Al Wadi International School

BIOLOGY 9700-2016

All organisms are composed of cells. Knowledge of their structure and function underpins much of biology. The fundamental differences between eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells are explored and provide useful biological background for the section
on Infectious disease. Viruses are introduced as non-cellular structures, which gives
candidates the opportunity to consider whether cells are a fundamental property of life.
The use of light microscopes is a fundamental skill that is developed in this section and
applied throughout several other sections of the syllabus. Throughout the course,
photomicrographs and electron micrographs from transmission and scanning electron
microscopes should be studied.
1.1 The microscope in cell studies
d) explain and distinguish between resolution and magnification, with reference to
light microscopy and electron microscopy
Most cells are very small, and their structures
can only be seen by using a microscope.
Microscopy is the use of microscopes to study
the structural details of organisms and the
organelles within the cell by magnifying the
image.
Different kinds of Microscope.
1. Light Microscope. This is the oldest, simplest and most widely-used form of
microscope.
Specimens are illuminated with light, which is focused using glass lenses and viewed using
the eye or photographic film. Specimens can be living or dead, but often need to be coloured
with a coloured stain to make them visible. Many different stains are available that stain
specific parts of the cell such as DNA, lipids, cytoskeleton, etc. All light microscopes today
are compound microscopes, which mean they use several lenses to obtain high
magnification.

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BIOLOGY 9700-2016

Light microscope has a resolution of about 200

nm, which is good enough to see tissues and
cells, but not the details of cell organelles. There
has been a recent resurgence in the use of light
microscopy,
partly
due
to
technical
improvements, which have dramatically
improved the resolution far beyond the
theoretical limit. For example fluorescence
microscopy has a resolution of about 10 nm,
while interference microscopy has a resolution
of about 1 nm.
2. Electron Microscope.
This uses a beam of electrons, rather
than electromagnetic radiation, to
"illuminate" the specimen. This
may seem strange, but electrons
behave like waves and can easily
be produced (using a hot wire),
focused (using electromagnets)
and detected (using a phosphor
screen or photographic film).
A beam of electrons has an effective
wavelength of less than 1 nm, so can be
used to resolve small sub-cellular
ultrastructure. The development of the
electron microscope in the 1930s
revolutionised
biology,
allowing
organelles such as mitochondria, ER and
membranes to be seen in detail for the
first time.

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BIOLOGY 9700-2016

There are several problems with the electron microscopy:

the electron beam is scattered by air molecules, so to avoid this there is a vacuum
inside an electron microscope, so it can't be used for living organisms.
specimens must be very thin, so are embedded in plastic for support, so can't be
manipulated under the microscope.
specimens can be damaged by the electron beam, so delicate structures and
molecules can be destroyed.
specimens are usually transparent to electrons, so must be stained with an electrondense chemical (usually heavy metals like osmium, lead or gold).
Initially there was a problem of artefacts (i.e. observed structures that were due to
the preparation process and were not real), but improvements in technique have
eliminated most of these.
There are two kinds of electron microscope.
The transmission electron microscope (TEM) works much like a light microscope,
transmitting a beam of electrons through a thin specimen and then focusing the
electrons to form an image on a screen or on film. This is the most common form of
electron microscope and has the best resolution.
The scanning electron microscope (SEM) scans a fine beam of electron onto a
specimen and collects the electrons scattered by the surface. This has poorer
resolution, but gives excellent 3-dimensional images of surfaces.

TEM

SEM
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Measurements used in Microscopy

1 centimeter (cm) = 1/100 meter = 0.4 inch = 10-2 m
1 millimeter (mm) = 1/1,000 meter = 1/10 cm = 10-3 m
1 micrometer (m) = 1/1,000,000 meter = 1/10,000 cm = 10-6 m
1 nanometer (nm) = 1/1,000,000,000 meter = 1/10,000,000 cm = 10-9 m
1 angstrom (A) = 1/10,000,000,000 meter = 1/100,000,000 cm = 10-10 m
1 meter = 102 cm = 103 mm = 106 m = 109 nm = 1010 A
3 a) Convert the following. All the answers are to be written in standard form.

0.00254 micrometer into millimeter

1.0665x10-5 nanometer into centimeter
6.211 x10-5 millimeter into nanometer
2449.88 micrometer into nanometer

b) Calculate the magnification of a drawing 22 mm long of an object having an actual

length of 0.06 micrometer.
c) What is the actual length of an organelle 4mm long shown in a drawing with a
magnification of x4000.
Q.

The scanning electron micrograph below shows the surface of the nuclear
envelope with numerous nuclear pores.
(i) Calculate the power of
magnification of the image.

......................................................... (1)
(ii) State the diameter of the pore
labelled

X........................................................(1)

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BIOLOGY 9700-2016

Comparison between the Light microscope & Electron Microscope

Light Microscope
Uses light rays of wavelength
between 400 to 700 nm
Eyepiece and objective lenses
made of glass
Dyes with suitable colours
Disadvantages
It only magnifies objects to an
extent of 1500 times.

Electron Microscope
Uses electron beams of
wavelength 0.005 nm
Electromagnets

200 nm

0.5 nm

The depth of field is restricted.

7. Price and
operation

Advantages
Inexpensive to purchase and
easier to operate.

The depth of field possible is

greater.
Disadvantages
Expensive to purchase and
operation requires expertise.

8. Portability

Easy and small.

Bulky and less portable.

9. Type of
specimen

Living or non-living organisms.

Only non-living organisms.

10. Magnetic fields

Magnetic fields have no effect on Magnetic fields have an effect

it.
on it.

11. Preparation of
specimen

Preparation of specimen is
simple and fast

Preparation of specimen is
complex and needs
considerable time and
experience.

12. Image produced

Coloured, with the natural

colour of specimen or dye

Black and white only

1. Source of
radiation
2. Lenses
3. Stains used
4. Maximum
magnification
5.Maximum
resolution
6. Depth of field

Heavy metals such as lead

Advantages
It is able to magnify objects
over 250,000 times (for TEM)
and over 100,000 times (SEM)

Al Wadi International School

b)

BIOLOGY 9700-2016

calculate the linear magnifications of drawings, photomicrographs and

electron micrographs

Magnification
Magnification is the size of an image of an object compared to the actual size. It is
calculated using the formula M = I/A (M is magnification, I is the size of the image and A is
the actual size of the object, using the same units for both sizes). This formula can be
rearranged to give the actual size of an object where the size of the image and magnification
are known: A = I/M.
e.g., if a cell is 10m in diameter, and a microscope produces an image of it which is 1mm
(1000m) in diameter, than the microscope has magnified the image 100 times. (x100)
Magnification Calculations
Microscope drawings and photographs (micrographs) are usually magnified. There are
two ways of doing this:
1. Using a Magnification Factor
Sometimes the image has a magnification factor on it. The formula for the magnification is:

Amount of magnification depends on the resolution of the microscope (ability to

distinguish 2 objects as separate).

The smaller the objects that can be distinguished --> the higher the resolution.

wavelength: beam of electrons <<< light

resolution: electron microscope >>> light microscope

with electron microscope, we can see much more fine detail of a cell.
Units: millimetre, micrometre, nanometre

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c)

BIOLOGY 9700-2016

use an eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer scale to measure cells and be
familiar with units (millimetre, micrometre, nanometre) used in cell studies

Measuring cells using a graticule

Eyepiece graticule is a little scale bar placed in the eyepiece of light microscope.
The graticule is marked off in 'graticule units'.
Turn the eyepiece so that the graticule scale lies over the object: the width of one
cell is 23 graticule units.

Calibration: the conversion of graticule units into real units (mm, m).

use a special slide called a stage micrometer that is marked off in a tiny scale. The
smallest markings are often 0.01 mm (10 g) apart.

Take the specimen off the stage or the microscope and replace it with the stage
micrometer. Use the same objective lens.

Line up the micrometer scale and the eyepiece graticule scale (by turning
the eyepiece and moving the micrometer on the stage). Make sure that 2 large
markings on each scale are lined up.

Al Wadi International School

BIOLOGY 9700-2016

The 50 mark (stage micrometer) is lined up with the 1.0 mark (eyepiece graticule).

Work towards the right until you see another two lines lined up.

The 68 mark (stage micrometer) is lined up with the 9.0 mark (eyepiece graticule).
So you can say that:
80 small eyepiece graticule markings = 18 stage micrometer markings
= 18 x 0.01 mm = 0.18 mm
= 180 m
so 1 small eyepiece graticule marking = 180: 80 = 2.25 m

The plant cell was 23 eyepiece graticule units long --> its real width is: 23 x 2.25 =
51.75 m

Al Wadi International School

e)

BIOLOGY 9700-2016

calculate actual sizes of specimens from drawings, photomicrographs and

electron micrographs

Work out the actual size of an object knowing the magnification:

a. This drawing of a mitochondrion has been magnified 100 000 times.

Use ruler to measure its length in mm (50 mm).

Convert this measurement to m by multiplying by 1 000.
50 x 1 000 = 50 000 g

Substitute into the equation:

b. This is the drawing of a chloroplast:
- The magnification for this drawing:

- The length of the chloroplast:

Measure the length of the image in mm (80 mm)
and convert to m ---> 80 000 m.
Calculate its real length:

Al Wadi International School

a)

BIOLOGY 9700-2016

compare the structure of typical animal and plant cells by making temporary
preparations of live material and using photomicrographs

When preparing microscope slides for observation, it is important first to have all
necessary materials on hand. This includes slides, cover slips, droppers or pipettes and
any chemicals or stains you plan to use.
The most common slide preparation is called the "wet mount" slide and utilizes a flat
slide and a cover slip.

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BIOLOGY 9700-2016

The common flat glass slide is rectangular and measure approximately 1 x 3 inches (25 x
75 mm). A cover slip or cover glass (18-20mm) is a very thin square piece of glass that is
placed over the water drop. Because of surface tension, the water drop alone tends to sit
in a thick dome. With a cover slip in place, the drop is flattened out allowing to focus with
high power very close to the specimen. The cover glass also confines the specimen to a
single plane and thereby reduces the amount of focusing necessary. Finally, the cover
glass protects the objective lens from immersion into the water drop.
To make a slide, place a drop of the sample in the middle of a clean slide and lower a
cover slip gently over the drop at an angle, with one edge touching the slide first (See
Figure). Allow the liquid to spread out between the two pieces of glass without applying
pressure. It takes some practice to determine just how much liquid to use. If too much is
placed on the slide, the cover slip will "float", creating a water layer that is too thick. If too
little liquid is used, the organisms may be crushed by the cover glass and evaporation will
dry up the specimens quickly. A well prepared slide will last for 15 -30 minutes before it
dries up.

1.2 Cells as the basic units of living organisms

b) recognise the following cell structures and outline their functions:
cell surface membrane
nucleus, nuclear envelope and nucleolus
rough endoplasmic reticulum
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi body (Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex)
mitochondria (including small circular DNA)
ribosomes (80S in the cytoplasm and 70S in chloroplasts and mitochondria)
lysosomes
centrioles and microtubules
chloroplasts (including small circular DNA)
cell wall
plasmodesmata
large permanent vacuole and tonoplast of plant cells

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The Cell
All living things are made of cells, and cells are the smallest units that can be alive. There
are thousands of different kinds of cell, but the biggest division is between the cells of the
prokaryote kingdom (the bacteria) and those of the other four kingdoms (animals, plants,
fungi and protoctista), which are all eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are smaller and
simpler than eukaryotic cells, and do not have a nucleus.
Prokaryote = without a nucleus
Eukaryote = with a nucleus
These two kinds of cell are being examined in detail, based on structures seen in electron
micrographs.
Euakryotic Cells

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Cytoplasm (or Cytosol).

This is the solution within the cell membrane. It contains enzymes for glycolysis (part of
respiration) and other metabolic reactions together with sugars, salts, amino acids,
nucleotides and everything else needed for the cell to function.
Membrane Systems and Organelles:
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
This is a series of membrane channels involved in synthesising and transporting materials.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) is studded with numerous ribosomes, which give it
its rough appearance. The ribosomes synthesise proteins, which are processed in the RER
(e.g. by enzymatically modifying the polypeptide chain, or adding carbohydrates), before
being exported from the cell via the Golgi apparatus. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
does not have ribosomes and is used to process materials, mainly lipids, needed by the cell.

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Golgi Apparatus
Another series of flattened membrane
vesicles, formed from the endoplasmic
reticulum. Its job is to transport proteins
from the RER to the cell membrane for
export.
Parts of the RER containing proteins fuse
with one side of the Golgi body membranes,
while at the other side small vesicles bud off
and move towards the cell membrane,
where they fuse, releasing their contents by exocytosis.

Role of Golgi apparatus

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Mitochondrion (pl. Mitochondria)

This is a sausage shaped
organelle (8m long), and is
where aerobic respiration
takes place in all eukaryotic
cells. Mitochondria are
surrounded by a double
membrane: the outer
membrane is simple and quite
permeable, while the inner
membrane is highly folded
into cristae (C), which give it a
large surface area for enzyme
reactions. The space enclosed
by the inner membrane is called the mitochondrial matrix, and contains small circular
strands of DNA. They contain 70S Ribosomes in their matrix for the synthesis of enzymes
needed for aerobic respiration. The inner membrane is studded with stalked particles,
which are the site of ATP synthesis during respiration.

Ribosomes
These are the smallest and most
numerous of the cell organelles, and
are the sites of protein synthesis.
They are composed of protein and
RNA, and are manufactured in the
nucleolus of the nucleus.
Ribosomes are either found free in
the cytoplasm, where they make
proteins for the cell's own use, or
they are found attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum, where they make proteins for
export from the cell. All eukaryotic ribosomes are of the larger, "80S" type. However,
eukaryotic cells possess 70S ribosomes as well but inside the mitochondria and
chloroplasts (plant cells only).

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Lysosomes
These are small membrane-bound vesicles formed from the RER containing a cocktail of
digestive enzymes. They are used to break down unwanted chemicals, toxins, organelles
or even whole cells, so that the materials may be recycled. They can also fuse with a feeding
vacuole to digest its contents.

Role of Lysosome in a cell

It is very important that the enzymes contained within lysosomes are isolated from the rest
of the cell inside the lysosomes membrane, otherwise their release would result in selfdigestion of the cell. In fact, this sometimes happens in certain tissues, such as the tadpoles
tail when it is changing into a frog; this process is called apoptosis or programmed cell
death

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Centrioles and Microtubules

This is a special pair of short cytoskeleton fibres
involved in cell division. They initiate the
formation of spindle microtubules that
organises and separates the chromosomes
during the cell division.
Recently, experiments have shown that the
centrioles are the site of formation of the whole
cytoskeleton network made up of microtubules,
not just the spindle fibres. This has led to them
being renamed microtubule organising
centers.

Centrioles

Cell Surface Membrane

The cell surface membrane is the boundary between the cell and its environment. It has
little mechanical strength but plays a vital role in controlling which materials pass in and
out of the cell.

Although basically a double layer of phospholipids molecules, arranged tail to tail, cell
surface membrane is a complex structure, studded with proteins. These can be embedded
in the membrane or they can penetrate the bilayer forming pores through which molecules
can pass.
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Chloroplasts
Bigger and fatter than mitochondria, chloroplasts are where photosynthesis takes place, so
are only found in photosynthetic organisms (plants and algae).
Like mitochondria they are enclosed by a double membrane, but chloroplasts also have a
third membrane called the thylakoid membrane. The thylakoid membrane is folded into
thylakoid disks, which are then stacked into piles called grana. The space between the inner
membrane and the thylakoid is called the stroma. The thylakoid membrane contains
chlorophyll and chloroplasts also contain starch grains, ribosomes and circular DNA.

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Large Permanent Vacuole and Tonoplast (of

Plant Cells):
Vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs within the
cytoplasm of a cell that function in several
different ways. In mature plant cells, vacuoles
tend to be very large and are extremely important
in providing structural support, as well as serving
functions such as storage, waste disposal,
protection, and growth. Many plant cells have a
large, single central vacuole that typically takes
up most of the room in the cell (80 percent or
more). Vacuoles in animal cells, however, tend to
be much smaller, and are more commonly used to
temporarily store materials or to transport substances.
The central vacuole in plant cells is enclosed by a membrane termed the tonoplast, an
important and highly integrated component of the plant internal membrane network
(endomembrane) system. This large vacuole slowly develops as the cell matures by fusion
of smaller vacuoles derived from the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. Because
the central vacuole is highly selective in transporting materials through its membrane, the
chemical palette of the vacuole solution (termed the cell sap) differs markedly from that
of the surrounding cytoplasm.

Cell Wall:
Components
The main ingredient in cell walls are polysaccharides (or complex carbohydrates or
complex sugars) which are built from monosaccharides (or simple sugars). Eleven
different monosaccharides are common in these polysaccharides including glucose and
galactose. Carbohydrates are good building blocks because they can produce a nearly
infinite variety of structures. There are a variety of other components in the wall
including protein, and lignin.
i) Cellulose:
1,4-glucan made of as many as 25,000 individual glucose molecules. Every other
molecule (called residues) is "upside down". Cellobiose (glucose-glucose disaccharide) is
the basic building block. Cellulose readily forms hydrogen bonds with itself (intramolecular H-bonds) and with other cellulose chains (inter-molecular H-bonds). A
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cellulose chain will form hydrogen bonds with about 36 other chains to yield a
microfibril. This is somewhat analogous to the formation of a thick rope from thin fibers.
Microfibrils are 5-12 nm wide and give the wall strength - they have a tensile strength
equivalent to steel. Some regions of the microfibrils are highly crystalline while others
are more "amorphous".
ii) Cross-linking glycans (Hemicellulose)
Diverse group of carbohydrates that used to be called hemicellulose. Characterized by
being soluble in strong alkali. They are linear (straight), flat, with a -1,4 backbone and
relatively short side chains. The main feature of this group is that they dont aggregate
with themselves - in other words, they dont form microfibrils. However, they form
hydrogen bonds with cellulose and hence the reason they are called "cross-linking
glycans".
iii) Pectic polysaccharides
They are the easiest constituents to remove from the wall. They form gels (i.e., used in
jelly making). They are also a diverse group of polysaccharides and are particularly rich
in galacturonic acid. They are polymers of primarily 1,4 galacturonans
(polygalacturonans). These are helical in shape. Divalent cations, like calcium, also form
cross-linkages to join adjacent polymers creating a gel.

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Functions of the cell wall:

The cell wall serves a variety of purposes including:
1. Maintaining/determining cell shape (analogous to an external skeleton for every
cell). Since protoplasts are invariably round, this is good evidence that the wall
ultimately determines the shape of plant cells.
2. Support and mechanical strength (allows plants to get tall, hold out thin leaves to
obtain light).
3. prevents the cell membrane from bursting in a hypotonic medium (i.e., resists
water pressure).
4. controls the rate and direction of cell growth and regulates cell volume.
5. ultimately responsible for the plant architectural design and controlling plant
morphogenesis since the wall dictates that plants develop by cell addition (not cell
migration).
6. has a metabolic role (i.e., some of the proteins in the wall are enzymes for transport,
secretion).
7. physical barrier to: (a) pathogens; and (b) water in suberized cells. However,
remember that the wall is very porous and allows the free passage of small
molecules, including proteins up to 60,000 MW. The pores are about 4 nm.
8. carbohydrate storage - the components of the wall can be reused in other metabolic
processes (especially in seeds). Thus, in one sense the wall serves as a storage
repository for carbohydrates.
9. signaling - fragments of wall, called oligosaccharins, act as hormones.
Oligosaccharins, which can result from normal development or pathogen attack,
serve a variety of functions including: (a) stimulate ethylene synthesis; (b) induce
phytoalexin (defense chemicals produced in response to a fungal/bacterial
infection) synthesis; (c) induce chitinase and other enzymes; (d) increase
cytoplasmic calcium levels and (d) cause an "oxidative burst". This burst produces
hydrogen peroxide, superoxide and other active oxygen species that attack the
pathogen directly or cause increased cross-links in the wall making the wall harder
to penetrate.

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Plasmodesmata:
Plasmodesmata (singular, plasmodesma) are small channels that directly connect the
cytoplasm of neighboring plant cells to each other, establishing living bridges between
cells. Similar to the gap junctions found in animal cells, the plasmodesmata, which
penetrate both the primary and secondary cell walls, allow certain molecules to pass
directly from one cell to another and are important in cellular communication.

Nucleus:
This
is
the
largest
organelle. It is surrounded
by a nuclear envelope,
which
is
a
double
membrane with nuclear
poreslarge
holes
containing proteins that
control
the
exit
of
substances such as RNA
and ribosomes from the
nucleus. The interior is
called the nucleoplasm,
which is full of chromatin
the DNA/protein complex.
During cell division the chromatin becomes condensed into discrete observable
chromosomes.
The nucleolus is a dark region of chromatin, involved in making ribosomes.
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Euchromatin and Heterochromatin

The DNA in the nucleus exists in two forms that reflect the level of activity of the cell.
Heterochromatin appears as small, darkly staining, irregular particles scattered
throughout the nucleus or accumulated adjacent to the nuclear envelope. Euchromatin is
dispersed and not readily stainable. Euchromatin is prevalent in cells that are active in the
transcription of many of their genes while heterochromatin is most abundant in cells that
are less active or not active.

Functions of Nucleus
To control all cellular activities.
To produce RNA.
To control the synthesis of proteins, including enzymes, in the cell, and so control the
cells activities.
To undergo nuclear division in the start of cell division, ensuring that the daughter
cells have exact copies of the cells genetic material in their chromosomes.
To assemble ribosomes (function of the nucleolus).

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Comparison of Animal and Plant Cells

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Summary of Cell Organelles

Location
and Size
occurrence in cell

Function

Nucleus

Usually one per cell 10 - 20m

in cytoplasm

Contains
the
hereditary
material (DNA) which codes for
synthesis of proteins in the
cytoplasm

Nucleolus

One to several in 1 - 2m
nucleus

Synthesizes ribosomal RNA and

manufactures ribosomes

Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum

Throughout
cytoplasm

Smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum

In cytoplasm. Extent Cisternae of Synthesis of lipids

depends on types of varying
cell
diameter

Ribosomes

Attached to rough 20 25 nm
endoplasmic
reticulum or free in
cytoplasm

Site of protein synthesis

Golgi
apparatus

In cytoplasm

Variable

Synthesis of glycoproteins,
packaging of proteins.

Lysosomes

In cytoplasm

100nm

Digestion
materials
organelles

Organelle

Membranes Transport
of
proteins
about 4nm synthesized on ribosomes
thick,
enclosing

of
and

unwanted
worn-out

Mitochondria In cytoplasm. Several 1 m wide Production of energy by aerobic

to thousands per cell. and up to respiration
10 m in
length

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Centrioles

Pair, in cytoplasm, 0.5 m X Form the spindle fibres during

cell division of animal and
usually near nucleus 0.2 m
fungal cells

Chloroplasts

In cytoplasm of some 2 10 m Site of photosynthesis

plant cells
in diameter

Double membranous
organelles

Single membranous
organelles

Non-membranous
organelles

Nucleus

Endoplasmic reticula

ribosome

Chloroplast

Golgi apparatus

Mitochondria

Lysosome

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a) describe and interpret electron micrographs and drawings of typical animal and
plant cells as seen with the electron microscope

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c) state that ATP is produced in mitochondria during respiration and chloroplasts

during photosynthesis and outline the role of ATP in cells
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP), an energy-bearing molecule found in all living cells.
Formation of nucleic acids, transmission of nerve impulses, muscle contraction, and many
other energy-consuming reactions of metabolism are made possible by the energy in ATP
molecules. The energy in ATP is obtained from the breakdown of complex organic
molecules.
The energy in ATP can be released as heat or can be used in the cell as a power source to
drive various types of chemical and mechanical activities. For example, when the terminal
phosphate group of the ATP molecule is removed by hydrolysis (a decomposition process
that occurs when a substance reacts with water), energy in the form of heat is released
and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi) are formed.
The hydrolysis of ATP is accelerated by an enzyme called adenosine triphosphatase, or
ATP-ase.
ATP ADP + Pi + energy
The regeneration of ATP from ADP requires energy, which is obtained in the process of
oxidation. The energy released in the oxidation of carbohydrates and fats initiates a
complex series of chemical reactions that ultimately regenerate ATP molecules from ADP
molecules. The complete oxidation of a typical molecule of fat results in the formation of
about 150 molecules of ATP.
d) outline key structural features of typical prokaryotic cells as seen in a typical
bacterium (including: unicellular, 1-5m diameter, peptidoglycan cell walls,
lack of organelles surrounded by double membranes, naked circular DNA,
70S ribosomes)
Prokaryotic Cells
1. The word prokaryotes means before nucleus. This describes the main difference
between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells: prokaryotes have no nucleus or nuclear
membrane. Their DNA is therefore not separated from the cytoplasm, but forms a
single circular loop, sometimes called a bacterial chromosome.
2. Their DNA is not associated with proteins, unlike eukaryotic chromosomes. Bacteria
also have smaller loops of DNA in the cytoplasm, called plasmids.

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3. Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic ones, and much simpler in their
structure.
4. They lack endoplasmic reticulum and membrane-bound organelles like
mitochondria and chloroplasts and any complex structures such as Golgi bodies,
cytoskeleton or lyososmes.
Structure of Bacterium (A Prokaryotic Cell)
Prokaryotic cells are smaller than
eukaryotic cells and do not have a nucleus
or
indeed
any
membrane-bound
organelles. All prokaryotes are bacteria.
Prokaryotic cells are much older than
eukaryotic cells and they are far more
abundant (there are ten times as many
bacteria cells in a human than there are
human cells). The main features of
prokaryotic cells are:
Cytoplasm. Contains all the enzymes
needed for all metabolic reactions, since
there are no organelles

Ribosomes. The smaller (70S) type, all

free in the cytoplasm and never attached to membranes. Used for protein synthesis.
Nuclear Zone (or Nucleoid). The region of the cytoplasm that contains DNA. It is not
surrounded by a nuclear membrane.
DNA. Always circular (i.e. a closed loop), and not associated with any proteins to form
chromatin. Sometimes confusingly referred to as the bacterial chromosome.
Plasmid. Small circles of DNA, separate from the main DNA loop. Used to exchange DNA
between bacterial cells, and also very useful for genetic engineering.
Cell membrane. Made of phospholipids and proteins, like eukaryotic membranes.

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Mesosome. A tightly-folded region of the cell membrane containing all the membranebound proteins required for respiration and photosynthesis. Can also be associated with
the nucleoid.
This is now thought to be an artefact of the electron microscope and not real structure.
Cell Wall. Made of murein (not cellulose), which is a glycoprotein (i.e. a
protein/carbohydrate complex, also called peptidoglycan).
Capsule. A thick polysaccharide layer outside of the cell wall. Used for sticking cells
together, as a food reserve, as protection against desiccation and chemicals, and as
protection against phagocytosis. In some species the capsules of many cells fuse together
forming a mass of sticky cells called a biofilm. Dental plaque is an example of a biofilm.
Flagellum. A rigid rotating helical-shaped tail used for propulsion. The motor is embedded
in the cell membrane and is driven by a H+ gradient across the membrane. Anticlockwise
rotation drives the cell forwards, while clockwise rotation causes a chaotic spin.

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e) compare and contrast the structure of typical prokaryotic cells with typical
eukaryotic cells (reference to mesosomes should not be included)
Differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

Eukaryotic Cells
1. True nucleus surrounded by a nuclear
envelop.
2. Linear DNA associated with histone
proteins forming true chromosomes.
3. Cell wall, if present, made of cellulose
(plants and algae) or chitin (fungi).
4. Endoplasmic reticulum present.
5. Membranebound organelles such as
mitochondria and chloroplast (in plants
and algae).
6. Large (80S) ribosomes attached to
endoplasmic reticulum.
7. If present, flagella have (9+2)
arrangement of microtubules.
8. Cells are large, typically 10-100m in
diameter, some cells can be up to 400m.

Prokaryotic Cells
No true nucleus
Circular DNA not associated with proteins.
Separate loops of DNA called plasmids.
Cell wall containing peptidoglycan
No endoplasmic reticulum or associated
organelles such as Golgi apparatus.
No
membrane-bound
organelles.
Mesosomes and thylakoids present in
some bacteria.
Small (70S) ribosomes scattered in the
cytoplasm.
If present, flagella are made of a single
microtubule.
Cells are small, typically 0.5-3m in
diameter, Volume may be as little as
1/10,000th of eukaryotic cell.
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f) outline the key features of viruses as non-cellular structures (limited to

protein coat and DNA/RNA)
Viruses are small obligate intracellular parasites, which by definition contain either a
RNA or DNA genome surrounded by a protective, virus-coded protein coat. They are very
small and are measured in nanometers, which is one-billionth of a meter. Viruses can
range in the size between 20 to 750nm, which is 45,000 times smaller than the width of a
human hair. The majority of viruses cannot be seen with a light microscope because the
resolution of a light microscope is limited to about 200nm, so a scanning electron
microscope is required to view most viruses.
The basic structure of a virus is made up of a genetic information molecule and a protein
layer that protects that information molecule. The arrangement of the protein layer and
the genetic information comes in a variety of presentations. The core of the virus is made
up of nucleic acids, which then make up the genetic information in the form of RNA or
DNA. The protein layer that surrounds and protects the nucleic acids is called the capsid.
When a single virus is in its complete form and has reached full infectivity outside of the
cell, it is known as a virion. The main function of the virion is to deliver its DNA or RNA
genome into the host cell so that the genome can be expressed (transcribed and
translated) by the host cell. The viral genome, often with associated basic proteins, is
packaged inside a symmetric protein capsid. The nucleic acid-associated protein, called
nucleoprotein, together with the genome, forms the nucleocapsid. In enveloped viruses,
the nucleocapsid is surrounded by a lipid bilayer derived from the modified host cell
membrane and studded with an outer layer of virus envelope glycoproteins.
A virus structure can be one of the following: icosahedral, enveloped, complex or helical.
Icosahedral
These viruses appear spherical in shape, but a closer look actually
reveals they are icosahedral. The icosahedron is made up of
equilateral triangles fused together in a spherical shape. This is the
most optimal way of forming a closed shell using identical protein
sub-units. The genetic material is fully enclosed inside of the
capsid. Viruses with icosahedral structures are released into the
environment when the cell dies, breaks down and lyses, thus
releasing the virions. Examples of viruses with an icosahedral
structure are the polio virus, rhinovirus, and a denovirus.

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Envelope
This virus structure is a conventional icosahedral or helical structure
that is surrounded by a lipid bilayer membrane, meaning the virus is
encased or enveloped.
The envelope of the virus is formed when the virus is exiting the cell
via budding, and the infectivity of these viruses is mostly dependent
on the envelope. The most well known examples of enveloped viruses
are the influenza virus, Hepatitis C and HIV.
Complex
These virus structures have a combination of icosahedral
and helical shape and may have a complex outer wall or
head-tail morphology. The head-tail morphology structure
is unique to viruses that only infect bacteria and are known
as bacteriophages. The head of the virus has an icosahedral
shape with a helical shaped tail. The bacteriophage uses its
tail to attach to the bacterium, creates a hole in the cell
wall, and then inserts its DNA into the cell using the tail as a
channel. The Poxvirus is one of the largest viruses in size
and has a complex structure with a unique outer wall and
capsid. One of the most famous types of poxviruses is the
variola virus which causes smallpox.
Helical
This virus structure has a capsid with a central cavity or
hollow tube that is made by proteins arranged in a circular fashion,
creating a disc like shape. The disc shapes are attached helically
(like a toy slinky) creating a tube with room for the nucleic acid in
the middle. All filamentous viruses are helical in shape. They are
usually 15-19nm wide and range in length from 300 to 500nm
depending on the genome size. An example of a virus with a
helical symmetry is the tobacco mosaic virus.

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