANALYSIS
Determine the velocity of the carts before and after the collision using video analysis.
Treating the initial velocity as a known value, use the equations from your prediction to
calculate final velocity, and compare this to your measured final velocity.
For each video, calculate the kinetic energy of the carts before and after the collision.
Calculate the energy efficiency of each collision, once with the kinetic energy and once
with just the cart masses using the equation found in the warm-up questions. Do these
methods agree? Into what other forms of energy do you think the cart's initial kinetic
energy is most likely to transform?
Graph how the energy efficiency varies with mass of the initially moving cart (keeping
the total mass of both carts constant). What function describes this graph?
Make sure everyone in your group gets the chance to operate the computer.
CONCLUSION
How do your measured and predicted values of the final velocity compare? Compare
both magnitude and direction. What are the limitations on the accuracy of your
measurements and analysis?
57

When a moving shuttle collides with a stationary shuttle and they dock (stick together),
how does the final velocity depend on the initial velocity of the moving shuttle and the
masses of the shuttles? State your results in the most general terms supported by the
data.
What conditions must be met for a systems total momentum to be conserved? Describe
how those conditions were or were not met for the system you defined in this
experiment. What conditions must be met for a systems total energy to be conserved?
Describe how those conditions were or were not met for the system you defined in this
experiment.
Which case (mA = mB, mA > mB, or mA<mB) is the energy efficiency the largest? The
smallest? Does this make sense? (Imagine extreme cases, such as a flea running into a
truck and a truck running into a flea. In which case must the incoming vehicle be
moving faster to satisfy your bosss assumption about initial kinetic energy? Which
collision might cause more damage to the flea? To the truck?)
Can you approximate the results of this type of collision by assuming that the energy
dissipated is small?
Suppose two equal mass cars traveling with equal speeds in opposite directions collide
head on and stick together. What fraction of the energy is dissipated? Try it.
58
LAB 2 PROBLEM 2: COLLISIONS WHEN OBJECTS

BOUNCE APART
You are working for NASA with the group designing a docking mechanism that would
allow two space shuttles to connect with each other. The mechanism is designed for
one shuttle to move carefully into position and dock with a stationary shuttle. Since the
shuttles may be carrying different payloads and have consumed different amounts of
fuel, their masses may be different when they dock: the shuttles could be equally
massive, the moving shuttle could be more massive, or the stationary shuttle could have
a larger mass.
Your supervisor wants you to consider the case which could result from the pilot
missing the docking mechanism or the mechanism failing to function. In this case the
shuttles gently collide and bounce off each other. Your supervisor asks you to calculate
the final velocity of both shuttles as a function of (a) the initial velocity of the initially
moving shuttle, (b) the masses of both shuttles, and (c) the fraction of the moving
shuttles initial kinetic energy that is not dissipated during the collision (the energy
efficiency). You may assume that the total mass of the two shuttles is constant. You
decide to check your calculations in the laboratory using the most efficient bumper you
have, a magnetic bumper.
Read: Mazur Chapter 4, especially Section 4.8.
EQUIPMENT
You have a track, set of carts, cart masses, meterstick, stopwatch, two endstops and
video analysis equipment.
Cart A is given an initial velocity towards a stationary cart B. Magnets at the end of each
cart are used as bumpers to ensure that the carts bounce apart after the collision.
labhelp@physics.umn.edu. Make sure to include the room number.
59
ELASTIC COLLISIONS
WARM UP
The following questions are designed to help you with your prediction and the analysis of
your data.
1. Draw two pictures that show the situation before the collision and after the collision.
Draw velocity vectors on your sketch. If the carts bounce apart, do they have the
same final velocity? Define your system.
2. Write down the momentum of the system before and after the collision. Is the
systems momentum conserved during the collision? Why or why not?
3. If momentum is conserved, write the momentum conservation equation for this
situation; identify all of the terms in the equation.
4. Write down the energy of the system before and after the collision.
5. Assuming kinetic energy is conserved, write down the energy conservation equation
for this situation and identify all the terms in the equation. Is this an accurate
assumption for this type of collision? Why or why not?
6. Solve the equations you wrote in previous steps to find the final velocity of each cart
in terms of the cart masses, the energy efficiency of the collision, and the initial
speed of the moving cart.
PREDICTION
Restate the problem such that you understand and identify its goal then get the
equations necessary to test your lab model.
EXPLORATION
Practice setting the cart into motion so that the carts dont touch when they collide.
Carefully observe the carts to determine whether or not either cart leaves the grooves in
the track. Minimize this effect so that your results are reliable.
Try giving the moving cart various initial velocities over the range that will give reliable
results. Note qualitatively the outcomes. Keep in mind that you want to choose an
initial velocity that gives you a good video.
Try varying the masses of the carts so that the mass of the initially moving cart covers a
range from greater than the mass of the stationary cart to less than the mass the
stationary cart while keeping the total mass of the carts the same. Be sure the carts still
move freely over the track. What masses will you use in your final measurement?
60
ELASTIC COLLISIONS
MEASUREMENT
Record the masses of the two carts. Make a video of their collision. Examine your
video and decide if you have enough frames to determine the velocities you need. Do
you notice any peculiarities that might suggest the data is unreliable?
Analyze your data as you go along (before making the next video), so you can
determine how many different videos you need to make, and what the carts' masses
should be for each video. Collect enough data to convince yourself and others of your
conclusion about how the final velocities of both carts in this type of collision depend
on the velocity of the initially moving cart, the masses of the carts.
ANALYSIS
Determine the velocities of the carts (with uncertainty) before and after each collision
from your video. Calculate the momentum and kinetic energy of the carts before and
after the collision.
Now use your Prediction equation to calculate the final velocity (with uncertainty) of
each cart, in terms of the cart masses and the initial velocity of the moving cart.
CONCLUSION
Did your measurement agree with your prediction? Why or why not? Was the collision
perfectly elastic in the three different cases? What are the limitations on the accuracy of
What conditions must be met for a systems total momentum to be conserved? Describe
how those conditions were or were not met for the system you defined in this
experiment. What conditions must be met for a systems total energy to be conserved?
Describe how those conditions were or were not met for the system you defined in this
experiment.
61
ELASTIC COLLISIONS
62
LAB 2 PROBLEM 3: ACCELERATION OF AN OBJECT

DOWN AN INCLINE
You are an engineer working for an automobile manufacturer. Your team is
investigating possible designs for brakes. Once a prototype of a brake has been built, its
performance must be understood in a wide variety of situations to ensure that your
company's cars will always stop in an acceptable time and distance. You have been
assigned the task of investigating brake performance when the car is accelerating at
various speeds, for example, when rolling down a hill. You need to devise a way of
producing controlled acceleration to perform your tests. With the rolling-down-a-hill
scenario in mind, you decide to use straight tracks inclined at various angles; now, you
need to know how the acceleration varies as a function of the angle.
Read: Mazur Sections 5.15.4, 5.7, 7.2, and 7.9.
EQUIPMENT
You will have a track, wooden blocks, cart, endstop, camera and computer with video
analysis software.

problem.
WARM UP
1. When the car is at the top of the hill, what form(s) does its energy take? Write down
an expression for the total energy of a car at the top of a hill.
63
ACCELERATION OF AN OBJECT DOWN AN INCLINE
2. Now imagine that the car is rolling down the same hill and is just reaching the
bottom. What form(s) does its energy take? Write down an expression for the total
energy of the car.
3. What can you say about the values of the cars energy at the top and bottom of the
hill? Write an equation relating your answers for questions 1 and 2.
4.
Assume that the cars acceleration is constant. Write an equation relating the
magnitude of the acceleration and the distance through which the car accelerates.
5. Use your answers to questions 3 and 4 to find the magnitude of the cars
acceleration.
PREDICTION
Write down an expression for the magnitude of the acceleration of a car accelerating
under the influence of gravity down a hill at a given angle of steepness.
EXPLORATION
Try simulating hills of varying steepness and cars rolling down them.
Under what circumstances will friction be the most significant? the least significant? Is
friction helpful or harmful in your investigation? What will you do about this friction?
How will you measure the angle of inclination?
How will you measure the acceleration of the car?
Write down your measurement plan in your lab book.
MEASUREMENT
Execute your measurement plan. Dont forget to measure any necessary quantities
(lengths, angles, etc.) that wont be measured by MotionLab, and dont forget to record
the uncertainties in all of your measurements (both in and out of MotionLab)!
64
ANALYSIS
Use your measurements made outside of MotionLab to calculate what the acceleration
of the car should be, given your prediction. Compare this to the acceleration that you
measured with MotionLab.
CONCLUSION
How does the acceleration of an object moving down an inclined plane under the
influence of gravity vary with the angle of inclination?
What are the limitations of your investigation? Are there any confounding factors that
might change this result in extreme cases or in a real car? How important are they?
65
66
LAB 2 PROBLEM 4: ENERGY AND VELOCITY

You are an engineer working for a top-secret government lab hidden deep
underground. The lab has outgrown its small, underground reactor and needs to
decrease its power budget because using power from the surface would be suspicious.
Moving materials to the lab from the surface on the electric elevator is very powerintensive, so you suggest a system that would simply allow them to fall down a shaft in
a suspended basket, pulling a weight on a track to control the descent. You need to
know how fast the basket will be moving when it reaches the bottom.
Read: Mazur Sections 5.15.4, 5.7, 7.2, and 7.9.
EQUIPMENT
You have a meterstick, stopwatch, mass set, cart masses, a pulley & table clamp, string
and the video analysis equipment.
Released from rest, a cart is pulled along a level track by a hanging mass as shown. You
can vary the hanging mass and the carts mass which are connected by a light string.
The mass falls from a height shorter than the tracks length.
problem.
67
ENERGY AND VELOCITY
WARM UP
1. What types of energy are present just before the cart begins its motion? Write down
expressions for the magnitudes of each of these types of energy.
2. What is the relationship between the velocity of the cart and the velocity of object A?
What happens to the cart when object A hits the floor?
3. What types of energy will be present just as the falling mass hits the ground? What
types of energy will be present then? Write down expressions for the magnitudes of
each of these types of energy.
4. Write down an equation relating the energy from question 1 to the energy from
question 3.
5. Solve your equation from question 3 to find the final velocity of the cart.
PREDICTION
Restate the problem in terms of quantities you know or can measure. Beginning with
basic physics principles, show how you get an equation that gives the velocity you
need. Make sure that you state any approximations or assumptions that you are
making.
EXPLORATION
Adjust the length of the string such that object A hits the floor well before the cart runs
out of track. You will be analyzing a video of the cart both before and after object A has
hit the floor. Adjust the string length to give you a video that is long enough to allow
you to analyze enough frames of motion.
Choose a mass for the cart and find a range of masses for object A that allows the cart to
achieve a reliably measurable velocity before object A hits the floor. Make sure you
include masses of object A that range from at least 1/2 that of the cart to masses that are
a small fraction of the cart. Practice catching the cart before it hits the clamp on the end
of the track.
Make sure that the assumptions for your prediction apply to the situation in which you
are making the measurement. For example, if you are neglecting friction, make sure that
the carts wheels turn freely. Also check that the pulley wheel turns freely.
68
ENERGY AND VELOCITY
MEASUREMENT
Carry out your measurement plan.
Complete the entire analysis of one case before making videos and measurements of the
next case. A different person should operate the computer for each case.
Make sure you measure and record the mass of the cart and object A. Record the height
through which object A falls and the time this takes to occur.
Take a video that will allow you to analyze the data during both time intervals. Make
measurements for at least two different heights of release.
ANALYSIS
Determine the velocity of the cart just after the hanging object hits the floor. See if this
velocity agrees with your prediction. Examine the dependence of these velocities on the
masses and the height of release.
CONCLUSION
How does the velocity of the cart depend on the masses and the distance traveled just
before the hanging object strikes the floor? Were you able to predict the maximum
velocity? If not, why not? Were there any forms of energy change that were ignored in
your predictions?
69
ENERGY AND VELOCITY
70
LAB 2 PROBLEM 5: ENERGY AND EFFICIENCY I

You are working at a company that designs pinball machines and have been asked to
devise a test to determine the efficiency of some new magnetic bumpers. You know
that when a normal pinball rebounds off traditional bumpers, some of the initial energy
of motion is "dissipated" in the deformation of the ball and bumper, thus slowing the
ball down. The lead engineer on the project assigns you to determine if the new
magnetic bumpers are more efficient. The engineer tells you that the efficiency of a
collision is the ratio of the final kinetic energy to the initial kinetic energy of the system.
To limit the motion to one dimension, you decide to model the situation using a cart
with a magnet colliding with a magnetic bumper. You will use a level track, and use a
video data acquisition system to measure the carts velocity before and after the
collision. You begin to gather your camera and data acquisition system when your
colleague suggests a method with simpler equipment. Your colleague claims it would
be possible to release the cart from rest on an inclined track and make measurements
with just a meter stick. You are not sure you believe it, so you decide to measure the
energy efficiency both ways, and determine the extent to which you get consistent
results. For this problem, you will use the level track. For Energy and Efficiency II, you will
work with the inclined track.
EQUIPMENT
You have a meterstick, stopwatch, track, endstop, cart and video analysis equipment.

problem.
71
ENERGY AND EFFICIENCY I
WARM UP
It is useful to have an organized problem-solving strategy. The following questions will
help with your prediction and the analysis of your data.
1. Make a drawing of the cart on the level track before and after the impact with the
bumper. Define your system. Label the velocity and kinetic energy of all objects in
your system before and after the impact.
2. Write an expression for the efficiency of the bumper in terms of the final and initial
kinetic energy of the cart.
3. Write an expression for the energy dissipated during the impact with the bumper in
terms of the kinetic energy before the impact and the kinetic energy after the impact.
PREDICTION
Calculate the energy efficiency of the bumper discussed in the problem in terms of the
least number of quantities that you can easily measure in the situation of a level track.
Calculate the energy dissipated during the impact with the bumper in terms of those
measurable quantities.
EXPLORATION
Test that the track is level by observing the motion of the cart. If necessary, try leveling
the track by adjusting the levelers in the base of each table leg.
Review your exploration notes for measuring a velocity using video analysis. Practice
pushing the cart with different velocities, slowly enough that the cart will never contact
the bumper (end stop) during the impact when you make a measurement. Find a range
of velocities for your measurement. Set up the camera and tripod to give you a useful
video of the collision immediately before and after the cart collides with the bumper.
MEASUREMENT
Take the measurements necessary to determine the kinetic energy before and after the
impact with the bumper. What is the most efficient way to measure the velocities with
the video equipment? Take data for several different initial velocities.
72
ANALYSIS
Calculate the efficiency of the bumper for the level track. Does your result depend on
the velocity of the cart before it hits the bumper?
CONCLUSION
What is the efficiency of the magnetic bumpers? How much energy is dissipated in an
impact? State your results in the most general terms supported by your analysis.
If available, compare your value of the efficiency (with uncertainty) with the value
obtained by the different procedure given in the problem Energy and Efficiency II. Are
the values consistent? Which way to measure the efficiency of the magnetic bumper do
you think is better? Why?
73
74
LAB 2 PROBLEM 6: ENERGY AND EFFICIENCY II

You are working at a company that designs pinball machines and have been asked to
devise a test to determine the efficiency of some new magnetic bumpers. You know
that when a normal pinball rebounds off traditional bumpers, some of the initial energy
of motion is "dissipated" in the deformation of the ball and bumper, thus slowing the
ball down. The lead engineer on the project assigns you to determine if the new
magnetic bumpers are more efficient. The engineer tells you that the efficiency of a
collision is the ratio of the final kinetic energy to the initial kinetic energy of the system.
To limit the motion to one dimension, you decide to model the situation using a cart
with a magnet colliding with a magnetic bumper. You plan to use a level track, and use
a video data acquisition system to measure the carts velocity before and after the
collision. You begin to gather your camera and data acquisition system when your
colleague suggests a method with simpler equipment. Your colleague claims it would
be possible to release the cart from rest on an inclined track and make measurements
with just a meter stick. You are not sure you believe it, so you decide to measure the
energy efficiency both ways, and determine the extent to which you get consistent
results. For this problem, you will use the inclined track.
EQUIPMENT
You have a meterstick, stopwatch, cart masses, a wooden block to create the incline, and
the video analysis equipment.

problem.
75
ENERGY AND EFFICIENCY II
WARM UP
The following questions will help you to make your prediction and analyze your data.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Make a drawing of the cart on the inclined track at its initial position (before you
release the cart) and just before the cart hits the bumper. Define the system and
label the initial height of the cart above the bumper. Write the kinetic and potential
energy of the cart at these two points.
Use the principle of the conservation of energy to relate the total energy of the
cart at its initial position to the total energy just before it hits the bumper.
Now make another drawing of the cart on the inclined track just after the
collision with the bumper and at its maximum rebound height. Label the rebound
height of the cart above the bumper. Write the kinetic and potential energy of the
cart at these two points.
Use the principle of the conservation of energy to relate the total energy of the
cart just after it hits the bumper to the total energy when the cart reaches its rebound
height.
Write an expression for the efficiency of the bumper in terms of the kinetic
energy of the cart just before the impact and the kinetic energy of the cart just after
the impact. Rewrite this expression in terms of the carts initial height above the
bumper and the carts maximum rebound height above the bumper.
Write an expression for the energy dissipated during the impact with the bumper
in terms of the kinetic energy of the cart just before the impact and the kinetic energy
of the cart after the impact. Re-write this expression in terms of the carts initial
height above the bumper and the carts maximum rebound height above the
bumper.
PREDICTION
Calculate the energy efficiency of the bumper in terms of the least number of quantities
that you can easily measure in the situation of an inclined track.
EXPLORATION
Find a useful range of heights and inclined angles that will not cause damage to the
carts or bumpers. Make sure that the cart will never contact bumper (end stop) during
the impact. Decide how you are going to consistently measure the height of the cart.
MEASUREMENT
Take the measurements necessary to determine the kinetic energy of the cart before and
after the impact with the bumper. Take data for several different initial heights.
76
ANALYSIS
Calculate the efficiency of the bumper for the inclined track. Does your result depend
on the velocity of the cart before it hits the bumper?
CONCLUSION
What is the efficiency of the magnetic bumpers? How much energy is dissipated in an
impact? State your results in the most general terms supported by your analysis.
If available, compare your value of the efficiency (with uncertainty) with the value
obtained by the different procedure given in the problem Energy and Efficiency I. Are
the values consistent? Which way to measure the efficiency of the magnetic bumper do
you think is better? Why?
77
78
LAB 2 PROBLEM 7: MECHANICAL ENERGY OF A SPRING

You are designing the suspension for a new high-performance sports car. You need to
understand the behavior of the springs that you will be using in the car. In particular,
you want to understand how the suspension will dissipate the energy of the car
bouncing up and down. Before you can understand that dissipation, however, you need
to understand the more fundamental idea of the energy stored in the springs that you
will be using. You decide to model the situation by suspending a mass from a spring in
your laboratory.
Read: Mazur Sections 5.25.4, 5.7, 7.2, 7.3, 7.9, 9.7
EQUIPMENT
You have springs, a table clamp, a rod, a meter stick, a mass set, and the video analysis
equipment.

problem.
79
MECHANICAL ENERGY OF A SPRING
WARM-UP
1. Make a sketch of the system before a mass is hung from the end of the spring. Draw
a coordinate system, placing the origin at the end of the hanging spring when the
spring is unstretched. Approximate the spring as massless.
2. Draw the spring system when a mass is hung from the spring and resting at its
equilibrium position. Draw a force diagram for the object hanging at rest from the
end of the spring and solve for the spring constant in terms of the objects mass, the
gravitational acceleration constant, and the objects equilibrium position.
3. Consider the situation where an object, attached to the end of the spring, is initially
held at the position at which the spring is unstretched and then released so that it
begins oscillating. Make a sketch of this system when the object is at some arbitrary
position. Determine the different kinds of energy found in the system while the
object is oscillating.
4. What is the total energy of the system just before the object is released? How is this
related to the other forms of energy in the system?
5. Assuming that total energy is conserved, although the values of the different forms
of energy change during the oscillation, determine how the spring potential energy
depends on the kinetic energy and the gravitational potential energy of the object
and, in turn, how the kinetic and gravitational potential energies of the object
depend on its position and speed.
6. Finally, write down the theoretical form for the spring potential energy. How could
we plot the spring potential energy (as determined from the answer to problem 5) as
a function of position to easily show that this theoretical form holds? Will a plot of
spring potential energy versus position be linear? How could we adjust position or
spring potential energy to make this plot linear? What would be the slope of this
plot? (The section Using Linear Relationships to Make Graphs Clear in the
appendix A Review of Graphs will help you answer this question.)
PREDICTION
Knowing the value of spring potential energy, determine how it can be plotted versus
some function of position to yield a linear plot, and determine the slope of this plot.
80
EXPLORATION
Secure one end of the spring safely to the metal rod and select a mass that gives a
regular oscillation without excessive wobbling at the hanging end of the spring. The
largest choice for the mass of the object should not result in the object pulling the
spring past its elastic limit (about 40cm). Beyond that point you will damage the
spring. However, the smallest choice for the mass should be much greater than the
mass of the spring to fulfill the massless spring assumption. Practice releasing the mass
from the unstretched position of the spring so that its vertical motion is smooth.
Practice making a video to record the motion of the spring-object system. What
quantities do you need to measure in order to calculate the kinetic and gravitational
potential energies of the system?
MEASUREMENT
Record the mass of the object. Make a video of the motion of the hanging object. Make
sure your video includes at least two full cycles of oscillation so you have sufficient data
to analyze. Make sure to fit the data for both position and velocity as these equations
will be necessary for your analysis. Also save the data in a text file that can be imported
into Excel.
ANALYSIS
Copy your position vs. time and velocity vs. time data into Excel. Using position and
velocity, make a table of the gravitational potential and kinetic energies at all times.
Make another column that provides the spring potential energy by subtracting the
gravitational potential energy and the kinetic energy from the total constant energy.
Plot the spring potential energy versus some function of the position to (hopefully)
obtain a linear plot. What is the slope of this plot? What constant can be extracted from
this slope? How else can you find this constant? Repeat this procedure for objects with
different masses hanging from the spring if you have time.
81
CONCLUSION
How do your results compare to your prediction? If your results dont match your
prediction, e.g., if your plot of spring potential energy versus a function of position is
not linear, what might be the reason for this deviation?
Since you are ultimately interested in dissipation of energy by the cars suspension
anyway, does your data seem to show any energy dissipation? How does dissipation
affect your initial prediction?
How would a change in mass change the total energy of the system? Does changing the
mass change the value of the spring constant or the form of the springs potential
energy? What would happen to the form of the springs potential energy if you had
defined your origin for the object at another location (not the position of the unstretched
spring)?
82
LAB 2 PROBLEM 8: MECHAN ICAL EN ERGY OF A SPRIN G II

Suppose that you and your neighbor carpool to work each morning. One day before
work, you try to start your car, but nothing happens. You realize that you left the
headlights on all night, and the cars battery is now dead. Neither you nor your
neighbor has jumper cables, so you will need to get to a car mechanic. However, your
car has a manual transmission, so it still might be possible to start your car. In order for
this to happen, you need to push your car until it reaches a certain speed, and then you
will be able to start the ignition. Your neighbor has a crazy idea to achieve this: she has
been building a large, hand-crank driven mechanical spring in her garage, and she
wants to use it on your car! Her plan is the following: you sit in the drivers seat and
put the car into the drive gear, while she cranks the spring and then releases it to try to
help the car achieve the minimum required speed.
Read: Mazur Sections 5.25.4, 5.7, 7.2, 7.3, 7.9, 9.7
EQUIPMENT
You have a meter stick, a stopwatch, cart masses, a cart, a cart launcher, and video
analysis equipment. Since the cart launcher has a spring mechanism, it will act like a
spring. The cart launcher mounts to the track in the tracks side T-slot.
83
MECHANICAL ENERGY OF A SPRING II

problem.
WARM-UP
1. Sketch a graph of the potential energy of the spring versus its displacement from
the equilibrium position. What is the shape of this graph (linear, parabolic, etc.)?
2. On the same graph as above, sketch the kinetic energy of the spring versus its
displacement from the equilibrium position. What is the shape of this graph?
3. Assume that frictional effects are negligible. On the same graph as above, sketch
the total energy of the spring versus its displacement from the equilibrium position. What is the shape of this graph? How is total energy related to potential energy and kinetic energy? Write down an equation for this relationship.
4. Suppose that your neighbor has another spring with double the spring constant.
How would the graph change? Sketch a similar graph based on questions 1-3
with double the spring constant.
5. Suppose that your other neighbors want to join the fun. If they get in the car too,
the mass will increase. How would the graph change? Sketch a similar graph
based on questions 1-3 with double the mass.
6. Compare the three graphs made in 1-3, 4, and 5, respectively. Do they each have
the same shape, or different shapes? How do their maximum values compare?
How do their minimum values compare?
7. Rewrite the equation from question 3 in terms of the springs velocity, the
springs mass, the spring constant, and the springs displacement from its equilibrium position. Now solve for the velocity of the spring.
PRED ICTION
For a given mass, you will need to determine the displacement of the spring needed to
reach the minimum required velocity for the car to start. How will the velocity depend
on the displacement of the spring?
In order to vary the velocity of the spring, which variables can you easily change?
Which ones will require equipment that is not listed in the equipment section?
84
EXPLORATION
Become familiar with the cart launcher and its behavior. Without the cart, compress,
lock, and release the spring mechanism of the cart launcher for a number of different
displacements. The cart launcher works well for spring displacements between 1.0 and
4.0 cm. Find an upper limit for spring displacement at which you and your partners are
comfortable setting up the cart launcher.
Choose a range of displacement values for the cart launcher and test these values using
the cart. For each displacement value, place the cart at the end of the launcher and make
sure that the cart does not wobble, fall of the track, or move too fast or too slow after the
spring mechanism is released. Make sure that someone in your group is able to catch
the cart at the other end of the track.
MEASUREMENT
Carry out your measurement plan.
Complete the entire measurement and analysis of one displacement value before
moving on to the next value. A different person should operate the computer for each
displacement value.
Notice that the velocity of the cart changes as the spring mechanism releases. The cart
will reach a constant velocity very soon after it is completely released from the cart
launcher. Make sure that you measure the velocity of the cart after this point in the
video recording, i.e. when it has reached a constant value.
ANALYSIS
For each displacement value, determine the velocity of the cart just after the cart is
released from the cart launcher. Make a graph of the carts velocity versus the
displacement of the spring. See if this agrees with your predicted equation.
85
CONCLUSION
How do your results compare to your predictions? Does your data indicate that the
carts velocity depends on the displacement of the spring linearly? Some of your data
may not show a linear relationship. What could cause this deviation from your
prediction?
In order to vary the potential energy of the spring (and thus the final kinetic energy of
the cart), which variable did you change? Would your results be different if you had
chosen another one (e.g., cart mass versus spring displacement)?
86
LAB 2 PROBLEM 9: EN ERGY AN D FRICTION

You w ork for an auto com pany, w hich has experienced w ork stoppages w hen novice
forklift d rivers sud d enly stop, causing crates of auto parts to slid e off the forklift and
spill on the floor. Your team is investigating the cond itions und er w hich such accid en ts
w ill occur, in ord er to im prove d river training. What factors are im p ortant? Your task is
to calculate the d istance a crate slid es after the forklift has com e to a sud d en stop, as a
function of the forklifts initial speed . You assum e that the crate is not tied d ow n, and
that the surface supp orting the crate is horizontal. To test your pred iction, you w ill
m od el the situation w ith a cart on the track.
Read : Mazur Chapter 5.
EQUIPMEN T
You have a cart, 500g (flat topped ) cart m asses, track, end stop, w ood / cloth friction
block, m ass set, m eterstick, a stopw atch and the vid eo analysis equipm ent to d eterm ine
the velocity of the cart before the collision.
You need to use a pair of flat topped 500g cart m asses on the cart, t he 250g m asses d o
not w ork. The w ood/ cloth block should be placed sid ew ays on the surface to have
enough slid ing d istance. You sud d enly stop the cart by collid ing it w ith the end stop.
Friction betw een the cart and the track is negligible.
labhelp@physics.um n.ed u . Include the room number and brief description of the
problem.
87
ENERGY AND FRICTION
WARM UP
The follow ing questions w ill help w ith th e p red iction, and analysis of your d ata.
1. Draw three pictures: one show ing the situation just before the collision of the cart
w ith the end -stop, one im m ed iately after the collision w hen the cart is stopped but
the block has not yet begun to slow d ow n, and the third w hen the w ood block has
com e to rest. Draw velocity vectors on your sketches, and label any im portant
d istances. What is the relationship betw een the carts velocity and the w ood blocks
velocity in each picture? Define your system . Write d ow n the energy of the system
for each picture.
2. Write d ow n the energy conservation equation for this situation, betw een the second
and third pictures. Is any energy transferred into or out of the system ?
3. Draw a force d iagram for the w ood / cloth block as it slid es across the cart. Id entify
the forces that d o w ork on the block (i.e., result in the transfer of energy in or out of
the system ). Write an equation relating the energy transferred by these forces to the
d istance the block slid es.
4. Com plete your pred iction, and graph slid ing d istance vs. initial forklift speed .
PRED ICTION S
Calculate the d istance the block slid es in the situation d escribed in the problem as a
function of the carts speed before the collision. Illustrate your prediction graphically.
EXPLORATION
Practice setting the cart w ith m asses into m otion so the cart sticks to the end stop. What
ad justm ents are necessary to m ake this happen consistently? Place the w ood / cloth
block on the cart. Try giving the cart various initial velocities. C hoose a range of initial
velocities that give you good vid eo d ata. Make sure that the w ood/ cloth block does not
begin to slid e on the cart before the collision. Try several m asses for the cart and the
block. N ote qualitatively the outcom es w hen the cart sticks to the end stop.
M EASUREMEN T
Make the m easurem ents that you need to check the pred iction. Because you are d ealing
w ith friction, it is especially im portant that you repeat each m easurem ent several tim es
und er the sam e cond itions to see if it is rep rod ucible.
88
ENERGY AND FRICTION
A N ALYSIS
Make a graph of the distance the block travels as a function of the carts initial speed .
Does this result d epend on the m ass of the block or the m ass of the cart? If the graph is
not linear, graph the distance vs. some power of the speed to prod uce a linear graph (see the
append ix Review of Graphs). (Use your pred iction to guess w hich pow er of speed to
use.) What is the m eaning of the slope of that line?
CON CLUSION
Do your results agree w ith your pred ictions? What are the lim it ations on the accuracy
of your m easurem ents and analysis? As a check, d eterm ine the coefficient of kinetic
friction betw een the block and the cart from your results. Is it reasonable?
Does the d istance that the crate slid es d epend on the m ass of the fork lift, or the m ass of
the crate? If the slid ing d istance varies linearly w ith som e pow er of the forklifts initial
speed , w hat is that p ow er? What w ould you tell forklift d rivers about the effect of
d oubling their speed ? In a sentence or tw o, relate this result to conservation of energy.
89
ENERGY AND FRICTION
90

Name:
Date Performed:
ID#:
Earns No Points
Earns Full Points

Argument
logic does not flow
gaps in content

argument
Technical Style

emotions

writing
incorporated
consistent
Use of Physics
phenomenon

theory
Quantitativeness

qualitative
inappropriate
Total
91
Possible Earned
92
LAB 3 PROBLEM 1: FORCE AND MOTION

You are a volunteer in the citys childrens summer program. In one activity the
children build and race model cars along a level surface. To give each car a fair start,
another volunteer builds a special launcher with a string attached to the car at one end.
The string passes over a pulley and from its other end hangs a block. The car starts
from rest when the block is allowed to fall. After the block hits the ground, the string
no longer exerts a force on the car and it continues along the track. You decide to
calculate how the launch velocity of the car depends on the mass of the car, the mass of
the block, and the distance the block falls. You hope to use the calculation to impress
other volunteers by predicting the winner of each race.
EQUIPMENT
You have a meterstick, stopwatch, mass set, cart masses, a pulley & table clamp, string
and the video analysis equipment.
Released from rest, a cart is pulled along a level track by a hanging mass as shown. You
can vary the hanging mass and the mass of the cart which are connected by a light
string. The mass falls through a height shorter than the tracks length.
problem.
WARM UP
To figure out your prediction, it is useful to have an organized problem-solving strategy
such as the one outlined in the following questions. You might also find the Problem
Solving techniques in the Competent Problem Solver useful.
93
FORCE AND MOTION

1. Make three sketches of the problem situation, one for each of three instants: when
the cart starts from rest, just before object A hits the floor, and just after object A hits
the floor. Draw vectors to show the directions and relative magnitudes of the two
objects velocities and accelerations at each instant. Draw vectors to show all of the
forces on object A and the cart at each instant. Assign appropriate symbols to all of
the quantities describing the motion and the forces. If two quantities have the same
magnitude, use the same symbol but write down your justification for doing so.
(For example, the cart and object A have the same magnitude of velocity when the
cart is pulled by the string. Explain why.) Decide on your coordinate system and
draw it.
2. The "known" quantities in this problem are the mass of object A, the mass of the cart,
and the height above the floor where object A is released. Assign a symbol to each
known quantity. Identify all the unknown quantities. What is the relationship
between what you really want to know (the velocity of the cart after object A hits the
floor) and what you can calculate (the velocity of the cart just before object A hits the
floor)?
3. Identify and write the physics principles you will use to solve the problem. (Hint:
forces determine the objects accelerations so Newton's 2nd Law may be useful. You
need to relate the magnitudes of forces on different objects to one another, so
Newtons 3rd Law is probably also useful. Will you need any kinematics
principles?) Write down any assumptions you have made which are necessary to
solve the problem and justified by the physical situation. (For example, why will it
be reasonable to ignore frictional forces in this situation?)
4. Draw one free-body diagram for object A, and a separate one for the cart after they
start accelerating. Check to see if any of these forces are related by Newtons 3rd
Law (Third Law Pairs). Draw the acceleration vector for the object next to its freebody diagram. Next, draw two separate coordinate systems; place vectors to
represent each force acting on the cart on one coordinate system, and those acting on
Object A on the second one (force diagrams). (The origin (tail) of each vector should
be the origin of the coordinate system.) For each force diagram, write down
Newton's 2nd law along each axis of the coordinate system. Make sure all of your
signs are correct in the Newtons 2nd law equations. (For example, if the acceleration
of the cart is in the + direction, is the acceleration of object A + or -? Your answer
will depend on how you define your coordinate system.)
5. You are interested in the final velocity of the cart, but Newtons 2nd Law only gives
you its acceleration; write down any kinematics equations which are appropriate to
this situation. Is the acceleration of each object constant, or does it vary while object
A falls?
6. Write down an equation, from those you have collected in steps 4 and 5 above,
which relates what you want to know (the velocity of the cart just before object A
hits the ground) to a quantity you either know or can find out (the acceleration of
the cart and the time from the start until just before object A hits the floor). Now
94
FORCE AND MOTION

you have two new unknowns (acceleration and time). Choose one of these
unknowns and write down a new equation (again from those collected in steps 4
and 5) which relates it to another quantity you either know or can find out (distance
object A falls). If you have generated no additional unknowns, go back to determine
the other original unknown (acceleration). Write down a new equation that relates
the acceleration of the cart to other quantities you either know or can find (forces on
the cart). Continue this process until you generate no new unknowns. At that time
you should have as many equations as unknowns.
7. Solve your mathematics to give the prediction.
Make a graph of the carts velocity after object A has hit the floor as a function of the
mass of object A, keeping constant the cart mass and the height through which
object A falls.
mass of the cart, keeping constant the mass of object A and the height through
which object A falls.
distance object A falls, keeping constant the cart mass and the mass of object A.
8. Does the shape of each graph make sense to you? Explain your reasoning.
PREDICTION
Calculate the carts velocity after object A has hit the floor. Express it as an equation, in
terms of quantities mentioned in the problem, and draw graphs to show how the velocity
changes with each variable.
EXPLORATION
out of track. You will be analyzing a video of the cart after object A has hit the floor.
Adjust the string length to give you a video that is long enough to allow you to analyze
several frames of motion.
Choose a mass for the cart and find a useful range of masses for object A that allows the
cart to achieve a reliably measurable velocity before object A hits the floor. Practice
catching the cart before it hits the end stop on the track. Make sure that the
assumptions for your prediction are good for the situation in which you are making the
measurement. Use your prediction to determine if your choice of masses will allow you
to measure the effect that you are looking for. If not, choose different masses.
Choose a mass for object A and find a useful range of masses for the cart.
95
FORCE AND MOTION

Now choose a mass for object A and one for the cart and find a useful range of falling
distances for object A.
Write down your measurement plan. (Hint: What do you need to measure with video
analysis? Do you need video of the cart? Do you need video of object A?)
MEASUREMENT
Carry out the measurement plan you determined in the Exploration section.
Complete the entire analysis of one case before making videos and measurements of the
next case.
Make sure you measure and record the masses of the cart and object A (with
uncertainties). Record the height through which object A falls and the time it takes to
fall (measured with the stopwatch).
ANALYSIS
Determine the cart's velocity just after object A hits the floor from your video.
From the time and distance object A fell in each trial, calculate the carts velocity just
after object A hits the floor. Compare this value to the velocity you measured from the
video. Are they consistent with each other? What are the limitations on the accuracy of
CONCLUSION
How does the velocity from your prediction equation compare with the two measured
velocities (measured with video analysis, and also with stopwatch / meter stick
measurements) compare in each case? Did your measurements agree with your initial
prediction? If not, why?
Does the launch velocity of the car depend on its mass? The mass of the block? The
distance the block falls?
If the same mass block falls through the same distance, but you change the mass of the
cart, does the force the string exerts on the cart change? Is the force of the string on
object A always equal to the weight of object A? Is it ever equal to the weight of object
A? Explain your reasoning.
96
LAB 3 PROBLEM 2: FORCES IN EQUILIBRIUM

You have a summer job with a research group studying the ecology of a rain forest in
South America. To avoid walking on the delicate rain forest floor, the team members
walk along a rope walkway that the local inhabitants have strung from tree to tree
through the forest canopy. Your supervisor is concerned about the maximum amount of
equipment each team member should carry to safely walk from tree to tree. If the
walkway sags too much, the team member could be in danger, not to mention possible
damage to the rain forest floor. You are assigned to set the load standards.
Each end of the rope supporting the walkway goes over a branch and then is attached to
a large weight hanging down. You need to determine how the sag of the walkway is
related to the mass of a team member plus equipment when they are at the center of the
walkway between two trees. To check your calculation, you decide to model the
situation using the equipment shown below.
EQUIPMENT
You have a meterstick, two pulleys, two table clamps, string and three mass sets.
The system consists of a central object, B, suspended halfway between two pulleys by a
string. The whole system is in equilibrium. The counterweight objects A and C, which
have the same mass, allow you to determine the force exerted on the central object by the
string.
97
FORCES IN EQUILIBRIUM
problem.
WARM UP
It is useful to have an organized problem-solving strategy such as the one outlined in
the following questions. You can refer to the problem Force and Motion if needed
(where a more detailed set of Warm up questions is provided) to solve this problem.
1. Draw a sketch of the setup. Draw vectors that represent the forces on objects A, B,
C, and point P. Use trigonometry to show how the vertical displacement of object
B is related to the horizontal distance between the two pulleys and the angle that
the string between the two pulleys sags below the horizontal.
2. The "known" (measurable) quantities in this problem are L, m and M; the
unknown quantity is the vertical displacement of object B.
3. Write down the acceleration for each object. Draw separate force diagrams for
objects A, B, C and for point P (if you need help, see your text). Use Newtons third
law to identify pairs of forces with equal magnitude. What assumptions are you
making?
Which angles between your force vectors and your horizontal coordinate axis are
the same as the angle between the strings and the horizontal?
4. For each force diagram, write Newton's second law along each coordinate axis.
5. Solve your equations to predict how the vertical displacement of object B depends
on its mass (M), the mass (m) of objects A and C, and the horizontal distance
between the two pulleys (L). Use this resulting equation to make a graph of how
the vertical displacement changes as a function of the mass of object B.
6. From your resulting equation, analyze what is the limit of mass (M) of object B
corresponding to the fixed mass (m) of object A and C. What will happen if
M>2m?
PREDICTION
Write an equation for the vertical displacement of the central object B in terms of the
horizontal distance between the two pulleys (L), the mass (M) of object B, and the mass
(m) of objects A and C.
98
EXPLORATION
Start with just the string suspended between the pulleys (no central object), so that the
string looks horizontal. Attach a central object and observe how the string sags. Decide
on the origin from which you will measure the vertical position of the object.
Try changing the mass of objects A and C (keep them equal for the measurements but
you will want to explore the case where they are not equal).
Do the pulleys behave in a frictionless way for the entire range of weights you will use?
How can you determine if the assumption of frictionless pulleys is a good one? Add
mass to the central object to decide what increments of mass will give a good range of
values for the measurement. Decide how measurements you will need to make.
MEASUREMENT
Measure the vertical position of the central object as you increase its mass. Make a table
and record your measurements with uncertainties.
ANALYSIS
Graph the measured vertical displacement of the central object as a function of its mass.
On the same graph, plot the predicted vertical displacement.
Where do the two curves match? Are there places where the two curves start to diverge
from one another? What does this tell you about the system?
CONCLUSION
What will you report to your supervisor? How does the vertical displacement of an
object suspended on a string between two pulleys depend on the mass of that object?
Did your measurements of the vertical displacement of object B agree with your
predictions? If not, why? State your result in the most general terms supported by
your analysis.
What information would you need to apply your calculation to the walkway through
the rain forest?
99
Estimate reasonable values for the information you need, and solve the problem for the
walkway over the rain forest.
100
LAB 3 PROBLEM 3: FRICTIONAL FORCE

You have joined a team trying to win a solar powered car race and have been asked to
investigate the effect of friction on the strategy of the race. In any race, sometimes the
car coasts and sometimes it speeds up. One of your team has suggested that the
frictional force is larger when a force causes an object to speed up than when it coasts
and slows down naturally because of friction. Do you agree? You suggest making a
laboratory model to measure the frictional force when it is speeding up and when it is
coasting. You cant measure force directly; to make the model useful you must calculate
how measurable quantities will be affected by the friction force. Your model consists of a
cart pulled along a level track by a light string. The string passes over a pulley and is
tied to some weights hanging down. After the weights hit the ground, the cart
continues to coast along the track. A pad between the cart and the track provides a
variable friction force.
Read: Mazur Chapter 10, especially Section 10.4.
EQUIPMENT
You have a cart, track, meterstick, mass set, stopwatch, pulley & table clamp, cart
masses and video equipment. You can change the hanging mass and the cart. A small
bolt with a Velcro pad is the friction accessory. It screws into the bottom of the cart.

problem.
101
FRICTIONAL FORCE
WARM UP
It is useful to have an organized problem-solving strategy such as the one outlined in
the following questions. You can refer to the problem Force and Motion if needed
(where a more detailed set of Warm up questions is provided) to solve this problem.
1. Make a drawing of the problem situation while the carts speed is increasing, and
another one while the carts speed is decreasing. Draw vectors for each drawing
to represent all quantities that describe the motions of the block and the cart and
the forces acting on them. Assign appropriate symbols to each quantity. If two
quantities have the same magnitude, use the same symbol. Choose a coordinate
system and draw it.
2. List the "known" (controlled by you)_ and "unknown" (to be measured or
calculated) quantities in this problem.
3. Write down what principles of Physics you will use to solve the problem. Will
you need any of the principles of kinematics? Write down any assumptions you
have made that are necessary to solve the problem and are justified by the
physical situation.
4. Start with the time interval in which the string exerts a force on the cart (before
object A hits the floor). Draw separate free-body and force diagrams for object A
and for the cart after they start accelerating. Check to see if any force pairs are
related by Newtons 3rd Law. For each force diagram (one for the car and one for
object A), write down Newton's 2nd law along each axis of the coordinate system.
Be sure all signs are correct.
5. Write down an equation, from those you have collected in step 4 above, that
relates what you want to know (the frictional force on the cart) to a quantity you
either know or can find out (the acceleration of the cart). Is the force the string
exerts on the cart equal to, greater than, or less than the gravitational pull on
object A? Explain. Solve your equations for the frictional force on the cart in
terms of the masses of the cart, the mass of object A, and the acceleration of the
cart.
6. Now deal with the time interval in which the string does not exert a force on the
cart (after object A hits the floor). Draw a free-body and force diagram for the
cart. Write down Newton's 2nd law along each axis of the coordinate system. Be
sure your signs are correct. Solve your equation for the frictional force on the cart
in terms of the masses of the cart, the mass of object A, and the acceleration of the
cart. You can now determine the frictional force on the cart for each case by
measuring the acceleration of the cart.
102
FRICTIONAL FORCE
PREDICTION
Express the frictional force on the cart in terms of quantities that you can measure in the
experiment. Make an educated guess about the relationship between the frictional forces
in the two situations.
EXPLORATION
out of track. You will be analyzing a video of the cart both before and after object A has hit
the floor. Consider how to distinguish these two cases in the same video.
Choose a mass for the cart and find a mass for object A that allows you to reliably
measure the carts acceleration both before and after object A hits the floor. Because you
are comparing the case of the string pulling on the cart with the case of the string not
pulling on the cart, make sure the force of the string on the cart is as large as possible.
Practice catching the cart before it hits the end stop on the track. Use your prediction to
determine if your choice of masses will allow you to measure the effect you are looking
for. If not, choose different masses.
Write down your measurement plan. (Do you need video of the cart? Do you need
video of object A?)
MEASUREMENT
Carry out the measurement plan you determined in the Exploration section.
Measure and record the mass of the cart and object A (with uncertainties). Record the
height through which object A (the mass hanger) falls and the time it takes to fall.
Make enough measurements to convince yourself and others of your conclusion.
ANALYSIS
Using the height and time of object As fall for each trial, calculate the carts acceleration
before object A hits the floor. Use the video to determine the cart's acceleration before and
after object A. Is the before acceleration from the video consistent with the one you
calculate based on time and height of fall?
Use acceleration and determine the friction force before and after object A hits the floor.
103
FRICTIONAL FORCE
CONCLUSION
Was the frictional force the same whether or not the string exerted a force on it? Does
this agree with your initial prediction? If not, why?
104
LAB 3 PROBLEM 4: NORMAL AND KINETIC

FRICTIONAL FORCE I
You work for a consulting firm with contracts to test the mechanical properties of
different materials. A customer wants you to determine the coefficient of kinetic
friction for wood on aluminum. You decide to measure the coefficient of kinetic friction
by graphing the frictional force as a function of the normal force when a wood block
slides down an aluminum track. The coefficient of kinetic friction is the slope of that
graph. Because there is measurement uncertainty no matter how you do the
measurement, you decide to vary the normal force in two different ways. You divide
your group into two teams. The other team will vary the normal force by changing the
angle of incline of the track (Normal and Kinetic Frictional Force II). Your team will
vary the normal force by changing the mass of the block.
Read: Mazur Sections 10.14.
EQUIPMENT
You have wooden blocks and either an aluminum plane, or track, to make an incline.
You also have a friction block with felt and wood sides, masses to tape to the block, a
meterstick, stopwatch and video analysis equipment.

problem.
105
NORMAL AND KINETIC FRICTIONAL FORCE I
WARM UP
To figure out your prediction you must determine how to calculate the normal force
and the kinetic frictional force from quantities you can measure in this problem. It is
useful to have an organized problem-solving strategy such as the one outlined in the
following questions.
1. What do you expect for the shape of a graph of kinetic friction force vs. normal
force? What do you expect for the slope?
2. Make a drawing of the problem situation similar to the one in the Equipment
section. Draw vectors to represent all quantities that describe the motion of the
block and the forces on it. What measurements can you make with a meter stick to
determine the angle of incline? Choose a coordinate system. What is the reason for
using the coordinate system you picked?
3. What measurements can you make to enable you to calculate the kinetic frictional
force on the block? What measurements can you make to enable you to calculate the
normal force on the block? Do you expect the kinetic frictional force the track exerts
on the wooden block to increase, decrease, or stay the same as the normal force on
the wooden block increases? Explain your reasoning.
4. Draw a free-body diagram of the wooden block as it slides down the aluminum
track. Draw the acceleration vector for the block near the free-body diagram.
Transfer the force vectors to your coordinate system. What angles between your
force vectors and your coordinate axes are the same as the angle between the
aluminum track and the table? Determine all of the angles between the force vectors
and the coordinate axes.
5. Write down Newtons 2nd Law for the sliding block along each coordinate axis.
6. Using the equations from step 5, determine an equation for the kinetic frictional
force in terms of quantities you can measure. Next determine an equation for the
normal force in terms of quantities you can measure. In your experiment, the
measurable quantities include the mass of the block, the angle of incline and the
acceleration of the cart.
PREDICTION
To make sense of your experimental results, you need to determine the relationship
between the coefficient of kinetic friction and the quantities that you can measure in
experiment. You can look up the accepted value of the coefficient of friction from the
Table of Coefficients of Friction near the end of this laboratory. Explain your reasoning.
106
NORMAL KINETIC FRICTIONAL FORCE I
EXPLORATION
Find an angle at which the wooden block accelerates smoothly down the aluminum
track. Try this when the wooden block has different masses on top of it. Select an angle
and series of masses that will make your measurements most reliable.
MEASUREMENT
At the chosen angle, take a video of the wooden block's motion. Keep the track fixed
when block is sliding down. Make sure you measure and record that angle. You will need it
later.
Repeat this procedure for different block masses to change the normal force. Make sure
the block moves smoothly down the incline for each new mass. Make sure every time
you use the same surface of the block to contact the track.
Collect enough data to convince yourself and others of your conclusion about how the
kinetic frictional force on the wooden block depends on the normal force on the wooden
block.
ANALYSIS
For each block mass and video, calculate the magnitude of the kinetic frictional force
from the acceleration. Also determine the normal force on the block.
Graph the magnitude of the kinetic frictional force against the magnitude of the normal
force, for a constant angle of incline. Use the graph to find the coefficient of kinetic
friction.
CONCLUSION
What is the coefficient of kinetic friction for wood on aluminum? How does this
compare to the value on the table? Does the shape of the measured graph match the
shape of the predicted graph? Over what range of values does the measured graph best
match the predicted graph?
If available, compare your value of the coefficient of kinetic friction (with uncertainty)
with the value obtained by the different procedure given in the next problem. Are the
107
NORMAL AND KINETIC FRICTIONAL FORCE I

values consistent? Which way of varying the normal force to measure the coefficient of
friction do you think is better? Why?
108
LAB 3 PROBLEM 5: NORMAL AND KINETIC

FRICTIONAL FORCE II
You work for a consulting firm with contracts to test the mechanical properties of
different materials. A customer wants your group to determine the coefficient of kinetic
friction for wood on aluminum. You decide to measure the coefficient of kinetic friction
by graphing the frictional force as a function of the normal force when a wood block
slides down an aluminum track. The coefficient of kinetic friction is the slope of that
graph. Because there is experimental measurement uncertainty no matter how you do
the measurement, you decide to vary the normal force in two different ways. You
divide your group into two teams. The other team will vary the normal force by
changing the mass of the block (Normal and Kinetic Frictional Force I). Your team will
vary the normal force by changing the angle of incline of the aluminum track.
Read: Mazur, Sections 10.14.
EQUIPMENT
You have wooden blocks and either an aluminum plane, or track, to make an incline.
You also have a friction block with felt and wood sides, additional blocks to vary the
incline, a meterstick, stopwatch and video analysis equipment.

problem.
109
NORMAL KINETIC FRICTIONAL FORCE II
WARM UP
To figure out your prediction you must determine how to calculate the normal force
and the kinetic frictional force from the quantities you can measure in this problem. It is
useful to have an organized problem-solving strategy such as the one outlined in the
following questions.
1. What do you expect for the shape of a graph of kinetic friction force vs. normal
force? What do you expect for the slope?
2. Make a drawing of the problem situation similar to the one in the Equipment
section. Draw vectors to represent all quantities that describe the motion of the
block and the forces on it. What measurements can you make with a meter stick to
determine the angle of incline? Choose a coordinate system. What is the reason for
using the coordinate system you picked?
3. What measurements can you make to enable you to calculate the kinetic frictional
force on the block? What measurements can you make to enable you to calculate the
normal force on the block? Do you expect the normal force the track exerts on the
wooden block to increase, decrease, or stay the same as the angle of the track
increases? How do you expect the kinetic frictional force the track exerts on the
wooden block to change if the normal force changes? Explain your reasoning.
4. Draw a free-body diagram of the wooden block as it slides down the aluminum
track. Draw the acceleration vector for the block near the free-body diagram.
Transfer the force vectors to your coordinate system. What angles between your
force vectors and your coordinate axes are the same as the angle between the
aluminum track and the table? Determine all of the angles between the force vectors
and the coordinate axes.
5. Write down Newtons 2nd Law for the sliding block along each coordinate axis.
6. Using the equations from step 5, determine an equation for the kinetic frictional
force in terms of quantities you can measure. Next determine an equation for the
normal force in terms of quantities you can measure. In our experiment, the
measurable quantities include the mass of the block, the angle of incline and the
acceleration of the cart.
PREDICTIONS
To make sense of your experimental results, you need to determine the relationship
between the coefficient of kinetic friction and the quantities that you can measure in
experiment. You can look up the accepted value of the coefficient of friction from the
Table of Coefficients of Friction near the end of this laboratory. Explain your reasoning.
110
EXPLORATION
Find a mass for which the wooden block accelerates smoothly down the aluminum
track. Try this several different angles of the aluminum track.
Try different block masses. Select a mass that gives you the greatest range of track
angles for reliable measurements.
MEASUREMENT
With the chosen block mass fixed, take a video of its motion. Make sure you measure and
record each angle.
Repeat this procedure for different track angles. Make sure the block moves smoothly
down the incline for each angle. Use the same surface of the block with each trial.
kinetic frictional force on the wooden block depends on the normal force on the wooden
block.
ANALYSIS
For each angle and video, calculate the magnitude of the kinetic frictional force from the
acceleration. Also determine the normal force on the block.
Graph the magnitude of the kinetic frictional force against the magnitude of the normal
force for a constant block mass. Use the graph to find the coefficient of kinetic friction.
CONCLUSION
What is the coefficient of kinetic friction for wood on aluminum? How does this
compare to the value on the table? Does the shape of the measured graph match the
shape of the predicted graph? Over what range of values does the measured graph best
match the predicted graph? What are the limitations on the accuracy of your
If available, compare your value of the coefficient of kinetic friction (with uncertainty)
with the value obtained by the procedure of the preceding problem. Are the values
consistent? Which way of varying the normal force to measure the coefficient of friction
do you think is better? Why?
111
112
LAB 3 PROBLEM 6: MEASURING SPRING CONSTANTS

(HOOKES LAW)
You are selecting springs for a large antique
exert in the clock, you need to know their
recommends a static approach: hang objects
measure the displacement from equilibrium.
spring constants from your measurements.
clock; to determine the forces they will

spring constants. The book you have
of different weights on the spring and
You have to figure out how to calculate
Read: Mazur Chapter 8, especially Sections 8.6 and 8.9.
EQUIPMENT
You have springs, a table clamp, rod,
meterstick, stopwatch, mass set and video
analysis equipment. You should hang the
spring from a rod that extends from a table
clamp.

problem.
WARM UP
To figure out your predictions, it is useful to apply a problem-solving strategy such as the
one outlined below:
You hang objects of several different masses on a spring and measure the vertical
displacement of each object.
1. Make two sketches of the situation, one before you attach a mass to a spring, and
one after a mass is suspended from the spring and is at rest. Draw a coordinate
113
MEASURING SPRING CONSTANTS

system and label the position where the spring is unstretched, the stretched position,
the mass of the object, and the spring constant. Assume the springs are massless.
2. Draw a force diagram for the object hanging at rest from the end of the spring. Label
the forces. Newton's second law gives the equation of motion for the hanging object.
Solve this equation for the spring constant.
3. Use your equation to sketch the displacement (from the unstretched position) versus
weight graph for the object hanging at rest from the spring. How is the slope of this
graph related to the spring constant?
PREDICTION
Restate the problem. What relationships must you calculate to prepare for your
experiment?
EXPLORATION
Select a series of masses that give a usable range of displacements. The smallest mass
must be much greater than the mass of the spring to fulfill the massless spring
assumption. The largest mass should not pull the spring past its elastic limit (about
40 cm). Beyond that point you will damage the spring. Decide on a procedure that
allows you to measure the displacement of the spring-object system in a consistent
manner. Decide how many measurements you will need to make a reliable
determination of the spring constant.
MEASUREMENT
Record the masses of different hanging objects and the corresponding displacements.
Analyze your data as you go along so you can decide how many measurements you
need to make to determine the spring constant accurately and reliably.
ANALYSIS
Make a graph of displacement versus weight for the object-spring system. From the
slope of this graph, calculate the value of the spring constant, including the uncertainty
CONCLUSION
How do the values of the spring constants compare to the stiffness of the spring? Did
the springs behave in a linear fashion over the range of the experiment?
114
PROBLEM #7: FORCE, IMPULSE, AND MOMENTUM

Your 15-year-old is about to get her driving permit, and you are concerned about the
bumpers on your cars because they are expensive to fix, even after low-speed
impacts. You decide to engineer a 5-mph bumper that will encounter a slow
collision with a fixed object using a spring attachment, which will avoid damaging
the cars actual bumper. You need to know what kind of spring to purchase for this
experiment, so you decide to model the situation using a cart with a spring attached
to one end and a fixed end stop. Springs with high spring constant values are very
expensive, so you want to find the smallest spring constant you can use.
Instructions: Before lab, read the laboratory in its entirety as well as the required reading in
the textbook. In your lab notebook, respond to the warm up questions and derive a specific
prediction for the outcome of the lab. During lab, compare your warm up responses and
prediction in your group. Then, work through the exploration, measurement, analysis, and
conclusion sections in sequence, keeping a record of your findings in your lab notebook. It is
often useful to use Excel to perform data analysis, rather than doing it by hand.
Read Mazur Chapter 4 and Sections 8.9 and 8.10.
EQUIPMENT
For this lab you have a cart with a spring attached to it, track with end stop, a wood
block and a computer with analysis software.
If equipment is missing or broken, submit a problem report by sending an email

to labhelp@physics.umn.edu. Include the room number and brief description of
the problem.
WARM-UP
Note: This lab does not have the same approach as other labs. In this lab, you are assuming
that two values are equal, and you are measuring them to see if they really are, instead of
measuring an experimental value to see if it is equal to a theoretical value.
115
FORCE, IMPULSE, AND MOMENTUM
The first question deals with the changing momentum of the system.
1) Draw two pictures of the cart: one before the cart hits the end stop and
another one after it has bounced off and is no longer in contact with the
spring. Label all kinematic quantities and constants in the system. Use the
conservation of momentum to write relationship between the motion before
and after the collision. What variables in this relationship are measurable
with the equipment you have access to?
The remaining questions deal with the force and impulse of the collision.
2) Draw at least four pictures of the cart during the collision with the spring and
the end stop, including two pictures when the spring is being compressed
and two as it expands. Include in each picture the amount of compression in
the spring and the direction of the force from the spring on the cart.
3) Write down the relationship of how the compression of the spring and the
force exerted by the spring on the cart are related in each case. Be sure to name
each force something unique ( , , etc.). Which quantities in this relationship
are measurable with your equipment?
4) Using your four pictures, assume that the time between pictures is equal and
that the force in the picture is constant until the next picture. Graph the force
of the spring versus time for the duration of the collision.
5) Find the total impulse by adding together all of the individual areas under
the curve in the force-versus-time graph.
6) What are the assumptions made for this model?
PREDICTION
How do you expect the impulse to compare to the changing momentum? Do you
expect the duration of the collision to affect the validity of this comparison?
EXPLORATION
Be very careful with the springs attached to the ends of the carts! They cannot be
reattached if they break off. Do not pull on them or bend them side to side.
116
Try varying the mass of the cart to see how that affects the length of the collision
time. Does varying the mass increase or decrease the collision time? Does varying
the incoming speed of the cart affect the collision time? Which one has a greater
effect? Decide if you would like to minimize or maximize the collision time. Given
the assumptions of the problem, which do you think would give more accurate
results? Hint: it is best to maximize the number of data points with the spring in contact
with the endstop.
Think about what quantities you need to obtain from the video and what resolution
you will need in the video. Be sure that you will be able to see all the interactions
necessary in the video.
Once you have found an acceptable speed and mass of the cart, record a video.
Write down your measurement plan for finding the impulse of the cart as it relates
to 1) the changing momentum of the cart and 2) the force over time from the spring.
Be sure to include your procedure for finding the spring constant.
If (and only if!) you are unable to complete the procedure for finding the spring
constant for your cart during the time allotted, you should assume a value of 355
N/m.
MEASUREMENT
Carry out your measurement plan. Make sure that your video is clear enough to get
both the initial and final velocities of the cart and the compression of the spring in
each frame.
Think about the quantities that you need to measure and the most efficient way to
make these measurements. You will be able to skip many of the typical analysis
steps (Prediction x vs t, etc.) in the MotionLab program since you are only using it
to acquire data, not to predict behavior.
Discuss how to use the analysis software to find the impulse as it relates to the
change in momentum of the cart.
Discuss how to use the procedure from Warm-Up Questions 4 & 5 and the video of
the collision to find the impulse as it relates to the force over time.
117
ANALYSIS
How do the two different methods of finding impulse compare? Which method
gives a larger value? Is this what you were expecting? Were the assumptions made
for this model reasonable or unreasonable for the situation? Do you see a difference
between your collision time measurements and another groups collision time
measurement?
CONCLUSION
Did this model provide a sufficient answer to the kind of spring you should
purchase? Which impulse calculation would you be doing for this scenario: the force
over time or the change in momentum? Which do you think is a better estimate of
the actual impulse?
118
TABLE: COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION*
Surfaces
Steel on steel
0.74
0.57
Aluminum on steel
0.61
0.47
Copper on steel
0.53
0.36
Steel on lead
0.9
0.9
Copper on cast iron
1.1
0.3
Copper on glass
0.7
0.5
Wood on wood
0.25 - 0.5
0.2
Glass on glass
0.94
0.4
Metal on metal (lubricated)
0.15
0.07
Teflon on Teflon
0.04
0.04
Rubber on concrete
1.0
0.8
Ice on ice
0.1
0.03
Wood on Aluminum
0.25-0.3
* All values are approximate.
119
TABLE: COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION*
120

Name:
Date Performed:
ID#:
Earns No Points
Earns Full Points

Argument
logic does not flow
gaps in content

argument
Technical Style

emotions

writing
incorporated
consistent
Use of Physics
phenomenon

theory
Quantitativeness

qualitative
inappropriate
Total
121
Possible Earned
122
LAB 4 PROBLEM 1: PROJECTILE MOTION AND VELOCITY

A toy company has hired you to produce an instructional videotape for would-be jugglers.
To plan the videotape, you decide to separately determine how the horizontal and vertical
component of a balls velocity change as it flies through the air. To catch the ball, a juggler
must be able to predict its position, so you decide to calculate functions to represent the
horizontal and vertical positions of a ball after it is tossed. To check your analysis, you
decide to analyze a video of a ball thrown in a manner appropriate to juggling.
Read: Mazur Sections 10.13 and 10.67.
EQUIPMENT
You have a ball, stopwatch, meterstick, camera and a computer.
labhelp@physics.umn.edu. Make sure to include the room number.
WARM UP
The following questions will help you determine the details of your prediction and analyze
your data.
1. Make a large (about one-half page) sketch of the trajectory of the ball on a coordinate
system. Label the horizontal and vertical axes of your coordinate system.
2. On your sketch, draw acceleration vectors for the ball (show directions and relative
magnitudes) at five different positions: two when the ball is going up, two when it is going
123
PROJECTILE MOTION AND VELOCITY

down, and one at its maximum height. Explain your reasoning. Decompose each
acceleration vector into its vertical and horizontal components.
3. On your sketch, draw velocity vectors for the ball at the same positions as your acceleration
vectors (use a different color). Decompose each velocity vector into vertical and horizontal
components. Check that the change of the velocity vector is consistent with the acceleration
vector. Explain your reasoning.
4. On your sketch, how does the horizontal acceleration change with time? How does it
compare to the gravitational acceleration? Write an equation giving the balls horizontal
acceleration as a function of time. Graph this equation. If there are constants in your
equation, what kinematic quantities do they represent? How would you determine these
constants from your graph?
5. On your sketch, how does the ball's horizontal velocity change with time? Is this consistent
with your statements about the balls acceleration from the previous question? Write an
equation for the balls horizontal velocity as a function of time. Graph this equation. If
there are constants in your equation, what kinematic quantities do they represent? How
6. Based on the equation of the balls horizontal velocity, write an equation for the balls horizontal
position as a function of time. Graph this equation. If there are constants in your equation,
what kinematic quantities do they represent? How would you determine these constants
from your graph?
7. On your sketch, how does the ball's vertical acceleration change with time? How does it
compare to the gravitational acceleration? Write an equation giving the balls vertical
acceleration as a function of time. Graph this equation. If there are constants in your
8. On your sketch, how does the ball's vertical velocity change with time? Is this consistent
with your statements about the balls acceleration questioning the previous question? Write
an equation for the balls vertical velocity as a function of time. Graph this equation. If
there are constants in your equation, what kinematic quantities do they represent? How
9. Based on the equation describing the balls vertical velocity, write an equation for the balls
vertical position as a function of time. Graph this equation. If there are constants in your
PREDICTION
1. Write down equations to describe the horizontal and vertical velocity components of
the ball as a function of time. Sketch a graph to represent each equation.
124

Do you think the horizontal component of the object's velocity changes during its flight? If
so, how does it change? Or do you think it is constant (does not change)? Make your best
guess and explain your reasoning. What about the vertical component of its velocity?
2. Write down the equations that describe the horizontal and vertical position of the ball
as a function of time. Sketch a graph to represent each equation.
EXPLORATION
Review your lab journal from earlier problems.
Position the camera and adjust it for optimal performance. Make sure everyone in your
group gets the chance to operate the camera and the computer.
Practice throwing the ball until you can get the ball's motion after it leaves your hand to
reliably fill the video screen. Determine how much time it takes for the ball to travel and
estimate the number of video points you will get in that time. Do you have enough points
to make the measurement? Adjust the camera position to get enough data points.
larger object. For calibration purposes, you can hold an object of known length in the plane
of motion of the ball, near the center of the balls trajectory. Where you place your
reference object does make a difference in your results. Check your video image when
you put the reference object close to the camera and then further away. What do you
notice about the size of the reference object in the video image? The best place to put the
reference object to determine the distance scale is at the position of the falling ball.
MEASUREMENT
Make a video of the ball being tossed. Make sure you have enough useful frames for your
analysis.
Take the position of the ball in enough frames of the video so that you have the sufficient
data to accomplish your analysis. Make sure you set the scale for the axes of your graph
so that you can see the data points as you take them. Use your measurements of total
distance the ball travels and total time to determine the maximum and minimum value for
each axis before taking data.
125
ANALYSIS
Choose a function to represent the horizontal position vs. time graph and another for the
vertical position vs. time graph. How can you estimate the values of the constants of the
functions from the graph? You can waste a lot of time if you just try to guess the
constants. What kinematic quantities do these constants represent?
Choose a function to represent the velocity vs. time graph for each component of the
velocity. How can you calculate the values of the constants of these functions from the
functions representing the position vs. time graphs? Check how well this works. You can
also estimate the values of the constants from the graph. Just trying to guess the constants
can waste a lot of your time. What kinematic quantities do these constants represent?
Determine the launch velocity of the ball from this graph. Is this value reasonable?
Determine the velocity of the ball at its highest point. Is this value reasonable?
From the velocity vs. time graphs determine the acceleration of the ball independently for
each component of the motion. Use the functions representing the velocity vs. time graph
for each component to calculate each component of the balls acceleration as a function of
time. Is the acceleration constant from just after launch to just before the ball is caught?
What is its direction? Determine the magnitude of the balls acceleration at its highest
point. Is this value reasonable?
CONCLUSION
Did your measurements agree with your initial predictions? Why or why not? Did your
measurements agree with those taken by other groups? Why or why not? What are the
limitations on the accuracy of your measurements and analysis?
How do the horizontal components of a juggled ball's velocity and position depend on
time? How do the vertical components of a juggled ball's velocity and position depend on
time? State your results in the most general terms supported by your analysis. At what
position does the ball have the minimum velocity? Maximum velocity?
126
LAB 4 PROBLEM 2: BOUNCING

You work for NASA designing a low-cost landing system for a Mars mission. The
payload will be surrounded by padding and dropped onto the surface. When it reaches
the surface, it will bounce. The height and the distance of the bounces will get smaller
with each bounce so that it finally comes to rest on the surface. Your boss asks you to
determine how the ratio of the horizontal distance covered by two successive bounces
depends on the ratio of the heights of the two bounces and the ratio of the horizontal
components of the initial velocity of the two bounces. After making the calculation you
decide to check it in your laboratory on Earth.
Read: Mazur Sections 10.13 and 10.6-7.
EQUIPMENT
You have a ball, stopwatch, meterstick, and a computer with a video camera.
problem.
WARM UP
The following questions will help you make the prediction.
1. Draw a sketch of the situation, including velocity and acceleration vectors at all
relevant times. Decide on a coordinate system. Define the positive and negative
directions. During what time interval does the ball have motion that is easiest to
calculate? Is the acceleration of the ball during that time interval constant or is it
127
BOUNCING
changing? Why? Are the time durations of two successive bounces equal? Why or
why not? Label the horizontal distances and the maximum heights for each of the
first two bounces. What reasonable assumptions will you probably need to make to
solve this problem? How will you check these assumptions with your data?
2. Write down the basic kinematics equations that apply to the time intervals you
selected, under the assumptions you have made. Clearly distinguish the equations
describing horizontal motion from those describing vertical motion.
3. Write an equation for the horizontal distance the ball travels in the air during the
first bounce, in terms of the initial horizontal velocity of the ball, its horizontal
acceleration, and the time it stays in the air before reaching the ground again.
4. The equation you just wrote contains the time of flight, which must be re-written in
terms of other quantities. Determine it from the vertical motion of the ball. First,
select an equation that gives the balls vertical position during a bounce as a function
of its initial vertical velocity, its vertical acceleration, and the time elapsed since it
last touched the ground.
5. The equation in the previous step involves two unknowns, which can both be
related to the time of flight. How is the balls vertical position when it touches the
ground at the end of its first bounce related to its vertical position when it touched
the ground at the beginning of its first bounce? Use this relationship and the
equation from step 4 to write one equation involving the time of flight. How is the
time of flight related to the time it takes for the ball to reach its maximum height for
the bounce? Use this relationship and the equation from step 4 to write another
equation involving the time of flight. Solve these two equations to get an equation
expressing the time of flight as a function of the height of the bounce and the vertical
acceleration.
6. Combine the previous steps to get an equation for the horizontal distance of a
bounce in terms of the balls horizontal velocity, the height of the bounce, and the
balls vertical acceleration.
7. Repeat the above process for the next bounce; take the ratio of horizontal distances
to get your prediction equation.
PREDICTION
Calculate the ratio asked for by your boss. (Assume that you know the ratio of the
heights of the two bounces and the ratio of the horizontal components of the initial
velocity for the two bounces.)
Be sure to state your assumptions so your boss can decide if they are reasonable for the
Mars mission.
128
BOUNCING
EXPLORATION
Review your lab journal from any previous problem requiring analyzing a video of a
falling ball.
Position the camera and adjust it for optimal performance. Make sure everyone in your
group gets the chance to operate the camera and the computer.
Practice bouncing the ball without spin until you can get at least two full bounces to fill
the video screen. Three is better so you can check your results. It will take practice and
skill to get a good set of bounces. Everyone in the group should try to determine who is
best at throwing the ball.
Determine how much time it takes for the ball to have the number of bounces you will
record and estimate the number of video frames you will get in that time. Is that
enough to make the measurement? Adjust the camera position to get enough data
points.
larger object. Place an object of known length in the plane of motion of the ball, near the
center of the balls trajectory, for calibration purposes. Where you place your reference
object does make a difference to your results. Determine the best place to put the
reference object for calibration.
MEASUREMENT
Make a video of the ball being tossed. Make sure you have enough frames to complete
a useful analysis.
Take the position of the ball in enough frames of the video so that you have the
sufficient data to accomplish your analysis. Make sure you set the scale for the axes of
your graph so that you can see the data points as you take them. Use your
measurements of total distance the ball travels and total time to determine the
maximum and minimum value for each axis before taking data.
129
BOUNCING
ANALYSIS
Analyze the video to get the horizontal distance of two successive bounces, the height
of the two bounces, and the horizontal components of the balls velocity for each
bounce. You may wish to calibrate the video independently for each bounce so you can
begin your time as close as possible to when the ball leaves the ground. (Alternatively,
you may wish to avoid repeating some work with the Save Session and Open
Session commands.) The point where the bounce occurs will usually not correspond
to a video frame taken by the camera so some estimation will be necessary to determine
this position. (Can you use the Save Data Table command to help with this
estimation?)
Choose a function to represent the horizontal position vs. time graph and another for the
vertical position graph for the first bounce. How can you estimate the values of the
constants of the functions? You can waste a lot of time if you just try to guess the
constants. What kinematic quantities do these constants represent? How can you tell
where the bounce occurred from each graph? Determine the height and horizontal
distance for the first bounce.
velocity for the first bounce. How can you calculate the values of the constants of these
functions from the functions representing the position vs. time graphs? Check how well
this works. You can also estimate the values of the constants from the graph. Just
trying to guess the constants can waste a lot of your time. What kinematic quantities do
these constants represent? How can you tell where the bounce occurred from each
graph? Determine the initial horizontal velocity of the ball for the first bounce. What is
the horizontal and vertical acceleration of the ball between bounces? Does this agree
with your expectations?
Repeat this analysis for the second bounce, and the third bounce if possible.
What kinematics quantities are approximately the same for each bounce? How does
that simplify your prediction equation?
CONCLUSION
How do your graphs compare to your predictions and warm up questions? What are
Will the ratio you calculated be the same on Mars as on Earth? Why?
What additional kinematic quantity, whose value you know, can be determined with
the data you have taken to give you some indication of the precision of your
measurement? How close is this quantity to its known value?
130
LAB 4 PROBLEM 3: ACCELERATION AND CIRCULAR

MOTION
You have been appointed to a citizen committee investigating the safety of a proposed
new ride called "The Spinner" at the Mall of America. The ride consists of seats mounted
on each end of a steel beam. For most of the ride, the beam rotates about its center in a
horizontal circle at a constant speed. Several committee members insist that a person
moving in a circle at constant speed is not accelerating, so there is no need to be
concerned about the rides safety. You disagree and sketch a diagram showing that each
component of the velocity of a person on the ride changes as a function of time even
though the speed is constant. Then you calculate the magnitude of a persons
acceleration. The committee is still skeptical, so you build a model to show that your
calculations are correct.
Read: Mazur Section 11.1.
EQUIPMENT
You have an apparatus that spins a horizontal platform. A top view of the device is
shown below. You also have a stopwatch, meterstick and the video analysis equipment.
131
ACCELERATION AND CIRCULAR MOTION

problem.
WARM UP
The following questions will help with your prediction and data analysis.
1. Draw the trajectory of an object moving in a horizontal circle with a constant speed.
Choose a convenient origin and coordinate axes. Draw the vector that represents
the position of the object at some time when it is not along an axis.
2. Write an equation for one component of the position vector as a function of the
radius of the circle and the angle the vector makes with one axis of your coordinate
system. Calculate how that angle depends on time and the constant angular speed
of the object moving in a circle (Hint: see equation 3-19, integrate both sides by
time). You now have an equation that gives a component of the position as a
function of time. Repeat for the component perpendicular to the first component.
Make a graph of each equation. If there are constants in the equations, what do they
represent? How would you determine the constants from your graph?
3. From your equations for the components of the position of the object and the
definition of velocity, use calculus to write an equation for each component of the
objects velocity. Graph each equation. If there are constants in your equations,
what do they represent? How would you determine these constants? Compare
these graphs to those for the components of the objects position.
4. From your equations for the components of the objects velocity, calculate its speed.
Does the speed change with time or is it constant?
5. From your equations for the components of the objects velocity and the definition of
acceleration, use calculus to write down the equation for each component of the
objects acceleration. Graph each equation. If there are constants in your equations,
what do they represent? How would you determine these constants from your
graphs? Compare these graphs to those for the components of the objects position.
6. From your equations for the components of the acceleration of the object, calculate
the magnitude of the objects acceleration. Is it a function of time or is it constant?
PREDICTION
Calculate the time dependence of the velocity components of an object moving like the
rides seats. Use this to calculate the objects acceleration.
132
EXPLORATION
Practice spinning the beam at different speeds. How many rotations does the beam
make before it slows down appreciably? Use the stopwatch to determine which spin
gives the closest approximation to constant speed. At that speed, how many video
frames will you get for one rotation? Will this be enough to determine the
characteristics of the motion?
Check to see if the spinning beam is level.
Move the apparatus to the floor and adjust the camera tripod so that the camera is
directly above the middle of the spinning beam. Practice taking some videos. How will
you make sure that you always click on the same position on the beam?
Decide how to calibrate your video.
MEASUREMENT
Take the position of a fixed point on the beam in enough frames of the video so that you
have sufficient data to accomplish your analysis -- at least two complete rotations. Set
the scale for the axes of your graph so that you can see the data points as you take them.
Use your measurements of total distance the object travels and total time to determine
the maximum and minimum value for each axis before taking data.
ANALYSIS
Analyze your video by digitizing a single point on the beam for at least two complete
revolutions.
Choose a function to represent the graph of horizontal position vs. time and another for
the graph of vertical position vs. time. How can you estimate the values of the constants
in the functions? You can waste a lot of time if you just try to guess the constants.
What kinematic quantities do these constants represent? Which are the same for both
components? How can you tell from the graph when a complete rotation occurred?
functions representing the position vs. time graphs? Check how well this works. You
can also estimate the values of the constants from the graph. Just trying to guess the
constants can waste a lot of your time. What kinematic quantities do these constants
represent? Which are the same for both components? How can you tell when a
complete rotation occurred from each graph?
133
Use the equations for the velocity components to calculate the speed of the object. Is the
speed constant? How does it compare with your measurements using a stopwatch and
meter stick?
Use the equations for the velocity components to calculate the equations that represent
the components of the acceleration of the object. Use these components to calculate the
magnitude of the total acceleration of the object as a function of time. Is the magnitude
of the acceleration a constant? What is the relationship between the acceleration and the
speed?
CONCLUSION
How do your graphs compare to your predictions and warm up questions? What are
Is it true that the velocity of the object changes with time while the speed remains
constant?
Is the instantaneous speed of the object that you calculate from your measurements the
same as its average speed that you measure with a stopwatch and meter stick?
Have you shown that an object moving in a circle with a constant speed is always
accelerating? Explain.
Compare the magnitude of the acceleration of the object that you calculate from your
measurements to the centripetal acceleration that you can calculate from the speed
and the radius of the object.
134
LAB 4 PROBLEM 4: A VECTOR APPROACH

TO CIRCULAR MOTION
You have a job supervising the construction of a highway. Safety requires that you
know what the direction of a cars acceleration is when it moves at constant speed along
curves. To check your prediction you decide to model, in the lab, curves that are arcs of
circles.
EQUIPMENT
problem.
135
A VECTOR APPROACH TO CIRCULAR MOTION
WARM UP
These questions assume that you have completed the predictions and warm up
questions for the earlier problem Acceleration and Circular Motion. If you have not,
you should do so before continuing.
1. Make a large (half-page) perpendicular coordinate system. Choose and label your
axes. Draw the trajectory of the object moving along a circular road on this
coordinate system. Show the positions of your object at equal time intervals around
the circle. Choose several points along the trajectory (at least one per quadrant of
the circle) and draw the position vector to each of these points. Write down the
equations that describe the components of the objects position at each point.
2. From your position equations, calculate the components of the objects velocity at
each point. Choose a scale that allows you to draw these components at each point.
Add these components (as vectors) to draw the velocity vector at each point. What
is the relationship between the velocity vector direction and the direction of the
radial vector from the center of the circle?
3. From your velocity equations, calculate the components of the objects acceleration
at each point. Choose a scale that allows you to draw these components at each
point. Add these components (as vectors) to draw the acceleration vector at each
point. What is the relationship between the acceleration vector direction and the
radius of the circle?
PREDICTION
What is the direction of the acceleration vector for an object moving at a constant speed
along a circles arc? Explain your reasoning.
EXPLORATION
136
MEASUREMENT
ANALYSIS
Analyze your video by taking the position of a single point on the beam for at least two
complete revolutions.
meter stick?
speed?
Use the procedure outlined in the Warm-up Questions to analyze your data to get the
direction of the acceleration of the object in each quadrant of the circle.
137
CONCLUSION
How does the direction of the acceleration compare to your prediction? What are the
limitations of your measurements and analysis?
What is the direction of the acceleration for a car moving with a constant speed along a
curve that forms an arc of a circle? State your result in the most general terms
supported by your analysis.
138
LAB 4 PROBLEM 5: ACCELERATION AND ORBITS

You work with a research group investigating the possibility of extraterrestrial life.
Your team is looking at the properties of newly discovered planets orbiting other stars.
You have been assigned the task of determining the gravitational force between planets
and stars. As a first step, you decide to calculate a planets acceleration as a function of
its orbital radius and period. You assume that it moves in a circle at a constant speed
around the star. From previous measurements, you know the radius and period of the
orbit.
EQUIPMENT
139
ACCELERATION AND ORBITS

problem.
WARM UP
These questions assume that you have completed the predictions and warm up
questions for the earlier problem Acceleration and Circular Motion. If you have not,
you should do so before continuing.
1. Draw the trajectory of an object moving in a circle when its speed is not changing.
Draw vectors describing the kinematic quantities of the object. Label the radius of
the circle and the relevant kinematic quantities. Choose and label your coordinate
axes.
2. Write down the kinematic equations that describe this type of motion. Your
equations should include the definition of speed when the speed is constant and the
relationship between acceleration and speed for uniform circular motion. You are
now ready to plan your mathematical solution.
3. Select an equation identified in step 2, which gives the acceleration in terms of
quantities you know and additional unknowns. In this problem, you know the
radius and the period of the objects motion.
4. If you have additional unknowns, determine one of them by selecting a new
equation, identified in step 2, relating that unknown to other quantities. Repeat this
step until you have no additional unknowns.
PREDICTION
Calculate the acceleration of an object moving as the planet that you are investigating.
Make two graphs: one showing acceleration as a function of radius (for a fixed period)
and another showing acceleration as a function of period (for a fixed radius.)
EXPLORATION
140

Decide how you can measure objects at several different positions on the beam while
holding the period of rotation constant. How many videos do you need to take for this
measurement? Decide how you can measure objects at the same position on the beam
for different periods of rotation. How many videos do you need to take for this
measurement?
MEASUREMENT
Use your plan from the Exploration section to make your measurements.
Make several measurements at different radii and different periods in a range that will
give your predictions the most stringent test.
ANALYSIS
Analyze your video by taking the position of a single point on the beam for at least two
complete revolutions.
141
meter stick?
speed?
You can also determine the radius of the object and its period from this data. Make a
graph of acceleration as a function of radius for objects with the same period. Make a
graph of acceleration as a function of period for objects with the same radius.
CONCLUSION
Are your measurements consistent with your predictions? Why or why not? What are
the limitations of your measurements and analysis?
142

Name:
Date Performed:
ID#:
Earns No Points
Earns Full Points

Argument
logic does not flow
gaps in content

argument
Technical Style

emotions

writing
incorporated
consistent
Use of Physics
phenomenon

theory
Quantitativeness

qualitative
inappropriate
Total
143
Possible Earned
144
LAB 5 PROBLEM 1: ANGULAR SPEED AND LINEAR SPEED

You are working with an engineering group testing equipment that might be used on a
satellite. To equalize the heat load from the sun, the satellite will spin about its center.
Your task is to determine the forces exerted on delicate measuring equipment when the
satellite spins at a constant angular speed. You know that since any object traveling in a
circular path must have exerted on it a non-zero net force, that object must be
accelerating. As a first step in finding the net force, you decide to calculate the linear
speed of any object in the satellite as a function of its distance from the center of the
satellite and the satellites angular speed. From the linear speed of the object in circular
motion, you calculate its acceleration. You will test your calculations in a laboratory
before launching the satellite.
EQUIPMENT
shown to the right. You also have a stopwatch, meterstick and the video analysis
equipment.

problem.
145
ANGULAR SPEED AND LINEAR SPEED
WARM UP
The following questions will help you to reach your prediction and the analysis of your
data.
1. Draw the trajectory of a point on a beam rotating. Choose a coordinate system.
Choose a point on that trajectory that is not on a coordinate axis. Draw vectors
representing the position, velocity, and acceleration of that point.
2. Write equations for each component of the position vector, as a function of the
distance of the point from the axis of rotation and the angle the vector makes with
an axis of your coordinate system. Next, calculate how that angle depends on time
and the constant angular speed of the beam. Sketch three graphs, (one for each of
these equations) as a function of time. Explain why one of the graphs increases
monotonically with time, but the other two oscillate.
3. Using your equations for components of the position of the point, calculate an
equation for each component of the velocity of the point. Graph these two equations
as a function of time. Compare these graphs to those for the components of the
position of the object (when one component of the position is at a maximum, for
example, is the same component of the velocity at a maximum value?) Draw these
components at the point you have chosen in your drawing; verify that their vector
sum gives the correct direction for the velocity of the point.
4. Use your equations for the points velocity components to calculate its speed. Does
the speed change with time? Should it?
5. Use the equations for the points velocity components to calculate an equation for
each component of the points acceleration. Graph these two equations as functions
of time, and compare to the velocity and position graphs. Verify that the vector sum
of the components gives the correct direction for the acceleration of the point you
have chosen in your drawing. Use the acceleration components to calculate the
magnitude of the acceleration.
6. For comparison, write down the expression for the acceleration of the point as a
function of its speed and its distance from the axis of rotation.
PREDICTION
What are you trying to calculate? Restate the problem to clearly identify your objective.
Illustrate
146
EXPLORATION
Practice spinning the beam at different angular speeds. How many rotations does the
beam make before it slows down appreciably? Select a range of angular speeds to use
in your measurements.
directly above the middle of the spinning beam. Make sure the beam is level. Practice
taking some videos. Find the best distance and angle for your video. How will you
make sure that you always measure the same position on the beam?
Plan how you will measure the perpendicular components of the velocity to calculate
the speed of the point. How will you also use your video to measure the angular speed
of the beam?
MEASUREMENT
Take a video of the spinning beam. Be sure you have more than two complete
revolution of the beam. For best results, use the beam itself when calibrating your
video.
Determine the time it takes for the beam to make two complete revolutions and the
distance between the point of interest and the axis of rotation. Set the scale of your axes
appropriately so you can see the data as it is taken.
Decide how many different points you will measure to test your prediction. How will
you ensure that the angular speed is the same for all of these measurements? How
many times will you repeat these measurements using different angular speeds?
ANALYSIS
Analyze your video by following a single point on the beam for at least two complete
revolutions. Use the velocity components to determine the direction of the velocity
vector. Is it in the expected direction?
Analyze enough different points in the same video to make a graph of speed of a
point as a function of distance from the axis of rotation. What quantity does the slope
of this graph represent?
Calculate the acceleration of each point and graph the acceleration as a function of the
distance from the axis of rotation. What quantity does the slope of this graph
represent?
147
CONCLUSION
How do your results compare to your predictions and the answers to the warm up
questions? Did the measured acceleration match the acceleration predicted by your
equation from Warm up question 5? Question 6? Explain.
Was the measured linear speed of each point on the beam a constant? Demonstrate
this in terms of your fit equations for velocity.
148
LAB 5 PROBLEM 2: ROTATION AND LINEAR MOTION

AT CONSTANT SPEED
While helping a friend take apart a lawn mower engine, you notice the pull cord wraps
around a heavy solid disk, "a flywheel," and that disk is attached to a shaft. You know
that the flywheel must have at least a minimum angular speed to start the engine.
Intrigued by this setup, you wonder how the angular speed of the flywheel is related to
the speed of the handle at the end of the pull cord, and you make a prediction. To test
your prediction, you make a laboratory model so that you can measure the speed of the
cord, the speed of the point on the flywheel where the cord is attached, and the angular
speed of the flywheel.
EQUIPMENT
You have an apparatus that spins a horizontal disk and ring, a track and cart. You also
have a stopwatch, meterstick, track endstop, wooden blocks and the video analysis
equipment. Hint: if you turn the blocks at a diagonal while standing on end, the track will rest
across them and be nearly level with the disk.
Together, the disk and the ring represent the flywheel. You attach one end of a string to
the outside surface of the ring, allowing it to wrap around the ring. The other end of the
string is connected to a cart that moves along a level track.
problem.
149
ROTATION AND LINEAR MOTION AT CONSTANT SPEED
WARM UP
The following questions will help you to reach your prediction.
1. Draw a top view of the system. Draw the velocity and acceleration vectors of a
point on the outside edge of the ring. Draw a vector representing the angular
velocity of the ring. Draw the velocity and acceleration vectors of a point along the
string. Draw the velocity and acceleration vectors of the cart. Write an equation for
the relationship between the linear velocity of the point where the string is attached
to the ring and the velocity of the cart (if the string is taut).
2. Choose a coordinate system useful for describing the motion of the point where the
string is attached to the ring. Select a point on the outside edge of the ring. Write
equations for the perpendicular components of the position vector as a function of
the distance from the axis of rotation and the angle the vector makes with one axis of
your coordinate system.
Calculate how that angle depends on time and the
constant angular speed of the ring. Sketch three graphs, (one for each of these
equations) as a function of time.
3. Using your equations for the components of the position of the point, determine
equations for the components of the velocity of the point. Graph these equations as
a function of time. Compare these graphs to those representing the components of
the position of the object.
4. Use your equations for the components of the velocity of the point to calculate its
speed. Is the speed a function of time or is it constant?
5. Now write an equation for the carts speed as a function of time, assuming the string
is taut.
PREDICTION
Restate the problem. What are you trying to calculate? Which experimental parameters
will be determined by the laboratory equipment, and which ones will you control?
EXPLORATION
Try to make the cart move along the track with a constant velocity. (To account for
friction, you may need to slant the track slightly. You might even use some quick video
analysis to get this right.) Do this before you attach the string.
Try two different ways of having the string and the cart move with the same constant
velocity so that the string remains taut. Try various speeds and pick the way that works
most consistently for you. If the string goes slack during the measurement you must
redo it.
150

(1) Gently push the cart and let it go so that the string unwinds from the ring at a
constant speed.
(2) Gently spin the disk and let it go so that the string winds up on the ring at a
constant speed.
Where will you place the camera to give the best recording looking down on the
system? You will need to get data points for both the motion of the ring and the cart.
Try some test runs.
Decide what measurements you need to make to determine the speed of the outer edge
of the ring and the speed of the string from the same video.
Outline your measurement plan.
MEASUREMENT
Make a video of the motion of the cart and the ring for several revolutions of the ring.
Measure the radius of the ring. What are the uncertainties in your measurements?
(Review the appropriate appendix sections if you need help determining significant figures and
uncertainties.)
Analyze your video to determine the velocity of the cart and, because the string was
taut throughout the measurement, the velocity of the string. Use your measurement of
the distance the cart goes and the time of the motion to choose the scale of the computer
graphs so that the data is visible when you take it. If the velocity was not constant,
adjust your equipment and repeat the measurement.
Analyze the same video to determine the velocity components of the edge of the ring.
Use your measurement of the diameter of the ring and the time of the motion to choose
the scale of the computer graphs so that the data is visible when you take it.
In addition to finding the angular speed of the ring from the speed of the edge and the
radius of the ring, also determine the angular speed directly (using its definition) from
either position component of the edge of the ring versus time graph.
ANALYSIS
Use an analysis technique that makes the most efficient use of your data and your time.
Compare the measured speed of the edge of the ring with the measured speed of the
cart and thus the string. Calculate the angular speed of the ring from the measured
speed of the edge of the ring and the distance of the edge of the ring from the axis of
rotation. Compare that to the angular speed measured directly.
151
CONCLUSIONS
Did your measurements agree with your initial prediction? Why or why not? What are
Explain why it is difficult to keep the string taut in this measurement, by considering
the forces exerted on each end of the string? Determine the force of the string on the
cart and the force of the cart on the string. Determine the force of the string on the ring
and the force of the ring on the string. What is the string tension?
152
LAB 5 PROBLEM 3: ANGULAR AND LINEAR

ACCELERATION
You are working in a bioengineering laboratory when the building power fails. An
ongoing experiment will be damaged if there is any temperature change. There is a
gasoline powered generator on the roof for just such emergencies. You run upstairs
and start the generator by pulling on a cord attached to a flywheel. It is such hard work
that you begin to design a gravitational powered generator starter. The generator you
design has its flywheel as a horizontal disk that is free to rotate about its center. One
end of a rope is wound up on a horizontal ring attached to the center of the flywheel.
The free end of the rope goes horizontally to the edge of the building roof, passes over a
vertical pulley, and then hangs straight down. A heavy block is attached to the hanging
end of the rope. When the power fails, the block is released; the rope unrolls from the
ring giving the flywheel a large enough angular acceleration to start the generator. To
see if this design is feasible you must determine the relationship between the angular
acceleration of the flywheel, the downward acceleration of the block, and the radius of
the ring. Before putting more effort in the design, you test your idea by building a
laboratory model of the device.
EQUIPMENT
You have an apparatus that spins a horizontal disk. You also have a stopwatch,
meterstick, pulley, table clamp, mass set and the video analysis equipment.
153
ANGULAR AND LINEAR ACCELERATION

The disk represents the flywheel. A string has one end wrapped around the plastic
spool (under the disk) and the other end passing over a vertical pulley lined up with the
tangent to the spool. A mass is hung from the free end of the string so it can fall.
WARM UP
data.
1. Draw a top view of the system. Draw the velocity and acceleration vectors of a
point on the outside edge of the spool. Draw a vector representing the angular
acceleration of the spool. Draw the velocity and acceleration vectors of a point along
the string.
2. Draw a side view of the system. Draw the velocity and acceleration vectors of the
hanging object. What is the relationship between the linear acceleration of the string
and the acceleration of the hanging object if the string is taut? Do you expect the
acceleration of the hanging object to be constant? Explain.
3. Choose a coordinate system useful to describe the motion of the spool. Select a
point on the outside edge of the spool. Write equations giving the perpendicular
components of the points position vector as a function of the distance from the axis
of rotation and the angle the vector makes with one axis of your coordinate system.
Assume the angular acceleration is constant and that the disk starts from rest.
Determine how the angle between the position vector and the coordinate axis
depends on time and the angular acceleration of the spool. Sketch three graphs,
(one for each of these equations) as a function of time.
4. Using your equations for components of the position of the point, calculate the
equations for the components of the velocity of the point. Is the speed of this point a
function of time or is it constant? Graph these equations as a function of time.
5. Use your equations for the components of the velocity of the point on the edge of the
spool to calculate the components of the acceleration of that point. From the
components of the acceleration, calculate the square of the total acceleration of that
point. It looks like a mess but it can be simplified to two terms if you can use:
sin2(z)+cos2(z) = 1.
6. From step 5, the magnitude acceleration of the point on the edge of the spool has one
term that depends on time and another term that does not. Identify the term that
depends on time by using the relationship between the angular speed and the
angular acceleration for a constant angular acceleration. If you still dont recognize
this term, use the relationship among angular speed, linear speed and distance from
154

the axis of rotation. Now identify the relationship between this time-dependent term
and the centripetal acceleration.
7. We also can solve the acceleration vector of the point on the edge of the spool into
two perpendicular components by another way. One component is the centripetal
acceleration and the other component is the tangential acceleration. In step 6, we
already identify the centripetal acceleration term from the total acceleration. So now
you can recognize the tangential acceleration term. How is the tangential
acceleration of the edge of the spool related to the angular acceleration of the spool
and the radius of the spool? What is the relationship between the angular
acceleration of the spool and the angular acceleration of the disk?
8. How is the tangential acceleration of the edge of the spool related to the acceleration
of the string? How is the acceleration of the string related to the acceleration of the
hanging object? Explain the relationship between the angular acceleration of the disk
and the acceleration of the hanging object.
PREDICTION
Reformulate the problem in your own words to understand its target. What do you
need to calculate?
EXPLORATION
Practice gently spinning the system by hand. How long does it take the disk to stop
rotating about its central axis? What is the average angular acceleration caused by this
friction? Make sure the angular acceleration you use in your measurements is much
larger than the one caused by friction.
Find the best way to attach the string to the spool. How much string should you wrap
around the spool? How should the pulley be adjusted to allow the string to unwind
smoothly from the spool and pass over the pulley? Practice releasing the hanging object
and the spool/disk system.
Determine the best mass to use for the hanging object. Try a large range. What mass
will give you the smoothest motion? What is the highest angular acceleration? How
many useful frames for a single video?
Where will you place the camera to give the best top view recording on the whole
system? Since you cant get a video of the falling object and the top of the spinning
spool/disk at the same time, attach a piece of tape to the string. The tape will have the
same linear motion as the falling object.
155

Decide what measurements you need to make to determine the angular acceleration of
the disk and the acceleration of the string from the same video.
MEASUREMENT
Make a video of the motion of the tape on the string and the disk for several
revolutions. Measure the radius of the spool. What are the uncertainties in your
measurements? (Review the appropriate appendix sections if you need help determining
significant figures and uncertainties.)
Analyze your video to determine the acceleration of the string and hanging object. Use
your measurement of the distance and time that the hanging object falls to choose the
scale of the graphs so that the data is visible when you take it. Check to see if the
acceleration is constant.
Use a stopwatch and meter stick to directly determine the acceleration of the hanging
object.
Analyze the same video to determine the velocity components of the edge of the disk.
Use your measurement of the diameter of the disk and the time of the motion to choose
the scale of the computer graphs so that the data is visible when you take it.
ANALYSIS
From the analysis of the video data for the tape on the string, determine the acceleration
of the piece of tape on the string. Compare this acceleration to the hanging objects
acceleration determined directly. Be sure to use an analysis technique that makes the
most efficient use of your data and your time.
From your video data for the disk, determine if the angular speed of the disk is constant
or changes with time.
Use the equations that describe the measured components of the velocity of a point at
the edge of the disk to calculate the tangential acceleration of that point and use this
tangential acceleration of the edge of the disk to calculate the angular acceleration of the
disk (it is also the angular acceleration of spool). You can refer to the Warm up
questions.
156
CONCLUSION
Explain why it is not difficult to keep the string taut in this measurement by considering
the forces exerted on each end of the string? Determine the pull of the string on the
hanging object and the pull of the hanging object on the string, in terms of the
acceleration of the hanging object. Determine the force of the string on the spool and
the force of the spool on the string. What is the string tension? Is it equal to, greater
than, or less than the weight of the hanging object?
157
158

Name:
Date Performed:
ID#:
Earns No Points
Earns Full Points

Argument
logic does not flow
gaps in content

argument
Technical Style

emotions

writing
incorporated
consistent
Use of Physics
phenomenon

theory
Quantitativeness

qualitative
inappropriate
Total
159
Possible Earned
160
LAB 6 PROBLEM 1: MOMENT OF INERTIA

OF A COMPLEX SYSTEM
While examining the engine of your friends snow blower you notice that the starter
cord wraps around a cylindrical ring. This ring is fastened to the top of a heavy solid
disk, "a flywheel," and that disk is attached to a shaft. You are intrigued by this
configuration and decide to determine its moment of inertia. Your friend thinks you can
add the moment of inertial by parts to get the moment of inertia of the system. To test
this idea you decide to build a laboratory model described below to determine the
moment of inertia of a similar system from the acceleration of the hanging weight.
EQUIPMENT
You have an apparatus that spins a horizontal disk and ring. You also have a
stopwatch, meterstick, pulley, table clamp, mass set and the video analysis equipment.
The disk and ring share the same rotational axis and represent the flywheel. A string
has one end wrapped around the plastic spool (under the disk) and the other end
passing over a vertical pulley lined up with the tangent to the spool. A mass is hung
from the free end of the string so it can fall past the table, spinning the system.
161
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A COMPLEX SYSTEM

problem.
WARM UP
data.
1. Draw a side view of the equipment. Draw the velocity and acceleration vectors of
the weight. Add the tangential velocity and tangential acceleration vectors of the
outer edge of the spool. Also, show the angular acceleration of the spool. What are
the relationships among the acceleration of the string, the acceleration of the weight,
and the tangential acceleration of the outer edge of the spool if the string is taut?
2. To relate the moment of inertia of the system to the acceleration of the weight, you
need to consider a dynamics approach (Newtons second law) especially considering
the torques exerted on the system. The relationships between rotational and linear
kinematics will also be involved.
3. Draw a free-body diagram for the ring/disk/shaft/spool system. Show the
locations of the forces acting on that system. Label all the forces. Does this system
accelerate? Is there an angular acceleration? Check to see if you have all the forces
on your diagram. Which of these forces can exert a torque on the system? Identify
the distance from the axis of rotation to the point where each force is exerted on the
system. Write down an equation that gives the torque in terms of the distance and
the force that causes it. Write down Newton's second law in its rotational form for
this system. Remember that the moment of inertia includes everything in the system
that will rotate.
4. Draw a free-body diagram for the hanging weight. Label all the forces acting on it.
Does this weight accelerate? Is there an angular acceleration? Check to see if you
have included all the forces on your diagram. Write down Newton's second law for
the hanging weight. Is the force of the string on the hanging weight equal to the
weight of the hanging weight?
5. Can you use Newtons third law to relate pairs of forces shown in different force
diagrams?
6. Is there a relationship between the angular acceleration of the
ring/disk/shaft/spool system and the acceleration of the hanging weight? To
decide, examine the accelerations that you labeled in your drawing of the
equipment.
7. Solve your equations for the moment of inertia of the ring/disk/shaft/spool system
as a function of the mass of the hanging weight, the acceleration of the hanging
weight, and the radius of the spool. Start with the equation containing the quantity
you want to know, the moment of inertia of the ring/disk/shaft/spool system.
162

Identify the unknowns in that equation and select equations for each of them from
those you have collected. If those equations generate additional unknowns, search
your collection for equations that contain them. Continue this process until all
unknowns are accounted for. Now solve those equations for your target unknown.
8. For comparison with your experimental results, calculate the moment of inertia of
the ring/disk/shaft/spool system using your friends idea.
PREDICTION
Restate your friends idea as an equation.
What quantities will you measure in the lab? What relationships do you need to
calculate in order to test your friends ideas in the lab?
EXPLORATION
Practice gently spinning the ring/disk/shaft/spool system by hand. How long does it
take the disk to stop rotating about its central axis? What is the average angular
acceleration caused by this friction? Make sure the angular acceleration you use in your
measurements is much larger than the one caused by friction so that it has a negligible
effect on your results.
around the spool? How should the pulley be adjusted to allow the string to unwind
smoothly from the spool and pass over the pulley? Practice releasing the hanging
weight and the ring/disk/shaft/spool system.
Determine the best mass to use for the hanging weight. Try a large range. What mass
will give you the smoothest motion?
Decide what measurements you need to make to determine the moment of inertia of the
system from your Prediction equation. If any major assumptions are involved in
connecting your measurements to the acceleration of the weight, decide on the
additional measurements that you need to make to justify them.
Outline your measurement plan. Make some rough measurements to make sure your
plan will work.
MEASUREMENT
Follow your measurement plan. What are the uncertainties in your measurements?
163

uncertainties.)
Dont forget to make the additional measurements required to determine the moment of
inertia of the ring/disk/shaft/spool system from the sum of the moments of inertia of
its components. What is the uncertainty in each of the measurements? What effects
does the hole, the ball bearings, the groove, and the holes in the edges of the disk have
on its moment of inertia? Explain your reasoning.
ANALYSIS
Determine the acceleration of the hanging weight. How does this acceleration compare
to what its acceleration would be if you just dropped the weight without attaching it to
the string? Explain whether or not this makes sense.
Using your Prediction equation and your measured acceleration, the radius of the spool
and the mass of the hanging weight, calculate the moment of inertia (with uncertainty)
of the disk/shaft/spool system.
Adding the moments of inertia of the components of the ring/disk/shaft/spool system,
calculate the value (with uncertainty) of the moment of inertia of the system. What
fraction of the moment of inertia of the system is due to the shaft? The disk? The ring?
Explain whether or not this makes sense.
Compare the values of moment of inertia of the system from these two methods
CONCLUSION
164
LAB 6 PROBLEM 2: MOMENT OF INERTIA ABOUT

DIFFERENT AXES
While spinning a coin on a table, you wonder if the coins moment of inertia spinning
on its edge is the same as if it were spinning about an axis through its center and
perpendicular to its surface. You do a quick calculation to decide. To test your
prediction, you build a laboratory model with a disk that can spin around two different
axes, and find the moment of inertia in each configuration by measuring the
acceleration of a hanging weight attached to the spinning system by a string.
EQUIPMENT
You have an apparatus that spins a disk either about its central axis or diameter. You
also have a stopwatch, meterstick, pulley, table clamp, mass set and the video analysis
equipment.
A string has one end wrapped around the plastic spool (under the disk) and the other
end passing over a vertical pulley lined up with the tangent to the spool. A mass is
hung from the free end of the string so it can fall past the table, spinning the system.
problem.
165
MOMENT OF INERTIA ABOUT DIFFERENT AXES
WARM UP
To figure out your prediction, you need to determine how to calculate the rotational
inertia of the disk from the quantities you can measure in the laboratory. It is helpful to
use a problem solving strategy such as the one outlined below:
If needed, a more detailed set of Warm-up questions are given in the earlier problem,
Moment of Inertia of a Complex System.
1. Draw a side view of the equipment with all relevant kinematic quantities. Write
down any relationships that exist between them. Label all the relevant forces.
2. Determine the basic principles of physics that you will use.
assumptions and check to see if they are reasonable.
Write down your
3. If you decide to use dynamics, draw a free-body diagram of all the relevant objects.
Note the acceleration of the object as a check to see if you have drawn all the forces.
Write down Newton's second law for each free-body diagram either in its linear
form or its rotational form or both as necessary.
4. Use Newtons third law to relate the forces between two free-body diagrams. If
forces are equal give them the same labels.
5. Identify the target quantity you wish to determine. Use the equations collected in
steps 1 and 3 to plan a solution for the target.
6. For comparison with your experimental results, calculate the moment of inertia of
the disk in each orientation.
PREDICTION
Restate the problem. What are you asked to predict? What relationships do you need to
calculate to use the lab model?
EXPLORATION
Practice gently spinning the disk/shaft/spool system by hand. How long does it take
the disk to stop rotating about its central axis? How long does it take the disk to stop
rotating about its diameter? How will friction affect your measurements?
around the spool? How much mass will you attach to the other end of the string? How
should the pulley be adjusted to allow the string to unwind smoothly from the spool
and pass over the pulley?
Practice releasing the hanging weight and the
disk/shaft/spool system.
166
additional measurements that you need to make to justify them. If you already have
this data in your lab journal you dont need to redo it, just copy it.
plan will work.
MEASUREMENT
uncertainties.)
inertia of the disk/shaft/spool system by adding all of the moments of inertia of its
components. What is the uncertainty of each of the measurements? What effects do the
hole, the ball bearings, the groove, and the holes in the edges of the disk have on its
moment of inertia? Explain your reasoning.
ANALYSIS
to its acceleration if you just dropped the weight without attaching it to the string?
Using your Prediction equation and your measured acceleration, the radius of the spool
and the mass of the hanging weight, calculate the moment of inertia (with uncertainty)
of the disk/shaft/spool system, for both orientations of the disk.
Adding the moments of inertia of the components of the disk/shaft/spool system,
calculate the value (with uncertainty) of the moment of inertia of the system, for both
orientations of the disk.
Compare the results from these two methods for both orientations of the disk.
167
CONCLUSION
How do the measured and predicted values of the disk's moment of inertia compare
when the disk rotates about its central axis? When the disk rotates around its diameter?
Is the moment of inertia of a coin rotating around its central axis larger than, smaller
than, or the same as its moment of inertia when it is rotating around its diameter? State
your results in the most general terms supported by the data.
Did your measurements agree with your initial predictions? Why or why not? What
are the limitations on the accuracy of your measurements and analysis?
168
LAB 6 PROBLEM 3: MOMENT OF INERTIA WITH AN

OFF-AXIS RING
You have been hired as a member of a team designing an energy efficient car. The
brakes of a traditional car transform the kinetic energy of the car into internal energy of
the brake material, resulting in an increased temperature of the brakes. That energy is
lost in the sense that it cannot be recovered to power the car. Your task has been to
evaluate a new braking system, which transforms the kinetic energy of the car into
rotational energy of a flywheel system. The energy of the flywheel can then be used to
drive the car. As designed, the flywheel consists of a heavy horizontal disk with an axis
of rotation through its center. A metal ring is mounted on the disk but is not centered
on the disk. You wonder what effect the off-center ring will have on the motion of the
flywheel.
To answer this question, you decide to make a laboratory model to measure the
moment of inertia of a ring/disk/shaft/spool system when the ring is off-axis and
compare it to the moment of inertia for a system with a ring in the center.
EQUIPMENT
169
MOMENT OF INERTIA WITH AN OFF-AXIS RING

The ring is fixed (with tape) off-set from the axis of the disk and represents the
flywheel. A string has one end wrapped around the plastic spool (under the disk) and
the other end passing over a vertical pulley lined up with the tangent to the spool. A
mass is hung from the free end of the string so it can fall past the table, spinning the
system.
problem.
WARM UP
To figure out your prediction, you need to determine how to calculate the rotational
inertia of the disk from the quantities you can measure in this problem. It is helpful to
use a problem solving strategy such as the one outlined below:
If needed, a more detailed set of Warm-up questions are given in the earlier problem,
Moment of Inertia of a Complex System.
1. Draw a side view of the equipment with all the relevant kinematics quantities. Write
down any relationships that exist between them. Label all the relevant forces.
2. Determine the basic principles of physics that you will use.
assumptions and check to see if they are reasonable.
Write down your
3. If you decide to use dynamics, draw a free-body diagram of all the relevant objects.
Note the acceleration of the object as a check to see if you have drawn all the forces.
Write down Newton's second law for each free-body diagram either in its linear form
or its rotational form or both as necessary.
4. Use Newtons third law to relate the forces between two free-body diagrams. If
forces are equal give them the same labels.
steps 1 and 3 to plan a solution for the target. If there are more unknowns than
equations, reexamine the previous steps to see if there is additional information
about the situation. If not, see if one of the unknowns will cancel out.
6. For comparison with your experimental results, calculate the moment of inertia of the
disk/ring system in each configuration. The parallel-axis theorem should be helpful.
PREDICTIONS
Restate the problem. What are you asked to predict? What relationships do you need to
calculate to use the lab model?
170
EXPLORATION
THE OFF-AXIS RING IS NOT STABLE BY ITSELF! Be sure to secure the ring to the disk,
and be sure that the system is on a stable base.
Practice gently spinning the ring/disk/shaft/spool system by hand. How will friction
affect your measurements?
around the spool? How much mass will you attach to the other end of the string? How
should the pulley be adjusted to allow the string to unwind smoothly from the spool
and pass over the pulley? Practice releasing the mass and the ring/disk/shaft/spool
system.
additional measurements that you need to make to justify them.
plan will work.
MEASUREMENT
uncertainties.)
inertia of the ring/disk/shaft/spool system from the moments of inertia of its
components and the parallel axis theorem. What is the uncertainty in each of the
measurements? What effects do the hole, the ball bearings, the groove, and the holes in
the edges of the disk have on its moment of inertia? Explain your reasoning.
ANALYSIS
to its acceleration if you just dropped the weight without attaching it to the string?
171

Using your Prediction equation and your measured acceleration, the mass of the
hanging weight and the radius of the spool, calculate the moment of inertia (with
uncertainty) of the disk/shaft/spool system.
Adding the moments of inertia of the components of the disk/shaft/spool system and
applying the parallel axis theorem, calculate the value (with uncertainty) of the moment
of inertia of the system.
CONCLUSION
Compare the two values for the moment of inertia of the system when the ring is off-axis.
Did your measurement agree with your predicted value? Why or why not?
Compare the moments of inertia of the system when the ring is centered on the disk,
and when the ring is off-axis.
What effect does the off-center ring have on the moment of inertia of the
ring/disk/shaft/spool system? Does the rotational inertia increase, decrease, or stay the
same when the ring is moved off-axis?
State your result in the most general terms supported by your analysis. Did your
measurements agree with your initial prediction? Why or why not? What are the
limitations on the accuracy of your measurements and analysis?
172
LAB 6 PROBLEM 4: FORCES, TORQUES, AND ENERGY

While examining the manual starter on a snow blower, you wonder why the
manufacturer chose to wrap the starter cord around a smaller ring that is fastened to a
spool under the flywheel instead of around the flywheel itself. When starting a snow
blower, you know you need the starter system to spin as fast as possible when you pull
the starter cord. Your friend suggests that the flywheel might spin faster, even if you do
the same amount of work when you pull on the handle, if the cord is wrapped around a
smaller diameter. You notice that the handle is not very light. To see whether this idea
is correct, you decide to calculate the final angular speed of the flywheel after pulling
on the handle for a fixed distance with a fixed force, as a function of the spools radius.
To test your calculation, you set up a laboratory model of the flywheel starter assembly.
Unfortunately, it is difficult to keep the force on the handle consistent across trials, so in
the lab you attach a hanging mass to one end of the cord.
EQUIPMENT
The disk and ring share the same rotational axis and represent the flywheel. A string
has one end wrapped around the plastic spool (under the disk) and the other end
173
FORCES, TORQUES, AND ENERGY

passing over a vertical pulley lined up with the tangent to the spool. The spool has 3
different diameters to choose from, or the ring or disk can be used. A mass is hung
from the free end of the string so it can fall past the table, spinning the system.
problem.
WARM UP
To figure out your prediction, it is useful to use a problem-solving strategy such as the
one outlined below:
1. Make two side view drawings of the situation (similar to the diagram in the
Equipment section), one just as the hanging mass is released, and one just as the
hanging mass reaches the ground (but before it hits). Label all relevant kinematic
quantities and write down the relationships that exist between them. What is the
relationship between the velocity of the hanging weight and the angular velocity of
the ring/disk/shaft/spool system? Label all the relevant forces.
2. Determine the basic principles of physics that you will use and how you will use
them.
Determine your system. Are any objects from outside your system
interacting with your system? Write down your assumptions and check to see if
they are reasonable. How will you ensure that your equipment always pulls the
cord through the same length when it is wrapped around different diameters?
3. Use dynamics to determine what you must do to the hanging weight to get the force
for each diameter around which the cord is wrapped. Draw a free-body diagram of
all relevant objects. Note the acceleration of the object in the free-body diagram as a
check to see if you have drawn all the forces. Write down Newton's second law for
each free-body diagram either in its linear form or its rotational form or both as
necessary. Use Newtons third law to relate the forces between two free-body
diagrams. If forces are equal, give them the same symbol. Solve your equations for
the force that the string exerts.
4. Use the conservation of energy to determine the final angular speed of the rotating
objects. Define your system and write the conservation of energy equation for this
situation:
What is the energy of the system as the hanging weight is released? What is its
energy just before the hanging weight hits the floor? Is any significant energy
transferred to or from the system? If so, can you determine it or redefine your
system so that there is no transfer? Is any significant energy changed into internal
energy of the system? If so, can you determine it or redefine your system so that
there is no internal energy change?
174

steps 1, 3, and 4 to plan a solution for the target. If there are more unknowns than
equations, re-examine the previous steps to see if there is additional information
about the situation that can be expressed in an addition equation. If not, see if one of
the unknowns will cancel out.
PREDICTION
Restate the problem. What quantities do you need to calculate to test your idea?
EXPLORATION
Practice gently spinning the ring/disk/shaft/spool system by hand. How will friction
affect your measurements?
Find the best way to attach the string to the spool, disk, or ring. How much string
should you wrap around each? How should the pulley be adjusted to allow the string to
unwind smoothly and pass over the pulley in each case? You may need to reposition
the pulley when changing the position where the cord wraps. Practice releasing the
weight and the ring/disk/shaft/spool system for each case.
Determine the best mass to use for the hanging weight. Remember this mass will be
applied in every case. Try a large range. What mass range will give you the smoothest
motion?
Is the time it takes the hanging weight to fall different for the different situations? How
will you determine the time taken for it to fall? Determine a good setup for each case
(string wrapped around the ring, the disk, or the spool).
Decide what measurements you need to make to check your prediction. If any major
assumptions are used in your calculations, decide on the additional measurements that
you need to make to justify them. If you already have this data in your lab journal you
dont need to redo it, just copy it.
Outline your measurement plan. Make some rough measurements to be sure your plan
will work.
MEASUREMENT
175
ANALYSIS
Determine the final angular velocity of the ring/disk/shaft/spool system for each case
after the weight hits the ground. How is this angular velocity related to the final
velocity of the hanging weight? If your calculation incorporates any assumptions, make
sure you justify these assumptions based on data that you have analyzed.
CONCLUSION
In each case, how do your measured and predicted values for the final angular velocity
of the system compare?
Of the three places you attached the string, which produced the highest final angular
velocity? Did your measurements agree with your initial prediction? Why or why not?
What are the limitations on the accuracy of your measurements?
Given your results, how much does it matter where the starter cord is attached? Why
do you think the manufacturer chose to wrap the cord around the ring? Explain your
answers.
Can you make a qualitative argument, in terms of energy conservation, to support your
conclusions?
176
LAB 6 PROBLEM 5: CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR

MOMENTUM
While driving around the city, your car is constantly shifting gears. You wonder how
the gear shifting process works. Your friend tells you that there are gears in the
transmission of your car that are rotating about the same axis. When the car shifts, one
of these gear assemblies is brought into connection with another one that drives the
cars wheels. Thinking about a car starting up, you decide to calculate how the angular
speed of a spinning object changes when it is brought into contact with another object at
rest. To keep your calculation simple, you decide to use a disk for the initially spinning
object and a ring for the object initially at rest. Both objects will be able to rotate freely
about the same axis, which is centered on both objects. To test your calculation you
decide to build a laboratory model of the situation.
EQUIPMENT
You have an apparatus that spins a horizontal disk and a ring to gently drop onto it.
You also have a stopwatch, meterstick and the video analysis equipment.
Take care not to drop the ring onto the disk from a measurable height. The heavy ring
should only be a COUPLE OF MILLIMETERS above the disk before it is released!
Dropping it from greater separations has previously broken the plastic disk.
177
CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

problem.
WARM UP
To figure out your prediction, it is useful to use a problem solving strategy such as the
one outlined:
1. Make two side view drawings of the situation (similar to the diagram in the
Equipment section), one just as the ring is released, and one after the ring lands on
the disk. Label all relevant kinematic quantities and write down the relationships
that exist between them. Label all relevant forces.
2. Determine the basic principles of physics that you will use and how you will use
them. Determine your system. Are any objects from outside your system interacting
with your system? Write down your assumptions and check to see if they are
reasonable.
3. Use conservation of angular momentum to determine the final angular speed of the
rotating objects.
Why not use conservation of energy or conservation of
momentum? Define your system and write the conservation of angular momentum
equation for this situation:
Is any significant angular momentum transferred to or from the system? If so, can
you determine it or redefine your system so that there is no transfer?
steps 1 and 3 to plan a solution for the target. If there are more unknowns than
equations, reexamine the previous steps to see if there is additional information
about the situation that can be expressed in an addition equation. If not, see if one of
the unknowns will cancel out.
PREDICTION
Restate the problem. What quantities do you need to calculate to test your idea?
EXPLORATION
Practice dropping the ring into the groove on the disk as gently as possible to ensure the
best data. What happens if the ring is dropped off-center? What happens if the disk
does not fall smoothly into the groove? Explain your answers.
178

you need to make to justify them.
Make some rough measurements to be sure your plan will work.
MEASUREMENTS
ANALYSIS
Determine the initial and final angular velocity of the disk from the data you collected.
Using your prediction equation and your measured initial angular velocity, calculate
the final angular velocity of the disk. If your calculation incorporates any assumptions,
make sure you justify these assumptions based on data that you have analyzed.
CONCLUSION
Did your measurement of the final angular velocity agree with your calculated value by
prediction? Why or why not? What are the limitations on the accuracy of your
Could you have easily measured enough information to use conservation of energy to
predict the final angular velocity of this system? Why or why not? Use your data to
check your answer.
179
180
LAB 6 PROBLEM 6: DESIGNING A MOBILE

Your friend has asked you to help make a mobile for her daughters room. You design
a mobile using five pieces of string and two rods. The first rod hangs from the ceiling.
One object hangs from one end of the rod and another rod hangs from the other end.
That second rod has two objects hanging from each end. The project would be easier if
your friend's daughter knew what she wanted to hang from the mobile, but she cannot
make up her mind. One day it is dinosaurs, another day it is the Power Rangers, and
another day it is famous women scientists. Frustrated, you decide to build a laboratory
model to test the type of mobile you will build in order to make sure no matter what
she decides to hang, the mobile can be easily assembled.
EQUIPMENT
You have two wooden dowels, some string, and three mass sets. Your final mobile
should use all these parts. A rod and table clamp is available to hang the mobile.
181
DESIGNING A MOBILE
problem.
WARM UP
one outlined below:
1. Draw a mobile similar to the one in the Equipment section. Select your coordinate
system. Identify and label the masses and lengths relevant to this problem. Draw
and label all the relevant forces.
2. Draw a free-body diagram for each rod showing the location of the forces acting on
the rods. Label these forces. Identify any forces related by Newtons third law.
Choose the axis of rotation for each rod. Identify any torques on each rod.
3. For each free-body diagram, write the equation expressing Newton's second law for
forces and another equation for torques. (Remember that your system is in
equilibrium.) What are the total torque and the sum of forces on an object when it is
in equilibrium?
4. Identify the target quantities you wish to determine. Use the equations collected in
step 3 to plan a solution for the target. If there are more unknowns than equations,
reexamine the previous steps to see if there is additional information about the
situation that can be expressed in an additional equation. If not, see if one of the
unknowns will cancel out.
PREDICTION
Restate the problem. What quantities do you need to calculate to test your design? What
are the variables in the system?
EXPLORATION
Collect the necessary parts of your mobile. Find a convenient place to hang it.
Decide on the easiest way to determine the position of the center of mass of each rod.
Will the length of the strings for the hanging objects affect the balance of the mobile?
Why or why not? Try it.
Where does the heaviest object go? The lightest?
182
DESIGNING A MOBILE
you need to make to justify them.
MEASUREMENT
Measure and record the location of the center of mass of each rod. Determine the
location on the top rod from which you will hang it. Determine the location on the
second rod from which you will hang it. Also, measure and record the mass of each rod
and the mass of the three hanging objects.
Is there another configuration of the three objects that also results in a stable mobile?
ANALYSIS
Using the values you measured and your prediction equations, calculate the locations
(with uncertainties) of the two strings holding up the rods.
To test your prediction, build your mobile and then hang it. If your mobile did not
balance, adjust the strings attached to the rods until it does balance and determine their
new positions.
Is there another configuration of the three objects that also results in a stable mobile?
Try it.
CONCLUSION
Did your mobile balance as designed? What corrections did you need to make to get it
to balance? Were these corrections a result of some systematic error, or was there a
mistake in your prediction?
Explain why the lengths of each string were or were not important in the mobile design.
183
DESIGNING A MOBILE
184
LAB 6 PROBLEM 7: EQUILIBRIUM

You have been hired to design new port facilities for Duluth. Your assignment is to
evaluate a new crane for lifting containers from the hold of a ship. The crane is a boom
(a steel bar of uniform thickness) with one end attached to the ground by a hinge that
allows it to rotate in the vertical plane. Near the other end of the boom is a motor
driven cable that lifts a container straight up at a constant speed. The boom is
supported at an angle by another cable. One end of the support cable is attached to the
boom and the other end goes over a pulley. That other end is attached to a
counterweight that hangs straight down. The pulley is supported by a mechanism that
adjusts its height so the support cable is always horizontal. Your task is to determine
how the angle of the boom from the horizontal changes, as a function of the weight of
the container being lifted. The mass of the boom, the mass of the counterweight, the
attachment point of the support cable and the attachment point of the lifting cable have
all been specified by the engineers.
You will test your calculations with a laboratory model of the crane.
EQUIPMENT
WARNING: The equilibrium in this system is unstable; it is strongly recommended
that you keep your hand near the bar while the system is balancing to catch it if it
falls. Be careful not to let the system fall or fling equipment.
You have a channel of aluminum with a hinge on one end. A pulley, table clamp, two
mass sets and string is available.
It helps to clamp the hinge under the pulley clamp to fix it in place. Make sure the
aluminum channel can freely move up and down.
185
EQUILIBRIUM

problem.
WARM UP
one outlined below:
1. Draw a crane similar to the one in the Equipment section. Select your coordinate
system. Identify and label the masses and lengths relevant to this problem. Draw
and label all the relevant forces.
2. Draw a free-body diagram for the bar showing the location of the forces acting on it.
Label these forces. Choose the axis of rotation. Identify any torques on the rod.
3. Write the equation expressing Newton's second law for forces and another equation
for torques. Remember that the bar is in equilibrium.
4. Identify the target quantities you wish to determine. Use the equations collected in
step 3 to plan a solution for the target. If there are more unknowns than equations,
reexamine the previous steps to see if there is additional information about the
situation that can be expressed in an additional equation. If not, see if one of the
unknowns will cancel out.
5. Make a graph of the bars angle as a function of the weight of object A.
186
EQUILIBRIUM
PREDICTION
Restate the problem. What quantities do you need to calculate to test your design? What
parameters are set, and which one(s) will you vary?
EXPLORATION
Collect the necessary parts of your crane. Find a convenient place to build it.
Decide on the easiest way to determine where the center of mass is located on the bar.
Determine where to attach the lifting cable and the support cable so that the crane is in
equilibrium for the weights you want to hang. Try several possibilities. If your crane
tends to lean to one side or the other, try putting a vertical rod near the end of the crane
to keep your crane from moving in that direction. If you do this, what effect will this
vertical rod have on your calculations?
Do you think that the length of the strings for the hanging weights will affect the
balance of the crane? Why or why not?
MEASUREMENT
Build your crane.
Make all necessary measurements of the configuration. Every time only change the
mass of object A and determine the angle of the bar when the system is in equilibrium.
Remember to adjust the height of the pulley to keep the support string horizontal that
hangs the object B for each case.
Is there another configuration of the three objects that also results in a stable
configuration?
ANALYSIS
Make a graph of the bars angle as a function of the weight of object A and compare it
with your predicted graph.
What happens to that graph if you change the mass of object B or the position of the
attachment of the support cable to the bar?
187
EQUILIBRIUM
CONCLUSION
Did your crane balance as designed? What corrections did you need to make to get it to
balance? Were these corrections a result of some systematic error, or was there a
mistake in your prediction? In your opinion, what is the best way to construct a crane
that will allow you to quickly adjust the setup so as to meet the demands of carrying
various loads? Justify your answer.
188

Name:
Date Performed:
ID#:
Earns No Points
Earns Full Points

Argument
logic does not flow
gaps in content

argument
Technical Style

emotions

writing
incorporated
consistent
Use of Physics
phenomenon

theory
Quantitativeness

qualitative
inappropriate
Total
189
Possible Earned
190
LAB 7 PROBLEM 1: MEASURING SPRING CONSTANTS

TWO WAYS
You are selecting springs for a large antique clock; to determine the forces they will
exert in the clock, you need to know their spring constants. One book recommends a
static approach: hang objects of different weights on the spring and measure the
displacement from equilibrium. Another book suggests a dynamic approach: hang an
object on the end of a spring and measure its oscillation frequency. You decide to
compare the results of the two methods, in order to get the best precision possible for
your characterization of the clocks springs. But first you have to figure out how to
calculate spring constants from each type of measurement.
Read: Mazur Chapter 8, especially Sections 8.6 and 8.9, and Sections 15.115.6.
EQUIPMENT
You have springs, a table clamp, rod, meterstick, stopwatch, mass set and the video
analysis equipment. You can hang the spring from a rod that is extended from a table
clamp.

problem.
191
WARM UP
To figure out your predictions, it is useful to apply a problem-solving strategy such as the
ones outlined below:
Method #1: Suppose you hang objects of several different masses on a spring and
measure the vertical displacement of each object.
1. Make two sketches of the situation, one before you attach a mass to a spring, and
one after a mass is suspended from the spring and is at rest. Draw a coordinate
system and label the position where the spring is unstretched, the stretched position,
the mass of the object, and the spring constant. Assume the springs are massless.
2. Draw a force diagram for the object hanging at rest from the end of the spring. Label
the forces. Newton's second law gives the equation of motion for the hanging object.
Solve this equation for the spring constant.
3. Use your equation to sketch the displacement (from the unstretched position) versus
weight graph for the object hanging at rest from the spring. How is the slope of this
graph related to the spring constant?
Method #2: Suppose you hang an object from the spring, start it oscillating, and
measure the period of oscillation.
1. Make a sketch of the oscillating system at a time when the object is below its
equilibrium position. Draw this sketch to the side of the two sketches drawn for
method #1. Identify and label this new position on the same coordinate axis.
2. Draw a force diagram of the object at this new position. Label the forces.
3. Apply Newton's second law to write down the equation of motion for the object at
each of the above positions.
When the object is below its equilibrium position, how is the stretch of the spring
from its unstretched position related to the position of the system's (spring & object)
equilibrium position and its displacement from that equilibrium position to the
position in your second sketch. Define these variables, and write an equation to
show this relationship.
4. Solve your equations for acceleration of the object as a function of the mass of the
suspended object, the spring constant, and the displacement of the spring/object
system from its equilibrium position. Keep in mind that acceleration is second
derivative of position with respect to time.
5. Try a periodic solution ( sin( t) or cos( t) ) to your equation of motion (Newton's
second law). Find the frequency that satisfies equation of motion for all times.
How is the frequency of the system related to its period of oscillation?
192
PREDICTION
Restate the problem. What two relationships must you calculate to prepare for your
experiment?
EXPLORATION
Method #1: Select a series of masses that give a usable range of displacements. The
smallest mass must be much greater than the mass of the spring to fulfill the massless
spring assumption. The largest mass should not pull the spring past its elastic limit
(about 40 cm). Beyond that point you will damage the spring. Decide on a procedure
that allows you to measure the displacement of the spring-object system in a consistent
manner. Decide how many measurements you will need to make a reliable
determination of the spring constant.
Method #2: Secure one end of the spring safely to the metal rod and select a mass that
gives a regular oscillation without excessive wobbling to the hanging end of the spring.
Again, the largest mass should not pull the spring past its elastic limit and the smallest
mass should be much greater than the mass of the spring. Practice starting the mass in
vertical motion smoothly and consistently.
Practice making a video to record the motion of the spring-object system. Decide how to
measure the period of oscillation of the spring-object system by video and stopwatch.
How can you minimize the uncertainty introduced by your reaction time in starting and
stopping the stopwatch? How many times should you measure the period to get a
reliable value? How will you determine the uncertainty in the period?
MEASUREMENT
Method #1: Record the masses of different hanging objects and the corresponding
displacements.
Method #2: For each hanging object, record the mass of the object. Use a stopwatch to
roughly determine the period of the oscillation and then make a video of the motion of
the hanging object. Repeat the same procedure for objects with different masses.
Analyze your data as you go along so you can decide how many measurements you
need to make to determine the spring constant accurately and reliably.
193
ANALYSIS
Method #1: Make a graph of displacement versus weight for the object-spring system.
From the slope of this graph, calculate the value of the spring constant, including the
uncertainty.
Method #2: Determine the period of each oscillation from your videos. (Use the period
by stopwatch as a predicted parameter in your fit equations.) Make a graph of period
(or frequency) versus mass for the object-spring system. If this graph is not a straight
line, make another graph of the period vs. some power of the mass that should produce
a straight line. (Use your prediction equation to decide what that power should be.)
From the slope of the straight-line graph, calculate the value of the spring constant,
including the uncertainty.
CONCLUSION
How do the two values of the spring constant compare? Which method is faster?
Which method gives you the best precision? Justify your answers in terms of your data
and measurements.
Did your prediction equation for method #2 help you correctly identify a power of the
mass that would produce a straight-line graph when you were working through the
analysis? Explain why or why not.
How did you minimize the uncertainty involved in the timing for method #2? Did
video analysis give you a better estimate of the period than the stopwatch?
194
LAB 7 PROBLEM 2: THE EFFECTIVE SPRING CONSTANT

Your company has bought the prototype for a new flow regulator from a local inventor.
Your job is to prepare the prototype for mass production. While studying the
prototype, you notice the inventor used some rather innovative spring configurations to
supply the tension needed for the regulator valve. In one location the inventor had
fastened two different springs side-by-side, as in Figure A below. In another location
the inventor attached two different springs end-to-end, as in Figure B below.
To decrease the cost and increase the reliability of the flow regulator for mass
production, you need to replace each spring configuration with a single spring. These
replacement springs must exert the same total forces when stretched the same amount
as the original net displacement of a hanging object. The spring constant for a single
spring that replaces a configuration of springs is called the configurations effective
spring constant.
Read: Mazur Chapter 8, especially Sections 8.6 and 8.9, and Sections 15.1-15.6.
EQUIPMENT
You have two different springs with the same unstretched length, but different spring
constants k1 and k2. These springs can be hung vertically side-by-side (setup A) or
end-to-end (setup B). You will also have a meterstick, stopwatch, rod, wooden dowel,
table clamp, mass set and the video analysis equipment.
195
EFFECTIVE SPRING CONSTANT

problem.
WARM UP
To figure out your predictions, it is useful to apply a problem-solving strategy such as
the one outlined below. Apply the strategy first to the side-by-side configuration, and then
repeat for the end-to-end configuration:
1. Make a sketch of the spring configuration similar to one of the drawings in the
Equipment section. Draw a coordinate system and label the positions of each
unstretched spring, the final stretched position of each spring, the two spring
constants, and the mass of the object suspended. Assume that the springs are
massless.
For the side-by-side configuration, assume that the light bar attached to the
springs remains horizontal (it does not twist).
Now make a second sketch of a single (massless) spring with spring constant k'
that has the same object suspended from it and the same total stretch as the
combined springs. Label this second sketch with the appropriate quantities.
2. Draw force diagrams of the object suspended from the combined springs and the
same object suspended from the single replacement spring. Label the forces. Use
Newtons Third Law to identify forces on different diagrams that have the same
magnitudes.
For the end-to-end configuration, draw an additional force diagram for the point
at the connection of the two springs.
3. For each force diagram, write a Newtons Second Law equation to relate the net
force on an object (or the point connecting the springs) to its acceleration.
Write an equation relating the total stretch of the combined springs related to the
stretch of each of the springs? How does this compare to the stretch of the single
replacement spring? How does the stretch of each spring relate to its spring
constant and the force it exerts?
4. Re-write each Newtons second law equation in terms of the stretch of each
spring.
For the end-to-end configuration: At the connection point of the two springs,
what is the force of the top spring on the bottom spring? What is the force of the
bottom spring on the top spring?
5. Solve your equations for the effective spring constant (k') of the single
replacement spring, in terms of the two spring constants.
196
PREDICTION
Restate the problem. What ratios do you need to calculate for each spring configuration
in the problem?
EXPLORATION
To test your predictions, you must decide how to measure each spring constant of the
two springs and the effective spring constants of the side-by-side and end-to-end
configurations.
From your results of the earlier problem, Measuring Spring Constants, select the best
method for measuring spring constants. Justify your choice. DO NOT STRETCH THE
SPRINGS PAST THEIR ELASTIC LIMIT (ABOUT 40 CM) OR YOU WILL
DAMAGE THEM.
Perform an exploration consistent with your selected method. If necessary, refer back
to the appropriate Exploration section of the problem Measuring Spring Constants.
Remember, the smallest mass must be much greater than the mass of the spring to fulfill
the massless spring assumption. The largest mass should not pull the spring past its
elastic limit.
MEASUREMENT
Make the measurements that are consistent with your selected method. If necessary,
refer back to the appropriate Measurement section of the problem Measuring Spring
Constants. What are the uncertainties in your measurements?
ANALYSIS
Determine the effective spring constants (with uncertainties) of the side-by-side spring
configuration and the end-to-end spring configuration. If necessary, refer back to the
problem Measuring Spring Constants for the analysis technique consistent with your
selected method.
Determine the spring constants of the two springs. Calculate the effective spring
constants (with uncertainties) of the two configurations using your Prediction
equations.
197

How do the measured and predicted values of the effective spring constants for the two
configurations compare?
CONCLUSION
What are the effective spring constants of a side-by-side spring configuration and an
end-to-end spring configuration? Did your measured values agree with your initial
predictions? Why or why not? What are the limitations on the accuracy of your
Which configuration provides a larger effective spring constant?
198
LAB 7 PROBLEM 3: OSCILLATION FREQUENCY

WITH TWO SPRINGS
You have a summer job with a research group at the University. Your supervisor asks
you to design equipment to measure earthquake aftershocks. The calibration sensor
needs to be isolated from the earth movements, yet free to move. You decide to place
the sensor on a track cart and attach a spring to both sides of the cart. You should now
be able to measure the component of the aftershocks along the axis defined by the track.
To make any quantitative measurements with the sensor you need to know the
frequency of oscillation for the cart as a function of the spring constants and the mass of
the cart.
EQUIPMENT
You have a track, two track endstops, two oscillation springs, a meterstick, stopwatch,
cart, cart masses and the video analysis equipment.

problem.
WARM UP
one outlined below:
1. Make two sketches of the oscillating cart, one at its equilibrium position, and one at
some other position and time while it is oscillating. On your sketches, show the
direction of the velocity and acceleration of the cart. Identify and label the known
(measurable) and unknown quantities.
199
OSCILLATION FREQUENCY WITH TWO SPRINGS

2. Draw a force diagram of the oscillating cart away from its equilibrium position.
Label the forces.
3. Apply Newton's laws as the equation of motion for the cart. Consider both cases
when the cart is in the equilibrium and displaced from the equilibrium position.
Solve your equation for the acceleration, simplifying the equation until it is similar
to equation 15.21 (Mazur).
4. Try a periodic solution ( sin( t) or cos( t) ) to your equation of motion (Newton's
How is the frequency of the system related to its period of oscillation? Calculate
frequency of the system as a function of the mass of the cart and the two spring
constants.
PREDICTION
Restate the problem. What quantities do you need to calculate to test your design?
EXPLORATION
Decide the best method to determine the spring constants based on your results of the
problem Measuring Spring Constants. DO NOT STRETCH THE SPRINGS PAST
THEIR ELASTIC LIMIT (ABOUT 40 CM) OR YOU WILL DAMAGE THEM.
Find the best place for the adjustable end stop on the track. Do not stretch the springs past
40 cm, but stretch them enough so they oscillate the cart smoothly.
Practice releasing the cart smoothly. You may notice the amplitude of oscillation
decreases. Whats the reason for it? Does this affect the period of oscillation?
MEASUREMENT
Determine the spring constants. Record these values. What is the uncertainty in these
measurements?
Record the mass of the cart. Use a stopwatch to roughly determine the period of
oscillation and then make a video of the motion of the oscillating cart. You should
record at least 3 cycles.
ANALYSIS
Analyze your video to find the period of oscillation. Calculate the frequency (with
uncertainty) of the oscillations from your measured period.
200
Calculate the frequency (with uncertainty) using your Prediction equation.
CONCLUSION
What is the frequency of the oscillating cart? Did your measured frequency agree with
your predicted frequency? Why or why not? What are the limitations on the accuracy
of your measurements and analysis? What is the effect of friction?
If you completed the earlier problem, The Effective Spring Constant: What is the
effective spring constant of this configuration? How does it compare with the effective
spring constants of the side-by-side and end-to-end configurations?
201
202
LAB 7 PROBLEM 4: OSCILLATION FREQUENCY

OF AN EXTENDED SYSTEM
You are the technical advisor for the next Bruce Willis action movie, Die Even Harder,
which is to be filmed in Minnesota. The script calls for a spectacular stunt. Bruce Willis
dangles over a cliff from a long rope whose other end is tied to the Bad Guy. The Bad
Guy is on the ice-covered ledge of the cliff. The Bad Guy's elastic parachute line is
tangled in a tree located several feet from the edge of the cliff. Bruce and the Bad Guy
are in simple harmonic motion, and at the top of his motion, Bruce unsuccessfully tries
to grab for the safety of the cliff edge while the Bad Guy reaches for his discarded knife.
The script calls for Bad Guy to cut the rope just as Bruce reaches the top of his motion
again.
The problem is that it is expensive to have Bruce hanging from the rope while the crew
films close-ups of the Bad Guy, but the stunt double weighs at least 50 pounds more
than Bruce. The director wants to know if the stunt double will have a different motion
than Bruce, and if so whether the difference would be noticeable. Will he? You decide
to test your prediction by modeling the situation with the equipment described below.
EQUIPMENT
You have a track, endstop, pulley, table clamp, springs, cart, string, mass set, meterstick,
stopwatch and the video analysis equipment.
The track represents the ice-covered ledge of the cliff, the end-stop represents the tree,
the spring represents the elastic cord, the cart represents the Bad Guy, the string
represents the rope and the hanging mass set represents Bruce or his stunt double.
203
OSCILLATION FREQUENCY OF AN EXTENDED SYSTEM

problem.
WARM UP
one below:
1. Make sketches of the situation when the cart and hanging object are at their
equilibrium positions and at some other time while the system is oscillating. On
your sketches, show the direction of the acceleration of the cart and hanging object.
Identify and label the known (measurable) and unknown quantities.
2. Draw separate force diagrams of the oscillating cart and hanging object. Label each
force. Are there any third-law pairs?
3. Independently apply Newton's laws to the cart and to the hanging object.
4. Solve your equations for the acceleration, simplifying the equation until it is similar
to equation 15.21 (Mazur).
5. Try a periodic solution [ sin( t) or cos( t) ] to your equation of motion (Newton's
How is the frequency of the system related to its period of oscillation? Calculate
frequency of the system as a function of the mass of the cart, the mass of the hanging
object, and the spring constant.
6. Use your equation to sketch the expected shape of a graph of the oscillation
frequency versus hanging mass. Will the frequency increase, decrease or stay the
same as the hanging mass increases?
7. Now you can complete your prediction. Use your equation to sketch the expected shape
of the graph of oscillation frequency versus the hanging object's mass.
PREDICTION
Restate the problem. What quantities must you calculate to answer the directors
question?
EXPLORATION
If you do not know the spring constant of your spring, you should decide the best way
to determine the spring constant based on your results of the problem Measuring
Spring Constants.
204

Find the best place for the adjustable end stop on the track. DO NOT STRETCH THE
SPRING PAST 40 CM OR YOU WILL DAMAGE IT, but stretch it enough so the cart
and hanging mass oscillate smoothly. Determine the best range of hanging masses to
use.
Practice releasing the cart and hanging mass smoothly and consistently. You may notice
the amplitude of oscillation decreases. Whats the reason for it? Does this affect the
period of oscillation?
MEASUREMENT
If necessary, determine the spring constant of your spring. What is the uncertainty in
your measurement?
For each hanging object, record the masses of the cart and the hanging object. Use a
stopwatch to roughly determine the period of oscillation and then make a video of the
oscillating cart for each hanging object. You should record at least 3 cycles for each
video.
oscillation frequency depends on the hanging mass.
ANALYSIS
For each hanging object, digitize the video to get the period of oscillation and then
calculate the oscillation frequency (with uncertainty) from your measured period.
Graph the frequency versus the hanging object's mass. On the same graph, show your
predicted relationship.
What are the limitations on the accuracy of your measurements and analysis? Over
what range of values does the measured graph match the predicted graph best? Do the
two curves start to diverge from one another? If so, where? What does this tell you
about the system?
CONCLUSION
Does the oscillation frequency increase, decrease or stay the same as the hanging
object's mass increases? State your result in the most general terms supported by your
analysis.
What will you tell the director? Do you think the motion of the actors in the stunt will
change if the heavier stunt man is used instead of Bruce Willis? How much heavier
205

would the stunt man have to be to produce a noticeable difference in the oscillation
frequency of the actors? Explain your reasoning in terms the director would
understand so you can collect your paycheck.
206
LAB 7 PROBLEM 5: DRIVEN OSCILLATIONS

You have a summer job with a research group at the University. Your supervisor asks
you to design equipment to measure earthquake aftershocks. To calibrate your seismic
detector, you need to determine how the amplitude of the oscillations of the detector
will vary with the frequency of the earthquake aftershocks. For that you decide to place
the sensor on a track cart and attach a spring to both sides of the cart. The other side of
the one of the springs is attached to an end stop. The second spring is attached to a
device that moves the end of the spring back and forth, simulating the earth moving
beneath the track. The device, called a mechanical oscillator, is designed so you can
change its frequency of oscillation. You should now be able to measure the component
of the aftershocks along the axis defined by the track.
EQUIPMENT
You have a track, endstop, two springs, a meterstick, stopwatch, cart, mechanical
oscillator, rod, table clamp, function generator, two banana cables and the video
analysis equipment.
The oscillator is connected to a function generator which allows it to oscillate back and
forth with adjustable frequencies.

problem.
WARM UP
You should follow the Warm Up for the problem Oscillation Frequency with Two
Springs if you have not already done so.
207
DRIVEN OSCILLATIONS
To qualitatively decide on the behavior of the system with the mechanical oscillator
attached and turned on, think about an experience you have had putting energy into an
oscillating system. For example, think about pushing someone on a swing. When is the
best time to push to get the maximum height for the person on the swing? How does
the frequency of your push compare to the natural frequency of the person on the
swing? How does the maximum height of the swinger compare to the size of your
push?
PREDICTION
Make your best-guess sketch of what you think a graph of the amplitude of the cart
versus the frequency of the mechanical driver will look like. Assume the mechanical
oscillator has constant amplitude of a few millimeters.
EXPLORATION
Examine the mechanical oscillator. Mount it at the end of the aluminum track, using
the clamp and metal rod so its shaft is aligned with the cart's motion. Connect it to the
function generator, using the output marked Lo (for ``low impedance''). Use middle or
maximum amplitude to observe the oscillation of the cart at the lowest frequency
possible.
Determine the accuracy of the digital display on the frequency generator by timing one
of the lower frequencies. Devise a scheme to accurately determine the amplitude of a
cart on the track, and practice the technique. For each new frequency, should you
restart the cart at rest?
When the mechanical oscillator is at or near the un-driven frequency (natural
frequency) of the cart-spring system, try to simultaneously observe the motion of the
cart and the shaft of the mechanical oscillator. What is the relationship? What happens
when the oscillators frequency is twice as large as the natural frequency?
MEASUREMENT
If you do not know the natural frequency of your system when it is not driven,
determine it using the technique used in the problem Oscillation Frequency with Two
Springs. Collect enough cart amplitude and oscillator frequency data to test your
prediction. Be sure to collect several data points near the natural frequency of the
system.
208
DRIVEN OSCILLATIONS
ANALYSIS
Make a graph the oscillation amplitude of the cart versus oscillator frequency. Is this
the graph you had anticipated? Where is it different? Why? What is the limitation on
the accuracy of your measurements and analysis?
CONCLUSION
Can you explain your results? Is energy conserved? What will you tell your boss about
your design for a seismic detector?
209
DRIVEN OSCILLATIONS
210

Name:
Date Performed:
ID#:
Earns No Points
Earns Full Points

Argument
logic does not flow
gaps in content

argument
Technical Style

emotions

writing
incorporated
consistent
Use of Physics
phenomenon

theory
Quantitativeness

qualitative
inappropriate
Total
211
Possible Earned
212
Appendix
A
x: EQUIP
PMENT
T
Video Ca
ameras Installing
g and Adjjusting
You usee Fire-i Digital Ca
ameras in conjunctio
on with th
he
VideoReecorder ap
pplication. The cam
mera is an IEEE-13944a
(FireWirre) video ca
amera that records 64
40x480 reso lution videeo
at 30 fra
ames per seccond.
Installiing Came
eras:
The new
west version
n of VideoR
Recorder au
utomatically
y configurees and displays the cam
mera
image. With a wo
orking cameera plugged
d in, launcching Video
oRecorder rresults in a live
image on
o the comp
puter screeen. The im
mage will n
not appear if the cameera is faultty, or
there is an
a issue wiith the conn
nection.
If you ha
ave a camera that is no
ot working
g, you shoulld try the fo
ollowing steeps:
1. Quitt the VideoR
Recorder app
plication.
2. Hoo
ok up a new Fire-i cam
mera to the firewire cabble.
3. Laun
nch the VideeoRecorder application.
a
If a new camera still does not wo
ork, you likely have a baad firewire ccable or com
mputer interface
C
labh
help@physsics.umn.ed
du and rep
port a bad v
video setup - includee the
card. Contact
room nu
umber and host name
e of the com
mputer.
213
APPENDIX: EQUIPMENT
Adjusting Cameras:
To get useful data from the video camera, it is helpful to adjust additional camera settings. The
VideoRecorder application has camera controls in the lower left corner that allow you to adjust
the exposure value and gain of the cameras image sensor. The exposure value sets the duration
each frame of video is formed. Generally speaking low exposure values have fast discrete
images that are appear dark, high exposure values have slow blurred imaged that are bright. The
gain amplifies the brightness of the frame and should be adjusted upwards to make discrete
darker images easier to see.
Good camera settings - Motionless objects may look grainy; objects in motion have welldefined edges.
low Exposure value (280 or less)
high Gain ( about 255)
Bad camera settings - Motionless objects look nice; motion causes objects to appear blurred
without well-defined edges.
high Exposure value (default is 511)
low Gain
214
APPENDIIX: EQUIPMENT
ELE
ECTROST
TATIC PA
APER AN
ND ACCE
ESSORIES:
To investiigate electric fields
f
with th
he electrostaticc paper, you n
need to do th
he following:
Lay the
t electrostatic paper flat.. .
Distrribute the pieeces of metal (called electtrodes) on th
he paper, in tthe configurattion whose fiield you
wish
h to examine. The tips of the long brasss rods may aalso be used as electrodess, to create po
oint-like
charg
ges.
Conn
nect the electrrodes to a sou
urce of chargee. This is don
ne by connectting a wire fro
om the positiv
ve (+)
side of the battery
y or power su
upply to one electrode an
nd the wire frrom the negative () sid
de to the
otherr as shown in
n Figure 1.
You may wish to
o place a wooden block on
n top of the brrass rods to increase contaact pressure w
with the
papeer. This can in
ncrease the magnitude
m
of the
t electric fieeld created on
n the paper. It also helps to place
an ex
xtra sheet of paper
p
under the
t electrostattic paper.
Figure 1:
1 Electrostatiic paper Setup
p
Figu
ure 2: Electricc Field Probe
To measu
ure the electrric field from
m the charged
d electrodes, you will usee a probe co
onnected to a digital
Multimeteer set to measure volts (seee Figure 2). For
F best resu
ults, turn the D
DMM to meaasure in the ttwo-volt
DC range, as indicated
d in Figure 2.
D-3
215
THE DIIGITAL MULTIME

M
ETER (DM
MM)
M is a commo
on piece of
The DMM
lab equip
pment that ca
an be used
to measu
ure various electrical
quantitiess, most ofteen current,
resistancee, and poten
ntial. The
DMMs you
y
will be using are
capable of measurring both
direct current (DC) and
alternatin
ng
curren
nt
(AC)
circuits.
Be careful about
knowing
which
type
of
measurem
ment you neeed to make,
then set your
y
DMM accordingly.
Some DM
MMs might be slightly
different from
f
the one pictured to
the right.
Display
13.6 V
AC
Voltage
Range
OFF
DC
Voltage
Range
Selection
Dial
A
Probe
Sockets
COM
200 mA
Resistance
Range
Current
Range
10 A
The DMM can measure currents any

ywhere from 10 amps to a microamp
atility makes the DMM frragile, since m
measuring a
(106 ampss). This versa
large curren
nt while the DMM is prrepared to m
measure a sm
mall one will
certainly ha
arm the DMM
M. For exam
mple, measurring a 1 amp
pere current
while the DMM
D
is on th
he 2 milliamp
p scale will d
definitely blow
w a fuse! If
this happen
ns, your instructor can change the fuse. Howeever, if you
damage thee DMM beyo
ond repair, yo
ou will have to finish the lab without
the DMM.
Measu
uring Currrent:
1.
Seet the selectio

on dial of thee DMM to thee highest currrent measureement setting
g (10 amps). Insert
on
ne wire into the
t socket lab
beled '10A' and
d a second w
wire into the so
ocket labeled 'COM'.
2.
Attach
A
the DM
MM into the ciircuit as show
wn below:
To measure cu
urrent, the DM
MM must be placed in th
he circuit so th
hat all the cu
urrent you waant to
measure
m
goes through
t
the DMM.
D
3.
Iff no number appears
a
whilee the DMM is at the 10A seetting, move tthe wire from
m the 10A sock
ket to
the 200mA
A socket and then turn thee selection dia
al to the 200 m
milliamp (200m
m) setting. Iff there is still n
no
reading, change
c
the dia
al to the 20 milliamp
m
settin
ng, etc.
216
4.
When
W
you hav
ve taken your measuremen
nt, return the D
DMM selectio
on dial to thee highest curreent
setting (10
0 amps) and move
m
the wiree back to the 10A socket.
Measu
uring Volttage:
1.
Seet the DMM selection

s
dial to read DC volts
v
(
). In
nsert one wiree into the sock
ket labeled 'V
V?'
an
nd a second wire
w into the socket
s
labeled
d 'COM'.
2.
Seet the selectio

on dial of thee DMM to thee highest volltage measureement setting
g. Connect th
he
tw
wo wires from
m the DMM to
o the two poiints between which you w
want to measu
ure the voltag
ge,
ass shown below
w.
To measure vo
oltage, the DM
MM must be placed in th
he circuit so th
hat the poten
ntial differencce
accross the circu
uit element yo
ou want to measure
m
is acro
oss the DMM
M.
3.
Iff no number appears,

a
try a different meeasurement sscale. Start at the highesst voltage scale
an
nd work yourr way down the
t scales until you get a saatisfactory reaading.
Measu
uring Resiistance:
The elemen
nt whose resisttance you are measuring
m
must be free from
m all other currrents (due to other batteries, power
supplies, etc.) for the DM
MM to work. That
T
means yo
ou must remo
ove it from a ccircuit.
To measu
ure resistance:
1.
Seet the DMM selection
s
dial to measure ohms
o
(). Inssert one wire iinto the sockeet labeled 'V
' and
a second wire
w into the socket labeled
d 'COM'.
2.
Make
M
sure that the circuit elem
ment whose ressistance you wiish to measure is free of any ccurrents.
Attach
A
the wires across the circuit elemen
nt, as shown in the examp
ple below.
4.
Iff no number appears, try a different measurement

m
t scale. Use a logical meethod that co
overs all
sccales, such as beginning at the largest sccale (20 M) and working
g your way d
down.
3.
217
APPENDIX: EQUIPMENT
A Brief Introduction to RMS Measurements:

A problem arises when one wishes to measure an alternating current or potential. All
measuring instruments sample a signal over some period of time. A device that
samples over a time longer than one period of the signal (such as the DMM) essentially
measures the average signal. For sine or cosine functions, the average is zero, which
doesn't tell you much about the signal strength.
The solution to this difficulty is to use root-mean-square (RMS) averaging. To eliminate
the cancellation of the positive and negative parts of the sine function, it is squared,
then the average is taken1, and the square root of this average yields the RMS value.
For example, to find the RMS value of an AC current that has a maximum value of Io:
I t I 0 sin t
I 2 t I 02 sin 2 t
2
0
sin 2 t d t
2 2
0
I
2
1
sin t d t 2 I
2
2
0
I RMS
I2
1
2
I0
When in AC mode, your DMM displays the RMS values of current and voltage.
1 When a quantity that varies with time is averaged, as in this case, the average value is often designated
by putting angle brackets around the quantity. For example, the time average of a sinusoidally varying
current is:
I
I 0
2
sin t dt 0
0
218
APPENDIX: EQUIPMENT
CATHODE RAY TUBE (CRT) AND ACCESSORIES:

Use of the cathode-ray tube and its relatives is widespread. It is the heart of many familiar devices, from
your computer monitor to your television. The following is a sketch of the tube you will be using and its
connections.
D tot
V acc
Figure 3:
Cathode Ray Tube.
D
Deflection plates
D = 7.4 cm
L = 2.0 cm
S = 0.30 cm
Dtot = 9.6 cm
6.3 V
AC
electron
beam
Electron gun
Vy
Vx
How the CRT works:

Within the electron gun:
A thin filament (represented above as a coil of wire), similar to a light-bulb filament, is heated by a
current. When the CRT is operating, this filament can be seen as an orange, glowing wire. This hot
filament ejects slow-moving electrons.
Some slow electrons drift toward the high-voltage acceleration plates. These plates are labeled as
Vacc in Figure 3. The electric field between the charged plates accelerates the electrons to high
velocities in the direction of the fluorescent screen. The final velocity of an accelerated electron is much
greater than its initial drift velocity, so the initial electron velocity can be ignored in calculations.
After the electron gun:
Before hitting the screen, the high-velocity electrons may be deflected by charged plates along the
length of the CRT. These charged plates are usually called the x-deflection and y-deflection plates.
When the electrons reach the end of the tube, their energy causes the material that coats the end of the
tube to glow. This material is similar to the material inside fluorescent light bulbs. The end of the CRT
is called the fluorescent screen.
To supply the necessary electric potentials to the CRT you will use a power supply. The power supply
provided has the proper potential differences to heat the CRT filament and to accelerate the electrons. The
power supplies we use also have built-in circuit breakers. Should you attempt to draw too much current
from your power supply, it will shut itself off with an audible click. If this happens, check to make sure
all of your wires are connected properly, then press in the small white button on the side of the power
supply.
Note that the CRT and power supply come as a set, and many of the connections are color-coordinated to
avoid potentially damaging misconnections. You will also have an assortment of batteries, which will be
used to control the electric field between the CRT x- and y-deflection plates.
WARNING: You will be working with equipment that generates large electric voltages. Improper use can
cause painful burns. To avoid danger, the power should be turned OFF and you should WAIT at least one
minute before any wires are disconnected from or connected to the power supply.
To properly connect the CRT to the power supply:
219
APPENDIX: EQUIPMENT
1.
2.
3.
4.
Turn the power supply off.

Connect the power supply ports marked AC 6.3V (they are green; the voltage differs slightly from
one supply to another, but should be clearly marked) to the ports marked HEATER or
FILAMENT on the CRT (these are also green).
Connect the appropriate accelerating potential across the cathode and anode. For instance, if your
experiment calls for a 500 volt accelerating potential, connect the cathode to the port marked 250 V
(which may be black or white) and the anode to the port marked + 250 V (which is red). This gives a
total potential difference of 500 volts.
Turn the power supply on.
220
RESIST
TOR COD
DES
A resistorr is a circuit element
e
manu
ufactured to have a constaant resistancee. The resistaance is coded
d onto
the side of
o the resistor in colored bands, wheree the color aand position o
of the bands tell you what the
resistancee is.
he color band
ds on the resistor, begin by finding the g
gold or silver band on one end of the ressistor;
To read th
this is the back of the resistor. You begin
b
reading
g from the oth
her end. Mosst resistors (in
ncluding those you
will use in
n lab) are coded to two significant digitss. The first tw
wo color band
ds correspond
d to these two
o
significan
nt digits.
The third color band iss called the multiplier.
m
Thee number cod
ded by this baand representts a power of tten
which you
u multiply by
y the number from the firstt two bands to
o get the totall resistance.
The fourth
h color band tells you thee tolerance, orr error bound
ds for the cod
ded resistancee: gold meanss 5%
tolerance,, silver meanss 10% toleran
nce and no fo
ourth band meeans 20%.
Some resiistors have a fifth color band,
b
which represents
r
th
he reliability o
of the resisto
or, and can ju
ust be
ignored fo
or the purposses of these lab
bs.
Examples:
R 10 10 2 20%
R 56
6 10 4 5%
221
Color
Number
Black
0
Brown
1
Red
2
Orange
3
Yellow
4
Green
5
Blue
6
Violet
7
Gray
8
White
9
POWE
ER SUPPL
LIES
The 188volt 5 amp power supply is an allpurposse power sup
pply for the prroduction of
constaant currents an
nd voltages.
At the top is the maain display th
hat reads eitheer
curren
nt in Amperess or voltage in
n Volts. Theree
is a sw
witch there thaat allows you to switch
betweeen them.
The cu
urrent and volltage controlss are located iin
the mi ddle. In betw
ween the consstant current
and co
onstant voltag
ge knobs is a sswitch that
allowss you to toggle from high ccurrents to low
w
curren
nts. It is highly recommen
nded that you
u
use on
nly the low cu
urrent mode.
This poweer supply norrmally operattes in the consstant voltage mode. As su

uch, you can o
only change th
he
voltages by
b using the constant
c
volta
age knobs. In
n the event th
hat too much iis being pullled from the
power supply (as in a short), it willl automaticallly switch to tthe constant current modee, where the
amount of
o current flow
wing is greatlly reduced. This
T
is a signaal that someth
hing is amiss with your cirrcuit.
There is a mater-slave switch
s
on the back of the power
p
supply . This should
d always be seet to master fo
or the
DMM to function
f
prop
perly. If you experience
e
an
ny problems, tthis is the firsst place to cheeck.
222
THE MAGNE
ETIC FIEL
LD SENSOR (HAL
LL PROBE
E)
To measu
ure magnetic field
f
strength
h, you will neeed a measureement probe (the magnetiic field sensorr) that
connects to
t a computerr through the Vernier senssorDAQ lab in
nterface..
The tip off the measureement probe is embedded

d with a Hall Effect transd
ducer chip (sh
hown above aas the
white dott on the end of the probe)). The chip produces
p
a vo
oltage that is linear with tthe magnetic field.
The maxim
mum output of the chip occurs
o
when the
t plane of tthe white dott on the senso
or is perpend
dicular
to the direection of the magnetic
m
field
d, as shown below:
b
The senso
orDAQ allow
ws the compu
uter to comm
municate with
h the probe. In order to measure mag
gnetic
fields, thee wire leading
g out of the prrobe must be plugged into
o the port labeeled "CH 1".
The Rang
ge switch on the
t side of th
he probe is to
o allow you to
o measure a greater rangee of magneticc field
strengths.. Each setting
g represents the
t maximum
m field strengtth that the pro
obe can meassure: either 66.4mT
or 0.3mT
T. When mea
asuring stron
nger magneticc fields, you should use th
he 6.4mT settting, but for fields
weaker th
han 0.3mT thee lower setting
g will give yo
ou a more acccurate reading
g.
223
The meassurement probes have swiiveling tips to

o allow for m
more conveniient data colllection. Notee: that
these tipss are only meant to swiv
vel in one dirrection. Theey will break
k of they are bent in the other
direction,, and they are
e very fragile
e, so it does not
n take mucch to do this. Please be veery careful as these
are costly to replace.
224
RE-MAGNETIZIING A BA
AR MAG
GNET
The magn
netizer should
d be used if you
y have a ba
ad bar magneet that isnt a simple dipolle, polarity do
oesnt
match thee labels, or thee magnet is to
oo weak.
Important to know is that the mag

gnetizer is poorly labeled. The N and S do not indicate the end of the
magnet th
hat goes into the magnetiz
zer! We belieeve the compaany is trying to imply that magnets insserted
into the side labeled N will be nortth attracting and vice verssa. You need
d to insert thee S pole of th
he bar
magnet in
nto the side la
abeled N and the N pole off the bar magn
net into the siide labeled S..
225
APPENDIX: EQUIPMENT
MEASURING RADIATION
(Geiger Counter)
To measure radiation you will need a Geiger Counter. The tube detects incoming radiation (alpha, beta, or
gamma decay) and produces a voltage spike which the counter unit records. To use the Geiger Counter in
conjunction with the computer plug the connecting cord into the round hole on the right side of the
counter, and plug the other end of the connecting cord into the LabPro Interface port labeled DIG/SONIC
1. The computer uses the software LoggerPro in conjunction with the Geiger Counter to measure
radiation. For a description of the LoggerPro software see Appendix E.
To begin measuring radiation amounts the power switch on the Geiger Counter must be moved to the
ON position, or the AUDIO position. The Geiger Counters red light will flash whenever it makes a
radiation count. When in the AUDIO position the counter will also make a beep noise whenever it makes
a radiation count.
There is a switch on the Geiger Counter that controls its detection sensitivity. The switch has positions
labeled 1X, 10X, etc. For the lab problems in this manual the 1X position will most likely be the best setting.
Countsrecordedbythedetectoraretheresultofradioactivedecay,whichisarandomlyoccurringevent.
Events that are the resultof random processes haveinherent uncertainty. This means thatif the count
rateforacertainsampleisrecordedseveraltimes,thenumberofcountsrecordedwillfluctuatearound
anaverage.InasetofNcounts,ifNissmalltheuncertaintyinNwillfollowPoissonStatistics.IfNis
large the uncertainty willfollow Gaussian Statistics. (These terms are explained in any math reference
book,forexampleseehttp://mathworld.wri.com).Keepuncertaintyinmindwhendecidinghowmany
countsareenoughtoallowcomparisonsamongcountratesunderdifferentconditions.
226
Appendix
A
x: SOFTW
WARE
MOTIIONLAB
B & VIDEORECO
ORDER
R -Video Analysiis of Mottion
ul tool for understan
nding how objects
Analyzing pictures (movies or videos) is a powerfu
move. This appendix will guid
de a person
n in the usse of Video
oRecorder aand Motion
nLab to
analyze mo
otion. LabV
VIEW is a general-pu
urpose dataa acquisitio
on program
mming systeem. It is
widely useed in acadeemic researrch and ind
dustry. Latter you will use LabV
VIEW to acquire
data from other
o
instru
uments.
Using videeo to analyz
ze motion iss a two-step
p process. The first sttep is record
ding a videeo. This
process usees the video software to record the
t images from the camera and compress the file.
The second
d step is to analyze
a
thee video to get
g a kinemaatic descrip
ption of the recorded m
motion.
MAKING VIDEOS
V
USING VIDEORECO
ORDER
After loggiing into thee computerr, open thee video reco
ording program by d
double click
king the
icon on thee desktop la
abeled VideoRECORDE
ER. A wind
dow similaar to the piccture below
w should
appear.
You should
d see a "liv
ve" video im
mage of wh
hatever is in
n front of tthe camera.. By adjustting the
lens on thee camera, yo
ou can focu
us the sharp
pness of thee image as n
necessary.
The contro
ols are fairly
y self-explanatory; preessing the R
Record Videoo button beg
gins the pro
ocess of
recording a video. Wh
hile the vid
deo is record
ding, the bllue Progresss bar beneatth the video
o frame
shows the fraction off the video recorded. Once
O
you h
have finish
hed recordin
ng, you can
n move
through th
he video by
y dragging the Frame Number
N
slid
der control. If you aree not pleaseed with
your video
o recording,, delete it by
y pressing the Disposee button.
227
APPENDIX: SOFTW
WARE
You mightt notice tha

at the comp
puter somettimes skipss frames. Y
You can ideentify the d
dropped
frame by playing
p
thee video back frame by
b frame b
by clicking the arrow
w above thee frame
number. Iff recorded motion
m
doees not appeear smooth
h, or if the o
object skips irregularlly, then
frames are probably missing.
m
If the
t computer is skippiing frames, speak with
h your instrructor.
While you are record
ding your video, you should
s
try tto estimatee the kinem
matic variab
bles you
observe, su
uch as the in
nitial positiion, velocitties, and accceleration. The framee number iss shown
in the VideeoRECORDE
ER window
w, in the bo
ox below th
he Frame Nu
umber slideer. With thee frame
number an
nd the fact that
t
the vid
deo has 30 frames
f
per second, yo
ou can use k
known leng
gths for
objects in the
t video to
o estimate kinematic
k
variables.
v
T
These valuees prove veery useful ffor your
prediction equations. Be sure to record you
ur estimatess in your jo
ournal.
h
record
ded a satisffactory videeo, save it b
by pressing
g the Save V
Video butto
on. You
Once you have
will see a Save
S
window
w, as shown
n here.
To avoid
d clutteriing the
computer, you will only be
able to sav
ve your video in the
Lab Data fo
older locateed on the
desktop.
In the File
F name
box, you should en
nter the
t give to
name that you wish to
your videeo.
This name
should be descriptivee enough
ul to you latter.
to be usefu
228
APPENDIX: SOFTW
WARE
ANALYSISS BASICS USING MOTIONLA

AB
Open the video anallysis appliccation by
clicking th
he icon labeled
l
MotionLAB
M
located in the PhysLab folderr on the
desktop. You should
d take a mo
oment to
identify sev
veral elemeents of the program.
p
As a wh
hole the application looks
complex, once
o
it is broken do
own it is
easy to usee.
p
you
u to open
The application will prompt
or previouslly saved seession) as
a movie (o
shown heree.
The upper left corner displays a dialog box with instru

uctions for each step d
during yourr movie
analysis. To
T the right of the videeo screen is the progreess indicato
or. It will hiighlight thee step
you are currrently perfforming.
v
displlay is the Viideo Contro
ols for mov
ving within
n your AVI movie. Thee slider
Below the video
bar indicatting the disp
played fram
me can also be used to
o move with
hin the mov
vie. Directlly to
the right off the Video Controls iss the Main Controls.
C
T
The Main C
Control box is your priimary
session con
ntrol. Use the Main Control
C
butttons to naviigate back aand forth th
hrough the steps
shown in th
he progresss box. The red Quit Motion
M
Lab b
button closses the prog
gram.
229
APPENDIX: SOFTW
WARE
During thee course off using Mo

otionLAB, larger
l
resollution screeens pop up
p to allow you to
calibrate your movie and take data
d
as accu
urately as p
possible. T
The calibrattion screen
n has an
instruction
ns box to th
he right of the video with Main
n Controls and Video
o Controls d
directly
below. Thee calibration screen au
utomatically
y opens oncce an AVI m
movie has b
been loaded
d.
230
APPENDIX: SOFTW
WARE
The data acquisition

a
screen app
pears onlya
after you en
nter predicctions (the p
progress in
ndicator
will displa
ay which step you aree at.) Moree will be saaid about predictions in a bit. The data
acquisition
n screen ha
as the same instructio
ons box an
nd Video C
Controls, aalong with a Data
Acquisition
n Control box.
b
The Data
D
Acquissition contrrols allow y
you to takee and remo
ove data
points. Th
he red Quit Data Acq button
b
exits the data ccollection ssubroutine and return
ns to the
main screen once you
ur data has been colleccted. The reed cursor w
will be mov
ved around
d to take
position da
ata from eacch frame ussing your mouse.
m
Be careful no
ot to quit without
w
printing and saving you
ur data! You will hav
ve to go
yze the datta again if you
y fail to seelect Print R
Results befo
ore selectin
ng Quit.
bacck and analy
There are just a few
w more iteems to point out beefore gettin
ng into callibration, m
making
predictionss, taking data and ma
atching you
ur data in more detaail. To thee right the picture
shows the equation box for entering predicctions and m
matching d
data. Directtly above th
his and
below the progress in
ndicator yo
ou have con
ntrols for s etting the rrange of th
he graph daata and
controls for printing and
a
saving
g. The grap
phs that dissplay your collected d
data are sho
own on
the next pa
age. Your prediction
ns are displlayed with red lines; fits are dissplayed with blue
lines.
231
APPENDIX: SOFTW
WARE
CALIBRAT
TION
While the computer
c
iss a very han
ndy tool, it is not smarrt enough tto identify o
objects or th
he sizes
of those ob
bjects in the videos th
hat you tak
ke and anallyze. For tthis reason,, you will n
need to
enter this information
i
n into the computer.
c
If you aree not carefu
ul in the caalibration p
process,
your analy
ysis will nott make any sense.
After you open the video tha
at you wissh to anallyze the calibration screen willl open
automatica
ally. Adva
ance the vid
deo to a frrame wheree the first d
ken. To
data point will be tak
advance th
he video to
o where yo
ou want tim
me t=0 to be, you neeed to use the video control
buttons. This action is equivalen
nt to startin
ng a stopwaatch.
When you are ready to continu
ue with thee calibration
n, locate th
he object you wish to
o use to
calibrate th
he size of th
he video. You
Y must do
d your besst to use an
n object thatt is in the p
plane of
motion of your objecct being ana
alyzed. Att times thee object und
der motion
n can be ussed, but
often placin
ng an addittional objecct in the pla
ane of motio
on is requirred.
Follow thee direction in
i the Instrructions box
x and defin
ne the lengtth of an ob
bject that yo
ou have
measured for
f the com
mputer. Once this is co
ompleted, iinput the sccale length with propeer units.
Read the directions in
n the Instrucctions box carefully.
Lastly, decide if you want
w
to rota
ate your coordinate axxes. If you choose nott to rotate th
he axes,
the compu
uter will usee the first calibration point
p
as thee origin with positive x to the rig
ght and
positive y up. If you
u choose to rotate yourr axis, follo
ow the direections in th
he Instructiions box
very carefu
ully. Your chosen
c
axess will appea
ar on the sccreen once tthe processs is complette. This
232
APPENDIX: SOFTW
WARE
option may
y also be ussed to repossition the origin
o
of thee coordinatte system, sshould you require
it, howeverr it might be
b best to sta
art complettely over.
Once you have
h
complleted this prrocess, seleect Quit Callibration.
S PREDICT
TIONS
ANALYSIS
This video
o analysis relies
r
on your
y
graphical skills tto interpreet the data from the videos.
Before doiing your analysis,
a
you
y
should
d be familiiar with th
he Review
w of Graphs and
Accuracy, Precision
P
and
a Uncerta
ainties app
pendices..
Before analyzing the data, enter your prediiction of ho
ow you exp
pect the datta to behav
ve. This
b
obtaiining resultts is the on
nly reliable way to tak
ke data.
pattern of making predictions before
How else can
c you kno
ow if something has gone
g
wrong
g? This hap
ppens so offten that it iis given
a name (Murphys La
aw). It is alsso a good way
w to mak
ke sure you have learn
ned somethiing, but
only if you
u stop to think about the
t discrepa
ancies or siimilarities b
between yo
our predictiion and
the results..
In order to enter yo
our predicttion into th
he computter, you firrst need to
o decide o
on your
coordinate axes, origin
n, and scalee (units) forr your motiion. Record
d these in y
your lab jou
urnal.
Next you will
w need to
o select the generic eq
quation, u(tt),
which desccribes the graph
g
you expect for the motio
on
along yourr x-axis seen
n in your viideo. You must
m
choosse
the approp
priate funcction that matches
m
th
he predicte d
curve. Thee analysis program
p
is equipped with
w
severaal
equations, which aree accessiblee using thee pull-dow
wn
menu on the
t
equatio
on line. Th
he availablle equation
ns
are shown to the rightt.
You can ch
hange the equation
e
to
o one you would
w
like to use by cclicking on
n the arrows to the
left of the equation
e
After selecting your generic
g
equa
ation, you next
n
need tto enter you
ur best app
proximation
n for the
d D where you need tthem. If y
you took go
ood notes o
of these
parameterss A and B and C and
values durring the film
ming of yo
our video, inputting
i
th
hese valuess should be straightfo
orward.
You will allso need to decide on the
t units fo
or these con
nstants at th
his time.
a satisfied
d that the equation
e
yo
ou selected
d for your m
motion and
d the values of the
Once you are
constants are
a correct, click "Acceept" in the Main
M
Controols. Your p
prediction eequation w
will then
show up on
n the graph
h on the com
mputer screeen. If you
u wish to ch
hange your prediction
n simply
repeat the above
a
proccedure. Rep
peat this procedure forr the Y direection.
DATA CO
OLLECTION
N
233
APPENDIX: SOFTWARE
To collect data, you first need to identify a very specific point on the object whose motion you
are analyzing. Next move the cursor over this point and click the green ADD Data Point
button in Data Acquisition control box. The computer records this position and time. The
computer will automatically advance the video to the next frame leaving a mark on the point
you have just selected. Then move the cursor back to the same place on the object and click
ADD Data Point button again. So long as you always use the same point on the object, you
will get reliable data from your analysis. This process is not always so easy especially if the
object is moving rapidly. The data will automatically appear on the graph on your computer
screen each time you accept a data point. If you dont see the data on the graph, you will
need to change the scale of the axes. If you are satisfied with your data, choose Quit Data Acq
from the controls
FITTING YOUR DATA
Deciding which equation best represents your data is the most important part of your data
analysis. The actual mechanics of choosing the equation and constants is similar to what you
did for your predictions.
First you must find your data on your graphs. Usually, you can find your full data set by
using the Autorange buttons to the left of the graphs.
Secondly, after you find your data, you need to determine the best possible equation to
describe this data. After you have decided on the appropriate equation, you need to
determine the constants of this equation so that it best fits the data. Although this can be
done by trial and error, it is much more efficient to think of how the behavior of the equation
you have chosen depends on each parameter. Calculus can be a great help here.
Lastly, you need to estimate the uncertainty in your fit by deciding the range of other lines
that could also fit your data. This method of estimating your uncertainty is described in the
appendix Accuracy, Precision and Uncertainty. Slightly changing the values for each
constant in turn will allow you to do this quickly. For example, the X-motion plots below
show both the predicted line (down) and two other lines that also fit the data (near the
circles).
234
APPENDIX: SOFTWARE
After you have found the uncertainties in your constants, return to your best-fit line and use
it as your fit by selecting Accept x- (or y-) fit in the Program Controls panel.
LAST WORDS
These directions are not meant to be exhaustive. You will discover more features of the video
analysis program as you use it. Be sure to record these features in your lab journal.
235
APPENDIX: SOFTW
WARE
MA
AGNETL
LAB - MEA
ASURING
G CONST
TANT M
MAGNETIIC FIELD
on Basics
Applicatio
Before you
u begin, you
u should en
nsure that you
y have reead the releevant sectio
ons of Appeendix A
to familiariize yourselff with the equipment.
e
The softwa
are package that works in tandeem with yo
our magneetic field seensor is wrritten in
LabVIEW
. It allow
ws you to measure
m
and
d record m
magnetic fielld strength as a functiion of a
number of different variables.
After logg
ging into the comp
puter, execute the application
n by dou
uble clickin
ng the
MAGNET
TLAB icon
n located in the PhysLa
ab folder on
n the deskto
op.
Before you
u start using the pro
ogram, you
u
should tak
ke a momeent to iden
ntify severa
al
key elemen
nts. The tw
wo most im
mportant of
o
these are th
he Comman
nd Panel, sh
hown to the
right, and the
t Guide Box,
B
shown
n below.
The Guidee Box will give

g
you diirections an
nd tasks to perform. It will also
o tell you w
when to
select a com
mmand in the
t Comma
and Panel. After seleccting a com
mmand, it w
will gray ou
ut and
the next co
ommand wiill become available.
a
You can also print and/or quitt from the Command
d Panel or abort yourr analysis aand try
again.
The prim
mary data ou
utput you get
g is by generating pd
df files of y
your resultss, so be careeful not to
quit with
hout printin
ng pdf files or exportin
ng your datta to be emaailed amongst your lab
b group.
236
APPENDIX: SOFTW
WARE
Calibration
n
mmand is to
o calibrate the Magnetic Field
F
Sensorr. Before seelecting this ccommand, yyou need
The first com
to set the probe to the 6..4mT setting
g.
After selecting the "C
Calibrate Prrobe" comm
mand, you w
will be ask
ked to do tw
wo
tasks. Firsst, you will need to ch
hoose the quantity on the x-axis of your daata
graph. Thiis is accom
mplished by moving th
he cursor ov
ver to the w
word "meteer"
in the red-ccolored area (shown below)
b
and then pressiing the mou
use button.
You should
d get a listt of choicess as shown to the righ
ht. By seleecting any of
these unitss, you will be making
g a choice about
a
whatt you wish
h to measurre.
For examp
ple, if you choose
c
to use "cm, yo
ou will mak
ke a graph
h of magnettic
field streng
gth as a fun
nction of diistance (B vs.
v x). It is likely you will want to
choose a sm
mall unit (cms or mm
ms) to mea
asure the d
distance in,, since man
ny
magnetic fields
f
are not
n very strrong over long distan
nces Selectting "degree"
will make a plot of magnetic
m
fieeld strength
h as a funcction of ang
gle (B vs.
).
t proceed.
Click "OK" when you are ready to
Second, yo
ou will neeed to elim
minate thee effect of the
backgroun
nd magnetiic fields. This pro
ocess is caalled
"zeroing th
he Hall prrobe" in the Guide Box.
B
Placee the
magnetic field
f
senso
or wand in
n the positiion you wo
ould
like to take
e your mea
asurement, but be sure that theree are
no magne
ets nearby. Note th
hat powerr supplies and
computers generate magnetic
m
fieelds, so it iss a good ideea to
keep away
y from them
m! When you are reeady, selectt the
"Set Probe Zero" as sh
hown below
w. Then sellect the Do
one
button. Th
he calibratio
on process is
i now com
mplete.
Predictions
This type of analysiss relies on your graph
hical skills to interprret the dataa. You sho
ould be
w
both appendices, A Reviiew of G
Graphs and
d Accuracy
y, Precisio
on and
familiar with
Uncertaintty.
The first ta
ask is to entter your preediction of the mathem
matical fun
nction you eexpect to reepresent
your data. Making a prediction before takiing data is tthe best waay to determ
mine if any
ything is
going wron
ng (rememb
ber Murphy
ys Law). Itts also a go
ood way to
o make suree you have learned
237
APPENDIX: SOFTW
WARE
something,, but only if

i you stop to think ab
bout the disscrepanciess or similariities betweeen your
prediction and the ressults.
In order to
o enter you
ur predictio
on, you firsst
need to deccide on you
ur coordina
ate axes and
d
scale (unitss) for your measuremeents. Recorrd
these in you
ur lab journaal.
Next, you will need to select the generiic
equation, u(x),
u
which
h describess the graph
h
you expecct for the data. Clicking
C
th
he
equation cu
urrently sh
howing in the
t box willl
bring up a list of equ
uations to ch
hoose from
m;
grams to th
he right.
see the diag
quation, you
u
After seleccting your generic eq
need to en
nter your best
b
approx
ximation fo
or
the parameters A, B,, C, and/orr D. These
values sho
ould comee directly from you
ur
prediction equation you
y
did for class. As
A
you enter these valuees, you sho
ould see th
he
red line in the "Plot" box
b changin
ng.
Once you have seleccted an eq
quation and
d the valu
ues of the constants are entered
d, your
prediction equation is shown on
n the graph
h on the co
omputer sccreen. If y
you do not see the
curve representing yo
our predicttion, chang
ge the scale of the graaph axes orr use the Au
utoScale
feature (seee Finding Data
D
below)). When you
y are satiisfied, selecct the Acceppt Prediction
n option
from the Command
C
Panel. On
nce you hav
ve done th
his you can
nnot chang
ge your preediction
except by starting
s
oveer.
Exploration
After you have enterred your prrediction, you
y
can exxplore the llimitations of your m
magnetic
or before you
y
take da
ata. The value
v
of th
he magneticc field streength is dissplayed
field senso
directly un
nder the Gu
uide Box. When
W
you are
a ready to
o take data, select Acqquire Data frrom the
Command Panel.
uisition
Data Acqu
Collecting data requirres that you
u enter thee x-axis datta before th
he computeer reads in a value
for the mag
gnetic field
d strength. You enter this data u
using the paanel shown
n. For every
y x-axis
data value you enter, the analysiis program will record
d the magneetic field strrength in g
gauss on
the y-axis of
o the "Plot"". Press "OK" to collecct the next d
data point.
238
APPENDIX: SOFTW
WARE
Each data point shou

uld appearr on the grraph on th
he computeer
screen as you
y take it. If it doesn
nt, adjust th
he scales off your grap
ph
axes or usee the AutoScale featuree (see Findin
ng Data beelow). If yo
ou
are satisfieed with your
y
data, choose Analyze
A
Datta from th
he
Command Panel.
G
Finding Data on the Graph
You can fin
nd your datta on the grraph by adjusting the sscales of yo
our X-axis aand Y-axis p
plots
manually. This scalin
ng is accomp
plished by entering vaalues into th
he legend o
of the graph
h.
Click on th
he upper or lower legend value an
nd enter a n
new value, then hit en
nter. If you cannot
locate yourr data, you can select both
b
"AutoS
Scale Y-axiss" and "AuttoScale X-A
Axis" to let tthe
program fiind the data
a for you. You
Y can theen adjust yo
our axis scaales to give you a conv
venient
graph for analysis.
a
Bee careful, th
he AutoScalle option w
will often sett the scales in such a w
way
that small fluctuation
f
s in the datta are magn
nified into h
huge fluctu
uations.
Data Fits
Deciding which
w
equation best fitts your datta is the mo
ost importaant part of u
using this aanalysis
program. While the actual mecchanics of choosing
c
th
he equation
n and param
meter is sim
milar to
what you did
d for yourr prediction
ns, fitting data
d
is someewhat moree complicatted.
By looking
g at the beh
havior of th
he data on the
t graph, determine the best po
ossible funcction to
describe th
his data. After you have deciided on th
he approprriate equattion, you n
need to
determine the constants of this equation so
s that it beest fits the data. Alth
hough this can be
done by triial and erro
or, it is mucch more efficient to thiink of how
w the behaviior of the eq
quation
you have chosen
c
depeends on eacch parametter. Calculu
us can be a great help here. This can be a
time-consum
ming task, soo be patient.
Now you need
n
to estimate the un
ncertainty in
i your fit b
by deciding
g the rangee of other lin
nes that
could also fit
f your data
a. This metthod of estiimating you
ur uncertaiinty is descrribed in Ap
ppendix
D. Slightly
y changing the values for each constant in tu
urn will allo
ow you to d
do this quicckly.
After you have
h
compu
uted your uncertaintie
u
es, return to
o your bestt-fit line an
nd use it as your fit
by selecting
g Accept Fitt in the Com
mmand Pan
nel.
Importing / Exporting
g Data
After you have
h
selectted Analyzee Data, it is possible to
o save yourr data to the computerr's hard
drive. This feature ca
an come in
n handy if you
y need to
o analyze y
your data aat a later daate or if
you want to
t re-analyz
ze your data
a after you have printeed it out.
To save your data, sim
mply select Export Dataa and follo
ow the instrructions in tthe window
ws.
Your file sh
hould be sa
aved in the LabData fo
older. To reetrieve this file, restartt MagnetLabb from
the desktop
p and select Import Daata.
239
APPENDIX: SOFTWARE
Last Words
These directions are not meant to be exhaustive. You will discover more features as you
analyze more data. Be sure to record these features in your lab journal.
240
APPENDIX: SOFTW
WARE
FLUX SIMULA
S
ATOR
alled FluxSiimulator sh
hows the m
magnetic flu
ux through a rectangu
ular coil
A computeer movie ca
of wire (ca
alled a fram
me in the program).
p
The frame is rotated in a uniform magnettic field
changing th
he magnetiic flux passing through
h it. The sccreen of thiis simulatio
on is shown
n below.
The magneetic flux is visualized
v
by
b a mag
gic eye th
hat is alway
ys perpendiicular to th
he crosssectional area of the frame
f
(as sh
hown below
w). The am
mount of fllux "seen" iis indicated
d by the
use of colo
or intensity
y as the frame rotates. Blue ind
dicates posiitive flux w
while red in
ndicates
negative flu
ux.
F r am
a e
M agn et i c
F i el d
on
D i r ec t i o
F r am e' s
Ar ea
Vec t or
t h r ou gh
F r am
m e F r am e
Ey e' s v i ew of f l u x
p as s i n g t h r ou gh f r am e
Ey e
Pictture of Flux
xSimulator Screen
Use the con
ntrol bar with the slideer, as show
wn below, to
o control th
he rotation o
of the framee.
Slider
otate the fra
ame, obserrve both th
he angle th
he frame's area vecto
or makes w
with the
As you ro
magnetic fiield and thee color seen
n by the eyee.
241
APPENDIX: SOFTW
WARE
Voltag
geTimeL
LAB - ME
EASURIING TIM
ME-VAR
RYING V
VOLTAG
GES
The Basicss:
This software packag
ge, written in LabVIEW
W, allow
ws you to m
measure and record potential
differencess as a funcction of tim
me. The software
s
an
nd voltagee interface act much like an
oscilloscop
pe.
After logg
ging into the comp
puter, execute the application
n by dou
uble clickin
ng the
VoltageTiimeLab ico
on located in
i the PhysLab folder on the desk
ktop.
u start usin
ng the pro
ogram, you
u should taake a
Before you
moment to
o identify several
s
key
y elements. The two most
important of these arre the Com
mmand Paneel, shown tto the
t Guide Box,
B
shown
n below.
right, and the
g
you diirections an
nd tasks to perform. It will also
o tell you w
when to
The Guidee Box will give
select a com
mmand in the
t Comma
and Panel.
You can also print and/or quitt from the Command
d Panel or abort yourr analysis aand try
again.
The prim
mary data ou
utput you get is by geenerating p
pdf files of your resultts, so be caareful not
to quit without prin
nting pdf files or exporrting your d
data.
n to meassure time-v
varying vo
oltage is a slight mo
odification of the
Since the application
application
n to measurre magneticc field, you
u are alread
dy familiar with how to use mucch of it.
The basic difference between the
t
TimeVo
oltageLab aand the M
MagnetLab aapplication
ns is an
additional display th
hat is much
h like an osscilloscope.. The poteential difference versu
us time
display is shown
s
on the
t next pa
age. The DA
AQ (Data A
Acquisition
n) control b
buttons are located
directly ab
bove this display.
d
The
T
DAQ START aand DAQ STOP bu
uttons do as they
suggest, sttop and sta
art data strreaming fro
om the pro
obe to the v
voltage verrsus time d
display.
When you first start the
t applicattion you will
w need to click the D
DAQ STAR
RT button to start
242
APPENDIX: SOFTW
WARE
streaming the probe readings.

r
You
Y
will use
u the DA
AQ STOP to freeze th
he data scrreen for
taking mea
asurementss. A green indicator iss used to in
ndicate wheether the in
nterface is rrunning
or not.
The vertica
al axis is a measure
m
off the potenttial
difference (voltage) between thee two leads of
ge probe.
The horrizontal ax
xis
the voltag
measures time.
t
You should alsso notice th
hat
the display
y has a grid
d on it. Thee scale of ea
ach
axis is sho
own at the bottom off the displa
ay.
As you mig
ght suspectt, it is possiible to chan
nge
the grid siz
ze of each axis.
a
To cha
ange the sca
ale
of the axiss, simply click
c
on th
he highest or
lowest num
mber on tha
at axis and type
t
in a neew
value. Thee axis will automatica
ally adjust to
create eveen increm
ments over the new
wly
defined ran
nge.
The red an
nd blue linees that are on the dissplay are m
movable sim
mply by pu
utting yourr mouse
pointer oveer one of th
he lines. Wh
hen the mo
ouse pointerr changes sshape, hold
d the mousee button
243
APPENDIX: SOFTW
WARE
down and drag the lin

nes to mark
k a voltage or time as shown. Th
he lines mark the voltaage and
time bound
daries of the data that will be con
nsidered forr analysis.
If you are unable
u
to see the liness, it is possiible that yo
ou changed
d the axes sscale and zzoomed
in too far.. Try changing the ax
xes to zoom
m out agaain, and deetermine if y
you can loccate the
blue and red
r lines. Move
M
the liines to witthin the vallues of the new scalee, and they should
remain visiible on the screen wheen you zoom
m in.
Predictions
This type of analysiss relies on your graph
hical skills to interprret the dataa. You sho
ould be
familiar with
w
both appendices, A Reviiew of G
Graphs and
d Accuracy
y, Precisio
on and
Uncertaintty.
The first ta
ask is to entter your preediction of the mathem
matical fun
nction you eexpect to reepresent
your data. Making a prediction before takiing data is tthe best waay to determ
mine if any
ything is
going wron
ng (rememb
ber Murphy
ys Law). Itts also a go
ood way to
o make suree you have learned
something,, but only if
i you stop to think ab
bout the disscrepanciess or similariities betweeen your
prediction and the ressults.
n
to seleect the geneeric equatio
on, u(x),
You will need
which desccribes the graph
g
you expect
e
for th
he data.
Clicking th
he equation currently showing
s
in the box
will bring up
u a list of equations to
t choose frrom; see
the diagram
ms to the right.
After seleccting your generic eq
quation, yo
ou next
need to en
nter your best appro
oximation for the
parameterss A, B, C,, and/or D.
D These values
should co
ome direcctly from your preediction
equation you
y
did forr class. As
A you enteer these
values, you
u should see
s the red
d line in th
he "Plot"
box changiing.
Once you have

h
selecteed an equattion and thee values of the constan
nts are enteered, your
prediction equation iss shown on the graph on the com
mputer screeen. If you d
do not see tthe
curve repreesenting yo
our predictiion, changee the scale o
of the graph
h axes (see F
Finding Daata
below). When
W
you are
a satisfied
d, select the Accept Preddiction optio
on from thee Command
d
Panel. Oncce you havee done this you cannot change yo
our predictiion except b
by starting over.
244
APPENDIX: SOFTW
WARE
Exploration
After you have enterred your prediction,
p
you can eexplore the limitation
ns of your voltage
probe senssor before you
y
take data.
d
The value of th
he voltage is displayeed directly on the
voltage vs. time disp
play. When you are ready to ttake data, sselect Acqu
uire Data frrom the
Command Panel.
Data Acquiisition
Collecting data requiires that yo
ou position
n the
moveable red
r and blu
ue lines on the voltagee vs.
time displlay. The blue lines will geneerate
potential difference
d
data
d
and thee red lines will
generate tiime/period
d data. Th
he data va
alues
are shown
n in the data
d
box. The data box
appears on
nce you hav
ve selected Acquire Data
D
from the Command
d Panel. Press
P
"OK" to
h data poin
nt. Each datta point sho
ould
collect each
appear on the graph on
o the comp
puter screeen as
you take itt. If it doeesnt, adjusst the scalees of
your graph
h axes. If you are satissfied with your
y
data, choosse Analyze Data from the Comm
mand
Panel.
Finding Data on the Graph
G
You can fin
nd your datta on the grraph by adjusting the sscales of yo
our X-axis aand Y-axis p
plots
manually. This scalin
ng is accomp
plished by entering vaalues into th
he legend o
of the graph
h.
Click on th
he upper or lower legend value an
nd enter a n
new value, then hit en
nter. If you cannot
locate yourr data, you can select both
b
"AutoS
Scale Y-axiss" and "AuttoScale X-A
Axis" to let tthe
program fiind the data
a for you. You
Y can theen adjust yo
our axis scaales to give you a conv
venient
graph for analysis.
a
Bee careful, th
he AutoScalle option w
will often sett the scales in such a w
way
that small fluctuation
f
s in the datta are magn
nified into h
huge fluctu
uations.
Data Fits
Deciding which
w
equation best fitts your datta is the mo
ost importaant part of u
using this aanalysis
program. While
W
the actual
a
mech
hanics of ch
hoosing thee equation aand parameeters are sim
milar to
what you did
d for yourr prediction
ns, fitting data
d
is someewhat moree complicatted.
By looking
g at the beh
havior of th
he data on the
t graph, determine the best po
ossible funcction to
describe th
his data. After you have deciided on th
he approprriate equattion, you n
need to
determine the constants of this equation so
s that it beest fits the data. Alth
hough this can be
done by triial and erro
or, it is mucch more efficient to thiink of how
w the behaviior of the eq
quation
245
APPENDIX: SOFTWARE
you have chosen depends on each parameter. Calculus can be a great help here. This can be a
time-consuming task, so be patient.
Now you need to estimate the uncertainty in your fit by deciding the range of other lines that
could also fit your data. This method of estimating your uncertainty is described in the
appendix Accuracy, Precision and Uncertainty. Slightly changing the values for each
constant in turn will allow you to do this quickly.
After you have computed your uncertainties, return to your best-fit line and use it as your fit
by selecting Accept Fit in the Command Panel.
246
APPENDIX: SOFTWARE
Excel - MAKING GRAPHS

You will find that numerous exercises in this manual will require graphs. Microsoft Excel is a
spreadsheet program that can create fourteen types of graphs, each of which have from two
to ten different formats. This results in a maze of possibilities. There are help screens in
Excel; however, this overview is covers the type of graph you should include in your lab
reports. This is meant to be a brief introduction to the use of Microsoft Excel for graphing
scientific data. If you are acquainted with Excel already, you should still skim through this
appendix to learn about the type of graph to include in reports.
Step 1. Input your measurements and highlight the data using your cursor.
247
APPENDIX: SOFTWARE
Step 2. Click on the Chart Wizard on the toolbar.
Step 3. Choose XY Scatter, not Line, from the list and click the Next button.
248
APPENDIX: SOFTWARE
Step 4. Select the Series in: Columns option and click the Next button.
Step 5. Fill in the chart title and axis labels, and click the Next button.
249
APPENDIX: SOFTWARE
Step 6. Click the Finish button.
Step 7. Your graph will appear on the worksheet.
250
APPENDIX: SOFTWARE
Step 8. Click on the data points to highlight them.
Step 9. Select Add a Trendline from the Chart menu.
251
APPENDIX: SOFTWARE
Step 10. Choose the best type of trend line for your data.
Step 11. The trend line will appear is it a good fit to your data?
252
APPENDIX: SOFTWARE
Step 12. If the equation of the line is needed, choose Display equation on chart.
Step 13. The equation of the trend line should appear on your graph.
253
APPENDIX: SOFTWARE
254
Appendix: Significan
nt Figures
to d
determine the unceertainties iin your
meassurements.
C
Calculators make it po
ossible to geet an answeer
w
with
a
huge
nu
umber
of
o
figurees.
U
Unfortunateely,
man
ny
of
them
arre
m
meaninglesss. For insta
ance, if you
u needed to
t
sp
plit $1.00 among thrree people,, you coulld
n
never give them each
h exactly $0.333333
T
The same iss true for measureme
m
ents. If yo
ou
u
use a meter stick with millimeter markings to
t
m
measure thee length of a key, as in Figure 1,
1
you could not
n measuree more preccisely than a
quarter or half
h or a thirrd of a mm
m. Reportin
ng
a number lik
ke 5.371427
712 cm wou
uld not onlly
be meaninglless, it would be misleeading.
Whaat are sign

nificant fiigures?
The number off significan
nt figures tells the
readeer the preciision of a m
measuremen
nt. Table
1 givees some exaamples.
Tablee 1
Leength
(ccentimeters)
122.74
111.5
1..50
1..5
122.25345
0..8
0..05
Figure 1
umber of
Nu
nificant
Sign
Figures
4
3
3
2
7
1
1
One of the thin

ngs that thiss table illusstrates is
that n
not all zeros are signifficant. For eexample,
the zzero in 0.8 is not sig
gnificant, w
while the
zero in 1.50 is siignificant. Only the zzeros that
appe ar after tthe first n
non-zero d
digit are
signifficant.
In
n your measuremen
m
nt, you ca
an preciselly
d
determine the distancee down to the nearest
m
millimeter and
a
then im
mprove your precisio
on
by estimatin
ng the nex
xt figure. It is alway
ys
asssumed that the last figure in the numbeer
reecorded is uncertain. So, you would
w
report
th
he length of
o the key as 5.37 cm
m. Since yo
ou
esstimated th
he 7, it is th
he uncertaiin figure. If
you don't like estim
mating, you
u might be
b
teempted to just give the numb
ber that yo
ou
know best, namely
n
5.3 cm, but it is clear tha
at
5.37 cm is a better repo
ort of the measuremen
m
nt.
A
An estimatee is always necessary to
t report th
he
m
most precisee measurem
ment. Wheen you quotte
a measurem
ment, the reader will
w
alway
ys
asssume thatt the last figure is an
a estimate.
Q
Quantifying
g that esttimate is known as
a
esstimating uncertaintties. Appen
ndix C wiill
illlustrate ho
ow you mig
ght use tho
ose estimatees
A go od rule is tto always eexpress you

ur values
hat your
in sccientific nottation. If you say th
d lives 1433 m from y
you, you arre saying
friend
that y
you are surre of that d
distance to within a
few m
meters (3 significant figures). What if
you rreally only
y know thee distance to a few
tens of meters (2 significaant figures)? Then
you n
need to exp
press the d
distance in scientific
2
notattion 1.4 x 100 m.
Is iit alwayss better to havee more

figures?
Conssider the m
measuremen
nt of the length of
the k
key shown iin Figure 1. If we hav
ve a scale
with ten etchin
ngs to eveery millim
meter, we
could
d use a m
microscopee to meassure the
spaciing to the nearest ten
nth of a m
millimeter
255
APPENDIX: SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
and guess at the one hundredth millimeter.

Our measurement could be 5.814 cm with the
uncertainty in the last figure, four significant
figures instead of three. This is because our
improved scale allowed our estimate to be
more precise. This added precision is shown
by more significant figures.
The more
significant figures a number has, the more
precise it is.
The uncertain figures in each number are

shown in bold-faced type.
Multiplication and division

When multiplying or dividing numbers, the
number of significant figures must be taken
into account.
The result should be given to as many significant
figures as the term in the product that is given to
the smallest number of significant figures.
How do I use significant figures in

calculations?
When
using
significant
figures
in
calculations, you need to keep track of how
the uncertainty propagates.
There are
mathematical procedures for doing this
estimate in the most precise manner. This
type of estimate depends on knowing the
statistical distribution of your measurements.
With a lot less effort, you can do a cruder
estimate of the uncertainties in a calculated
result.
This crude method gives an
overestimate of the uncertainty but it is a
good place to start. For this course this
simplified uncertainty estimate (described in
Appendix C and below) will be good enough.
The basis behind this rule is that the least

accurately known term in the product will
dominate the accuracy of the answer.
As shown in the examples, this does not
always work, though it is the quickest and
best rule to use. When in doubt, you can
keep track of the significant figures in the
calculation as is done in the examples.
Examples:
Multiplication
15.84
17.27
x 2.5
x 4.0
7920
69.080
3168
39.600
40
69
Addition and subtraction

When adding or subtracting numbers, the
number of decimal places must be taken into
account.
The result should be given to as many decimal
places as the term in the sum that is given to the
smallest number of decimal places.
Examples:
Addition
6.242
+4.23
+0.013
10.485
10.49
Division
117
23)2691
23
39
23
161
161
1.2 x 102
Subtraction
5.875
-3.34
2.535
2.54
256
25
75)1875
150
375
375
2.5 x 101
PRACTICE EXERCISES
1.
Determine the number of significant figures of the quantities in the following

table:
Length
(centimeters)
Number of
Significant
Figures
17.87
0.4730
17.9
0.473
18
0.47
1.34 x 102
2.567x 105
2.0 x 1010
1.001
1.000
1
1000
1001
2.
Add: 121.3 to 6.7 x 102:
[Answer: 121.3 + 6.7 x 102 = 7.9 x 102]
3.
Multiply: 34.2 and 1.5 x 104
[Answer: 34.2 x 1.5 x 104 = 5.1 x 105]
257
258
Appeendix: Accuracy,
A
, Precision and U
Uncertaiinty
- ERRO
OR ANA
ALYSIS
Figuree 1
How tall aree you? How

w old are you
u? When yo
ou
answered th
hese everyday
y questions, you probab
bly
did it in roun
nd numbers such as "five foot,
f
six inchees"
or "nineteen years, three months."
m
Bu
ut how true are
a
these answerrs? Are you exactly 5' 6" tall? Probab
bly
not. You esstimated you
ur height at 5 6" and ju
ust
reported tw
wo significan
nt figures. Typically,
T
yo
ou
round your height to thee nearest inch
h, so that you
ur
actual heightt falls somew
where between
n 5' 5" and 5'
6" tall, or 5'
5 6" ". Th
his " is th
he uncertaintty,
and it inform
ms the reader of
o the precisio
on of the valu
ue
5' 6".
What is unce
ertainty?
Whenever yo
ou measure something, th
here is alway
ys
some uncerta
ainty. Theree are two cattegories of uncertainty: sysstematic and random.
r
(1)
Syste
ematic unce
ertainties arre those th
hat
consistently cause the va
alue to be to
oo large or to
oo
small. Systeematic uncerttainties includ
de such thing
gs
as reaction time, inaccu
urate meter sticks, opticcal
parallax and
d miscalibrateed balances. In principlle,
systematic uncertainties
u
can be elim
minated if yo
ou
know they ex
xist.
(2)
Rand
dom uncertaiinties are va
ariations in th
he
measuremen
nts that occu
ur without a predictab
ble
pattern. If you
y
make prrecise measu
urements, these
uncertaintiess arise from the estimateed part of th
he
measuremen
nt. Random uncertainty
u
ca
an be reduceed,
but never eliminated. Wee need a techn
nique to repo
ort
the contributtion of this uncertainty
u
to
o the measureed
value.
Uncertaintiess cause every
y measuremen
nt you make to
be distribute
ed. For exam
mple, the key in Figure 2 is
approximatelly 5.37cm long. For the sake of
argument, prretend that it is exactly 5.37cm
5
long. If
you measuree its length many
m
times, you
y
expect th
hat
most of the measuremen
nts will be clo
ose to, but not
n
exactly, 5.37
7cm, and th
hat there will
w
be a feew
measuremen
nts much more than or much
m
less tha
an
5.37cm. This effect is due to random un
ncertainty. Yo
ou
can never know how
w accurate any sing
gle
measuremen
nt is, but you expectt that man
ny
measuremen
nts will cluster around the real length, so
s
you can takee the averagee as the rea
al length, an
nd
more measurements will give you a better answeer;
see Figure 1.
You m
must be very ccareful to estiimate or elim
minate (by
other means) systeematic uncerrtainties welll because
259
APPE
ENDIX: AC
CCURACY, PRECISIO
ON AND UN
NCERTAINT
TY
measu
urement could
d be off is a fraction of a mm. To
be mo
ore precise, wee can estimate it to be abou
ut a third
of a m
mm, so we caan say that th
he length of th
he key is
5.37 0.03 cm.
they cannot be eliminateed in this wa

ay; they would
just shift the distributions in Figure 1 leeft or right.
Roughly speeaking, the average
a
or center of th
he
distribution is
i the measu
urement, and the width or
deviation of the disstribution is the random
uncertainty.
Anoth
her time you may need to
o estimate un
ncertainty
is wheen you analy
yze video daata. Figures 3 and 4
show a ball rolling
g off the edgee of a table. T
These are
two co
onsecutive fraames, separatted in time by
y 1/30 of
a seco nd.
u
How do I dettermine the uncertainty?
This Append
dix will discusss three basicc techniques for
determining the unceertainty: esttimating th
he
uncertainty, measuring the
t
average deviation,
d
an
nd
finding the uncertainty
u
in
i a linear fiit. Which on
ne
you choose will depend
d on your situation,
s
you
ur
available means of measu
urement, and your need for
precision. If you need a precise deetermination of
some value, and you are measuring it directly (e.g
g.,
with a ruler or
o thermometer), the best technique is to
measure thatt value severa
al times and use
u the averag
ge
deviation as the uncertain
nty. Exampless of finding th
he
average deviation are giveen below.
Figuree 3
How do I esttimate uncerttainties?

If time or experimental constraints make
m
repeateed
measuremen
nts impossible, then you will need to
estimate thee uncertainty
y.
When you estima
ate
uncertaintiess you are tryiing to accoun
nt for anythin
ng
that might ca
ause the meassured value to
o be differentt if
you were to
o take the measuremen
nt again. For
example, sup
ppose you were
w
trying to
o measure th
he
length of a keey, as in Figurre 2.
Figuree 4
Figure 2
The eexact momeent the ball left the taable lies

somew
where betweeen these fram
mes. We can estimate
that th
his moment occurs midw
way between
n them (
1
t 10
0 60 s ). Sincce it must ooccur at som
me point
portant as th
he
If the true value were not as imp
magnitude of the value, you
y could say
y that the key
ys
length was 5cm,
5
give or take 1cm. This
T
is a crud
de
estimate, butt it may be accceptable. A better estima
ate
of the keys leength, as you
u saw in Appeendix A, would
be 5.37cm.
This tells us that th
he worst ou
ur
betweeen them, the worst our esttimate could be off by
260
APPE
ENDIX: AC
CCURACY, PRECISIO
ON AND UN
NCERTAINT
TY
is
1
60
3.131 averaage
The deviations aare: 0.009g, 00.002g, 0.013g
g,
0.01 3g, 0.005g, 0.0006g
Sum
m of deviation
ns: 0.048g
Aveerage deviatio
on:
(00.048g)/6= 0.008g
Masss of penny B:: 3.131 0.008g
s . We can
c therefore say the time the ball leaves
the table is t 10 60
1
60
s.
nd the averag
ge deviation?
How do I fin
If estimating
g the uncertaiinty is not go
ood enough for
your situation, you can ex
xperimentally
y determine th
he
un-certainty by making several meassurements an
nd
calculating the averag
ge deviatio
on of those
measuremen
nts. To find the average deviation: (1)
(
Find the averrage of all yo
our measurem
ments; (2) Fin
nd
the absolutee value of the differeence of eacch
measuremen
nt from the average
a
(its deviation);
d
(3)
(
Find the averrage of all thee deviations by
b adding theem
up and divid
ding by the nu
umber of mea
asurements. Of
O
course you need
n
to take en
nough measu
urements to get
g
a distributio
on for whicch the avera
age has som
me
meaning.
ng the Uncerttainty in a Liinear Fit

Findin
Somettimes, you wiill need to fin
nd the uncertaainty in a
linear fit to a larg
ge number o
of measuremeents. The
most common situation like this that y
you will
encou
unter is fitting
g position or velocity with
h respect
to time
me from Motio
onLab.
When
n you fit a lin
ne to a graph
h, you will bee looking
for thee best fit lin
ne that goess through thee middle
of the data; see thee appendix about graphs for more
about this procedu
ure. To find tthe uncertain
nty, draw
the lin
nes with the greatest and least slopes that still
rough
hly go through
h the data. Th
hese will be the upper
and lo
ower limits of the unceertainty in th
he slope.
These lines should
d also have lesser and g
greater yinterceepts than the best fit lin
ne, and they d
define the
lower and upper llimits of the uncertainty in the yinterceept.
In example 1, a class of six

x students wa
as asked to fin
nd
the mass of the
t same pen
nny using thee same balancce.
In example 2, another class
c
measurred a different
penny using six different balances. Th
heir results are
a
listed below:
Class 1: Pen
nny A massed by
b six differentt students on th
he
same balance.
b
Mass (grrams)
3.110
0
3.125
5
3.120
0
3.126
6
3.122
2
3.120
0
3.121
1 average.
The deviattions are: 0.0
011g, 0.004g, 0.001g,
0.005g, 0.00
01g, 0.001g
Sum of dev
viations: 0.023
3g
Average deeviation:
(0.023g)/
/6 = 0.004g
Mass of penny A: 3.121 0.004g
Note tthat when yo

ou do this, th
he uncertaintiies above
and beelow your b
best fit valuees will, in gen
neral, not
be thee same; this is different than the otther two
metho
ods we have p
presented.
For exxample, in F
Figure 5, th
he y-interceptt is 4.25
+2.75/
/-2.00, and th
he slope is 0.900 +0.20/-0.25.
Figuree 5a
Class 2: Pen
nny B massed by six differeent students on
o
six differeent balances
Mass (grrams)
3.140
0
3.133
3
3.144
4
3.118
8
3.126
6
3.125
5
261
APPE
ENDIX: AC
CCURACY, PRECISIO
ON AND UN
NCERTAINT
TY
Figure 5b
Figuree 6
Mass of pennies (iin grams) witth uncertaintiies

An im
mportant application of this is deteermining
agreem
ment betweeen experimeental and th
heoretical
valuess. If you use a formula to generate a th
heoretical
value of some quan
ntity and usee the method below to
generaate the uncerttainty in the ccalculation, an
nd if you
generaate an experim
mental valuee of the same quantity
by m
measuring it and use th
he method aabove to
generaate the unceertainty in th
he measurem
ment, you
can co
ompare the tw
wo values in tthis way. If th
he ranges
overlaap, then the th
heoretical and
d experimenttal values
agree. If the ran
nges do not overlap, tthen the
theoreetical and exp
perimental vallues do not ag
gree.
Figure 5c
nd p?
What are R2, X2, an
It som
metimes hap
ppens in staatistical analy
ysis that
instead
d of determin
ning whetherr two numbeers agree,
you need to d
determine w
whether a function
(theo
oretical valuee) and somee data (expeerimental
value) agree. O
Our method of comparing two
numbeers with unccertainties is too primitivee for this
task. R 2 (the Pearrson correlatiion), X2 (Greeek letter
Chi, not Roma n X), and p are numb
bers that
descriibe how welll these thingss agree. They
y are too
sophissticated for tthis appendiix, but you may see
them ffrom time to time. If you feel comfortaable with
some basic statistiics, you can look them u
up. You
should
d never need
d to calculatte them by h
hand; let
your ffitting softwaare do it for you if your analysis
gets that sophissticated. Thee most you
u might
encou
unter in this cclass is that sspreadsheet p
programs
will giive you R2 if you use them
m to fit data; for your
purpo
oses, you caan consider your fit g
good if
R20.995.
However you choose to determine th

he uncertaintty,
you should always
a
state your
y
method clearly in you
ur
report.
How do I kn
now if two values are the same?
s
Go back to the pennies. If we com
mpare only th
he
average masses of the tw
wo pennies we see that theey
are different.. But now incclude the unccertainty in th
he
masses. Fo
or penny A, the most likely
l
mass is
somewhere between
b
3.117
7g and 3.125g
g. For penny B,
the most likeely mass is somewhere
s
between
b
3.123
3g
and 3.139g. If you compa
are the rangess of the masses
for the two pennies,
p
as sh
hown in Figu
ure 6, they ju
ust
overlap. Giv
ven the uncertainty in the masses,
m
we are
a
able to concllude that the masses of th
he two pennies
could be the same. If the range of the masses did not
n
overlap, then
n we ought to conclude th
hat the masses
are probably different.
Which
h result is mo
ore precise?
Suppo
ose you use a meter stick tto measure th
he length
of a ttable and the width of a hair, each with an
uncerttainty of 1 m
mm. Clearly y
you know mo
ore about
the leength of the table than th
he width of the hair.
Your measuremen
nt of the tablle is very preecise but
262
APPENDIX: ACCURACY, PRECISION AND UNCERTAINTY
of penny B is different, since the range of the new

value does not overlap the range of the previous
value. However, that conclusion would be wrong
since our uncertainty has not taken into account the
inaccuracy of the balance. To determine the accuracy
of the measurement, we should check by measuring
something that is known. This procedure is called
calibration, and it is absolutely necessary for making
accurate measurements.
your measurement of the width of the hair is rather

crude. To express this sense of precision, you need to
calculate the percentage uncertainty. To do this,
divide the uncertainty in the measurement by the
value of the measurement itself, and then multiply by
100%. For example, we can calculate the precision in
the measurements made by class 1 and class 2 as
follows:
Precision of Class 1's value:
(0.004 g 3.121 g) x 100% = 0.1 %
Precision of Class 2's value:
(0.008 g 3.131 g) x 100% = 0.3 %
Be cautious! It is possible to make measurements that are

extremely precise and, at the same time, grossly
inaccurate.
How can I do calculations with values that have
uncertainty?
Class 1's results are more precise. This should not be

surprising since class 2 introduced more uncertainty
in their results by using six different balances instead
of only one.
When you do calculations with values that have

uncertainties, you will need to estimate (by
calculation) the uncertainty in the result. There are
mathematical techniques for doing this, which
depend on the statistical properties of your
measurements. A very simple way to estimate
uncertainties is to find the largest possible uncertainty
the calculation could yield.
This will always
overestimate the uncertainty of your calculation,
but an overestimate is better than no estimate or an
underestimate.
The method for performing
arithmetic operations on quantities with uncertainties
is
illustrated
in
the
following
examples:
Which result is more accurate?

Accuracy is a measure of how your measured value
compares with the real value. Imagine that class 2
made the measurement again using only one balance.
Unfortunately, they chose a balance that was poorly
calibrated. They analyzed their results and found the
mass of penny B to be 3.556 0.004 g. This number is
more precise than their previous result since the
uncertainty is smaller, but the new measured value
of mass is very different from their previous value.
We might conclude that this new value for the mass
263
Addition:
Multiplication:
(3.131 0.008 g) + (3.121 0.004 g) = ?
(3.131 0.013 g) x (6.1 0.2 cm) = ?
First, find the sum of the values:

3.131 g + 3.121 g = 6.252 g
Next, find the largest possible value:
3.139 g + 3.125 g = 6.264 g
The uncertainty is the difference between the
two:
6.264 g 6.252 g = 0.012 g
First, find the product of the values:

3.131 g x 6.1 cm = 19.1 g-cm
3.144 g x 6.3 cm = 19.8 g-cm
The uncertainty is the difference between
the two:
19.8 g-cm - 19.1 g-cm = 0.7 g-cm
Answer: 6.252 0.012 g.
Answer: 19.1 0.7g-cm.
Note: This uncertainty can be found by simply Note:

The percentage uncertainty in the
adding the individual uncertainties:
answer is the sum of the individual percentage
uncertainties:
0.004 g + 0.008 g = 0.012 g
0.7
0.2
0.013
100%
100%
100%
19.1
6.1
3.131
Subtraction:
Division:
(3.131 0.008 g) (3.121 0.004 g) = ?
(3.131 0.008 g) (3.121 0.004 g) = ?
First, find the difference of the values:

3.131 g - 3.121 g = 0.010 g
Next, find the largest possible difference:
3.139 g 3.117 g = 0.022 g
The uncertainty is the difference between the
two:
0.022 g 0.010 g = 0.012 g
First, divide the values:
Answer: 0.0100.012 g.
Answer: 1.003 0.004
3.131 g 3.121 g = 1.0032

3.139 g 3.117 g = 1.0071
The uncertainty is the difference between
the two:
1.0071 - 1.0032 = 0.0039
Note: This uncertainty can be found by simply Note:

The percentage uncertainty in the
adding the individual uncertainties:
answer is the sum of the individual percentage
uncertainties:
0.004 g + 0.008 g = 0.012 g
0.004
0.0039
0.008
100%
100%
100%
3.131
3.121
1.0032
Notice also, that zero is included in this range, so

it is possible that there is no difference in the Notice also, the largest possible value for the
numerator and the smallest possible value for
masses of the pennies, as we saw before.
the denominator gives the largest result.
please discuss it with your instructor to see if they
are appropriate.
The same ideas can be carried out with more

complicated calculations. Remember this will always
give you an overestimate of your uncertainty. There
are other calculation techniques, which give better
estimates for uncertainties. If you wish to use them,
These techniques help you estimate the random

uncertainty that always occurs in measurements.
264
forethought about the possible sources of uncertainty

can go a long way in ensuring precise and accurate
data.
They will not help account for mistakes or poor

measurement procedures. There is no substitute for
taking data with the utmost of care. A little
265
PRACTICE EXERCISES:
B-1.
Consider the following results for different experiments. Determine if they agree with the accepted
result listed to the right. Also calculate the precision for each result.
a) g = 10.4 1.1 m/s2
g = 9.8 m/s2
b) T = 1.5 0.1 sec
T = 1.1 sec
c)
k = 1300 50 N/m
k = 1368 45 N/m
Answers: a) Yes, 11%; b) No, 7%; c) Yes, 3.3%

B-2.
The area of a rectangular metal plate was found by measuring its length and its width. The length was
found to be 5.37 0.05 cm. The width was found to be 3.42 0.02 cm. What is the area and the average
deviation?
Answer: 18.4 0.3 cm2
B-3.
Each member of your lab group weighs the cart and two mass sets twice. The following table shows
this data. Calculate the total mass of the cart with each set of masses and for the two sets of masses
combined.
Cart
(grams)
Mass set 1
(grams)
Mass set 2
(grams)
201.3
201.5
202.3
202.1
199.8
200.0
98.7
98.8
96.9
97.1
98.4
98.6
95.6
95.3
96.4
96.2
95.8
95.6
Answers:
Cart and set 1:
Cart and set 2:
Cart and both sets:
266
299.31.6 g.
297.01.2 g.
395.11.9 g.
Appeendix: Review
R
o
of Graph
hs
Graphs aree visual too

ols used to represent
r
reelationship
ps (or the laack thereof) among nu
umerical
quantities in
i mathema
atics. In parrticular, wee are interessted in the g
graphs of fu
unctions.
What iss a graph?

In this cou
urse, we will
w be dealing almostt exclusivelly with graaphs of fun
nctions. Wh
hen we
graph a qu
uantity wiith respect to a quantiity , we m
mean to putt on the h
horizontal aaxis and
on the veertical axis of a two-d
dimensionall region an
nd then to d
draw a set of points o
or curve
showing th
he relationsship betweeen them. We
W do not m
mean to graaph any otther quantitty from
which
or
o can be determineed. For ex
xample, a plot of accceleration versus tim
me has
acceleration
n itself,
orrespondin
ng velocity
; the tim
me , of
, on the veertical axis,, not the co
course, goees on the ho
orizontal ax
xis. See Figu
ure 1.
(a)
(b
b)
Figure 1: Graphs
G
of acceleration
a
n a and velo
ocity v for an object in
n 1-dimenssional motio
on with
constant accceleration.
Traditionallly, we calll the vertica
al axis the - axis; tthe horizon
ntal axis, th
he - axis. Please
note that th
here is noth
hing specia
al about theese variablees. They aree not fixed, and they h
have no
special meaning. If we
w are graph
hing, say, a velocity fu
unction
with resp
pect to timee , then
we do not bother tryiing to identtify
with or witth ; in thaat case, we jjust forget about
and . Thiss can be pa
articularly important
i
when
w
repreesenting po
osition with
h the variab
ble , as
we often do
d in physiics. In that case, grap
phing
w
with respecct to woulld give us an on
both the vertical
v
and
d horizonta
al axes, wh
hich would be extrem
mely confussing. We caan even
imagine a scenario wherein
w
we should gra
aph a functtion of a variable such that would
be on the horizontal
h
axis
a
and
would be
b on the veertical axis.. In particu
ular, in MottionLab,
the variablle , not , is always used
u
for th
he horizontaal axis; it rrepresents ttime. Both and
are plotted
d on verticall axes as functions of the
t time .
267
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There are graphs wh

hich are not
n graphs of functio
ons, e.g. piie graphs. These are not of
relevance to
t this coursse, but mucch of what is
i contained
d in this do
ocument still applies.
Data, Uncertain
U
nties, an
nd Fits
When we plot empirrical data, it
i typically comes as a set of ord
dered pairss , . Insstead of
plotting a curve,
c
we ju
ust draw do
ots or somee other kind
d of markerr at each ord
dered pair.
y in the independeent and
Empirical data also typically comes wiith some uncertainty
o each ordered pair. We
W need to
o show thesse uncertain
nties on ourr graph;
dependentt variables of
this helps us
u to interp
pret the regiion of the plane
p
in wh
hich the truee value represented by
y a data
point migh
ht lie. To do
d this, wee attach errror bars to
o our dataa points. E
Error bars aare line
segments passing
p
thro
ough a poin
nt and representing so
ome confideence intervaal about it.
h
plotteed data, wee often neeed to try t o describe that data with a fun
nctional
After we have
relationship. We call this
t
process fitting a function to
o the data or, more ssimply, fittting the
g, involved
d statistical algorithmss for findin
ng the funcctions that best fit
data. There are long
data, but we
w wont go
g into them
m here. Th
he basic ideea is that w
we choose a functionaal form,
vary the pa
arameters to make it lo
ook like thee experimen
ntal data, aand then seee how it turrns out.
If we can fiind a set of
Figure 2: An empirical data set with

h associated u
uncertainties and a best-fitt line.
parameterss that makee the function lie very close to m

most of the d
data, then w
we probablly chose
the right functional form.
f
If no
ot, then we go back aand try agaain. In thiss class, we will be
almost excclusively fittting lines because th
his is easiesst kind of ffit to perfo
orm by eyee. Quite
268
APPENDIX: REVIEW OF GRAPHS
simply, we draw the line through the data points that best models the set of data points in
question. The line is not a line graph; we do not just connect the dots (That would almost
never be a line, anyway, but just a series of line segments.). The line does not actually need to
pass through any of the data points. It usually has about half of the points above it and half of
the points below it, but this is not a strict requirement. It should pass through the confidence
intervals around most of the data points, but it does not need to pass through all of them,
particularly if the number of data points is large. Many computer programs capable of
producing graphs have built-in algorithms to find the best possible fits of lines and other
functions to data sets; it is a good idea to learn how to use a high-quality one.
Making Graphs Say Something

So we now know what a graph is and how to plot it; great. Our graph still doesnt say much;
take the graph in Figure 4(a). What does it mean? Something called apparently varies
quadratically with something called , but that is only a mathematical statement, not a
physical one. We still need to attach physical meaning to the mathematical relationship that
the graph communicates. This is where labels come into play.
Graphs should always have labels on both the horizontal and vertical axes. The labels should
be terse but sufficiently descriptive to be unambiguous. Lets say that is position and is
time in Figure 4. If the problem is one-dimensional, then the label Position is probably
sufficient for the vertical axis ( ). If the problem is two-dimensional, then we probably need
another qualifier. Lets say that the object in question is moving in a plane and that q is the
vertical component of its position; then Vertical Position will probably do the trick. Theres
still a problem with our axis labels. Look more closely; where is the object at
6 ? Who
knows? We dont know if the ticks represent seconds, minutes, centuries, femtoseconds, or
even some nonlinear measure of time, like humans born. Even if we did, the vertical axis has
no units, either. We need for the units of each axis to be clearly indicated if our graph is really
to say something. We can tell from Figure 4(b) that the object is at
36 at
6 . A grain
of salt: our prediction graphs will not always need units. For example, if we are asked to
draw a graph predicting the relationship of, say, the acceleration due to gravity of an object
with respect to its mass, the label Mass will do just fine for our horizontal axis. This is
because we are not expected to give the precise functional dependence in this situation, only
the overall behavior. We dont know exactly what the acceleration will be at a mass of 10 ,
and we dont care. We just need to show whether the variation is increasing, decreasing,
constant, linear, quadratic, etc. In this specific case, it might be to our advantage to include
units on the vertical axis, though; we can probably predict a specific value of the acceleration,
and that value will be meaningless without them.
269
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(b) P
Position q w
with respectt to time ffor a
masss of 3kg. Th
he accelerattion is consttant.
(a)
(
Figure 4: PoorlyP
verssus well-lab
beled and -ccaptioned g
graphs. Thee labels and
d caption m
make the
second gra
aph much ea
asier to inteerpret.
ph we mak
ke should also
a
have so
ome sort off title or caaption. Thiss helps thee reader
Every grap
quickly to interpret th
he meaning
g of the gra
aph withou
ut having tto wonder w
what its trrying to
say. It parrticularly helps
h
in do
ocuments with
w
lots off graphs. T
Typically, ccaptions arre more
useful than
n just titles. If we hav
ve some com
mmentary aabout a graaph, then itt is approp
priate to
put this in a caption, but
b not a tittle. Moreov
ver, the firstt sentence iin every cap
ption shoulld serve
the same ro
ole as a titlee: to tell thee reader wh
hat informaation the graaph is tryin
ng to show. In fact,
if we have an idea forr the title off a graph, we
w can usuaally just pu
ut a period aafter it and let that
be the firstt sentence
in a captio
on. For thiss reason, it is typically
y redundan
nt to includee both a
title and a caption. After
A
the opening
o
sta
atement, thee caption sshould add
d any inforrmation
important to the interpretation of a graph
h that the g
graph itself does not ccommunicaate; this
ximation in
nvolved, an
n indication of the v
value of so
ome quanttity not
might be an approx
depicted in
n the graph, the functio
onal form of
o a fit line, a statemen
nt about thee errors, etcc. Lastly,
it is also good
g
expliccitly to statte any imp
portant con
nclusion thaat the grap
ph is supposed to
support bu
ut does not obviously demonstra
ate. For exaample, lets look at Fig
gure 4 again
n. If we
are trying to demonsttrate that th
he accelera
ation is consstant, then we would not need tto point
this out forr a graph off the objectts accelerattion with reespect to tim
me. Since w
we did not d
do that,
but appareently had so
ome reason
n to plot possition with respect to time insteaad, we wrotte, The
acceleration
n is constan
nt.
Lastly, we should cho
oose the ran
nges of our axes so thaat our mean
ning is cleaar. Our axess do not
always neeed to includ
de the orig
gin; this ma
ay just mak
ke the grap
ph more diffficult to in
nterpret.
Our data sh
hould typiccally occupy most of th
he graph to
o make it eaasier to inteerpret; see F
Figure 5.
However, if we are trying to deemonstrate a function
nal form, so
ome extra sspace beyo
ond any
270
APP
PENDIX: REVIEW
R
OF
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S
statistical error
e
helps to prove our
o point; in
n Figure 5((c), the variiation of th
he dependeent with
respect to the
t indepen
ndent varia
able is obscu
ured by thee random variation of the data. W
We must
be careful not
n to abuse the power that comees from freeedom in
(a)
(b)
Figure 55: Graphs w

with too mu
uch (a), justt
enough (b), and too little spacce (c) to be
easy to iinterpret.
(c)
(
plotting ou
ur data, ho
owever. Gra
aphs can be
b and freq
quently are drawn in ways inten
nded to
manipulatee the perceeptions of the
t audiencce, and thiis is a violaation of sciientific eth
hics. For
example, consider
c
Figure
F
6. Itt appears that Cand
didate B h
has double the appro
oval of
Candidate A, but a qu
uick look att the vertica
al axis show
ws that the lead is actu
ually less th
han one
part in sev
venty. The moral of the
t story iss that our graphs sh
hould alway
ys be desig
gned to
communica
ate our poin
nt, but not to create ou
ur point.
271
APP
PENDIX: REVIEW
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S
Figuree 6: Ap
pproval
ratingss
for
two
candid
dates in a m
mayoral
race. This graaph is
ned to misleead the
design
readerr into beelieving
that C
Candidate B has a
much higher ap
pproval
rating than Can
ndidate
A.
L
Relations
R
ships to Make G
Graphs Clear
Using Linear
The easiest kind of graph to interpreet is often a line. Ou
ur minds are very g
good at
interpretin
ng lines. Un
nfortunately
y, data ofteen follow n
nonlinear rrelationship
ps, and ourr minds
are not nea
arly as good
d at interprreting thosee. It is someetimes to ou
ur advantaage to force data to
be linear on
n our graph
h. There are two wayss that we m
might want to do this iin this classs; one is
with calcullus, and thee other is by
y cleverly choosing wh
hat quantitiies to graph
h.
The ca
alculus meethod is th
he simpler of
o the two.. Don't let its name fo
ool you: it doesn't
actually req
quire any calculus.
c
Leets say thatt we want tto comparee the constaant acceleraations of
two objectss, and we have
h
data ab
bout their positions
p
an
nd velocitiees with resp
pect to time. If the
acceleration
ns are very
y similar, th
hen it migh
ht be difficcult to deciide the relaationship frrom the
position grraphs beca
ause we ha
ave a hard time deteccting fine v
variations iin curvaturre. It is
much easieer to compa
are the acceelerations frrom the vellocity graph
hs because we then ju
ust have
to look at the slopes of
o lines; see Figure 7. We
W call this the calcullus method because v
velocity
is the first derivative with respeect to time of
o position;
n; we have eeffectively chosen to p
plot the
derivative of position
n rather tha
an position itself. We ccan sometim
mes use theese calculu
us-based
relationships to graph
h more mea
aningful quantities thaan the obvio
ous ones.
272
APP
PENDIX: REVIEW
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S
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 7: Position
P
an
nd velocity
y with resp
pect to timee for an ob
bjects with
h slightly d
different
acceleration
ns. The diffference is easier to seee in the velo
ocity graphss.
her method
d is creativeely named linearizatio
on. Essenttially, it am
mounts to ch
hoosing
The oth
non-obviou
us quantitiees for the in
ndependen
nt and/or d
dependent v
variables in
n a graph in
n such a
way that the
t result graph
g
will be
b a line. An
A easy exxample of tthis is, oncce again, an
n object
moving with a consttant accelerration, likee one of th
hose in Fig
gure 7. Insttead of tak
king the
derivative and plottin
ng the veloccity, we mig
ght have ch
hosen to graaph the possition with respect
to 2; beecause the initial velo
ocity for thiis object haappened to
o be 0, thiss would alsso have
produced a graph witth a constan
nt slope.
The Botttom Lin

ne
Ultimattely, graphss exist to co
ommunicatte informatiion. This iss the objectiive that we should
have in miind when we
w create them. If ourr graph can
n effectivelly commun
nicate our p
point to
our readerss, then it ha
as accompliished its pu
urpose.
273
APP
PENDIX: REVIEW
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S
Figure 8: Th
he position off the first objeect from Figurre 7 plotted w
with respect to
o
liinearized.
274
2. The relationship has been
Appendix: Guide to Writing Lab Reports
(130x)
Many students have a great deal of trouble writing lab reports. They dont know what a lab
report is; they dont know how to write one; they dont know what to put in one. This
document seeks to resolve those problems. We will address them in that order.
This manual includes examples of a good and of a bad lab report; examine them in
conjunction with this document to aid your understanding.
What Is a Lab Report?

Everyone seems to understand that a lab report is a written document about an experiment
performed in lab. Beyond that, a lab reports identity is less obvious and more disputed. Lets
save ourselves some misery by first listing some things that a lab report is not. A lab report is
not
a worksheet; you may not simply use the example like a template,substituting what
is relevant for your experiment.
... the story of your experiment; although a description of the experimental procedure
is necessary and very story-like, this is only one part of the much greater analytical
document that is the report.
... rigid; what is appropriate for a report about one experiment may not be appropriate
for another.
... a set of independent sections; a lab report should be logically divided, but its
structure should be natural, and its prose should flow.
So what, then, is a lab report? A lab report is a document beginning with the proposal of a
question and then proceeding, using your experiment, to answerthat question. It explains not
only what was done, but why it was done and what it means. To try to specify the content in
much more detail than this is too constraining; you must simply do whatever is necessary to
accomplish these goals. However, a lab report usually accomplishes them in four phases.
First, it introduces the experiment by placing it in context, usually the motivation for
performing it and some question that it seeks to answer. Second, it describes the methods of
the experiment. Third, it analyzes the data to yield some scientifically meaningful result.
Fourth, it discusses the result, answering the original question and explaining what the result
means.
There are, of course, other senses of what a lab report is it is quantitative, it is persuasive,
etcetera but we will come to those along the way.
275
APPENDIX: GUIDE TO WRITING LAB REPORTS 130x
How Do I Write a Lab Report?

Now that we have a vague idea of what a lab report is, lets discuss how to write it. By this,
we do not mean its content, but its audience, style, etcetera.
Making an Argument
We already mentioned that a lab report uses an experiment to answer a question, but merely
answering it isnt enough; your report must convince the reader that the answer is correct.
This makes a lab report a persuasive document. Your persuasive argument is the single most
important part of any lab report. You must be able to communicate and demonstrate a clear
point. If you can do this well, your report will be a success; if you cannot, it will be a failure.
At some point, you have certainly written a traditional, five-paragraph essay. The first
paragraph introduces a thesis, the second through fourth defend the thesis, and the fifth
paragraph concludes by restating the thesis. This is a little too simple for a lab report, but the
basic idea is the same; keep it in mind. This structure is typically implemented in science in
four basic sections: introduction, methodology, results, and discussion. This is sometimes
called the IMRD method. Begin by stating your thesis, along with enough background
information to explain it and a brief preview of how you intend to support it, in your
introduction. Defend your thesis in the methodology and results sections. Restate your thesis,
this time with a little more critical evaluation, in your discussion. However, keep in mind
that IMRD can be a rule or a guideline. In this class, we shall not have exactly four sections
with these titles; we shall divide the report more finely (See below.). Roughly speaking,
Introduction will become the Introduction and Prediction sections, Methodology and
Results will become the Procedure, Data, and Analysis sections, and Discussion will
become the Conclusion section: introduce and state your prediction in the Introduction and
Prediction sections; test your prediction in the Procedure, Data, and Analysis sections; and
restate and critically evaluate both your prediction and your result in your Conclusion
section.
Audience
If you are successfully to persuade your audience, you must know something about her.
What sorts of things does she know about physics, and what sorts of things does she find
convincing? For your lab report, she is an arbitrary scientifically-literate person. She is not
quite your professor, not quite your TA, and not quite your labmates, but she is this same
sort of person. The biggest difference is that she doesnt know what your experiment is, why
you are doing it, or what you hope to prove until you tell her. Use physics and mathematics
freely in your report, but explain your experiment and analysis in detail.
Technical Style
A lab report is a technical document. This means that it is stylistically quite different from
other documents you may have written. What characterizes technical writing, at least as far
276
as your lab report is concerned? Here are some of the most prominent features, but for a
general idea, read the sample good lab report included in this manual.
A lab report does not entertain. When you read the sample reports, you may find them
boring; thats OK. The science in your report should be able to stand for itself. If your report
needs to be entertaining, then its science is lacking.
A lab report is a persuasive document, but it does not express opinions. Yourprediction
should be expressed as an objective hypothesis, and your experiment and analysis should be
a disinterested effort to confirm or deny it. Your result may or may not coincide with your
prediction, and your report should support that result objectively.
A lab report is divided into sections. Each section should clearly communicate one aspect of
your experiment or analysis.
A lab report may use either the active or the passive voice. Use whichever feels natural and
accomplishes your intent, but you should be consistent.
A lab report presents much of its information with media other than prose. Tables, graphs,
diagrams, and equations frequently can communicate far more effectively than can words.
Integrate them smoothly into your report.
A lab report is quantitative. If you dont have numbers to support what you say, you may as
well not say it at all.
Some of these points are important and sophisticated enough to merit sections of their own,
so lets discuss them some more.
Nonverbal Media
A picture is worth a thousand words. Take this old sentiment to heart when you write your
lab report, but do not limit yourself to pictures. Make your point as clearly and tersely as
possible; if a graph will do this better than words will, use a graph.
When you incorporate these media, you must do so well, in a way that serves the
fundamental purpose of clear communication. Label them Figure 1 and Table 2. Give
them meaningful captions that inform the reader what information they are presenting. Give
them context in the prose of your report. They need to be functional parts of your documents
argument, and they need to be well-integrated into the discussion.
Students sometimes think that they are graded for the graphs, and TAs sometimes overemphasize the importance of these media. Avoid these pitfalls by keeping in mind that the
purpose of these things is communication. If you can make your point more elegantly with
these tools, then use them. If you cannot, then stick to tried-and-true prose. Use your best
judgment.
277
Quantitativeness
A lab report is quantitative. Quantitativeness is the power of scientific analysis. It is objective.
It holds a special power lacking in all other forms of human endeavor: it allows us to know
precisely how well we know something. Your report is scientifically valid only insofar as it is
quantitative.
Give numbers for everything, and give the numerical errors in those numbers. If you find
yourself using words like big, small, close, similar, etcetera, then you are probably
not being sufficiently quantitative. Replace vague statements like these with precise,
quantitative ones.
If there is a single most important part to quantitativeness, it is error analysis. This lab
manual contains an appendix about error analysis; read it, understand it, and take it to heart.
What Should I Put in My Lab Report?

Structure your report like this.
Abstract
Think of the abstract as your report in miniature. Make it only a few sentences
long. State the question you are trying to answer, the method you used to answer
it, and your results. It is not an introduction. Your report should make sense in
its absence. You do not need to include your prediction here.
Introduction
Do three things in your introduction. First, provide enough context so that your audience can
understand the question that your report tries to answer. This typically involves a brief
discussion of the hypothetical real-world scenario from the lab manual. Second, clearly state
the question. Third, provide a brief statement of how you intend to answer it.
It can sometimes help students to think of the introduction as the part justifying your report
to your company or funding agency. Leave your reader with an understanding of what your
experiment is and why it is important.
Predictions
Include the same predictions in your report that you made prior to the beginning of the
experiment. They do not need to be correct. You will do the same amount of work whether
they are correct or incorrect, and you will receive far more credit for an incorrect, wellrefuted prediction than for a correct, poorly-supported one.
Your prediction will often be an equation or a graph. If so, discuss it in prose.
278
Procedure
Explain what your actual experimental methodology was in the procedure section. Discuss
the apparatus and techniques that you used to make your measurements.
Exercise a little conservatism and wisdom when deciding what to include in this section.
Include all of the information necessary for someone else to repeat the experiment, but only
in the important ways. It is important that you measured the time for a cart to roll down a
ramp through a length of one meter; it is not important who released the cart, how you chose
to coordinate the person releasing it with the person timing it, or which one meter of the
ramp you used. Omit any obvious steps. If you performed an experiment using some
apparatus, it is obvious that you gathered the apparatus at some point. If you measured the
current through a circuit, it is obvious that you hooked up the wires. One aspect of this which
is frequently problematic for students is that a step is not necessarily important or nonobvious just because they find it difficult or time-consuming. Decide what is scientifically
important, and then include only that in your report.
Students approach this section in more incorrect ways than any other. Do not provide a
bulleted list of the equipment. Do not present the procedure as a series of numbered steps.
Do not use the second person or the imperative mood. Do not treat this section as though it is
more important than the rest of the report. You should rarely make this the longest, most
involved section.
Data
This should be your easiest section. Record your empirical measurements here: times,
voltages, fits from MotionLab, etcetera.
Do not use this as the reports dumping ground for your raw data. Think about which
measurements are important to your experiment and which ones are not. Only include data
in processed form. Use tables, graphs, and etcetera, with helpful captions. Do not use long
lists of measurements without logical grouping or order.
Give the units and uncertainties in all of your measurements.
This section is a bit of an exception to the smoothly integrate figures and tables rule.
Include little to no prose here; most of the discussion belongs in the Analysis section. The
distinction between the Data and Analysis sections exists mostly for your TA.
Analysis
Do the heavy lifting of your lab report in the Analysis section. Take the data from the Data
section, scientifically analyze it, and finally answer the question you posed in your
Introduction. Do this quantitatively.
Your analysis will almost always amount to quantifying the errors in your measurements
and in any theoretical calculations that you made in the Predictions section. Decide whether
279
the error intervals in your measurements and predictions are compatible. This manual
contains an appendix about error analysis; read it for a description of how to do this.
If your prediction turns out to be incorrect, then show that as the first part of your analysis.
Propose the correct result and show that it is correct as the second part of your analysis.
Finally, discuss any shortcomings of your procedure or analysis, such as sources of
systematic error for which you did not account, approximations that are not necessarily
valid, etcetera. Decide how badly these shortcomings affect your result. If you cannot confirm
your prediction, then estimate which are the most important.
Conclusion
Consider your conclusion the wrapping paper and bow tie of your report. At this point, you
should already have said most of the important things, but this is where you collect them in
one place. Remind your audience what you did, what your result was, and how it compares
to your prediction. Tell her what it means. Leave her with a sense of closure.
Quote your result from the Analysis section and interpret it in the context of the hypothetical
scenario from the Introduction. If you determined that there were any major shortcomings in
your experiment, you might also propose future work to overcome them.
If the Introduction was your attempt to justify your past funding, then the Conclusion is your
attempt to justify your future funding.
What Now?
Read the sample reports included in this manual. There are two; one is an example of these
instructions implemented well, and the other is an example of these instructions
implemented poorly. Then, talk to your TA. He can answer any remaining questions that you
might have.
There is a lot of information here, so using it and actually writing your lab report might seem
a little overwhelming. A good technique for getting started is this: complete your analysis
and answer your question before you ever sit down to write your report. At that point, the
hard part of the writing should be done: you already know what the question was, what you
did to answer it, and what the answer was. Then just put that do
280
Appendix: Sample Lab Report

GOOD SAMPLE LAB
Lab II, Problem 1: Mass and Acceleration of a Falling

Ball
Athos
July 13, 2011
Physics 1301W, Professor: Porthos, TA: Aramis
Abstract
The mass dependence of the acceleration due to gravity of
spherical canisters was determined. Balls of similar sizes but
varying masses were allowed to fall freely from rest, and their
accelerations were measured. The mass independence of
acceleration due to gravity was confirmed by the X 2 goodness-offit test.
Introduction
The National Park Service is currently designing a spherical canister for dropping payloads of flame-retardant
chemicals on forest fires. The canisters are designed to support multiple types of payload, so their masses will
vary with the types and quantities of chemicals with which they are loaded. To ensure accurate delivery to the
target and desired behavior on impact, the acceleration of the canisters due to gravity must be understood. This
experiment therefore seeks to determine the mass dependence of that acceleration. It does so by measuring the
accelerations due to gravity of falling balls of several masses.
Prediction
It is predicted that the acceleration of a spherical canister in free fall is mass- independent, as illustrated in
Figure 1 on the next page. The acceleration due to gravity of any object near the surface of Earth is assumed to
be local g, and there is no reason to expect anything else in these circumstances. Mathematically,
0
Procedure
Spherical balls were dropped a height of 1m from rest. Their sizes were approximately the same, and their
masses varied from 12.9g to 147.6g. Their free-fall trajectories were recorded with a video camera; MotionLab
analysis software was used to generate (vertical position, time) pairs at each frame in the trajectories and, by
linear interpolation, (vertical velocity, time) pairs between each pair of consecutive frames in the trajectories. A
known 1-meter length was placed less than 5cm behind the balls path for calibration of this software. The
position and velocity of each ball as functions of time were fit by eye as parabolas and lines, respectively. The
281
APP
PENDIX: SA
AMPLE LA
AB REPORT
T
acceleratio
on of each was then taken to
o be the slope of the velocitty-versus-timee graph, as thiis was deemedd to be
more reliaably fittable by
y eye than the quadraticity of
o the positionn-versus-time ggraph.
Data
Figure 1:: Magnitude of accelerattion due to gravity

g
withh respect to m
mass of a sppherical conttainer
near Eartths surface; the dependeence is prediicted to be trrivial.
((m/s2)
(g)
12.9
48.8
55.8
56.7
57.7
143.0
147.6
9.6
10.2
9.8
9.9
10.0
9.7
9.7
Table 1: The masses and magnitu

udes of acceeleration of tthe 7 balls teested in thiss experimentt. The
uncertain
nties in all of
o the massees are 0.3g. The
T uncertaainties in thee acceleratioons are unknnown;
see the Analysis
A
sectiion for moree information
n.

Analysis
The acceleerations as meeasured by thee velocity fits are given in T
Table 1 in the Data section. In principle, errors
could havee been assigneed to the fits by
b finding the maximal andd minimal valuues of the paraameters whichh yield
apparently
y valid fits, bu
ut not all grou
ups performed such an analyysis, and this group did nott have access to the
raw data necessary to do so themseelves. A meth
hod of analyssis which doees not rely onn the errors in the
individuall accelerationss was thereforre attempted. In keeping wiith the hypothhesis, the emppirical accelerrations
were treateed as independ
dent measurem
ments of locall . A constantt was then fit tto the data, annd the
gooddness-
282
APP
PENDIX: SA
AMPLE LA
AB REPORT
T
of-fit test was used to determine

d
the validity of the hypothesis. The fit is deppicted in Figurre 2. This yielded a
minimal X2/NDF = 0.04
42 at
9.8
84 0.08 m//s. The associaated p-value iis
0.9997
7. This suggessts the
validity off the prediction
n that the acceeleration is maass-independennt.
Figure 2:
2 The meassured magn
nitudes of acceleration versus the respective masses, andd the
constant fit derived th
herefrom.
Several po
otentially important sourcess of error havee not yet beenn addressed. O
One is the disttortion effect of the
camera; daata was taken only from thee center-most portion
p
of the field of view to limit this eeffect. Anotherr is air
resistance;; this was assu
umed to be neegligible. Yet another is imp
mproper alignm
ment of the calibration object and
camera wiith the balls trrajectories and
d with one ano
other; this waas minimized bby the use of a plumbob. Annother
is the likelly nonzero vellocity imparted during releaase; this was inntentionally m
minimized and then assumedd to be
negligible. Ultimately, it is not belieeved that thesee have signifiicantly affecteed the result bbecause of thee very
high p-vaalue of the reesulting fit. There
T
is posssibly significaant systematic error in thhe mean of tthe fit
acceleratio
on, but the confidence
c
intterval is greaater than the deviation off this value ffrom the predicted
result 0.08
8 |9.81 9.84|
9
0.03 , and this does not affect thhe first derivattive, which is constrained too be 0
by the anaalysis.
Conclussion
Spherical canisters in frree-fall were modeled
m
with dropped ballss. The mass- independencee of the acceleeration
was confirrmed to
0.9997.
0
P
Service need
n
not conc ern themselvees with the payyload masses of the
This resultt implies that the National Park
canisters insofar as grav
vity is concern
ned. This resullt is not to be ttaken to implyy that mass is ttotally irrelevaant, as
n acceleration due to wind, eetc.
it may still have significcant effects on
283
APP
PENDIX: SA
AMPLE LA
AB REPORT
T
BAD SA
AMPLE LA
AB
Lab II,, Probleem 1

Comtee de Rochefoort
Jully 13, 2011
Introducction
We seek to
o determine how
w mass affectss the acceleration due to gravvity of sphericaal canisters filled with chemicals to
fight fires. To do this, we
w dropped ballls from a kno
own height. W
We used VideoR
Recorder to reccord videos off them
a possible to simulate
s
the faalling canisterss accurately annd to minimize errors. We analyzed
falling, beiing as careful as
the videos with MotionLaab, taking seveeral data pointss for each ball.
Predictiion
Procedu
ure
We perforrmed this expeeriment by a scientific proccedure. We firrst made a prrediction; thenn, we performeed the
experiment; then, we anaalyzed the data;; then, we drew
w a conclusion..
b gathering th
he materials. They included:
We began by
meter
m
stick
seeveral balls of similar size bu

ut different massses
viideo camera on
n tripod
co
omputer
taape
t meter stick to the wall forr the calibration
n of MotionLabb. We faced thhe camera towaard the wall.
We taped the
We droppeed a street hock
key ball with a mass of 57.7g
g and recorded its video usingg VideoRecordder. We then analyzed
its motion using MotionL
Lab. This begaan with calibraation. We first sset time zero aat the exact tim
me when we drropped
W then had to calibrate the length.
l
We putt the meter sticck in the framee of the video,, so we used itt to do
the ball. We
this. We th
hen defined ourr coordinate system so that th
he motion of thee ball would be straight downn.
m
prediction
ns about the motion.
m
We preedicted that thee x would not change and thhat the y would be a
We then made
parabola op
pening down with
w C=-4.9m/ss2. The prediccted equations w
were x(z)=0 annd y(z)=-4.9z22.
d
We measu
ured the positio
on of the ball aat each frame inn the video, starting at t=0. W
We put
We then haad to acquire data.
the red poiint at the center of the ball eaach time for co
onsistency. Thiss was importannt to keep from
m measuring a length
284
APPENDIX: SAMPLE LAB REPORT
that changed from frame to frame based on where we put the data point on the ball. We also did not use some of the
frames at the end of the video, where the ball was at the edge where the camera is susceptible to the fisheye effect
and where the ball was not in the frame.
When this was finished, we fit functions to the data points. The functions did not fit the points exactly, but they were
acceptably close. We fit x(z)=0 for the x position and y(z)=-5z2 for the y position. These were close to our
predictions.
It then came time to make predictions of the velocity graphs. We predicted that the Vx graph would be a straight line
with Vx(z)=0 and that the Vy graph would be a linear line with Vy(z)=-10z.
Next, we fit the functions to the data points for the velocity graphs. We got the predictions exactly right.
We then printed our data for the street hockey ball and closed MotionLab.
We repeated this process for a baseball with a mass of 143.0g. It was mostly the same, with some exceptions. The
y(z) fit was y(z)=-4.85z2 instead of y(z)=-5z2. The Vy(z) prediction was Vy(z)=-9.7z instead of Vy(z)=-10z. These
were also exactly right, so the Vy(z) fit was the same.
At the end of the lab, everybody put their data on the board so we would have enough to do the analysis. We copied
it down. Then we were finished, so we started the next experiment.
Data
Ball 1
mass: 12.9+/-0.05g
x prediction: x=0z
x fit: x=0z
y prediction: y=-4.9z2
y fit: y=-4.8z2
Vx prediction: Vx=0z
Vx fit: Vx=0z
Vy prediction: Vy=-9.6z
Vy fit: Vy=-9.6z
Ball 2
mass: 48.8+/-0.05g
x prediction: x=0z
x fit: x=0z
y fit: y=-5.1z2
Vx fit: Vx=0z
Vy fit: Vy=-10.2z
Ball 3
mass: 55.8+/-0.05g
x prediction: x=0z
x fit: x=0z
y fit: y=-4.9z2
Vx fit: Vx=0z
Vy fit: Vy=9.8z
Ball 4
mass: 56.7+/-0.05g
x prediction: x=0z
x fit: x=0z
y fit: y=-4.95z2
Vx fit: Vx=0z
Vy fit: Vy=-9.9z
Ball 5
mass: 57.7+/-0.05g
x prediction: x=0z
x fit: x=0z
y fit: y=-5.0z2
Vx fit: Vx=0z
Vy fit: Vy=-10.0z
Ball 6
mass: 143.0+/-0.05g
x prediction: x=0z
x fit: x=0z
y fit: y=-4.85z2
Vx fit: Vx=0z
Vy fit: Vy=9.7z
285
APPENDIX: SAMPLE LAB REPORT
Ball 7
mass: 147.6+/-0.05g
x prediction: x=0z
x fit: x=0z
y fit: y=-4.8z2
Vx fit: Vx=0z
Vy fit: Vy=-9.7z
Analysis
We can calculate the acceleration from the MotionLab fit functions. To do this, we use the formula x =
x0+v0t+1/2at2. Then a is just 2 times the coefficient of z2 in the position fits. This gives us
Ball 1: a=-9.6
Ball 2: a=-10.2
Ball 3: a=-9.8
Ball 4: a=-9.9
Ball 5: a=-10.0
Ball 6: a=-9.7
Ball 7: a=-9.6
The acceleration can also be calculated using the formula v=v0+at. Then
a is just the coefficient of z in the velocity fits. This gives us
Ball 1: a=-9.6
Ball 2: a=-10.2
Ball 3: a=-9.8
Ball 4: a=-9.9
Ball 5: a=-10.0
Ball 6: a=-9.7
Ball 7: a=-9.7
We know that the acceleration due to gravity is -9.8m/s2, so we need to compare the measured values of the
acceleration to this number. Looking at the data from the fits, we can see that they are all close to -9.8m/s2, so the
error in this lab must not be significant. Ball 3 actually had 0 error.
We need to analyze the sources of error in the lab to interpret our result. One is human error, which can never be
totally eliminated. Another error is the error in MotionLab. This is obvious because the data points dont lie right on
the fit, but are spread out around it. Another error is that the mass balance could only weigh the masses to +/-0.05g,
as shown in the data section. There was error in the fisheye effect of the camera lens. There was air resistance, but
we set that to 0, so it is not important.
Conclusion
We predicted that a would be -9.8m/s2, and we measured seven values of a very close to this. None was off by
more than 0.4m/s2, and one was exactly right. The errors are therefore not significant to our result. We can say that
the canisters fall at 9.8m/s2. This experiment was definitely a success.

286

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1301 Lab Manual

Laboratory 1: Description of Motion in One Dimension

Laboratory 2: Conservation of Momentum & Energy

Laboratory 4: Description of Motion in Two Dimensions

Laboratory 5: Rotational Kinematics

Laboratory 6: Rotational Dynamics

Laboratory 7: Mechanical Oscillations

WELCOME TO THE PHYSICS LABORATORY

WHAT TO D O TO BE SUCCESSFUL IN THIS LAB:

What to bring to each laboratory session:

Bring a "scientific" calcu lator.

Bring this lab m anu al.

Prepare for each laboratory session:

The laboratory class forms a local scientific community.

There are certain basic rules for

In su m m ary, the key to m aking any com m u nity w ork is RESPECT.

LAB 1 PROBLEM 1a: INTRODUCTION TO MEASUREMENT

I-YOUR LAB NOTEBOOK

MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTY

II- PREPARATION TO BE DONE BEFORE THE LAB MEETS

MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTY

MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTY

MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTY

IVTHE COMPUTERS AND VIDEO CAMERAS

MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTY

Discuss the answer to the following questions as a group:

2) The Video Cameras; Distortion

MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTY

Open the VideoRECORDER application in the PhysLab folder.

3) Video Cameras and Motion

Once MotionLab is started you will be prompted to open a movie file.

MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTY

MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTY

MEASUREMENT AND UNCERTAINTY

LAB 1 PROBLEM 1b: - CONSTANT VELOCITY

CONSTANT VELOCITY MOTION

CONSTANT VELOCITY MOTION

CONSTANT VELOCITY MOTION

CONSTANT VELOCITY MOTION

CONSTANT VELOCITY MOTION

CONSTANT VELOCITY MOTION

CONSTANT VELOCITY MOTION

LAB 1 PROBLEM 2: MOTION DOWN AN INCLINE

MOTION DOWN AN INCLINE

MOTION DOWN AN INCLINE

MOTION DOWN AN INCLINE

LAB 1 PROBLEM 3: MOTION UP AND DOWN AN INCLINE

MOTION UP AND DOWN AN INCLINE

MOTION UP AND DOWN AN INCLINE

MOTION UP AND DOWN AN INCLINE

LAB 1 PROBLEM 4: MOTION DOWN AN INCLINE WITH AN

MOTION DOWN AN INCLINE WITH NON-ZERO INITIAL VELOCITY

MOTION DOWN AN INCLINE WITH NON-ZERO INITIAL VELOCITY

MOTION DOWN AN INCLINE WITH NON-ZERO INITIAL VELOCITY

LAB 1 PROBLEM 5: MASS AND MOTION DOWN AN

MASS AND MOTION DOWN AN INCLINE

MASS AND MOTION DOWN AN INCLINE

MASS AND MOTION DOWN AN INCLINE

LAB 1 PROBLEM 6: MASS AND THE ACCELERATION