GOVERNMENT

OF INDIA

CENTRAL WATER COMMISSION

MANUAL ON
IRRIGATION AND POWER CHANNELS

NEW DELHI
MARCH 1984

MANUAL ON
IRRIGATION AND POWER CHANNELS

Prepared by

CENTRAL

\NATER COMMISSION

Published

by

Central Board of Irrigation and Power

Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi-11 0021

The economy and the well-being of the rural masses depends on

agriculture of which irrigation is the most important single input. The canal
system is a vital element for the success of an Irrigation Project. Canals are
also vital components of many run-of-the-river hydro-electric power projects.
Although India has a long and enviable record of successful design and construction of irrigation and hydro-power projects, it was felt desirable to compile useful information in the form of a manual for the benefit of those
engaged in the planning, designs, construction, operation and maintenance
of canals. This manual on Irrigation and Power Channels deals, in brief, with
the planning and design of both lined and unlined canals.
Chapter I introduces the importance and advantages of irrigation and
the additional uses of canal waters.
Chapter II gives in brief the planning and investigations necessary
before detailing an irrigation scheme. The field data to be collected, preliminary and detailed surveys to be done, different types of canal alignments
generally adopted, and other features regarding the L-Section and X-Sections
are brought out.
Chapter IlIon
design of unlined canals gives in brief some of the
important farmulae used in the design of stable channels. Recommendations
of I.S.!. in their various Codes have also been mentioned with respect to provision of side slopes, inspection paths, free-board; bed width to depth ratio,
allowable velocities, berms, dowels, etc.
Chapter IV on design of lined canals describes different types of
lining in use and their suitability in different situations. I.S.I. recommendations
pertaining to various aspects of the design of lined canals have also been
included. Necessity and details of under-drainage arrangements are also
described in details.
Chapter V on power channels describes the speCial considerations to be
taken into account while designing power channels.
Chapter VI gives in brief the various types of problems faced
construction, operation and maintenance of the cana Is.

during

Appendix I gives some examples on design of unlined canals, while

Appendix II gives examples on design of lined canals. A number of plates have
been included to simplify the calculations and save time.

The Manual gives the broad guidelines for planning and design of a
system. A satisfactory and successful design depends upon the individual skill
and practical experience of a Designer and should cater to the site requirement. I hope this Manual will be of assistance to the engineers in the field of
Irrigation and Power in planning and design of canal systems.
I would like to bring on record the useful work done by Shri P.C.
Lau, Deputy Director, Shri P. Sen, former Director, and Shri R.P. Malhotra,
Director (B.C.D.-II) in preparation of this Manual. Contributions of Shri R.
Rangachari, Member (JRC): Shri K. Madhavan, Chief Engineer (Designs)
and Shri N.K. Agrawal, former Member (D&R) in the preparation of this
Manual are acknowledged.
Comments and suggestions for improvement of the Manual are welcome.

PRIT AM SINGH

Chairman
Central fVater Commission

Chapter

II

Chapter

III

Appendix
Chapter
Appendix

I
IV
II

Chapter

Chapter

VI

Area of Cross-section of Channel in Square Metre

Bed Width in Metres

Cd

Coefficient of Discharge

Cumecs
C.B.L.

Cubic Metres per Second

Canal Bed Level

C.V.R.

Critical Velocity Ratio

Depth of Water in Metres

Lacey's Silt Factor

F
F.S.L.

Free Board in Metres

Full Supply Level

F.S.D.

Full Supply Depth

G.L.

Ground Level

LP.

Inspection Path

Coefficient of Rugosity

Wetted Perimeter in Metres

Discharge in cumecs

Discharge in Cumecs/Meter Width

Hydraulic Mean Depth in Metre

Side Slope Ratio

S

Longitudinal

Surface Slope of Water

S.R.

Service Road

V
Va

Mean Velocity in Metre/sec.

Kennedy's Critical Velocity in Metre/sec.

Water Surface Width in Metres

Introduction
1.1 India is potentially one of the richest agricultural countries in the world.
The total arable land in
India is estimated to be 147 million hectares which is
the third largest in the world, ranking behind only the
U.S.S.R.
with 225 million hectares and the U.S.A.
with 194 million hectares.
This is owing to the fact
that the proportion of arable land to total geographical area is the highest in India being 45 percent
against
10 percent for U.S. S. R. and 25 percent for

U.S.A.
Irrigation
has been practised
in India from very
early times from wells, tanks, inundation canals and
small channels.
Major projects were built by the
British starting in the middle of the 19th Century, and
the rate of development though, moderate, was steady.
1.2 Irrigation is defined as the natural
or artificial application
of water to soil for the purpose of
supplying the moisture essential or beneficial to plant
growth.
Water is tlOrmally supplied to the plants by nature
through the agency of rain. A second agency is through
the flood waters of rivers which spread and inundate
large areas during the flood season and recede back
leaving the land well irrigated for cultivation of a crop
during the dry season.
These natural
processes are
usefully
supplemented
by canals
to maximise the
benefits to cultivators.
1.3 This manual is an attempt to cover broad
guidelines, keeping in view the practices recommended
by ISl in their various published Cod.es and the practices adopted by reputed Agencies and Organisations
like U.S.B.R.,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
etc.,
which may be of some help to the designers.
The
Irrigation distribution
system consists of various components
like regulation
structures,
cross drainage
structures, bridges, lined or unlined channel sections,
etc. In this manual, only the channcI part has been
dealt in detail.
1.4 The source of all water used for irrigation
is
'precipitation',
i.e., the water received on the earth
from the atmosphere
in the form of rain, snow and
hail etc. The prOC~3Sof utill3ation of this water involves th~ construction
of engineering works of appre-

ciable magnitude, and is termed 'artificial

Irrigation.'
Artificial Irrigation may be divided into 'lift' irrigation
and 'flow' irrigation according to whether the water is
lifted to the fields by some mechanical/man
ual means
or flows by gravity from the source to the field.
In order to provide artificial
irrigation,
irrigation
schemes are planned and executed utilising the availa?le natural source. of ~ater. The schemes mainly conSISt of storage or diverSIon structures and distribution
systems.
In this publication
an attempt
has been
made to cover the latter, comprising open channels.
1.5 . In addi.tion to the surface water, ground water
reserVOIrS provId~ ,!ery usef~l ~ources which .are being
more and more utilised for lfflgatlOn
purposes
these
days.
Augmentation
Tube Wells have been installed
to promote conjunctive use of surface and sub-surface
water~ to !neet. the increased demand of irrigation and
to mamtalJ1 sUitable ground water conditions.
Due to
introduction
of high yielding crop varieties and multiple cropping such conjunctive use of water has several
advantages.
Some of these are:
(1)

Water loss due to seepage from canals and

water courses, irrigated areas, etc., is utilised
again there by mitigating to some extent the
waterlogging problem.

(2)

Compared to surface water, ground

water is
relatively free from surface pollutants,
and has
the advantage
of being less susceptible
to
changes in quality, chemical composition
and
temperature variation.

(3)

puring the period whe.n canal water supply is

madequate
or not avaJlable, the farmers could
draw supply from tube wells to irrigate
their
fields in time.

In North India, Tube Wells have been found to be

so useful and advantageous
that their number has
been increasing rapidly.
1.6 It is hardly necessary to emphasise the importance and advantages of irrigation
development when
the pressing necessity of stepping up food production

for the growing population of the country has automatically brought it to the forefront. Even so, some of
tae salient advantages of development of irrigation are
recapitulated below:

(v) Inland Navigation

(i) Protection from Famine

(vi) Effect of Health

This is the most important function of irrigation in

this countly. Though most parts of India receive
considerable rainfall, it is mostly seasonal and often
erratic. The subsistence level of the farmers being
very low, and their surplus wealt~ even i? no~mal
years practically nil, failures of raInS even 111 a smgle
year would lead to large scale distress ~nd mor~ t~an
one successive failures to acute famll1e causing lmpoverishment and starvation in the affected area, but
for the protection offered by artificial irrigation.

In case suitable drainage f-ystem is not provided

for irrigated areas, the direct influence of a canal irrigation project is to increase the sub soil water level
and water logging in lower areas and the incidence of
malaria could occur in the area. The indirect effect
of reducing the risk of crop failures and increasing
food production improves the nutrition of the people
considerably. This leads to increased resistance to
disease.

Irrigation canals can be us~d for inland navigation

to mitigate the load of transport on Road System and
consumption of petroleum products.

(vii) Domestic Water Supply

(ii)

Improvement in Yield and Value of the Crops

The yield of practically all crops increases by a

rational and scientific and assured application of
water. The optimum quantity of water, i.e., delta to
give best results for a certain crop in a certain a~ea
can be determined experimentalIy.
Any quantity
lesser than or in excess of optimum reduces yield.
When permanent. regular and timely supply of' water
is assured, hybrid crops natnrally replace inferior
crops to increase yield.

Almost all the large irrigation systems in India are

very well planned, financially sound and pay revenue to
the State. More important. perhaps. is the increase in
the wealth and prosperity of the cultivators. With the
introduction of irrigation land value appreciates and
it is beneficial to both the land holder and the State,
8S the latter can legitimately enhance the irrigation
cess on such land.

In large dry areas the canals are the only source

of water for domestic purposes. The rise in sub-soil
water level in dry area could assist in meeting demands of domestic water supply by pumping the ground
water.
(viii) Improvement of Communications
On all important channels and upto distributaries,
an unsurfaced driving road/service road is provided
primarily for purpose of inspection and control. Th?se
roads are sometimes the only motorable roads avaIlable into the interior for essential purpose in command
area. This net work of canals with roads improve the
communications in remote areas of command.
(ix) Canal Plantations
Trees are planted along banks of channels, near
masonry works and. in any open land available with
the canals. They add to the timber wealth of the
country and play their part in checking soil erosions
and keeping ecological balance in the area.

(iv) Generation of H.E. Power

(x) Industrial Water Supply

On projects primarily designed for irrigation,

power generation can often be obtained at comparatively low cost by utili sing the available head.

Often the requirements of the neighbouring industry or the Thermal Power Stations for cooling etc.
could also bl; met with from these channels.

Planning and Investigations

2.1 Preliminary Surveys

(iv) Topography

. When the proposal for extending

canal irrigation
lOtO a new area IS taken up for consideration,
the first
steps IS to make a thorough
reconnaissance
survey of
the area. During this survey all the factors which effect
irrigation development must be carefully observed and
notes made from judgement and from quick measurements which can be taken on the spot.
The follov ..ing
are the main factors to be considered:

A canal system operates essentially by gravity flow

system.
It has to be so laid out in an area that all
the channels run on ridges so that they may irrigate on
either side by flow. The topography
of the area may
be judged keeping in view the above mentioned
requirements.
If the project is considered worth further
investigations
contoured maps are prepared.
(v) Crops Already

(i) Spring Levels in the Area

The spring levels in the area should be ascerta ined
and noted as they have an important
bearing on the
desirability of canal irrigation.
If the spring ~levels are
already high, it would be a factor against though not
n.ccessarily decisive to the introduction' of canal i rrigatlOIl for the following reasons:
(a)

The seepage from the canal system, if constructed, may raise the water-table
still further
by making the area prone to waterlogging.

(b)

Uncertainty of Demand:
In areas where the
water-table
is high, irrigation demand may be
slack.
At the same time, such areas may be
well adopted
to development
of cash crops
which cannot be grown without irrigation.

(c)

Figures in (he Area

The available rainfall data of the area should be

obtained and studied with respect to the percentage of
years in which the rainfall deDarfs from the normal
during monsoon and in winter:
This will give a good
idea of the likelihood
of irrigation
demand in the
area.
(iii) Type of Soil
The type of soil should be judged by visual inspection and by enquiry. Subsequently, soil surveys should
pe ~arried ou t before finalisinf,?; the scheme,

SOH,'/J

in the Area

The crops grown in the area should be noted and

Agriculture
Department
should be consulted for existing and proposed cropping pattern and cropping calendar.
Water requirement
of each crop should be
finalised considering the local practice, useful rainfall,
and type of soil in the area.
The water demand initially will depend on the crops grown/proposed
and
fortnightly water requirements.
The intensity of irrigation in the area should be assessed from records to
arrive at reasonable intensity of irrigation in the area.
(vi) Extent
Area

of Existing

Well and Pond Irrigation

in the

(a)

The limited resources available in the country

should be considered
and deployed suitably
where there is maximum
need and provides
the greatest benefit. If an area has an extensive
system of irrigation from open wells and ponds
which is sufficient for its protection
against
failure of rains. it should naturally receive a
low priority for the introduction
of canal
irrigation.

(b)

Since it may not be possible to meet the demand of irrigation during low supplies/closures
from the sources, i.e., river/reservoir,
the pcssibility of conjunctive
use of ground water to
meet the demand of sowing, transplant ation/
maturing of crops during Jaw supplies/closure
should be examined.
This will, on ncrasirn
reduce the capacity of channels and s~ve in
construction
cost and encourage the optimum
utilisation
of available water resources.
This
will incidently
keep the rise of sub-soil water
level within permissible
limit and give more
~ime for maintenance
of distribution system,

Rise of water table may increase the incidence

of malaria in the area and the opinion of
public health authorities on this point should
be obtained.

(ii) Rainfall

of the Area

(vii) Quality of Cultivators

and their Views of IrrigaiiQn

Intelligent, hardworking
cultivators
would adapt
themselves to irrigated cultivation, avail of its advantages and make economical, efficient use of water.
The
reverse would be the case if they are otherwise.
This
can make all the difference to the success or failure of
an irrigation project.
After reconnaissance,
all the information
gathered
should be carefully analysed.
If the result indicates
feasibility
of the project, more detailed surveys and
collection of data would then be carried out.

2.2 Detailed Survey

2.2.1 In settled areas the work of detailed investigations is very much facilitated
with the help of revenue records and mouza maps which are available for
each village.
The following statistics of area for each
village should be obtained from revenue records-total
area of land, cultivated area, culturable waste, area of
each crop grown in the last few yeaTs, and the area
irrigated under existing arrangements
from ponds and
wells .. This information, will be required in computing gross and culturable
commanded
areas and in
determining
the intensity of irrigation and the area to
be irrigated.
2.2.2

2.2.4 The trial pits/augerholes

at intervals
of 500
m or at suitable intervals
depending on the variation
of soil strata along the canal alignment
should be
taken upto the designed bed level.
The strata met
with should be brought out alongwith the L-Section of
the canal.
Transmission
losses should be estimated
as per the strata met with in various reaches to arrive
at realistic figure.

The distribution
system should be economical from
considerations
of capital investment
and cost of annual maintenance.
It should provide adequate irrigation facilities to the areas under the command of channel. The following broad principles may be considered
for the layout of distribution
system.
(i)

In an undulating country a straight alignment of canal for any length may not be possible as it would involve heavy filling and cutting
resulting in both heavy capital and maintenance
investments.
The economically shortest route
is to be kept in view which can be attained by
an alignment
(which could be arrived at by
trial and error) between:

Crops and Crop Calendar

After examining the records of eX\stlOg cultivated

areas and the crops, the proposed cropping pattern
and crop calendar should be evolved considering the
existing soil and climatic conditions
in the area in
consultation
with the Agricultural
Department.

(a)

Water requirement of each crop should be worked

out by suitable methods like Penman's formula or by
carrying out experiments considering the type of soil,
temperature,
rain fall in the area, etc. Net fortnightly
water requirements
are then worked out considering
effective useful rain fall for each crop and the capacity
of canal assessed. on the peak demand.
2.2.3 The village settlement maps called "Shajra"
maps are prepared
at the time of settlement to the
scale of 1:4000.
These maps show the boundary
and
number
of each field, location of inhabited
areas,
culturable
and barren land, groves, tanks and a few
other distinguishing features.
These sheets are then to be completed
for
topographical
detail
not available
on them but
essential for planning of an irrigation
scheme.
The
first necessity
is to mark out the contours
after
carrying out levelling in the area. The contours should
preferably be at 0.5 m intervals.
In other areas similar contoured plans to a scale of 1: 15000 and a contour
interval of 0.50 m will be prepared
abinitio b~ usual
methods of engineering survey-ch&h~
~ud cQ:~~wass.or
plane table as CQnyeni~llt,

Water should be taken directly as far as possible to the area of the command, subject to pratical considerations
of lnaximum
permissible
height of the bank filling and cutting.
The
alignment
of the canals will have to be that
which would result in the greatest saving of
both captial and maintenance
l'Osts and also
in the loss of head and transmission
losses.

A line strictly following

tour line where balanced
vation is feasible.

the falling confilling and exca-

(b) A straight
line from head to tail in a
rolling country involves heavy filling and
deep cutting.
In a flat country saving in
loss of head throughthe
straight alignment
is an important
factor.
The transmission
losses assume more significance in case of
unlined canals than in case of lined canals.
(ii)

An irrigation channel must run on a water

shed or ridge and where that is not possible it
should run as near a ridge as possible.
In
ridge position the canal will be able to command on both sides and will avoid interfering
with natural drainage.
Where the main canals
are not aligned along the ridge, branch/distributaries could be aligned along
subsidiary
ridges which the canal would cross during its
course.

(iii) The alignment of an irrigation

channel/canal
should p~ ~entral in its comwano
all far a~

possible and the length of the

should be minimum.

off-take

canals

Water should be carried

in bulk as far as
possible and whenever the canal bifurcates the
total wetted perimeter
increases and results
in greater losses. ,Generally, the cost ?f one
canal is not proportIOnate to the capaCity ~s
the two channels are costlier than one for theIr
combined
capacities.
Canals
with a bigger
capacity can be. designed with a fla.tter slope
and will be ultImately
beneficIal III a flat
country.
The drainage line should not be blocked as
the canal itself may get damaged and result In
flooding and water logging of t~e surroun.ding
areas. When irrigation channel IS on t~e ndge!
water shed interference with drainage IS avoIded but if it is not located on ridge and it h~~ to
cross various drainage lines adequate provlSlon
to pass the drainage
water safely across the
channel is necessary.
In addition to the above, the foll?wing practical points should also be consIdered
whtle
fixing the alignment of canals.
Proper location of cross drainage works is
most important as the cost of C.D. Works
in a canal system is a expensive item. The
crossing should be located at places where
the waterway is sufficient, the catchment
is minimum, the foundations are good and
the material of construction
is available
nearby.
The alignment
of canal
sho.uld ~void
difficult country, i.e., one haVIng ndges,
rocky, sandy and alkaline strata and also
religious centres such as mosques, temples
and burial grounds.
When a canal passes near a village or an
important
town, it sho~l~ pass on the
lower side even at addltlOnal
cost. In
case it passes' on the high~r side of t~e
town it should be at a conSIderable
dIStance and may be lined as the seepage
from canal may create difficulties.
Irrigation
channels are generally alig~ed with reference to the contours of the country III one of the
following different ways:
(i) as contour

channels,

(ii) as Ridge channels,

and

(iii) as side-slope channels.

A contour
channel is carried
on an alignment
which conforms generally
to that of the contours of
the country traversed by giving, such slope along its
length as is necessary to produce the required velocity
of flow. As the line of flow of surface drainage
is at
right angles to the ground contours such a channel
cuts across th~ natural drainage
lines of the country
traversed.
Such an alignment
does not imply an
exact conformation
with the contours of the natural
ground, as it is usual, when traversing
undulating
country
which displays any marked natural features
to shorten the line by crossing ridges in deeper cutting
and valleys in higher bank than the general average.
Thus in such country a contour channel would be of
short~r length than the corresponding
falling contour
laid out along the ground surface without taking any
short cuts.

A ridge channel is one alignment along any natural

watershed.
There will clearly be no drainage crossing
such a line. The watershed bc:ing the highest ridge in
the doabs, water from a channel on the watershed can
flow by gravity to fIelds on either side, directly or
through some otber irrigation channels.
The main canal has to take-off from the river, the
lowest point in the cross-section,
and it must mount
the ridge Or the highest point in the area in as short a
distance as possible. This is possible because the canal
requires much less bed slope than is usually available
in the country near its head reaches. It is within this
reach that all the important cross drainage
works on
the canal have to be constructed.
In its head reaches a
canal is also generally in heavy cutting and this combined with the C.D. works makes this portion of the
canal very expensive. The alignment in this reach is to
be determined
by studying the various alternatives,
and comparing the advantages and disadvantages
and
the costs of each.

2.3.3 Side Slope Channels

A side stope channel is one alignment at right angles
to the contours of the country traversed and not on a
watershed or valley line. ~uch a line would be parallel
to natur~l r~n-off of.dramage and thus such an alignment aVOIds mterceptwg cross-drainage.

2.4 The main aim of these arrangements

of the
layout of a distribution
system is to secure in the most
economical
way effective water distribution
combined
w~th adeq~ate ,:ommand of the area to be irrigated
WIth as little mterference
as possible with
natural
drain~ge. The above statement of ai~s at once suggest
an ahgnment ~tong any watershed WIthin the irrigable
area as secunng command of all the ground upto the
next valleys on either side of the alignment
without

any interference with drainage and it may be taken as

aXIomatic that the watersheds laying in any irrigated
tract should be occupied by distribution
channels unless there are strong reasons against such an arrangement. Side slope channels haVe the advantage of not
intercepting
cross-drainage
but their course must
follow the shortest route to the nearest valley and such
channel will be along a line of steepest possible slope
except in very flat areas. Only the smaller of the distrihutary
channels
should be so located.
Contour
channels are carried on slopes, the main watersheds of
which are not commanded.
Such channels with minor
exceptions
only irrigate on one side of them from the
upper boundaries of the irrigated area.

to be passed across the canal by suitable C.D. work

or the feasibility of diversion
to adjacent
catchment
could be done to avoid the C.D. work.
The alignment
of canal may have to be diverted so as to bye-pa~s
towns or vi'llages located on them. Number
of crossdrainage
works may b(" reduced by shifting alignment
as far as economically and technically feasible.

One of the 3 ways of aligning the canal may be

adopted but there may be situations in which it may
be necessary to deviate the canal off the adopted
course for short reaches.
For example, the watershed
or the contour might take a sharp loop between. some
points, the alignment may cut across "abadi", or a
large number of drainages
may cross th.e a1Jgnment.
In the case of watershed or contour
taklllg a sharp
loop, by aligning the canals stra~ght considerable l~ngth
can be saved. It will, however, Intercept the dralllage
of the pocket of land be~ween .the wa~ersh~d and the
canal, in such reaches. ThIs dramage Will either have

Discharge
m3{sec

Radii Min.
m

Curves in unlined
canals
shall be as gentle as
possible as they lead to disturbance
of flow and a
tendency to silt on the inside and to scour on the outside of the curve. The curves are usually, simple circular curves. At the velocities, permissible
in unlined
channels, the super-elevation
of water surface is very
small. The situation will be different in lined channels
where higher vel0cities are permissible.
In any reach
of a lined channel, with hyper-critical
velocity, curves
are best avoided; in case they have got to be provided,
the water surface profile must be very carefully worked
out.
As per I.S.I. recommendations,
radii
of curves
should be usually 10 to 15 times the bed width subject
to minimum given in Table 1.

Discharge
m3{sec

Radii

Min.

& above

1500

280 & above

900

Below 80 to 30

1000

Below 280 to 200

760

Below 30 to 15

600

Below 200 to 140

600

Below 15 to 3

300

Below 140 to 70

450

Below

150

Below

300

80

3 to 0.3

70 to 40

90

Less than 0.3

The above radii are not applicable to unlined canals located

meable soil.
On lined canals where the above radii cannot be provided,
provided.
For navigation

channels

further modification

in hilly reaches and in highly perproper

may have to be made.

super-elevation

shall

be

From the headworks where water enters the main

canal to the outlet where it enters the watercourse
there are continuous losses which have to be accounted
for in the designs. These losses are quite considerable
roughly forming 25 to 50 percent of the water diverted. There are losses in the water course and on the
field also, but they are taken to be covered in the
outlet discharge factor.
The losses in the canals take place on account of
two causes:
(1) evaporation
and (2) seepage.
The
ev.aporation
losses are usually a small proportion of
the total losses in earthern channels and are generally
neglected. The seepage loss is influenced by the nature
and porosity of the soil; the depth, turbidity
and temperature
of water; the age and shape of the canal
section; and the position of the ground water level.
The seepage losses in unlined channels as suggested by
Etcheverry and Harding are given in Table II.

For this purpose the locations

of outlets
and the
boundaries
of areas to be irrigated
by each outlet
should be marked on the contoured
survey plan of the
area showing the alignment
of the channel
and its
irrigation boundary. The irrigation boundaries
usually
follow the drainage lines between two ridges. In markmg the boundaries
of irrigated
areas, the folloWing
points should be kept in vIew:
(i) The area allotted
to each outlet
require more than 0.09 cumecs
0.03 cumecs.
(ii) The length of main
exceed 3 km.

Impervious

clay loam

(iv)

Ordinary clay loam

lavash loam
Gravelly
cemented

2.70 to

3.60

Sandy loam

3.60 to

5.20

Loose sandy soils

5.20 to

6.10

7.00 to

8.80

Gravelly
Porous

sandy soils
gravelly soil

Very gravelly soil

In the case oflined canals
assumed as 0.60 cumec/million

roads

are:

(i) Cultivators find it difficult to manage

tain the field channel.

or main-

(ii) Disputes arise due to greater

holders on one ou tIet.

pf share-

(iii) 'Warabandi'
shareholders

number

troubles
arise particularly
of small holdings.
of small sized outlets

for

are:

(i) There is greater loss of water by absorption.

~I: outlet With 0.015 cumecs discharge may
Irngate only If3rd the area irrigated
by an
outlet of 0.03 cumecs.

silt soil or

or sandy clay loam,

gravel, sand and clay

of large sized outlets

not

to cross

The crossing of national

highways and
should be aVOIded as far as pOSsible.

The disadvantages

Medium day loam under laid

with hard pan at depth of not
over 0.60 to 0.90m below level

water course should

(iii) Water course should not be required

natural drainages.

The disadvantages

Seepage Loss
Cumecs/million
m20fwetted
Perimeter

should not
or less than

8.80 to 10.70

(ii) The cost is comp'aratively mOre owing to the

grea ter number of outlets, V. R. Culverts an d
W.C. Culverts required.
(iii) Low.v.elocity in water course causes
req l.lIr1I1gfrequent clearance.

silting

up

(il') G:eater number of outlets cause trouble in distnbutJOn of water and regime of the channel.

10.70 to 21.30
seepage losses may be
m2 of wetted perimeter.

A capacity and design statement

along with command statement
should be drawn up for each channel
to enable its L-Section to be prepared.
Specimen forms
for the above statements are given in Plates 1 and 2.

Havin.g .marked the boundaries

of the areas that
could be.lrnga~ed by :a~h o~tlet, the next step is to
fix . the. 1l1tenslty of Irngatl.on:
The intensity of irrigatIOn IS go~e~ne~ by the eXlst1l1g protection
by well
and pond lrf1gatl~n, types of crops sown or likely
to develop after. lr:troduction
of canal irrigation
perfor.~ance
of eXlstmg channels in similar
areas and
quantItIes of water available,
. . "Duty"
of .can.al water can be defined as the area
lfflgated by unIt dIscharge which in metric units will

mean the number of hectares irrigated by 1 cumec for

the specific number of days cal~ed the base period for
the duty.
Duty for a channclIs
usually calculated
on
the head discharge.
Duty based on dIscharge passed
through the outlet and thus excluding all losses in the
canal ~system, is called the outlet discharge factor.

The commanded and uncommanded

area and the
water levels required at the head of water courses or
field channels and supply channels should be marked
out.
This is more a process of trial and error.
A good deal of judgement
which can-be acquired
by practice is required in fixing the water level at the
head of water course and marking c~)lnman.de~ areas
which will neither pitch the F.S.L. III an IrngatlOn
channel unnecessarily high in an attempt to command
isolated high patches, nor lowe:: it too much at the
cost of irrigation
on which the whole SUCl'ess of the
project depends.
It has to be Iemembered
that such
high patches are levelled up III course of tIme by the
cultivators
themselves.
For determining
the F.S.L. in a distributary
channel, the water levels required. at thc head of watcr
courses all along the length ~f channel s.hould be
plotted on the ~-~ection. on whIch G.L. sprmg levels
and other field InformatIOn have already been plotted.
The F.S. Line should thus be so marked at the predetermined
slope, as to give a good average workmg
head into the water courses.
This procedu.rc .readtly
determines
the location of falls ~m the d~str~blltary
channel as well. The F.S.Ls. determmed at dlstr~butary
heads should similarly be plotted on the L~SectlOns ?f
branch
and main canals and then ~.S. Imes fixed III
the same manner as for (1Jstnbutanes.
If ~owever,
the consideration
of balancmg depth enables hIgher full
supply to be fixed, it may have to be done.
Usually,.
it is found sufficient to work at the command
at
off taking channels upto the fust fall, for the purpose
of fixing' F.S.Ls. in the main and branch canals. But,
when there is a reverse slope Jl1 the country, the F.S.L.
at the head should be dete!mincd after considering the
command from head to tatl.
In working
out the F.S.Ls. in channels,
following working heads are usually allowed:

0.0751'0

Head over fleld

Slope in water

course

Min. working head from major

distributary

the

to a minor

1 in 5000
0.30m

A control point on a regulating

bridge should be
provided below the off take. A minimum working head
of 0075m should be allowed at these points.
2.9

Plotting of L-Section

(a) It is essential that an L-Section of channel

showing all salient information
observed in the field
such as natural surface levels and sub-soil water levels
full supply levels, canal bed levels, water surface slopes:
bed WIdths, free board, broad details of hydraulic data
of ou.tlets, regulators,
bridges,
drainage
crossings,
offtaklllg channels etc. and nature of soil where the
canal is passing through
b~ giving test pit or auger
hole data at about 500 m intervals be prepared.
For
the L-Section a longitudinal
scale of about 1:10,000 to
1:20,000 and vertical scale of about 1: 100 are recommended.
A specimen L-Section of canal is shown in
Plate No.3.
(b)
While plotting
L-Section
designed discharge
bed gradient, bed widlh, full supply depth should be
indicated.
Designed discharge sholl1d account for off
take channel discharges and losses in canal.
Water
levels should be assessed after considering head losses
in various structures,
i.e., regulators,
falls, bridges,
cn. works etc.

The following main

required on a canal:

(ii) Regulating

of structures

will

be

structures

(iii) Communication

structures/bridges.

The rust two types of structures are more essential

for the safety and maintenance
of the canals and are
usually
provided
on all canals irrespective
of its
capacity.
The regulating structures could be useful in
equitable distribution
of water in the command
area.
Communication
works are necessary to provide intercommunication
in the command area lying on either
side.
(i) Cross Drainage Works: Generally the alignment
of th~ .canals crosses the natural drainage valleys and
provIsIOn has to. be made to. take the drains safely
across the canal WIthout damagll1g it. The usual kind
of cross drainage works are:
(1)

Su per passage

(2)

Drainage

(3)

Canal Syphon

syphon

Min. working head at outlet

0.15m

Min. working head from branch to

branch or to major distributary

O.SOm

(4)

Level crossing

Min. workirg

0.60m

(5)

Aqueduct.

head from main canal

types

PLANNING

AND INVESTIGATIONS

In effect there are three

drainage water and the canal.

ways of crossing

of the

To pass the drainage

over the irrigation
channel the bed level and the water level of
the drai~ is higher than the canal.
This type
is named as a super passage.
To pass the drainage into the irrigation channel
so that the drainage and irrigation water mix
up. This type is called a level crossing.
To pass the drainage under the canal.
This
type is called a drainage syphon or a syphon
aqueduct. The full supply level, the bed level
of canal and the HFL and bed level of the
drainage reach for the most suitable alignment
of canal will determine the type of structures.
The particular
type to
be adopted
cculd
further be determined by the magnitude of the
flood discharge of the nallah and thc design
discharge of the canal.
(ii) Regulating Sauctures : These structures are
required to maintain the level and the discharges
at
the designed figure.
Some of the works may be automatic and some require regulation,
establishment
and
manipUlation.
The Control could be from upstream
or by downstream,
i.e., "Demand Management".

(b) Cross regulator

(c) Head
(d)

regulator

of distributaries/minors

Escapes

(e) Outlets for water courses

(f)

Silt ejectors.

Falls are provided in a canal when the fall of the

terrain is more than that of the canal and the water level
becomes in excess of the level required in the canal to
reduce maximum permissible velocity and earth work.

This structure
dissipates
filling reach is minimised.

the

excess

energy and the

Cross regulators are required to maintain

the full
supply level in the canal.
These are provided at intervals across the canal and below major off-take points
so that when the canal is running
at less than full
supply discharge water can be raised to feed the offtake canal/channel
to take its authorised
discharge
at
design full or part supply levels.
Head regulators
are provided
discharges to feed the distributaries.

for regulating

the

Escapes are provided

for discharging
the excess
water out of the canal during periods of low demand
in the command.
They are generally provided upstream of cross regula tors near a natural valley so as
to release the water from the canal and avoid flooding
in the command area during flood/rainy season.
Outlets for water courses are provided from minors
and distributaries
according
to the demand in thlZ
command.
Canals taking off from the head works
generally carry silt along with water.
The silt load
and size of silt requires critical examination.
In case
silt is of coarse or medium coarse, this gets deposited
in the canal and reduces its capacity.
Ivfedium coarse
and coarse silt is also harmful for flelds in case this
fl11ds its way to the fields through the water courses.
Power channels also need to consider the safe silt size
permitted for the turbines.
Silt ejectors are provided
in the head reach so as to remove the silt to permissible limits to save the canal from silting and fields!
irrigated areas from losing the fertility.
Silt ejectors
are provided in power c\laJ1llels to eject the silt from
water to save turbines from getting damaged.
(iii) Communication Works: These are mostly road
bridges and are provided
for all existing and future
anticipated
roads to provide communications
facility
in the command area.
In addition
to this some more
road bridges
are also provided
so as to provide
communication
facilities to towns and villages.
These
are generally provided at interval of about 6 km. But
in case of distributaries,
road bridges are generally
provided
at
intervals
of 2 to 3 km
depending
on local conditions
to facilitate
the movement of
material and people.

COMMAND

STATEMENT

OF
-----sL.

R.D. OF AN OFF

CRITICAL

DISTANCE

NO.

TAKE OR

POINT IN N.S.

CRITICAL

FPOlI

LOSS OF NEAD

FIELD

__

---_ ..
5
--1------_._-_.

tQOLUMN $-71

(COLUMN3~5.j
61

HEAD OF
OUTLET

HEAD

OUTl.ET

POINT TO

OUTLET

WORKING

WATEflLEVEL
AT HEAD OF

DEPTH

------

._-----------------_.\

PLATE

~.u. I

-----------------l

-------_._-------------

.Q.APACITY

DESIGN STATEMENT

..QE
."._-~
SL.

BELOW

NO.

KM. R.O.OF

AN

GROSS

AREAlaA.1
OR OUTLET IHECT.1

OFF TAKE

GROSS

C""''''''''''EO

CULTURAL
COMMANDED

AREA

AREA

IG.C.A.I
tHECT.1

ICC.A.1
IHECT.1

AREA
RABI
IHEcn

TO

Bf. IRRIGATED
SUGAR

OUTLET
OISCHARGE
FACTOR

OULEr
DISCHARGE
IN CUMECS

LOSSES
IN REACH

TOTAL

l.OSSES

TOTAL
DISCHARGE

RICE

10

II

------

_.

...HANNEL

VELOGI;~--r-"

DIMENSIONS

IN MlSEC.

BED SlON:

BED WIDTH

12

13

FULL

FULL

SUPf'LY
DEPTH

SUPPLY
LEVEL

14

15

--

DESIGN

BED LEVEL

D"CHAflGt:

LACEy'S',
OR n

,
HT. OF

18

19

"

-_._-,

.PLATE NO.2:

CAPACITY

& DESIGN S1' TEMENT

-"-

REMAlll(S

-20-t-------

BANK

--_ ...17

16

-- ._-

(')

G>

~
Z
l;

"'Z

~
...

'"

'0

"

!"'
!"
r

..,
!n

(')

c
-;

-;
Z

G>

<
"'

'"

~3.z.92.15

92.65

150

9259

300

9248

3:
"'Ql

..,

''"" G>is"
~
'"" ''"" '"
'"
Cl

(')

(:)

r
r

(')

~
'"
...z'"

1135

450

OL
600

CS 750

00

10:50

1200

7
91.59

1350

..-

l/

iEs

I
RS

1500

II

Acl
I
I

S-

91.72

1650
1800

91.4El 91.16

1950

91.41

9/.10

91.50

2100

91.15

91.04

91.54

2250

92.85

ES

RX

C'l
;U

VRS

l>
0

iTi

z
-i

CS

<
(

"
rI)

UI

0
0

OL

CS

S
VRS

VRS CS
6

VRB OL

VRS

ES
1)

;u:c::

l>

I'T1

UI()()():I:;U

i-x~0in~in:'n~~~
al:TJ

~
I'T1

Z
()

r
I
(j)

()~

l>

-l

Zo
~Z

wOUI
00

o
'TI
:s:
l>
Z

-;

"

1.255

!
c:
0

CS
SW

1\

1.435

'"

m
(J)

Design of Unlined Canals

The flow of water specially in earthern channels

presents a complicated
problem,
which cannot be
solved
with mathematical
precision.
The unlined
channel is an open channel excavated and shaped to
the required cross-section
in natural
earth or fill,
without
special treatment to the sub-grade.
Where
a channel is constructed
partly or entirely in fill or in
natural
earth of unstable
characteristics
it may
become necessary to prevent seepage and percolation
by compacting the sub-grade.
The motive force offlowing water in open channels
is entirely due to the slopes of the channel. The water
flows
from
higher to a lower
point by. virtue of
gravity.
The flowing water
has to overcome the
resistance in the channel caused by numerous
factors
such as surface tension, atmospheric pressure at surface
and friction at side and bottom of the channel.
The
frietien
on the channel section
clepends on the
material formir.g the wetted perimeter" the irregularity
of the wetted perimeter,
variation
in the size and
shape of the cross-sections, curves, weeds and various
kinds of growth, scouring,
silting, suspended material
and the bed load. In practice the resultant of all these
forces is expressed by a coefficient of roughness
determined by experiments.
3.2 Flow Characteristics

of Open Channels

The discharge passing in an open

pressed by the continuity formula:

channel

= Sine of slope of water surface

ex-

Q=AxV
= Discharge in cumecs
A = Cross-sectional
area in sq m
V = Mea~ velocity of flow in m/sec
Q

(a) Kutter's

CV

R.S

in m

Formula

0.00155
1
23 ,t. --S-+N
C=-------.
1+ (23+ _0.0~155 ) :

The values of 'N' as recommended

given in Table Ill.

by I.S.I.

For some conditions

value of 'C' from
formula are given in Plates 4 and 5.
(b) Manning's

are

Kutter's

Formula

= --1

fi.2/3

81/2

II

The Chczy's 'C' r.nJ Manning's

the Equation:
1
C = -~
n

'n' are

related

by

R1/6

In normal ranges of slopes

radius the values of Manning's
generally seem to be numerically
cal purposes.

The mean velocity is given by the Chezy's formula:

V

mean radius

This is a practical
and fundamental
formula for
the un!form flow of water in open channels and it is
the ?asls of all modern velocity formulae.
Since co~fficler:rt 'c' represents the retarding influences various
InvestIgators have determined its value on the basis of
expernnents
and observed
data.
The most widely
used values of 'c' are given by :
.

V
IS

Hydraulic

87

1+~
V~

and hydraulic
mean
'n' and Kutter's "N"
very close for practi-

Value of 'N'
Normal
Earth, straight

1.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Clean, recently completed

Clear, after weathering
Gravel, uniform section, clean
With short grass, few weeds

0.016
0.018
0.022
0.022

0.018
0.022
0.025
0.027

0.020
0.025
0.030
0.033

0.023
0.025
0.030
0.030
0.025
0.030

0.025
0.030
0.035
0.035

0.030
0.033
0.035
0.040

0.035
0.040

0040
0.050

0.025
0.035

0.028
0.050

0.033
0.060

0.050
0.040
0.045
0.080

0.080
0.050
0.070
0.100

0.120
0.080
0.110
0.140

Earth, winding and sluggish

2.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(I)
3.

and uniform

No vegetation
Grass, some weeds
Dense weeds or aquatic plants in deep channels
Earth bottom and rubble sides
Stony bottom and weedy ban ks
Cobble bottom and clear sides

Dragline
(a)
(b)

excavated

or dredged

No Vegetation
Light brush on banks

Channels not maintained

4.

(Weeds and brush uncut)

(a) Dense weeds, high as flow depth

(b) Clean bottom. brush on sides
(c) Same, highest stage of flow
(d) Dense brush, high stage
Where 'M' is the roughness coefficient.
of "M" for various surfaces are as below:
Type of Channel
timber

0.06

neat brickwork

0.16

Smooth

plaster,

planed

Timber,

ashlar,

Rubble

inasonry

0'46

Plaster,

very smooth earth

0.85

design of stable channel depends largely upon the experience and judgement of t~e de~igner.
An attempt
has, therefore, been made by InvestIgators to obtain
a
critical velocity offlow at which there will be neither
scouring nor silting.
.F.ormulae that have been proposed for stable condItIOns of the channel express
either a relationship
between the C.V. and depth of
flow or the relationships
between the width of channel
and depth of flow. The various formulae available for
design of stable channels are given below:

Earth channels

in usual conditions

1.30

(a) Kennedy

Earth channels

in bad conditions

1.75

The general form of equation

vation on stable channels is :

The values of
in Plate 6.

"e"

Formula
based on the

obser-

as per Bazin's form ula are given

3.3 Stable Channel

A stable channel may be defined as one in which
neither SGo\Fin~ I1Qr &tHing ta~es p\qce. A satisfactory

Yo "'"

Critical

velocity

in mjsec

anG NOI1,sco~dl1~)

(Non.siltin~

Depth C'f flow in metres

Critical

V = 0.84111 DO'64
Sands c()arser than the standard were assigned values
of m from 1.1 to 1.2 and those finer from 0.9 to 0.8.
Kennedy made no correlation
between wate~ surface
slope of regime chanmls and the mean. velOCity. or the
vertical depth.
He relied on Kutter s equatIOn to
give slopes to the channels.
The values of Va for different
Plate No.7
The following equations
vations at other places:

=
V =
V =
V

depths

were

are shown

Choose the point of intersection of the vertical

line on any bed width and read the corresponding value of water depth (D), and critical velocity Va' on the right hand ordinate.

(iv) Calculate the actual velocity of flow (V) for

the chosen bed width and the corresponding
value of the water depth.

(v) Determine
( ::

the

critical

velocity

) taking V as calculated

ratio

'm'

and Va as read.

obtained

0.391

DO'55

Godavari

0.53

DO'6E

Krishna

0.567

DO'57

Lower Chenab

0.283

DO'73

Egyptian

(vi)

If the value of VIVo is not the same as given,

repeat the procedure with other values of the
bed width till the C.V.R. approximates
to the
gi ven val ue.

These diagrams are drawn for side slopes oft:l

on
the ass~lmption that irrigation
channels after some
time acquire this slope due to silt deposition
on the
berms, irrespective
of the initial side slope provided.
These curves are drawn for N = 0.0225.
They can
also be utilized for any value of N with the help of a
monogram
provided at the top of the curves.
When
using for any other value of N, the vertical line drawn
at the intersection of the discharge and slope line has
to be shifted, either to the left or to the right side to the
extent given in the monogram.
Further procedure for
determining bed width and depth remains unaltered.

in

by obser-

Delta

Lacey used Kennedy's

data and substituted
'F'
"Lacey's silt factor" for 'm' and found that '1' worked
out to be square root of the critic81 velocity
ratio
(::

Western Delta
Canal

Canals

A general feature of these formulae

~as that. the
value of 'c' was proportional
to the SIze of the bed
material.
In actual practice, the design can be. carried. out
the help of Garret's diagrams whIch p;ovlde a
hical solution of Kennedy's
and Kutter s equagtraps Garrets diagrams are given in Plate Nos. 8 and
Ion.
.'
f 11

9. The procedure for theIr use IS as 0 ows .

with

(i)

(ifi)

0.55 D00f4

This equation is applicable to channels. flow~ng in

sandy silt of the same grade as that w]:uch eXists on
the Upper Bari Doab canal system on whIc.h the observations were made.
Kennedy later recogmsed that the
grade of silt played a part in this rela~ionship
and
introduced
another factor in the equatIOn, called by
him as "the critical velocity ratio"
and given the
symbol 'm'. The equation was then written as

Draw a vertical line through the point of

intersection.
This will intersect several bed
width curves.

velocity ratio

Mr. R.G. Kennedy made his observations

on the
Upper Bari Doab Canal system, one of the oldest in.
the Punjab.
On this systeI~1 he selected a n~mber ot
sites on various channels which had not reqUIred any
silt clearance
for the last thirty years and were thus
considered
stable.
By plotting
his observations
.of
velocity and depth on stable reaches, Kennedy obtamed his well known equation.
Vo

(ii)

Follow the given discharge cu.rve till it meets

the given ho~izontal
~lope Ime and mark off
their point of IDter-sectlOns.

) for velocities not exceeding more than Im/sec

and if the hydraulic mean radius 'R' is substituted

for
'D' the variation in exponent as found on the different canal system disappears.
The concept of 'R' in
place of' D' by Lacey, according
to him, is because
eddies which keep the silt in suspension are generated
from bed and sides both normal to the surfaces of generation and not from bed only as stated by Kennedy.
He,therefore, assumed that hydraulic mean radius (R)
as variable. However, it has been observed that there
is hardly any difference in values of R & D in wide
channels.
On the basis of the above arguments Lacey
derived a set of equations by plotting mean value6 of
observed data.

. (i)
.. (it)

A=Area
of the channel section
V=Velocity
('fflow in m/sec.
f=Lacey's
silt factor.
Lacey's regime flow equation is
V=10.8 R 2j3 S 1/3

though not devoid of sediment,

carry much lesser
sediment and the boundary
material of canal section
is dissimilar
to the sediment
in transport.
On the
basis of above dissimilarity
the following
practices
of
design are recommended:

in m

... (iii)

(i) and (ii) he derived

From the above equations

perimeter-discharge
relation:
P=4.825 Q

P is wetted perimeter

in m
in cumecs

Q is discharge

From this equation it was thus established

that
wetted
perimeter
of a channel in regime was dependent on the discharge only and was Independent of
the grade of silt denoted by I'
Fi om these equations a number
relationships
have been obtained
below:

f5/3
S=3316Q

1.35

Different sections are possible depending

. upon the choice of depth. The channel section
should be deep and narrow
particularly
for
small channels like distributaries
and minors.
Practical
bed width-depth
ratios as given in
para 3 5 may be used for general guidance.
Departure may however, be made where found
necessary to provide shallow and wide section
to avoid cutting in hard soil below the ground.
The criteria of balancing
depth may not be
desirable to be adhered to in such cases.

J/~
1j6

V=0.4382(Qj2)
R=0.47

of other impor~ant
which are gtven

( ].

yf2

q2 )1 1
( 7- / .

ql/l
A=2.28jTJ2
Silt Factor 'f'
According to Lacey, the silt factor' f' will b~ d~pendent on the average size of boundary ~atenalll1
the channel and its density.
Its value vanes as the
square root of the mean diameter of the particles.
f=-1.76Y

n1r

m,.=average

size of particles

in mm.

Designs based on the Lacey's equations

can be
solved with the help of graphs in plates 10, 11,12
and 13 representing graphically the equations.
3.4

Selection

of Method

(i) For channels taking off from reservoirs carrying silt free water and flowing through
hard
soils or disintegrated
or fresh rock, it appears
quite desirable from the point of view of economy to design the channel for as high a
velocity as the soil can withstand
without
erosion, consistent
with the slope av~ilable
from the command
point of view and economies of the channel section.
Too steep a slope
should normally
be avoided.
Lacey's design
is generally not applicable
to design of such
channels.
The permissible
velocity should
first be fixed and the channel section should
be determined
from Chezy's
formula with
Kutter's
value of C & N. The Kennedy
or
Garrets' diagrams
may be used to facilitate
designs and avoid calculations
by trial and
error method.

of Design

From the designer's view point, the whole of India

can broadly be divided into two regions, the northern
states of India comprising
of the Punjab, Haryana,
V.P., Bihar, West Bengal, Rajasthan
and some parts
of M.P. where canals draw their supplies from rivers
carrying heavily sediment laden water.
These canals
carry sediment similar to that forming their bed and
banks.
On the other hand, the canals in South India

(ii) For the canals carrying heavily sediment laden

water the design practice are mostly based on
the Lacey's and Kennedy's
formula. Lacey's
method of design should be used for design of
new channels flowing through
alluvial soils.
Greatest care should be exccrciscd in selecting
the value of 'f'.
The section may then be
determined either by calculations
as illustrated
in the example in Appendix-II
or read from
Lacey's
diagram.
It should be examined to
see that the mean velocity is neither too high
nor too low for the type of the soil along the
alignment of the channels.
If necessary, the
value of 'I' may be correlated to the Kennedy's
C V.R. Lacey's design cannot, however, be
used for silt bearing channels carrying low
discharges, the limit of which is given by the
straight line on the left side of Plate-9 beyond
which the discharge curves are discontinued.
In such cases water
surface slope may be
worked from Lacey's equations and dimensions
determined
from
Kutter's
formula.
This
method is also usually adopted for design of
channels
with low silt factor in cohesive
soils.

Wi) In case of existing channels requiring

remodel.
ling which have not been originally
designed
with Lacey's equation, it will not generally be
found convenient
and economical
to adopt
Lacey's design. Lacey-cum-Kutter
or Kennedycum-Kutter formula may be used.
3.5

Bed Width-Depth

Ratio

Problem of selecting a section often arises in case

of channels or reaches of channels in which more
than one water surface slope can be adopted without
affecting the
command.
This results in more than
one section with different bed-width-depth
ratios for
the same discharge,
value of n and critical velocity
ratio as may be seen from the Table IV.
TABLE IV

CVR

(Cumecs)
28317
28.317
28.317
28.317

0.0225
0.0225
0.0225
0.0225

Lo

1.0
1.0
1.0

Slope
per
1000

Bed
width
m

F.S.
Depth
m

0.22
0.20
0.18
0.16

9.75
12.04
16.15
28.96

2.53
2.30
1.98
1.42

The same difficulty has been experienced in channels taking off from reservoirs and carryil~g relatively
silt free water.
The CVR is not the dommant
factor
in such cases and the channel may be design~d for
permissible velocity which the soil can stand without
scouring.
According to Ellis the best channel section for the
same cross-section
area and slope, posses. water at
maximum
velocity
with greatest
hydrau!Jc
!!1ean
radius.
For any trapezoidal channel of fixed se.ctlOnal
area (A), if',' is the ratio of horizontal to vertical. of
the side slopes and '8' is the length of th~ two SIde
slopes. per unit depth which equals 2
+ 1 and
'M' is the ratio of bed width to depth.

discharge or in other words size of channel.

The
Kennedy depth formula
gives maximum
depth that
can be allowed in an earthen open channel.
As for
example, a channel situated
in a soil which can stand
mean scouring velocity of 1 m/sec. cannot have full
supply depths of more than 2.56 metres as may be seen
from Plate No.7.
This however, has no relationship
with the shape of channel i.e. bed-width-depth
ratio.
Whenever therefore, there is a free choice for selecting
dimensions of bed width and depth the ratios which
may be obtained from Plate No. 14 may generally be
used for guidance.

3.6

Most Efficient Cross-Section

Considering
purely from the stand point of hydraulics of a channel, the most efficient cross sections
is the one which with a given slope and area has the
maximum carrying capacity.
Chezy's formula indicates that for a given water surface slope, the velocity
and consequently,
the discharging
capacity
of the
section is maximum
when the hydraulic mean radius
(R) is maximum.
The lraximum R is given by the
circular section.
Since channel in earth have usually
trapezoidal
section,
maximum
R is given by half
hexagonal
described about the semi circle with its
centre at the water surface.
Such a section however,
requires great depths
for larger
discharges.
1he
velocity induced
in such section may also become so
great as to cause erosion of the sides and scour in the
bed of the channel.
The non-scouring mean velocities
as recommended
by various
authorities
including
CWPRS, Pune are given below:
(1)

Very light, loose sand to

average sandy soil.
(2) Sandy loam, black cotton
soil & similar soil.
(3) Ordinary

V,-

Hydraulic

Mean Radius

(R)

. jM",

= 'V

M'!-

(4) Firm loam, clay loam,

alluv ial soil, soft clay and
murum .
(5) Hard clay or grit.

.;-

v A

and it is maximum when M = S - 2,

Accordingly
for a channel of side slope t : 1, for the
best discharging
section, the value of M works out
to be 1.236 or say M = H
For least absorption,
M works out to be .4. Ell,is also
stated that in case of all sizes of.cha.nnels m whIch t~e
relationship of velocity to ?ept.h .ISgiven by Kennedy s
equations, the absorption IS mmlInum for val!les of M
between 1.5 and 3.2. For val~es <;>fM varyIng from
1.2 to 5 the loss due to absorptIOn IS never more than
5 per cent in excess of minimum.
The experience of the working of irrigatio~ channels in alluvial soil has however, shown. the eXistence
of certain bed-width-depth
ratio dependmg
upon the

soils.

(6) Gravel and shingle.

(7) Cemented gravel conglomite,
hard pan.
(8) Soft rock.
(9) Hard rock.
(10) Very hard rock or cement
concrete.

3.7

0.3 to 0.6 mfsec.

0.6 to 0.9 m/sec.
0.6

to 0.9 m/sec.

0.9
1.0

to 1.1 m/sec.

1.5

to 1.8 m/sec.

to 1.5 m/sec.

1.8 to 2.4 m/sec.

1.4 to 2.4 m/sec.
2,4 to 3.7 m/sec.
4.5

to 7.6 m/sec.

Side Slopes

The side slopes to be

nature of the soil in which
vated, depth of cutting
and shall be designed with
alluvial soils.

adopted
depend upon the
the channel is to be eXCaand fheight of embankment
the following conditions, in

(a)

Sudden
draw down
conditio!ls
for inner
slopes.
(b) The canal running full with plenty of rainfaIl
for outer slopes.
The minimum slopes usually all owed arc given in
Table V

].

Very light loose sand 1.5:1

to average sandy soil. 2:1
1:1
2. Sandy loam, loamy
soil and similar soils 2:1
3. Sandy soil or gravel.
1: 1
4. Murum, hard soil 0.75:1
etc.
0.25:1
5. Rock

to 2:1 (cutting)
to 3:1 (embankment)
to 15:1 (cutting)
(embankment)
to 2:1
to 1.5:1
to 0.5: 1

The slopes given above are suitable for average

height upto 3 metres.
For greater heights, it is preferable to provide ledges 1.5 to 3 111wide at intervals of 3 m instead of flattening
the slopes.
The
latter method is, however, slightly economical.
In aIluvial and sandy soils tbe side slopes in cutting
genrally assume side slopes of t : 1 on silting up, in
course of time.
This slope is therefore, assumed in
designing the section for computation
of hydraulic
mean radius, area and perimeter even though in execution actually flatter slopes are adopted.
In hard clays and rocky soils, however,
it is not
necessary to follow the above practice.
The side slope
actually provided in excavation may be taken into account for working out the sec:tional area of channel.
3.8 Free Board
Free board in general will be governed
ation of the following aspects:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)

by consider-

Soil Characteristics.
Size of canal and its locations.
Hydraulic gradient.
Water surface fluctuations.
Percolation.
Service road requirements.

According to U.S. Bureau of Reclamation practices

free board may be determined by the formula:

F=
where,

F=
C=
1)=

1
X
J C.1J
1.812
\j
Free board in metres.
Coefficient.
Depth of water in canal in metres.

The coefficient 'c' varies linearly from 1. 5 where

the canal capacity is 0.7 cumecs to 2.5 for canal of 85
cumecs or more.
However, greater free boards and
bank heights than those within these rane:es may be
used in exceptional ci rcumstances.
'"
As per I.S.I. reco'1lmendations
a minimum
free
board of 0.50 m for discharges less than 10 cumecs
and 0.75 m for discharges greater tban 10 cumecs is to
be provided.
The free board shall be measured
from
the F.S.L. to tbe level of the top of bank.
The height
of dowel porti<:)ll should not be used for free board
purposes.
It IS observed t~at the free-board given by
the formula of U.S.B R. IS very much higher than
those recommended
by I.S.I.

The minimum values adopted

banks are as follows :
Discharge
(cumec)

for top width of the

Minimum Bank top width

Insp~ction Bank Non-inspection
(m)
(m)

0.15 to 75
7.5 to 10.0
10.0 to 15.0
15.0 to 30.0
30 and above.
Width differel?t than those recommended above may
be D.sed when Justified by speCIfic conditions
For
distrIbutary can~ls .carrying less than 1.5 cume~s and
minor cana~s, It IS generally 110t economical to Construct a serVIce road on top of bank as thi~ u
11
. q
. I
sua y
Ie ulres more matefla s than theexcavatiol1
provd
.
dIes.
I n Suc h cases, serv~ce
roa may be provided on natural
ground surface adjacent to the bank.
Howeve
th
'd'
r,
e
Impor t ance 0 f prO'll Ing adequate service roads where
they are needed should always be kept in view.
~he banks sh.ould invariably
cover the hydraulic
gradIent. The WIdth of the non-inspection
bank should
be checked to see that Cover for hydraulic grad'
t'
provided.
'Ien
IS

Berm is a horizontal
space initially left at ground
le~el . beltweb~n ~he ftoe of bank and excavation.
The
pnnclpa
0 jectlves
or providing berms are:
(a)

~o provide v.:ider waterway

above F.S.L. to
lIm~t. the heIght. of rise of water at the time of
positive fluctuatIOns.

(b)

To affo~d less ~ervious silt lining on the sides

of.the silt carryll1g channels to decrease ab
_
phon losses.
sor

(c)

To recede the banks away from the

action of water to prevent breaches.

(d) To provide
canal.

a SCOpe for

future

direct

widening

of

(e)

To provide space for borrowing

earth during
construction
at times of necessity and later on
for maintenance when the berms are formed.

(f)

To break the flow of rain water down the bank

slope. Berms are to be provided in all cuttings,
when the depth of cutting is more than 3 m.
Where a canal is constructed in a deep through
cut requiring waste banks, berms should be
provided
between the canal section cut and
the waste bank.
The following
(i)

practice

is recommended:

When the F.SL. is above G.L. but the bed

is below G.L., that is, the canal is partly in
cutting and partly in filling, berm may be
kept at N.S.L. equal to 2D in width where,
D is F.S.D.

(ii) When the F.S.L. and the C.B.L. are both

above the G.L. that is, the canal is in
filling, the berm may be kept at the F.S.L.
equal to 3D in width.
(iii) When the F.S.L. is below G.L., that is the
canal is completely
in cutting, the berm
may be kept at the F.S.L. equal to 2D in
width.
In embankments,
adequate berm
may be provided so as to retain the minimum cover over the hydraulic grade line.

For a channel running in embankment.

the percolation line through the bank though actually curved, is
assumed straight and sloping at 1:4 to 1:6 gradient
depending
upon the bank material.
It is taken for
ordinary loamy soil as 1:6, average clayey soil 1:5 and
good clayey soil 1:4. A soil having hydraulic gradient
flatter than 1:6 is not suitable for canal banks.
When
the height of bank is such that percolation line intersects the outer slope above G.L., an extra layer of
earth is put to provide a minimum
cover of 0.30 m.
The surface of this cover is either kept parallel to the
hydraulic gradient or is in horizontal steps.
For embankments
more than 5 m height, the true
position
of saturation
line shall be worked out and
stability of slope should ,be checked as in earth dams.

Dowel is generally constructed

on the inner side of
the bank, while in those places, where rains are heavy,
dowels are provided on both sides of the bank to prevent their cutting.
Water is then led out at intervals
through artificial gutters.
The height of the dowel is
generally kept 0.5 m with side slopes 1.5:1 and top
width as 0.5 m.
Typical cross-section
in Plate 15.

s of unlined

Some typical examples

are given in Appendix-I

canal

are

shown

of design of unlined

canal

Example

Example

Design of Channel
Ku tter formulae.

section

by

Kennedy,

Chczy &

DATA

II

Design of channel
section
using Lacey's formulae.

for 30 cumecs discharge.

DATA

= 30 cumecs

S = 1/8000
Side Slope t

DES'GN

DESIGN
Against

=
=

30 cumecs
1.0
Side slopes = t: 1

0.02

Q = 30 cumecs the value of bid ratio

curve

from

plate

No.

from
12 works out

=7.5
Let the depth of chaJ1]~el = 2.15 ill
b = 2.15x7.5
= 16.125 m = say 16.0 m
Area
(l6+1.08)x2.15=36.72
m2

Pw

= 20.81 m

16+4.81

A
---=-----=176
Pw

23 +()0155

1+ ( --S1
=23+-0:-020
1+(2H-.00155

9.vR.

;;:

0.55 D 0.64
0.58 x 2.15'64

0.90 m/sec

~:~~

Q.9~ O,K.

Pw2-6.944
RPw
--------3-:-472"--------

30.84 cumecs

-5836
(

Example

= 26.43 m

30'

2.236 D
26.43 -- 2.236 X 1.64 = 22.76 say 22.8
f 5/3
=
1_.
_
-33T6- Ql;6
3316x(30)1/6
1
=---' -3316XT:""i6

PlV

RS

Critical velocity

126

55.8

V = 36.72 0.840

== V

26.43 - ".1698:-54 -6.944-->::1.46><26.43 = 1.64 In

-----------3472
-----

X 8000

----55.8 X V 1.76 x 1/8000

558x1.33
----= 0.84 m/sec.
89.4
A

V-Q

4.825

= Pw

".1-1\-

85.40

1:f3-

(+ )1/3

23+50+ 12.40
1 + (23+ 1240) x 0.02

= 4.825

x 80(iO)~-

-i~5-3-2-

047

-------

) X ~

y'

(}9:- yf3

PlV or P

(~~_l?..?-)

+000155

= 1.46 m

36.72
20.81

---~--- +

23 +

0.47

i.e. 17 cm/km

-9:{02-

r/

=0.77m/sec.

III

Design of channel sections

using Garrett's di agram

for

30 cumecs discharge

DATA
Q=
30 cumecs
Side slope = t : 1
Longitudinal
slope = 1/8000 or 12.5
N =
From
B =
D =

0.02
Garrett's
16 m
2.15 m

Vo = 0.9

diagram

111jScC.

cm/l<:rn.

6
z

I1J
..J
II..

MEAN
MEAN
COEFFICIENTS
n OF ROUGHNESS
RAD-R
RAD.R
METRES .009 .010 .011 .012 .013 .015 .017 .020 .025 .030 .035 .040 METRES

.025
.050

I-

:>
a:: .
O
w
Il.
0

1
.2

NO

oln

0%
0:

w
0..

0
..J
l/l

52
63
75
87
99
104

III

2
4
10
30

118
124
130
135

57
69

25
32
40
48
57

71
100 90
83 77
107 98 90 84
113 104 97 90
119 110 102 96
124 114 107 100

61
67
74
79
85
90

45
55
66
17
88
93

40
48
59
69
80
84

35
43
53
62
72
77

31
39
48

21
27
34
41
49
53
59
65
71
77
82

17
21
27
34
41

12
16
21
26
32

9
12
16
21
26

45
50
56
62
67
73

36
40
46
51

29
33
39
44

8
10
13
17
22
25
28
34
39

57
62

50
55

45
50

6
8
II

15
19
2225
30
35
40
46

.025
050
.1
.2
4
6
I
2
4
10
30

MEAN
RADR

:i

METRES .009 .010

lt!)

.,

LLJ
..J
II..

0
I-

:>

Q:O

wo
0..0
0-

-z

00-

II

0..

2
4

0
..J

Vl

10
30

'---

t
t!)

z
w
..J
II..

0
I-

z:>
a::

~g

.,.In

ON

o!:

..

0-

w
0..

0
..J
l/l

.025
.050
-I

2
3
4
6
I
2
4
6
10
30

55
66
78
90

47
58
68
80

41
51
61
70

37
45
55
64

33
40
50
59

27
33
42
49

95
99
105
III
117
123
125

85
89
94
100
106

76
80
85
90
97
III
102
114 105

70
73
78
83
89
95
97

63
67
72
77
83
88
91

128 117 108 100

132. 121 112. 104

28
35

13
17
21
27

54
57
62
67
73
78
81

22
28
35
42
47
50
54
59
65
70
72

39
42
45
50
56
61
63

93

83

75

98

87

79

17
23

14
18

7
9
12
15

30
32
36
40
45
50
53

10
13
17
22
24
27
30
33
38
43
46

21
22
25
28
34
38
40

17
20
22
25
30
34
36

66

55

48

43

39 10

70

60

52

48

43 30

8
II

025
050
1
2
'3
4
6

2
4
6

.011 .012 .013

.015 .017 .020 .025 .030

34
42
50
60
64
67
72
77
83
87
90

28
34
42
50
54
58
62
67
72
77
80

23
29
36
43
47
50
54
59
64
69
71

18
23
30
35
39
42
46
50
55
60
.62

13
17
22
27
30
33
36
40
45
50
52

127 115 106 99

130 119 110 102

92
96

82
86

73
77

64
68

54
58

50
43
59
52
70
63
72
80
77
86
89 81
94 85
III
100 90
116 106 97
121 III
102
124 113 104

MEAN
RADR

OF ROUGHNESS

38
47
56
65
70
74
78
83
90
94
97

.025 57
050 69
80
2
90
96
'3
4
100
.6
104

I;

COEFFICIENTS

II

13
17
22
25
27
30
33
38
42
45
47
51

.035 .040

9
II

14
18
21
23
25
28
33
37
40
42
46

METRES

7
025
9
050
12
16
'2
18
'3
19
4
'6
22
25
I
29
2
33 4
36 6
38 10
42 30

.,

------,-,MEAN

,---

- -

Mt::AN

COEFFICIENTS rI OF ROUmiNESS

RAO.R

r.U::TRE 5009
:r.
....

.02 5
.05

(!)

Z
IJJ
..J
IJ..

.1
.2

.3
.4

...
::>

ffio
0.0

.6
Q

11')0

NO

I-50

OV

Oz
0-

0-

,.

II

3
4

~
o

10
i~

_I
lfl

20

?P -

29
38
50

25
33
44

'1'2
82

63 56
72 64
89 79 71
88 80
99
\00
III
90
121 109 100
12'/ 115 106
136 124 114
142 1:10 120
149 137 12'7
158 145 135
!64 151 141
16'7 15.'5145
\72 160 150

.025 40
52
65
1
.2
79
87
3
93
4
.6 102

"

I.

III

'5
2;
6

118
123
129
133
136

IQ

143

15

141
150

20

3Q
--~_.

.011 .012

34
44
58

.05

JO
0
0
0
t\I

.010

(j

152

.Ol~

30
40

20
27
36

17
22

14
19
26

51

46

58
64
72
83
92
96
106

53

C
22

III

119
127
133
137
142

59
67
77
85
91

99
104
III
120

26'

30

39
45
50
57
67
74
80
87
93
100
108
114

34
39
44
50
59
66

71
78
83
90

62
67
74
83

51
51
62
69
77

90

83

73

56

C
II

16
21
28
33

C
9
12

16
21
25

37
42
50

29
33
40
57 46
61 50
68 56
73

61

.0~101.f1~li

:(j~()

C
6
8
II

C
5

13
\5

23
28
33
38

15
11
2D
23
28
33

42

37'

48
52
58
66

42
46

C
7

9
13
18
21

80 61
88 75
94 81 7'l.
98 85 75
103 90 81

7
9

25

29
32
37

24
31
40

94 87 77
100 93 83
104 97 86
109 102 91
1\4 107 96
118 III . 10{)
120 113 103
123 116 105

65

13
18
24
3'0
35
38
43
50
55
59

68
74 64
77 68
8? 72
87 78
91 82
94 84
97 87

10
13

46

59

53

7
9

5
7

12
16

27
30
34
40
45
48

18

10
13
16

21

18

24
28
35
40
43
47
52

21
25
28
31
35
38
42
47

56

51

58
G2

53
57

56
61
66
70
72
76

53

58
62
64
68

.6
I
(50

51

18
23 "'::1'9

53

.3
4

41

1\
14

22
25
28
33
38
41
45
49

.2

2
:3
4

64 59
108
62
'74 68

53

fJE'fRES 01)09 .010

G()EFr-!C~ENTS
.011

.(Wl

35
44

31

.eml

i1

OF OOUGHf\lESS

.015 .Oi'f

.020 .025

MEAN
RA[).R
.030 .055

.040

METRE~

:l!:

.025
.05
.1

17
20

20 '"I
26 22
:>4 29
43 37
"8 42
53 46
59 52
67 59

34
44

.020_ ,..025

98
1()4
126
130 118 108
135 123 113

._.

35
30
44
39
57 50
69 62
77 . 69
83 74
90
82
100 90
10'1 97
III 102
117 108
\
121 11'2
126 117
131 122
135 126
137 128
140 131

.015 .017

RADn
MEnlES

fJll';tlN
RAD.r~

10
15

20
:30

--._-

mm
.05
1

2
'3
4
6
I.
15

2
3

4
6
10
15
20
30

ll!l

.025

w
..J

.05

.1

lL

0
I-

zo

'='0
0::0
wO
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0 __

d
0
II
IJJ
d.

9If)

---

47
59
72

'2

~4

-3

91
97
104

4
.6

40
50
62
74
81
86
92
100
105
109
116
1\9

55

66
73

77
83

40

50
60
66
70
76
83
8e:

28
35
45

22 19
29 25
?J;7 32

54

46
51

60
64
70

55
60

77 67
90
i'
B2 72H, 117
96
120
100 92 35 15
2
107 99 92 32
4
128
131
110 102 96 85
G
135 123 1/4 106 100 89
10
137 126 ilG 109 102 92
15
00
141 12:9 120 112
106 ~5
____
._"_-'==-_.__
-=--~~_'_"'_=_.
III

39

44
48
53
59
64

67

n
31
83
37
___

15

II

20

15
19
25
28

26
'32
37

40
45
50
54
57
64
67
71
"/4

9
12
16
20
23
25
29

7
10
13
17
19

21
25
35
40 33 28
44 34 32
47 40 34
53 46 40
43
56 49
60 53 4'7
63 55 50
31

78
67
....-c- _"_,-

59

54
_____

6
8

.O2~

II

-(

14
17
18

.05

-3

21

4
'6

25
28
30

I
1'5
2

36
39

43

6
10

46

15

50

30

HYDRAULIC
MEAN DEPTH(R)
\IN METERS.)

VERY SMOO SMOOTH

TH CEMEN
BOARDS BRIOK
&- PLANED
OONO. GLAZE.(
BOARDS.
EARTHEN
WARE PIPES.

ASHLAR
MASONRY.

AND CA-

TION
NALS

PITCHED

WITH

STONE.

-----

M=0.1085

0.10
f----------

73
-------

0.15

23 -

36

.------..
_'.- ..-.--. --

75

62

OONDITION.

l"'
~017
--~t-~;------I----~~R

"::54 ~"::35

M=O,29

60

EARTH OANALS
EXCEPTIONALLY
ROUGH.

EARTH C1<N1<LS~ EARTH OANALS

IN GOO coNOtIN ORDINARY

40

----1-

27
-,

- -

----

CHEZY'S FORMULA:- V= C v""RS

'

I ---

20

16

BAZIN'S FORMULA:-

--------------

30

C~ 1:57.6
1.81+. M

22

V'lr

18

~:-:.....
~~f~
~-~~~~
~~
~:-'~~:
.
-~-:~!.....-:-:----21

-------

---------.---l-I

55

43

34

45

36

1.00

-- ----"------

60

82
..

---

--

'
I

27

28

---- --- ------------l---------

58

e2

33

------1------! I

56

----J---------

41

47

--

"_.

1.50

83

63

51

2.00

84

66

55

2.50

84

68

57

3.00

85

69

59

3.50

85

70

60

"---. -

..

30

----------

----------, i ----------i

PLATE NO6:
VALUES OF C FROM
BAZIN'S
FORMULA

DEPTH

0.00

000

0.00

010
.122

~~~ZO
.163

0.~225

0.25

030
.254

0.3;;-'
.2DO

FROM

0'40
0.306

TO 3.95METRES

0.45

10'50

0 330

! 0.55

'353

.375!

_.
060
397

0'65

.417

0'70
.437

0'75

0'80

.457

476

1'0

---

o.~?
.~~~-~18

2'0

I (}857

3'0

11'110

882

1154

..~--

'896

.911
1158

.667

,662

949

963

1'192

1205

698

~;;;;-I

~750
,989)',0021"014

"
1215

L'748

1,226

.761

'Tl3

~801

0'85
495

~0514 I

O~

'816

0830

0844

'027

1039

1051

1063

1075

1260

1'271

1.282

1'292

1303

~~'~

I'
1237

1,248

1,314

1'325

I
I

[,
I

'1

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...,

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Ul

IN eM./ KM.

UI
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~ 0
0

0
0

IN CUM EC

PLATE NO. II: LACEY'S REGIME SLOPE DIAGRAM

DISCH.ARGES 0'1 TO 600 CUMEC
SILT FACTOR tf) 04 TO 16

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LACEY REGIME FORMULA

z'!4

V=(QfJ6
i40
I

PLATE NO. J 3: LACEY'S

REGI ME .DISCHARG~
DIAGRAM

AND VELOCITY

_,

-- --

- ...
1------ .- ~

~-

_.'--

._ ..

._.
.-

..-

_.~._-_.

----_."

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----

0.2

0.3 0.4C .:> O.

20

30 .0 : D

PLATE NO. 14: GRAPH FOR BED WIDTH AND

FOR UNLINED CHANNELS

70

KIO

DEPTH

200

00

.RATIO

>a:
--l
BANK

BElt.. 5001+" _,
3

z D ~ +--r;

i::>

/MIN.300
I-

MAX.60
SPOIL1
BANK

o
ID

!1
_a.ROAD

--i 5001'') ~
150 Z
300 WIDE GAPS TO BE l.EFT AT~
EVERY75 MIN. SPOIL BANKS'ON
BOTH SIDES.
IF D>3M LEDGES ARE PROVIDED
AT 3M INTERVALS.

M..r-I50
ZV~50

MIN.,300
+I { I-<-

I+~~
N.S. BETWEEN BED AND F.S.L.
DIGGING MORE THAN

BALANCING DEPTH

8~
IDO

BERM .

300

=-=-=~-:::-.,:t t

~.

l-50gp

N.S. BETWEEN BED AND F.S.L.

>-

a:

0,
,~

,g

INsPECTION
ROAD

~
.J
<t
Z

DIGGING l.ESS T"HAN BALANCING DfPT'H

(5

SERIAL NO. I TO 8 INDICATE ORDER

OF DISPOSAL OF SURPLUS EARTH.

ZOO) 300
DOWEL
t-t--I- f+

~ N.S.

~
o

N.S.

Design of Lined Canals

It has been est imated that seepage

losses in
irrigation
channels constitute 35 to 50 per cent of the
available water at the canal head. The necessity of lining
irrigation
canals with a view to save these losses
cannot
be over-emphasised.
As more and more
water resources
are utilised
and
water
demand
in creases the canal lining will ha\'e to play an
irnp~rtant role in conserving losses and th'?l"Cby extend
and improve irrigation
facilities.
Lining
of an irrigation
channel is resorted to
achieve all or some of the
following
objectives
keeping
in vIew the
overall economy
of the
project.
(a)

Reduction
of seepage losses resulting
in a
saving of water which can be utilised for additional irrigation.

(b)

Pr~vention
of
water-logging
seepage to watcr table.

(c)

Reduction
in area of cross-ser:tions
(and
thereby,
saving ia land) due to increase in
permissible velocity by reduction
ill the value
of rugosity and availing of steep:r slop(;, where
available.

(d)

Improven,ent
of
existing ,:hannel~.

by

discharging

reducing

capacity

of

In order to
establish
necessity of lining in a
certain area, it is necessary to quantify
the contribution of each of the
factors
mentioned
above for
assessing
the
overall
economy
achieved by
lining.
4.2

Types of Lining

The various types of lining can be grouped into two

categories: (i) Exposed
and hard surface linings and
(ii) Buried membrane
linings.
The advantages and
disadvantages
of various types of lini ngs which need
be kept in view while selecting the type of linil"'g
to be adopted are indicated below:
4.2.1

Exposed and Hard Surface Linings

Exposed linings
include all linings exposed to
abrasion
erosion
and
deterioration
effect of the
flowing water, operation and maintenance
equipment
and other hazards.
Such linings are constructed
of
cement concrete,
asphaltic
materials
bricks, and
boulders/stones.
Although,
the initial cost of these
linings
is generally
high,
the reinforced cement
concrete
linings being the costliest, they are usually
recommended
for use only where structural safety is
the prime consideration.
(a)

Cement Concrete

(i)

Elimination
of silting problems,
inherent
unlined canals, due to higher veloci ties.

(j)

Increase in available head for power generation as a flatter gradient can be provided in
power channels
due to reduced
value of
'N'.

Cement concrete in-situ lining is one of the most

conventional
type of lining which has successfully
been used in India and other parts of the world.
A
suitably
designed and
properly constructed
Cemei1t
concrete lined channel can withstand high velocities
which are considered appropriate
for a canal. Cement
concrete lining is more preferable than any other lining
where channel is to carry high velocity water because
of its greater resistance
to erosicn. Velocities upto
2.5 m/sec. are generally considered
permissible with
adequate water depth although higher \:elocities up to 5
m/sec in case of Kosi Feeder canal in U.P. have been
provided.
Cement
concrete linil1g eliminates
wced
growth
and
thereby,
improves flow characteristics
Burrowing
animals cannot penetrate
concrete and
provision
of concrete
lining reduces
maintenance
charges to a minimum.

(k)

Reduction in erosion which occurs in unlined

chappels constru((t~d in ~t~ep lands.

A distinct
disadvantage
of concrete lining is its
lack of (ixtensipility.
which reS\llts in frequent crack

(e)

Improvement

of operational

(j)

Prevention

of weed growth.

(g)

Reduction

of maintenance

Reduction
in evaporation
tion
losses
due to
area.

efficiency.

cost.
and transportareduced
exposed
in

due to
contraction
taking place on account of
temperature
changes drying, shrinkage and settlement
of subgraue.
It is also likely to be damaged by
alkaline
water.
Cement
concrete
lining without
reinforcement
may be
damaged
due to excessive
external water pressure. However, reinforced concrete
lining can withstand
the external water pressur~ but
at a very
high cost.
Where
unexpected water
pressures
are encountered,
unreinforced
lining will
crack more easily than the reinforced lining and will
relieve
the pressure
thereby reducing the area of
damage.

In this typ<: of lining cement mortar is applied by

pneumatic
pressure.
Shotcrete lining can be easily
placed over rough subgrade and is therefore, better
suited for use on existing cuts where finishing to exact
shape and slope would be expensive.
The lining
may be constructed
with or without
reinforcement
(in the form of mesh or expanded metal), although
reinforcement
increase its useful life, especially, when
laid over earth subgrade.
Since the thickness
of lining is limited, 5.0 em
mostly, such linings are applied on smaller channels
or where operational requirements are J10t severe. The
lining is also likely to be damaged- by external water
pressure
easily due to .small thic~n.ess.
I~ is very
difficult to control the thIckness of IIDlDg, whIch may
leave areas where thickness
is less than the minimum
required. Such patches constitute the areas of weakness
where lining may give way.

(e)

Brick Lining

This type of lining has been extensively uscd in

India and elsewhere.
The brick linings, are not only
equally impermeable
as C. C linings,
but have the
additional
advantage of low initial and maintenance
cost, quicker
construction
and natural
safeguard
against cracking due to closely spaced joints.
This
type of lining is economical
where aggregates
for
concrete lining are nN available.
It does not require
skilled labour as needed for concrete lining.

(f)

The various types of exposed membrane

linings
are: sprayed in place asphalt cements, prefabricated
sheets of asphaltic
materials, fibre glass and films of
plastic and synthetic rubber. Experiments
have shown
that where as the exposed membranes have low resistance to puncturing
and disintegrate
rapidly, thicker
sheets with greater resistance are expensive.
(g)

Asphaltic concrete lining may be substituted

for
cement concrete lining where it ""orks out to be
cheaper and aggregate is not of sufficiently
geod
quality for cement concrete but is sljita~le for asphaltic
concrete.
Asphaltic concrete has greater ability to
withstand changes in the subgrade.
Asphaltic concrete
lining can b~ used for repairing cement concrete lining
by placing a resurfacing layer of asphaltic concrete.
Disadvantages
of the ,asphaltic concrete lining are:
velocities in the lining are limited to 1.5 mjsec, danger
of weed growth resulting in plolDcturing of linings,
insufficient resistance to external hydrost~tj0
pressure,
and danger of ~Iidil1g dming hot season..
'

Earth Linings

Thick compacted
earth lining may prove to be
economical where suitable material for construction
is
available at site
The lining is durable and can withstand considerable external hydrostatic
pressure
and
can be provided over expansive clays also .. Bentonite
has shown considerable
promise for use as a good
lining material.
Bentonite containing large percentage
of montmorillonite,
is characterised
by hi gh water
absorption accompanied by swelling and imperviousness. It can be used as 5.0 em thick membrane
covered by protective blanket or as a mixed in place
layer of soil bentonite well compacted.
(h)

This type of lining is made of a mixture of cement

and natural sandy soil. This
type of lining may
sometimes
result in considerable saving as compared
to cement concrete lining.
It may be adopted
on
economic
considerations
both for small and large
channels. The use of soil cement lining is, sometimes,
handicapped
by the non-availability
of sui(able soil.
It is not weather resistant.

Exposed Mernbrane Lining

Boulder Lining

Boulder lining may prove to be cheaper

than
cement concrete
where boulders
obtained
during
excavation are readily available.
Boulder lining has
very little flexural resistance
or flexibility
and the
slightest settlement
of the sub-grndc may cause distress.
Such lining is not satisfactory
for canal in
filling.
(i)

Pre-cast

Concrete Lining

Concrete tiles are more compact

and impervious.
The usual size of concrete tiles is 500 x 250 x 50 mm or
250 X 250 X 50 mm. They are laid in 1:3 cement mortar
in single or double layer directly on the compact
subgrade.
A spacing of 3.5 to 5 m is usually provided
for siting of expansion joints on sleepers.
The joints
are sealed with bituminous mastic.
T~e pr~-cast tiles are manufac~ured by hand casting
on vlbratmg
table or/are machme made depending
upon requirement and availabili.ty of equipment.
4.2.2

Buried Membrane

Linings

Hot applied asphaltic, prefabrica1cd

asrh?lt
m~1terials, plastic fill11 pi',1 a Ja)Cf of ter,!cJ;itc (r eth(:\

types of clays protected

by earth or gravel cover are
cheap linings.
These linings can be provided
immediately after completion of excavation
or even later.
Memhrane linings are susceptible to damage by weed
roat and p~rmissible water velocity is limited to avoid
erosion.
The life of the lining is uncertain.
(a) Sprayed-in place asphaltic membrane lining;
It
is composed of a special high softening point asphalt
and sprayed in-situ at a high temperature and is laid on
the prepared sub-grade to form approximately
6 mm
thick water proof barrier. It is protected from damage
and weathering usually by a protective
layer of earth
and gravel.
It provides an effective and cheap means
of seepage control and can be satisfactorily
laid in a
cold and wet weather.

and experience
are the major factors affecting the
economy
and selection of suitable lining material.
Adoption of a particular type of lining material will
require consideration
of all these factors and hence it
is not possible to recommend anyone type oflining
suitable for all conditions.
However, a broad indication can be given for the type of lining that may be
considered
for various sizes of canals.
Following
classifications
of channels may be made for deciding
the type of lining for a particular channel.
(a) Channels with Bed Width upto 3.0 m
U)

(b) Pre-fabricated
asphaltic
membrane
linings:
These ready made membranes
are used in smaller
channels or in relatively short reaches of large canals,
where the use o'f sprayed-in-place
linings is costlier on
account of the requirement of special equipment
and
skilled personnel.
Such linings are fabricated from
low cost material
of adequate
water tightness and
durability.
They are relatively thin and light and can
be transported
to long distances, stored in hot weather
and placed at low temperatures.
(c) Plastic film and synthetic
rubber membrane
lining:
These linings using polyvinyl and polythelene
plastic and butyl coated fabrics have been tried experimentally
on a limited scale. Out of the various
types tested so far, polyvinyl and polythdene
appear
to be the best. A protective cover of earth or earth and
gravel- is provided.
Plastic film can be manufactured
in any convenient size. More over being light it can
be transported
and handled easily. Synthetic
rubber
also h3s found use in canal lining although it is highly
durable,
it undergoes
mechanical
damage
when
expo~ed.

(ii) Soil cement lining may be adopted at reasonable cost when

burnt
clay tiles are not
available and the initial cost is the foremost
consideration.
(Ui) Polythelene

plastic or alkathene
lining
adequate earth/tile cover may be adoped
stable channels.

4.3

Considerations

for Selection

Keeping in view the adv~ntages and disa?va.ntages

of various types of linings dIscussed above, It IS seen
that 110 single type of lining can be recommended
for
all the conditions
encountered_
Type of subgrade,
positions
of water-table,
climatic c~nditions.' availability of materials, size of canal, servIce requJrements

with
for

(iv) 50 to 80 mm thick asphaltic. concrete lining

may be adopted
for
contmuous
running
channels where there is no likelihood of weed
growth.
(v)

(b)

25 to 50 mm thick bentonite
membrane
lining
with earth cover may be considered
wherever
economical.
'

Channels
8.0 m
(i)

with

Bed

Lining of single
preferred.

Widths
burnt

clay

between
tile

3.0 and

should

(ii) Precast concrete lining may be adopted if

aggregates
for cOllcrete are available
economical
leads and burnt clay tile
proves to be uneconomical.
However
concrete lining is more impervious than
clay tile lining.

(d) Bentonile and clay membrane linings: Bentonite

has got the peculiar characteri.stics
of b.ecomi.ng impervious on wetting due to swellll1g and ImbIbIng of
water.
As such, it is a very useful material,
for
controlling
seepage from canals, if available locally
at low cost. It h~ISbeen used by spreading as a membrane 25 to 50 mm Or more in thickness over the canal
sub-grade and covering with a 15 to 30 em protective
blanket of SUitable earth or grawl.
For further details of linings, standard
manuals
and reports such as the CBl? Technical Report No. 14
may be referred.

Single burnt clay tile or brick lining shOUld be

preferred where seepage considerations
are of
over-weighing importance.

be

coarse
within
lining
the
burnt

(iii) Composite lining (membrane in bed and brick

tile or concrete lining on sides) may be adopted
for existing channels which have become stable
and no danger of scour is expected.
(iv) Bentonite
cover.
(c)

membrane

lining protected

by earth

Channel with Bed Width Greater than 80m

(i)

l;D-.situ concrete
lining or precast
concrete
lImng may be preferred for reducing the seepage losses.

(ii) Burnt clay tile lining (double on sides and

single on bed) may be adopted
where aggregates for manufacture
of concrete
are not
available within economical leads.

(iii) Thick COffiPJ.Clct.l carth lining may be provided

where suitable and
sufficient materials
are
available and the job is large enough to warrant
use of heavy earth moving equipment.
4.4

Flow Formula

and Velocities

The same formulae as for unlined channels will

apply in gener31 to lined canals.
However, Manning's
formula,

i.e.,

= J R2/3 S IJ2 is widely used for lined

n
canals. Experiments in various research institutes have
been conducted
by taking
actual observations
for
finding the value of rugosity coefficient on lined canals.
Some values of' n' for various surfaces as recommended by ISI are given in Table VI.
TABLE

VI

Value of Coefficient of Rugosity Coefficient 'n' for Lined Channels

The bed is however, joined to the side slopes in a

curve of radius equal to F.S.D.
The water surface slope, side slopes and the value
of 'n' having been decided upon, the section may be
wOlked out from Manning's formula as given below:
i.For
(i)
(ii)

Small Channels
Side Slopes
Angle IjJ

(iii) Sectional

Formed, no finish/PCC
or slabs
Trovel/Float
finish
Gunited finish

(b)
(c)

below

tiles
0.018-0.020
0.015-0.017
0.018-0.022

(a)

(b)
(c)

(d)
(e)
III
Note:

Hammer dressed stone masonry

Coursed rubble masonry
Random rubble masonry
Masonry plastered
Dry boulder lining

0.019-0.021
0.018-0.020
0.020-0.025
0.015-0.017
0.020-0.030

Brick tile lining

0.018-0.020

With channels of an alignment other than straight, loss of

head ctue to resistance forces will be increased.
A smaU
increase in the value of 11 may be made to allow for additional loss of energy. There are no rigid velocity limits
for lined canals. If the water is clear from silt and sand,
considerable velocities can be allowed in lined section.
This is. however, not possible in actual practice.
In
canals taking of from rivers, the slope is further limited
from considerations of command. In view of this velocity
is usually limited to 2 m/sec and the critical velocity ratio
should be aimed at higher than unity though critical
velocity ratios are not applicable to lined canals but the
possibility of silting cannot be neglected.

4.5 Design of Lined Sections

It has been seen that the most economical
section,
i.e., having maximum area with minimum perimeter,
is the one with a curved bed with its centre at the
F.S ..L. and the sides tangential to the curve. This type
of section, however, does not give any horizontal portion in the bed and is suitable for small channels only
carrying
discharges upto 60 cumecs.
For discharges
exceeding 60 cumecs, it becomes necessary to provide
horizontal bed to ke2p depth within reasonable limits.

1.785 dZ

V=_l
R2j3 S
n
(vii) Discharge Q=A X V
(vi)

Velocity

1.25:1
38 40'
1.925 d2
3.85 d
0.5 d

1/S

Channels

(i) Side Slopes

1:1
1.25:1
(ii) Angle 0
45
38 4Q'
(iii) Length of Tangent
(t)
0.4142 d 0.35d
(iv) Sectional Area (A)
bd+ 1.785d2 bd+ 1.925d2
(v) Wetted Perimeter (P) b +3.57
d b+3.85
d
(vi)

Concrete bottom float finished and

sides as indicated below

II

Area (A)

(iv) Wetted Perimeter (P)

3.57 d
(v) Hydraulic Mean Depth (R) 0.5 d

2. For Large
Concrete with surface as indicated

1:1
45

HydraUlic

mean depth

(vii) Velocity V=I/n

(viii) Discharge Q=A
Typical examples

R~/3

R=:

SIj2

xV

have been given in Appendix

II.

4.6 Side Slopes

In order to keep down the thickness
of lining on
sides it is usually made to rest on slopes corresponding to the angle of repose of the natural
soil so that
the slopes shall be snch that no earth pressure is exerted on the back of lining.
The slopes steeper than
these have to be designed as gravity sections and require greater thickness and are consequently
uneconomical.
The side slopes 1:1 to 1.25:1 the .flatter being
for deeper canals have been found convenient to work.
Generally, a slope 1:1 for depth less than 366 m and
1.25:1 slope for more than 3.66 m is adopted. In filling
compaction
at optimum moisture content is done and
stable slopes for such comp:lcted banks are adopted.
4.7 Full Supply Depth
Full supply depth is more a matter
It is however, guided by the following

of assumption.
considerations:

(i)

Having fixed the alignments and F.S.L. from

the command point of view~,the depth may be
such as to give balancing
depth as far as
possible.

(ii)

Velocity may not exceed 2 m/sec.

(iii) The bed of the channel may be higher than the

subsoil water level as far as possible, so as to

avoid
pumping
during
constructions
and
uplift pressures after closure of channel.
In case of main and branch canals the depth
should be such that it gives bed width enough
to provide convenient working space within it,
consistent with maximum economy in the cost
of excavations, land and masonry works.
4.8 Bank Width and Free Board
The following bank widths shall be provided:
(i) 8 m for cutting and filling reaches for main
canals.
(ii) 6.5 m for cutting reaches of branch canals.
(iii) 6.5 ill on left side and 5.0 m on right
filling reaches of branch canals.

or due to subsequent
malfunctioning
will lead to
gradual accumulation
of water wi thin the contact
space and cause failure of lining.
Drainage
arrangements have, therefore, to be designed such that excess
hydrostatic
pressures
are eliminated.
The necessity
for provision of filter behind the lining is also stressed
from the considerations
of inhibiting the movement of
fine material from the subgrade following
drawdown
which, if not guarded against, may lead to progressive
formation of ca vities resulting in subsidence
of the
lining. The various considerations
governing the design
of drainage arrangements
and pressure release valves
for different water-table conditions are given below:
(a)

side for

A free bO'lrd of 0.75 m shall be provided for canals

carrying a discharge of more than 10 cumecs.
For
canals carrying a discharge less than 10 cumecs a free
board of not less than 0.60 m shall be adopted.
Free
board shall be measured from the full supply level to
the top of lining.

When the water-table is below canal bed and

the bank-fill is of low permeability,
the backfill will get saturated
in course of time due to
seepage of water through joints and cracks,
and in case of drawdown the water will not be
drained
out as quickly
as the
drawdown
occurs.
Hence, pressure
will be built up
behind the lining necessitating a well designed
drainage arrangement.

4.9 Berms and Dowels

A typical cross-section is .shown in plate No. 16.
No berms are provided
for lined canals to reduce
chances of water finding its way behind lining.
A
dowel is also provided for this purpose, i.e., to prevent
rain water on bank flowing into the channel.
Both
the banks and dowels should be sloped outwards to
drain off the water quickly into the catch water drain
provided at the outer edge of bank.
Other details
provided are in the same manner as for unlined chl'\nnels.
4.10 Drainage

and Pressure

4.10.1

(b)

Water-Table
between Canal Bed and F.S.L.:
Whether the bankfill is composed offreedraining or clayey material,
the soil behind the
lining will remain submerged to the elevation
of the water-table.
In case of lowering or
emptying of the canal, lining will be subjected
to hydrostatic
pressu're due to water-table and
also drawdown
pressures arising from drain-.
age of the backfill above the elevation
of
water-table.
Drainage
must,
therefore,
be
provided to help in reducing such pressures to
safe limits.

(c)

Water-Table or H.F.L. above Canal F.S.L.: If

the water-table outside the canal is above the
F.S.L. of the canal, the canal linina would
continuously
be subject to uplift pressures
during norma} running of the canal.
In 0rder
to release these pressures, extensive drainage
arrangements
consisting of longitudinal
drains
in the bed, drains or continuous
inverted
filter behind the side slope and pressure release valves to discharge seepage water into
the canal will have to be provided.

Release Arrangements

Failures of canal lining in most cases cccur due to

excess hydrostatic pressure behind the lining resulting
from either high water-table
condition
or pressure
build up clue to time lag in drainage of the sub-grade
following drawdown of the canal. In oreler, the~efore,
to improve stability of canal under such conditIons,
it is essential to eliminate the excess pressure by provision of adequate drainage arrangement.
Various Condit ions of Water Table

The drainage arrangement

to be provided
would
depend upon the site conditions,
viz. Subsoil wat~r
level and permeability of subgrade.
The hydros.tayc
pressure at the soil-lining interface is the dete[mJl1lDg
factor for the stability of lhe lining.
Even when the
pressure
buildup
behind
the l!ning is controlled
through provision of adequate dramag~, pressure lag
in a poorly draining subgrade may be Important. from
the point of view of the stability
~f the . b.a~k Its~lf.
Any inadequacy of drainage at the tIme of InItIal deSign

Wafer-Table
below Canal Bed: If the watertable is below canal bed and the bank-fill is
free-draining,
there will be no time lag in the
dissipation
of drawdown pore pressures in the
backfill as such no drainage arrangement
is
necessary in such a condition.

4.10.2

Selection

of Drainage

Arrangements

The drainage arrangements

provided to reduce or
elimin~te hyd.rost.atic pressure behind lining usually
compnse 10ngJtudmai drams and cross-drains
in the
bed and pressure release valves or continuous filter

below the lining on th3 sides, The adequacy of v.uious drainage arrangem~nts can be determined on the
model.
In case of high ,vater-table, the lining will be subjected to uplift pressure corresponding
to head difference irrespective
of the type of subgrade.
In case of
the lining being subjected to drawdown, however, the
excess pressure will depend upon the rate of drawdown
and the drainage characteristics
of the sub grade.
In
most cases it should be possible to adjust the drawdown by suitably restricting
the rate of drawdown
to an extent that
there is little pressure lag.
In
such cases, drainage may be provided as a precautionary measure.
A broad categorisation
based on Cassagrande's classification
in?i~atiJlg the ran,ge ?f free
draining
and poorly dra1l11l1g subgrade
IS gIven as
below:
(i)
(ii)

Free draining
Poorly draining

The performance of metallic pressure release valves

recommended
by ISI has not been satisfactory.
The

Clear gravel on clear sand

VelY flnes:lnd, mixtures of
sand, silt clnd clay, clays.
Homogeneous clays below
zone of weathering

The criteria may be used to broadly decide the

necessity or otherwise and type of drainage measures
to be provided below the side lining.
In case permeability is less than 10-6 cm/sec. no drainage may be
required.
In case
of permeability
higher
than
10.4 cm/sec, the drainage of the backfill material is
likely to closely follow the drawdo'vvn in the canal, and
no continuous fllter may be required and only pressure
release valves may be provided
to drain out the seepage water as a precautionary
measure.
In case of
poorly draining
soils (K< 1O-4cm!sec), continuous
filter should usually
be necessary in case of fast
drawdown
dL;e to lag in drainage unless the rate of
drawdown
can be controlled by cross drains or pressure release valves. In case of high water-table conditions, contJI1UOUS tllter with non-return
valves to
discharge
seepage waters into the canal would be
required to elimInate the excess hydrostatic
pressure
behind the lining.
Details of filter material around
pressure release valve is given in Plates No. 19 and 20.
4.10,3

Th~ first row should b~ provided at the junction of the

curve and the sides.
The number of rows on the bed
of canals shall be such that for every 10 m bed width
a row is provided.
The spacing of the pressure release
valves in a row should be decided
on the basis of
experiments
carried out on models simulating
site
conditions,
Valves in adjacent rows should be staggered, The longitudinal
drains consisting of open jointed
pipes encased in graded filter, should have outlets in a
trench of width 45 cm and depth 50 cm. The trench
should be filled with graded filter and have outlet into
the canal through pressure release valves.
The outlet
may be provided through precast concrete boxes colh:cting water from drains with pressure release valves on
the top of boxes.

Pressure Release Valves

Plessure release valves which open into the canal

are provided to relieve excessive hydrostatic pressure
behind lining. The v3.1ves should be provided in pockets filled with graded filter underneath the lining.
The pockets may be cylindrical with depth and diameter as 85 cm or cubical with sides as 85 cm. Horizontal and vertical pressure release valves are installed.
50 mm diameter
valves are normally used on the
side slopes and 150 mm diameter valves are used in
the bed.
1he 11 umber of rows of pressure release
valves in the slnpes of canal should be such that for
each 4 m widt!l along the slope a row is provided.

Permeability
greater than 1O-4cm/sfc
Permeability
less than 10-4 cm/sec
and greater than 10-6 cm/sec
Permeability less than 10-6 cm/sec

flaps are easily damaged and leakage of water is substantial.

There is a need for evo]vlDg a better design
and should be made of plastics or fibre glass which
are strong but have no resale value.
This would
d:scourage
pilferage
which is common with metallic
valves.
Suitable
non-metallic
pressure release valves
for use in bed and sides of lined canals were developed
for Shard a Sahayak Project.
These v(llves were tested
by 1.R.I., Roorkee and their hydraulic
performance
was found to be very satisfactory.
Details of one type of pressure release valves are
given in Plate No. 17 and details of filter material
around pressure release valve is given in Plates No.
19 and 20.
4.10.4

Provision of Dwarf

Regulator

Dwarf regulators are regulators

of part height constructed across lined canals at suitable intervals for
pondipg lip water to counteract
excess uplift pressure
below the lining.
These are provided in areas where
the water-table
remains continuously
high and the
conventional
pressure release arrangements
are not
likely to prove adequate.
The height and spacing of
the dwarf regulators
will depend upon the minimum
depth of water required to be maintained inside the
canal for counter balancing residual pressures for safety
of the canal.
The regulators
also help in maintaining
minimum water depth inside the canal even when the
canal is operated
at part capacity with lower normal
depths.
Their disadvantage
is that the canal made
stable with dwarf regulator
cannot be emptied for
repairs ((ill the water-table
goes down to bed level)
and these may cause additional head loss in the canal.

The under drainage arrangements

should be as per the
recommendations
of I.S. 4558-1968.
4.11 Lining of Expansive Soils
Canals excavated
in expansive soils pose several
problems
of stability.
To have economical sections
~LDdprevent erosion due to given velocities, it is necessary to line the canal bed and slopes.
Pre-cast cement
concrete slabs for side slopes and in-situ concrete for
bed are common types of lining adopted for canals.
However, it is often experienced
that the lining malerial directly placed against the soil undergoes deformations, disturbing the lining and throwing the canal
out of commission.
This deformation
is traceable to
the unduly high swelling pressures developed by expansive soils when they absorb water.
The heaving of
soil mass is often attempted to be contained by protecting the soil with a thin layer of murum or gravel.
From experiments in the laboratory and field it is concluded that the deformations can be correlated to the
thickness of the murum layer and swelling pressure
in the soil.

To connter the swelling pressures

and prevent
deformation
of the rigid lining material a Cohesive
Non-Swelling layer (CNS) of suitable thickness depending on the swelling pressure of the expansive soil is
sand-witched
between
the soil and
rigid lining
material.
The CNS material may contain
gravel or murum
or a combination.
of sand and
mUrtllTI or gravel.
Typical gradation
based
on the concept of stress
transfer from micro-particles
to the soil may be indio
cated as :
(a)
(b)

(c)

Clay
Silt
Gravel

1520%
15-20% or more
and sand 60-70%

The minimum gradation shall be ensured to avoid

swelling of clay particles in the voids and to restrict
the pore size.
The shear parameters m:1Y range from 10 to 30
KN/m2 for cohesion and angle of internal friction
12 to 25.

Let Depth of Channel

Area
= 1.925 d2
R
= d/2

300 eumecs

N = 0.018
S

1
10000'

Side Slope = 1:1

Assume section 26.0 m X 5.7 m (d
Section Area = bd + 1.785 d2
= 26.0 ~< 57
1.78x5
5.72
= 148.2 + 5'7.99 = 206.19 m'~
= b + 3.57 d
= 260+ 3.57 x 5.7 =46.35 m

- --Pw

206.19
46.35--

R
Equating
0.'715
4.45 m

0.715

y/

Q
S

20 cumccs
1
= 10 000
=

n
= 0.014
Side slope = 1.25 : 1

with the following

R2/3

Sl/2

R2f3
..

1
(10,000)

----

l~

(1)

_2 __0
_
1.925 x d'

(1) and (2)

=

(-f- }2/3

20
1925 x d2
X

As R

d/2

1.925 d2=20

From above
d = 3.25 m

Design a lined ean~11with the following

the help of the curves in plate No 18

Hence O.K.
Example II
Design of Distributary

_Q_ =

Also V =

1
1
X 4.452/3
X
10000
0.018
1
1
--~--X 2.71 X-ioo-0018
00271
= 1.51 m/see
.0180
206.19 X 1.51 X 311 cumecs

R2f3

1
0.014
0.715 R2/3

5.7m)

_1_
n

= d

data:-

Q = 300 cumecs
N = 0.018
Side slope = J .25 : 1
Longitudinal
slope = 1: 10000
From the curves
Assuming a bed with of 30 m
Depth required is 5.20 m
Velocity of flow would be around

1.44 m/sec.

data

with

NATURAL

GROUND IS ABOVE TOP OF LINING

PLATE NO 113:TYPICAL CROSS S'OCTIONS .FOR LINED CANALS

(A)

FOR OTHER VALUES OF N

i:TODETEiiMlNE

R
READ BD WIDTH AND DEPTH AGAINST DISCHARGE MULTIPLIED

N," 0.015

;i=0.833

0.016

'0.020

0.889

1.111

BYN/N

0.022

INeO'016'

'

1.222

"f'

2. TO DETER MINE
READ FOR THE DISCHARGE CALCULATED ABOVE
N1 0.~15
0.016
0.020
0.022
(N/N,)
'.44 1.266
0.810
0.669

3.

TO DETERMINE V.

READ FOR DISCHARGE

NI =0.015

0.016

tN/NI )=1.200.

(8)

1.125

CALCULATE

ABOVE &

0.020

0.022

0.900

0.818

MULTIPLY IT.

NINI

IN:OO.OIBI

FOR OTHER VALUE OF SLOPES.

I.

READ

BED WIDTH & DEPTH AGAINST

WHERE sl'STHE

2. TO DETERMINE

NEW

3.

TO DETERMINE

1/2
DlsOIARGE

DIVIDeD

BY 15(15)

SLOPE.

1/2

READ FOR DISCHARGE CALCULATED

ABOVE & MULTIPLY

V.

READ FOR THE a CALCULATE.D

PLATE NO 18: CURVES.FOR DESIGN OF LINED

CHANNEL SIDE SLOPE 125: I
N = 00 18 S" OI / 1000

2
& MULTIPLY IT. IN/NI'

BY (s,/SI
1/2

ABOVE & MULTIPLY BY

IS/51 1/2

112

1/2

~ It

OF PRESSURE
RELIEF VALVE

"

...

..

.. ..
..

..

..; :',A:-':

....

'.'.'~l';' :
, "

",

'.

!>
I>

"

"

5CM.'7"

,;

/A

"~to

I>

.. ..... .. ....

I>
/A

"

,J.\'

GRAVEL

015

COARSE

SAND

FINE

.. p

SAND

7.5",",
015

0.6m ..

015 "" 0.09

mm.

GRAVEL

0/5'"

COARSE

SAND 015

FINE SAND

NOTE :---

THE GRADED

FILTER

SHALL

BE DESIGNED

IN SUCH A WAY THAT

THERE IS NO LOSS

OF SOIL

PARTICLES.

THE GRADATION

CURVE OF BED MATERIAL

SHOULD BE OBTAINED FROM THE SIEVE
ANALYSIS.
THE 151. SIZE IDI5}
OF THE LAYER (A)
SHOULD BE AT LEAST
FOUR TIMES
AS LARGE AS 15~. SIZE OF THE SOIL AND LESS THAN FOUR TIMES 85 PERCENT
SIZE 085 OF THE SOIL. DESGIN OF THE OTHER LAYER SHOULD BE DESGINED IN A SIMILAR
WAY TILL THE Rl::aUIREMENT
OF THE FILTER OPENI NG IS MET.
THE 151. SIZE OF VARIOUS LAYERS SHOWN ARE ONLY TYPICAL.

7.5mm.

.=

015

0.6

='0.09mm.

Mm.-

15,~M"

85cM.

~
t OF PRESSURE
I RELIEF VALVE

A
"

...

..

GRAVEL

015

COARSE

SAND

fiNE

SAND

7.5m",
DI5

DI5

0,8m . ,

-== 0.09 mm.

THE GRADED

FILTER

SHALL

BE DESIGNED

IN SUCH

CURVE OF BED MATERIAL

SHOULD BE OBTAINED
SHOULD 8E AT LEAST
FOUR TIMES
AS LARGe
SIZE D85 OF THE SOIL. DESGIN OF THE OTHER
OF THE FILTER OPENI NG IS MET.
THE

151. SIZE

OF VARIOUS

LAYERS

A WAY. THAT

THERE IS

NO LOSS

OF SOIL

PARTICLES,

SHOWN ARE ONLY

TYPICAL,

"
"

IS,CM ..

..

"
A

DI50:

7.5mm.

SAND

D15!=

THE GRADATION

"

GRAVEL

FROM THE SIEVE

ANALYSIS.
THE I SI. SIZE 10151 OF THE LAYER I A)
AS 15 I. SIZE OF THE SOIL AND LESS THAN FOUR TIMES 85 PERCENT
LAYER SHOULD BE DESGINED tI A SIMILAR
WAY TILL THE REQUIREMENT

t>

COARSE

NOTE :---

..

" .. ""
" " "

FINE SAND

""

"A
P

"b

'" 6

..

DI5

0,8 Mm.

=0,09mm.

85cM.

GRAVEL D13" l(S .

COARse:. SAND DIS
INE SAND 015

:0..

o.oe

~~:-~',
~.

VC~~<..,

8..

~.

NOTE:---THE

GRADED ILTER SHALL 8f DESIGNED IN SUCH A WAY THAT THERE IS NO LOSS OF SOIL PARTICLES. THE
GRADATION CUR\/! OF SED MATERIAL SHOULD 8E OBTAINED FROM THE SIEVE ANALYSIS. THE 151. SIZE lD15'
01' THE L.AY!R IAI SHOULD BE AT LEAST fOUR TIMES AS LARGE AS 15 J( SIZE OF THE SOIL AND LESS THAN
fOUR T1MES 85 PERCENT SIll!; DS5 OF' THE SOIL. DESIGN OF THE OTHER LAYER SHOULD BE DESIGNED IN A
SIMILAR WAY TILL THE REOUIR!MENT OF THE. FILTER OPENING IS MET.
.
THE 15:.1SIZE OF VARIOUS LAYER SHOWN ARE ONLY rYPICAL.

Power Channels

A power channel constitutes an important

component of a hydro electric project. Its proper planning and
design and maintenance
assumes great significance
in the efficient functioning
of the power project.
In
addition to the requirements for planning
and layout
of irrigation
canals,
power channels need considerations of their own, like water-power studies, surges
etc,.

5.2

Planning

A prerequisite in the planning of a power channel

is to fix the discharge capacity which is based on the
water-power
studies to be made for arriving at the
installed capacity of the power plant.
These studies
include the flow duration curves and mass curves for
available discharge or storage capacity of reserv0ir and
extent of balancing storage/pondage
requirements to be
provided at suitable points of water conductor
system
to suit the load demand and type of operation of
power stations.
In case of stage development
of the
project the capacity of the channel may have to be
fixed for the ultimate stage of power development
as
indicated by economic studies.
5.3

Design

Power channel design is determined by the type of

system adopted.
The following three types of operation are normally ad0pted:
Constant
discharge
in channel with constant
water levels upstream
to downstream
with
bypass arrangement
from upstream to downstream;
Channels with balancing reservoir to take care
of fluctuations.
This will in many cases, result
in reduced capacity requirements of the channel
upstream of the reservoir; and
Lock operation of channel, in which the channel
is used similar to a lock and the discharges
in
channel fluctuate with the load.
5.4

Cross-Section
The cross-section
~tc., ar~ designed

considering the optimum cost of construction

and cost
of energy lost due to head loss in friction.
Also, the
side slope of the channel section is designed to suit the
drawdown conditions in the power channel.
5.5 For power channels carrying Water to the power
house the phenomenon
of surges due to variation of
discharge
on account of load demand or rejection
should be analysed fully. Sufficient free board shall
be provided to avoid overtopping of water on eha11l~el
sides which may endanger
the channel
section.
Depending on the topography,
provision
of sLiitatl~
spillover or balancing reservoir
of sufficient capacity
10 act as an open surge basin at forebay may be considered.
Factors
involved
in the analysis of surge
phenomenon
are as follows:
(a)

Hydraulic
section,
slope of the channel and
velocity of flow in the channel;

(b)

Amount

(c)

Rate of closure of units or acceptance

and

(d)

Size of forebay or surge basin on the channel.

Criteria
surges in
surges in
in a power
lated from

or load acceptance;
of load;

for analysis of the maximum and minimum

power channel shall be the same as for the
head race tunnels.
Maximum surge height
channt! due to load rejection may be calcuthe empirical formulae given below:
closure

hma",

v'i<.'i+2Kh

(a)

For abrupt

(b)

For gradual closure within the period required

for the first wave to travel twice the length of
the channel.

~+V";h
2

where,

hm." = maximum
K
V

of the power chanr.el, bed slope

On tbe basis of economic .studies

of load rejection

h
.

'?

surge wave height

V2
= velocity head
2g
mean velocity of flow, and
effective pepth = _ area of cross-section
, .. .. ,
top width

5.6

Lining of Power Channel

Power channels

5.7

should

preferably

be lined since:

(a)

It is hydraulically
more efficient thus ensuring
smaller cross-~ection, relatively flatter slope for
the same discharge
capacity
resulting
in
economy.

(b)

Loss of water
minimised.

(c)

Closure of power channel for repairs, if any,

are remote and also they would be of short
durati on only thus interrupting
power generation for brief periods only.

(d)

Cost of operation
and

(e)

Weed growth

due to

seepage

or leakage is

and maintenance

is lower,

is mioimised.

Generally a provision of 15 to 20 percent extra

discharge for flushing purposes
is considered to be
quite adequate.
Prototype
studies have shown that
there is no appreciable
increase in the efficiency of
the ejectors with further increases
in the escapage
discharge.
In channels carrying considerable sediment, it may
be desirable to design the channel throughout
for full
capacity even though balancing reservoir is provided,
due to necessity for by-passing the balancing
reservoir
and reducing
or avoiding
sediment deposition in it.
Balancing reservoir and canal system are so designed
and operated
as to mini mise sediment deposition in
the reservoir
and reduce the necessity of dredging
which add to difficulties in operation and maintenance.

Drawdown

Depending upon the pattern of load demand and

extent of stor<lge provided, fluctuations occur in water
level of the power channel due to utilisation of balancing storage.
This effect of drawdown and the rate at
which it occurs govern the stability of the side slopes
and lining of the channel.
In cases of excessive and
rapid draw down suitable automatic control structures
may have to be provided to regulate the rate. of drawdown.
For instant a crest may be required at the
outlet of the channel into a balancing
reservoir to
control the drawdown.
5.8

channel is provided with extra capacity to allow for

discharge required to flush out the sediment.

Sediment Control

Necessary desilting arrangements

i.e., silt ejectors
shall be provided
to remove sediment
content to a
degree safe for operation of generatin.g units as .given
in Table VII.
The quantity
;1l1d size of sediment
that can be permitted depends on the type of turbine,
its head, the size and mineralogical
content of the
sediment.
The exact requirement
manufacturers.
Upstream

is fixed in consultation
with
of desilting arrangements,
the

TABLE VII
Safe Particle Size for generating

Head

(m)
Below
100
100 to 300
Above 300
5.9

units.

Largest

Particle

Size

(mm)

0.5
0.2
0.1

Trash Rack

Suitable trash racks are provided at the exit end of

power channel that is at the forebay portion wherefrom the penstocks offtake to avoid trash entering
the
penstocks which would otherwise damage parts of the
generating unit.
Suitable provisions
are also made for surplusing
arrangements
in the balancing reservoir in lhe event of
sudden load rej~ction.
Also in case of very long
power channels provisions
may be made f..)I" escape,
regulations in power channels for emptying
it in case
of emergency/periodical
closure, if any.

Construction,

Operation and Maintenance

Earth channels for irrigation

or power projects
should be constructed after thorough ~xaminatjon of
the materials
met with along the alignment.
The
samples of the soil should be examined ill the laboratory and the results of the test sh?uld be utilised for
making of the canal banks, ensunn~
that losses of
water by seepage and other undeslfable factors are
avoided.
The earthwork
should be clone as per I.S.
4701 (Latest).
6.1.1 Service

not be deeper than 1 ill and should be connected by a

drain
so that
they
do
not
hold
stagnant
water.
6 1.3 Spoil Banks
Earlh from excavation of a channel surplus to the
requirements
of banks
is deposited as spoil banks.
The height of the spoil banks is limited to 6 m. A 3 ill
space is left between the outer edge of banks and the
toe of the spoil for the drain. 3 m wide gaps sh0uld be
lefl in the spoil banks after every 100 m length, to dispose off the rain water coming in the drains.

Roads

In addition to an inspection road provided on the

top of the bank in the case of main and bran~h canals
and at the toe of the banks in the ca?e of dlstflbutaries a service road is usually provIded on the other
side of the toe of bank. This road is used for transporting materials during construction
and as a public
road after construction.
In the case. of main. and
branch canals service roads are sometImes prOVIded,
on both the ba'nks particularly in the re.aches of th.e
Government
waste land and in propnetory
areas If
the cost ofland is not prohibitive.
A width of usual~y
6 m including 2 m for the
boundary
trench,
IS
provided
for this purpose..
The boundary
trench
which is usually 0.30 m deep IS excavated as the name
implies to mark the boundary of canal land.
6.1.2 BorrolV Pits
If the earthwork
from
digging is less than that
required
for making the banks, borrow pits have to
be dug out.
Borrow pits, should ftrst be dug fr?m
inside the channel section from beds o! berms which
if properly
taken,
silt up after running a.nd do not
spoil the section.
In the b.ed, the borrow ~ltS may be
taken in the Central half wld~h of the sectton. Along
the direction
of flow a portIOn not less than half ~he
length of borrow 1?its ~hould be lef~ bet~~en successIve
borrow pits.
ThIS wIll ensure qUick Slltlllg up of the
pits
Where berms are wide, similar discantinuous
pockets may be taken from the berms.
If the internal
borrow pits are inadequate
to meet the demand, .the
remaining
earth has to be borrowed fr~m outSide.
The borrow
pits should not start at a distance less
than 5 m from toe of embankment
in small channels
and 10 m in the case of large channels.
They should

6.1.4

Boundary

Stones

Boundary
stones are fixed at the land boundary
every 250 m apart and at every change of land width.
These are considered
very necessary
to avoid any
encroachment
in Government
land.
On main canals
and branches,
distance marks are often provided on
both banks, fixed in dowels with top of concrete block
flush with its top.
On small channels these are ftxed
on one side only along the service or inspection
road.
6.2 Maintenance

of Channels

The importance
of proper maintenance
of canal
system is well understood
by the field engineers and
needs hardly any emphasis.
For proper maintenance
it is necessary
that
regular
hydraulic
surveys
comprising
longitudinal
sections
and cross-sections,
measurement
of discharge
and corresponding
water
levels attained
in different reaches etc., be carried
out.
Stress should also be laid on the importance of
eradication of weeds,
jungle clearance,
berm, cutling
etc. It should be obligatory
for the fteld engineers
that the longitudinal
sections
and cross-sections at
suitable intervals of each channel may be examined
once in five
years
and
revised,
if
necessary.
Inspection
roads along the canals shotlld be kept in
fit condition
and canal
banks to be maintained
properly
for the removal of rain water away from
the canals.

6.2.1 Maintenance
The unliped
silt entry.
The

of Unlined Channels
channels
position

suffer from the problem of

is further aggravated when

their full supply discharge is increased.

The main
problem
confronting
the engineers charged with the
m::tintenance and operation of such channels, involves
complex relationships governing the flow of water and
the sediment which it transports.
The
following
aspects,
therefore,
should
considered to keep these channels in regime
(i)

Hydraulic

functioning

of channel.

(ii)

Equitable

di,tribution

of irrigation

(iii)

Judicious
trimming

supplies.

silt clearance,
weed clearance
and jungle clearance.

(iv) Proper maintenance

any emergency.

of the inspection

All these aspects are briefly discussed

be

berm

mum crop yield at minimum cost.

The primary
aim
is to see that water is conveyed to the cultivated land
and utilised there in an efficient manner to achieve
optimum use of the capital invested in the irrigation
system.
For this purpose the distribution
n~twork
should be maintained
in good shape and the flow of
water closely controlled.
Another significant factor is
the distribution
of supplies from the channel into the
field, which contributes a great deal to their economic
utilisation.
With proper distribution,
more area is
brought
under irrigation
with the same supply and
there is less wastage.
Besides, the water also reaches
the tail-end of the system instead of benefiting
a few
in the head reaches.

road for

below:

6.2.1.1
Hydraulic Functioning of a Channel: The
perfectly developed "regime
theory" for the design
and proper
maintenance
of unlined. canals
has
won worldwide recognition.
Canals which have run
for long periods may have alrea~y attai~ed
final
regime and there J?ay ~e n? dl.fficulty In their
operation.
But th1s regll1:-e IS ~I~turbed when a
channel
is remodelled.
ThIS pOSitIOn IS further
aggravated
when
their full supply
discharge
is
increased.
In the case of channels where regime is yet to be
attained, regular watch need be kept by conducti~g
hydraulic surveys at regular llltervais.
~he hydrauhc
survey of each channel s~ould be carne~ out every
alternate year and should melude observatIOns of bed
levels, berm levels, full supply levels, natural surface
levels crest ievels, and working heads of flumes, falls
reguI~tors
and sizes of outlets.
If a channel shows
repeated
tendency to silt up or scour then .suitable
remedial
measures
be undertaken
to bnng
the
channel back to the regime conditions.
The rules adopted
for the rcgulation
of river
supplies at head works if not judicious, also affect the
hydraulic functioning of barrage ponds and t~e .can.als
off taking therefrom.
The keen demand of IrngatJOn
water compeils field engineers to overlook the maintenance aspect and the flushing of sediment de\?osits in
the undersluice
pockets/ponds
which IS vital for
efficient operation
of can~ls, i.s seldo.m resorted to as
the water required for flushing IS conSidered a waste.
Thus, review of regulation
rules is very essential for
proper maintenance of canals.
Another aspect in this regard is inadequate
pation of energy downstream of falls ~n unlined
which causes bed scour and bank erosIOn.

dissicanals

6.2.1.2 Equitable Distribution of Irrigation Supplies: The irrigation system i~ requi.red to be properly
operated and maintained
w1th a view to iecure opt!-

6.2.1.3
Judicious
Silt and
Weed
Clearance:
(a) Silt
Clearance:
As
regards silt clearance,
the
prevalent
instructions
provide
that silt
clearance
u pto theoretical
bed
level and
sides
as indicated
by bed bars is an important
aspect
of maintenance
of the canal
system.
It, however,
provides
only temporary
relief towards restoring
regime of an irrigation
channel.
Since irrigation
channels are required to be non-scouri ng and nonsilting, the cause of silting has to be investigated and
.remedial measures undertaken.
(b) Weed Growth and its Removal:
Weed growth
reduces the carrying capacity of irrigation
channel
and deteriorates
its regime and hydraulic
function.
The
decrease
in
the
carrying
capacity
is
mainly
due
to two accounts,
decrease
in the
cross-sectional
area,
and increase in the frictional
resistance to flow.
Some of the important factors which encourage the
growth of weeds in a canal system are: temperature
of water and its chemical compositions,
velocities of
flow, deposition of silt 011 the bed, depth of water a'lld
reduction of sunlight.
The types of control
(i)

Regulation
drying.

(ii) Chemical

may be divided

measures,

alternate

into:
wetting

and

measures.

(iii) Mechanical
(iv)

Increase in the velocity of flow by regrading

the slope of the channel.
This remedy was
adopted on the Bhakra
Canal.
The channels
were regraded
so thRt the minimum 'velocity
was not lower than 0.61 m/sec.

62.1.4 Maintenance of Banks and lnspection Roads:

A dry road surface disintegrates
rapidly and it is,
therefore,
necessary
that road should
be watered
regularly.
On the main canals and branches, after
watering the surface should be worked with rings to

give a good even surface.

When, however, the soil is
p:::Jor for this treatment,
the road surface should be
properly levelled after watering
and subsequently
scraIJed to make it smooth.
On the distributarit:s,
the
watering of road surface should be resorted as frequently as possible.
Ruts should be repaired as early
as possible.
Regarding boundary road, it is usual to
construct a small dowel, along the outer edge of the
road.
The boundry road is flooded of watered and
after such watering the boundary road should be properly scraped by means of a scraper. Inspections roads
which are not metalled, should be closed to traffic
following rain. This is to be done because not only
the surface gets badly damaged by the traffic, immediately after rainfall but it may not be safe for the
moving traffic also on account of the road bt:ing soft
and slippery.
As soon as the road is firm enough
after rain, but before it is dry, it should be scraped
and then rolled over with a fairly heavy roller.
It should be realised that both banks of a channel
need be given equal attention, because, otherwise,
the
safety of the channel will be jeopardized
and leakage,
breaches and over-flow etc. may occur at the noninspection bank.
62.1.5
Generally it is observed that tail reaches are
deprived of their due share of water.
The reasons for
this could be due to low discharges or more transmission losses in canals.
In view of this, discharge
observations should be carried out in various reaches
of canals to assess the transmission
losses. In case
seepage loss/transmission
loss are observed to be more
than those planned, this should be studied and remedial measures adopted in those reaches to conserve the
water.
6.2.1.6
As per regulation rules minors and distributaries should be fed at full supply level, in case of low
discharges in main/branch
canals to feed the outlets.
Observations should be made whether minors/distributaries are fed at FSL or not. This may be p'ossible
with and without cross regulator depending upon FSL
of paraet and off-take channels and other design
assumptions.
In case the system is not able to meet
this requirement, feasibility of providing cross regulator at suitable locations may have to be examined to
assure full supply to minor/distributary.
As pJinted
out earlier gauge
discharge observations
should be
carried out. Gauges on the "pstream
and downstream
of the structures should be installed to assist in taking
the gauge readings and discharges.
6.22

1I1aintenance of Lined Chann~ls

Lining of irrigation channels

and their subsequent
maintenance
is of great importance.
Lining affects
directly the design as well as the operation of irrigation system, the lining not only facilitates more proper operation but also reduces maintenance
cost. The
reduction in maintenance
cost would be substantial

only if the lining is sufficiently

strong to resist the
hydrostatic
pressur~ behind it and the backfill has
been properly
compacted
so as to avoi d any s'.:ttlement.
Lining also
ensures the stability
of section
which in the case of distributaries,
reduces remodelling and alteration of outlets. The following lTIrasures
should be taken for maintaining
the channel in perfect condition.
6.2.2.1
Proper Drainage
of Banks : The catch
water
drains
alongwith
their
outfalls
should
be
thoroughly
cleaned
before
the rainy season
and again from time to time as required.
Proper
cross slopes of the banks should be maintained
so that
rain water is drained off quickly through the catch
water drain, thereby reducing
the chances of pressure
being exerted on lining due to percolation.
Tb facilitate drainage
of the bank and to avoid flow on the
bank along the canal, passage for water at suitable
intervals should be provided.
The slupe at the top of
dowel be maintained
properly
so that rain waler
should drain towards the bank and not towards the
lining.
6.2.2.2
Removal of Weeds: The growth of weeds
on the linin.g. is removed with
a sharp edge and
cracks/open
JOInts are raked and filled with mortar
and bitumen.
62.2.3
.Mainfenance of inner slopes in high cutting
reaches:
For
preventing
erosion of soil on inner
slopes in cutting
reaches, the grass grown there
. should nOI be allowed to be cut from roots.
6.2.2.4
Repairs
to .cra~ks in .lining and joints:
Whenev~r any opportunIty
IS avaIlable
for lowering
or stoppIng the suppbes for any reason, efforts should
be mad~ to repaIr the cracks and joints in lining at
the earbest.
These should be properly raked and then
filled with cement mortar
and bitumen
as per site
conditions.
6.2.2.5
Sand
Grouting behind
lining:
From
perusa.l .of causes of damages
to lining it is clear
that b.llll1g s~abs generally
fail due to formation
of .cavlty behInd the slabs.
The cavity is filled by
fillu:g sand behi~d. lining.
A hole of about 150 111m
dla IS C~lt III the Iming slab ~nd water is poured in the
hole WIth drums.
If suffiCIent quantity
of water is
tak~n by the .h?le, th~n it is established that a cavity
behlDd the lInIng eXIsts. In that case coarse sand is
poured III .the hole alongwith
water so that sand flows
III the cavlly WIth the flow of water.
The process is
contin~ed
till the inflow of sand ceaSes and whole
cavIty IS filled. In some caSes intake of the sand is
abnorm.al
:v~ich is attributed
to existence of wider
cracks 1 n IIn Ing at greater depths, which does not
allow the sand to be retained
in the cavity.
In that

case, in order to provide a check to the flow of sand

through the crack into the channel, sand mixed with
shingle is poured along with water till the cavity is
tilled.
Sand grouting behind lining is very important
for the life of lining and safety of the canal.
It is a
sort of continuous process which should be considered
as an essential
part
of general
maintenance
of a
lined canal system.

6.2.2.6 Membrane lining: In cases of membrane

lining
buried
under
earth
there
is every
chance
of rupture
due to animal
hooves
or
weed growth.
Location
of rupture
point should
be ascertained
and earth burden should be removed
and cleaned.
Patch of membrane should be added
so as to make the joint water tight.
Overlaping of
ISO mm on all sides is suggested to provide proper
water seal joint.
Animal/cart
crossings could also be
provided.
6.2.2.7 In case of canals where the sub-soil water
level is high above the bed level, closure of the canal
should
not be sudden ,is otherwise the lining is likely
to be damaged
due to excessive hydrostatic
pressures
behind the lining
Experiments
have been conducted
in the
Irrigati()n and P,_,wer
Research
Institute,
Amritsar, regarding the safe limits of hydroslatic pressure which single brick tile and double brick tile linings

can withstand without getting damaged.

It has been
found that single tile lining can withstand differential
pressure up to 15 cm whereas double tile lining can
tolerate pressures up to 24 eill.
In the particular
case tested in the Research Institute, it has been found that drawdown
rate of 30 em
per hour is safe in case of single tile lining whereas
double tile lining remains safe up to drawdown rate
of 45 em/hour.
However,
each case of a lined canal
should be stu died separately to assess the safe drawdown rate and the same should be kept in view by the
operation and maintenance
staff.
6.2.2.8 As indicated in Para 2.10 the silt charge in the
water
mtering
into
canal at diversion
works is
considerable
inspite of providing silt excluders in the
head works.
It is observed
that the canals are run
in the initial stages of the project at very low discharge
resulting in low
velocities
and high silting which
red lIces the capacity of canal.
Taking into consideration these factors it is desirable that the main canals
taking off from the diversion
structures
should as far
as possible
not be run at less than 0.5 to 0.7 of
designed
discharge
particularly
during
high flow
periods.
Portions
of discharge in excess of irrigation
demand can be escaped through the escapes provided
in the system.

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Hand book of Applied Hydraulics by C.V. Davis

Stable Channels in Alluvium by Lacey
Uniform Flow in Alluvial Rivers and Canals by Lacey
Hydraulics by Lea
Irrigation Engineering by K.R. Sharma
Irrigation (Design and Practice) by K.B. Khushalani
Irrigation Pratice and Engineering by Etcheverry.
Principles of Irrigation, Roads, Buildings and Water Supply of Towns by Strange.
Irrigation Manual by W.H. Ellis
Irrigation Engineering by Wilson
Hand book of Hydraulics by Harace Williams King
Irrigation Engineering Vol.1I by Ivan E. Halk
The New Irrigation Era YoU-No. 3 Journal of the Irrigation Branch, Madras PWD.
Drainage and Flood Control Engineering by George W. Pickels
Canals and Related Structures (Design Supplement No.3) U.S.B.R.
Canal Linings-U.S.B.R.
Design of Channels by Shri Kanwar Sain I.S.E.
Irrigation Pocket Book by Buckley
Irrigation Engineering by Bharat Singh
C.B.I.P. Manual on Current Practice in Canal Design in India.
Irrigation Power Engineering by Punmia
Irrigation Engineering by Varshney
Mnnual on Cnnal Lining CBIP Technical Report No. 14 Sept. 1975
1.S. 4745-1968 Code of Pratice for Design of Cross-Section for Lined Canals.
1.S. 4839 Code of Practice for Maintenance
of Canals
(Part I) 1979 Unlined Canals
(Pa rt IT) 1979

Lined Canals

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I.S.
1.S.
1.S.
1.S.
1.S.
1,S.

Guide for Planning and Layout of Canal System for Irrigation.

Criteria for Design of Cross-section for Unlined Canals in Alluvial
Code of Practice for Open Power Channels.
Code of Practice for Under Drainage of Lined Canals
Guidefor
Selection of Type of Lining for Canals.
Guidelines for Lining of Canals in Expansive Soils.

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C.B.J.P.

5968 1970
7112-1973
7916-1975
4558-1968
5331-1969
9451-1980

Publication

No. 144: Syposium

on Operation

and Maintenance

Soil.

of Canal Systems.