The Writing Handbook

INTO EUROPE
The Writing Handbook
INTO EUROPE
Series editor: J. Charles Alderson
Other volumes in this series:

Reading and Use of English
The Speaking Handbook
Listening
Into Europe
The Writing Handbook
GyulaTank
CONTENTS
Series editors preface

Acknowledgements
7
9
PART ONE Background and aims

Introduction
Chapter 1: To the teacher
Chapter 2: Writing
13
15
25
PART TWO Task types and task demands

Introduction
Chapter 3: Designing writing tasks
Chapter 4: Letter
Chapter 5: Article
Chapter 6: Composition
39
41
61
87
97
PART THREE Assessing writing ability

Introduction
Chapter 7: Rating scales
Chapter 8: Assessing task achievement
Chapter 9: Assessing coherence and cohesion
Chapter 10: Assessing grammar
Chapter 11: Assessing vocabulary
Closing comments
121
123
133
175
219
257
299
APPENDICES
Guidelines for Item Writers
Glossary
303
305
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SERIES EDITORS PREFACE
Modern Europe encourages mobility of labour and of students across the frontiers
of the European Union and beyond. In order to be able to take up study places or
work opportunities, knowledge of a foreign language is essential. In the modern
Europe, it is increasingly important not only to be able to use a foreign language,
especially a widespread and widely learned language like English, but also to be
able to prove that one can use the language at the level required by employers,
schools, universities or other agencies. And that means passing a recognised, valid
examination which offers certificates in a foreign language.
The Into Europe series is intended to provide teachers and learners alike with
opportunities to prepare to pass modern European examinations of English. The
series originated in a British-Council-funded project spanning some seven years,
which initially developed communicative, skill-based test tasks to contribute to the
reform of English school-leaving examinations in Hungary. Recently the Council
decided to make these tasks and associated guidelines and advice more widely
available, in order to help teachers and students understand the levels and
demands of modern European exams.
This book is the third in the series, and it provides an introduction to tests of
writing ability, as well as guidance on how teachers can assess writing. It looks at
how writers write, what tasks they perform and what features make a learners text
good, from a testing perspective. It also describes key concepts in assessing writing
in teaching and examination settings (for example, the use of rating scales, the
importance of ensuring reliable scores and how to do this, and so on).
The Writing Handbook provides a range of different writing tasks, together
with a description of what the main features of these tasks are and how teachers
can create similar writing tasks. It also presents scripts produced by real learners,
which are annotated with raters comments on the strengths and weaknesses of the
scripts. The tasks and scripts have been selected to represent the levels specified by
the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages.
This volume focuses on the most frequent writing tasks used in modern English
language tests. It will serve as a tool for professional development, giving teachers
advice on how they can prepare their students for the writing section of modern
European English examinations. The Writing Handbook is also a valuable
resource for practice of writing in class, and for classroom-based assessment of
students writing ability.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would first of all like to thank Edit Nagy, the Project Manager and originator of
the British Councils support to Examination Reform in Hungary, for her tireless
support and encouragement throughout the drafting of this book. I would also like
to express my heartfelt thanks to Charles Alderson, the series editor and consultant
for the Hungarian Examinations Teacher Support Project, for his patient and
unflagging help with this book. Without the professional help and devotion of
Edit and Charles this book would not have been written.
I would like to thank Zsuzsa Hegykzi for her help with the book. Her valuable
comments and thorough work were invaluable in drafting several chapters.
I would also like to thank Csolkn Bognr Judit, who helped in the selection of
the tasks and scripts that were included in the book.
I am extremely grateful to the British Council for its unfaltering support over
the years, especially the support of Jim McGrath, director of the British Council,
Nigel Bellingham and Paul Clementson, assistant directors.
Below I will list the names of all those who contributed to the project and this
book by writing items, attending training courses, taking part in Editing
Committee meetings, designing teacher-support materials and courses,
benchmarking and rater training, piloting, and by taking an active part in the
development of the examination.
Item writers (whose tasks are in this volume)
Fehrvryn Horvth Katalin, Grf Szilvia, brahm Krolyn, Horvth Jzsef,
Weltler Csilla, Blasszauer Jnos, Magyar Miklsn, Margittay Lvia, Schultheisz
Olga, Grezsu Katalin, Nyir Zsuzsanna, Hardien Molnr Erika, Csolkn Bognr
Judit, the Slovenian Matura Team for English
PEOPLE AND INSTITUTIONS
British Council Project Manager
Nagy Edit
KOKSZI Project Manager
Szolls Krisztina
Editing and layout
Antal Bla, Hingyi Gbor
10
INTO EUROPE The Writing Handbook
Other colleagues who took part in the item production, piloting,

standard setting or made invaluable comments
Cseresznys Mria, Sndor Ernn, Bukta Katalin, Cspes Ildik, Hegykzi
Zsuzsanna, Nikolov Marianne, Gl Ildik, Szab Gbor, Prcsich Richrd, Dr Kiss
Istvnn, Egyd J. Gyrgyi, Sulyok Andrea, Szab Kinga, Martsa Sndorn,
Lomniczi gnes, Barta va, Dczi Brigitta, Nbrdi Katalin, Nmethn Hock
Ildik, Lusztig gnes, Himmer va, Weisz Gyrgy, Cser Roxane, Tth Ildik,
Sndor va, Berke Ildik, Czegldi Csaba, Bojana Petric, Torda Mrta, Bhm
Jzsef, Piniel Katalin, Karmen Piorn (from the Slovenian Matura Team for
English)
Editing Committee
Philip Glover, Kissn Gulys Judit, Szolls Krisztina, Cseresznys Mria, Grf
Szilvia, Nikolov Marianne, Cspes Ildik, Nyir Zsuzsanna, Dvid Gergely,
Fekete Hajnal
OKI English Team leaders
Vndor Judit, 19961999
veges Enik, 19992000
Project consultants
Richard West (University of Manchester)
Jane Andrews (University of Manchester)
John McGovern (Lancaster University)
Dianne Wall (Lancaster University)
Jayanti Banerjee (Lancaster University)
Caroline Clapham (Lancaster University)
Nick Saville (Cambridge ESOL)
Nick Kenny (Cambridge ESOL)
Lucrecia Luque (Cambridge ESOL)
Annette Capel (Cambridge ESOL)
Hugh Gordon (The Scottish Qualifications Authority)
John Francis (The Associated Examining Board)
Vita Kalnberzina (Latvia)
lle Trk (Estonia)
Zita Mazuoliene (Lithuania)
Stase Skapiene (Lithuania)
SCHOOLS TAKING PART IN THE PILOTING OF TASKS
Ady Endre Gimnzium, Debrecen; Apczai Csere Jnos Gyakorlgimnzium, Budapest; Apczai Csere Jnos Gimnzium s Szakkzpiskola, Pcs; Babits Mihly
Gimnzium, Budapest; Batthynyi Lajos Gimnzium, Nagykanizsa; Bencs Gimnzium, Pannonhalma; Berze Nagy Jnos Gimnzium, Gyngys; Berzsenyi Dni-
11
el Gimnzium, Budapest; Bethlen Gbor Reformtus Gimnzium, Hdmezvsrhely; Bocskai Istvn Gimnzium s Kzgazdasgi Szakkzpiskola, Szerencs;
Boronkay Gyrgy Mszaki Szakiskola s Gimnzium, Vc; Bolyai Jnos Gimnzium, Salgtarjn; Ciszterci Rend Nagy Lajos Gimnziuma, Pcs; Dek Ferenc
Kttannyelv Gimnzium, Szeged; Debreceni Egyetem Kossuth Lajos Gyakorl
Gimnziuma, Debrecen; Dob Istvn Gimnzium, Eger; Dob Katalin Gimnzium, Esztergom; ELTE Radnti Mikls Gyakorl Gimnziuma, Budapest; ELTE
Trefort goston Gyakorl Gimnziuma, Budapest; Etvs Jzsef Gimnzium, Tata; Fazekas Mihly Fvrosi Gyakorl Gimnzium, Budapest; Gbor ron Gimnzium, Karcag; Gbor Dnes Gimnzium, Mszaki Szakkzpiskola s Kollgium,
Szeged; Grdonyi Gza Gimnzium, Eger; Herman Ott Gimnzium, Miskolc;
Hunfalvy Jnos Gyakorl Kttannyelv Kzgazdasgi s Klkereskedelmi Szakkzpiskola, Budapest; I. Istvn Kereskedelmi s Kzgazdasgi Szakkzpiskola, Szkesfehrvr; Janus Pannonius Gimnzium, Pcs; JATE Sgvri Endre Gyakorl
Gimnzium, Szeged; Karinthy Frigyes Kttannyelv Gimnzium, Budapest; Kazinczy Ferenc Gimnzium, Gyr; Kereskedelmi s Vendgltipari Szakkzpiskola, Eger; Klcsey Ferenc Gimnzium, Zalaegerszeg; Kossuth Lajos Gimnzium,
Budapest; Krdy Gyula Gimnzium, Gyr; Krdy Gyula Gimnzium, Nyregyhza; Krdy Gyula Kereskedelmi, Vendgltipari Szakkzpiskola s Szakiskola,
Szeged; Lauder Javne Zsid Kzssgi Iskola, Budapest; Lengyel Gyula Kereskedelmi Szakkzpiskola, Budapest; Lewey Klra Gimnzium, Pcs; Madch Imre
Gimnzium, Vc; Mecsekaljai Oktatsi s Sportkzpont, Pcs; Mikszth Klmn
Gimnzium, Pszt; Mricz Zsigmond Gimnzium, Budapest; Nmeth Lszl
Gimnzium, Budapest; Neumann Jnos Kzgazdasgi Szakkzpiskola s Gimnzium, Eger; Neumann Jnos Informatikai Szakkzpiskola, Budapest; budai
Gimnzium, Budapest; Psztorvlgyi Gimnzium, Eger; Pesti Barnabs lelmiszeripari Szakkzpiskola, Szakmunkskpz s Gimnzium, Budapest; Petrik Lajos Vegyipari Szakkzpiskola, Budapest; Pcsi Mvszeti Szakkzpiskola, Pcs;
Premontrei Szent Norbert Gimnzium, Gdll; PTE Babits Mihly Gyakorl
Gimnzium, Pcs; Radnti Mikls Ksrleti Gimzium, Szeged; Rvai Mikls
Gimnzium, Gyr; Sancta Maria Lenygimnzium, Eger; Sipkay Barna Kereskedelmi s Vendgltipari Szakkzpiskola, Nyregyhza; Sport s Angoltagozatos
Gimnzium, Budapest; Szent Istvn Gimnzium, Budapest; Szildy ron Gimnzium, Kiskunhalas; Szilgyi Erzsbet Gimnzium, Eger; Talentum Gimnzium, Tata;
Tncsics Mihly Gimnzium, Kaposvr; Tncsics Mihly Kzgazdasgi Szakkzpiskola, Salgtarjn; Teleki Blanka Gimnzium, Szkesfehrvr; Terzvrosi Kereskedelmi Szakkzpiskola, Budapest; Toldy Ferenc Gimnzium, Nyregyhza; Vrosmajori Gimnzium, Budapest; Vsrhelyi Pl Kereskedelmi Szakkzpiskola,
Budapest; Veres Pter Gimnzium, Budapest; Vrsmarty Mihly Gimnzium,
rd; 408.sz. Szakmunkskpz, Zalaszentgrt; Wigner Jen Mszaki Szakkzpiskola, Eger
blank page p. 12
PART ONE
BACKGROUND AND AIMS
Introduction
This book is the third in a series of books on reading and use of English, speaking,
writing and listening aimed at teachers and students who plan to take an
examination in English. That examination may be a school-leaving examination,
some other type of national or regional examination, or an international
examination. It will hopefully be a recognised examination which is based upon
international standards of quality, and which relates to common European levels
those of the Council of Europe. If your students are planning to take such an
examination, then this book is for you.
Into Europe is the result of a British Council-funded project spanning some
six years, which initially developed test tasks in Reading, Listening, Writing and
Speaking, as well as Use of English for the reform of the Hungarian SchoolLeaving Examinations in English. The Project was conducted under an agreement
with the Hungarian Ministry of Education, through its agency OKI (the National
Institute of Education), and the task of the Project was to produce test
specifications, guidelines for test writers, and test tasks or items. The test tasks
produced were tested on large samples of students similar to those who would take
school-leaving examinations in the future. The Project also trained test writers in
modern testing techniques, raters of spoken and written performance, and
developed procedures for test development and test administration. As a result,
not only were testing procedures developed according to modern European
standards, but also a large number of tasks were piloted and calibrated over four
years. In addition, the Project developed in-service training courses for teachers of
English to help them become aware of the demands of modern European
examinations and how best to prepare their students for such examinations.
In order to help teachers and students understand the levels and demands of
modern European examinations, the British Council has decided to make these
calibrated tasks available to a wider public, as it believes that such tasks are
valuable for those who wish to take any of a number of modern English
examinations, not only the Hungarian School-Leaving Examination. We hope that
you agree and will find this book useful in preparing for modern European
English examinations.
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Chapter 1
To the Teacher
This handbook is intended to help teachers who have to administer and design
tests of writing that meet the standards of modern European English
examinations. The handbook gives an overview of the composing process in order
to describe the ability that a test of writing measures, discusses the text types most
frequently encountered in a range of writing examinations, provides an
introduction to designing writing tasks, describes the main types of rating scales,
and systematically explores the criteria most frequently used in the assessment of
writing skills. In addition to this, the handbook also gives practical advice for
language teachers who want to develop their students writing skills or are
preparing them for the written part of language examinations.
The aim of modern English examinations is to give candidates tasks that require
them to use language as similarly to real-life situations as possible. Such tasks
present candidates with a variety of lifelike writing situations that allow them to
perform different language functions to achieve their communicative goals. The
tasks therefore present carefully designed contexts in which candidates have to
address topics relevant to them to achieve specific communicative purposes.
The tasks administered in modern English examinations attempt to ensure that
candidates produce their own texts rather than reproduce memorised texts. The
aim is to elicit language that is suitable for getting the candidates message across.
In modern English examinations more emphasis is laid on successful
communication than on accuracy: a candidate does not have to produce a text that
is perfectly accurate in order to be understood and communicate.
The writing tasks administered in modern English examinations represent a
variety of task types that have different rhetorical structures and may combine
different rhetorical modes. The complexity of the different task types and the
topics that candidates need to address determine the difficulty level of the task.
Naturally, learners at higher levels of proficiency can be expected to attempt and
successfully complete writing tasks that require familiarity with complex text types
and the skilful handling of a wide range of language functions. To ensure that
language proficiency is interpreted the same way and the candidates performance
can be compared in the European context, the Council of Europe has devised a
common framework called The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
(Council of Europe, 2001), or Common European Framework (CEF) for short.
Examination tasks for the assessment of writing skills should be designed so as to
be closely related to the levels of language proficiency within the Common
European Framework.
The CEF scale has six major levels that range from what is often called
beginner or false beginner to highly advanced, but since what is considered a
beginner in one context may be considered intermediate in another context,
instead of such labels the scale uses letters and numbers to mark the different
levels. A1 is the lowest level and C2 is the highest level. The level descriptors
16
formulate the typical or likely behaviour of learners by stating what they can do
rather than what they cannot do. Each level includes the levels below it on the
scale, for example, a B1 level candidate can do not only what is included in the
Can do statements at B1 level but also everything from A2 and A1 levels.
The Framework provides illustrative scales for overall written production, and
subscales for creative writing, reports and essays. The levels for the overall written
production are specified in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 CEF Overall Written Production
OVERALL WRITTEN PRODUCTION
C2
Can write clear smoothly flowing complex texts in an appropriate and effective style
and a logical structure which helps the reader to find significant points.
C1
Can write clear well-structured texts of complex subjects underlining the relevant
salient issues expanding and supporting points of view at some length with subsidiary
points reasons and relevant examples and rounding off with an appropriate
conclusion.
B2
Can write clear detailed texts on a variety of subjects related to his/her field of interest
synthesising and evaluating information and arguments from a number of sources.
B1
Can write straightforward connected texts on a range of familiar subjects within his
field of interest by linking a series of shorter discrete elements into a linear sequence.
A2
Can write a series of simple phrases and sentences linked with simple connectors like
and but and because.
A1
Can write simple isolated phrases and sentences.
(Council of Europe, 2001: page 61)

The main difference between the levels is determined by text and topic
complexity. At lower levels candidates are expected to be able to produce simple
texts that consist of loosely connected sentences and address familiar topics that
they encounter on a daily basis. At higher levels candidates are expected to
produce texts of higher complexity on a variety of concrete and abstract topics.
The illustrative scale for creative writing (Table 1.2) contains descriptors for all
the levels and has two levels that contain a subdivision. Levels A2 and B2 are divided
in two levels. In each subdivision the higher level defines a proficiency level that is
higher than the criterion level but does not reach the next main level. The
subdivisions allow for finer differentiation between the writing abilities of
candidates.
The scale for reports and essays (Table 1.3) does not contain descriptors for
levels A1 and A2, which indicates that candidates at these levels of proficiency are
not expected to be able to produce such complex text types. Two of the levels (B1
and B2) have subdivisions that specify what text types the candidate can handle
Chapter 1 To the Teacher
17
and with what mastery. At B1 level the lower subdivision does not expect
candidates to be able to write essays, but essay writing becomes a requirement
from the higher subdivision within the criterion.
Table 1.2 CEF Scale for Creative Writing
CREATIVE WRITING
C2
Can write clear smoothly flowing and fully engrossing stories and descriptions of
experience in a style appropriate to the genre adopted.
C1
Can write clear detailed well-structured and developed descriptions and imaginative
texts in an assured personal natural style appropriate to the reader in mind.
Can write clear detailed descriptions of real or imaginary events and experiences
marking the relationship between ideas in clear connected text and following
established conventions of the genre concerned.
B2
B1
A2
Can write clear detailed descriptions on a variety of subjects related to his/her field of
interest.
Can write a review of a film book or play.
Can write straightforward detailed descriptions on a range of familiar subjects within
his/her field of interest.
Can write accounts of experiences describing feelings and reactions in simple connected
text. Can write a description of an event a recent trip real or imagined. Can narrate
a story.
Can write about everyday aspects of his/her environment e.g. people places a job or
study experience in linked sentences.
Can write very short basic descriptions of events past activities and personal
experiences.
Can write a series of simple phrases and sentences about his/her family living
conditions educational background present or most recent job.
Can write short simple imaginary biographies and simple poems about people.
A1
Can write simple phrases and sentences about him/herself and imaginary people where
they live and what they do.
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Table 1.3 CEF Scale for Reports and Essays

REPORTS AND ESSAYS
C2
Can produce clear smoothly flowing complex reports articles or essays which present a
case or give critical appreciation of proposals or literary works. Can provide an
appropriate and effective logical structure which helps the reader to find significant
points.
C1
Can write clear well-structured expositions of complex subjects underlining the relevant
salient issues. Can expand and support points of view at some length with subsidiary
points reasons and relevant examples.
Can write an essay or report which develops an argument systematically with
appropriate highlighting of significant points and relevant supporting detail. Can
evaluate different ideas or solutions to a problem.
B2
Can write an essay or report which develops an argument giving reasons in support of
or against a particular point of view and explaining the advantages and disadvantages
of various options. Can synthesise information and arguments from a number of sources.
B1
Can write short simple essays on topics of interest. Can summarise report and give
his/her opinion about accumulated factual information on familiar routine and nonroutine matters within his/her field with some confidence.
Can write very brief reports to a standard conventionalised format which pass on
routine factual information and state reasons for actions.
A2
No descriptor available
A1
No descriptor available

The Framework also provides scales for overall written interaction and
subscales for correspondence and notes, messages and forms. The levels for the
overall written interaction are specified in Table 1.4.
19
Table 1.4 CEF Scale for Overall Written Interaction

OVERALL WRITTEN INTERACTION
C2
As C1
C1
Can express him/herself with clarity and precision relating to the addressee flexibly and
effectively.
B2
Can express news and views effectively in writing and relate to those of others.
B1
Can convey information and ideas on abstract as well as concrete topics check
information and ask about or explain problems with reasonable precision. Can write
personal letters and notes asking for or conveying simple information of immediate
relevance getting across the point he/she feels to be important.
A2
Can write short simple formulaic notes relating to matters in areas of immediate need.
A1
Can ask for or pass on personal details in written form.

As in the case of the overall written production, the difference between the
levels is defined in terms of the topics that candidates can address and the text
types that they can handle. At lower levels candidates are expected to be able to
write about personal issues and matters of immediate concern in the form of a
simple text, such as a note. The descriptors at level B1 define two markedly
different levels of ability. A lower B1 level candidate can write personal letters and
address simple topics, whereas a higher B1 level candidate can develop more
complex topics.
The higher the level the more is expected from the candidates in terms of the
quality of the interaction they can engage in. A stronger B1 level candidate can ask
about or explain problems in writing, a B2 level candidate can relate effectively to the
ideas expressed by others, and a C1 or C2 level candidate is expected to be able to
engage in any form of interactive written communication with any reader.
The correspondence subscale presented in Table 1.5 outlines what candidates
can do as far as postcard and letter writing skills are concerned. At lower levels the
descriptors refer to postcards, the simplest form of written interaction after notes.
Letters vary from those that formulate short and simple messages (e.g. thank you
letter) to more complex ones at higher levels. Once again, it is the topic and
complexity of ideas communicated that make the difference between the levels.
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Table 1.5 CEF Scale for Correspondence

CORRESPONDENCE
C2
As C1
C1
Can express him/herself with clarity and precision in personal correspondence using
language flexibly and effectively including emotional allusive and joking usage.
B2
Can write letters conveying degrees of emotion and highlighting the personal significance
of events and experiences and commenting on the correspondents news and views.
B1
Can write personal letters giving news and expressing thoughts about abstract or
cultural topics such as music and films.
Can write personal letters describing experiences feelings and events in some detail.
A2
Can write very simple personal letters expressing thanks and apology.
A1
Can write a short simple postcard.

The descriptors given in the subscale for notes, messages and forms (Table 1.6)
indicate that the testing of these text types is an issue especially at level B1 and
below. It is taken for granted that candidates at B2 level and above can handle any
of these text types.
Table 1.6 CEF Scale for Notes, Messages and Forms
NOTES MESSAGES & FORMS
C2
As B1
C1
As B1
B2
As B1
Can take messages communicating enquiries explaining problems.
B1
Can write notes conveying simple information of immediate relevance to friends service
people teachers and others who feature in his/her everyday life getting across
comprehensibly the points he/she feels are important.
A2
Can take a short simple message provided he/she can ask for repetition and
reformulation. Can write short simple notes and messages relating to matters in areas
of immediate need.
A1
Can write numbers and dates own name nationality address age date of birth or
arrival in the country etc. such as on a hotel registration form.
21
These scales can be used as guidelines by test developers because the

descriptors state clearly what learners are expected to be able to do: what texts
they should be able to write, what topics they should be able to deal with, and
what language they should be able to use to realise their communicative goals.
Modern European language examinations that are linked to the CEF levels
make possible the interpretation of their levels across Europe. The Cambridge
ESOL main suite of exams, for example, are aimed at specific CEF levels. The Key
English Test (KET) is aimed at A2 and the Certificate of Proficiency in English
(CPE) is aimed at C2. However, not only international examinations should
define their levels in relation to the Framework, but all other high-stakes
European examinations should do so.
The Hungarian School-Leaving Examination is, according to current documents, said to be at A2 and B1 for the so-called Intermediate level, and at B2 for
the so-called Advanced level. This does not reflect the approach of modern
European examinations, which are aimed at only one CEF level because this way
the candidates language ability can be measured more reliably. The reliability of
an examination is enhanced if candidates have to perform on tasks that can elicit
the features of performance given in the specific CEF levels.
A writing examination, however, can only be claimed to measure language
ability at a particular CEF level if there is sufficient evidence that the examination
meets certain standards of quality control. The tasks need to be moderated by an
editing committee (a group of experienced item writers), then piloted with real
students, and finally revised in the light of the pilot examinations. It usually takes
several rounds of careful editing, piloting and revision before a task is given its
final shape. The tasks that are included in this book, with the exception of some of
the tasks recommended for writing practice, have been edited, piloted and revised.
Those tasks that were not subjected to this rigorous programme of quality control
are modelled on the tasks that have been and are expected to be of the same
quality. The scripts that illustrate various features of written texts or are included
for assessment practice purposes were written by Hungarian students as part of the
pilot examinations.
In order to be able to claim that a task does indeed measure a specific level, the
level of the task must be established. During this procedure experts examine the
relationship between the task and the Common European Framework of
Reference to decide which (minimum) level a learner must be at if he or she is to
complete the task successfully.
Writing is a subjective test. Examiners of writing skills are not making a simple
decision whether an answer is right or wrong but have to do something more
complex: they use a rating scale consisting of several bands and descriptors to
assess a script. It is very important that examiners understand what rating scales
measure and that they can interpret correctly and use consistently the descriptors
in the scales.
Two things are necessary in order to be able to do this: (1) the rating scale used
for the assessment of writing must be valid and reliable, and (2) the examiners
must be reliable. A reliable and valid rating scale is the result of a long process
22
during which the rating scale is tried out in order to test, for instance, whether
raters interpret the descriptors the same way, whether the scale is suitable to make
fine distinctions between different quality scripts, or whether it is appropriate for
the assessment of the writing tasks to which it is applied.
If the rating scale is suitable for rating writing, the next step is to ensure that it
is used appropriately. All the work invested in designing a writing scale can be
wasted if the scale is not used correctly and consistently by all the examiners.
Obviously, the more examiners use a scale the more likely it is that it will not be
used consistently unless all the examiners have received training in its use.
However carefully designed and easy-to-use a scale is, a group of untrained
markers using it will most probably give different marks for the same script. It
does not matter whether the examiner is a writing expert or a language teacher
who does not deal more with writing than teach the odd writing unit from a
course book. Experts or not, all examiners will interpret the scale their own way
and this will result in unreliable assessment. Without training it may happen, for
example, that the same script gets two different scores, maybe one with which the
candidate fails and one with which she passes the exam, from two examiners
working in two different examination centres.
In order to make sure that the rating is reliable and that examiners can be
trained, standards must be set. In writing assessment this is done with benchmarking. Bench-marking is a process that must be repeated every time before the
rating begins, especially in the case of an examination that is administered rarely,
for example, once a year. After the examination, a chief examiner and a small
group of experts read a number of the scripts produced in the examination, and
keeping the rating scale in mind select some that represent various levels of
performances (i.e. weak, average, good scripts). Once the scripts are selected, the
chief examiner and the group of experts, that is the members of the benchmarking committee, rate each script individually, using the rating scale. When
they have rated the scripts, the members of the bench-marking committee meet to
compare and discuss the marks they have awarded to the scripts. Their aims are to
reach a consensus concerning the marks awarded to the scripts and if necessary to
improve the rating scale.
The marks that are agreed upon by the members of the bench-marking
committee for the scripts are called benchmarks. The benchmarked scripts
represent different levels of performance and are used as model performances
with which examiners can be trained in what is called a standardisation meeting
or rater training.
The scripts in this book have been benchmarked by a team of experts and the
justifications given for the scores (benchmarks) have been drafted on the basis of
these experts comments.
The participants in the rater training are the chief examiner or another member
of the bench-marking committee and a number of examiners. The aim of the
meeting is to help examiners understand the rating scale and the rating process.
Before the rater training examiners rate individually some of the scripts selected
by the bench-marking committee, and make a note of the reasons why they
23
awarded a particular score. At the meeting the benchmarks are compared with the
marks given by the examiners. If there are differences, the examiners must be
given the reasons that justify the experts scores. The aim of this meeting is to help
the examiners to learn to use the rating scale in the same way as the experts.
In the second part of the rater training, the examiners rate individually the
remaining benchmarked scripts and this time their scores are expected to match
the benchmarks. If their scores match the benchmarks, it means that the examiners
have learnt to interpret the descriptors of the rating scale the same way as the
members of the bench-marking committee. This in turn is expected to mean that
two examiners will award the same score or almost identical scores for the same
script when they mark the rest of the scripts.
However, even if they have participated in the training programme, it may
happen that because of various reasons (e.g. place and time of rating) the
examiners occasionally fail to follow the standards they learned during the rater
training. This is especially dangerous if the scripts are marked by one examiner
only. Modern European examinations therefore use double marking in writing
assessment. This means that each script is rated independently by two examiners.
If the two examiners have applied the rating scale in accordance with the practice
developed in the course of the rater training, they will award the same or closely
similar scores for the same script. Different examinations have different
procedures for the cases when the scores of two examiners differ. For example, if
the difference is small, the average of the two scores may be calculated. If the
difference is big, a third rater is asked to rate the script independently.
In order to check whether the examiners apply the rating scale consistently,
their intra-rater and inter-rater reliability can be checked. The intra-rater reliability
check shows whether an examiner agrees with him or herself when rating the
same script on different occasions. Ideally, if an examiner rates a script on two
different days, he or she should award the same score. If this happens, it means
that they interpreted the rating scale in the same way on both occasions.
However, even if they agree with themselves, examiners may not agree with
other raters who use the same scale to rate the same script. They may be consistent
but idiosyncratic and as a consequence unreliable. The inter-rater reliability check
shows whether two different examiners apply the rating scale in the same way, that
is, whether there is agreement between the raters. Two examiners rating the same
script are expected to give the same or closely similar scores.
In order to ensure that the candidates are assessed fairly and that they do not
fail their examination because of the unreliability of an examiner, raters should
use reliable and valid scales. They should regularly participate in a training
programme to learn to use standards consistently. Test administrators should use
double marking and apply routine checks to find those examiners whose rating is
unreliable. This is especially important in the case of a high-stakes examination
like a school-leaving or an entrance examination.
24
Organisation of this book

This book is divided into three parts. Part 1 gives a general introduction to the
book and to the skill it deals with. The aim of Chapter 2 (Writing) is to review the
writing process together with the key concepts related to the production of a script
and to give practical advice for writing teachers. It discusses the differences
between the spoken and written registers and presents an inventory of the
subskills of writing through the description of the writing process. The chapter
also addresses the factors that influence the writing process and gives a range of
suggestions for the language classroom.
Part 2 consists of a chapter on task design and further chapters that describe in
detail the task types that occur most frequently in language examinations. The aim
of Chapter 3 (Designing Tasks for Writing Skills Assessment) is to help teachers in
evaluating and designing writing assessment tasks. It presents a systematic analysis
of the components of writing tasks and describes their characteristic features. It
gives a practical introduction to task design, the analysis and revision of writing
tasks, and describes the procedure with which a task should be tried out in order
to determine its suitability and effectiveness.
Chapters 4-6 are devoted to the three text types (letter, article, composition)
that occur most frequently in language examinations. Each chapter describes the
general features of a text type and discusses the layout, organisation, content and
style typical of it. The chapters contain tips for the teacher and the writer and a
collection of writing tasks suitable for writing practice or assessment purposes.
Part 3 focuses on assessing writing skills. It starts with a discussion of rating
scales in Chapter 7 (Rating scales), and presents the analytic rating scale developed
by the Hungarian SchoolLeaving Examination Reform Project for the Model
writing examination. This analytic rating scale is accompanied by Guidelines for
Raters and a Summary of the Level-Specific Expectations. Each task designed by
the Examination Reform Project comes with a task-specific rating scheme that
gives instructions to raters concerning what they should take into consideration
during rating. The next four chapters discuss the criteria of the rating scale one-byone, present sample analyses of scripts and provide guided rating practice.
Chapter 2
Writing
The nature of writing
In a letter to a friend written in a university entrance examination, an eighteenyear-old candidate wrote: Writing is just grammar, anyone can learn it. But speaking its the
language. These sentences voice an attitude that still prevails in connection with
writing. Given that of the four language skills (listening, speaking, reading and
writing) it is writing which is the least often used by most speakers of any
language, and that the development of good writing skills takes a lot of effort on
both the language learners and the language teachers part, this skill is frequently
neglected. Little emphasis is laid on the systematic teaching of writing skills.
Writing practice in the form of timed activities and tasks that require students to
create a whole piece (for example, a letter or an article) within a set time is rare or
it is used as a test of grammar or vocabulary knowledge. Student writing is rarely
assessed in such a manner that it reveals strengths and weaknesses in writing skills.
The evaluation of student writing is often restricted to highlighting grammatical
and vocabulary errors in a script and to giving a grade. No effective written
commentary, or feedback, is given to students, who are as a consequence rarely
encouraged to improve their work through multiple drafts of the same script
rewritten with the help of the teachers or peers comments. All this happens in
spite of the fact that modern European English examinations test the writing skills
of candidates in order to determine their overall language proficiency.
Is writing just grammar? Obviously this is an oversimplification that came from a
language classroom where writing was used to test whether the students had
acquired a particular grammar point. Writing, just like speaking, is a form of
communication. It is the language, or more exactly one possible form in which
language occurs. However, speaking and writing are very different. Even in the
case of the mother tongue, to become a good writer takes more than learning to
speak and more than simply recording speech on a piece of paper with the help of
the letters of the alphabet.
Speech and writing differ in a number of ways. First of all, the communication
situation itself is dissimilar. The speakers partner, the listener, is present and
usually visible, so the speaker can make use of a series of devices such as gestures,
facial expression, voice or eye contact to communicate ideas. If the listener does
not understand or disagrees with something, she can signal or tell the speaker that
clarification is needed and the speaker can explain or revise his ideas straight away.
Writers, however, cannot rely on the devices available to speakers. They have to
compose their texts in the absence of the reader and have to make sure that the
ideas are communicated effectively so that the reader will fully understand the
message. As a consequence, writing a coherent text that communicates the writers
intended message is a challenging task.
Free speech and writing differ in a number of ways (Table 2.1). Well articulated
26
writing is structured: the ideas developed are carefully organised and accurately
formulated so as to avoid ambiguity of meaning. The actual writing is preceded by
the collection of information to be included in the script and by the organisation
of the information into a logical sequence of ideas: writing is premeditated,
planned beforehand. An effectively written script expresses ideas clearly and
briefly, that is it communicates more in the same number of words than speech. In
writing, a number of rules concerning grammar (e.g. sentence structure, tense,
spelling, punctuation), layout (e.g. the position of the senders address in an
official letter), and structural elements (e.g. the presence of a concluding section in
an essay) must be carefully observed.
Table 2.1 Differences between the information communicated in free speech and
writing
Speech
Writing
less structured
more structured
spontaneous
premeditated
low in content
high in content
Writing is therefore an activity that is considerably more controlled than a

conversation. It is a language skill that must be explicitly taught and regularly
practised. If students want to master a particular skill, they have to become
proficient in the subskills that constitute the skill. Once they have learnt and
practised the subskills, students can be tested on them to determine how much
they have improved. The following section discusses the various stages of the
writing process and their key elements.
The writing process
Writing is a complex activity that requires much more than good language
knowledge. Language learners may fail to write well-articulated scripts even if they
have an excellent command of English. The complexity of the writing process
arises from the fact that while a text is linear, in other words it takes the reader one
idea at a time from the first idea to the last, its composition is a recursive process.
Good writers frequently revise their scripts: for example, they add or remove ideas
included at the beginning or rearrange them to make the script more logical.
Figure 2.1 The writing process
Chapter 2 Writing
27
There are three major stages in the writing process (Figure 2.1): pre-writing,
writing and reviewing. Although good writers do work through these stages in
order, during the composing process they may go back from the writing stage to
the pre-writing stage and make some modifications, or at the reviewing stage they
may decide to rewrite part of the script, so they move back to the writing stage.
Pre-writing
In the pre-writing stage the writer thinks about the writing context, and collects
ideas to be included in the script. In order to understand the writing context, the
writer must understand the purpose of writing. The purpose determines the
function of a piece of writing. For example, the function of a letter of complaint is
to express the writers dissatisfaction and to suggest some kind of action in order
to solve the problem. The function of a review is to present a book, a film or a
theatre performance to the reader, to evaluate it and maybe recommend it.
Function determines the kind of information that is going to be included and the
order in which the ideas occur in the script, in other words the content and
organisation of a piece of writing.
The concept of genre or text type is directly related to writing purpose.
Recipes, for example, form a text type (Figure 2.2). They have a typical form or
layout, and the information in them is organised in a specific way. The name of the
type of food functions as a title; it is followed by the list of ingredients with the
required amounts specified; and the main part of the text describes what is to be
done with the ingredients in order to prepare the food. Recipes usually end with
suggestions on how the food is to be served.
Letters represent another text type with a typical form and information structure
(Figure 2.3). The letter does not have a title but a salutation (for example, Dear Jennie),
and unlike a recipe it usually includes at least the senders address and the date when
it was written. Both recipes and letters are conventionalised pieces of writing;
language users know what their function is, what their form is like, what kind of
information they contain, and how this information is organised.
28
Cold Coffee
Ingredients:
5 cups cold milk
1/2 cup boiling water
6 tsp. instant coffee powder
3 tbsp. sugar crushed ice
Method
Dissolve instant coffee powder and
sugar in boiling water and allow to
cool. Blend the coffee mixture and
milk in a blender for a few seconds.
Add cream and crushed ice. Blend
for another few seconds till it
becomes frothy.
Serve chilled.
Budapest
Pf. 35.
1146
September 3, 2003
Dear Jennie,
How are you? I just wanted to drop you a
line to tell you about our new house. Its
really big so I finally have a room of my own!
There is a huge living room with large
windows from which you can see the garden.
The kitchens big too. Mom loves it.
There are a few trees in the garden and
we shall plant some more in the autumn. I
dont want too many trees because we wont
be able to play badminton. Why cant parents
listen to their children sometimes?
Well, I must be going now. We are
meeting some of our neighbours. Hope they
have some kids of my age. Thatd be cool.
I will give you a call soon.
Take care,
Kata
Figure 2.2 Sample recipe
Figure 2.3 Sample letter
Postcards, articles, reviews, or research papers all represent different text types
with distinct conventions. In order to become skilled writers, language learners
must practise writing different text types. The knowledge of text types is an
important component of writing skills, and it is tested in language examinations
where students are required to write letters, reports, articles, reviews, essays, etc.
The text type thus determines the kind of information included, the organisation
of the information, and the layout of a piece of writing.
In order to understand the writing context, the writer must also have a clear
understanding of the audience, namely the person or persons who are going to
read the script. The audience influences the content and the style of the message.
If a student is writing a note with instructions to a flatmate about where he can
find a particular CD in his room, he will not have to clarify in the note how his
flatmate can get to his room. However, a note written to a visiting foreign friend
new to the house may have to include this piece of information. Therefore, the
writers knowledge of or assumptions about what the audience already knows
determine what must be explicitly included in a script. The communication
becomes ineffective if the reader is given too much unnecessary information or
too little information.
Chapter 2 Writing
29
The audience also determines the style of a piece of writing. When writing to his
pen-friend, the student uses informal style (short sentences, a personal and friendly
tone, colloquial vocabulary). The same student will probably use formal style (carefully
selected vocabulary, or politeness formulas such as Please tell me as opposed to Tell me
) to write a note for his host family in London or his English teacher.
Understanding the writing context means, therefore, that writers know why
they are writing (purpose), what they are writing about (content), and who they
are writing to (audience). In order to understand the writing context, students
must be able to answer the questions presented in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Clarifying the writing context
function
Why am I writing this piece of text? What kind of text type do I have to write?
content
What ideas do I have to include? In what order do I have to arrange them?
audience
Who am I writing for? How explicit do I have to make the ideas I include? What
style should I use?
A close reading of the writing task given in Figure 2.4 reveals the features of
the writing context that writers must observe in order to solve the task
appropriately.
Students reading this task have to understand first the purpose of writing. They
have to write a script about class trips and give their opinion about what makes a
class trip good. However, simply listing the characteristics of a good class trip is
not enough. Students have to state why they think that a particular set of
characteristics makes a good class trip; in other words, they have to convince their
readers why their suggestions are sensible. Therefore, the purpose of writing in
this case is to give justified recommendations about what makes a good class trip.
Your school has an English language student
magazine and you want to write an article for it
about what makes a good class trip. Look at the
notes below and write about the different
possibilities. Give reasons why you think one is
better than the other.
How to travel?
Where to stay?
What to eat?
Where to go?
Write an article of about 180 words in an appropriate style. Use
the title Tips for a good class trip.
Figure 2.4 Sample writing task
30
In order to determine the purpose of the script, the candidate attempting the
task must identify the relevant key words. These words in the above task are article,
which names the text type and implies that the candidate must write an
informative and interesting text; and write about the different possibilities, which together
with [g]ive reasons why, instruct the candidate to include descriptions as well as
justifications into the script.
The content of the script can be determined easily since the task provides a list of
topics: means of transport, accommodation, food, and destination. The students do
not have to generate ideas; they only have to concentrate on organising the information provided. They may wish to address the topics in the order in which they are
listed in the task or they may choose to reorganise them. For instance, they may
choose to follow the order in which these topics would normally be dealt with when
a class plans a trip. The class would perhaps proceed in the following order: they
would first decide about the destination, and then about the means of transport,
about accommodation, and finally about food. Alternatively, students may want to
organise their script by discussing the characteristics of the class trip in order of importance. They may claim that it is the kind of accommodation that makes or breaks a
class trip, and decide to write about accommodation first and leave food to be discussed last, since they may not think that food is crucial to the success of the trip.
The students task is to write an article. This means that in addition to the topics
listed in the task, they have to draw on their knowledge about the text type called
article. They have to write a short and enticing introduction that sets out what the
article intends to accomplish, and after the suggested topics have been discussed,
they must round up the article in a way that is appropriate to the text type.
The students must also have a clear image of their audience, the people who are
going to read their articles. In the case of the above task, the audience is composed
of fellow students who read the English language school magazine. These readers
know what a class trip is, so the writers do not have to define the concept for them.
They do, however, have to state clearly the differences between travelling by train
and travelling by bus if they want to convince their readers that one is better than
the other. Moreover, they have to use a relaxed and friendly style because they are
addressing peers. A formal style may have the opposite effect to what the writer
wants to achieve: readers may very easily decide to ignore the suggestions that they
feel are not meant for them or are too pompous. The role relationship between
the writer and the audience in this case is a student writing to fellow students and
the style must reflect this.
Having understood what they are writing about, who they are writing to, and
what text type they have to produce, students make the appropriate decisions
about the content, style, tone, and text type features of the script. They can now
proceed to the writing stage.
Writing
In most books on writing, the writing stage refers strictly to the writing of the first
draft of a script; all the work that may precede the first draft (identifying the topic;
Chapter 2 Writing
31
generating, selecting and sequencing ideas, etc.) is claimed to belong to the prewriting stage. However, the preparation of a written outline is so closely
connected to drafting that it can be considered to be part of the writing stage.
An outline plays a crucial role in shaping the content and organisation of the
script. It contains the ideas writers want to include and the specification of the
order in which the ideas should be included. It usually consists of clearly
formulated, brief and informative notes which do not have to be written up as full
sentences. The outline presented in Figure 2.5 illustrates one possible way of
organising some ideas relevant to the article task given in Figure 2.4 above.
Start
students like travelling with friends
great to be away from school
sometimes not easy to decide where to go
How to travel?
Bus better than train because:
freedom (go any place any time, stop whenever and where you want)
can sing and have fun (there are no other passengers to disturb)
safer (students are together not in different carriages)
cheaper (?)
Where to stay?
depends on the season (summer camp; cold weather hostel)
not hotels, too expensive
hostels and camps are interesting (you have a fridge in your room; share a tent/hut with friends;
talk late at night, light a fire, stay up late)
What to eat?
restaurant expensive
can bring your own (share with others)
go to supermarkets lots of fun
make your food together with friends more fun, takes time
Where to go?
depends why class takes a trip: for fun (better at the beginning of school) / to learn something
go somewhere different from where you live
be able to do interesting things
learn about useful things
End
think about all these and you will enjoy yourselves
Figure 2.5 Sample article outline
32
The amount of planning varies depending on the type of text and the writing
situation, but it is an essential stage in the writing process. Creating an outline for a
letter of request or an article requires more time and more careful planning than
for a letter to a friend for which a writer may only list the topics to be included.
Given that the time available to complete the writing task is specified in language
examinations, candidates should not be expected to produce elaborate outlines.
Nevertheless, even a short outline with a few main ideas is worth writing because
it serves as a useful guide that candidates can consult whenever necessary in the
course of the writing stage.
The majority of students consider writing an outline a tiresome and useless
activity, especially in the case of a test when they only have limited amount of time
to compose a script. They fail to realise that by writing a short and clear outline
they make writing less difficult. The outline acts as a checklist containing all the
ideas that must be included in the script. This is especially important when the
content points of the script are given in the task (as in the sample task in Figure
2.4). Following the outline as they write the script, writers make sure that they do
not forget to include any content points. Furthermore, they can avoid digression
and the inclusion of irrelevant ideas, which will result in incoherent scripts. Since
it is always easier to spot problems concerning the organisation of ideas in the
outline than in the script itself, those who write an outline in advance do not have
to worry about where they should insert new ideas that they think of while writing
the script so as to keep their script coherent. An outline also shows which ideas
should be grouped together in one paragraph to divide the script into logical units.
All of these uses of an outline make it possible for writers who work with an
outline to concentrate during writing solely on how to write grammatically
accurate, correctly punctuated and stylistically appropriate sentences, as a result of
which they are more likely to produce better quality scripts.
It may happen that writers decide to modify their scripts at some point during
the writing stage. They may want to move around, cut or elaborate particular parts
of the script. Having an outline at hand, they can easily check whether the changes
made to the script result in a more logical organisation of the ideas. Such changes
can be made more easily to scripts that are word-processed. It is much easier to
delete, cut and paste text in the word processor than on paper. Writers who are
word processing their scripts can stop and read through what has been written and
make changes by simple copy and paste commands. However, few language
examinations make it possible as yet for candidates to write their scripts on
computer, and it is not easy to effectively modify the final drafts of hand-written
scripts. Therefore, it is better if students prepare an outline before they start to
write the script: it decreases the chances that a short piece of writing written in an
examination will need to be completely reorganised when the writer rereads the
script in the reviewing stage.
The main aim of the writing stage is the transformation of the outline into a
text. It is at this stage that the efforts invested in preparing the outline pay off.
During this activity writers make decisions about how they will transform the ideas
given in the outline in note format into full sentences. For this they have to think
Chapter 2 Writing
33
first about what words they need to formulate and elaborate the ideas sketched out
in the outline. At this point they may refer to a dictionary if they are allowed to
use it. However, good writers do not stop and look up a word if they do not
remember it but put down its equivalent in their first language and go on writing.
They can return and replace the L1 word with its English equivalent when they
remember it or have looked it up in the dictionary. Skilled writers also constantly
keep in mind the audience to whom they are writing and they use stylistically
appropriate words. This is usually easier when they write for a reader who they
know very well and is more difficult if they have to write for a general audience.
The writer also needs to think of the grammatical structures necessary to build
sentences. Good writers consciously try to alternate the length and structure of
their sentences. Short sentences can be effective; however, a long series of short
sentences results in a choppy text that does not read well (e.g. Mary is my roommate.
She is 17. She has green eyes. Her hair is black. She likes cats. We met this autumn.). If consecutive
sentences have different structures, the text has a more natural rhythm, so
experienced writers focus on alternating sentence structure. They also try to avoid
sentence fragments (e.g. Although they want to know the answer.), which are sentences
that are incomplete, and do not write run-on sentences, which are too long and
difficult to follow and therefore should be divided into several sentences.
The sentences that develop the same subtopic form one paragraph and the
relationship between them may have to be marked overtly. Proficient writers use
linking words to connect sentences, and in formal texts they avoid the use of coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but, so) to begin their sentences. They may choose
to use co-ordinating conjunctions in the first draft but should change them in the
reviewing stage. There are various cohesive devices (see Chapter 9) and the
writers have to select from them the ones that are suitable for their purposes.
While drafting their texts, skilled writers also try to link their paragraphs. For
this they can use linking words or write sentences that serve as a transition by
summing up the previous paragraph and introducing the topic developed in the
next. For instance, the sentence
The bus is not only more convenient than the train, but it is also safer,
which can be the first sentence of a paragraph, has two functions. It introduces the
topic of the paragraph and connects it to the previous one discussing why the bus
is a more convenient means of transport than the train. Those candidates who
know that they should use linking words but do it mechanically usually use firstly,
secondly, finally to introduce their paragraphs. The mechanical use of these words,
however, does not necessarily make the text more coherent.
As can be seen, transforming the outline into a text is a complex and
demanding activity that requires a lot of decision making and the use of a variety
of language skills. Language learners writing in a second language find this task
alone challenging enough. If they have to combine it with planning the content of
their text, they may not be able to complete the task in time or may write a text
that does not include all the content points, is incoherent, inaccurate, or
34
inappropriate. Considering the complexity of the task, it is natural that even

proficient writers make errors when they write the first draft. They may not use
the right word, may forget a verb, or may use a linking word that does not indicate
the correct relationship between two ideas. A skilled writer can spot and correct
many of these errors in the reviewing stage.
Reviewing
In the writing stage the primary concern of the writer is to write up the outline in
the form of a continuous text. Once the text has been written, the writer rereads it
to make sure that all the content planned for it has been included in the right
order; to correct any spelling, punctuation or grammar mistakes; or to improve
style and vocabulary.
It is important that writers review their texts by carefully reading what they
have written. This, however, is a complex procedure and effective reviewing skills
must be developed with regular practice. Writers should first read the script for
content and organisation to check whether they have included all the necessary
ideas in a logical order. When they have made sure that no important information
has been omitted and that the ideas in the script flow smoothly, writers must
consider the accuracy and the appropriacy of the language used to convey the
ideas. In other words, they read the script to check if they have made any
grammatical, spelling or punctuation mistakes, and whether their vocabulary is
correct and suitable in style for the audience.
What makes reviewing problematic for writers is that they find it difficult to
identify the shortcomings in their own scripts immediately after they have finished
drafting it. In real life this problem can be solved with the help of time. When
writers complete the first draft, they put it aside to let time pass between writing
and reviewing. After one or two days they develop some distance to their texts
simply because they do not remember it so well as when they finished it.
Therefore, when they reread their texts, they may easily spot problems that they
were unable to detect right after they finished writing.
In a classroom setting teachers can use peer revision in order to review scripts
as soon as they are finished. Students swap scripts with their peers and thus read
someone elses writing, often with the help of a set of questions compiled by their
teachers in order to assist them. Peer revision is a useful activity for the
development of reviewing skills.
In an examination situation, however, candidates have to employ other
techniques, given that they only have a limited amount of time. They can read the
script slowly, sentence by sentence, saying the sentences in their head. This way
they can focus on individual sentences and also check whether two consecutive
sentences are logically connected. They can write a short outline from their own
script and compare it with the original outline they used to write the script to
check whether the two are identical. If their script is short and time allows, they
can read it several times, concentrating on one type of error each time. Since
reading the script from the first sentence to the last is how a text is normally read,
Chapter 2 Writing
35
candidates can create some distance to their scripts by reading them backwards
one sentence at a time. This way they look at each sentence in isolation,
irrespective of the sentences following and preceding it, and may spot mistakes
more easily. All of the above are effective techniques for reviewing scripts in an
examination, but they can only be employed if candidates have been trained to use
them and set time aside for revision.
Factors that influence the writing process
As described in the previous section, the writing process consists of a number of
stages and in each stage the writer has to pay attention to different aspects and
elements of text composition, which change considerably with the task and the
writing situation. Depending on the writing task, the work of the student changes
with the amount of help built into the task. A writing task may simply have
instructions given in a sentence:
(1) Describe your pet.
(2) Write a story that ends with the sentence A friend in need is a friend indeed.
(3) Write a composition with the title Immigration: a necessary evil.
Such tasks involve a longer pre-writing stage. Writers have to spend much more
time on planning: they have to collect ideas in connection with the script, decide
which ideas to exclude, and finally arrange the ideas to be included in a logical
order. Such tasks are more time-consuming and require the writers to draw not
only on their language skills but also on their creativity. Less creative writers will
be disadvantaged by such a task in a situation when they have to write under time
constraints.
Some other tasks, on the other hand, give the writer considerable help
concerning the content of the script to be written. The article task (Figure 2.4) is a
good example of this: it provides a ready-made outline that can be developed into
a script without much planning. In some language examinations candidates have to
read a few short texts on specific topics and then write their own script using the
information from the texts they have read. Such tasks supply the ideas to write
about, but it is the writers duty to organise them coherently.
Depending on the writing situation, the writing process can be quite different.
In a non-testing situation, when they are writing in the language class or at home,
language learners have access to a number of resources. They may ask their peers,
teachers or family members for ideas in connection with the set topic. They may
use books to improve grammar, and dictionaries to find vocabulary items or to
check spelling. Furthermore, especially when writing a script as a piece of
homework, writers are not so pressed by time as in class or in an examination and
can do more planning, writing and reviewing. Not having to work against time,
writers can reorganise the content of their scripts several times and spend as much
time on editing as they deem necessary. Scripts written under such conditions will
probably be longer, better organised and more accurate.
36
In a language examination, however, writers must complete the task in a

specified amount of time. They may not be able to spend as much time on the
three stages of the writing process as they would in a non-testing situation. They
usually have no access to other help than what is provided in the question paper.
As a consequence, scripts written in examinations tend to be shorter and less
developed, and this should be taken into account when assessing writing.
For the writing class
In order to teach writing, we must first develop an understanding of what
constitutes this skill. Understanding writing skills results in more effective teaching
and testing, as well as in the development of more astute course book evaluation
skills: teachers knowledgeable about writing skills will have less difficulty in
selecting course books that develop the skills necessary for writing.
Language teachers should make a conscious effort to have their students write
and re-write whole texts on a variety of topics. They should give feedback in order
to encourage students and help them to redraft their scripts effectively. They
should teach their students various text types and through these text types
familiarise them with the concept of purpose, content and audience. They should
practise with their students reviewing techniques to equip them with skills for
reading and evaluating their own scripts.
This discussion of the nature of writing and its features has direct implications
for the language classroom that are listed below in the Tips for the writing tutor box.
C Tips for the writing tutor

n
Use recently published language teaching course books, since they put higher
emphasis on the development of writing skills and contain motivating and
integrated writing tasks.
As soon as their language skills allow students to create simple texts, give
them tasks to write whole texts, for example notes, postcards and letters, not
isolated sentences.
Correct student compositions according to clear criteria. Use an analytic scale
(see Chapter 7).
Write comments on the students texts in which you praise their strengths
and highlight their weaknesses. Make your comments simple, clear and
legible so that your students can understand them.
Ask your students to redraft their texts on the basis of your comments and to
submit them again for correction.
Ask students to word-process longer pieces of writing. It is easier to redraft a
text several times if it is available in electronic format.
Discuss in the language class the differences between spoken and written
language use.
Practise the individual stages of the writing process in class.
Chapter 2 Writing
n
n
37
When reading a text in the course book (a letter, a leaflet, a story), ask
students to identify the overall purpose of the text and who it is written for,
and draw their attention to how the information in the text is organised.
Reading good sample texts helps language learners to become better writers.
Set writing tasks that ask the student to write to a range of readers (peers,
pen-friends, teachers, institutions, etc.). Alternatively, you may set tasks in
which the students write up the same information to different kinds of
audiences.
Set tasks in which students have to transform a formal text into an informal
one and the other way round.
Practise the identification of the text type, audience and content
requirements of writing tasks: what kind of text students have to write, who
they should write it for, and what information they should include in it.
Practise preparing brief, clearly structured and formulated outlines with
notes that the student can easily transform into a text.
Practise developing into a paragraph one section of the outline.
Practise joining the paragraphs and writing introductory and concluding
sections for various text types.
Draw students attention to the fact that they must read their text after they
have finished writing. First they must read to check if they have included all
the ideas in a logical order. Then they must look for grammar, spelling,
punctuation and style errors. When reading to check content, they should
read the text from the first sentence to the last; and when they are reading for
errors they should move from the last sentence to the first.
Assign writing tasks not only as homework but also as in-class timed writing
activities so that students become used to writing under time pressure.
Practise with your students understanding the writing task. To do exactly
what they are required to do, they must be able to identify the key words in
the task. The key words reveal such crucial information as the text type (write
a letter, article, short story), or the type of text the candidate is expected to write
(write a composition in which you describe your room: description; tell a funny story:
narration).
Summary
In this chapter we have seen that writing adds up to more than grammar. In writing
language is used differently from speaking; therefore, students must become
familiar with the characteristics of written English. Furthermore, they must
understand the features and role of the elements of the writing context, and must
learn what they have to do in the various stages of the writing process so as to
produce a text. The writing process can be influenced by such factors as the type
of task or the circumstances of writing. Teachers should therefore give their
students different task types and provide opportunities for both timed and
untimed writing.
blank page p. 38
PART TWO
TASK TYPES AND TASK DEMANDS
Introduction
This part of the book contains four chapters. The first chapter focuses on task
design and the remaining three chapters deal with text types that frequently occur
in modern European language examinations.
The chapter on task design discusses the criteria that a good writing task must
meet and gives guidelines for designing and field testing tasks. The chapter is
suitable for analysing writing tasks in order to determine whether they are
appropriate for examination practice or testing purposes. On its own, it is suitable
for the assessment of writing tasks, and in combination with the other chapters in
this part of the book it can be used to design writing tasks and rating schemes.
The chapters dealing with various letter types, articles and common
composition types provide information on the function and purpose of these text
types, on their layout, rhetorical organisation, content and style. In addition to
summarising the key features of the discussed text types, the chapters highlight
their problematic features and give useful practical advice for teachers.
The chapters contain sample tasks and student scripts that illustrate good
performances or revised poor performances. Each script is followed by comments
that can be useful for teaching. The sample tasks included in the body of each
chapter can be used as practice tasks or assessment tasks in addition to the tasks
provided at the end of each chapter, or at the end of each section on a particular
subtype of text in the chapters dealing with letters and compositions.
Each chapter contains Tips for the writer boxes, which summarise those features of
the discussed text types that students should pay attention to in both timed and
untimed writing situations. The suggestions given in these boxes are the result of
the field testing of the tasks.
blank page p. 40
Chapter 3
Designing Tasks for Writing Skills Assessment
Aims
The aim of this chapter is to give help in evaluating and designing writing
assessment tasks. The first part discusses the components of a writing task together
with their characteristic features, and piloting, the procedure with which a writing
task can be tested. The second part focuses on task design and the analysis and
revision of writing tasks.
The writing assessment task
In order to be able to evaluate a writing assessment task, fix an existing but faulty
one, or design a good one, we need to know the criteria that such a task must meet
and how we can check whether it is a functioning task or not.
The components of a writing assessment task
The two basic parts that can be distinguished in an assessment task are the rubric
and the prompt. Although they have separate functions, in some tasks the rubric
and the prompt are combined into one coherent mix of instructions and stimuli
for the candidates, so their elements are intermingled. However, in this chapter
the elements that belong to the rubric and the prompt will be discussed separately.
The rubric
The rubric can contain information on what exactly the task will assess (e.g. This is
a test of your ability to write a coherent and grammatically correct argumentative composition or Your
letter will be evaluated on the basis of content, expression, register, structure, and mechanics), on how
the candidates should go about completing the writing task (e.g. Write the answers on
the answer sheet), on the time given for the completion of the task, on the word limit
set for the task, or on how the task is marked (e.g. Task 1 carries more weight in marking
than Task 2). Its function is therefore to give procedural information.
The two pieces of information that must be given in the rubric are the time
allotted for the completion of the task and the amount of text, usually expressed in
number of words, that test takers are required to produce. Test takers need to
know how much time is given to do the task and how many words they have to
write if they are to plan, write and hopefully revise their script successfully.
A rubric must provide all the information that is necessary for the candidates to
understand what they have to do. However, this is not to be interpreted as
meaning the longer the rubric the better. A task intended for the assessment of
writing ability must not turn into a major reading activity; therefore, the rubric
should be as short as clarity allows.
Furthermore, the rubric must be carefully worded to make sure that it is
42
understandable. The language used may be the candidates mother tongue, but in
modern European examinations the rubric is usually written in the same language as
the candidate is tested on. Therefore, the rubric must be written in simple language
and the information presented in it must be logically organised and ordered.
The prompt
The exact nature and content of the script candidates are expected to compose are
specified in the prompt. The prompt is the stimulus in response to which
candidates write the script, so it must be understandable, rich, motivating and
encouraging. The function of the prompt is to provide information about the
context, content, and purpose of writing.
Prompt formats
There are three basic prompt formats. The base prompt is short and formulates
the whole task in one or two sentences. Most one-sentence composition prompts
are base prompts (Figure 3.1).
Do you agree or disagree with the opinion that men make poorer
teachers than women? Why?
Figure 3.1 Example of a base prompt
Such a prompt sets the topic and may specify the main rhetorical mode of the
expected script; however, it does not provide information about the writing
context and the exact content to be developed. It most resembles writing tasks set
by language teachers who want to check whether their students can apply their
knowledge about a particular grammar point in practice or whether they have
learnt certain vocabulary items.
The framed prompt on the contrary is longer and helps candidates to interpret
the task by placing it into a richer context. It usually describes a situation from
which candidates can understand who they are, why they are writing, what they
are writing about, and who will read their texts (Figure 3.2).
Your school is planning to start an English language school magazine and has asked
students to write articles with the title Thoughts about my school. You have decided
to write an article in which you describe what you like and dislike about your school
and explain your reasons.
Figure 3.2 Example of a framed prompt
The contexts described in such prompts present contexts familiar to test takers
or contexts that they can imagine themselves in. They are therefore modelled on
real-life situations and are much preferred by task designers since life is an
inexhaustible source of authentic situations in which writing occurs.
The last type of prompt is the text-based prompt and it may include one or more
Chapter 3 Designing Tasks for Writing Skills Assessment
43
texts of varying length (Figure 3.3) to which candidates respond (e.g. a letter, an
advertisement, brochures), ideas which they are expected to incorporate into their
scripts (e.g. notes prepared for an article, or a list of ideas jotted down to be included
in a letter), or visual information presented in the form of images (e.g. a sequence of
pictures presenting a humorous incident). In some writing books the tasks that require
the writer to compose a text in response to such stimuli are called transactional writing
tasks. Text-based prompts are frequently used to test writing skills because they allow
the creation of a large variety of stimulating lifelike writing tasks.
Browsing on the World Wide Web, you found the following

advertisement in an online student magazine.
A Special Youth Summer Place in Canada for a Special Kid!
Ekocamp brings together young people from around the world in a
unique and well-protected environment.
Learn new skills
Meet new people from around the world and make wonderful
friendships
Learn to be a team player
Gain self-confidence and become independent
Learn French or English
Have fun in a relaxed and secure environment
Visit Ottawa, the Canadian capital, and two other interesting
cities, Montreal and Qubec City.
If you would like more information please email Ekocamp.
Write an e-mail to the director of the camp, Louis Wnuk, in which
you introduce yourself
and enquire about
the cost of the camp
the age of the young people they receive
the activities (swimming, kayaking, horse riding)
any printed information about the camp
the possibility to travel with parents
Figure 3.3 Example of a text-based prompt
Candidates attempting this task are provided with a situation in which they play
a particular role and have a specific task to complete, and a text, the advertisement,
in response to which they have to write the e-mail message.
44
The text-based prompt varies according to the form of input. The type of text
presented as input may be, for instance, a job advertisement with or without notes
given in bullet point format to which the test taker responds; two advertisements
about the same kind of product which can be used to compare the advertised
products and help a friend choose the better one; a diary entry on the basis of which
the test taker tells a story or describes a person or a place; notes on a letter or excerpts
from one or more letters that are to be used to compose a reply letter; a brief news
report in response to which the test taker should write a letter to the editor; an
announcement for an article or essay competition to which the test taker responds; an
entry from a guide book to restaurants and a series of notes recording personal
experiences in connection with the restaurant that can be used to write an assessment
report on the restaurant; and many other similar types of input taken from real life.
The input may also consist of a text together with information presented in
non-textual form. For example, an excerpt from a letter and data presented in a
table can be used to write a letter (e.g. giving information to a friend about local
train and bus services that are not available on the Internet). A short newspaper
article together with a diagram and some notes can be used as input for a letter or
a report. Some notes and a map can serve as input for a letter in which the test
taker must give directions for a friend going to a party.
Some tasks contain only pictures or charts, graphs, or diagrams as input. A series
of pictures arranged in a sequence may be suitable for the elicitation of a narrative;
two similar pictures can be used as input for a comparison and contrast essay; a
diagram can be used in a process description task. The advantage of tasks whose
input is given in non-textual form is that candidates cannot lift phrases or even
longer stretches of text as they often can do when the input is text.
These three prompt types represent tasks of varying difficulty levels. A base
type one-line-prompt requires more effort from candidates than framed or textbased prompts, which give a detailed description of the writing situation. In the
case of a one-line-prompt candidates must invent an audience, generate and
organise ideas, and may have to establish the purpose of writing. They therefore
must invest considerably more time and energy in planning the script than in the
case of a framed or text-based prompt that already gives them the ideas that they
have to include in their scripts, as well as a reader and a purpose for writing.
The characteristic features of prompts
The layout of the prompt influences the difficulty of the writing task. It is more
difficult to process a complex prompt that gives all the information in the form of
a continuous text (Figure 3.4).
Your school has an English language student magazine and you want to write an
article for it about what makes a good class trip. Write an article of 180 words about
the advantages and disadvantages of the possible means of travelling, types of
accommodation, food that you can eat, and possible destinations. Give reasons why
you think one is better than the other.
Figure 3.4 Prompt presented in continuous text format
45
Candidates are less likely to miss crucial information if the prompt is organised
so that the most important pieces of information are set apart from the body of the
prompt, for example in the form of a bulleted list (Figure 3.5). Key information
can also be highlighted if it is printed in bold letters.
Your school has an English language student magazine and you want
to write an article for it about what makes a good class trip. Look at
the notes below and write about the different possibilities. Give
reasons why you think one is better than the other.
How to travel? (Train? Hire a bus?)
Where to stay? (Camp site? Hotel?)
What to eat? (Fast-food? Food taken from home?)
Where to go? (Mountains? Towns?)
Write an article of about 180 words in an appropriate style on the
opposite page. Use the title Tips for a good class trip.
Figure 3.5 Task with content points presented in bullet point format
Candidates presented with the version of the task in which the content points
are bulleted are less likely to miss information necessary for the successful
completion of the task. The layout allows for the use of the task as a checklist on
which the content points covered can be ticked off. The basic rule that task
designers or evaluators should observe is that the more complex a task is, the
clearer its layout must be.
The form of the input given in the task can also influence the difficulty of the task.
The input can be provided in textual, visual, aural and printed or electronic form.
Before starting to write their scripts, candidates may have to read other texts,
sequence images or consult tables and graphs, or listen to texts and take notes that
they can use in drafting their script. A lot of textual or aural input can burden the
candidates unnecessarily with additional reading or listening comprehension tasks.
Furthermore, if candidates are given long texts in the input, it is more likely that they
will lift chunks or whole sentences from the input and include them in their scripts.
As in the case of the rubric, the language of the prompt may be the first
language of the candidates. However, in most examinations administered
internationally the prompt is in the language on which the candidates are tested.
Consequently, a good prompt is written in simple and carefully composed
sentences that are easy to process and which give equal opportunity for all the
candidates to understand the task.
Taking all of the above-described features of rubrics and prompts into
consideration, it is perhaps obvious why it is not normal practice to allow
candidates a choice of different writing tasks within one examination paper. Some
candidates will be disadvantaged if test takers are allowed to select writing
assessment tasks that have different rubrics and whose prompts have different
46
format, layout, form of input and type of content, or language. Two tasks that
differ only in the topic to be discussed may well be of different difficulty level, and
the candidates selecting the more difficult topic will be at a disadvantage compared
to those who attempt the task with the easier topic. If a choice of writing tasks
must be offered, what the task designer must do is try to offer a choice of equally
difficult topics that have to be written up as the same text type (genre).
The criteria that a prompt must meet
Irrespective of the type of prompt, a good prompt meets certain criteria. Generally
speaking, a good prompt provides a clear description of the writing context and
contains carefully selected input materials. In terms of the writing context, the
prompt defines clearly the situation, the participants in the act of communication, the topic and purpose of writing, and the kind of text type to be produced.
The situation described in the writing assessment task should ideally be as
similar to a real-life situation as possible. A real-life situation is likely to be
meaningful and candidates should be able to understand it easily. If the situation
presented in the task is one that the candidates would not have to cope with in real
life or that makes no sense, candidates will have difficulty in solving the task. For
instance, the situation described in the task presented in Figure 3.6 is not relevant
to teenagers everyday realities.
Your local government is planning to introduce village tourism in the region where you live. Some
villagers are for, some others are against the idea. Comment on the issue in your local newspaper in
the Readers letters column.
Figure 3.6 Task presenting a situation teenagers would find difficult to relate to
First of all, teenagers are likely to find it strange that they have to comment on
an issue that is alien to them. Even if they were given guidelines concerning the
ideas they should elaborate, they would find it difficult to address this topic.
Furthermore, it is unnatural that a teenager would publish an article in English for
speakers of their mother tongue.
The prompt also defines clearly the participants in the act of communication. It
must be clear to the candidates who the writer is because they have to assume the
role of that person. It is better if in an examination the candidates are put into
situations where they do not have to pretend to be someone else, since this may
require creativity or other skills that are not language skills and can easily put some
candidates at a disadvantage. If candidates do have to assume an imaginary role, it
must be described in such detail that candidates can easily put themselves in the
position of the imaginary writer.
Candidates also need to understand who they are writing to. The prompt,
therefore, must contain clear information about the audience. This is important
because the tone and the level of formality candidates have to adopt in the script
and often the amount, nature and explicitness of the information they include in
47
the script depend on their understanding of the relationship between the writer
and the reader.
The topic that the candidates are required to address in their scripts must not be
completely unfamiliar to them and it must be interesting. Candidates must have
something to say about the topic and should be motivated to deal with it, otherwise
they will not be able to produce enough language to demonstrate their knowledge
and as a consequence will be unfairly tested. The difficulty level of the writing task
varies if the topic is simple (Describe what you do on Friday afternoons) or complex (Compare
bean coffee and instant coffee), concrete (Tell a funny family story) or abstract (Define happiness),
impersonal (The ways people lie) or personal (What is your attitude to white lies?), unfamiliar
(Describe the Oval Office) or familiar (Describe your living room).
Those candidates who are not familiar with the topic will spend more time on
generating ideas than others. In an examination that measures general language
skills candidates should not be disadvantaged because they are not familiar with a
particular topic. They should not be tested on background knowledge because the
focus of the test is on how candidates can handle language and not on what kind
of content knowledge (e.g. cultural, scientific) they can demonstrate in writing.
The topic given in the writing task must be interesting and motivating.
Candidates also need to be given a real purpose for writing. Writing with a
purpose is always easier because it gives help in the organisation and ordering of
ideas, sets a direction for the writer, and provides a clear goal to be achieved. If
candidates are presented with a clearly defined problem, they are more likely to be
motivated to solve it and to compose a coherent script that has a function.
Closely related to the notion of purpose is that of text type. The prompt must
state clearly what text type or genre the candidates are expected to produce.
Knowing the text type helps candidates to organise their ideas so that they can be
fitted into and are appropriate for the rhetorical structure of the required text type.
Some prompts go beyond the specification of the text type: they also describe the
rhetorical structure characteristic of the text type the candidates must write. The
writing task in Figure 3.7, for instance, provides this kind of additional information.
An international students e-magazine has started a competition. Teenagers from all over the
world are encouraged to send in 200-word-long articles with the title What the Internet is for.
The best ten articles will be published in the magazine, and the first three teenagers can spend two
weeks in a country of their own choice. You have decided to write an article.
Start your article by outlining what you want to discuss, then describe the advantages of the
Internet, the disadvantages of the Internet, and finally give your opinion at the end of the article.
Figure 3.7 Task describing the rhetorical structure of the expected text
The rhetorical structure given in the prompt is the rhetorical structure of the
for-and-against composition. The candidate writing this task should have little
difficulty in organising the information in the script because the organisational
48
pattern is given in the task. Teachers using or designing a task that describes in the
prompt the rhetorical structure of the text type make the writers task easier.
Candidates can only be expected to write standard text types such as letters,
compositions or articles. In order to assess their general writing ability, they should
not be given tasks for which too much creativity and creative writing skills must be
used. An example of such a task is the following:
You wake up in a candle-lit empty room that has no windows. You dont know how, when, or
why you got there. Describe your feelings.
By using the criteria described in this chapter, teachers can evaluate a writing
assessment task to see whether they can use it in its original form or it needs to be
improved. Moreover, they can use the same criteria if they have designed a writing
task themselves and would like to check whether it meets the requirements of a
good writing assessment task. The considerations in this chapter can be
encapsulated in a checklist similar to the one shown in Figure 3.8 that
incorporates the basic features of the rubric and the prompt.
YES
NO
Is the rubric short clear and comprehensive?

Is the time for the completion of the task given?
Is the expected length of the script given?
Is the prompt easy to interpret?
Is the language simple and clear?
Does the layout help understanding the task?
Are the key pieces of information highlighted in the task?
Are the instructions stated clearly?
Are the instructions laid out clearly?
Is the amount of input appropriate?
Is the input understandable?
Is the input organised and presented logically?
Is the task relevant for the candidates?
Is the writing situation lifelike?
Is it clear who the writer is?
Is it clear who the reader is?
Is the purpose for writing clear?
Is the topic relevant and accessible for all the candidates?
Is the text type expected specified?
Is the writer expected to be highly creative?
Figure 3.8 Checklist for identifying problems with a writing assessment task
For an ideal task all the ticks except for the last question should be in the Yes
column of the checklist. However, depending on the purposes for which the
49
writing task is intended, teachers may decide to use a task that also has a few ticks
in the No column. In an examination, where candidates must interpret the task
without any additional help than what is given in the paper, the writing task
should meet all the criteria of the checklist, except for the last one.
For further information on item writing refer to Appendix 1.
Piloting: Testing the assessment task
In order to make sure that a writing assessment task is appropriate for classroom
assessment or examination preparation, teachers should evaluate and test it before
using it. First, they should evaluate it with the help of a checklist like the one given
in Figure 3.8. By going through the checklist systematically, they can check how
many of the requirements the task meets. If they find that the task falls short of the
requirements, they may choose to fix it if the problem is only a minor one or they
may look for another task.
When they have selected a task that passes the checklist test, teachers should
proceed to the next stage and respond to the task themselves or ask their colleagues
to respond to it whilst observing the time and word limit given. By writing their
own script, it is expected that teachers will follow the same process as the candidates
are expected to follow and thus should be able to notice if there is something wrong
with the task. In doing this they can also check whether the task is realistic in terms
of the time allowed for its completion, and whether the topic can be developed and
elaborated in the number of words given in the specified time.
Another advantage of teachers themselves responding to the task is that they
will develop a better understanding of what aspects of the topic can be included in
the task and what kind of vocabulary is needed. It will also become clear what kind
of grammatical structures are required or suitable to complete the task. Thus the
teacher will also have a better understanding of what can be expected from
candidates in terms of grammar. The information gathered about vocabulary and
grammar can be used to evaluate the rating scheme accompanying the writing task.
In case no rating scheme is available, the teacher can create one and thus ensure
that the candidates vocabulary and grammatical performance are measured against
realistic expectations.
However, the teacher may not be the ideal person to use to test the timing or
the relevance and accessibility of the topic. Teachers are more proficient language
users than their students and can discuss a wider variety of topics. Therefore,
having written their own script, teachers should also give the task to a few students
who have the same characteristics (language knowledge, general knowledge, age,
etc.) as the candidates who are going to be tested with the task. These may be
students from another class or from another school.
Once the students have completed the task, the teacher should discuss the
experience with them and ask questions related to the task. These discussions can
reveal shortcomings of the task that the teacher did not notice. Crucially, the
teacher should read the scripts produced by the students because they will also
contain useful information about the task. For instance, if all the students have
50
missed a content point, it may be that the instructions referring to the content of
the expected script are not as clear as they should be.
Going through this procedure, which is generally referred to as piloting or
trialling, is time-consuming but very much worth the effort. It saves a lot of
frustration, time and energy for both the teacher and those language learners who
attempt the task. Over time teachers will be able to compile a collection of good
writing assessment tasks and will not have to go through this complex procedure
every time they want to use a writing task.
Such a disciplined approach to testing a writing task is especially important in
the case of exam preparation because this is the stage when the would-be
candidates become familiar with the expectations and format of the examination
they are about to take. Faulty examples can easily misinform the candidates and
this may disadvantage them in the examination.
Designing a writing assessment task
When designing a writing task, teachers must first of all clarify what specific
aspects of the learners writing ability they want to test and then decide what kind
of task is best for testing those aspects. For instance, if the teacher wants to test
students ability to write developed paragraphs that are sequenced logically,
assigning a note-writing task would not be suitable. A note is to the point and
consists of a few short sentences that may not form one paragraph. The teacher
would not learn much from scripts written on a note task about the students
paragraph-developing and sequencing skills.
When teachers design a new task, they should follow the steps discussed in
detail in the previous section. The following is a summary of these steps: Teachers
first design a task that meets the criteria of a good writing task. Following this, they
pre-test it by writing it themselves, asking some of their colleagues to write it, or by
administering it to students from another class or from another school. This way
they can collect a variety of opinions about the task, and on the basis of these
opinions can decide whether the task is appropriate, needs minor improvements,
or is to be completely redesigned. In case it only needs to be modified slightly, the
teacher may decide to administer the modified version to students without any
further pre-testing. However, if the task has to be redesigned, it must be piloted
again.
Analysing and improving writing assessment tasks
When choosing a writing task for classroom practice or for home assignment, it is
not a serious problem if the task does not meet all the requirements of a good
writing task. The teacher can always discuss the task with the students, and by
answering all the questions (e.g. Who is the audience? What is the expected length?) solve
the problems that come up as a result of the deficiencies of a task. However, when
the teacher wants to use a task for assessment purposes, the task must meet the
criteria of a good writing assessment task. A faulty assessment task will confuse
students and fail to show the writers language skills.
51
In what follows, we will examine a number of faulty writing tasks and see how
they can be improved, following the above criteria and principles.
The first task consists of a base prompt and a short rubric (Figure 3.9).
Life in New York is dangerous.
Write between 200 and 250 words.
Figure 3.9 Task with base prompt
The rubric is short and does not give all the information necessary for the test
taker. Although the length of the script to be produced is given, candidates do not
know how much time they have for writing. Time is a crucial factor in any
examination situation, but it is especially important in the case of a task like this
where test takers must first narrow the topic by selecting the aspects they wish to
develop and then must generate all the ideas for the script before they can start
writing.
The test taker may have problems with the topic itself. Topics that are likely to
cause difficulties are those that are emotionally loaded or upsetting (How would you
react if someone committed suicide in your family?), embarrassing (Describe your weaknesses), or
technical in nature and require specialised knowledge (The itinerary of an e-mail
message), or those that draw excessively on creativity. New York is a large city, so
candidates familiar with the sources of danger in large cities can use their
knowledge when writing about the given topic. Nevertheless, specifying a city
which not all the test takers are equally familiar with may disadvantage those test
takers who interpret the prompt literally yet lack the knowledge or experience that
would allow them to write about the dangers typical of it.
There are other aspects of this prompt that are difficult to interpret. Test takers
are not told what text type they are expected to produce. They can guess that it is
some kind of composition or essay, but since they do not know why they must
write about this topic, they may describe New York, tell a story about a friend who
spent some time there and was mugged, or list the sources of danger characteristic
of the city. Besides description and narration some test takers might decide to
argue with the statement. Therefore, the scripts produced may be so varied that
the assessor cannot use one single rating scheme to evaluate them.
The prompt does not specify the purpose for writing. Is the purpose of the
essay entitled The dangers of New York to inform visitors, to dissuade travellers who
are thinking to travel there, to make an inventory of the possible dangers, or
something else? If test takers are not told why they should write a piece of text,
they must find a reason for themselves. This, however, may be time-consuming,
and may not meet the expectations of the examiner.
Even if the test takers guess that they have to write an essay and think of a
particular purpose for writing, they are not given instructions about the title. The
most likely result would be that they forget to invent a title. A good essay title,
however, is more than a text type constituent. It helps the writer directly to focus
on the discourse mode and the topic and indirectly to create a unified text. The
52
title The beauty spots of my town, for instance, indicates that the candidate must write a
description and that the essay must contain the description of nice places in one
particular town.
The audience is not given in the prompt, yet writing for an unknown reader
poses a variety of problems for test takers. Style is a problem that is relevant in the
case of a language examination of all levels: test takers must know whether they
have to write formally or informally. At higher levels the content, the ideas
included in the script, becomes another important audience-related issue. Test
takers must know who they are writing to in order to be able to decide what kind
of ideas to include in the script and how explicit they must be. For example, the
reader who knows more about the topic set in the prompt needs less explanation
and details than a reader who is not familiar with it.
An improved version of the writing task on New York is presented in Figure
3.10. This version of the task specifies both the time available for the completion of
the task and the expected length of the script. Furthermore, the text type is also
given (exposition) together with a title, and the topic has been modified. Instead of
a particular city, the test taker can think about and write about any big city. The
audience is also specified and so is implicitly the reason for writing: writing an essay
for the teacher serves to demonstrate knowledge and is a typical writing situation for
a language learner. The short original writing task has become more understandable
with the addition of a few important pieces of information. The revised task mixes
the elements of the rubric and the prompt and is short yet comprehensive enough to
provide test takers with logically organised and clearly laid out information.
You should spend about 40 minutes on this task.
Write an essay with the title The dangers of living in a big city for your
teacher in which you explain what dangers people living in big
cities face day-by-day.
Write between 200 and 250 words.
Figure 3.10 An improved version of the writing task with base prompt
The second writing assessment task consists of a framed prompt which includes
the description of a situation and a list of ideas in bullet point format (Figure
3.11). The situation is intended to help test takers to understand the writing task,
and the bullet points indicate the subtopics that must be included in the scripts.
If the criteria of a good writing assessment task are applied to this task, it
becomes clear that it needs to be improved. The rubric is missing. Information is
not given on either the time available for writing or the length of the script. The
test takers must write a letter; however, no information is available to them
whether they should invent an address and include it in the letter together with a
date or not.
53
You have recently come home from an English-speaking country.

Write to your host family. Include the following points:
thank for hosting you
how food is different at home
customs you liked
events you particularly enjoyed
Figure 3.11 Task with framed prompt
The prompt also needs to be redrafted. The situation must be elaborated with
the addition of a few details that can help test takers to understand who they are,
why they are writing, what they are writing, and who they are writing to. The
biggest problem of these four features of the task is the audience. The prompt does
not give any information about the readers other than they are the host family.
Some of the questions that may come up are How many people are meant by host family?
What is their age? What is the writers relationship with them? Which member of the family is the
letter written to? or What tone should be adopted? Test takers must therefore invent a
family, decide who they write the letter to and think of a name for the
correspondent. The undefined reader will most probably cause style problems for
those test takers who fail to do this
The lack of detail in the description of the situation may result in letters that are
artificial and that lack the flavour of letters written for genuine communication
purposes. Such letters are usually written as if the reader were expected to be
aware of the task: they do not have an introduction or a closing sentence, and the
subtopics are drearily dealt with one-by-one without any attempt to add original
ideas or connect ideas into a coherent text that reads naturally.
Two of the content points also need to be revised. The first one is acceptable as
it formulates the reason for writing and this is the piece of information that is
included early in a letter. It could, however, be preceded by a few words on the
journey home and the arrival. The second content point is also acceptable because
after a long time away from home food is something most people miss, and it is
natural if they discuss it. Furthermore, the wording of the prompt makes possible
the description of local foods and the avoidance of having to mention English
foods, which may cause difficulties for test takers who do not know much about
English cuisine. However, neither of the last two content points is acceptable. The
first one presupposes background knowledge about the culture of an Englishspeaking country and can disadvantage those test takers who do not have this kind
of knowledge. Since the task is intended to test language skills, this content is not
suitable for the task. The last content point draws more on creativity than language
skills because it forces test takers to invent unspecified events that they enjoyed in
a foreign country. The last two content points must therefore be rewritten or
replaced so as to ensure that the writers do not fail because they lack the
specialised knowledge, experience or creativity to solve the task.
54
The revised version of the task (Figure 3.12) presents improvements that meet
the basic requirements for a rubric and that enhance the prompt by enriching the
situation with details that help test takers assume the role of the writer specified in
the task, by clarifying the relationship between the writer and the readers, and by
the inclusion of content points that do not require special background knowledge.
The rubric gives clear instructions concerning the time allowed for the
completion of the task, the expected length of the script, the address and the date.
The situation is described in more detail: the host family was replaced by the more
precise and informative elderly couple. Moreover, it is explicitly stated that the script
to be produced must be a letter. The surname by which the family can be
addressed is given in the salutation.
You have recently come home from an English-speaking

country where you studied English and lived with a nice
elderly couple. Write a letter to your host family in
which you:
tell them about the trip home
thank them for hosting you
describe how your family welcomed you and
say what it feels like to be home (food, friends, own room)
Write your letter in the space below in about 45 minutes
using no more than 150-200 words. Do not write any
dates or addresses.
Dear Mr and Mrs Brown,
Figure 3.12 The revised version of the task with framed

prompt
The last two content points have also been improved. Although the first of the
two still requires some creativity from test takers, it is considerably easier for them
to think of a situation when they arrived home from a trip or a camp and include it
in the letter than write about events that they participated in and enjoyed in an
unknown environment. Similarly, describing what it feels like to be back home
should not be difficult to elaborate on partly because it is something people
experience every time they leave their home environment, and partly because
55
additional help is given in parentheses in the form of hints for possible ways in
which this last content point can be developed.
The final writing assessment task discussed in this chapter consists of a rubric
and a text-based prompt combined with pictures (Figure 3.13). The text-based
prompt presents the input in the form of several texts (a letter and five lists of
information on the houses) of varying length that the test taker must read and use
to write the task. The role of the input is to give the test taker ideas that they can
include in their script and to help them place themselves into a situation in which
they would find it natural to write the required text.
Your friend, who lives in London, would like to move to the

countryside. He has information about houses from a
newspaper ad, but cannot decide which one to choose and so
asks for your advice. Please write him a reply (approx. 200
words) stating arguments for 1-2 properties, also explain
your arguments against the others. Here is the letter you
received.
Dear Richard,
I hope you are well. This is just a short note to ask for your help.
Weve finally decided to move outside London, however its very difficult
for us to choose a new home. You know with 3 children (Sharon 4, Ann 9,
David 15), you need to think twice before you move. Sarah and I will
continue working in London of course. As we lack the time and expertise to
look after a garden, this makes our decision even harder. Whats more, we
need a guest-room in case family members and friends pay a visit.
Please have a look at my enclosed notes about the possible properties and
say what you think. We hope you are all well.
Regards,
John
56

Camelford property
Reception Rooms: 1
Bedrooms: 2
Bathrooms: 2
Type of Property: Flat
Central Heating: Electric

Parking Facilities: Off Street
Gardens: Front & Rear
Near Shops: Yes
Near School: Yes
Price: 195,000
Barry property
Reception Rooms: 1
Bedrooms: 4
Bathrooms: 2
Type of Property: SemiDetached
Central Heating: Oil

Parking Facilities: Garage
Near Shops: Yes
Near School: Yes
Price: 249,950
Wallingford property
Reception Rooms: 2
Bedrooms: 3
Bathrooms: 1
Type of Property: Detached
Central Heating: Gas

Parking Facilities: On Street
Double Glazed: Yes
Near Shops: Yes
Near School: Yes
Price: 315,000
Kent property
Reception Rooms: 3
Bedrooms: 5
Bathrooms: 2
Type of Property: Detached

Burglar Alarm: Yes
Parking Facilities: Double
Garage
Near Shops: Yes
Near School: Yes
Price: 419,995
Walderslade property
Reception Rooms: 1
Bedrooms: 3
Bathrooms: 2
Type of Property: SemiDetached

Parking Facilities: Garage
Near Shops: Yes
Near School: Yes
Price: 127,995
Figure 3.13 Task with combined text-based and picture input
This task fails to meet several of the criteria of a good writing assessment task.
The rubric is incomplete and the task description and the input are overwhelming.
The length of the script is specified, and it would make the evaluation of the task
more objective if the time for its completion was also available. The writer has a
large amount of information to process before writing the script, and some of the
information is incomplete or inappropriate.
57
In order to produce a script that meets the requirements of the task, the writer
must combine information included in the instructions, the letter and the notes on
the houses. For instance, the number of children given in the letter must be
related to the number of bedrooms available in the five houses. Similarly, the
friends gardening experience and the types and number of gardens that come
with the houses must also be taken in consideration. The problem is not only the
large number of content points emerging from the prompt and the letter that must
be fitted into 200 words, but the nature of the abilities that a successful
completion of the task requires. Combining the information given throughout the
task with the assumed specialised knowledge about housing is not primarily a
language skill and certainly not a writing skill that could be measured in a language
examination.
The situation described in the task is unrealistic for school-age test takers. The
writers can only be males (called Richard) or have to assume the role of a male and
should have considerable expertise concerning houses and flats. Furthermore, they
should be able to understand the problems of a family with three children who are
not particularly good at gardening and should be able to take these problems into
consideration when they give advice to their friend.
The instructions are unclear and show that the task was not piloted as carefully
as it could have been. Test takers are told to present arguments for one or two
properties, so while some test takers choose to argue for two houses, others will
only argue for one. However, offering such options may not meet the expectations
of the examiner. Arguing for two houses means, for instance, that the writer must
produce more language and handle and organise more ideas within the script. It
would be difficult to evaluate two scripts with the same set of criteria if their
content were incomparable.
Test takers are also instructed to say why they disfavour the remaining three or
four houses. This is an unrealistic expectation in a script whose length is set at 200
words. If test takers must address so many different subtopics, they cannot develop
any of them and as a result they may well compose a script that reads like a list.
Moreover, test takers are expected to imagine themselves in an inadequately
described and unrealistic situation and perform a task that cannot be completed
within the specified word limit. In comparison with the script to be produced, the
amount of information that must be processed is an unrealistic expectation. The
task cannot be used in this form for assessment purposes.
The task presented in Figure 3.14 is a modified version of this poorly designed
writing assessment task. Test takers are given the time they may take over the task
and the expected length of their scripts. They must imagine a situation which is
probable and in which the participants, the relationship between them, the reason
why they communicate in writing, and the reason for writing the letter are clearly
defined, plausible and natural.
The abbreviated form of the pen-friends name is identical for both females and
males, so in the salutation the use of the forward slash can be avoided (Dear
Philip/Philippa Dear Phil). The letter input has been removed, and the number of
houses has been reduced to two. The information about the houses has also been
58
tailored to the time and length requirements, and is displayed in a table to make it
easier to interpret. The layout of the pictures and the organisation of the
information in the table is identical (house first and flat second) to avoid confusion.
You and your pen-friend from Greece (Philip/Philippa) will

spend three weeks next summer in England. You will learn
English at a language school in Hastings and can stay in a
detached house outside the city or in a flat in the city. The
rent is almost the same for either the house or the flat, so
your parents have decided to let you choose. Write a letter to
your friend and say whether you would like to stay in the
house or in the flat. Give reasons for your choice. Use the
information from the brochure the school sent you.
Detached house
Flat
Detached House
Flat
Living Rooms
Bedrooms
Bathrooms
Front & Rear
Front
6 km
2 km
Gardens
Distance from school
take the local bus
walk
Write your letter in the space below in 45 minutes using no

more than 200 words. Do not write any dates or addresses.
Dear Phil,
Figure 3.14 The revised version of the task with combined text-based and
picture input
59
The pictures could be removed because there is enough information provided

in the table to give ideas for the writer. However, the additional visual stimulus
may give ideas for less creative test takers. For instance, comparing the picture
featuring the detached house standing alone in the middle of a green garden with
the picture of the building with flats neatly arranged under one roof, test takers
may think of advantages and disadvantages in terms of giving a party or having
their friends over to their house or flat, studying in the garden, or meeting and
chatting with next door neighbours to practise their English.
Concluding remarks
Teachers who design or revise writing assessment tasks should first be familiar
with the criteria of a good writing assessment task. They should know the function
and characteristic features of the rubric and the various types of prompts. Novice
writers of lower language ability must be given tasks with detailed prompts
(framed or text-based prompts) because their main problem is that they only have
limited language resources. Unlike the more proficient users of a foreign language
who have better writing skills, they should not be expected to generate content or
to spend their time on planning. Therefore, they must be assisted by providing
well-organised and sufficient input for the content of the script they produce.
More proficient users of a language, who enjoy more freedom as a result of
their greater language resources, can be provided with less input. They can be
expected to generate ideas of their own and sequence them logically in their
scripts. Such test takers can attempt tasks with a base prompt.
Teachers designing writing assessment tasks should pilot their tasks. Piloting is a
complex yet indispensable part of the designing process that provides teachers
with essential information about the task. The result of the designing process is not
only a writing assessment task suitable for testing purposes. Teachers who develop
a thorough understanding of the elements of a task and how these elements work
can provide more help for their students preparing for language examinations and
they themselves should become better raters.
However, familiarity with the criteria of a good writing task and the stages that
the designing process includes is not enough. Teachers wishing to test their
students writing skills must also develop a basic understanding of the
characteristic features of various text types. The following chapters discuss the
most common text types that occur in modern European examinations.
blank page p. 60
Chapter 4
Letter
General characteristics of the text type
The letter is a piece of writing frequently used for teaching and testing language skills.
In language examinations letter tasks simulate the circumstances in which people turn
to this means of communication in everyday life: for instance, candidates reply to a
letter given in the task the same way they would reply in real life to a letter sent to
them by a friend or an official body. As a consequence, the addressees (the people/organisations to whom letters are written) and reasons for writing in such tasks are truly
diverse, so the candidate must be prepared to write letters of different formality levels
(e.g. informal, semi-formal, formal), with the appropriate layout (e.g. date under the
senders address in the top right hand corner of a formal letter), for a variety of purposes (e.g. asking or giving information), and on a wide range of topics.
Formal letters are written to individuals representing official bodies, companies
or organisations, to people who the writer does not know personally or does not
know well. Such letters are about issues which are not personal and are written in
order to get something done. The purpose for writing varies according to what the
writer wants to achieve: to order a service, to apply for a job, to request
information, to complain about something, to raise an issue in a magazine, etc.
What the writer achieves with such letters is to get the required service, have a job
interview, obtain the needed information, get a refund, or draw the attention of
the readers of a magazine to a particular issue.
In teaching materials letter types are distinguished and labelled depending on
the purpose for writing. Thus, for instance, the letter in which writers ask for
further information about an advertised service is called a letter of request; the letter
they compose in order to get a summer job is called an application letter; and the
letter in which they express dissatisfaction is called a letter of complaint.
Formal letters are usually tested in higher level examinations and although the
rubrics do not always specify explicitly the style of the type of the letter that the
candidate must write, such information can be inferred from the description of the
context of writing and the specification of the content of the letter. For example,
candidates may be instructed to reply to the advertisement of an Au Pair agency in
London without being told about the style of the type of letter expected. They can
work out from the advertisement looking for au pairs that they have to write a
letter of application using formal style since they are writing to an audience which
they do not know.
Informal or personal letters are written to known readers, family members or
friends, primarily with the purpose of keeping in touch. Personal letters are not
usually categorised and labelled according to the purpose for writing but they can be
found in teaching and testing materials of any language proficiency level. Personal
letters are favoured by materials designers and language test developers because they
make possible the teaching and testing of any lexical field (related words and
62
expressions like father, mother, brother, sister, uncle, aunt), and any rhetorical mode (e.g.
narration, description, argumentation). For example, in a letter to a friend in which
the writer tells about a new house the family has bought, the candidate may use
words commonly associated with a house (types of rooms, their size, arrangement)
and the rhetorical mode called description. In a letter in which the writer gives an
account of a weekend she spent hiking with classmates, the candidate may use a lot of
words characteristic of hiking and the mode called narration (e.g. a lot of verbs and
time expressions). The following two scripts illustrate the combination of the
vocabulary needed to give a description of a room (Figure 4.1) and words associated
with camping and narration within the text type called personal letter (Figure 4.2).
Dear David,
Dear Chris,
This is my first letter from our new

home. We moved house last week,
and we are all very happy!
Everything is so new and bright
here, and I have my own room! Its
spacious and it has a big balcony that
looks on to the park opposite our
house.
Next to my bed theres a shelf for
my books and some magazines. My
hi-fi is in the opposite corner of the
room and theres a cosy armchair in
front of it. I just love sitting in it,
reading and listening to music.
However, the best thing in my
room is a large desk, which looks
really special. I designed it for the
new room and helped my father to
make it. Its really big, so I can study
at it, but I can also use my computer
that I got for my birthday on it. I
love chatting on the net!
How are you? Im fine. I have just

come back from a wonderful bike tour,
which took place in the hills. The only
bad thing was that we couldnt continue the tour on Sunday, because the
weather was awful and my parents took
us home.
The tour started on Friday morning.
I and my friend Tom decided to go
camping in the hills because the
forecast said that it will be a sunny
weekend. The first night we hadnt
any problems, we pitched the tent and
fried bacon. At midnight we put out
the fire and then we went sleeping. The
second day was the same as the first,
but on Sunday morning it was raining
heavily with a strong wind, so we knew
that we couldnt stay there any more.
We put all our things in the bags and
cycled down from the hills to the town
to call my parents because we hadnt
got any dry clothes and we might have
caught cold. My parents took us home
and gave us dry clothes.
I hope next time I will not leave
my raincoat at home. Have you ever
had such an experience? I hope you
enjoyed my letter.
Well, Im off for now.

Bye,
Kati
Your friend
Tni
Figure 4.1 Personal letter with description
Figure 4.2 Personal letter with narration
Chapter 4 Letter
63
The writer of the letter in Figure 4.1 describes the room generally by using the
words spacious and bright. The description from an outside perspective (it has a big
balcony which looks on to a park) is followed by a detailed description of the room
from the inside (bed, shelf, corner, cosy armchair, big desk) with the use of several
prepositions of place (next to, opposite, in front of) that help the reader imagine it.
The script in Figure 4.2 tells a story about camping, using words relevant to the
topic (go camping in the hills, pitched the tent, put out the fire). The words that are
characteristic of the rhetorical mode are the numerous verbs and time phrases
(started on Friday morning, The first night, At midnight, then, The second day) that make the
script dynamic.
Formal and personal letters share the features characteristic of letters. Both have
to specify at least the senders and addressees addresses, contain a salutation, a
closing sentence, and a signing off. These elements and the way they are laid out
distinguish a letter from all other text types (e.g. article, report). Formal and
personal letters are, however, different in a number of ways and candidates must
be aware of these differences.
Layout and organisation
Although the spread of computers and e-mail messages has diversified the
accepted layout of letters, letter writers must conform to certain conventions if
they are to write acceptable letters.
Most formal and personal letters start with the senders address placed in the
top right hand corner of the letter. What candidates tend to forget is that the
senders name does not have to be put above the address. In the case of personal
letters, some language examinations explicitly instruct candidates not to write any
postal addresses on the letter. If candidates are not explicitly asked to disregard
this convention, they should include both the senders and the addressees address.
Furthermore, the format of the address should follow the conventions
characteristic of the country where the letter is from. A Hungarian candidate
writing to an English person from a Hungarian address should not use the British
address format for the Hungarian address (e.g. put the house number before the
street name: 6 Mlna u.). The Hungarian address must follow the format stipulated
by the Hungarian Post and the British address the format specified by the British
Post.
The date must be positioned one line below the senders address. However, if
candidates do not have to write postal addresses, they can also choose to ignore
specifying the date. In fact, some examinations explicitly ask candidates not to
write dates. In case the date is included, the writer should use the format
consistent with the spelling type: day/month/year with British English or
month/day/year with American English spelling.
The title, name and address of the addressee must be written in a formal letter
on the left hand side of the page. If the name of the person to whom the letter is
addressed is not known, the writer can identify the addressee by title (To the General
Manager of the Store, To the Editor). This information is usually given in the test rubrics.
64
In some language examinations the salutation is given in the task (Dear Sir, Dear
Miss Brown, or Dear Tom), so the candidate does not need to worry about selecting
the stylistically appropriate form or about selecting the form appropriate to a given
national variety (certain conventions in British English and American English are
different). The salutation, however, determines the type of signing off as well as
the punctuation that can be used after it, and this information is not always given
for the candidate. Table 4.1. presents some typical combinations of salutation and
signing off forms.
Table 4.1. Salutations and forms of singing off
Salutation
Dear Sir
Dear Miss Brown
Dear Ann/Tom
Signing off
Yours faithfully (BE)
Yours truly (AE)
Yours sincerely (BE)
Sincerely (yours) (AE)
All the best / Kindest regards / Yours / Bye
There is a confusing variety of combinations of punctuation marks used in

letters nowadays even in course books, and it may appear that any punctuation is
acceptable. However, a few basic rules must be observed, since especially in the
case of an examination it is advisable that the candidate follows an accepted
standard. The key characteristic feature of standards is consistency, so if no
punctuation mark is used after the salutation, no punctuation mark should be used
after the signing off. If a comma is used after the salutation, a comma should be
used after the signing off. The mixing of punctuation marks should be avoided,
except in the case of U.S. formal letters in which often a colon is used after the
salutation and a comma after the signing off.
The body of the letter must normally be organised into paragraphs that may be
either indented or block paragraphs. It is important that the candidate uses one
type of paragraph consistently throughout the letter, and that the paragraphs not
only break up the text visually but do indeed mark logical units within the text
(ideas related to the different aspects of a topic are grouped together in separate
paragraphs). Nevertheless, the use of paragraphs may not be necessary: a series of
one-sentence paragraphs looks awkward and makes reading difficult, so this
should be avoided. This is especially true in lower level examinations, where the
candidates do not have the language resources necessary to develop in detail
several subtopics in a letter and therefore write a string of simple, short sentences
linked with simple connectors.
Before the signing off there is an ending or closing sentence that is not fixed for
personal letters, but is usually fixed for most formal letters on the basis of the
purpose for which the letter is written (Thank you in anticipation for ..., I look forward to
). Such closing sentences form a paragraph on their own and this must be
indicated with the use of indentation or empty lines before and after them.
In formal letters it is important that candidates leave some space after the signing
off and may put down their full printed name to make sure that it is legible. They
Chapter 4 Letter
65
must insert their signature between the signing off and the printed name. This is
straightforward when the writer is word processing a letter, but candidates tend to
forget it when they write formal letters in a language examination.
Content
It is a must for both formal and personal letters that they are carefully organised and
communicate clear ideas. However, similarly to the layout of formal letters, the rules
that apply to the content of formal letters are also stricter. Formal letters are written
with a specific purpose and they must be clear and brief. The writer must state the
purpose for writing in the introductory paragraph of the letter (Figure 4.3). By
stating the purpose the writer also introduces the general topic of the letter.
I am writing to request information about the au pair job you advertised
in the Budapest Sun in May.
Purpose: asking for information
Topic: an au pair job advertisement
******************
My name is Anna Tams and I am writing you because when I was in England in your
camp last week I left one of my bags there and I hope you can find it and send it for me.
Purpose: asking for help
Topic: bag left at a campsite
Figure 4.3 Sample introductory paragraphs from letters of request
The information in the body of the letter must be organised in logical sequence
with enough detail so as to make it possible for the reader to understand the
message the writer wishes to communicate. The last paragraph of the letter should
summarise the letter and restate its main purpose. Alternatively, the main purpose
can be restated in the closing sentence (I would be grateful if you could send me by FAX a
confirmation letter concerning the room reservation).
Unlike a formal letter, a personal letter can have a more relaxed organisation. It
usually begins with introductory questions and chatty comments before the reason
for writing is stated. For example: How are you? I am pretty tired because we had an awful
trip at the weekend or How are you? Im fine. I was happy to receive your letter. What was your
summer holiday like?
The body of the letter must contain relevant and sufficient information
organised logically. The ending in a personal letter can be an excuse to finish
writing (I must stop writing because my friends may arrive any minute now. We are going to watch
a movie I rented) or a closing statement that brings the letter to an end (Well, that is all
my news). A personal letter, which is usually less carefully planned than a formal
letter, may contain afterthoughts added after the signature and introduced by the
abbreviation PS (postscript).
66
Style
One of the most noticeable features that make the difference between formal and
personal letters is style. Style is usually associated with the kinds of words writers
use and the way they use them; however, style involves more than this. In the case
of letters the layout itself carries information about style (e.g. with the inclusion of
addresses in formal letters). Conciseness and chattiness are also characteristic
features of formal and personal letters respectively. The tone and grammar of a
text also contribute to the shaping of its style. Some features of the style of formal
and personal letters that language course books do not usually discuss are
summarised in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Differences between formal and informal style
Formal Style
Tone
Impersonal tone realised with the use of:
passive structures
It sentences (It is often argued )
last names
formal linking words and phrases
(moreover nevertheless in addition to , contrary
to )
Grammar
prepositions and relative pronouns used
together (I received a rejection from an employer
for a job for which I knew I was qualified.)
relative pronouns included (The woman
whom he admired )
co-ordinating linking words (and or but)
between clauses in a sentence
Vocabulary
neutral / formal
no shortened word forms no slang
Informal Style
Personal tone, realised with the use of:

active structures
direct reference to/involvement of the reader
(e.g. Heres some news for you Can you believe it?)
first names
attitude words and phrases (anyway well luckily
right lets)
separated prepositions and relative pronouns
(I didnt get the job which I applied for.)
relative pronouns left out (The woman she
admired )
co-ordinating linking words (and or but) at the
beginning of sentences
colloquial vocabulary and expressions

shortened word forms slang allowed
Formal letters
Formal letters are categorised and labelled on the basis of their purpose. The most
frequent types of formal letters that candidates write in examinations are letters of
application, letters of complaint, letters to the editor, and letters asking for
information. Formal letters require an advanced command of the language;
therefore, candidates do not usually have to write formal letters in lower level
language examinations or are not tested for the conventions of letter writing
layout.
Chapter 4 Letter
67
Application letters
The letter of application begins with the specification of the reason for writing (e.g.
I am writing to apply for ... , I am writing to you with reference to ...). Writers may be applying
for instance for a job, a course, or a scholarship. In order to let the reader know
which job they are referring to, the name of the job must also be mentioned in the
letter together with where and when the writers saw it advertised.
After writers have made it clear to the reader what they are applying for, they
must give the reason why they want to apply for the job. This should be followed
with a description of the personal qualities, qualifications and practical skills that
make the writer suitable for the job.
At the end of the letter, writers can thank the readers for their time and
consideration, repeat the reason for writing, or state that they look forward to
receiving a response. The following are typical sentences for ending a letter of
application:
Thank you for your consideration.
Thank you for considering me for this position.
Thank you very much for your time and consideration. I look forward to hearing from you.
Thank you for your time and consideration of my qualifications.
I am very interested in ... . I look forward to hearing from you.
68
Study the sample task given in Figure 4.4 and read the sample script following
it (Figure 4.5).
You would like to work in England for a year. You have read
this advertisement in a magazine:
SECRETARY WANTED URGENTLY
Word-processing experience required.
Minimum intermediate level English.
Italian useful but not essential.
To apply write to:
THE GIANNI VALDO ORGANISATION
The Capital House, Oak Road, Colindale, London
NW9 OED
Write a letter of application.
In your letter write about:
why you are writing
your education
your word-processing experience
your language skills
when you could start the job
Write a letter of about 120 words in an appropriate style. Do
not write any dates or addresses.
Dear Sir or Madam,
Figure 4.4 Letter of application task
In the body of the letter, the writer provides all the relevant pieces of
information that the advertisement requests (word-processing skills, English and
Italian knowledge) and adds further relevant details that may enhance her chances
of getting the job (work experience).
Chapter 4 Letter
69
Dear Sir or Madam,

I read your job advertisement and would like to apply
for the job.
I finished the secondary school two years ago. Since
we learnt type-writing and how to use wordprocessors, I am very good at both of them. Due to an
Italian friend of mine, I worked for an Italian
company as a secretary, so I have the experience of
being a secretary. I can make all the machines operate,
that a secretary works with. I could also get acquainted
with the Italian language itself, which resulted in a
progress in the level of my Italian. I also passed the
intermediate language exam in English a year ago.
I returned home from Italy a month ago, so I do
not have a job at the moment. I can start to work
whenever you want me to start. I can also go for an
interview at any time.
I would be happy if we could talk about the job.
Please contact me at any time.
Yours faithfully,
B.Zs.
Figure 4.5 Sample letter of application
The letter ends with the candidate restating her interest in the position and her
availability, which may also better her chances of getting the job. Overall, the letter
communicates the message of the writer and a careful reader should have no
difficulties in understanding it in spite of the language mistakes.
70
Letter of complaint
The letter of complaint, which can also be an open letter addressed to the editor,
starts with the specification of the reason for writing, the statement of the
complaint (e.g. I am writing to protest/complain about ... ). Writers must state clearly what
they are complaining about and provide as much detail as is necessary for the
readers to understand the problem.
You and your parents spent a 10-day holiday at a hotel whose
advertisement you can see below:
ABBEYGLEN CASTLE HOTEL
Clifden, Connemara, Co. Galway, Eire.
Abbeyglen Castle is a four star luxury hotel set in idyllic
Gardens with Open Fires, Candlelight Dining, Elegant
Bedrooms, Jacuzzi Spa Pool, Sauna, Afternoon Tea, Car
Parking, Porterage, warm welcome and peace and quiet.
Golf, Fishing, Pony Trekking and Hill Walking nearby.
Pets welcome.
SPECIAL OFFERS
Any 3 days June 179
Any three days July/August 199
DINNER, BED AND BREAKFAST
Some of the services listed in the advertisement were not
available. Write a letter of about 150 words to the manager in
which you complain about the following:
no porter on arrival long wait
spa pool, sauna under construction
camera stolen from the car in the car park
neighbouring disco noisy at night
Do not write any dates or addresses.
Dear Sir or Madam,
Figure 4.6 Letter of complaint task

Candidates often highlight a problem and explain the reasons for their
complaint but do not suggest what action they expect from the reader (an
Chapter 4 Letter
71
alternative arrangement, an apology, a refund or some other compensation, or a

replacement). Such letters usually end with the writers polite suggestion for action
and request an answer, so students must learn to end a complaint letter in this
manner. A few examples of concluding sentences are provided below:
I look forward to your reply and a resolution of my complaint.
I look forward to receiving an apology and a correction of the facts.
I look forward to your early reply. Should you require any further information please contact me.
I look forward to your response.
Study the sample task given in Figure 4.6 and read the sample script (Figure 4.7).
Dear Sir or Madam,
My family and me have just returned from a stay at your hotel. We
are very disappointed, to say the least, with some of what we
experienced during our stay.
On arrival there was nobody to receive us and we had to wait for a
long time before we could register and go to our rooms. We wanted
to go to the pool to swim and to spend some time in the sauna, but
they were under reconstruction, as you know.
Two days later our digital camera was stolen from our car parked
in the car park of the hotel. The receptionist told us she was sorry but
did not do anything to help. She told us that it was no use going to
the police.
Your advertisement said that the hotel is peaceful and quiet, but
there was a disco close to it and the noise was very unpleasant in the
evenings.
I believe that you should not advertise services that you cannot
offer and hope that you can give us a refund.
I look forward to your response.
Yours faithfully,
L.Sz.
Figure 4.7 Sample letter of complaint
The writer effectively identifies the complaint in the introductory paragraph of
the letter in Figure 4.7. The reader, who is the manager of the hotel, learns that
the writer is a customer who writes because he was displeased with the service.
The body of the letter formulates the justification of the complaint. The writer
lists the reasons why the members of his family think that the hotel did not
provide the quality service promised in the advertisement. The claim that the
service was poor is substantiated with a series of relevant and concrete examples.
Having justified the complaint, the writer demands that the manager should do
72
two things: advertise more carefully and consider giving a refund for the
displeased customers. The candidate thus not only formulates a complaint in the
letter but does so with a specific reason, argues his case convincingly and asks for a
specific action and a reply. He is objective and maintains a polite and dispassionate
tone throughout, which are the key features of an effective complaint letter.
Letter to the Editor
A letter to the editor is written to express an opinion about current events, issues,
topics, or about articles published in newspapers or magazines. In the introduction
writers must state their reason for writing, the topic they wish to address and their
opinion about it (e.g. I am writing with regard to your recent review of the ..., I feel I have to
express my disagreement with ... ). It is important that the writers clearly identify the
topic that they are discussing so that readers know whether they are expressing
their opinion about an article published in an earlier issue of the newspaper or
magazine, a new film, or the latest developments in politics.
You have found out that the local council is planning to close your
school, Rzsa Sndor Secondary School, and sell the building. You
will not be taught by your teachers, and you have to go to a school
which does not have a green area and is not so pleasant as your
own school.
You have decided with your schoolmates to write about this
plan to all the major newspapers published in Hungary.
Write a letter of about 150-180 words long to the editor of an
English language newspaper published in Budapest in which you
describe the situation and state your reasons why the school should
not be closed.
To the Editor:
Figure 4.8 Letter to the editor task

Writers must support their opinion about the topic in the body of the letter.
Some typical sentences introducing the writers opinion that are used in letters to
the editor are the following:
I am totally opposed to ...
It worries me that ...
Although .... I still believe ....
I was distressed at the number of
Chapter 4 Letter
73
In the concluding paragraph writers must summarise their opinion and can
make some suggestions. Letters to the editor must be written carefully, so as to be
easy to understand; furthermore, they must be to the point and accurate. They can
also be witty or ironic if the use of these forms of expression makes the message
more effective. The style of a letter to the editor is usually semi-formal or formal.
The usual salutation in such letters is To the Editor, and the appropriate closing
formulas are Yours faithfully or Yours truly.
Study the sample task given in Figure 4.8 and read the sample script (Figure 4.9).
To the Editor:
I am a student attending Rzsa Sndor secondary school and we
have just leant that our school will close because there is no
money. We will lose our teachers and the building and the park
and have to go to another school. But we dont want that.
We like our school. Although the building almost lies in pieces,
and the lunch is very bad. This isnt only my opinion, lots of my
friends and other students are on this opinion. But the teaching is
very good. The schools teachers are in the bests. Personally I like
this school very much because of the physics and chemistry classes.
I do not like the human classes, but I know that all people must
know these things too and they can learn it well here.
I like that most of these students are very intelligent and they
have good behaviour so we can learn well at lessons.
This school is good in Hungary by watching the examination test
for universities. These teachers are capable for new things (both old
and young teachers), for example in physics and chemistry the
newest scientific thing. In this school you never bored.
I like this school because it has a park. I sit there with my
friends and talk after the school. We can play football.
So I dont want to go to another school.
Sincerely,
H.J.
Figure 4.9 Sample letter to the editor
The writer of the letter to the editor (Figure 4.9) introduces the topic of the
letter to the reader and includes the reason why the school is about to be closed.
The position of the writer and her schoolmates is stated clearly: they do not wish
to go to another school. In the body of the letter the writer discusses the reasons
why she likes her school.
74
The support is constructed highly persuasively. The writer first describes the
major weaknesses of the school (its state of repair and the quality of the food
served in the schools canteen), and following this she contrasts these negative
features with the best that the school can offer: effectively taught humanity
subjects, the company of intelligent and disciplined students, good teachers who
are up-to-date and can prepare students for university entrance examinations, and
finally the park.
The conclusion is short and restates the main idea of the letter, although in a
slightly changed format since the writer shifted the focus from we to I in the body
of the letter. In spite of the frequent inaccuracies, the writer manages to construct
a reasoned argument which is persuasive and which the reader can follow.
Letter of Request
The letter of request is written in order to obtain additional information on goods,
services, facilities, jobs, courses, etc. Writers must specify in the first paragraph the
purpose for writing and what they wish to receive information about (I am writing to
inquire about ...). The main body of the letter must focus on the information the
writer requires. In this section of the letter some candidates write only questions,
and as a result the letter becomes a string of loosely connected questions that do
not read like a coherent piece of writing. To avoid this, candidates should be
advised to use a variety of question types and alternate direct and reported
questions with statements. The following excerpt from a script illustrates this type
of deficiency where there are too many questions with little interconnection:
I would like to ask some questions. I would like to know which subjects are
taught in the school. Only human subjects or realistic subjects, too? What kind of
class sizes are in your school? Do the students have to wear the school uniform? If
there is uniform, do we have to make it? How much fee do we have to pay in a
year? Which foreign languages are taught in the school? Can the students sport?
And which social, cultural and sporting programmes are there?
The closing sentence must repeat the request and thank the reader for her help.
The following are closing sentences used to end a letter of request:
I would be grateful if you could send me a catalogue.
Thank you in anticipation for your help.
I would be grateful if you could clarify whether I can apply for the position.
Chapter 4 Letter
75
it (Figure 4.11).
You have a 10-year-old brother. Your parents would like to

send him to an English-speaking school. They have read this
advertisement in a Budapest newspaper:
British International School

British international education for students aged 5 to 19
Academic and personal development
Foreign languages
Social, cultural and sporting programmes
For more information write to: Dr. Paul Gregg,
Headmaster
Budapest, H-1113 Pasa u. 8.
Your parents have asked you to write a letter to the
headmaster of the school. In your letter say:
why you are writing
and ask about:
the subjects taught in the school
class sizes
the school uniform
the fee to pay
Write a letter of about 100-120 words in an appropriate style.
Dear Dr. Gregg,
Figure 4.10 Letter of request task
76
Dear Dr. Gregg,

I am writing to you because Ive read the
advertisement of your school in a newspaper. I
would like to know more about it because my tenyear-old brother wants to attend an English speaking
school.
I would like to know more about the subjects you
teach in your school. Which are the most popular
with the students? And what other subjects do you
teach besides foreign languages?
Im interested in how big the classes are, and I
would like to know if students have to wear a school
uniform and if we should have it made or we can buy
it in your school.
I have another important question: how much is
the fee that we have to pay? We are not so wealthy
and I would like to know if theres any chance to pay
the fee in parts.
Thank you for your help. Im looking forward to
your answer.
Yours sincerely,
A.G.
Figure 4.11 Sample letter of request
The writer of the letter of request (Figure 4.11) gives the reader enough
background information to understand the writing situation and to be able to
follow him. In the introduction he states the reason for writing clearly. This is
important because it is the writers responsibility to make the text straightforward
so that the reader does not have to interpret it as would be the case with a piece of
creative writing (e.g. a poem). Interpretation may lead to the distortion of the
message, in other words, if the readers have to guess what the writer intends to
communicate, they may guess something different instead of the intended
message.
The body of the letter consists of a string of indirect questions that read more
naturally than the series of questions in the excerpt given previously. The writer
finishes the letter effectively by thanking the reader and politely urging her to
reply.
Chapter 4 Letter
77
Personal letters
Personal letters can be written for a variety of purposes and the candidates may be
asked to write about any topic using any rhetorical mode. Since personal letters are
less difficult than formal letters, they are frequent in lower level examinations,
some of which do not test the conventions of letter writing layout.
it (Figure 4.13).
You spent your last holiday in Keszthely at Lake Balaton.

You took a day trip in the countryside with your family.
Write a short letter to your pen-friend about it, and use all
the information from the illustration.
Write a letter of about 120 words on the lines. Do not

write any dates or addresses.
Dear Chris,
Figure 4.12 Personal letter task
78
Dear Chris,
Im writing you again. I spent two weeks in Keszthely, at lake
Balaton. I was there with my family. It was good, very very good,
and it was not boring!
We had a day trip on Sunday. We got up at 7 oclock, and after a
quick breakfast we left Keszthely at 8. a.m. We went to Smeg and
spent there one and a half hour. The castle was old and beautiful.
We drunk a coffee there and after it we left the castle.
We arrived to Borgta at about 12 oclock. We had a long bath in
Borgtas thermal water, and after a freshing shower we had a
delicious lunch at a restaurant. There was many people who wanted
to eat, so the waiter was very busy!
We left Borgta at 3 oclock and we went to the Kis-Balaton,
where we could see many coloured bird at the lake, and I took
many photoes, Ill show them next time!
We went back Keszthely after the birdwatching. We were tired and
a summer rain caught us. But finally we arrived there, to Keszthely!
See you soon,
x.y.
Figure 4.13 Sample personal letter
The candidate introduces the topic of the personal letter (Figure 4.13) and the
reader can guess that the script will be an account of the trip. The events are narrated
in chronological order: there are frequent logical references to time throughout the
body of the letter. The script is therefore coherent and easy to follow.
The writer acknowledges the presence of the reader in three instances: in the
introduction (Im writing you again), in the body (I took many photoes, Ill show them next
time), and in the signing off (See you soon). Addressing the reader directly is a
characteristic feature of informal language use, so it is stylistically appropriate in a
friendly letter.
Closing remarks
The types of formal and informal letters represent the letters that occur most
frequently in language examinations. The sample scripts show that even a text type
as common as the letter can cause candidates a range of difficulties that are not
language- but primarily text type-specific. Writing tutors have to focus, therefore,
on the development of their students sense of audience and purpose. They must
teach and practice the conventions typical of the letter in preparation for language
Chapter 4 Letter
79
examinations so that their students can concentrate on the content of their letters
in an examination.
Whereas on the surface it seems that the different letter types are very much
alike, and in some respects (such as the statement of the purpose for writing in the
introduction) they are indeed uniform, a closer analysis reveals that their content
and organisation vary with the purpose for which they are written. The following
section contains letter writing tasks suitable for the practice of formal and informal
letters written for a variety of purposes and audiences.
Writing teachers are encouraged to use these letter writing tasks for assessment
purposes. They should teach the various letter writing tasks and practise them with
the help of the tasks available in course books. Once students have mastered
writing a particular type of letter, they can attempt one of the tasks below.
The expected length of the scripts to be written is given for each task and
students should complete each task in half an hour. Whereas the use of
dictionaries should be practised in classroom writing activities and students should
be encouraged to use dictionaries when they are writing at home, teachers should
not allow the use of dictionaries when their students are taking an in-class writing
test. The most important reason for this is that students spend a lot of time looking
up words and may fail to complete the task in half an hour.
Teachers are encouraged to mark the scripts produced by the students with the
help of an analytical scale (p. 127 later in the book) and give separate scores and
feedback to students on Task Achievement, Coherence and Cohesion, Vocabulary
and Grammar. Such detailed feedback helps apprentice writers to identify their
weaknesses and to focus on improving them. Alternatively, teachers may decide to
focus only on the content and organisation of ideas in the first draft of the letter
and leave the correction of vocabulary and grammar to the second draft. It can also
help to improve the students writing skills if the teacher asks them to correct their
scripts with the help of the feedback received and to submit it again for a second
reading.
Tips for the writer
Use the appropriate layout for a letter.

Include addresses and the date in the letter unless you are instructed not to
do so.
Use the standard address format for both English and local addresses. Do
not translate local postal addresses.
Read the task carefully before you decide what type of letter to write.
Use a signing off consistent with the salutation and use punctuation
appropriately and consistently.
Use the same style from the beginning to the end of the letter.
80
Practice Tasks
Formal Letter Tasks
Task 1
You were in a summer camp in England. You left a small bag there. Write to the
camp and say:
why you are writing
what the bag is like
what there was in it
why the bag is important for you
And ask
how to get it back
Write a letter of about 120 words. Do not write any dates or addresses.
Dear Sir or Madam,
Task 2
Your school would like to take part in an international student exchange project.
You have been asked to write a letter of introduction of about 150-200 words to
the staff and the students of the potential partner schools.
In your letter:
introduce yourself briefly
say why you are writing
tell about your school briefly
mention some activities the students do after school
tell about your schools aims in the project
Write your letter in an appropriate style. Do not write any dates or addresses.
Task 3
You have read an article in an English language newspaper published in Hungary
about the unbearable amount of litter in big Hungarian cities today. Write a letter
of about 120-150 words to the editor of this newspaper in which you express your
opinion on the issue and propose your solutions to the problem.
Task 4
Write a letter of 120-150 words to the editor of an electronic newspaper you read
regularly, expressing your concerns about the relationship between parents and
Chapter 4 Letter
81
children in Hungary. Describe the possible causes of the problem (both parents
and children spend a lot of time working, families do not have time for one
another, they quarrel a lot etc.) and suggest steps for the improvement of the
situation.
Task 5
You have seen the following advertisement in a foreign-language magazine.
Recorded books
Listen to recorded books while you drive or ride to work or school.
Expert narrators bring great books to life.
Contact us by email at talkingbooks@lagoon.net.uk
Write a letter of about 120-150 words in an appropriate style to find out about the
following:
the types of books available
the nationality of the narrators
how to rent a book
and ask for:
a catalogue
a sample cassette
Task 6
In a paper you found the following advertisement for school leavers.
Learn English at a State College
DO NOT MISS: SCHOOL LEAVERS LANGUAGE COURSE
big or small groups
modern or traditional methods
accommodation with families or in hotels
sports activities or sightseeing
one or two week courses
If interested contact:
Ms Mary J. Smith, 3 Oak Lane, London, W1N4AP
You would like to attend this course.
82
Write a letter in about 80-100 words in which you explain to Ms Smith the
preferences you have about 2 points made in the advertisement and enquire about
the price.
N.B. Write a few sentences about each point.
Task 7
You and your classmates have just returned from the end-of-year school trip to
Malta. On the last evening you went to an all-night party instead of spending time
on your packing. Now you realise that you must have left TWO very important
possessions behind.
Write a letter of 100-120 words in which you
describe the possessions
explain where you think you left them
offer to pay for all postage costs
Send your letter to:
The Manager
Days Inn
76, Cathedral Street
Sliema
Malta
Task 8
You are spending an academic year at the University of Kent on a students
exchange programme. You are living in Eliot College (staircase E, room 25). The
students living next door have been disturbing you at night for quite a long time.
You have already tried to solve the problem without any success.
Now write a formal letter of complaint to college authorities in which you:
explain the situation by giving one reason for your complaint,
ask the administration for help and suggest what you expect them to do.
Write your letter of 100-120 words to:
Ms Alice Grey, Central Managers Office, University of Kent, Canterbury
Chapter 4 Letter
83
Task 9
The following advertisement persuaded your class to go to Spain for the end-ofyear trip. You were bitterly disappointed to find that 3 points made in the
advertisement were not true. In about 100-120 words write a letter of complaint
to the agency explaining your problems and asking for your money back.
PALM TREE HOTEL

Enjoy a 10 day dream holiday in sunny Spain
Beautiful small hotel by the beach
* fully air-conditioned
* rooms with two or three beds, bathroom
* small private beach
* bicycle and boat hire
* water sports available at nearby Eldorado Hotel sports centre
all meals included in price
* buffet breakfast
* salad bar
evening entertainment
* live music on terrace
* discos just two minutes from hotel
two organised excursions included in price
* moonlight cruise
* fish picnic
For further details contact: Rainbow Tourist Agency, 22
Eldorado Heights, Malaga, Spain
Personal Letter Tasks

Task 1
You met Wanda in a Warsaw summer school, where you practised English with
Central European students. She is visiting you next month. Write her a letter about
your trip home from Poland
a good time you had recently
what you will show her in Hungary
a Hungarian custom
Dear Wanda,
84
Task 2
You want to invite your English pen-friend to visit you in the summer. Write
him/her a letter in which you:
invite him/her
ask about the time of the visit
say something about your home
say what places you want to show him/her
Task 3
Pat, a British student, will visit your school and stay with your family for two
weeks. Write him/her a letter to introduce yourself. Write about:
why you are writing
how you spend your free time
what Pat and you will do together
what clothes to bring
Write a letter of about 100 words. Do not write any dates or addresses. Start your
letter with
Dear Pat,
Task 4
The following text appeared in an internet magazine for students.
Physical Education
by Mary Brecksville, Ohio, US
Everyone says they wish they had more time in the day. I know
how they feel when I have to stay up late to finish homework. If I didnt have
to take P.E. classes, I would have more time for everything.
What is your opinion? Write a letter to Mary. In your letter, write about
your opinion about Marys idea
why some students like PE
why you like or dislike it
what young people could do to have more time
Write about 200 words below. Do not write any dates or addresses.
Dear Mary,
Chapter 4 Letter
85
Task 5
Your school is organising the school-leavers party next month. Write a letter to
your English pen-friend in which you ask for advice about the following:
ball or disco
programme
food and drinks
clothes
Write a letter of about 200 words in an appropriate style. Do not write any dates
or addresses.
Task 6
You have just got back from a bike tour and decided to write about it to your
English pen-friend Chris. The pictures below show what happened to you. Use all
the pictures and write the story of your holiday. Write a letter of about 150 words
in an appropriate style. Do not write any dates or addresses.
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Task 7
You and your family have moved to a little village from a town some weeks ago.
Write a short letter of about 120-150 words to your English friend about the
following points:
the place where you moved
why you decided to move
what the house is like
what you like/dont like about the house
the things you missed
invite your friend to your new place
Write the letter in an appropriate style.
21st September
Dear Peter,
Task 8
Write to your English pen-friend about celebrating your 18th birthday. Write
about:
who you invited to the party
what preparations you made
what you did
if you had a good time
Describe the event in about 150 words in an appropriate style.
Task 9
Your school runs an exchange programme. Your foreign partner (Jane or John)
will come over for a week to stay with you. Here are the things you need to write
about in your letter:
who you are
your family
where you live
your home
a place and programme you will go to together
ask about: food, music and hobbies
Chapter 5
Article
The article is widely used in developing and testing writing competence. It is a
short, self-contained piece of writing on a particular topic with a heading or title,
an introduction, a body and a conclusion. It is written to be published in a
newspaper, a magazine, a newsletter or on a web site. The main function of this
text type is to engage the readers attention in order to communicate a particular
message, for example with the intention to inform, persuade or simply entertain.
The target audience for the article is often a person who is of the same age as the
writer, somebody who shares the same interests as the writer, or a competition
judge, given that an incentive of some kind is often built into the task: writers, for
example, enter a competition in which the best article is published in a magazine,
or they may receive some prize like a trip abroad. The subject of the article can
range from simpler topics like the description of shopping facilities in a city to
more complex ones such as the suggestion of a solution to a problem.
Layout and organisation
Articles must have a title often referred to as a heading. In a language examination
the candidate may be provided with a heading or may be asked to create one. The
heading must be interesting and attractive so as to make the reader want to read
the article. Typical techniques for creating such headings are the use of questions
(Do zoos matter?), dramatic (We dont need another hero) or unfinished statements (A smile
in time ...), or wordplay (How much is much?). However, whichever technique is used a
heading must be informative, that is, it must give the reader an idea what the
article is about. A common mistake that language learners make when writing an
article is that they do not write a heading, which may not only be due to
forgetfulness but to some EFL course books in which articles are presented
without headings.
While the functions of a heading are to attract the readers attention and reveal
the subject or topic of the piece of writing, the next section of the article, the
introduction, must make it clear to the reader what the article is about and what
specific aspect of the topic it addresses. In order to achieve this, the introduction
must outline the content of the article. The introduction thus serves as a transition
between the title and the body of the article. It is a common mistake that language
learners start the article as a letter in spite of the fact that the introductory
statements in a letter are different from the introduction to an article.
The main section of the article is the body. The first requirement concerning
the body in the case of longer articles is that it should be divided into paragraphs:
different ideas should be discussed in separate paragraphs. This helps the reader to
follow the writers discussion of the topic more easily. However, if the article is
88
short and does not contain several ideas discussed in detail, the body may be
drafted as one paragraph. A sequence of one-sentence paragraphs makes a very
poor text.
Nevertheless, one-paragraph texts should not be considered ideal in the case of
longer scripts. It is a general expectation that the body of a developed article
includes description, examples, opinions, comments or even anecdotes, and this
makes it necessary for writers to divide their scripts into paragraphs.
The last section, the conclusion, serves to round off the article. It must conclude
the article by summing up the message the writer wants to express. This can be
done, for example, in the form of a brief summary of the ideas discussed in the
body, or with a restatement of the main idea of the piece. As long as it rounds off
the article, in a short script it is also acceptable to have a question for conclusion.
Content
Article tasks are usually more successfully assigned to language learners of higher
language proficiency; nevertheless, the task type is often included in course books
for learners with a low level of language proficiency. Given that language
competence is a crucial factor that determines the quality of the article, at lower
levels the expectations are lower concerning the complexity and development of
the ideas included in an article as well as the range of grammatical structures and
vocabulary used. Instead of developed introductions and conclusions that can be
expected of a more proficient learner, at lower levels a one sentence introduction
or conclusion is considered satisfactory.
Similarly, while in the case of a higher level learner the reader expects a
developed presentation of an opinion on a problematic or controversial issue (for
example articles discussing issues concerning the environment or endangered
species), in the case of a less proficient learner a simple, evaluation or commentfree description is considered sufficient (for example, an article about a famous
landmark). The lower the language competence of the writer is the less interesting
the topics addressed are and the more superficial the discussion becomes.
Style
The style of the article is determined by the audience and the topic, and it can
range from informal to formal. Articles that are about personal or humorous topics
and are intended for peers can be treated more informally (for example, an article
about the best party the writer has ever been to published in a magazine aimed at
teenagers). Articles that deal with serious topics and are written for a general
audience in order to persuade or to present an opinion on a particular issue must
be neutral or formal in tone (for example, an article for an international travel
magazine for adults on the best sights in and around the writers city). A frequent
mistake of language learners is that they fail to use the same style throughout the
article: they seem to forget about their audience and start mixing the registers
halfway through the script.
Chapter 5 Article
89
Sample article task and script analysis

The sample scripts presented in Figures 5.2 and 5.3 below were written on the
task given in Figure 5.1 and will be examined from the point of view of text-type
features and organisation.
The article is to be written for a school magazine that is published in English.
The readers are primarily the writer's peers, so the style and the content of the
article must be appropriate for them. The first content point helps the candidate to
express the main idea of the article. By answering the question, the candidate takes
a stand on the issue.
The dominant discourse mode of the article is persuasion since the candidate
formulates a claim at the beginning and builds support for it by weighing advantages
against disadvantages. The second and third content points give the candidate the
opportunity to say either that local people benefit from the shopping mall or not. The
candidate can argue both for or against the shopping mall; the content points can be
developed into supporting ideas to support a claim for or against.
You have heard that the local government is planning to build a

new shopping mall with a large parking lot right next to your
school, at the place where there is a large sports ground now. Your
school has an English-language student magazine. You have
decided to write for it an article with the heading Shopping mall or
sports ground? in which you give your opinion about this plan.
In your article consider the following:
Which one is needed more?
Benefits for the local people
Drawbacks for the local people
Effect on the environment
Write your article in about 200-250 words.
Figure 5.1 Article task

The heading for the article is provided in the task, so the candidates did not
have to write their own headings. The introduction of Article A (Figure 5.2) is
better written than that of Article B (Figure 5.3): in Article A the topic is
introduced, in Article B the writer assumes that the reader is familiar with the task
and does not introduce the topic. Article B is not a self-contained piece of writing:
it cannot be interpreted on its own. In Article A the writer moves gradually to the
formulation of the main message of the article: the introduction establishes the
topic and formulates a specific stand on it. Instead of introducing the topic and his
90
Shopping mall or sports ground?
I am fully aware that we are supposed

to be a consumer society, and I support
that. Honest. But when we start to
consume things that are a fair bit more
important than material belongings,
then maybe its time to stand up and
say back off! What Im talking about,
of course, is the governments plan to
build a shopping mall parking lot
combo where the sports ground is.
Now dont get me wrong I understand
the many valid reasons for it. After all,
it would make shopping so much easier
for the locals who have to travel fifteen
whole minutes to get to the nearest
mall and spend unreasonable amounts
of their hard-earned money. Building
yet another one here (besides the at
least ten other ones scattered around
the city) would also make it possible
for the more fitness-conscious to jog to
the shops, which would indeed fully
compensate the loss of the football
field that undeservingly occupies so
much potential commercial area.
Doesnt it? As you read through this
article you are probably thinking Oh,
great, hell surely go on babbling about
the environmental effects and
everything. Well, youre wrong. Im
not going to rant about the increased
traffic, noise damage, construction
waste, and Im definitely not going to
even mention the effect of the mall on
the students mentality. See here, Im
not judging the authorities or anything.
I just feel the urge to voice my opinion
and stand up for our rights to our
health and pace of life.
I think the new shopping mall with

the parking is much more
important than the sports ground.
A new shopping mall can make our
life easier. There are many sports
ground in this country, but
shopping malls used to be so far
from many place. A new shopping
mall has many benefits for the local
people. Many people wouldnt
have to sit in their car, if they want
to buy more foods, for example
before weekends. In shopping
malls used to be sale, so it can be
cheaper for many local people. Of
course it would have some
drawbacks, if the shopping mall
will build. Some people, who like
sports, should go to further to do
sports and some people perhaps
dont like the busy shopping malls.
Of course a shopping mall would
have many bad effect on the
environment. In the air would be
some toxic gases, in that country.
The shopping mall would be very
busy that many people doesnt like.
Figure 5.2 Article A
Figure 5.3 Article B
Chapter 5 Article
91
attitude on it, in Article B the writer includes in the introduction arguments that
should appear in the body of the article.
Although there is an obvious attempt to discuss different aspects concerning the
topic in different paragraphs in Article B, with the benefits, drawbacks and effects
on the environment discussed in separate paragraphs the article does not work
effectively towards the establishment of one clear opinion, namely that the
shopping mall is needed. The arguments brought up in support of the writers
position are not convincing.
Contrary to this, in Article A the opinion of the writer is clear to the reader: the
writer has a clear aim and includes each idea in order to achieve her aim, that is to
convince the reader that the sports ground is more important than the shopping
mall. The conclusion is missing from Article B. After reading it, the reader does
not have a feeling of completeness about the article, whereas Article A contains a
concluding paragraph that brings it to a forceful end.
The writer of Article A has a clear sense of the context: she knows both how
much information the audience has about the topic, how to address the audience
using the same style throughout the article, and also what her aim is. The article is
a self-contained, complete piece of writing with a clear beginning, middle and end
that serve one common purpose: to present the writers position concerning the
issue and the ideas that support her position.
Concluding Remarks
Considering its structure and the purposes that an article serves, this text type is
more suitable for students who have more language resources to draw on than
lower proficiency language learners. In order to familiarise learners with this text
type, they must be presented with sample articles and given the opportunity to
write their own articles on a variety of topics to various audiences.
The following section contains sample article tasks that can be used both for
practice and for assessment purposes. The length of the scripts expected to be
produced is given in each task. Depending on the proficiency level of the learners,
teachers may modify the time given for the completion of the tasks. Higher
language proficiency students should be able to write a script of 250 words in
forty-five minutes.
Although the tasks are intended primarily for learners with higher language
proficiency, teachers may choose to administer them to lower language ability
students. In such cases the required length of the scripts and the time allocated for
the completion of the task can be reduced. For instance, given that lower ability
learners elaborate less the ideas (content points) that must be included in the task,
they may not be expected to write more than 150 words in about thirty minutes.
When reading the articles, teachers should focus primarily on the features
characteristic of the text type in order to determine how successfully the learners
have managed to master them. They should focus first on the content of the article
and on the logical arrangement of the ideas within it. Specific language problems
(e.g. vocabulary or grammar) must be addressed after content and organisation.
92
Language learners must also be trained to revise their scripts by first checking
content and organisation. They should only start reading for language problems
once they are satisfied with the content.
Tips for the writer
Write a heading (title) if it is not given in the task.
Avoid using letter format for an article: do not start and end the article as a
letter.
Try to keep the article clear, informative and lively; engage the readers
interest throughout.
Write well-developed ideas: include descriptions, examples, opinions, and
comments.
Use the same style throughout the article.
Chapter 5 Article
93
Practice Tasks
Task 01
No Kidding, an international student magazine, has invited readers to share their
views about the computer. Write an article to give your opinion and advice to
other students.
Include the following points:
Computers in education
Computers and entertainment
Health issues
Computers and relationships
Write your article with the heading The Computer Friend or Foe? Write about
200-250 words.
Task 02
INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE MAGAZINE
We would like to print articles from YOU about YOUR school.
If you could change TWO aspects of your school, what would they be? (The
building? The hours? Other aspects?) Why?
What TWO aspects would you keep the same? (The teachers? The library?
Other aspects?) Why?
Write us an article of about 200-250 words answering these questions, explaining
your views in detail.
Task 03
An international student magazine is running a series of articles called Our
Changing World. This weeks topic is The Effect Computers Have on Our Daily
World. By choosing four of the following points, write an article for the magazine
in which you give your opinion. Write about 250 words.
Limitless access to information
Music and games from the Internet
Cheap and fast medium
Books replaced by computers
Computer crime
Loss of real communication
94
Task 04
In a television programme you heard angry parents saying that teenagers enjoy too
much freedom nowadays. Write an article for your schools English language
magazine, in which you give your opinion.
Write about the following points:
freedom at home
freedom at school
freedom in choosing a career
teenagers freedom in Hungary
Write the article with the heading Too much freedom for teenagers? Write about
250 words.
Task 05
Your school has an English language student magazine and you want to write an
article for it about what makes a good class trip. Look at the notes below and write
about the different possibilities. Give reasons why you think one is better than the
other.
Write an article of about 180 words in an appropriate style. Use the heading Tips
for a good class trip.
Task 06
The local government would like to know what people would prefer to have: a
road for cyclists or a sports hall? Write an article for your schools English
magazine, in which you give your opinion.
Introduce the problem.
Write about the advantages of cycle paths.
Write about the advantages of sports halls.
Give reasons why one is needed more than the other.
Write an article of about 200 words with an appropriate heading.
Chapter 5 Article
95
Task 07
Write an article of 250 words for your English language school magazine about
the use of mobile phones in schools. Include the following points:
their advantages
their disadvantages
the discrimination caused by them in class
suggestions for regulating their use in schools
Task 08
The following sentence is from an article that appeared in your English language
school magazine. Read it and write an article in response to it.
Teenagers who live in Australia receive more pocket money than teenagers in
other countries.
The situation in the case of Hungarian children
Positive effects of receiving pocket money
Dangers of getting and not getting any money
Your advice to parents
Write an article of about 200 words with the heading How much is much?
Task 09
The following announcement was published in an international magazine for
teenagers:
Have you ever been to a party that you will never forget? Let our readers know
about it. Tell our readers in an article:
why it was organised
where it was
who the guests were and
what made it so special
Write your article in about 230 words. Use the heading The best party ever?!
blank page p. 96
Chapter 6
Composition
The composition, also referred to as the essay, is a piece of writing used primarily
for teaching purposes, and therefore the readers of this type of writing are
primarily the writers peers and teachers. The reason why this type of writing is
used for educational purposes is that composition writing is considered to develop
the mental skills necessary for learning and thinking. Compositions share many of
the features of texts that students are likely to read in their everyday lives, so, for
instance, if students are familiar with the concept of organisation, i.e. the
progression, relatedness, and completeness of ideas in a composition, they will
probably be able to understand more easily the texts that they read. Writing
different kinds of compositions means practising different organisational patterns,
such as the arrangement of ideas according to time sequence in a narrative
composition, or according to some spatial logic (e.g. left to right or top down) in a
descriptive composition. The collection and categorisation of ideas according to
different patterns of development should help students to improve their thinking
skills and are also a way of revising the language material covered in class.
Content and organisation
A composition does not have a special layout like a letter. It resembles an article in
that it consists of four sections: title, introduction, body and conclusion. Each
section has a different function that determines the length, content and the
organisation of the ideas in each section.
The title
The function of the title is to reveal to the reader the topic of the composition in an
inviting manner, reflect the purpose and set the tone of the piece. An inviting title
is short, informative and interesting, it catches the readers attention. It is a
common mistake that students write long titles in which they want to include the
contents of the whole composition. Not all examinations provide titles for the
candidates when they have to write a composition. In such cases it often occurs
that instead of inventing a title students do not write one, or they simply copy
from the instructions the sentence that sets the topic (e.g. Describe a party you liked.
What happened? How did you feel?) and use it as a title. Writing an appropriate title is
not easy, so this skill must be practised in writing classes.
98
The introduction
The introduction provides details about the topic that the reader needs so as to be
able to follow the writer, and it formulates the main idea of the composition.
Having read the introduction, it should be clear to the reader what the topic of the
composition is, what aspect of the topic is going to be discussed, and how the
discussion is going to be developed. For instance, it is clear from the sentence The
main problem for secondary school students in Hungary at the moment is the changing of the school
leaving examination that the topic is the problems secondary school students have to
face in Hungary, that the topic is narrowed by the focus being shifted to the most
urgent of all the possible problems the students may have, and that the
composition is a description of the difficult situation that the students have to face.
It often occurs in examination scripts that candidates do not write an
appropriate introduction. They assume that the reader is also familiar with the
task, so instead of introducing the topic and stating the main idea of the
composition, they briefly refer back to the task and start discussing the topic. The
following extracts taken from two scripts (Figure 6.1) illustrate the use of the task
description as a title and the omission of the introductory paragraph.
Task:
Only one foreign language should be taught to grammar school

students. Do you agree or disagree?
Title:
Only one foreign language should be taught to grammar school students
Script 1: I disagree. If somebody is enough clever and intelligent to learn two languages except
for his/her mother language, then the school where he/she goes, have to teach her/him
not only one foreign language. [...]
Script 2: My first question is: Why? I know its very informal from me, so excuse me. You can
see I disagree. I think foreign language is very important, because if we will have a
job, in many case foreign language is necessary. [...]
Figure 6.1 An example of faulty title and introductory paragraph use
The body
The requirements for the body of the composition are basically the same as those for
the article. All of the ideas included in the body must have one common purpose,
namely they must develop the topic formulated in the introduction by discussing its
various aspects. Depending on the length and complexity of the piece of writing, the
ideas discussing different aspects of the topic must be organised in separate
paragraphs. For instance, a series of well-developed ideas included in the body of a
longer composition about the current problem of secondary school students could be
organised into separate paragraphs discussing such aspects as the amount of
information students have (what they know and do not know about the
Chapter 6 Composition
99
examination), the necessity of having to decide between two levels (compared to the
old system with no such distinctions), or the effect of the new examination on their
further education. The aim of the candidate taking a higher level examination should
be to write about a few key aspects relevant to the topic in detail. This makes possible
the elaboration of ideas and results in a better quality composition than the one that
consists of a series of one sentence paragraphs that read like a list.
However, lower level candidates may discuss fewer ideas and in a less complex
manner than more advanced candidates. This results in shorter pieces of writing
that in the body part develop only a few (3-4) aspects of an issue in little detail. In
such cases it is advisable not to divide the body into paragraphs. In the following
discursive composition written by a candidate about computers (Figure 6.2), the
aspects discussed are school, entertainment, health and relationships. With the
exception of the ideas about entertainment and health, there is a paragraph
devoted in the body to each set of ideas that are about the same aspect. This is
appropriate since there is some development of these ideas in a few sentences that
form separate units together, and these units can be indicated with the use of
paragraphs. The ideas about entertainment and health are closely related and
neither of the two is developed in more than three sentences, so there is no reason
why they should be discussed in separate paragraphs.
The Computer Friend or Foe?
Computers are really important machines in our century. Computers
are more and more important.
In the schools there are lots of computers and we also have computer
lessons. In the secondary schools there are special classes where the
students have more Computer Skills lessons than in the other classes.
Nowadays the Internet is a popular thing for entertainment. But lots
of children like computer games. I dont like those children who always
sit in front of the computer, because its healthier doing some sports.
This is connected to the health issues. Your eyes become worse, you
have to wear glasses and its important to be in the nature and relax. You
can go running or playing basketball or anything else.
If you have computer you can send emails to different people from
the world. So this is a good thing, because you can know lots of people.
But at the same time you can be lonely because you cant meet these
people, only in the computer and people need a kind of company.
Computers as we can see have advantages and disadvantages too. I
dont like computers but I know that there are a lot of useful thing with
it. You can learn more about things in that you are interested, and its a
good thing if you have internet too. But the life is not only about
computers.
Figure 6.2 Composition with adequately developed paragraphs
100
A shortened version of the above composition illustrates the lack of complexity

characteristic of scripts written by less proficient writers (Figure 6.3). The aspects
of the topic addressed are the same as in the sample discursive composition above,
but they are developed in less detail and so can be written up as a one-paragraph
composition.
Computers are more and more important in our century. In secondary schools
there are lots of computers and we also have special computer skills lessons.
The Internet is good for entertainment. Lots of children like computer games
and always sit in front of the computer, but this isnt healthy. With a computer
you can send emails to different people from the world. So this is good but at
the same time you can be lonely because you cant meet these people.
Computers as we can see have advantages and disadvantages too. I know that
they are useful but I dont like computers. Life is not only about computers.
Figure 6.3 Composition with little development of subtopics
The language learner can only move progressively from writing individual
sentences to writing longer pieces. The one-paragraph composition, therefore, is a
natural stage in the language learning process and the development of writing
skills. It is the teachers task to follow the development of the learners writing
skills; and once learners start writing more complex texts, they must be shown how
to divide their texts into paragraphs.
The number of aspects to be discussed in a composition depends on the writers
and the main idea they formulate in the introduction to the composition. The
main idea should be seen as a contract between the writer and the reader. If the
writers main idea is My favourite pastimes are reading, listening to music and swimming, the
reader can rightfully expect that in the body of a longer composition at least one
separate paragraph will be devoted to each pastime. If the composition only deals
with listening to music, the reader will not feel that the piece of writing is
complete. The writer can narrow the focus of the composition and thus simplify
the task by tightening the scope of the sentence that formulates the main idea to
My favourite pastime is listening to music. This would allow for the discussion of one
topic in detail. The reader would now expect to read only about ideas related to
this one pastime (the kind of music, the times when the writer listens to music,
how the writer listens to music, etc.).
It is important to note in connection with the aspects that are discussed in the
body of a composition that the format of the composition tasks given in language
exams is usually different from, for example, the format of letter or article tasks.
There is no additional help given for candidates in the form of bullet points
prompting relevant ideas for the topic or reading materials that contain ideas
which can help candidates select and think of ideas for their own compositions.
101
However, composition tasks in some examination types define the context for
writing (e.g. follow-up activity to a classroom discussion written for the teacher),
set the topic (e.g. by giving a statement like: If you want a thing done well, do it yourself),
and define the type of composition that the candidate is expected to produce (e.g.
if the candidates are asked whether they agree or disagree with a statement, it
means that the piece of writing expected is an argumentative composition).
The conclusion
The last section of the composition, the conclusion, must give a sense of closure for
the reader. This can be achieved, for instance, with a summary of the main ideas
discussed in the composition, a restatement of the main idea, or the formulation of
a suggestion. After reading the conclusion, the reader should feel that the
composition is complete: it dealt with the topic indicated in the title and specified
in the main idea, it developed various aspects of the topic logically, and rounded
off the discussion at the end. The longer version of the composition on computers
above (Figure 6.2) contains an appropriate conclusion that mentions the issues
discussed in the body and closes the piece of writing with a categorical statement.
Style
Unlike in the case of formal letters, there are no straightforward rules concerning
the style of compositions. Considering the fact that the target audience for
compositions consists of students and teachers, the style of this piece of writing
can vary from informal through neutral to formal. The choice of style is
determined basically by the topic of the composition: a serious issue, for example a
composition about a historical event, is usually discussed using a neutral, semiformal or formal style; whereas a more personal topic, for example a memorable
birthday party, can be written up using informal style. However, this is not a rule,
and writers can choose any style depending on the effect they want to have on the
reader.
102
Tips for the writer

Read the task carefully to find out which type of composition you have to
write (narrative, descriptive, discursive, persuasive).
Prepare an outline before starting to write.
Write about such aspects of the topic that you find more interesting and
know more about.
Make sure you have a point to make with the piece of writing. It is easier to
write and more interesting to read a composition which has a clear purpose
and message.
Using the outline, write the body of the composition first. The introduction
and conclusion are easier to write once the body is ready.
Write a piece of text that is complete in itself. Always introduce the topic,
do not start your composition written in response to the question Which TV
channel is better: National Geographic or Animal Planet? with something like That is a
question which is difficult to answer. The reader who expects to be introduced to
the topic will be confused.
Dont forget to give a title for the composition if the task does not provide
a title.
You may find it easier to give a title once the composition is ready.
Reread the composition at the end. First check its content and then correct
the mistakes.
The types of composition administered at lower and higher level language
examinations
Besides its educational purpose, each composition has a concrete purpose in itself as
a piece of writing, namely it is written to entertain, to appeal to the readers senses
and thus stir emotions, to explain something, and finally to convince readers to
change their minds or act in a particular way. The purpose of a composition
determines how writers handle the topic, that is what aspects of a topic they include
and in what sequence they deal with these aspects. The purpose and organisation of a
composition determine the ways of writing about the topic, the modes of discourse.
There are four primary modes: narration, description, exposition and
argumentation. All of these modes occur in modern European language
examinations. They have a different effect on the reader and are characterised by
particular features that distinguish them from the other modes. The following
sections discuss the four primary modes, present sample tasks, sample scripts and
analyses of the sample scripts. The practice tasks that are given at the end of each
section are suitable for practice and assessment purposes. The time and length
specifications for the tasks vary depending on the level of the candidates. Lower
level candidates can be instructed to write about 150-200 words in about thirty
minutes, whereas more proficient candidates can be expected to write 200-250
words in about forty-five minutes.
103
Some of the composition practice tasks are given in base prompt format and
teachers may need to contextualise them in order to help their students
understand the writing context and to motivate them. Furthermore, they may
decide to add such procedural information as the time and length of the text. They
can design their own template based on the one given in Figure 6.4 below.
The English teachers in your school have decided to organise a
composition writing competition. The compositions will be read by
a panel of judges consisting of teachers and students. The winners
get English books, dictionaries, posters and CD-ROMs. The topic
set for the composition is the following:
We should always tell the truth and nothing but the
truth. How far do you agree or disagree with this
statement?
You have decided to enter the competition. Write an argumentative
composition of 200-250 words in 45 minutes. Do not forget to give
a title for your composition.
Figure 6.4 Sample template for contextualising base prompts
Depending on their purposes, teachers can, for example, name only students as
the audience for the composition and expect that the students use informal or
neutral style. They may help lower level students by including a title in the task
and reducing the required length.
Narration
A composition that tells a story, relates an experience or recounts a sequence of
events is typically written in the mode called narration. A narrative composition is
written to entertain by retelling events, or it may be intended to entertain and
make a point at the same time. At lower levels it is enough if the candidate can
write an account of past events, future plans or a short narrative. However, at
higher levels candidates are expected to be able to write what is called a fully
developed narrative in the form of a short story.
The short story is similar to a narrative composition but there are notable
differences between the two. The main differences are that a short story gives
more freedom for the writer. The main idea of the short story does not have to be
stated as clearly in the introduction as in the case of a composition. Furthermore,
the structure of a short story is more complex: in such a narrative the events build
to a climax which is resolved at the end of the story. Figure 6.5 below presents the
outline of a fully developed narrative.
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Title: A lesson re-learnt

children always experiment and if lucky they profit from it
summary of the narrative to be

told
we were on holiday at our grandparents and were supposed to

stay at home and look after the animals
but we decided to go fishing although we were asked not to since it scene setting by saying when and
is dangerous,
where the events happened
so we borrowed a neighbours boat,
and spent a lovely afternoon on the lake,
until a storm hit us
so we lost the boat the fishing equipment and nearly drowned,
an event that causes a problem

(climax)
but we were fished out of the lake by our grandparents and other telling what finally happened
villagers
(resolution)
and learnt a lesson for a life
moving back to the present the

moral or gist is made clear
Figure 6.5 The outline of a fully developed narrative

The audience for short stories can be a peer, a teacher or a person who likes
reading short stories. Such texts are intended for publication in a literary or school
magazine. It is to be noted, however, that the short stories expected from
candidates are not assessed for their literary merits. It is not a requirement that
candidates write short stories of high literary value. What they should do is retell a
story in an interesting and lively manner.
What both narrative compositions and short stories have in common is
chronological development. Chronological development, in other words the
ordering of events or ideas according to time, is the key organisational pattern of
narrative writing. This type of order is characterised by a straightforward account
of the events in the sequence in which they occurred (what happened first, what
happened later, and what happened finally). This kind of organisation of the ideas
can be used for the narration of past events (a funny experience from childhood),
of typical or regular events (what happens at a festival organised each year), and of
current events (telling a friend in a letter what the family is doing on a holiday).
The type of event a narrative text is about determines the tense of the narration,
and as a consequence there are two common kinds of narration: present and past.
Telling what people regularly do at a festival requires present narration; whereas,
telling a friend in September about an exciting and eventful summer day would
necessitate the use of past narration. Narration is also possible with reference to
the future (e.g. If we win the lottery, we shall travel to Tenerife. We shall rent a yacht and sail out
every day. We shall swim, sunbathe and fish all day and return in the evening to our hotel ...), but it
is less frequent than present or past narration. Therefore, the language of both
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narrative compositions and short stories is characterised by the frequent use of a

variety of verb forms as well as time expressions and time clauses.
Narration is a mode often used on its own, that is in a narrative composition or
a short story; however, it can also be integrated in other types of writing. For
example, a letter to a friend can have a section which is a short narrative, such as
the example above about an eventful summer day. A letter of complaint can also
have a narrative section in which the writer recounts a sequence of events in
chronological order to justify the complaint. For example, in a letter addressed to
the manager of a restaurant, the writer can narrate what happened in the
restaurant that dissatisfied her in connection with the service (e.g. it took a long
time till they were led to their table, the waiter then forgot about them, and
minutes later he led another couple to the same table).
Analysing a narrative composition
Figure 6.6 presents a narrative composition task. Study the task and read the
sample composition given in Figure 6.7.
Write a 200250 words composition about an adventure you will never forget.
Figure 6.6 Narrative composition task
The candidate invented an effective title for the composition (Figure 6.7). The
reader can find out by reading the title that the composition is about an adventure,
more specifically a rafting adventure. The title is closely connected to the
introduction, which sets the scene by telling the reader about the time, the location
and the way the writer found out about the rafting tour. Having provided
sufficient background information for the reader, the writer concludes the
introduction by stating the main idea on the basis of which the reader formulates
the expectation that the text to follow will answer the question: What made the
rafting-tour great?
The answer to the readers question is given in the body, which narrates what
happened during the tour and provides a consistent positive evaluation of the
events. The chronological order is simple, the events are told in the order in which
they happened: preparation for the tour followed by a few significant moments
from the tour. The writer uses simple and continuous past tenses to narrate the
events and time expressions (first, then, after that) to show the order in which the
events followed one another.
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The white-water adventure

One summer we travelled to Austria. It was a very good journey.
The way was very long and boring, but the mountains were
beautiful. We lived in a little village near (100km) Salzburg. Our
house was very comfortable. I had my own room. In this village
we found a Rafting Center near Kitzlochklamm. Here we could
go to a great white-water rafting tour.
One day the weather was sunny and there was so much water
in Salzach that we could go on a rafting tour. It was very funny.
We had neoperm clothes and they were very cold. But we could
not get wet.
First we had to sit in the boat. Then we had to jump into the
river to learn what to do when we fall out. The river was very
cold. After that we were again in the boat and ready to go.
Then the tour started and we were sitting in the big boat on the
fast river. First I was afraid, but later I was laughing and shouting
with the others. It was fantastic.
On a slow part of the river we had to play a funny game. We
had to walk around the boat on the edge of the boat. I fell into the
cold water. All of the people were laughing at me. I laughed too.
At the end they pulled me into the boat. After that the river was
fast again.
I can never forget this trip. It was a fantastic experience.
Figure 6.7 Sample narrative composition
The conclusion is short but appropriate for a composition of this length and
complexity. It is an overall evaluation of the trip to Austria, whose most important
component besides the beautiful mountains and the comfortable village house was
the unforgettable rafting tour. The composition forms a whole: it builds a frame
for the narrative and gives a satisfactory account of the events on the basis of
which the reader can understand the writers evaluation of the trip.
Tips for the writer of a narrative
Feel free to be creative in a narrative composition or short story.
Organise the events in chronological order: tell the events moving from the
first to the last.
You can write a simple narrative composition in which you list the events
one after the other in time sequence or, if you want to make your narrative
more interesting, organise the ideas so that they build up to a climax: a
punch line or the resolution of a problem.
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Practice tasks for narrative compositions

Write a composition about how you prepared for your last New Years Eve
party.
Write a composition about the most boring/exciting day you have ever had.
Write a composition about a funny childhood experience.
Write a composition about what you did on your first day in school.
Each family has stories about family members that are told time and time again
at family gatherings. Retell one of your familys favourite stories.
Tell a funny story about a friend.
Summarise briefly the plot of a film that you have just seen.
Write a composition about an incident that captured your attention on your
way from your house to your school. In your composition write about:
what you saw
where you saw it
when you saw it
who were involved and
why you think it happened
Write about the worst class trip you or a friend has ever had. In your
composition say what happened and how it could have been avoided.
Description
Description is a piece of writing about what something or somebody is like.
Whereas a narrative composition presents events in chronological order, description
appeals to the senses of the reader in that it describes what can be perceived, in
other words, what something looks, feels, sounds, tastes or smells like; what a person
looks like, how she behaves, what her habits and mannerisms are. While the key
organisational pattern of a narrative piece of writing is chronological order, that of
description depends on the subject and purpose of the description. The descriptive
composition can have a spatial organisation. Proceeding from left to right, right to
left, bottom-up or top-down, the writer of a description rebuilds in a systematic
manner in the mind of the reader the described scene, person or object with the
help of words. The description can, however, follow a different logic: it may begin
with the specific description of an object and continue with the general description
of other objects surrounding it, it may start with the description of something that is
usual and move on to something unusual, it may shift from something small to
something big. The description of the look of a person can be followed by the
description of the characteristics of his personality. Whichever logic is followed for
the organisation of ideas, the aim for the writer is to recreate the described image
accurately and vividly in the mind of the reader.
Language examinations feature tasks that ask candidates to describe people and
their character, habits, or customs; places like towns, villages, or tourist
destinations; objects like favourite toys; human scenes like a popular park; or
processes, for example how paper is manufactured. It is important that the
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candidate arranges the ideas in the composition in a logical manner and uses rich
descriptive language. In a descriptive composition, candidates must use a lot of
adjectives and adverbs that make the description vivid and interesting to read.
Similarly to narration, description can also be integrated in various pieces of
writing. It can be found, for instance, in a letter to a friend (describing a new
boyfriend), in a letter of complaint (describing the poor quality of a product), in a
report (describing the outcome of a project, for example a poster), or in an article
(describing a beauty spot in a city). (Figure 2.3 in Chapter 2 presents a letter
whose dominant discourse mode is description). In examination tasks description
can be mixed with reasoning. Such tasks ask the candidate to first describe
something and then give reasons why he feels one way or another about what he
has described, for example Describe your favourite place in your house and say why you like it.
Analysing descriptive compositions
Figure 6.8 presents a typical descriptive composition task. Study the task and read
the sample composition given in Figure 6.9.
Describe your favourite object in a composition of about 250 words. Give
reasons why you like it.
Figure 6.8 A typical descriptive composition task
The candidate who wrote the descriptive composition given in Figure 6.9 used
for the title part of the prompt. The specific object described is named in a skilfully
written introduction that introduces the topic and signals to the reader that the
writers intention is to give a description.
In the body of the composition, the candidate briefly states the origin of the
object before she proceeds to describe it in vivid detail. The candidate describes
the colours of the object in the first body paragraph by setting up the contrast
between pink and blue. She uses the cap as a transition to the next body
paragraph, which describes the posture of the piglet.
The description is especially effective not only because the candidate uses
adjectives and captures such details as the tail, but because she compares the piglet
to a dwarf. Comparison is a useful device in description since it can help readers
imagine the described object more easily.
The last body paragraph is again very detailed and interesting. The candidate
manages to paint a vivid picture of the head of the piglet. The effect is achieved
with carefully selected adjectives and yet another comparison.
The candidate mixes the principles of organisation generally used in
description. The dominant principle is moving from the most interesting detail
(colour in the first body paragraph and the black eyes in the third body paragraph)
to the less interesting ones. The other principle used is spatial description (From the
rear, Under the nose).
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My favourite object
I think everybody has a favourite object or more, but the qualities because of
which we like them differ from person to person. My favourite object does not
look beautiful, it is not priceless, but it is important to me. It is a plastic toy pig,
called Piglet.
I was fascinated by Piglet the first time I saw him. It was a present from my
godmother for my first birthday. He was a nice pinkish-orange colour, except
for his light-blue night-cap hanging carelessly.
Apart from the cap, Piglet is constructed quite symmetrically: he is in a
straight sitting position with his hands on his knees. From the rear he would
look like a dwarf, but he has a tiny round tail, which can be used as a handle.
What I particularly like about Piglet are his big black eyes and his cheerfully
naughty-looking face. With his triangle-shaped projecting ears he really looks
like a little rascal. His nose and nostrils remind me of an electric socket. Under
the nose hides his thin mouth, grinning contentedly.
But the years touched Piglet, too. He still has its bright colour but you can
find only traces of the blue paint on his night-cap, the top of which has been
chewed off. There are two cracks on its front. His glowing black eyes are also
faded now. But he is still standing on my desk and keeps smiling at me
encouragingly.
Figure 6.9 Sample descriptive composition
The conclusion brings the composition effectively to an end. The colours, the
cap and the eyes, the key features described in the body are mentioned again and
described in their current state. The last sentence reinforces the idea formulated in
the introduction and rounds off the composition: the described object is important
for the candidate.
Tips for the writer of a description
Write a logical description that helps the reader to rebuild in his mind what
you describe.
Depending on the topic and purpose of your description, you can focus on
such aspects as body features (build, height), facial features (complexion, types of
eyebrow), facial and bodily expressions (with her nose in the air, purposeful gait),
character (stubborn, generous), habits (punctual, lazy), size, colour, material,
measurements (length, weight), shape, texture (smooth), sensory impressions (silky),
material (wooden), position (inside), physical properties (transparent), etc.
Write detailed descriptions including relevant and concrete details using a
variety of adjectives. A rich and suggestive language has a lot of adjectives
and nouns that evoke images and feelings in the reader.
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Practice tasks for descriptive compositions

Describe your best friend.
Describe your favourite place in your home.
Describe the nicest place you have ever been to.
Describe your favourite teacher.
Describe the kind of pet you would like to have.
Describe the ideal parent.
What is the house you would like to live in like?
What is life in a big city like?
Describe one of your familys favourite TV programmes.
Exposition: The discursive composition
Exposition is a mode whose function is to present a clear and rational analysis of a
topic. It is characteristic of both formal and informal writing and there are various
types of expository compositions categorised on the basis of the organisation
pattern of the ideas included in them (e.g. cause-effect or comparison-contrast
composition). However, the type of expository composition that occurs in
language examinations is the discursive composition often referred to in EFL
course books as for and against composition. In a discursive composition the
candidate is expected to write about a subject in a balanced manner by considering
both sides of an issue, discussing, for instance, its advantages and disadvantages,
and finally by expressing a personal point of view on it. Contrary to what some
EFL course books claim, a discursive composition is a balanced discussion of a
topic that ends with the presentation of the writers own views on the topic in the
conclusion.
The organisation of the discursive composition derives from the main function
of this type of writing and is quite different from both the narrative and the
descriptive composition. Presenting a balanced discussion means that the
candidate has to describe the positive and negative features (e.g. advantages and
disadvantages) of a topic by devoting equal attention to both sides. The candidate
who wrote the composition entitled The Computer Friend or Foe? (Figure 6.2)
attempted to write a discursive type of composition. The candidate aimed to
discuss the various advantages and disadvantages of computers in the body section
of the composition.
The ideas in the body section of discursive compositions can be organised
basically in two ways: through (1) the discussion of positive and negative features
aspect by aspect or (2) through the division of the body of the composition into a
section discussing the positive features of all aspects followed by a section on the
negative features of all aspects. In outline format the two possible patterns are the
following (Figure 6.10) for the four aspects discussed in a composition on
computers (education, entertainment, health and relationships):
Pattern 1
education advantages and disadvantages
entertainment advantages and disadvantages
health advantages and disadvantages
relationship advantages and disadvantages
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Pattern 2
Advantages
education
entertainment
health
relationship
Disadvantages
education
entertainment
health
relationship
Figure 6.10 Organisation patterns for the discursive composition
The candidate who wrote the composition on computers in Figure 6.2
organised the ideas according to Pattern 1. This pattern is recommended for
compositions on complex topics that have several aspects that need to be
elaborated. In such compositions it is easier to follow the writers ideas if the
advantages and disadvantages are discussed aspect by aspect. Pattern 2 can be used
for writing shorter texts about less complex topics. It is important in the case of
this organisation type that the same aspects must be discussed in both sections and
in exactly the same order. Whichever pattern writers decide to use, they must
support the ideas they include in the composition with examples and facts.
The conclusion of a discursive composition is also very different from standard
composition conclusions. Having presented the positive and negative features of
the topic of the composition, writers must finish the composition by presenting
their own views on the topic. The writers task is not to convince the reader about
which approach to the topic is right or wrong, but to tell the reader what their
opinion is about the topic.
This type of composition is also different from narrative and descriptive
compositions in that while both of those can be integrated in other types of writing in
the form of narrative or descriptive passages, the complete discursive composition
pattern is rarely built into other types of writing found in lower and higher level
examinations but stands on its own as a self-contained piece of writing. Exceptions
are examination tasks that, for example, instruct candidates to write an article for a
school magazine in which first they summarise what other people think about a
particular topic and then at the end they express their own opinion about it. The
pattern of development in such articles coincides with that of the discursive
composition.
Analysing a discursive composition
Figure 6.11 presents a discursive composition task. Study the task and read the
sample composition given in Figure 6.12.
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Write a composition of 200250 words about liking and disliking school in

which you discuss both attitudes and express your own opinion.
Figure 6.11 Discursive composition task
Do you like school or not?
People always say: I dont like school or I like school. But I
think this question is more difficult.
There are very good things at school. Firstly, you have good
friends. You can tell them your problems and you can speak about
that themes, what you like. Your classmates age is nearly similar to
yours, so they look like you inside in many ways. With your friends
you have many funny adventures.
In the school you learn a lot. Its often hard, and you are tired,
but you can study that subject, what you want. It will help you in
the life. Furthermore, if you have good teachers, who are great as a
teacher and as a human, you will get masters from the life. They
are examples for you, when you start work after you left school.
On the other hand, there are bad things. You have to work hard
if you want to get good marks. You are often tired. And you have to
learn a lot in many subjects, but in the life you wont need all the
subjects. You have to get up early in the morning, and sometimes
you learn late in the evening. If you get a bad mark, you will be sad.
And sometimes your classmates are unkind because you are fat or
you arent talented in something.
In conclusion, I like the school, but its sometimes a bit hard. I
will remember my school with love, when I will be an old woman.
Figure 6.12 Sample discursive composition
The composition given in Figure 6.12 meets the structural requirements of a
discursive composition. The writer highlights the controversial nature of the issue
in the short but very effective and inviting introduction, by quoting the two
stereotypical answers students give to the question posed in the title. The second
sentence of the introduction formulates the main point of the composition and
invites the reader to formulate the question: What is it that makes the question of
liking or disliking school so complicated?
The writer answers the reader in the body of the composition, where she first
examines the positive aspects of attending school and then its negative aspects.
The ideas are neatly organised in developed paragraphs grouped around topic
sentences, that is sentences that introduce the aspect of the topic that the
paragraph discusses. The sentences (1) There are very good things at school, (2) In the school
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you learn a lot, and (3) On the other hand, there are bad things are topic sentences that mark
those parts of the text where the discussion of a new subtopic or the discussion of
a new aspect of the topic begins. Two of these sentences, namely (1) and (3), have
an additional function. They indicate the beginning of the two main sections
within the body of the composition. The linking phrase the writer uses (on the other
hand) highlights this function of sentences (1) and (3): [On the one hand,] There are very
good things at school and On the other hand, there are bad things.
The ideas formulated in the topic sentences are supported with examples that
are typical, relevant and diverse. The typicality and relevance of the examples to
the aspect of the topic discussed contribute to the persuasiveness of the support
built by the writer. The variety of the examples effectively illustrates the
complexity of the issue and as a consequence is directly related to the main idea
formulated in the introduction, which an observant and active reader can
transform into the question: What is it that makes the question so complicated?
Similarly to the introduction, the conclusion is short but effective. The writer
summarises her opinion about the controversial issue and at the same time shows
the reader the source of its complexity: school belongs to the category of things
whose value is best seen in retrospect. The last two sentences view the topic from
this new perspective and provide a natural closure for the composition.
Tips for the writer of a discursive composition
Make sure that in a discursive composition you discuss both sides of the
topic.
Support your ideas with examples and facts.
Use sufficient support for both sides to have a balanced discussion.
Present your own views about the topic in the conclusion.
Practice tasks for discursive compositions
You have discussed in your English class the advantages and disadvantages of
learning foreign languages. Your teacher has asked you to write a composition
with the title Learning foreign languages: advantages and disadvantages.
There are students who say that the best way to spend the summer holidays is to
go to a summer camp together with other students and teachers from their own
school. There are other students who say that the best summer holiday is the one
where the whole family is together. Write a composition in which you present
both points of view and express your opinion.
After finishing secondary school, students in some countries choose not to start
their university studies in the same year but take a year off instead and travel
around the world. Some people think that this is a great idea, while others
disagree. Write a composition in which you present both points of view and
express your opinion.
Some students say that the good teacher is a strict teacher. Other students say
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that the good teacher is a lenient teacher. Write a composition in which you
present both points of view and express your opinion.
There are parents who think that computer games are a waste of time and do not
allow their children to play them. Some other parents do not agree with them.
Write a composition in which you summarise both points of view and express
your opinion.
Big cities are becoming more and more crowded. In your English class you have
been discussing different ways of getting around in the city. Your teacher has
asked you to write a composition with the following title: The advantages and
disadvantages of public transport
People say that science has created as many problems as it has solved. Write a
composition in which you summarise both points of view and express your
opinion.
Some people claim that art is useless while others think exactly the opposite.
Write a composition in which you first summarise the reasons for both points of
views and then give your opinion.
There are parents who never allow their children to go to shopping malls while
some other parents do. Write a composition in which you summarise the reasons
why some parents oppose and others allow this and express your opinion.
Argumentation: The argumentative composition
Of all the composition types that occur at lower and higher level language
examinations the argumentative composition, also called opinion composition/
essay, is considered to be the most difficult to write. In an argumentative
composition the task of the writers is to express their opinion either for or against
an issue and support it with evidence. Thus, unlike a discursive composition, this
composition is not a balanced discussion of the opinions for and against an issue
followed by the opinion of the writer presented briefly in the conclusion. In this
type of composition writers must express their opinion by taking a clear stand on
the issue, and each idea they include in the composition must support their
opinion. Writers must prove to the reader the correctness of their position.
The topic of an argumentative composition is always a controversial issue,
something about which people do not have the same opinion. The statement that
Euthanasia should be legalised in Hungary divides society into two groups: those who
agree and those who disagree with it. Both groups have their reasons for favouring
one opinion over the other and they draw on these reasons if they want to
convince somebody that their opinion is the more reasonable one.
The style of argumentative compositions is usually neutral or formal since the
controversial topics that they are written about are serious topics. Such
compositions must also be carefully organised so that the reader can understand
and evaluate the arguments the writer presents for or against the issue in focus.
The title of the argumentative composition should be short, interesting and
informative, but it does not have to reveal the opinion of the writer. Candidates
who have to give a title for their compositions often make the mistake of writing a
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full sentence in which they say what they think about the issue in question, and
thus they basically formulate the main idea of the composition. The main idea
expressing the writers opinion, however, should be written in the introduction.
The introduction of an opinion essay consists of three sections. The first section
introduces the topic, the second section highlights a debatable aspect of the topic,
and the last section formulates the main idea of the composition, the writers stand
on the debated issue. The main idea of the argumentative composition is a claim,
an assertion that the writer makes. For example, students planning their trip to a
large city may be unable to decide where to spend the last few hours of their twoday visit. There are two options, the zoo and the theme park, and the class cannot
be divided into two groups. To be able to decide, their headmaster may ask the
students to write a composition in which they present reasons either for going to
the zoo or the theme park. Some students will want to go to the zoo, whereas
some others will prefer the theme park. The former will claim that the zoo is the
better place to go, whereas the latter will claim that the preferable destination is
the theme park. The claim functions as the main idea, the backbone, of the
composition and the writers task is to support this claim, to provide evidence for
it. Reading the essay in which the writer claims that the zoo is the better choice of
the two, the reader will expect an answer to the question: Why is the zoo the ideal
place to spend the last few hours of the visit? The reasons answering this question
must be listed in the body of the composition.
The body of the argumentative composition must reveal the reasons that
support the writers opinion. The support therefore contains facts and examples
that show the soundness of the writers opinion. For example, if writers argue that
shops must not be open on Christmas Day, they can include ideas in the body of
the composition about the bad effect that it has on families: while this is a time of
the year when family members should reunite and be happy together, those
working in shops spend their day away from their family and the shoppers are also
away from their family members in a last-minute chase after presents.
The conclusion of an argumentative composition summarises the reasons listed
in the body in support of the opinion included in the main idea. The main idea
can be restated in the conclusion. Having read the composition, the reader must
have a clear understanding of what the opinion argued for is, what the ideas
discussed in support of this opinion are and thus decide whether the composition
is convincing or not.
Writers often have to express their opinion and provide reasons in support of it
not only in a composition but in a passage built into another text type. The
recommendations that writers are expected to make at the end of a report
constitute an opinion supported with reasons. For example, in a report for an
international team who are compiling a list of endangered animals, the writer may
propose at the end that a particular animal must be put on the list of endangered
animals because numbers have been decreasing alarmingly rapidly over the last fifty
years. What the writer does is present the reason why the proposal should be
accepted. Candidates writing an application letter list reasons (present their
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qualifications and highlight their skills) in support of the opinion that they are the
most suitable applicants for the advertised position.
Analysing an argumentative composition
Figure 6.13 presents an argumentative composition task. Study the task and read
the sample composition given in Figure 6.14.
Write a composition of 200250 words in which you choose a pet you would
like to have and present your reasons why you would like to have it.
Figure 6.13 Argumentative composition task
The title of the argumentative composition (Figure 6.14) formulates the topic
clearly. The introductory paragraph contains the three structural elements of the introduction: the writer first sets the scene for the reader by explaining that her friends
own pets; the problem she highlights is that unlike her friends, she does not have a
pet; and the possible solution to her problem would be a dog. The last element formulates the main idea of the composition and prompts the question: What are your
reasons for choosing a dog? The question suggests that the writer must argue for the
choice she makes, namely, why she would like to have a dog rather than another pet.
A pet I would like to have
A lot of my friends have pets. Some of them have more but I dont
have a pet. If I had the chance to choose a pet, I would choose a dog.
Dogs are like me. I like running, I like fresh air, sleeping and
playing. So we would have good time together. It is great too, to walk
with them outside.
Dogs dont need special care. They need a proper house, food, water,
big space to move and you of course. Dogs cant live without a friend.
You can make dogs happy for a life and they can make you happy
for a life. If you treat them carefully, they wont cause you any
problems.
If you train them well, a few days later dogs can do tricks or weeks
later they can open your door and bring in the newspaper. You can
train them for housekeeping too, so you dont have to pay money for
special defens.
So, I would choose a dog, because theyre friendly, they like playing,
they are very loyal to their owner, it is easy to train them, and they make
perfect friends also. Thats why I would like to have a dog as a pet.
Figure 6.14 Sample argumentative composition
117
The body of the composition provides the answer to the question. In the first
supporting paragraph the writer argues that she should have a dog because a dog
has a personality that fits hers. In the second supporting paragraph the writer
argues that the dog is the ideal choice because it does not require much looking
after. The argument could have been made more effective if the writer had
included an example here to show that other pets cause more problems for their
owners. For instance, there is more work with a fish: the water is to be changed
regularly, the aquarium needs to be cleaned, the fish cannot join the family on a
one week walking tour, so someone may have to stay at home to look after them,
etc.
The third supporting paragraph contains a statement about why dogs are great,
but it would be more convincing, if the writer added at least one specific example
to show one way in which the dog can make its owner happy. The reasoning that a
person is happy just because the dog does not cause any problems is weak.
In the last paragraph of the main body support is logically connected with the
main idea of the composition. The writer shows that the dog is useful, and
therefore it is a good choice, by describing how useful it can be: it can entertain its
owner, run errands or guard a building.
The conclusion summarises the main reasons the writer discusses in the body.
The last sentence reminds the reader that the purpose of the composition was to
provide reasons in support of the dog. The same sentence also refers back to the
title and rounds up the composition.
Tips for the writer of an argumentative composition
Decide what position you take on the topic: you can argue either for or
against an issue.
The title of the composition does not necessarily have to reveal your
position.
Write an outline including all the ideas that you want to support your
position with.
Remember that the relationship between your opinion (the claim) and the
reasons for it (the support) is signalled by the question word why. For
example:
Claim: Cars should be banned from city centres.
WHY?
Support: There are a lot of pedestrians in city centres and accidents can happen,
people breathe in polluted air, the noise is annoying, etc.
Build your support using a few relevant ideas that you develop in detail.
Organise your ideas logically: whether you manage to convince the reader
depends to a large extent on whether he can follow your argument.
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Practice tasks for argumentative compositions

The use of mobile telephones in schools should be banned. Do you agree or
disagree?
Science has created as many problems as it has solved. How far do you agree
or disagree with this statement?
What is your opinion about the statement: Students should not pay for the
locker they use in their schools?
Where is it better to spend your holiday: in a city or a village? Choose one of the
two possibilities and give reasons for your choice.
Only one foreign language should be taught to grammar school students. Do you
agree or disagree?
The American way of life is all young peoples dream. How far do you agree or
disagree with this statement?
Schools should not give students free course books. Do you agree or disagree?
Give reasons.
Disney cartoons (Snow White, The Jungle Book, Peter Pan) are better than modern
cartoons (The Simpsons, Ghostbusters, Pokemon). Do you agree or disagree? Give
reasons.
We should always tell the truth and nothing but the truth. How far do you
agree or disagree with this statement?
Concluding remarks
By writing compositions, students practise writing whole texts on a variety of
topics for a diverse readership. Such a complex exercise requires substantial
thinking and evaluation and draws on the writers general language skills as well as
writing skills (e.g. vocabulary and grammar, sense of audience, sense of purpose,
text organisation) and as a consequence it is a popular tool for teaching and
assessing writing skills.
Language learners must therefore be provided with opportunities to practise
the different types of compositions. It is also important that they write both timed
and untimed compositions. Timed compositions are written in-class in a specific
amount of time. Untimed compositions are written at home without the time
pressure characteristic of timed compositions and thus make possible the use of
various resources (dictionaries, grammar books, or lexicons).
The composition types differ in the level of difficulty. Whereas narrative and
descriptive compositions can be administered to language learners with low levels
of proficiency since they have less complex structures and are suitable for the
simple expression of personal experience; discursive and argumentative
compositions require more control over the structure of the script, the
development of complex and abstract ideas, and as a consequence are better suited
for higher proficiency students.
119
Teachers should use peer reading in their composition classes. By having to

write for and giving the compositions to their peers to read, learners get the
opportunity to have their scripts read by a reader different from the language
teacher. This potentially improves their sense of audience and indirectly develops
several of their writing subskills (e.g. organisation, sense of direction, and
development of ideas).
blank page p. 120
PART THREE
ASSESSING WRITING ABILITY
Introduction
Part Three focuses on the assessment of writing skills. The first chapter describes
the rating scales used in assessing writing, illustrates each scale type with examples
taken from major international language examinations, and introduces the scale
developed by the Hungarian School-Leaving English Examination Reform Project
for the Model writing examination. Readers are advised to familiarise themselves
with this chapter before proceeding to the next chapters.
Each of the next four chapters deals with one criterion of the scale developed
by the Examination Reform Project. The first part of each chapter summarises the
characteristic features and the components of the criterion in focus. This is
followed by the analysis of a script and explanations to illustrate how a rater
awards a score for a particular criterion.
The last part of each chapter is divided into two sections. The first deals with
scripts written for the lower level and the second with scripts written for the
higher level of the Model writing examination. Altogether ten scripts are provided
for each level. The justifications and the benchmarks, the score awarded to the
script by a team of expert raters, are given for the first five scripts on each level.
The function of these scripts is to exemplify the decisions that underlie a score.
While reading the justifications, readers are encouraged to refer to the Rating
Scale, the Guidelines for Raters, the Summary of the level-specific expectations
developed for the Model examination that are reproduced fully in Chapter 7
(Rating scales) and partially in each of the chapters on the four criteria.
The second set of five scripts is intended to give the reader the opportunity to
practice rating. The justifications and the scores are not given with these scripts.
Readers are asked to write their own justifications and award their own scores,
which they can then compare with the justifications and benchmarks given in the
keys in each chapter.
The four chapters end with practical suggestions for the language classroom that
are related to the criterion discussed in the chapter.
blank page p. 122
Chapter 7
Rating Scales
Subjective marking
The assessment of a learner s writing ability is quite different from how tests of
reading, listening or use of English are assessed. In the latter case, a learner often
produces only a word or two in response to the questions, and it is relatively
straightforward to draw up a marking scheme, or answer key, which lists
exhaustively all possible, correct answers. Such mark schemes can be used by
markers who do not need any special expertise or training. In the case of objective
tests, like multiple-choice tests, a computer can do the marking. In the case of tests
of writing, however, the text the learner produces, usually called a script, can vary
quite widely from learner to learner. In other words there is a wide range of
possible scripts, all of which may be acceptable. In such circumstances, the person
rating the script is bound to have to use his or her subjective judgement in order to
assess the scripts.
However, in order for an exam to be fair, it is essential that raters personal
biases their preferences, individual experiences and expertise do not influence
the learner s score. It is crucial that a learners score does not depend upon who
marked the script. The learner should get a similar score regardless of who marked
the script. If two raters marked the script individually, they should give the same
score. In other words, the marking should be reliable technically this type of
agreement amongst raters is called inter-rater reliability.
It is also important that the mark a rater gives to a script should not vary from day
to day, should not depend upon whether the marker was feeling sleepy, or had just
had a cup of coffee. A marker must not give the same script a different mark
depending on such irrelevant factors. Markers must be consistent they must have
what is technically known as intra-rater reliability. Nor should the mark a script
gets depend upon whether the rater had just marked a very bad script and was
therefore inclined to give the next script a better mark simply because it was
different from the script just marked. The score given to a script should not depend
upon whether that script was in a pile of good scripts or a pile of bad scripts.
In order to ensure rater reliability, examination boards train markers, and in
particular they train them to use rating scales. In addition, many international
examinations apply double marking, where two raters mark each script, and the
two scores are added up or averaged. Unfortunately, in many settings, scripts are
often assessed by one rater alone, which means that reliability is extremely hard to
ensure. Single marking is normally considered to be bad practice, to be avoided
wherever possible.
Reliability may not be crucial in classroom testing since many teachers base
their end-of-term grades on a number of tests or more informal assessment
procedures. In addition, the consequences of getting a low mark because of
unreliability are not as serious in classroom tests as they are in proficiency tests,
124
where getting a low mark may affect whether one can enter university or get a
particular job, for example. However, in proficiency testing or a test that might
have important consequences, like a school-leaving examination or a university
entrance examination, reliability is a key issue since scores should reflect the same
level of knowledge in different parts of the country, region or world. It is essential
to use rating scales in order to ensure reliability.
Types of rating scales
A rating scale is a means of defining the standards that should apply when a rater
judges a learners performance. A scale is a measuring instrument which defines
what it is that is being measured. A scale can be seen as a line, ranging from a very
low performance to a very high performance, from a weak performance to an
excellent performance. Scales are divided into a number of points, typically somewhere between 5 and 8 separate points on the continuum that is the line from low
to high. These points may simply be labelled as numbers 1 to 8, for example. They
may be labelled with adjectives like: excellent, very good, weak, very poor, and so on.
However, the problem with such labels is that they will mean different things to
different raters. Therefore, in order to ensure fair marking, the points on the scale
are usually though not always described in words, in order to guide the marker
in deciding which level to award the script.
Scales that do not have such descriptors are called impression scales, and the
marking of scripts using such scales is called general impression marking. Such
marking is common in traditional examinations, often using a scale from 15,
where 1 is Fail and 5 is High Pass. However, such marking is usually very
unreliable different raters will assign different marks to the same script,
depending upon how they have interpreted the label of the level on the scale.
Modern European exams do not use such impression scales. Rather they use a
rating scale (sometimes called a scoring rubric) which defines the criteria to be
used when awarding a level to a script.
In this chapter we will show examples of scales including the scales developed
by the Hungarian Examination Reform Project and in the chapters that follow
(811), we will show scripts marked according to four different criteria.
Holistic and Analytic Scales
There are two main types of rating scale: holistic (also called global) scales and
analytic scales.
Holistic scales
Holistic scoring means the assigning of a single score, which is based on the
overall impression of the script, guided by the descriptions of each level.
Candidates are placed at a single level on a scale. Writers of holistic scales produce
overall descriptions of writing ability and include different features in a level, or
Chapter 7 Rating Scales
125
band, at the same time. Such features may include reference to content,
organisation, grammar, vocabulary and mechanics. Raters are free to decide which
feature will have the most influence on their decision to award a score to a script.
Some may feel that in one case, grammar is more important than organisation,
whereas another rater may decide the reverse.
The essays are scored on a 6-band holistic scale in the TOEFL Test of Written
English (TWE), shown as Figure 7.1 below.
6 An essay at this level

effectively addresses the writing task
is well organized and well developed
uses clearly appropriate details to support a thesis or illustrate ideas
displays consistent facility in the use of language
demonstrates syntactic variety and appropriate word choice
may address some parts of the task more effectively than others
is generally well organized and developed
uses details to support a thesis or illustrate an idea
displays facility in the use of the language
demonstrates some syntactic variety and range of vocabulary
addresses the writing topic adequately but may slight parts of the task
is adequately organized and developed
uses some details to support a thesis or illustrate an idea
demonstrates adequate but possibly inconsistent facility with syntax and usage
may contain some errors that occasionally obscure meaning
3 An essay at this level may reveal one or more of the following weaknesses:
inadequate organization or development
inappropriate or insufficient details to support or illustrate generalizations
a noticeably inappropriate choice of words or word forms
an accumulation of errors in sentence structure and/or usage
2 An essay at this level is seriously flawed by one or more of the following weaknesses:
serious disorganization or underdevelopment
little or no detail, or irrelevant specifics
serious and frequent errors in sentence structure or usage
serious problems with focus
may be incoherent
may be undeveloped
may contain severe and persistent writing errors
0 An essay will be rated 0 if it
contains no response,
merely copies the topic,
is off-topic, is written in a foreign language, or consists only of keystroke characters
Figure 7.1 TOEFL writing scoring guide (ETS, 2000)
126
Analytic scales
The other type of scales used in international examinations are analytic. Analytic
scales rate scripts on several criteria separately e.g. content, organisation, language
use (grammar), vocabulary, mechanics (spelling, punctuation) and so on. The
script is given a mark for each separate criterion and the final score awarded to the
script the final grade is a composite of the assessments in respect of each
criterion. This type of scale is particularly useful for diagnosing students strengths
and weaknesses in different areas. (See Figure 7.2 below.)
fully coherent text

cohesive on both sentence
and paragraph level
Coherence and Cohesion

wide range of structures
few inaccuracies that do
not hinder/disrupt
communication
Grammar
good range of vocabulary

occasionally inaccurate vocabulary
communicating mainly clear ideas
overall relevant to content
wide range of vocabulary

accurate vocabulary communicating clear ideas
relevant to content
Vocabulary
no assessable language
0 no assessable language
no range of vocabulary
mostly inaccurate vocabulary communicating
few clear ideas
mostly irrelevant to content with several
chunks lifted from prompt
Figure 7.2 Analytic writing scale developed by the Hungarian School-Leaving English Examination Reform Project
no range of structures
mostly inaccurate
no content point elaborated

lack of sentence- and
some content points mentioned paragraph-level cohesion
1 does not meet text type
text not coherent
requirements
some content points elaborated some sentence-level cohesion limited range of structures limited range of vocabulary
most content points mentioned frequent lack of paragraph frequent inaccuracies
frequently inaccurate vocabulary
3 many inconsistencies in text
level coherence and cohesion
hinder/disrupt
communicating some clear ideas
type requirements
communication
occasionally relevant to content with some
chunks lifted from prompt
most content points elaborated good sentence-level cohesion good range of structures
all content points mentioned
some paragraph-level
occasional inaccuracies
5
some inconsistencies in text
coherence and cohesion
hinder /disrupt
type requirements
communication
all content points elaborated

meets text type requirements
Task achievement
Writing Rating Scale

127
128
Comparison of holistic and analytic rating scales

If we compare the two types of scale, there are advantages and disadvantages to
each. Holistic scoring is faster than analytic scoring and reflects an authentic
readers personal reaction to a text since readers often make judgements about
texts based on an overall impression. However, experts warn of the dangers of
holistic scoring, namely that the raters judgement might be affected by just one or
two aspects of the script, and that this may vary from rater to rater, thereby
affecting inter-rater agreement.
Analytic scoring is probably better for foreign language scripts in particular, as
foreign language learners may show an uneven profile across the different aspects
of writing. For example, a script may have excellent content with bad grammar, or
good grammar with weak organisation. Analytic scoring takes longer than holistic
scoring, but it is usually much more reliable, provided, of course, that raters have
been trained to use the scales. Consequently, most international examinations use
some form of analytic rating scale.
In this part, we will concentrate on showing how to use analytic rating scales of
the type shown in Figure 7.2, which is the one developed by the Hungarian
School-Leaving English Examination Reform Project.
Additional information needed
Not all the information necessary for rating can be included in a rating scale. Such
scales have to be used together with guidelines for raters and there are often taskspecific descriptions of content points and requirements, which will vary from
task to task. Figure 7.3 below shows the Guidance for Raters that accompanies the
rating scales shown in Figure 7.2 above.
words used accurately / inaccurately (meaning and spelling)
Lexical accuracy
is the vocabulary used accurately?
Lexical relevance
is the vocabulary relevant to the topic(s) specified in the task? relevant vocabulary / irrelevant vocabulary
ratio of words and expressions not lifted / lifted from task
variety of words and expressions used
the occurrence and reoccurrence of specific mistakes

bad grammar leading to unclear meaning
variety of grammatical features (tenses structures modals auxiliaries etc.) used

proportion of accurate / inaccurate sentences and clauses
correct use of punctuation marks
organisation of ideas developing one subtopic into one paragraph

proper indication of paragraphs: block or indented
clear / correct marking of the relationship between paragraphs
logical organisation of ideas / whether the ideas follow one another logically
clear / correct marking of the relationship between sentences and their parts
variety and appropriateness of linking devices
formal/informal language use

layout conventions of the text type
do not belong in the text
content points elaborated with the most detail / just mentioned briefly
any relevant and original thoughts / superfluous details / irrelevant parts that
Look for
Lexical range
is there a range of vocabulary items?
Grammatical accuracy
is the grammar correct?
is there a range of grammatical structures?
Grammatical range
Punctuation
Paragraphing
does the script need to be and is it divided into paragraphs?
is the script coherent?

is the script cohesive?
Organisation and linking of ideas
Text type requirements task specific

are the text-specific conventions observed?
which content points are elaborated?

which content points are mentioned?
Depth of coverage
Check
Figure 7.3 Guidelines for Raters
Vocabulary
Grammar
Task Achievement
Criteria for assessment

129
130
In the following chapters, we will describe how this guidance for raters is used,
and how task-specific requirements are also to be used by raters. It is important to
point out that no rating scale can be fully explicit about what standards are
expected within a given criterion at a specific level, and therefore extra guidance
of the sort exemplified here is essential, as is thorough familiarisation with the
scales and training in their use.
In what follows, we describe briefly how the rating scale and guidance are
expected to be used in the Hungarian context.
Use of Rating Scales and Guidance in the Hungarian context
Students performance is assessed on the basis of four criteria, using an 8-level
scale (bands from 0 to 7), which is accompanied by a task-specific rating scheme.
The two tasks in the Writing component are assessed separately. The maximum
possible total score is therefore 56 (7 + 7 + 7 + 7 twice).
As we have seen in Figure 7.2, the four assessment criteria are Task
Achievement, Coherence and Cohesion, Grammar, and Vocabulary. The rating
scales are the same at the two different levels (so-called Intermediate A2/B1; and
so-called Advanced B2) at which the examination is offered. The Guidelines for
Raters, describing what the rater must focus on in order to determine the marks
for a script on the basis of the four criteria in the Rating Scale, are also the same
for both levels. However, the expectations concerning ideas communicated, their
organisation, grammaticality and lexical realisation are different at the two levels.
According to the examination specifications, the difference between the two
levels is apparent in the complexity of the texts to be created, including linguistic
complexity, and in the approach to the topic. As for linguistic complexity, at an
intermediate level candidates are expected to write short, coherent texts using
relatively simple structures, while at an advanced level they are expected to use
more precise and varied vocabulary and a wider range of structure, with more
precise spelling.
As for the approach to topics, at an intermediate level candidates are expected
to write about the given topics from a personal point of view, while at an advanced
level they are expected to approach topics from a wider perspective.
As far as length is concerned, during the time allocated i.e. 60 minutes at an
intermediate level and 90 minutes at an advanced level, candidates are expected to
write 100-120 words on the first task, and about 150-180 on the second task. At
an advanced level they are expected to write about 150-180 on the first task, and
200-250 on the second task, that is altogether 250-300 at an intermediate level
and 350-450 at an advanced level.
The difference between the two levels is thus in part a function of the more
demanding tasks at an advanced level, and in part the higher expectations of
performance. Figure 7.4 presents a summary of the expectations at the two levels.

Lower level
131
Higher level
Task Achievement
range of subjects (related to field of interest)
personal perspective
uncomplicated text
simple discourse modes (e.g. narration
description)
giving opinion
stating reasons for actions
following conventions of the text type
concerned
variety of subjects (from field of interest)

personal/general perspective
detailed text
simple discourse modes and systematic
development of arguments for and against
options explanation of advantages and
disadvantages suggestion of solutions to
problems
synthesis and evaluation of information
arguments from a variety of sources
highlighting significant points
following conventions of the text type
concerned

simple connected text
shorter discrete elements in linear sequence
simple linking words (and but because)
short logical paragraphs
complex clear text

longer elements conveying complex ideas
logical (marked/unmarked) relationship
between ideas
developed logical paragraphs
Grammar
good degree of grammatical control
correct use of a variety of simple structures
local errors that do not hinder understanding
few global errors
high degree of grammatical control

correct use of a variety of structures
a few local errors that do not hinder
understanding
practically free of global errors
Vocabulary
sufficient vocabulary for expressing ideas about
everyday life/familiar topics and situations
good control of straightforward vocabulary
clear expression of simple thoughts
some spelling errors acceptable
range of vocabulary for personal/familiar

and unfamiliar/general topics
high lexical accuracy
some hesitation/circumlocution
errors (wrong/incorrect word choice
spelling) do not hinder understanding
clear expression of complex thoughts
Figure 7.4 Summary of the level-specific expectations

In this chapter we have described the importance of using rating scales in order
to ensure valid and reliable rating of writing performances. We have discussed the
difference between holistic and analytic rating scales, and have exemplified both.
We have also shown how rating scales alone are not sufficient to guarantee reliable
rating. Raters need guidance on how to use the scales, the expectations of
performance at the different ability levels must be spelled out, and above all,
detailed familiarisation and training in the use of rating scales and associated
documents is essential.
The four chapters that follow will describe each assessment criterion of the
model Hungarian School-Leaving Examination, as an example of good practice in
modern European writing examinations, and will encourage readers to try their
132
hand at assessing scripts at different levels. The following box gives some
suggestions about how the scale should be used. Specific issues concerning the
four criteria of the scale are discussed in the chapters dealing with the criteria.
Tips for raters using the scale developed for the Model examination
When using the scale, read each script at least twice.
The scale consists of 8 bands altogether, only 4 of which are described in
detail (and band 0 is also defined). Raters should use the undefined bands
when they decide that a performance is between the two described bands.
Thus, for example, if they think Task Achievement on a particular task can
be awarded more than 3 points, but it does not really satisfy the descriptors
in Band 5, Band 4 can be awarded to this script for Task Achievement.
A decision must be reached on the band. It is not acceptable to remain
undecided between two bands, so a score of 3/4 is unacceptable.
At first begin rating with Task Achievement and give marks separately for
each criterion. As you become more confident, you can mark a script jointly
for Task Achievement and Coherence and Cohesion since the two criteria
are closely related.
Chapter 8
Task Achievement
General description of the Task Achievement criterion
Task Achievement, also referred to as Task Fulfilment or Task Completion, does
not focus specifically on linguistic aspects of the script, but on such content and
text type related features that are determined by the writing task. The complexity
of the Task Achievement criterion derives therefore from the fact that whereas for
example Grammar is a criterion whose definition can be considered stable over
scripts written on any task type (a well-formed passive construction has the same
syntactic form in a note to a friend or an article for a school magazine), the
interpretation of Task Achievement varies with each writing task. As a
consequence, it is essential that raters become familiar with the concept of Task
Achievement and the features of writing tasks on the basis of which they can assess
Task Achievement.
The components of the writing context
With the help of the Task Achievement criterion raters assess whether the script
meets the text type (genres such as letters, essays, articles) and content
requirements of the writing task. The features of the script that writers must pay
attention to in terms of these two requirements are determined by the writing
context. The three basic components of the writing context (Figure 8.1) are the
participants involved in written communication, namely the writer and the
reader, and the writing product (the script produced by the candidate). The three
components are closely related and interdependent, for instance who the writer
imagines the reader to be will determine the style of the writing.
WRITING CONTEXT
SCRIPT
PARTICIPANTS
WRITER
READER
STYLE
TOPIC
CONTENT
Figure 8.1 The components of the writing context
FORM
FUNCTION
TEXT TYPE
134
The participants in the writing context

The relationship between the writer and the reader together with the purpose of
the communication determine the style of the text: a customer writing a letter of
complaint (text type) to the manager (reader) uses formal English style, whereas a
person on holiday writing a postcard (text type) to a friend (reader) uses informal
style. Some text types like letters or articles can be written in either formal or
informal style, but other text types such as reports or research articles are formal.
Style may therefore be a feature inherent in the text type since it is determined
primarily by the components of the writing context that are assessed under the
Task Achievement criterion.
In some analytic scales designed for the assessment of writing, style is evaluated
together with vocabulary. However, style does not mean solely the choice of
formal and informal vocabulary items. For example, the use of contracted forms
and the tone of the writing also affect the style of a script. Assessing style together
with vocabulary can mislead raters because it reinforces the false belief that style is
determined only by the formality of the words used in the script.
The script
The script, the last component of the writing context, addresses aspects of a given
topic and thus has a definite content. The script also represents a particular text
type (e.g. letter, article). Both the content and the text type are determined by the
writing task and help to identify the features of the script that raters must focus on
when assessing Task Achievement. The content of the script is defined by the
writing task: the candidate is told what topic to address and, depending on the task
type, what aspects of the topic to discuss. The aspects of the topic to be addressed
are the content points that the candidate has to include and develop in the script.
The length of the script is set so as to make possible the inclusion and discussion of
all the required content points within the specified word limit.
Similarly to the content, the writing task specifies the text type of the script
expected from the candidate. Different text types have different forms and
functions. Letters, information brochures, compositions, articles or reports are
written products that represent different forms. Each form has a specific layout
(compare, for example, the layout of a letter with that of a report) and rhetorical
organisation (the ideas included and the order they follow is different in a letter of
request and in a letter of complaint). Each text type has a particular purpose which
can be described either as a communicative function (i.e. whether the text aims to
describe, request, invite, give instructions, persuade) or as a discourse mode
(narration, description, exposition, argumentation).
The constituents of the Task Achievement criterion
The constituents of the Task Achievement criterion summarised in Table 8.1
below are based on the components of the writing situation discussed above. In
Chapter 8 Task Achievement
135
terms of style, the first constituent of the Task Achievement criterion, candidates
are expected to give evidence of audience awareness, namely that they know who
the text is written for and what their own status is with respect to the status of the
reader, by using formal or informal vocabulary, an appropriate tone (e.g. serious,
humorous, ironic, courteous, friendly), and personal or impersonal style. They
should give evidence of their ability to use the same style consistently and to write
naturally. For example, they must avoid using a stilted style because their writing
will become excessively formal and pompous.
Table 8.1 The constituents of the Task Achievement criterion
Constituent
Features
Style
Audience awareness
Text quality
formal/informal vocabulary
tone
personal/impersonal mode of expression
appropriateness
consistency
Content
Appropriate topic
Relevance of ideas
Coverage
Length
topic set in the writing task

treatment of the topic
development of content points
necessary/redundant information
range of ideas
amount of detail
task solved within the set word limit
Text type
Form
Communicative function
Discourse mode
Rhetorical organisation
type of written product

layout
goal of the text
typical sequencing of information
The second constituent of the Task Achievement criterion, content, relates to

the topic and subtopics specified in the writing task. When assigning a score for
Task Achievement, raters check whether the candidates developed the assigned
topic, whether they included an appropriate number of relevant ideas, and
whether they discussed these ideas in sufficient detail within the word limit set in
the task. Raters sometimes have difficulty in evaluating the relevance and coverage
of ideas. Some task types clearly specify the subtopics or content points that the
candidates must include in their scripts. Such tasks provide a list of subtopics, for
example, in the form of bullet points or a set of notes added to a letter to which
candidates have to reply. In such cases raters first have to count the content points
so as to check how many of them the candidates have put into their scripts.
Deciding the relevance of the ideas included in a script becomes more difficult
when the task does not itemise the content points. Examples of such task types are
prompts presented in the form of images (e.g. a series of pictures or a graph) or
one-sentence composition prompts (e.g. Write a composition about your best friend). The
rater will not always find it easy to determine the content points for such types of
tasks if no rating scheme is provided.
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The number of content points depends on the nature of the communicated

message, and the importance of content points varies with the type of task. If the
communicated message is complex, the number of content points is higher than in
the case of a simple message. However, keeping track of a large number of content
points makes the rating process more demanding.
The evaluation of the coverage of content points can also pose problems for
raters. Whereas it is clear that adequate coverage is a function of the number of
content points and the word limit set in the task, it is not easy to determine for
each content point what sufficient amount of detail means. Some rating schemes make
the assessment of coverage easier by defining what counts as satisfactory
development of content points. Other rating schemes also specify that in
accordance with the instructions given to the candidate in the writing task, certain
content points must be more developed and should be weighted differently (i.e.
two of four content points can be considered sufficiently developed if they are
mentioned in the script, whereas the remaining two can only be considered
sufficiently developed if they are discussed in detail).
The format of the prompt can render the assessment difficult. The less clearly the
task states what content points the candidate must address the more difficult it
becomes to assess whether the ideas included in the script are relevant and whether
the depth of the discussion is extensive enough. If the task is general, the rater must
refer for detailed guidance to the rating scheme, if there is one, or the content points
must be established for the task before the raters start assessing the scripts.
The last constituent of the Task Achievement criterion, text type, comprises
text type features. The first of these, form, refers to the type of written product.
Writing tasks usually specify the type of text that candidates are expected to
produce by stating that they are to write a letter, a composition or an article.
Different text types have typical layouts, and raters must check whether candidates
used the appropriate layout for the text type they produced. The writing task may
also specify the communicative function (e.g. describe, request, invite, give
instructions, persuade) of the script. For example, the task may state that the
candidate must write a letter in order to inform a friend about a particular event.
Another task may require that the candidate should attempt to persuade the city
council that the city would profit more from a park than a shopping centre.
Alternatively, the writing task may indicate the discourse mode (narration,
description, exposition, and argumentation) of the script. If candidates are
instructed to describe a place, raters have to check whether the script satisfies the
criteria of a descriptive text. This information may not be provided in rating
schemes. Raters should be familiar with the characteristic features of texts written
in a particular discourse mode and should be able to determine the dominant
mode of a text that is a mix of the four basic modes (e.g. although it includes
description, the dominant mode of a story is narration).
Rating schemes make the same assumption about rhetorical organisation as
about discourse mode. Raters are expected to be aware of the rhetorical
organisation of the text types tested. Texts that belong to the same text type tend
to share the pattern of organisation of the main ideas within them. For example, in
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letters the first piece of information that follows the salutation is the statement of
the purpose of writing irrespective of the type of letter: the words I am writing to
complain about... introduce a letter whose writer wishes to formulate a complaint,
whereas the words I am writing to request... reveal in the first sentence that the
purpose of the writer is to make a request. The rhetorical organisation of texts is
taught both directly and indirectly in language course books and writing course
books and raters can develop their knowledge of the rhetorical organisation of
texts by consulting the sample tasks and their evaluations in the handbooks
published by various examination boards.
Familiarity with the constituents of the Task Achievement criterion also
presupposes that raters have a developed sense of what can be expected in terms
of the three constituents from candidates of different levels of language
proficiency. In the case of a language examination, these expectations are defined
in the course of the rater training session. Whereas there are general requirements
that must be met by candidates of all levels of proficiency (e.g. writing about the
appropriate topic), raters expectations concerning other requirements (e.g.
consistency of style) will vary with the various levels of proficiency assessed.
There are several reasons why raters need to be familiar with the elements that
constitute Task Achievement. Based on the Task Achievement criterion, raters can
determine if a script is written off-task (e.g. a candidate misunderstands the task and
writes about something else or simply chooses to write about something else). The
more information the rating scheme provides about Task Achievement the easier it
is for the raters to decide whether a script is off-task. The Task Achievement criterion also helps raters to identify memorised scripts. Candidates may learn whole
texts and reproduce them fully or in part in an examination. Raters can also determine with the help of this criterion whether the script is complete or incomplete.
Finally, a clear description of the expectations in terms of Task Achievement improves the reliability of the assessment. If two raters independently mark the same
set of scripts, they are more likely to award the same scores for the Task Achievement criterion if they work with the same well-defined set of requirements.
Raters must be aware that different examination bodies have different policies
concerning the strictness with which they handle the extent to which a script
meets the requirements stipulated for the Task Achievement criterion. General
language proficiency examinations that administer writing tasks whose context is
not highly particularised tend to put less emphasis on Task Achievement.
The Task Achievement criterion in the scale developed for the Hungarian
Model writing examination
Of the four rating scales developed by the Hungarian Examination Reform Project
for the Model examination the first one is the Task Achievement scale (Figure
8.2) with five defined bands. From the descriptions of the bands it can be seen
that raters have to check in each script whether the content points are only
included in the script or whether they are elaborated, and furthermore whether
the script meets the text type requirements. The descriptors thus cover two of the
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three constituents of Task Achievement summarised above in Table 8.1: content

and text type.
Task Achievement
7
all content points elaborated

meets text type requirements
6
5
most content points elaborated

all content points mentioned
some inconsistencies in text type requirements
4
3
some content points elaborated

most content points mentioned
many inconsistencies in text type requirements
2
1
no content point elaborated

some content points mentioned
does not meet text type requirements
Figure 8.2 The Task Achievement Scale

The third constituent of Task Achievement, style, is also included in the marking
criteria for the Model examination. The set of guidelines designed to be applicable
to all the writing tasks provides help for the raters concerning what they should
focus on in the scripts (Figure 8.3). In order to assess style, raters must evaluate the
scripts on the basis of appropriacy and conventions specific to the text type.
Check
Look for
Depth of coverage
which content points are elaborated? content points elaborated with the most detail / just
which content points are mentioned? mentioned briefly
any relevant and original thoughts / superfluous details
/ irrelevant parts that do not belong in the text
Text type requirements task specific
are the text-specific conventions
formal/informal language use
layout conventions of the text type
observed?
Figure 8.3 Guidelines for rating Task Achievement

At the lower level, candidates are expected to be able to write about subjects
related to their field of interest (e.g. everyday routines, personal experiences). At
the higher level, the topics can be related to the candidates field of interest but
also to general topics and situations and their discussion is different: candidates are
expected to approach the topics from not only a personal but also from a general
perspective. For instance, in a higher level script written about the effects of some
construction work candidates may have to write not only about how their life will
139
be affected, but must consider the issue from the point of view of the whole
community involved, taking into consideration, for instance, the variety of
reactions that can be expected.
Whereas at the lower level it is accepted that the candidates write simpler texts
with less developed ideas, at the higher level they have to express complex ideas
in more detail. The elaboration of a content point, therefore, does not mean the
same at the two levels. Adding one or two short additional ideas to the content
point given in a task counts as elaboration at the lower level; at the higher level
two developed additional ideas are a minimum requirement. For illustration see
the example given below in Table 8.2 for the content point funny activity.
Table 8.2 Level-specific expectations concerning the development of content points
Level of
elaboration
Lower level
Higher level
Mentioned
We sang funny songs at night.
We sang funny songs at night and everybody had a great time.
Elaborated
We sang funny songs at night

and everybody had a great time.
We sang a lot of funny songs around the fire at night. The words
did not make much sense but were easy to learn and the tunes
were also simple. In the end even the teachers sang and laughed
with us. Everybody had a great time.
Furthermore, elaboration must also be interpreted differently in the case of

content points that coincide with elements specific to the text type (e.g. salutation,
closing, subheading). For example, in the case of a formal letter of request the
sentence Thank you in anticipation for your generous support counts as a fully elaborated
closing content point.
Another difference between the expectations concerning Task Achievement at
the two levels is the kind of discourse mode the candidates must be able to use. At
the lower level the common modes are the ones considered easier: narration and
description. At this level expectations concerning argumentative skills are reduced
to the candidates ability to give opinions on issues and to state simple reasons for
actions. In contrast, at the higher level the candidates are expected to be able to
synthesise information and present arguments supported with relevant and
persuasive ideas.
There is no significant difference between the two levels as far as text type
requirements are concerned. Candidates are expected to follow the conventions of
the given text type: they must use appropriate content, purpose, layout,
introductory and concluding sections, as well as register. Table 8.3 summarises the
level-specific expectations in the Model examination with regard to Task
Achievement.
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Table 8.3 Level-specific expectations for Task Achievement

Lower level
Higher level
range of subjects (related to field

of interest)
personal perspective
uncomplicated text
simple discourse modes (e.g.
narration description)
giving opinion
stating reasons for actions
following conventions of the
text type concerned
variety of subjects (from field of interest)

personal/general perspective
detailed text
simple discourse modes and systematic development of
arguments for and against options explanation of
advantages and disadvantages suggestion of solutions to
problems
synthesis and evaluation of information arguments from a
variety of sources
highlighting significant points
following conventions of the text type concerned
Frequently asked questions in connection with the Task

Achievement criterion
What shall I do if the candidate misunderstands the tasks and writes about a
completely different topic?
Since Task Achievement is missing (no content point is covered), the
score on Task Achievement is 0. Scripts whose Task achievement marks
are 0 should not be marked for the other three categories.
Should the candidate be penalised for including parts in the script that are not
connected with the actual topic?
No, but these parts will not raise the marks either.
What shall I do if the script has (major) pre-learnt sections?
As raters we cannot determine this. Tasks should be such that they
do not allow for this. There will be candidates who will use rotelearned chunks, but their appropriateness, accuracy and relevance
will have to be interpreted for each of the four categories.
What shall I do about too long and too short scripts?
It is acceptable if the script exceeds the word limit. If a script,
however, contains several grammatical and lexical inaccuracies in
the extra component, this will have to be reflected in the marks
awarded in the relevant criterion. If the script is short, it will
inevitably result in lack of coverage.
The Hungarian Model Examination: Lower level
In this section a lower level task is presented together with the task-specific rating
scheme. The writing task, the task-specific rating scheme, and the sample scripts
are discussed with respect to the Task Achievement criterion.
141
Sample lower level task

The following is a transactional writing task. The candidate must write a formal
letter to the headmaster of a school and request information about the school.

send him to an English-speaking school. They have read
this advertisement in a Budapest newspaper:

Foreign languages
For more information write to: Dr. Paul Gregg, Headmaster

why you are writing
and ask about:
class sizes
the school uniform
the fee to pay
Write a letter of about 100-120 words in an appropriate
style. Do not write any dates or addresses.
Dear Dr. Gregg,
This task puts the candidate into a specific situation in which the participants
and the purpose of the communication are clearly defined. The writer is an English speaking youth who is writing an English language letter of enquiry to the
headmaster of a school. Given that the writer and the reader do not know each
other and that the writer seeks information from an authority, the style of the com-
142
munication must be formal. The text type the candidate is expected to produce is a
letter of enquiry since the overall purpose of the letter is to obtain information
about the school. Accordingly, the script produced must conform to the norms
(rhetorical organisation and layout) of a formal letter of request. However, the task
instructs the candidate to omit the date and addresses, which are normally required for a formal letter, so these aspects of the letter form are not assessed. The
salutation is also provided in the task, which means that the candidate does not
have to produce and will not be marked for using the appropriate salutation form.
Nevertheless, the salutation provided and the punctuation used determine the
type of signing off and the punctuation that the candidate can use to end the letter.
Since in the salutation the name of the addressee is given, in the case of this task a
possible signing off is Yours Sincerely, and it must be followed by a comma because a
comma is used after the salutation.
Besides information concerning style and text type, the task provides a detailed
description of the expected content of the script. Within a script of a specified
length, the candidate is explicitly instructed to include and develop five content
points. The order in which the last four content points must be addressed is not
restricted in the task, so candidates can choose to change the order in which they
discuss them. The length of the letter indicates that the candidate is only expected
to write briefly about each content point, which is understandable since the topic
is straightforward and enquiring about particular pieces of information does not
necessitate much elaboration.
However, not all the content points are given explicitly in the task. Whereas
candidates are instructed to state the reason for writing the letter, which is a
characteristic feature of the text type, no information can be found about the
closing section of the letter, which is also a typical feature of letters that varies
according to the type of letter. This information is provided for the raters in the
task-specific rating scheme and it is taken for granted that candidates will draw on
their knowledge of the text type and include this content point into their scripts.
The task-specific rating scheme for the sample lower level task
The task-specific rating scheme is designed to help the work of the raters. It provides a comprehensive list of the content points together with a list of requirements that serve to remind the raters of the aspects of the script that they must
focus on during the rating process.
Content points for raters
introduction / purpose of writing
asking about school subjects
asking about class sizes
asking about school uniform (if any)
asking about fee
closing
143
Requirements that raters should pay attention to

The candidates should:
write a formal letter in about 100-120 words
cover the content points
use adequate paragraphing
vary the structures of questions
use appropriate style (formal and polite)
use modal auxiliaries
Sample analysis of a script
The benchmark, the score awarded by a team of expert raters, for the following
lower level script for the Task Achievement criterion is 5.
Dear Dr. Gregg,
I am writing to you to have some information about the school
you lead. I have read your advertisement in the newspaper and it
made me interested at once. I have a 10-year-old brother and my
parents want him to speak English fluently.
If it isnt problem, I would like to ask some questions about the
school. For example what kinds of subjects are taught in your
school? He is interested in Literature and History as well beside
languages. Does he have to start at the first class or are there some
more classes in the school, because he can already speak English
quite well. And in the end my last question is about the uniform
and the fee, which we should pay. Is it too expensive for an
ordinary family?
Mr. Gregg, I would be very grateful if you answered these
questions. I will give you my adress and I thank you in advence.
Yours faithfully,
S.S.
The candidate wrote a formal letter which is polite and consistent in its style.
However, of the six content points only five are included in the letter, the content
point on class sizes is missing. The candidate elaborated three of the remaining
five content points. The first of these, introduction / purpose of writing, is both complex
and elaborated: the candidate states the reason for writing and gives the reader
background information which serves as a justification for the request. The letter
thus starts naturally and leads on to the second content point, asking about school
subjects. This content point is, however, elaborated in too much detail. The
candidate enquires not only about the subjects taught but about the schools
144
language teaching policy. The amount and kind of information requested by the
candidate at this point in the letter is unnatural and off the task. As a consequence,
the candidate exceeded the word limit set by the task yet failed to complete the
task. Finally, the last content point, closing, is also elaborated. The candidate brings
the letter to a natural end by the restatement of the purpose of writing.
Furthermore, the last sentence serves the purpose of concluding the interaction:
the candidate thanks the addressee for his help.
The fourth and fifth content points, asking about school uniform and asking about fee,
are included without elaboration. The candidate put the two into one sentence and
added an additional question to them which is difficult to interpret because of the
empty it. In the absence of straightforward elaboration, the inclusion of these
two content points can only be considered as mentioning.
The script meets most of the text type requirements. The layout is appropriate
for a letter. The information included is sequenced in accordance with the
requirements of a letter of request. The purpose of writing is stated at the
beginning, the request is detailed in the body of the letter, and the writer expresses
his gratitude at the end of the letter. The text type feature that the candidate used
incorrectly is the signing-off. The correct choice would have been Yours sincerely
instead of Yours faithfully, given that the name of the person who the candidate is
writing to is given in the salutation.
Sample lower level scripts
The following five scripts were written by candidates for the lower level
examination on the sample task presented above. Read the scripts and study the
marks and justifications given for each script for the Task Achievement criterion.
As you read the scripts and their evaluations, you should refer to the Task
Achievement scale (Figure 8.2), the Guidelines for rating Task Achievement
(Figure 8.3), the specification of the Level-specific expectations for Task
Achievement (Table 8.3), and the task-specific rating scheme.
145
Script 01
Dear Dr. Gregg,
I am writing to you, because Ive read the advertisement of your school in a
newspaper and I would like to know more about it. My ten-year old brother is
supposed to attend an English speaking school.
I would like to know more about the subjects you teach in that school, which
are the most popular with the students and what kind of other subjects you teach
besides foreign languages.
Im interested in how big the classes are and I would like to know if they have
to wear a school uniform and if we should have it made or we can buy it in your
school.
I have another important question: how much is the fee that we have to pay?
Because we are not so wealthy and I would like to know if theres any chance to
pay it in parts. Im looking forward to your answers.
Yours sincelery:
A.G.
(151 words)
Score for Task Achievement:
Justification: Most content points are elaborated. The one about class size is only
mentioned briefly. The three content points are developed with
original and relevant ideas that add to the communicative value of
the letter (which [subjects] are the most popular with the students, if we should
have [the school uniform] made or we can buy it in your school, because we are not
so wealthy and I would like to know if theres any chance to pay the [fee] in parts).
A polite letter of request written in formal English except for three
contracted forms and informal closing sentence.
146
Script 02
Dear Dr. Gregg,
Im writing to you in order to ask for informations about your school.
My 10-year-old brother wants to go to an English-speaking school, and my
parents think that British International School would be good for him.
I would be very grateful if you can write me about the subjects taught in the
school.
Im also very much interested in the sizes of the classes.
Please write me about the clothing in the school. If there is any school uniform
or not?
It would be very nice of you, if you can write me about the paying, because my
parents want to know about it as soon as possible.
Thank you in advance,
Yours faithfully:
B.M.
(114 words)
Justification: The introduction is covered in most detail: the purpose is made

clear in first two paragraphs; additional information about clothes
and the fee is given. The candidate manages to complete the task of
helping parents get information on all aspects of the brothers
possible new school. Formal register with one contraction (Im).
Effective closing and signing off.
147
Script 03
Dear Dr. Gregg,
I write for you, because I read the advertisement of your school. We would like to
send my brother, John King to an English-speaking school.
I wait your answer, thank you very much.
G.K.
(119 words)
Justification: Three of the content points are elaborated (introduction, subjects,

uniform). Class size and the fee are mentioned. The closing is
inadequate. The style is formal. In addition, the candidate mentions
language, sports and programs instead of elaborating the content
points. The John King name choice is confusing. Dr. Gregg may well
answer John does not need the schools education.
148
Script 04
Dear Dr. Gregg,
The reason why I am writing this letter is that I would like to have more
information about the British International School. My parents have read the
advertisement and they would like to send my 10-year-old brother to an Englishspeaking school.
First of all I would like to ask about the subjects which are taught in the school.
How many subjects are there and in which languages do the students have to learn
them? And what kind of foreign languages can the students learn? I read in the
article that this education system is for students aged 5 to 19. What does it mean?
For example my 10-year-old brother in which class can learn? Are the classes
about the students knowledge?
And do the students have to wear a school uniform, and if your answer is yes,
please tell me something about it. And I have a very important question, what is
the prise of the school, how much do we have to pay for a year? I hope you will
answer my letter.
Your sincerelly:
E.F.
(176 words)
Justification: Three content points are elaborated (introduction, subjects, price).

Uniforms are mentioned; the closing is inappropriate. The content
point on class size is missing. Irrelevant point: asking which year the
brother would join. The style, register and format are relevant to the
task with the exception of the closing.
149
Script 05
Dear Dr. Gregg,
Iam writing because I read your advertisement in a newspaper. I think this
advertisement is very good. I have a lot of questions about this school.
I have a brother who 10 years old. My parents think that the foreign languages
is very is very important. They said me, write a letter for Dr. Gregg. My parents
would like to send my brother in this school, but they have some question. I dont
know that how many children learn in a class. My second question that what
subjects do the schools teach? I would like to know that. Have the school uniform
got? And my last question that how much is it?
I think if you send me a letter, my brother would go to this school.
(127 words)
Justification: Four content points are mentioned: purpose of writing, class sizes,
subjects, and uniform. There is no elaboration except for the
introduction, which also contains irrelevant information: it is not
the candidates task to evaluate the advertisement (this advertisement is
very good). The necessary questions are formulated, but little is added
compared to what is given in the prompt. The last question (And my
last question that how much is it) is confusing; it is not a clear query about
the tuition fee. The script does not follow the conventions of a
letter of request: the closing formula is missing. The last sentence is
not an acceptable closing sentence for a letter requesting
information. The signing off is also missing. The style is not fully
formal, there are informal elements: contractions and the impolite
tone of the last sentence I think if you send me a letter, my brother would go to
this school.
150
Lower level Task Achievement rating practice

The previous section introduced a sample task and presented the Task Achievement scores and their justifications for a number of scripts. In this section another
lower level task is given together with sample performances. Using the Task
Achievement scale (Figure 8.2), the Guidelines for rating Task Achievement
(Figure 8.3), the specification of the Level-specific expectations for Task Achievement (Table 8.3), and the task-specific rating scheme provided below, mark the
scripts for Task Achievement. Make sure you record your decisions by making
notes about the reasons why you award or subtract points. Having concluded the
rating of the scripts, refer to the Key section and compare your marks and
justifications with the benchmarks and justifications given.
Lower level practice task
The following is a transactional letter task in which candidates respond to a job
advertisement published in a magazine.
You would like to work in England for a year. You have
read this advertisement in a magazine:
To apply write to:
NW9 OED

why you are writing
your education
Write a letter of about 120 words in an appropriate style.
Dear Sir or Madam,
The task-specific rating scheme for the lower level practice task
education
word-processing experience (needed)
language skills (minimum intermediate English, Italian not essential)
starting time for the job
closing
write a formal letter in about 120 words
realise communicative function: a mix of giving information and persuasion
151
152
Lower level practice task scripts
Script 01
Dear Sir or Madam,
Im writing because I have seen your advertisement in a magazine. Im really
interested in this kind of job, so Id like to applicate for it.
I have secondary schools final exam in several subjects (history, mathematic,
hungarian grammar and literature, geography and English language). Now, Im a
third-year student of the lawyer class at the university in Budapest.
I have an intermediate level of English language and a basic level of German
language. I can speak a bit Italian because my grandmother is Italian.
I know youre looking for a person who has word-processing experience, but I
learn quickly and I have a lot of ambition.
If you would employ me I could start work in the end of the year, after my exams.
I like challenges and Id like to learn the English language deeper.
Im waiting for your answer.
Your sincerely.
xy
(144 words)
153
Script 02
Dear Sir or Madam,
I was interested in your advertisement that I read in a magazine and I would like
to apply for the job.
I finished the secondary school two years ago. Since we learnt type-writing and
how to use word-processors, I am very good at both of them. Due to an Italian
friend of mine, I worked for an Italian company as a secretary, so I have the
experience of being a secretary. I can make all the machines operate, that a
secretary works with. I could also get acquainted with the Italian language itself,
which resulted in a progress in the level of my Italian. I also passed the
intermediate language exam in English a year ago.
I returned home from Italy a month ago, so I do not have a job at the moment. I
can start to work whenever you want me to start. I can also go for an interview in
any time.
Yours faithfully,
B.Zs.
(157 words )
154
Script 03
Dear Sir or Madam,
I am writing to you, because I saw your advertisement and I interested about it. I
would like to be a secretary in England. I like very much this country and I would
like to work there.
I can word-processing and working with the computer. I can speak English, a little
bit German and I learning Italian language.
I finished a high school with very good experience. I learnt there word-processing
and two languages. (English and German). For example in the school we did a lot
of toppic with word-processor. I was in America for two years although it was very
interesting I went to school and learnt English. It was my best experience.
If it is good for you I could start the job in September. If its problem please tell
me and I will try to change it.
Thanks everything.
Your faithfully
V.Zs.
(144 words)
155
Script 04
Dear Sir or Madam,
I read your advertisement, that you are looking for secretary. I think I would be
the best for you to this job. I have a very good world-processing experience. I
speak three languages: English, Hungarian and Italian. I know a little bit of
spanish, romanian and greec. I learned out to high scools. I have got intermediate
level from English and Italian. I like speaking and I now many things about
business. I worked three years at the biggest newspaper so I now everything about
these things. I dont work for two monts because I was travelled in America. I
could start the job imediatly. I dont have children so Im free all day everyday. If
Im who you are looking for, please, write or call me.
Yours faithfully: Szilrd
(129 words)
156
Script 05
Dear Sir or Madam,
Im writing to you because of the secretary job youve advertised in Express
magazine. I would like to apply. My names ZE, Im 18. I left Kossuth Lajos
Grammar School last year. I have learnt English for four years there and passed
the intermediate state exam in 1999. And besides this I have also learnt German
for 4 years. Unfortunately I cant speak Italian, but I can join a beginner course if it
is necessary. In the summer holidays I used to work as a secretary at my mothers
company so I have experiences. I can fax you my language diplom and the offer of
the company. I could start working in two weeks time.
I hope youll answer for my application.
Your faithfully
ZE
(124 words)
157
KEY: Justifications and scores for Task Achievement

Script 01
All content points are present, though the candidate never specifies the job.
Education and language skills are elaborated in detail; mentioning grandmother is
a good idea. There is a slight problem with the coverage of content points wordprocessing and starting time, as the former is a requirement in the advertisement,
plus the secretary is urgently needed, so including them like this is not likely to
result in employment. However, mentioning ambition could be useful. The style is
polite, but not consistently formal (e.g. use of contracted forms). Score: 5
Script 02
Five content points are included in a script of 157 words, in the order presented,
with sufficient elaboration. The job, however, is not specified. The closing part is
also present but it is too thin/abrupt. Secretarial experience gets the most detailed
treatment. The explanation why the candidate is applying for the job is an original
idea. The letter provides enough information for assessing the applicants
suitability for the advertised job. The style, register and format are relevant to the
task formal letter. Score: 6
Script 03
All content points are present some mention is made of each required element.
However, elaboration is mostly lacking for word-processing (it is not clear whether
the candidate has relevant experience), and for the closing. Most details are given
on the discussion of education a good and relevant idea that may make the
reader interested in arranging a job interview with the applicant. The letter mostly
follows the order of points as presented in the task, indicating student awareness
of the importance of each. Score: 5
Script 04
The content points are included but adequate elaboration is lacking. Several
content points (education, word-processing experience, when you could start the
job) are briefly mentioned. The most detailed content point is language skills.
Including work experience is a good idea. Some irrelevant bits are the journey to
the US and the children. There are problems with the level of formality. Score: 3
Script 05
Five content points are included without much elaboration in a shorter than
required text. The only content point treated more elaborately besides the
introduction and the closing is the knowledge of languages. At the same time, the
letter contains an irrelevant or misunderstood bit (secretarial experience). The
letter provides the potential employer with sufficient information. Overall the
style is formal and polite though contracted forms are used. Score: 4
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The Hungarian Model Examination: Higher level

The previous section illustrated the marking of lower level scripts for Task Achievement and presented sample scripts for practice. The following section illustrates and
provides practice in marking higher level scripts. Use the information given in the
Task Achievement scale (Figure 8.2), the Guidelines for rating Task Achievement
(Figure 8.3), the specification of the Level-specific expectations for Task Achievement (Table 8.3), and the task-specific rating scheme to mark the scripts.
Sample higher level task
The following is a higher level writing task that instructs candidates to write an
article for an international student magazine. The writer is a young English
speaking person who is writing to the readers of the student magazine. The style
of the script, therefore, can be casual to be appropriate and appealing for the target
audience. The candidates are expected to write an article, which means that they
must produce a text that in its rhetorical organisation and purpose meets the
requirement of the article text type.
No Kidding, an international student magazine, has
invited readers to share their views about the
computer. Write an article to give your opinion and
advice to other students.
computers in education
computers and entertainment
health issues
computers and relationships
Write your article with the title given. Write about
200 words.
The requirements concerning the communicative function of the article are

presented in the introductory part of the writing task that outlines the writing
situation. The candidates must write an article in which they express their opinion
and give advice. As a consequence, the discourse mode of the script is expected to
be a mix of exposition (explanation) and argumentation (support produced to
back up the pieces of advice presented).
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The expected content of the script is specified in the list of content points.
There are additional content points that refer to the text type features of articles
(e.g. writing an inviting introduction), but it is assumed that candidates are aware
of and will reproduce these text type features in their scripts. The suggested length
of the script indicates that candidates with higher-level language proficiency are
expected to discuss the content points in more depth. For further details with
regard to the content of higher level scripts refer to Tables 8.2 and 8.3 above.
The task-specific rating scheme for the sample higher level task

introducing the topic
giving opinion on computers' role in education
giving opinion on computers' role in entertainment
giving opinion and advice on health issues
giving opinion and advice on computers and relationships
conclusion
write an article in about 200 words
express opinion, support arguments, give advice (giving advice could be
incorporated in different parts of the text)
use appropriate language for genre and audience (fellow students)
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Sample higher level scripts
Script 01
Nowadays computers became more and more important not only in education
or entertainment but all the other areas of life.
Firstly lets take the most significant part, the education. You could get ECDL
diploma about computers. Its absolutely necessary because it is acknowledged in
the European Unio and you can become acquainted with these machines.
You could also have fun with your computer across the Internet. If you join the
Net you will meet a lot of interesting people and you can speak or play with them.
It can be a great fun to search on the webs. And last but not least you could learn a
lot this way. If you have problems you will find solutions. There is numberous
person who first met on the Net and now they are married and live happily.
Sometimes perhaps you think that its unbelievable but it can happen. Its so
important to know about the world a lot and it is easy with the computers. But on
the other hand its true that computers are expensive. And it has harmful effects
especially on your eyes and you can easily fall into that trap to sit in front of the
computer all day instead of have a walk or a picknick.
What is the conclusion? I think computers have more good effects on our life
than bad. But you have to find the balance between dealing with a computer and
other useful things.
(241 words)
Justification: The content points fully elaborated are introduction, education, and
conclusion; health is covered and entertainment and relationships
are mixed. The problem with the content points is that the ideas
that relate to them are not always together but scattered throughout
the text. Advice is given in the conclusion, the style is neutral, and
the text conforms to text type expectations.
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Script 02
Computers are really important machines in our century. Computers are more and
more important.
In the schools there are lots of computers and we also have computer lessons. In
the secondary schools there are special classes where the students have more C.S.
lessons than in the other classes. Nowadays the Internet is a popular thing for
entertainment. But lots of children like computer games. I dont like those
children who always sit in front of the computer, because its healthier doing some
sports. This is connected to the health issues. Your eyes become worse, you have
to wear glasses and its important to be in the nature and relax. You can go
running or playing basketball or anything else. If you have computer you can send
emails to different people from the world. So this is a good thing, because you can
know lots of people. But at the same time you can be lonely because you cant
meet these people, only in the computer and people need a kind of company.
Computers as we can see have advantages and disadvantages too.
I dont like computers but I know that there are a lot of useful thing with it. You
can learn more about things in that you are interested, and its a good thing if you
have internet too. But the life is not only about computers.
(228 words)
Justification: All content points are dealt with. Health, relationship (both
advantages and disadvantages discussed), and conclusion are
elaborated. The introduction, education and entertainment are
mentioned. The introduction is repetitive and does not state what
the text is about. The writers position is not clear: the introduction
does not fulfil its function. Advice is only implied (its healthier doing
some sports; and its important to be in the nature and relax), and some
scattered suggestions are given. The text mostly conforms to text
type requirements. The style is consistently neutral.
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Script 03
Our world has changed at the end of the 20th century. A lot of new things were
invited, and the bio-technic improved a lot. It is said that this century is the
century of computers. We can read about computers from the begining of the 20th
century, but the real machines were invited in the 70s. Nowadays it is so common
that it is used in education. There are a lot of ways of using it but the main way is
to teach languages. The computer can help prounancing the words for even an
hour and it isnt unpatient. This is a very useful way of using but there are some
more, useless functions of it. One of them is the computer games. It is said that it
proves the reflexes but its only part of the softwer progressing companies
marketing.
The monitor can even harm the eye, so its a bit dangerous playing for hours
opposite the computer. A lot of secretarys lives on disability because of that. It may
seemed that computers has only harmful effects, but on the other hand it gives us
an ability to communicate with our distant kin. We can hear that a lot of lost
members of families found by the internet. I cant make a decision of the
computers. Everybody should look through the facts and decide.
(225 words)
Justification: Half of the content points are fully elaborated (introduction,

education and closing), the others need more elaboration: health is
discussed at some length but little is said about it; entertainment is
only mentioned. Advice is not explicitly given. The style is
consistently neutral; the text type conventions are observed.
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Script 04
Computers make our lives easier. Its not necessary for every single child to have
a top-machine just to play their stupid little games. say the critics. But is this
true? Lets find that out!
Many kids have computers nowdays. But the evolution of these machines is
unnoticably fast and if the kid wants to stay topmodisch as the Germans say,
the mummy and daddy has to pay a great amount of money for all the hardware
and software pakages. So 1 minus point.
But the child has to play with something and the computer is a great way of
learning for the young ones and an even greater way of playing for the older
generation. So 1 plus point.
Some say that monitors make harmful radiation. Well (shortly) you can buy a TFT
(LCD) display if you want to and that has no radiation at all. +1 point.
Another thing is that the kids live an unhealthy life because the sit and play with
computer 24/7. All I have to say is:
Kids you could go out sometimes and play outside games (and not with your
computer!)!
(187 words)
Justification: Good start that identifies a problem. The content points

introduction and health are fully elaborated. The second paragraph
contains irrelevant information (ideas do not develop a content
point). Education and entertainment are mentioned. The
conclusion does not fulfil its function: it does not solve or relate to
the problem formulated in the introduction. Some advice is given.
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Script 05
The computer is our friend. It was created to help our lives, jobs and it gives us a
new kind of entertainment. Most computer in a workplace are connected to the
internet which can give a whole new dimention of comunication and finding
articles of a question.
Computers in education: more and more schools are buying computers to teach
the students how to use certain programs like Word excel and use the internet.
This is where the education turns into entertainment. Children also like to listen to
music and play with games and one of the newest entertainment is chatting with
each other which can bring people together and can make new relationships.
The bad side of computering is that the monitor can be harmful to eyes, but I
think new monitors will prevent eye problem.
(136 words)
Justification: Only two content points are fully elaborated (introduction and
entertainment) in this short script. Education, health and relationships are mentioned (the candidate uses content points as transition
devices but does not elaborate them); the conclusion is missing.
Opinion is not expressed only occasionally implied. Advice is not
given. The text does not follow the conventions of an article.
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Higher level Task Achievement rating practice

The previous section provided practice in rating higher level scripts for Task
Achievement. In this section another higher level task is introduced together with
sample performances and your task is to mark the scripts for Task Achievement
and give justifications for your marks.
Higher level practice task
Use the Task Achievement scale (Figure 8.2), the Guidelines for rating Task
Achievement (Figure 8.3), the specification of the Level-specific expectations for
Task Achievement (Table 8.3), and the task-specific rating scheme provided with
the task to mark the scripts for Task Achievement. Make notes about the reasons
why you award or subtract points. Having rated the scripts, go to the Key section
below and compare your marks and justifications with the benchmarks and
justifications given.
You have just heard that ten Hungarian secondaryschool students can spend a free year in the USA.
They will stay with families and attend a school in
Florida. To apply, you need to write an essay for the
organisers of the programme. Give reasons for your
application.
Here are the notes you have prepared:
language practice
other cultures
my culture
new friends
Using all of your notes, write your application with
the title given in about 200-250 words.
Why I would like to spend a year in Florida
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The task-specific rating scheme for the higher level practice task

introducing the situation (occasion and overall reason for writing) and
oneself
effect on language practice
familiarity with other cultures
familiarity with the candidates own culture (how the experience will affect
the perception/understanding/appreciation of the candidates own culture)
new friends
closing part
write a formal essay (reasoned application) in about 200-250 words
give reasons and support them
use the language of persuasion
use conditional structures
use a neutral/formal tone
167
Higher level practice task scripts
Script 01
There are a couple of reasons why Id like to spend a year in Florida. First of all,
because its a good opportunity to learn English. I would like to aquire an
advanced English language exam. The second reason is that I have never been in
the USA, so I would like to get to know the American culture. I think its so
different from our culture, how people behave, what they eat and do in their free
time. Maybe it would be interesting for them to get acquainted with the Hungarian
culture and someday visit Hungary. There are many fascinating things in our
culture, that probably they dont even know about. My last reason is that I would
like to meet different people, make friends with people of my age from a different
country. Maybe then I could visit them after I came home and they could come
around sometime. It would be a great adventure to spend a whole year in a
country where I have never been before totally alone and fully independent.
(176 words)
168
Script 02
I would like to spend a year in Florida because Id like to practice. I started
learning the English language about eight years ago, and it would be very useful
because I need to prepare for my final exam or to take my language exam. But
there are other things which are motivate me. For example to become acquainted
with other people from other country. Im interested in other cultures especially
the american. Ive read about this culture a lot and I suppose it is the most
interesting one that Ive ever known. I think its differ from my culture very much
and it would be very nice to travel to the USA and discover that life. And I would
also like to make new friendships and to meet with different people to hear
different ideas to see other ways of living and organizing life. I suppose this side of
the world is one of the most exiting interesting country that means freedome
peace and perfection.
(166 words)
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Script 03
Florida is the state of sunshine. there is always summer day. It would be good to
spend there a year staying with families. I believe it would be good to know about
the cu lture. There are beautiful beaches where can I go to sunbath and swim in
the ocean. The best would be Miami or Orlando, but Tampa wouldnt be bed too.
In these cites I can go the basket ball matches like Orando Magic and Miami Heat.
There are good NHL (hockey) teams like Tampa Bay Lightning or Florida
Panthers.
On the other hand, I want to learn the American culture and I want to make
friends with Americans. If someone says Florida everyone associates Miami.
Miami is like a real paradise with palm trees and skateing girls in the beach. Miami
is the East Coasts L.A., I mean L.A. is the West coasts paradise and Miami is the
East sides.
IF I can go there I would be the biggest fan of Miami Dolphins, so they would
win the Super Bowl. In Hungary theres no NBA, NHL and NFL so I want to go
there to see some matches.
About the school, I would learn much to see these matches. East Coast for
LIFE!
(207 words)
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Script 04
I heard about this programme and I would like to spend a year in Florida. I
think there are advantages and disadvantages of this programme.
In my opinion that one year is very long time in an other country far from your
home, far from your family and your friends. But there are advantages. First of all
you would practice the language and you have to be obliged to speak foreign
language, you can speak in native language people dont understand you. Of
course you will attend a school in Florida, where you can make friends, so you will
have more friends, but its true when you will go home and you will be able to
leave them, but you will connect them in letter or in email. When you are in an
other country you are able to know other cultures and you are able to show your
own culture.
I think its a good possibility for everybody, so I would like to spend a year in
Florida with pleasure, but its true that my parents and my sister will be missed for
me.
(185 words)
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Script 05
Everyone says and everyone knows that the best way to learn a foreign
language is to go to the country where they speak that language. Since I have
studied English in the school and havent spent a longer time in an Englishspeaking country, this exchange program would be very helpful for me. I would
probably lose my accent and would pick up words that I hadnt known before.
I was born and I have always lived in Hungary, so I know the culture very well.
In the American school I couldnt only make new friendships but also show to the
American teenagers what is my culture like. And, of course, I would pick up some
parts of their life-style.
As far as I know the American school system is different from most of the
European school-systems and it is almost completely different from the
Hungarian. So this exchange-program would give me a chance to get to know how
they study in the States.
Hopefully, also, I would get a new, second family abroad, since I would be their
new son. I know it is hard to obtain this but I would do everything for it and I
am sure that they also would.
Over all I think I could only gain with this program and I would be really happy
and pleased to participate in it.
(227 words)
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KEY: Justifications and scores for Task Achievement

Script 01
Five content points are fully elaborated (introduction, foreign language, US
culture, friends, closing). Nothing specific is stated about Hungarian culture. The
text conforms to genre requirements, but there is no audience awareness: the
candidate should not use contracted forms in a formal text. Score: 5
Script 02
The short introduction fails to introduce the situation and the writer. Instead of
this, it leads directly into the first content point. It does not fulfil its function, and
neither does the conclusion. The content points elaborated are language, US
culture and friends. Hungarian culture is not mentioned. The style is
inappropriate, and the text does not meet the requirements of an article. Score: 3
Script 03
Inadequate discussion of content points: US culture and friends are briefly
mentioned; the other content points (four out of six) are not even mentioned.
There are a lot of irrelevant details about sport. The text is descriptive instead of
persuasive and does not meet the text type requirements. Score: 1
Script 04
Four content points are fully elaborated (introduction, language, friends,
conclusion), two are mentioned (US and Hungarian culture). The text would be
more persuasive if the candidate personalised the arguments (should use I instead
of the general you). The writer uses a neutral tone mixed with informal elements
(contractions). Score: 4
Script 05
Four content points are fully elaborated (introduction, language, Hungarian
culture, conclusion). US culture and friends are mentioned only. The candidate
further narrows and distorts two content points: US culture is discussed in terms of
schools, and friends are interpreted as family. This is not an ideal but an acceptable
solution. Style is not consistent. The article conforms to text type requirements but
it is not overly persuasive. It is descriptive and hypothetical. Score: 5
Implications for teaching
The information included in this chapter is intended primarily to provide help for
the evaluation of scripts from the point of view of Task Achievement. However,
most of the features discussed in connection with the Task Achievement criterion
also have direct implications for the understanding and teaching of a number of
writing subskills.
Giving students activities that develop their awareness of the features of the
writing context is less difficult than it may seem. They can be sensitised to the
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participants in written communication with the sample texts (letters, articles,

descriptions, or stories) included in language course books. These texts may not
always be intended for the development of writing skills; however, they can be
easily adopted for such purposes. For example, asking questions about who the
writer and the expected reader of a particular text are helps students understand
that in written communication there are more than one participant. Besides
sample texts, students can be given writing tasks and asked to determine in
preparation for writing who the writer and the reader specified in the task are.
Once students can identify the participants, they may have less difficulty in
understanding how the relationship between the participants affects the text. It is
easier to understand the importance of style if the reasons for using different styles
are clear. Although language course books occasionally include brief discussions of
the differences between formal and informal language use, teachers can provide
regular practice for their students by asking them to decide whether a text has
informal, neutral or formal style. This exercise can be followed up with the
identification of those features of the text that determine its style.
The difference between the various styles becomes obvious if two texts with
different styles are read together. By reading a formal and an informal letter
preferably on the same topic, students should be able to identify with ease the
features characteristic of the two styles. Such an exercise can be combined with a
dictionary-using skills development task through which students learn that
especially monolingual dictionaries but also some recent bilingual dictionaries give
useful information about register.
A controlled exercise like the transformation of an informal text into a formal
one or the other way round can be used with students of any level of language
proficiency. Lower proficiency students should have no difficulty understanding,
for example, the difference between is not and its contracted form isnt. However,
such elements of style as sentence structure can only be addressed when students
are proficient enough to produce complex texts.
The features of the third component of the writing context, the script, can also
be built into regular classroom activities. Students comparing text types (e.g. letters
with articles, essays or reports) may have less difficulty in realising the difference
between their layout and function. They can be asked to determine the function
(e.g. inform, entertain, complain, describe) of the texts in their course books. This
may serve as a good preliminary task to the teaching of discourse modes. The tasks
discussed in this chapter show that candidates are expected to produce a variety of
text types and to combine various discourse modes to realise their communicative
goals.
In addition to activities that develop students sense of form and function,
content must also be included in writing development. Identifying the issues
addressed in the texts given in course books may help students understand the way
topics and subtopics are developed in a text. Students can also be asked to identify
the points in a writing task that they must address in their scripts. In preparation
for a language examination, they can be given different writing tasks (in which the
input is different, the layout of the instructions vary, e.g. continuous text vs. bullet
174
points) and asked to write a list of the content points. Such an exercise is suitable
for familiarising students with different tasks and may explain why it is important
to read and interpret instructions carefully. It can also be used to show students
that some content points are not given in the writing task but must be supplied by
the test taker on the basis of their knowledge of text types (e.g. stating the reason
for writing in a letter or the introductory and concluding paragraphs in a
composition or a report).
As was discussed in this chapter, raters check not only whether a content point
is present in a script but also whether it is mentioned or developed. It may help
language learners to understand the difference between developed and
undeveloped content points if they were shown texts or scripts that contain
developed and undeveloped paragraphs. In order to be able to write several
sentences on a topic, students may find useful such idea generation techniques as
brainstorming, listing, or mind mapping. The teacher can illustrate these
techniques, for example, when the class is generating ideas together for a onesentence composition task that they have to write at home.
Students preparing for an examination need to understand both the difference
between mentioning and developing a content point, and how the meaning of a
developed content point may change with the type of content point. Elaboration
does not mean the same in the case of the content point Your favourite ride in a theme
park and the closing in a letter of request. The first one will be elaborated if the
candidate describes the ride and explains why it was so special, whereas the second
may be written in one sentence and yet it may still count as fully elaborated.
Teachers can design with minimal preparation activities suitable for teaching
those elements and features of texts that are usually marked under Task
Achievement. Language course books include a large number of texts that can be
used to teach students about the writer, reader, topic, form and function of a text.
In the next chapter we will examine coherence and cohesion, which can also be
taught with the help of the texts given in course books.
Chapter 9
General description of the Coherence and Cohesion criterion
In analytic scales developed for the assessment of writing, the criterion called
organisation refers to the arrangement of ideas and the relationship within them in a
script. Organisation is an umbrella term for a number of features of a script,
namely coherence, unity and cohesion, and as a consequence the organisation
criterion is also often labelled as Coherence and Cohesion.
Coherence
Coherence refers to the logical progression of the ideas from the beginning to the
end of a script or a paragraph. In a coherent text, each paragraph leads into
another paragraph and each idea within a paragraph leads into the next idea. If a
script is coherent, the reader does not have to stop and reread it in order to
understand the connection between its sentences or paragraphs.
The logical arrangement of the ideas varies according to the writers purpose. If
the writer wants to tell a story, the most logical pattern in which the ideas can be
organised is determined by chronological order. In a narration the writer can
proceed most naturally from the first event to the last in the order in which the
events occurred. If the writer wants to compare two types of bicycles, one possible
way of organising the comparison would be to describe them feature by feature
(e.g. number of gears for bicycle A, number of gears for bicycle B; weight of
bicycle A, weight of bicycle B).
There are a large number of organisational patterns that can be grouped into
three categories: those that are determined by the discourse mode of the script
(e.g. time sequence in narration/process description, or spatial organisation in a
description); those that are determined by the nature of the information included
in the script (e.g. order of importance: most important information first, least
important last; level of specificity: information presented by moving from generalto-specific); and those that are determined by the method of development
(question-answer: posing a question first and providing an answer to it; problemsolution: stating the problem and proposing a solution for it). These patterns of
organisation are taught both implicitly and explicitly in language course books and
in special course books designed to improve writing skills.
Coherence is thus a quality of the script that derives from the relationship
between the ideas expressed in its sentences and paragraphs. However, a reader
cannot determine if the script is coherent only by looking at it because the logic
according to which the ideas are organised is not visible. It is through reading and
interpreting sentence after sentence and paragraph after paragraph that the reader
understands the relationships that hold between them. Nevertheless, the logic of a
coherent script can be made visible. The writer can use transition words (therefore,
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consequently, however) or phrases (on the one hand/on the other hand, to begin with, as a
consequence) to indicate the nature of the connection between two sentences or
paragraphs (for further examples of transition words and phrases see Table 9.1).
Table 9.1. Transition words
Time
afterward as soon as before meanwhile then until after a few

hours
Sequence
first second third next last finally
Addition
and besides furthermore also moreover in addition
Result
so as a result therefore as a consequence
Comparison
also in comparison similarly
Contrast
although even though in contrast however whereas on the one

hand/on the other hand
Concession
naturally of course yet
Conclusion/Summary
therefore so in brief summing up in conclusion
Illustration/Exemplification
for example for instance to illustrate that is namely
For instance, readers interpret the following two sentences

He was a bully. All the children avoided him.
as sentences describing a causal relationship that can be reformulated as
Because he was a bully (CAUSE), all the children avoided him (EFFECT).
since they know that the meaning of the word bully is a person who uses their
strength or power to frighten or hurt weaker people. Although the relationship
between the two sentences is straightforward, the writer may decide to help the
reader by marking it overtly with the use of a transition word that indicates the
nature of the relationship.
He was a bully. Therefore, all the children avoided him.
It is to be noted that a well-organised script can be perfectly coherent even if it
does not contain any transition words or phrases, and that a script that is full of
transition words is not necessarily coherent. The use of transition words does not
transform an incoherent text into a coherent one. Moreover, the overuse of
transition words can result in a script that reads very artificially.
Unity
Similarly to coherence, unity is a feature that contributes to the smooth flow of the
ideas and is usually assessed together with coherence. Each script develops a main
topic and the paragraphs within the script develop the subtopics of the main topic.
Chapter 9 Coherence and Cohesion
177
If the main topic of a descriptive composition is a friend, the subtopics developed

in the composition may be the following:
paragraph 1: description of how the writer met the friend
paragraph 2: description of the friends physical characteristics
paragraph 3: description of the friends psychological characteristics
All of the paragraphs develop a particular aspect or subtopic of the main topic,
the reader is given additional information about the described person in each
paragraph and thus can slowly build a mental picture of the writers friend.
All the sentences within a unified paragraph develop the topic of the paragraph.
In the above example in a unified paragraph 1 the reader would find out about the
time and place when the writer and the friend met. A unified paragraph 2 would
reveal information about the looks and build of the friend. A paragraph is thus
unified if all the sentences relate to the topic of the paragraph, and a script is
unified if all the paragraphs develop one main topic.
A script whose paragraphs do not develop the main topic or whose paragraphs
consist of sentences that do not develop the same subtopic lacks unity. For
instance, if the writer of the descriptive composition discussed above includes in
the composition a paragraph describing her own family and this description is not
relevant in any way to the description of the friend, the script will lack unity
because one of the paragraphs develops an irrelevant subtopic. Correspondingly, if
irrelevant sentences are included in a paragraph, the paragraph will lack unity. For
instance, if the topic of the paragraph is Marys generosity and the ideas developed in
the paragraph are that she always shares her food with her classmates and does not
expect anything in return, does not mind spending her free time practising maths
with weak students, etc., the paragraph is unified since the ideas give examples that
illustrate Marys generosity. The inclusion in this paragraph of the idea that Mary
plans to live in Australia when she grows up would disrupt unity.
Unity therefore contributes to the coherence of the script. Reading a script in
which the ideas do not follow in logical order, or reading a script in which one or
more ideas are not related to the main topic lead to the same result: the continuity
in the smooth flow of the text is broken and readers lose their way. As a
consequence, raters should take into account both the flaws in the scripts that
affect unity and the coherence problems when they rate a script for coherence.
Cohesion
The third organisational feature of a script that raters assess is cohesion. Cohesion
is the explicit marking of the grammatical and lexical relationships between the
parts of a sentence, between sentences, or between paragraphs. Cohesion can be
established with several techniques of which the three that are most relevant to
writing are reference, conjunction and lexical chains.
Reference can be realised with the use of personal or possessive pronouns,
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demonstratives and comparatives. It establishes a link within a sentence or

between two or more sentences by connecting specific words in them. For
instance, the connection between the following two sentences
I saw a cow yesterday. It was black.
is realised by the personal pronoun it which refers back to cow in the first sentence
(anaphoric reference). It could be replaced with the words the cow. The same kind
of relationship can be realised with a possessive pronoun as in
They have a yellow house. Ours is light brown.
where ours refers back to the word house in the previous sentence.
The writer may not only refer back to something mentioned earlier, but may
point forward to another word or phrase to be used later. For example, in the
following sentences
It is interesting to read about adventures.
I couldnt believe it. My parents bought me the red skates.
the pronoun it refers to something that comes later in the same or a subsequent
sentence (cataphoric reference).
Reference realised with determiners or comparatives follows the same logic.
For example, in the following sentences
My friends were sitting in the last carriage. I decided to go there and tell them a joke.
Two days are not enough for the first class trip. More time is needed for the pupils to get to know
each other.
the demonstrative pronoun there refers back to last carriage and the comparative more
points back to two days and thus connects the two sentences.
Conjunction is another way of realising cohesion. Co-ordinating conjunctions
(and, or, but) connect words, phrases and clauses; adverbial connectors (firstly, secondly,
moreover, therefore, in conclusion, as a consequence) connect clauses, sentences and
paragraphs.
She loves tea but cant stand coffee.
She is rich. As a consequence, she has many fair-weather friends.
Whereas co-ordinating conjunctions and adverbial connectors link similar
linguistic units (e.g. clauses), subordinating conjunctions (because, that, unless, when)
link independent and dependent clauses.
She left because it started to rain.
We arrived when the concert ended.
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If you open the window, the mosquitoes will eat you alive.
Lexical repetition, the use of the same word, a synonym or near synonym, or of
a general word that refers to the same thing in different sentences can also
establish cohesion through the creation of lexical chains that reiterate key words
and concepts throughout the script.
My nephew is five. The little rascal will only eat ice cream.
In these two sentences nephew and little rascal refer to the same boy who is five
years old and is very fond of ice cream. Little rascal refers to but also adds to the
meaning of nephew, and thus a connection is set up across the two sentences. In the
sentences
In the evening I put the roses and the fir branches in the vase that I found in the corner of the room.
By then the flowers started to wither.
You cant shoot that American bald eagle. The bird is protected.
the words roses and flowers refer to the same plants and the words American bald eagle
and bird to the same type of creature. The link between the sentences is established
by the logical connection between these words: the rose is a type of flower and the
bald eagle is a kind of bird.
There are two more techniques with which cohesion can be realised. Although
both of them are more frequent in speech, they can also be used in writing.
Substitution and ellipsis are closely related in that in both cases one or more words
are replaced in the sentence. In the case of substitution the words typically used to
replace other word(s) are one, do, or so.
My sister likes American pop groups. I like Hungarian ones.
Girls like music classes. Most boys dont.
Is this the type of behaviour that should be encouraged? Lets hope nobody thinks so.
In these sentences, ones and dont replace pop groups and like music classes in the
preceding sentences, and so stands for the whole idea formulated in the
preceding question. In the case of ellipsis, the words referred to are replaced
with nothing.
The girl went to the table and (she) picked up the book.
I am as good a dancer as any of my sisters (are).
In these two sentences the personal pronoun she and the verb are are omitted,
yet the sentences can be understood because the missing words have already been
mentioned and consequently are unnecessary.
The cohesive techniques discussed above unify the script and make it easier to
read. The efficient use of these techniques makes it possible for the writer to
180
construct sentences of varying lengths; to show to the reader the connection

between sentences and paragraphs; and to avoid unnecessary repetition of words,
sentences, or even paragraphs. The orderly arrangement and connection of ideas
at sentence-, paragraph- and script-level result in a clear piece of writing. Skilful
reference makes the flow of ideas easy to follow, the correct use of conjunctions
indicates clearly the structure of the text, and lexical chains maintain topic
continuity. The use of substitution and ellipsis results in natural and smoothly
flowing text.
Punctuation
Punctuation in some rating scales is part of the Accuracy criterion, but it can be
argued that it is more closely related to the Coherence and Cohesion criterion. In
the same way that pauses and intonation help listeners to understand speech, and
the layout or graphic division of a text into various functional units (addresses,
titles, headings, paragraphs) indicate text structure, punctuation separates parts of
a script by showing where one set of ideas ends and where the next begins, and
how the parts of the script are related to one another. Without punctuation marks
writing would become an incomprehensible flow of words.
A sentence without punctuation marks is difficult to interpret. The following
sentence
Tom who is seven goes to a primary school in the village Jane who is fifteen commutes every day to a
nearby town.
can be understood with much less effort if the reader adds the missing punctuation
marks:
Tom, who is seven, goes to a primary school in the village; Jane, who is fifteen, commutes every day
to a nearby town.
The semicolon shows that two closely related clauses are connected. The
commas within the clauses indicate that additional information is given about the
two people mentioned.
Punctuation marks have clear functions, so they make it easier for readers to
understand a script. For example, the colon (:) indicates that a list or an
explanation follows. In the sentence
You can choose from four drinks: coffee, tea, milk or soda.
the colon introduces a list, whereas in the sentence
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Babies are similar to very old people in a number of ways: they do not have teeth and depend on
the people around them.
the colon precedes an explanation.
However, punctuation marks not only separate a string of words but can change
the meaning of a sentence. For instance, the following pairs of sentences consist of
the same words and are grammatically correct, but the sentences in each pair have
different meanings.
a
The woman said John is ill.
The woman, said John, is ill.
b
The Smiths have a son who is a cook.
The Smiths have a son, who is a cook.
In example a the first sentence means that it is John who is ill, whereas the
second sentence means that it is the woman who is ill. Similarly, the comma in
example b changes the meaning of the sentence. The sentence without the comma
means that the Smiths have at least two sons, one of whom is a cook. The second
sentence means that they have only one son, and he happens to be a cook.
Punctuation is directly related to meaning and if readers cannot make sense of
the script because they cannot determine which words go together, where one idea
finishes and the next begins, what the relationships between the sentences are, or
what the exact meaning of a sentence is, they will consider the script incoherent.
The Coherence and Cohesion criterion in the scale developed for the
Hungarian Model writing examination
The second criterion in the writing scale developed by the Hungarian
Examination Reform Project for the Model examination is called Coherence and
Cohesion (Figure 9.1). The bands with descriptors explicitly instruct raters to
assess the sentence and paragraph-level coherence and cohesion of the scripts. In
other words, raters must check whether the ideas follow logically within each
paragraph and whether the paragraphs follow one another meaningfully. They
should check furthermore whether the relationship between the ideas is marked
with a variety of appropriate transition words that play a genuine role in making
the script more understandable.
In the guidelines accompanying the writing scale (Figure 9.2), raters are given a
detailed description of what they have to check in the scripts in terms of the
aspects included in the definitions of the bands. Besides coherence and cohesion,
the guidelines also specify that raters must take into consideration punctuation and
the layout of paragraphs.
As in the case of the Task Achievement criterion, raters can use the same scale
and guidelines to assess the coherence and cohesion of scripts written by both
lower and higher level candidates. The requirements regarding each level are
explained in the level-specific expectations (Table 9.2).
182

fully coherent text

cohesive on both sentence and paragraph level
6
5
good sentence-level cohesion

some paragraph-level coherence and cohesion
4
some sentence-level cohesion
3 frequent lack of paragraph-level coherence and
cohesion
2
1
lack of sentence- and paragraph-level cohesion

text not coherent
Figure 9.1 The Coherence and Cohesion Scale

At the lower level, candidates are expected to produce simple texts that consist
of short sentences connected with simple linking words (and, but, because).
Depending on the text type and the level of development of the ideas, a lower
level script can be written in one block or in separate paragraphs. Even if there is
little development of ideas, it is expected that the introductory and concluding
sections are set apart from the main part, the body, of the script.
Check
Look for
Organisation and linking of ideas

is the script coherent?
logical organisation of ideas / whether the ideas follow one
is the script cohesive?
another logically
clear / correct marking of the relationship between sentences
and their parts
variety and appropriateness of linking devices
Paragraphing
does the script need to be organisation of ideas developing one subtopic into one paragraph
and is it divided into
proper indication of paragraphs: block or indented
paragraphs?
clear / correct marking of the relationship between paragraphs
Punctuation
correct use of punctuation marks
Figure 9.2 Guidelines for rating Coherence and Cohesion

Table 9.2 Level-specific expectations for the Coherence and Cohesion criterion
Lower level
Higher level
simple connected text

shorter discrete elements in linear
sequence
simple linking words (and but because)
short logical paragraphs
complex clear text

longer elements conveying complex ideas
logical (marked/unmarked) relationship between
ideas
developed logical paragraphs
183
At the higher level, where the scripts are longer and more complex, candidates
are expected to produce clear scripts in which the relationship between the ideas is
established with the logical organisation of the ideas and the use of transition
markers. Given that at this level the ideas must be developed in detail, each
content point should be discussed in a separate paragraph that forms a thought
unit on its own. More proficient writers communicating complex ideas should
alternate correctly punctuated simple and complex sentences in order to convey
the intended message successfully.
Frequently asked questions in connection
with the Coherence and Cohesion criterion
What shall I do if the original order of the content points has been
changed?
There is no penalty for changing the order if the script is
logical. See if the script becomes even more logical or
determine whether this change resulted from some point
the candidate aimed to communicate.
What if the script is organised in paragraphs, but there is little coherence in
them and no connection between them?
Depending on sentence-level cohesion, it could be awarded
2 or 3. The paragraph, as merely a visual form of text, is not
a positive feature in itself.
What shall I do if the candidate is using paragraphs that are not
indented?
Block paragraphs are also fine. The script must contain
either block or indented paragraphs throughout. The two
forms should not be alternated within one script.
What shall I do if the candidate is using the same linking devices over and
over again?
A variety of linking devices are expected, so repetition is to
be penalised.
Do students always have to use linking devices to achieve cohesion?
They do not. Vocabulary (e.g. synonyms, antonyms, and
pronouns) can make sentences and paragraphs cohesive. In
fact, too many transitional phrases can make a script artificial.
This section introduces a sample lower level task together with its task-specific
rating scheme and sample scripts, which are discussed in terms of the aspects
assessed under the Coherence and Cohesion criterion.
184

The following lower level task is an informal transactional letter writing task.
Write a letter of about 120 words on the lines.

Dear Chris,
The candidate must write an account of a day trip using the information given
in the rubrics in a variety of forms: instructions, an illustration of the itinerary, and
key words added to the illustration.
The content and the discourse mode(s) of a letter vary with the task and letter
type. The dominant discourse mode of the script prompted by the above task is
narration, more specifically past narration because the candidate is expected to give
an account of one day spent in the countryside prior to the time of writing.
Therefore, the organising principle which lower level candidates are expected to use
is simple chronological order: the candidate proceeds from the first event of the day
to the last in the order in which they occurred. The transitions used to mark the
connection between ideas and paragraphs can be expected to be mainly time phrases.
185
The task-specific rating scheme designed for the writing task contains implicit and
explicit information concerning those aspects of the scripts that raters must consider
when assessing coherence and cohesion. The list of content points (see Content points
for raters given below) is relevant not only for the Task Achievement but also for the
Coherence and Cohesion criterion because it presents the simplest organisation plan
of the subtopics to be developed in the script. Candidates may be able to alter the
order set by the task if the nature of the content allows. For instance, while the order
of the stages in a process description should not be altered for fear that the reader
fails to follow the description, contrary to what the above narrative task suggests,
candidates may choose to describe first the internal characteristics of a person rather
than the external ones and still manage to produce a fully coherent script.
introduction (on holiday at Lake Balaton)
starting out for the trip (time, by car)
Smeg (castle, time)
Borgta (thermal bath, lunch, many people)
Kis-Balaton (bird-watching, photos)
way home (tired, rain)
closing phrase
In the list of requirements the expectations concerning the coherence and
cohesion of the script are stated explicitly. The script must be divided into
paragraphs, and it must present the ideas in a logical order suitable for the
discourse mode.
write an informal letter of 120 words
use friendly style and register
cover content points
use clear paragraphs (clear thought units)
present ideas in logical order (time sequence used as organisation tool)
produce a narrative text (solid use of past tense forms; possible use of other
tense e.g. for setting the scene; time expressions; possible use of auxiliaries
e.g. had to, etc.)
use some descriptive adjectives and adverbs
186

In the following lower level script the candidate made skilful use of various
devices in order to construct a highly coherent and cohesive letter.
Dear Chris,
How are you? Im fine and just got home. I spent two weeks in
Keszthely at Lake Balaton. It was good, very, very good! I was there with
my family.
We had a day trip on a Sunday. We got up at 7 oclock, and after a
quick breakfast we left Keszthely at 8 am. We went to Smeg and spent
one and a half hours in the castle. It was old and beautiful. We drunk a
coffee there and then we left.
We arrived in Borgta at about 12 oclock. We had a long bath in
Borgtas thermal water, and after a refreshing shower we had a delicious
lunch at a restaurant. There were many people who wanted to eat, so the
waiter was very busy!
We left Borgta at 3 oclock and went to the Kis-Balaton, where we
could see many coloured birds at the lake. I took many photos. Ill show
them next time! We left after the birdwatching. We were tired and a
summer rain caught us , but finally we arrived in Keszthely!
Tell me about your holiday. When do you start school?
See you soon,
Tom
The letter is divided into paragraphs that clearly show where one thought unit
ends and the next begins. Except for the first and last paragraphs, which open and
close the letter, the body of the script is divided according to the places visited
during the day. Each paragraph presents one section of the trip.
The script presents the trip coherently, following the logic suggested by the
illustration. The organising principle of narration, chronological order, functions
as the backbone that holds the script together. The candidate constructs the script
around the timeline on a Sunday at 7 oclock at 8 am one and a half hours at about 12
oclock at 3 oclock and finally, so it has a clear structure that can be followed easily.
Furthermore, the account is provided with a frame: the candidate mentions the
name of the town (Keszthely), which functions both as a departure point and final
destination, at the beginning and at the end of the account.
Of the five types of cohesion discussed in the first part of this chapter, the
candidate uses four. There are several references within the script to words
mentioned earlier (anaphoric reference). For instance, in Paragraph 1 the pronoun
it refers back to spent two weeks, and the demonstrative there refers back to Keszthely. In
Paragraph 2 the pronoun we refers back to I and family.
Although the candidate is not consistent in its use, the script contains some
187
examples of cohesion realised by means of ellipsis. For example, in Paragraphs 2

and 4 in the sentences
We went to Smeg and spent one and a half hours in the castle.
We left Borgta at 3 oclock and went to the Kis-Balaton, where we could see many coloured birds
at the lake.
the candidate skilfully avoids the unnecessary repetition of the pronoun we: in
both cases two clauses with a common subject are connected with a co-ordinating
pronoun which can be omitted in the second clause. The omission of the subject in
the second clause results in a text that reads more naturally. However, the
candidate does not use this technique consistently. In a sentence at the end of
Paragraph 2
We drunk a coffee there and then we left.
the subject is repeated unnecessarily.
The candidate also makes good use of conjunctions. There are in the script a
few simple co-ordinating conjunctions (and, but, so) and adverbs of time (after, then)
that provide a smooth transition from one sentence to another.
Im fine and just got home.
There were many people who wanted to eat, so the waiter was very busy!
We were tired and a summer rain caught us, but finally we arrived in Keszthely!
We had a long bath in Borgtas thermal water, and after a refreshing shower we had a delicious
lunch at a restaurant.
The last type of cohesive technique used in the script is lexical cohesion.
Throughout the script the candidate maintains unity with the creation and
repetition of lexical chains that contain key words describing actions characteristic
of trips. Paragraph 2 contains the chain left went to spent left; Paragraph 3
introduces the phrasal verb arrive in repeated in the lexical chain in Paragraph 4 (left
went to left arrived in), which echoes the words from the lexical chain in
Paragraph 2. The repetition of these verbs creates and maintains the impression of
movement.
As the analysis presented above shows, even a lower level candidate can
produce a coherent script. To achieve this, it is important even in a simple script
that the ideas are organised logically, that the relationship between them is realised
with the use of cohesive techniques, and that there are no punctuation errors that
disrupt communication.
188
marks and justifications given for each script for the Coherence and Cohesion
criterion. When you read the scripts and their evaluations, you should refer to the
Coherence and Cohesion scale (Figure 9.1), the Guidelines for rating Coherence
and Cohesion (Figure 9.2), the Level-specific expectations for the Coherence and
Cohesion criterion (Table 9.2), and the task-specific rating scheme.
Script 01
Dear Chris,
Im writing you again. I spent two weeks in Keszthely, at lake Balaton. I was there
with my family. It was good, very very good, and it was not boring!
We had a day trip on Sunday. We got up at 7 oclock, and after a quick breakfast
we left Keszthely at 8. a.m. We went to Smeg and spent there one and a half
hour. The castle was old and beautiful. We drunk a coffee there and after it we left
the castle.
We arrived to Borgta at about 12 oclock. We had a long bath in Borgtas
thermal water, and after a freshing shower we had a delicious lunch at a restaurant.
There was many people who wanted to eat, so the waiter was very busy!
We left Borgta at 3 oclock and we went to the Kis-Balaton, where we could see
many coloured bird at the lake, and I took many photoes, Ill show them next
time!
We went back Keszthely after the birdwatching. We were tired and a summer rain
caught us. But finally we arrived there, to Keszthely!
See you soon
x
(186 words)
Score for Coherence and Cohesion:
Justification: The text is fully cohesive on sentence- and paragraph-level,

following the chronological order of the content points. Some
explicit cohesive markers are used well (I was there, and after it, so the
waiter was, where we could see, show them, finally). No paragraph
indentation appears but the organisation of thoughts is clear.
189
Script 02
Dear Chris,
Now Im writing from Keszthely. Im spending here my holiday with my family.
Keszthely is at Lake Balaton, as you know.
Yesterday I took a day trip in the countryside. We started from the hotel at 8
oclock by car. We travelled to Smeg and we were in the castle 1,5 hours long.
We had lunch in Borgta. Theres a thermal bath, which is fantastic, and there
were many people. But we couldnt spent there as much time as we want, because
wanted to watch Kis-Balaton and the beautiful birds. We have taken many photos.
At 9 oclock we had to travel back to Keszthely because it began to rain. The
family was tired, but happy.
I hope youll write me soon. Yours:
(123 words)
Justification: Good use of linking devices (and; but; because, which) and logical
sequencing of topics resulting in a unified letter. Previously
mentioned elements nicely referred to (here, the hotel, there). The visual
marking of paragraphs is not logical.
190
Script 03
Dear Chris,
In my last holiday I was in Keszthely. Keszthely is a very beautiful country.
The first day at 8 a.m. we went to Smeg. We were in the castle about 1.5 hours.
That was very interesting. Than we went to Borgta in a thermalbath. We had
lunch, and known many peoples there. Than we were birdwatching and took some
photos.
In later time we travelled to back. The travelling was very boring. The weather was
bad because it was raining.
Im was very tired because, I must get up early and than we travelled all day.
But apart from the travelling it was a very good trip, I think.
I hope youll write soon!
Best wishes
(116 words)
Justification: Some use of linking devices (and, because, apart from), otherwise simple
sentences. Organisation on text-level is achieved with the use of
some time expressions (first...; then?; ...later...) and adequate sequencing
of topics. Paragraph breaks are not logical and consistent.
191
Script 04
Dear Chris,
Im writing my letter from Lake Balaton. Im staying here for a week. Its a
beautiful countryside! We are in Keszthely. Imagine, the second day we have done
a tripe. It was quite interesting. Weve woken up at 7 oclock. I was sleepy but my
mother has given me a couple of coffee. We have gone at 8 oclock to the castle of
Smeg. It was beautiful. We were there 1,5 hours, but I think, it wasnt enough.
Ive bought a little castle for you because I would like, if you see it. It was half
eleven, and we have gone to Borgta. The road was boring, and in the car was a
terrible warm. We have arrived at 12 oclock. In Borgta there is a termal bath and
to many people. The sun shone so we have gone to the bath. There we have eaten
our lunch.
(148 words)
Justification: The writer has followed the order set by the list of content points
and used a selection of linking devices appropriately (here, there;
because; but, and, so); nevertheless, the letter reads like a list, the
chronological order of the events is not made clear with the use of
time expressions. The text is written in one block.
192
Script 05
Dear Chris,
I had a good holiday last year. We spent two month at Lake Balaton. We took a
day trip in the countryside. I think, I write a short letter, what happened. We
repaired the equipment and we start the trip at 8a.m. I was very tired. The first
station was the castle of Smeg. This trip was 1.5 hours. We saw the castle, than we
go to Borgta. We go to the thermalbath. We spent a lot of time there. Than we go
to the restaurant and we eat a lunch. The lunch was very bad. In the city were
many people. The people was very friendly. Than, we go into the car. We go to
Kis-Balaton. We made a lot of photos. We watch a lot of bird. Than, we go to
Keszthely. The weather was very bad. Im very tired!
(142 words)
Justification: The letter is written in one paragraph, with some traces of sentencelevel cohesion, but little paragraph-level coherence and cohesion.
The writing situation is not clear in the introduction (If the holiday
was last year, why would the candidate write about it now?), and the
rest of the sentences do not form a unified whole either. Very short,
not always connected sentences.
193
Lower level Coherence and Cohesion rating practice

The previous section introduced a sample task and presented the Coherence and
Cohesion scores and their justifications for a number of scripts. In this section
another lower level task is introduced together with sample performances. Using
the Coherence and Cohesion scale (Figure 9.1), the Guidelines for rating
Coherence and Cohesion (Figure 9.2), the Level-specific expectations for the
Coherence and Cohesion criterion (Table 9.2), and the task-specific rating scheme
provided below, mark the scripts for Coherence and Cohesion. Make sure you
take notes of the reasons why you award or subtract points. Having concluded the
rating of the scripts, refer to the Key section and compare your marks and
justifications with the benchmarks and justifications given.
Your school has an English language student magazine
and you want to write an article for it about what makes
a good class trip. Look at the notes below and write
about the different possibilities. Give reasons why you
think one is better than the other.
Write an article of about 180 words in an appropriate style. Use the title Tips for
a good class trip.
introducing the problem (what makes a good class trip)
means of transportation (train vs. bus)
accommodation (camp-site vs. hotel)
eating (fast food vs. food from home)
destination (mountains vs. town)
rounding off (the article must not end abruptly)
194

express their opinion and support their choices
use comparative structures, (modal) auxiliaries
use appropriate style for genre and target audience (fellow students)
use language to express likes / dislikes, argue for and against options
Note: The genre (article for student magazine) allows the use of colloquial
expressions and contracted forms in order to achieve the desired effect on the
target reader.

Script 01
Tips for a good class trip
Would you like to travel with your class but you dont know what possibilities
would be better for you? Here are some good tips for a good class trip!
Decide, if you want a cheap trip or an interested trip! If you want a cheap one
you should go by train but you chose other you can go anywhere by bus.
Where to stay? Partly it depends on your comfortable-feeling because you dont
like being in camp-site it is worth being in a hotel. Sure, you can pay it.
The eating is very hard because everybody likes other food like you. It is worth
taking food from home and look for a cheap and good restaurant!
Sure you wont agree where to go mountain or town? Do you like climbing? No?
Then let you go to town! Do you like going out at night? you can just do it in a
town. At least you can go out together in a mountain.
(162 words)
Justification:
195
Script 02
What makes a good class trip? thats a good question.
First of all the class should choose the best way to travel.
The most common options are usually the train or the bus. Both has advantages
but usually travelling by train is much cheaper but less mobile. So if a class wants
to make some short excursions from a base point I would deffinetly choose the
bus. Than the other problem is the accomodation.
I think the best option for that problem is somwhere half way between the
camp-sites and hotels. Its called youth hostels. They are built for youths. And
altough they are very well equipped they arent expensive.
The problem of food is the third. Its a hard question. If we want a cheaper trip,
I would prefer food taken from home. But than we have to spare time for making
it. Fast-food is the other alternative. Its more expensive, but one has fewer
problems with it. We can also try canteen if there is any in the youth hostel or
somwhere nearby.
And finally we have to decide where to go. In the towns there are lot of free
time fascilities, while in the mountains you can make some nice trips. I think the
best option would be a town in the mountains.
(216 words)
Justification:
196
Script 03
The first problem is that how to get to that place. I think to hire a bus is better than
travel by train. In the bus we are together, but on the train the class is devided to
different parts of the train. The negative thing is that the bus may be more
expensive than the train. But if you have a hired bus, you can go everytime,
everywhere. The cheap-expensive question is due to the next question: if you go
to a camp-site, it will be cheaper. Of course the hotel is much more comfortable. I
think it depends on the situation. On a class trip you can eat in a restaurant or the
food taken from home. I think both of them available on a trip. For breakfast it is
good to eat cold meal, which has taken from home, but for dinner is better to eat
in a restaurant. And finally, as for the where to go question, I think it is better to
go to the mountains. In the mountains you are alone in the nature. There is fresh
air, marvellus landsight and space, silence. But this is my personal oppinion, of
course the human culture is in the towns, which is important too.
(208 words)
Justification:
197
Script 04
I think the good class tripps base is the group. On the good trips is one group and
not a two or three or many groups. Firs you can find a place where you can go and
you can feel good yourself. I now that not easy because each of people want to go
otherwere were the us can. Because they are can find a place when every body can
and want to go then can find programs and extercise to do on it. That good if the
trip are 3 or 4 day longest. The best of the travel is the train because its interesting
and slow. On the trains people are talk and jok and do good group things. For the
class trips are the most popular is a camp-site and a colige, because in there doing
it some interesting thing. On the first day the people are eat food from home and
the next days are eat fast-food or eat in a restaurant.
(166 words)
Justification:
198
Script 05
I would like to give some pieces of information how to make a good class trip. So
first you will have to look for an adult who is reliable and who is able to
responsible for you. The second task is you have to decide where you will go. For
example I think it is worth going to a town. Then you have to reserve a youth
hostel or a camp. If you sleep in a camp you can make your foods or you can take
food from home. After that you should hire a bus or you can take a walk to the
destination. If you took a walk, this would be healthy but if you choose the first
one you will be sure that the journey will be comfortable and fast. If you are ready
with these you have to talk about the programes. I think in the morning you can
visit museums and other things which is famous, after that in the evening you can
go to the town and look for some entertainment place where you can enjoy
yourself.
Have a good journey.
(183 words)
Justification:
199
KEY: Justifications and scores for Coherence and Cohesion

Script 01
The indentation of the paragraphs is not consistent, but the ideas are separated
into logical units. The use of a question (Where to stay?) provides smooth transition
from one content point to the other. The clauses are linked with conjunctions (but;
if; or), but linking word if occasionally missing (because you dont like being in camp-site it is
worth being in a hotel. Sure, you can pay it.). There should be no comma after decide. Score:
5
Script 02
The text is divided into paragraphs, but the divisions are not always logical. The
sentence beginning First of all should form one unit with the paragraph following it.
The last sentence of this paragraph belongs to the subsequent one on
accommodation. The logic of the text is marked clearly with the effective use of
markers that guide the reader from problem to problem (First of all, the other problem, ...
the third, And finally). Score: 6
Script 03
The article is written in one block in spite of the fact that the content points are
developed enough to be separated in paragraphs. Good sentence-level cohesion.
Some cohesive markers; all applied well: The first problem, And finally. Comma missing
after Of course. Score: 5
Script 04
One block paragraph in which the subsections are not clear. Some attempt at
organising the ideas (Firs), but the text does not read well. Adequate range of
linking elements (where, or, and, because, if, first) and some unsuccessful attempts (when,
then) at connecting ideas, but the ideas themselves are very difficult to follow.
Score: 2
Script 05
The text is written in one block. The writer states the reason for writing in the first
sentence and follows it up with sentences organised in time sequence (For example,
Then, After that). Parts of sentences are linked (and, but, after that). Punctuation is
inconsistent (comma missing in If you sleep in a camp you can make your foods or you can take
food from home but given in If you took a walk, this would be healthy but if you choose the first one
you will be sure that the journey will be comfortable and fast.) Score: 5
200

The previous section illustrated the marking of lower level scripts for Coherence
and Cohesion and presented sample scripts for practice. The following section
illustrates and provides practice in marking higher level scripts. Use the
information given in the Coherence and Cohesion scale (Figure 9.1), the
Guidelines for rating Coherence and Cohesion (Figure 9.2), the Level-specific
expectations for the Coherence and Cohesion criterion (Table 9.2), and the taskspecific rating scheme provided with the task to mark the scripts.
article for an international magazine for students. The candidates can follow the
organisational pattern suggested by the task, but if it suits their purposes they can
also change the order in which they discuss the bullet points.
The following text appeared in an internet magazine

for students.
Physical Education
by Mary Brecksville, Ohio, US
Everyone says they wish they had more time in the
day. I know how they feel when I have to stay up late
to finish homework. If I didnt have to take P.E.
classes, I would have more time for everything.
What is your opinion? Write a letter to Mary. In your letter write
about
your opinion about Marys idea
why some Hungarian students like PE
why you like or dislike it
what young people could do to have more time
Write about 200 words below. Do not write any
dates or addresses.
Dear Mary,
introduction (where the candidate read about Marys idea)
giving opinion about Marys idea
explaining why some Hungarian students like PE
explaining why the candidate likes or dislikes PE
giving advice on what young people could do to have more time
closing formula
write an informal letter in about 200 words
express opinion and support arguments (CP2, CP4)
give information (CP3)
give advice (CP5)
use appropriate style (informal and chatty)
CP = content point
201
202

Script 01
Dear Mary,
I understand your problem about not having enough time for all the activities you
want to do. Many people (not only students but adults) share your problem but the
solving of this is not to stop taking P. E. classes. Taking them is as important as
doing your homework because without doing any exercises you cant use your
brain enough. I mean, its unhealthy to do white-collar jobs only.
In Hungary P. E. classes are much liked and almost everyone can find the kind of
sport which is ideal for him or her. During playing football or basketball they can
learn how to communicate with each other and their physical condition is also
developing.
I like P. E. lessons because Ive many tiring and sometimes maybe unnecessary
lessons and doing some sport between them can be very relaxing. Its beyond me
how students can say that they hate P. E. classes. I tried to explain them that
people cant only sit on their chair and learn in the whole day and then continue it
with the homework at home.
If you feel that you havent got enough time for your life, try to recheck your
everyday activities and spend less time for the less important things. And try to
sleep less but sleep well at the same time.
Best wishes
Robert
(225 words)
Score for Coherence and Cohesion
Justification: Logical text with coherent paragraphs. Some disrupting pronoun

reference problems: they (Who?), it (What?). Inconsistent use of
pronouns to refer to people generally: him or her, they/their. Otherwise
very good sentence-level cohesion with effective use of linking
devices. The paragraphs are not marked clearly.
203
Script 02
Dear Mary,
I know what you mean but I think that you should only cause the educational
system. The government doesnt care about students they want us to know many
things that can be found in lexical books, and teachers give a lot of homework that
cant be done in one day if you even liked to sleep, eat and have some free time.
Most Hungarian students like P. E. because the like to move a bit and do some
exercises. Some other boys and I think that we could have more P. E. lessons. In
tat case our brain would work better. I like P. E. because I like to sport, it improves
your reflexes your body becomes healthier and stronger. At the same time learning
makes you smarter but weaker. Not just your body will be weaker but even your
immune system so you will be an ideal place for viruses.
I think that young people can do nothing to have more time. The government
or the educational system should do something to solve the problem.
(176 words)
Justification: The text is divided into logical paragraphs. All the paragraphs are
coherent. Good sentence-level cohesion (and, because). Effective use
of linking device: in that case. Incorrect linking device: at the same time.
The first paragraph does not read well. The mix of personal
pronouns that refer to the same person is disturbing: I like P. E.
because I like to sport, it improves your reflexes your body becomes healthier and
stronger. Punctuation mistakes: a few missing commas (e.g. The
government doesnt care about students ... they want us to know many things that
can be found in lexical books) that do not disrupt meaning.
204
Script 03
Dear Mary,
Our opinion isnt the same in this. Because at first I have to say, I like P. E. very
much. I think students (boys) like P. E. very, very much. This is a kind a relax, in
hard days. Your mind can relax while youre sporting. Another thing: if your body
is healthy, your mentional ability better. I dont know what kind of Physical
Education have you in USA, but in Hungarian these lessons are the most funniest,
and the happiest part of the day (in my school). Probably I dont know what is a
really P. E. class, because we are always playing in it. Were playing basketball,
floor ball, and football every class. We dont have to do floor exercises, and dont
have to run round and round in gym. This is why Hungarian students like P. E.
classes. I have another argument. I have a very funny and attractive teacher. So, if
you want to have more time you shouldnt leave out P. E. you shouldnt watch so
much TV. Take my advice and you will see that there are other ways instead of not
being P.E. lessons.
(191 words)
Justification: The text should be divided into three paragraphs (the effects of
sport, PE in Hungary, recommendation). Some incorrectly used
commas. Sentence-level cohesion good. Paragraphs are not marked
and most of the piece lacks coherence, but there is some flow of
linked ideas.
205
Script 04
Dear Mary,
Thank you for your letter Im glad to hear that you are keeping well. Yesterday I
read your text about PE, and I was shocked at that thing. I think it is a very stupid
thing. I cant agree with you at that point, because students should do exercises
everyday. It is good for your health and it refresh your body. I like PE very much
more than other lessons in my school, because my PE teacher is a very good
teacher and he is my basketball coach. So we are in a very good friendship. But
sometimes we do very hard exercises, those arent very good so I dont like them.
In Hungarian I think many students like PE, because this is the only lesson in
which they dont have to learn, and make homework. They can getting away from
other lessons at least for an hour. Those students who dont have enough time to
learn, should not go for PE or go for entertainments. The most important thing
they should watch TV, because they dont learn from it and it is very bad. So take
my advice and write an other text about this. Im looking forward to hearing from
you.
Best wishes!
Zoli
(205 words)
Justification: There are no paragraphs. The text is not coherent: it must be read
several times to understand it. The ideas do not follow logically.
The last part (Those students who ...) is contradictory and difficult to
follow. Sentence-level cohesion is better with the use of linking
devices (e.g.: and; because), although some sentences are unclear (e.g.
that references in the first few sentences).
206
Script 05
Dear Mary,
I cant agree the principle youve drafted, because its not the quantity of free time
that counts but the proper disposal of it. Physica education in schools is vital,
because the care of the students physical conditions determines their future lifequality. The effects of intellectual-loading, which students face every day can be
very effectively recovered from in the way of physical education.
The most of the students like PE, because they have an inner instinct to make
sports. Ones general state of health and general feeling will surely be much
beetter before a healthy motion or physical work. I personally feel also much bette
before PE lesons.
The students, who suffer from the insufficient time have to plan their daily
schedule better, or have to reduce their other programs, because the omission of
bodily-care can take inreversible effects in our lives. You, like every other students
of your age, also need PE lessons in order to have a healthy life, youd better
reduce your intellectual loadings.
Best wishes: Peter
(168 words)
Justification: The first two paragraphs lack coherence: they cannot be followed
and are not connected. Recurring comma mistake: , because. This is
less disruptive than the wrong use of commas in the relative clause
(The students, who suffer from the insufficient time have). The text does not
read well. There are some complex sentences in which sentencelevel cohesion is good (but, so).
207
Higher level Coherence and Cohesion rating practice

The previous section provided practice in rating higher level scripts for Coherence
and Cohesion. In this section another higher level task is introduced together with
sample performances and your task is to mark the scripts for Coherence and
Cohesion and give justifications for your marks.
Use the Coherence and Cohesion scale (Figure 9.1), the Guidelines for rating
Coherence and Cohesion (Figure 9.2), the Level-specific expectations for the
Coherence and Cohesion criterion (Table 9.2), and the task-specific rating scheme
provided with the task to mark the scripts for Coherence and Cohesion. Make a
note about the reasons why you award or subtract points. Having rated the scripts,
go to the Key section and compare your marks and justifications with the
benchmarks and justifications given.
You have heard that the local government is planning to

build a new shopping mall with a large parking lot right
next to your school, at the place where there is a large
sports ground now. Your school has an Englishlanguage student magazine. You have decided to write
for it an article with the heading Shopping mall or sports
ground? in which you give your opinion about this plan.
introducing the problem
choosing the alternative needed more
explaining its benefits for local people
explaining its drawbacks for local people
describing future effects on the environment
conclusion
208

write an article of approximately 200-250 words
express opinion and support arguments
use appropriate language (modal auxiliaries, comparatives, conditionals)
use appropriate style for genre and audience (fellow students)
Note: the genre (article for student magazine) allows the use of colloquial
target reader.
209

Script 01
Im sure, youve heard about the governments new idea. If you havent, I tell you
that they want to build a shopping mall, where theres the sports ground now. I
dont know what do you think about this, but when I heard it, I was amazingly
shocked. Maybe you know, I mad about sports. I especially like football,
basketball, volleyball. Every day after school, I do these relaxing activities, till now.
I dont know what the people say in the neighbourhood about this, but I think,
they wouldnt agree.
There are parents, who has children, and they know, how important doing sports.
I know there are advantages for a huge shopping center. It makes lives much more
comfortable. They wouldnt have to go to the greengrocer, to the butcher, and etc.
every day, they can buy everything at the same place, and probably on lower price
than now, but think about it, how would it effects the environment. Yes, you
should think about this view, too.
Building an enormous shopping mall like this is always a hard work.
It would bring a lot of noise, dirt and dust, and it would take a lot of money at all.
My view seems to be a little bit selfish, because I like much more doing sports,
than do the shopping.
But this is my own opinion, others can have different view.
(229 words)

Justification:
210
Script 02
Well I think that it has both advantages and disadvantages. The first advantage is
that there are a lot of flats near the school so it would be easier to these people to
get things like food, clothes, toys for children and so ....
But on the other hand, it would be a temptation for students and a reason for not
to go to school. They would go to the cinema instead of going to the lesions. And
the other thing is that we need the sports ground for P.E. lessons and some of us
likes to play football and basketball there at the weekends. And we need sports to
keep ourselves fit. Its better than spending our money on clothes that we wear just
because everybody wears it or a ticket to the cinema.
And the last thing I want to tell you its effect on the environment. We shouldnt
cut out the forest just because we want a shopping mal. They manufacture the
oxigen that we breath in. And its a nice place for spending your free time or you
can take your dog there for a walk. This forest has a special atmosphere that you
should enjoy. We dont need this shopping mal at the edge of the city.
(212 words)
Justification:
211
Script 03
I think all of us has heard about that our favourite sports ground position is
disputed. A new shopping mall is planning to build.
Its difficult to ask the question which is needed more. In my opinion there are to
much shopping mall these days. On the other hand there are just a few place
where you can spend your free time well. On my view children need fresh air and
lots of moving. Its good for health especially after a long and hard day at school.
During playing football, basketball its easy to find some good friend.
You can spend your time in a shopping mal too. You can see a movie or eat in
McDonalds after school, and you dont have to travel so much to do the shopping.
There are some disadvantages about the traffic. If a new shopping mall build here
it will be more dangerous to be on the road. My opinion is that will be really bad
for the environment. Just think about the pollution, litter.
All in all I think its not important to build a new shopping mall.
(186 words)
Justification:
212
Script 04
In my opinion a sports ground is more important than a shopping mall.
First of all in most of the cities the number of free areas where people can go is
becoming less and less. I think it is very bad, because in cities people dont have as
many possibilities to get fresh air than they have in the countryside. People living
in cities can only go to parks, or sports grounds if they dont want to travel a lot.
Moreover sports grounds are useful for children and adults too, because a father
can play football, basketball, etc. with his son or daughter so they can spend their
free time in fresh air and also they are together.
Furthermore it is good for living a healthy life, since if theres a sports ground
around where you live, it is more likely that you go there play rather than watch
TV or listen to music, which means that you do not move.
However there are bad points too.
Firstly, installing a new shopping mall would mean new job possibilities. Secondly,
people living there would be able to do the shopping in one place and may be in
shorter time. There would more place of entertainment, such as cinemas,
restaurants and pubs.
At last people would have a bigger choice of goods, which would probably make
them feel better. All in all I think the sports ground would be better for the people
and the environment too, and it might make people live a more healthier life.
(255 words)

Justification:
213
Script 05
I am fully aware that we are supposed to be a consumer society, and I support that.
Honest. But when we start to consume things that are a fair bit more important
than material belongings, then maybe its time to stand up and say back off!
What Im talking about, of course, is the governments plan to build a shopping
mall parking lot combo where the sports ground is.
Now dont get me wrong I understand the many valid reasons for it. After all, it
would make shopping so much easier for the locals who have to travel fifteen
whole minutes to get to the nearest mall and spend unreasonable amounts of their
hard-earned money. Building yet another one here (besides the at least ten other
ones scattered around the city) would also make it possible for the more fitnessconscious to jog to the shops, which would indeed fully compensate the loss of the
football field that undeservingly occupies so much potential commercial area.
Doesnt it?
As you read through this article you are probably thinking Oh, great, hell
surely go on babbling about the environmental effects and everything. Well,
youre wrong. Im not going to rant about the increased traffic, noise damage,
construction waste, and Im definitely not going to even mention the effect of the
mall on the students mentality.
See here, Im not judging the authorities or anything. I just feel the urge to
voice my opinion and stand up for our rights to our health and pace of life.
(253 words)
Justification:
214
KEY: Justifications and scores for Coherence and Cohesion

Script 01
The writer has followed the order provided by the list of content points and used
some linking devices appropriately; however, the general effect is rather episodic.
Examples of linking devices used are if, but, and, because. Previously mentioned
elements are nicely referred to (e.g. If you havent, I tell you that they want to build a
shopping mall, where theres the sports ground now.) The indication of paragraphs is not
clear and towards the end the piece becomes fragmented and falls apart. Score: 3
Script 02
The text is not divided into logical paragraphs. Other linking devices are also used,
but the text is not coherent. Strange combination of transition words: first, on the
other hand, and the other thing is, and the last thing. Relationship between sports-moneyclothes in And we need sports to keep ourselves fit. Its better than spending our money on clothes
that we wear just because everybody wears it or a ticket to the cinema is not clear. The overuse
of and to link sentences is disturbing. Score: 4
Script 03
Sentence-level cohesion is acceptable. There are no logical paragraphs and the
candidate uses commas instead of co-ordinating conjunctions (e.g. football, basketball,
pollution, litter), which is disturbing. A few good transition words: on the other hand, all
in all. The text is fragmented. Score: 3
Script 04
The text is not divided into clear paragraphs. One-sentence paragraphs used. The
text is cohesive on sentence level, but the overall coherence is broken with the
sentence However there are bad points too, which makes the reader expect disadvantages
and yet reads about job opportunities, less time spent shopping, more
entertainment, etc. Some good markers are used to organise the text: in my opinion;
first of all; moreover; and also; furthermore; which means; firstly; secondly; however; all in all.
Several commas are missing. Score: 5
Script 05
The text shows good and varied sentence- and paragraph-level cohesion. The
linking devices have been used to good effect. The text is fully coherent, the
candidates ideas are presented in clearly organised and indented paragraphs.
Score: 7
Coherence and Cohesion describe features of texts that are difficult both to assess
and to teach. This chapter has summarised the features of coherence and cohesion
and provided practice for raters. In this final section of the chapter we discuss
215
what language teachers can do to help their students understand coherence and
cohesion and write well-organised texts.
When teaching coherence, it is important that students understand first that
effectively written texts are logical. They must understand that the ideas developed
in a text follow in a particular order determined by the discourse mode of the text
or the purpose of the writer. At lower levels it is the discourse mode that is more
important to teach. Low-level language course books give learners narrative and
descriptive texts in the form of reading and writing materials suitable for teaching
elementary grammar (e.g. present tense description of a family, past tense forms of
verbs in a narration). Learners have to read and write simple comparison and
contrast texts when they learn about the comparative and superlative forms of
adjectives. By reading and writing texts with different rhetorical modes, language
learners organise information according to the principles that underlie these
modes. (These principles are discussed in detail in Chapter 2 and are referred to in
the chapters presenting various text types, especially in Chapter 6.) Therefore,
teachers should make learners aware of these organising principles during
classroom reading and writing activities.
The organising principle that shapes a text can be elicited with questions that
learners answer about the text. For instance, they can be asked to summarise a
narrative by answering questions like What happens at the beginning/in the middle/at the
end of the story? The organising principle of a description can be revealed, for
example, with questions like What does the writer describe first/next/finally? The logic
according to which ideas are organised in a text can be noticed more easily if two
short texts based on two different organising principles are examined together.
When students have learnt to identify texts by type, they can practise the
vocabulary and grammar typical of the text types (e.g. time phrases for narration,
correlative conjunctions like not only/but also, either/or for comparison and contrast).
Since most general language course books give little if any help for the language
teacher in this respect, teachers may find it useful to consult course books intended
for writing skills development or may want to select from a course book three or
four examples of the same text type, study them carefully, and write a list of the
features (grammar, lexis) that are common to all of them.
Learners with higher language proficiency can be expected to read and produce
more complex texts that combine several rhetorical patterns. In such texts ideas
are likely to be organised primarily not according to a particular pattern but
according to the writers purpose. For example, if the writers purpose is to explain
something, information familiar to the reader will precede unknown information
that is more difficult to understand.
Teachers who want their students to understand the organisation of such texts
can ask their students to write the outline of the text. Students should identify the
main idea formulated in each paragraph and indicate the function of each
paragraph. In the outline it is easier to see what the writer says in each paragraph,
the reason why something is said, and how the ideas are arranged one after the
other.
In preparation for a language examination, teachers may analyse writing tasks
216
together with their students. Except for tasks with short, one-sentence prompts
(See Chapter 3 for a detailed description of task types), writing tasks often define
one possible order in which the content points that must be included in the script
can be discussed. For example, the order in which the content points are given in
bullet point format may indicate a logical order in which the ideas can be
addressed in the script (e.g. the class trip task on page 193 in this chapter). The
picture input in the letter task given on page 184 in this chapter also prompts the
order of the ideas in the script: departure arrival.
When students have understood that a text becomes logical because the ideas in
it are logically related to one another, they can start using connectors (transition
words and phrases, co-ordinating conjunctions, subordinators). Textbooks usually
display such words in tables and provide gap-filling exercises for practice.
Unfortunately, in most cases such exercises contain decontextualised sentences
that teach very little about connectors. Learners are usually left with only the
impression that such words must be used but fail to use them correctly or they
overuse them.
To avoid this, learners must first be taught the meaning of connectors. If they
know what the words mean, they will be more likely to use them according to
their function. The grammatical role of these words should be taught next. Coordinating conjunctions, for instance, are most frequently used to connect words,
phrases and clauses. Their use at the beginning of sentences is therefore not
frequent in written English.
Different connectors require the use of different punctuation rules. For
instance, the co-ordinating conjunction but is preceded by a comma if it links two
clauses, yet the co-ordinating adverbial however is preceded by a semicolon and
followed by a comma when it connects two clauses. Students must therefore be
taught how to punctuate correctly sentences that contain co-ordinators.
However, besides those that apply to co-ordinators, there are a large number of
punctuation rules and teachers may wonder which of them they should teach.
They should pay special attention to those punctuation errors that result in misunderstanding and that are caused by the interference of Hungarian punctuation
rules. An example of a punctuation error that leads to misunderstanding is the
incorrect use of commas in relative clauses, for example, the use of a comma
before that (She said, that the book had been stolen).
The scrambled text is an exercise suitable for practising the construction of
coherent and unified texts. In such exercises students have to reorder sentences (if
the text is short) or paragraphs (if the text is long) by focusing on meaning and the
use of connectors. They have to guess the logic of the text and often exclude
sentences that are irrelevant and do not develop the main idea of the text.
At lower levels, where language learners produce one-paragraph scripts, the
concept of a developed paragraph is not yet relevant. However, unity is a key
concept even at this level. Learners often digress, start discussing ideas not related
to the topic, and do not realise it. Teachers must stress that whenever students
write a text, they should read it when they have finished writing. Ideally students
should write an outline before they start writing, but language learners rarely do
217
this. If they do not have an outline to guide them and to prevent them from
digressing, they should read their completed scripts carefully.
A technique that can be taught to higher proficiency learners who produce
complex compositions is the thesis statement and the topic sentence test. Writers
can check if their texts are unified if they transform the thesis statement, the main
idea of a composition, into a question and check whether the ideas included in the
script answer this question. Similarly, if they want to check whether a paragraph is
unified, they should transform the topic sentence into a question and check
whether each idea in the paragraph answers it directly or indirectly.
Teachers should also give explicit training in the use of cohesive devices. This
can be done together with grammar exercises. Sentence combination exercises are
suitable for teaching reference and conjunction. Exercises in which learners have
to delete items from complex sentences but keep them grammatical can be used
for teaching ellipsis. Substitution is usually taught and practised in course books
together with conversations. Finally, lexical chains can be explored, for example,
with the keyword hunt exercise. In this exercise learners must identify those words
that are directly (repetition) or indirectly (synonym, antonym) related to the main
topic of the text.
When teaching coherence and cohesion, teachers should tailor the features
taught to the complexity of the texts their students can produce. Furthermore,
they should approach both coherence and cohesion functionally. If students
understand what the function of these features of texts are, they may be able to
translate their knowledge into practice and write texts that are logical and flow
smoothly. Besides teaching coherence and cohesion explicitly, teachers should
have their students regularly read many texts of various types. Reading a lot and
paying attention not only to the message of the text but also to how the text is
constructed to express that message can develop students sense of coherence and
cohesion.
In this chapter the discussion of cohesion often made it necessary to mention
such aspects of language that most language books treat as grammar. Raters and
teachers must therefore make a distinction between those grammatical features of
scripts that will be marked under the Coherence and Cohesion criterion and those
that belong to the Accuracy criterion, which will be discussed in the following
chapter.
blank page p. 218
Chapter 10
Grammar
General description of the Grammar criterion
The Grammar criterion in an analytic rating scale makes possible the assessment of
candidates grammatical knowledge. Raters evaluate grammatical knowledge by
checking whether candidates are familiar with the form, meaning and use of a
range of grammatical structures that can be expected to occur in a communication
situation.
Knowing a grammatical structure means that candidates are familiar with its
form (e.g. the second person imperative has the same form as the bare infinitive
Hurry up!) and can apply the rules that govern its construction. It means
furthermore that they know what meaning a grammatical structure expresses (e.g.
the imperative is used to give a command), when and why it is used (e.g. to make a
person perform a specific action), and how it must be used in different situations
in order to communicate an intended meaning appropriately (e.g. Give me an apple is
less polite than Could I have a glass of water). Candidates must also know how different
structures can be combined during the process of composition to create
grammatically acceptable sentences (e.g. such typical patternings of words as verb +
to infinitive and verb + noun + to infinitive as in I hope to see her soon or He never asks anyone to
water his plants while he is away on holiday).
Knowing does not necessarily mean that the candidate is able to recite the rules.
It is not the explicit knowledge of the rules but the ability to use them which
shows that a candidate has implicit knowledge of the rules. Knowing, therefore,
should be interpreted as the candidate can use X to mean Y.
Measures of grammar quality
The grammar used in a script is often assessed in a general language proficiency
examination on the basis of range, degree of mastery, and accuracy. It is
important therefore for raters to be familiar with what these features refer to
because they may be expected to base their decisions on them when they give a
score for grammar.
Range
Range refers to the variety of different grammatical structures used within a script:
tenses, modals, passive constructions, etc. A script with a large variety of
grammatical structures is likely to be awarded a better score for grammar than a
script that contains a few grammatical structures used repetitively. However, raters
should not expect candidates to display all their grammar knowledge in a script.
While some tasks require that candidates employ a variety of tenses, other tasks
necessitate the use of modal auxiliaries or conditional sentences, so raters must
220
adjust their expectations to the particular writing task that was used to elicit the
scripts they are assessing. If the types of grammatical structures that can be
expected to be found in a script are not described in detail in a rating scheme
accompanying the writing task, raters should write their own script in order to see
what kind of grammatical knowledge that particular task draws on.
What can be expected from candidates in terms of the range of grammatical
structures depends not only on the writing task but also on the time and number
of words set for the completion of the task. More time allows for more careful
planning and redrafting, which can result in a more thoughtfully constructed text
and perhaps in the inclusion in the script of a larger variety of grammatical
structures. The length specified for the script can also affect the variety of
structures: a longer script containing developed paragraphs can be expected to
display a larger variety of structures.
Consequently, raters must always interpret range by taking into consideration
the topic and subtopics that must be developed in a writing task, the time allotted
for the completion of the script, and the number of words set.
Degree of mastery
Degree of mastery refers to how familiar candidates are with the different meanings
and functions of a grammatical structure, and whether they can use it appropriately
in a particular communication situation. Candidates with varying levels of
grammatical knowledge may have a different grasp of the same grammatical
structure. For instance, a lower level candidate may know that the present
continuous tense is formed with the present tense of the auxiliary verb be followed
by the present participle, and that it is used to express an action that is happening at
the moment of speaking (I am reading now). A more proficient candidate may also be
able to use the same tense form to express an action happening about the time of
speaking but not necessarily at the moment of speaking (I am reading a novel by
Hemingway). Furthermore, a candidate who has an even better control of this tense
may know that it can also express definite plans for the future (I am meeting Pat tonight),
or annoyance (He is always losing our house keys). More proficient language learners can
use one specific form to express different meanings.
Degree of mastery also refers to the candidates ability to vary the form of a
grammatical structure in order to express the same meaning. For instance, a
candidate who can use not only the basic form of the type one conditional
sentence (If you travel by train you will get to know your new classmates by the end of the long
journey), but can articulate the same idea in various forms (Travel by train and you will
get to know your new classmates by the end of the long journey, Travel by train or else you wont get to
know your new classmates by the end of the long journey) shows a high degree of control of
this structure. The skilful alternation of the various forms within a script provides
evidence of the candidates knowledge of the grammatical system of the language.
The construction of all grammatical structures is governed by rules. The
candidates awareness of these rules and their familiarity with the exceptions can
also serve as evidence of their grammatical knowledge. For instance, in the case of
Chapter 10 Grammar
221
the basic sequence verb + to infinitive (manage to come, forget to do) the verb help represents
an exception since unlike most other verbs in this pattern it can be used without
the preposition to (They helped organise the camp). The more extensive the candidates
grammatical knowledge is the more likely it is that the exceptions they include in
their scripts will be used correctly.
Finally, a candidate with a good command of English can use grammar not only
to express an idea correctly but also to make sure that the idea is expressed
appropriately in a particular situation. For example, in a job application letter the
sentence I want to know more about this job is grammatically accurate but inappropriate.
The appropriate sentence for the writing situation in which the writer addresses a
reader he does not know personally can be, for example, I would like to know more
about this job.
Mastery thus means that the candidate can use grammar effectively and
appropriately for the communication situation. Raters may decide to award points
for candidates who use a range of grammatical structures even if they are not
always used correctly.
Besides the range and degree of skill with which candidates can handle
grammatical structures, accuracy is a basic feature that raters consider in the
assessment of grammatical knowledge. Grammatical errors are as varied as the
number of grammatical structures that exist in the English language, but a
distinction is generally made between two types of errors: local errors and global
errors. Those errors that affect single elements within a sentence (e.g. inflections,
articles, quantifiers, auxiliaries) and do not significantly interfere with the meaning
of the sentence are called local errors. Examples of such errors are the following:
The first problem is that how to get to that place.
It is difficult to use, so you had better to buy another one.
Im sure that you have found the electrical appliances and it didnt give you any problem.
I think hire a bus is better than travelling by train.
I couldnt finished cleaning the kitchen.
The first two sentences can be understood easily: the reader only has to disregard
the unnecessary elements that and to. The third sentence contains an agreement error
that a reader usually corrects automatically (it they) without losing track of the
writers thoughts. Although the last two sentences contain inflection errors, they can
also be understood because the context clearly indicates that in the last but one
sentence the writer intends to say hiring a bus, and in the last sentence the auxiliary
verb can only be followed by the bare infinitive form of the verb (finish).
Errors that affect the whole sentence (e.g. wrong word order, missing verb or
subject) to such an extent that it becomes difficult or impossible to understand are
called global errors. The following sentences cannot be mended with minor
modifications:
222
Of course much more comfortable.

Even, weve got too much, and we always waste our time.
Because they are can find a place when every body can and want to go then can find programs and
extercise to do on it.
For the class trips are the most popular in a camp-site and a colige, because in there doing it some
interesting thing.
They contain such structural problems that render them incomprehensible and
thus lead to communication breakdown in the scripts.
Local errors are therefore considered minor errors whereas global errors are
major errors. The question arises whether specific types of errors can only be
categorised as either local or global errors. For instance, must the incorrect use of a
tense always be considered a minor error? The answer is most probably no because
the seriousness of an error depends on its effect. The same error may be
understood in one context and may hinder communication in another one.
From the point of view of its effect on communication, it is difficult if not
impossible to decide without a context whether an error type constitutes a minor
or major error. Therefore, even if a comprehensive list of all the possible English
grammar errors were available, they could not be categorised automatically as
minor or major errors. Raters must examine all the errors in their contexts so as to
be able to decide to what extent they affect communication before they can label
them as either minor or major errors.
The identification of faulty grammatical structures is important for the
assessment of the grammatical knowledge of candidates. Raters should make sure,
however, that while they are assessing grammatical knowledge they do not
concentrate only on erroneous grammatical structures. The correct structures must
also be taken into consideration: raters must weigh incorrect grammatical
structures against the correct ones before awarding a mark. Unlike an interview in
an oral examination, a script can be reread as many times as it is necessary to take a
reliable inventory of correct and incorrect instances of grammar. This does not
mean that the rater must count, for example, all the correct and incorrect instances
of article use in a script. Such an approach would make the rating process an
extremely time-consuming activity. Instead, raters must base their judgements on
the types of errors (local or global) and the ratio of correct and incorrect structures
identified in the script.
Error tolerance
When assessing grammatical knowledge, raters must check first whether the errors
they have identified in a script belong to the same category or to different categories. Candidates must not be penalised repeatedly for the same grammatical error.
Furthermore, candidates are usually penalised differently on the basis of the
type of errors found in the scripts. Errors that do not obscure meaning tend to be
tolerated, whereas those that lead to the breakdown of communication are
penalised.
Chapter 10 Grammar
223
The Grammar criterion in the scale developed for the Hungarian Model
writing examination
The third criterion in the writing scale developed for the Model examination is
called Grammar (Figure 10.1) and it is used to mark both lower and higher level
scripts. The descriptors of the bands draw raters attention to two features of the
scripts that they must focus on: the range of grammatical structures and the
frequency and nature of inaccurate structures. A small number of grammatical
errors that do not hinder understanding are tolerated even in the highest band;
however, errors that disrupt communication are always penalised. In assigning a
score for the Grammar criterion, raters are indirectly prompted to weigh the
amount of grammatically correct language in the script against the amount of
grammatically incorrect language.
Grammar
7
wide range of structures

few inaccuracies that do not hinder/disrupt communication
6
5
good range of structures

occasional inaccuracies hinder /disrupt communication
4
3
limited range of structures

frequent inaccuracies hinder/disrupt communication
2
1
no range of structures
mostly inaccurate
Figure 10.1. The Grammar Scale

The description of what raters must pay attention to when assessing grammar is
given in the guidelines accompanying the writing scale (Figure 10. 2).
Check
Grammatical range
is there a range of
grammatical structures?
is the grammar correct?
Look for
variety of grammatical features (tenses structures modals
auxiliaries etc.) used
proportion of accurate / inaccurate sentences and clauses
the occurrence and reoccurrence of specific mistakes
bad grammar leading to unclear meaning
Figure 10.2 Guidelines for rating Grammar
224
Raters use the same scale and guidelines to assess the grammar in the scripts
produced by both lower and higher level candidates. The differences in the
requirements are explained in the description of the level-specific expectations
(Table 10.1).
Table 10.1 Level-specific expectations for the Grammar criterion
Lower level
Higher level
good degree of grammatical control

high degree of grammatical control
correct use of a variety of simple structures
correct use of a variety of structures
local errors that do not hinder understanding a few local errors that do not hinder
understanding
few global errors
practically free of global errors
At the lower level candidates are expected to have good control of a variety of
simple structures. They must be able to formulate a series of short grammatical
sentences communicating clear if simple ideas. A number of local errors that do
not hinder communication can be tolerated since the emphasis in this examination
model is laid on the successful communication of the intended message.
At the higher level confident control of a wider range of grammatical structures
is expected. Candidates must be able to produce a variety of sentence types
(simple, compound and complex) of varying length to communicate complex
ideas. Some local errors are also acceptable at this level provided that they do not
result in misunderstanding. Few global errors are tolerated since candidates taking
the higher level examination are expected to produce scripts that are free of
grammatical errors which obscure meaning.
Frequently asked questions in connection with the
Grammar criterion
Why should I not write any comments or put any kind of symbol or
mark on the scripts themselves?
The script is to be marked by two raters and the
corrections of the first rater would influence the second
rater.
Shall I distinguish between serious and minor grammatical errors?
This distinction is made on the basis of the type of error.
Local errors are considered minor and global errors are
considered major errors.
This section introduces a lower level task together with its task-specific rating
scheme and sample scripts. The task and scripts are discussed from the point of
view of the Grammar criterion.
Chapter 10 Grammar
225

The lower level task given below instructs candidates to write an article about class
trips. Candidates are expected to write about 180 words, which allows for the elaboration of the subtopics given in the task and the use of various grammatical structures.
Your school has an English language student
magazine and you want to write an article for it
about what makes a good class trip. Look at the
notes below and write about the different
possibilities. Give reasons why you think one is
better than the other.
Write an article of about 180 words in an appropriate style. Use the
title Tips for a good class trip.
introducing the problem (what makes a good class trip)
means of transportation (train vs. bus)
accommodation (camp-site vs. hotel)
eating (fast food vs. food from home)
destination (mountains vs. town)
rounding off (the article must not end abruptly)
express their opinion and support their choices
use comparative structures, (modal) auxiliaries
use appropriate style for genre and target audience (fellow students)
use language to express likes / dislikes, argue for and against options
Note: The genre (article for student magazine) allows the use of colloquial
target reader.
226
The requirements regarding the grammatical structures expected in the case of

this writing task are not described in detail. However, by consulting the task it can
be concluded that besides comparative structures and auxiliary verbs other
structures could also be used to compose the script. Candidates must include in the
script a variety of comparative structures in order to compare and contrast the
aspects of class trips given in the content points; nevertheless, such comparative
structures can be realised not only with the use of the different comparative forms
of adjectives, but also with sentences that are constructed so as to compare or
contrast the various features of class trips. Also at sentence level raters can expect
some complex sentences because the language of reasoning may require
subordination, for instance with the use of the subordinators because and since.
Candidates are expected to give advice to their readers, so they may use
conditional sentences to express what they would do if they had to make decisions
about class trips (I would rather , If I were you ). Both in the conditional sentences
and in other sentences whose function is to give advice or express preferences,
candidates can use modal verbs (would, should, must, could, might). In addition to these
predictable structures, candidates may use other structures that become necessary
as the result of their elaboration of the subtopics given in the task.
The candidate attempting the lower level writing task managed to include in the
following script of 216 words a good range of grammatical structures and
demonstrated the ability to construct a variety of sentences.
What makes a good class trip? thats a good question.
First of all the class should choose the best way to travel.
The most common options are usually the train or the bus. Both has
advantages but usually travelling by train is much cheaper but less
mobile. So if a class wants to make some short excursions from a base
point I would deffinetly choose the bus. Than the other problem is the
accomodation.
I think the best option for that problem is somwhere half way between
the camp-sites and hotels. Its called youth hostels. They are built for
youths. And altough they are very well equipped they arent expensive.
The problem of food is the third. Its a hard question. If we want a
cheaper trip, I would prefer food taken from home. But than we have
to spare time for making it. Fast-food is the other alternative. Its more
expensive, but one has fewer problems with it. We can also try canteen
if there is any in the youth hostel or somwhere nearby.
And finally we have to decide where to go. In the towns there are lot
of free time fascilities, while in the mountains you can make some nice
trips. I think the best option would be a town in the mountains.
Chapter 10 Grammar
227
The candidate used an impressive range of comparative structures. There are

adjectives used in the positive, comparative and superlative forms (good, fewer, the
most common) and all the comparatives and superlatives are correctly formed. The
candidate gives evidence of the ability to handle irregular comparative forms (good
class trip best option, more expensive most common option, less mobile), and uses much in the
sense of a lot to modify a comparative adjective: much cheaper.
Throughout the script, the candidate constructs and skilfully alternates simple
and complex sentences, which makes the text read well. Comparison and contrast
is also realised at the level of sentence structure. In the sentences
And altough they are very well equipped they arent expensive.
In the towns there are lot of free time fascilities, while in the mountains you can make some nice
trips.
the candidate contrasts respectively the advantages and disadvantages of youth
hostels and those of towns and mountains. The first one is realised with a
concessive clause and the second with two co-ordinated clauses joined with the
contrastive conjunction while meaning whereas.
Additional structures that appear in the script are conditional clauses, modal
auxiliaries (have to, should choose, can, would), passive constructions (its called, are built, food
taken from home), and a large number of articles only a few of which are used
incorrectly (the accommodation, are lot of free time). The candidate also gives evidence of
the ability to construct complex grammatical structures such as have to spare the time
for, have to decide where to go, or the best way to travel.
Considering that the script was written for the lower level of the Model
examination, it can be considered to contain a wide range of structures that qualify
it for Band 7. The second descriptor in this band states that a script worth the score
of 7 includes few inaccuracies that hinder or disrupt communication, and the
analysed script meets this criterion too. Besides the erroneous article uses, there
are some agreement errors in the script (both has, if there is any), and a word order
error (The problem of food is the third), but they do not lead to loss of meaning.
Nevertheless, because of the high number of occasional inaccuracies the candidate
cannot be awarded a score of 7 points, and the benchmark for grammar for this
script is therefore 6.
examination on the task presented above. Read the scripts and study the marks
and justifications given for each script for the Grammar criterion. When you read
the scripts and their evaluations, you should refer to the Grammar scale (Figure
10.1), the Guidelines for rating Grammar (Figure 10.2), the Level-specific
expectations for the Grammar criterion (Table 10.1), and the task-specific rating
scheme.
228
Script 01
Ive been on a class trip for several times, but it doesnt mean that all of them were
good. I was just wondering what makes a good class trip. Most important: the
mood of the trip depends on the class if your classmates are great, than your trip
will be great too. Dont worry about the programmes, just let things go their own
ways! For the trip, you should hire a bus so that you can go whenever you want
its a bit expensive, but it doesnt cost a fortune! If you stayed in a hotel, I would
say you are crazy! In a hotel you cant do what you want, you cant be loud, but in
a camp site! Camp site is the best for the youth. You can make there bonfire so you
can cook and you dont have to worry about what to eat. Im sure you wont eat
your sandwiches, your Mum made for you at home, so if you want you can eat fast
food either. I am sure youll find a Mc Donald they are all over the Earth! If you
like trips you can go to the Mountains, but if I were you I would go there, just with
my best friends. Not everybody likes wearing warm clothes all the time and being
in the nature whole day. With my class I would go to town, where everyone could
go out if he or she wanted to.
I hope I could help you.
(250 words)
Score for Grammar:
Justification: The candidate uses a variety of tenses (present perfect, present

continuous, present simple, future), conditional clauses types 1 and
2, modal auxiliaries (should, can, could, have to). Complex structures: just
let things go their own ways, go whenever you want. There are correct
complex sentences; a few sentences are incorrect (In a hotel you cant do
what you want, you cant be loud, but in a camp site!). Word order problem:
You can make there bonfire so you can cook and you dont have to worry about what
to eat. Article problems: Camp site is the best for the youth, You can make there
bonfire. The inaccuracies do not disrupt communication.
Chapter 10 Grammar
229
Script 02
The first problem is that how to get to that place. I think to hire a bus is better than
travel by train. In the bus we are together, but on the train the class is devided to
different parts of the train. The negative thing is that the bus may be more
expensive than the train. But if you have a hired bus, you can go everytime,
everywhere. The cheap-expensive question is due to the next question: if you go
to a camp-site, it will be cheaper. Of course the hotel is much more comfortable. I
think it depends on the situation. On a class trip you can eat in a restaurant or the
food taken from home. I think both of them available on a trip. For breakfast it is
good to eat cold meal, which has taken from home, but for dinner is better to eat
in a restaurant. And finally, as for the where to go question, I think it is better to
go to the mountains. In the mountains you are alone in the nature. There is fresh
air, marvellus landsight and space, silence. But this is my personal oppinion, of
course the human culture is in the towns, which is important too.
(208 words)
Score for Grammar:
Justification: Varied, complex sentence structures and grammar (comparative,

passive, there is, auxiliaries, conditional, infinitives). There are a lot
of mistakes that do not hinder understanding: problem is that, is better
than travel instead of travelling, on a class trip, both of them available, has taken
from, for dinner is better to eat, the nature, the human culture, which is important
too instead of and that is important too.
230
Script 03
I would like to give some pieces of information how to make a good class trip. So
first you will have to look for an adult who is reliable and who is able to
responsible for you. The second task is you have to decide where you will go. For
example I think it is worth going to a town. Then you have to reserve a youth
hostel or a camp. If you sleep in a camp you can make your foods or you can take
food from home. After that you should hire a bus or you can take a walk to the
destination. If you took a walk, this would be healthy but if you choose the first
one you will be sure that the journey will be comfortable and fast. If you are ready
with these you have to talk about the programes. I think in the morning you can
visit museums and other things which is famous, after that in the evening you can
go to the town and look for some entertainment place where you can enjoy
yourself.
Have a good journey.
(187 words)
Score for Grammar:
Justification: There are a few tenses used (present, future); future not used
correctly all the time (first you will have to look for). Complex structure: I
think it is worth going to a town. Conditional clauses types 1 and 2 used
correctly. Correct irregular plural: some pieces of information. Modal
auxiliaries (should, can). Some of the problems: missing preposition in
information how to make a good class trip; incorrect structures is able to
responsible for you and things which is famous disrupt the flow of the text.
Chapter 10 Grammar
231
Script 04
Would you like to travel with your class but you dont know what possibilities
would be better for you? Here are some good tips for a good class trip!
Decide, if you want a cheap trip or an interested trip! If you want a cheap one
you should go by train but you chose other you can go anywhere by bus.
Where to stay? Partly it depends on your comfortable-feeling because you dont
like being in camp-site it is worth being in a hotel. Sure, you can pay it.
The eating is very hard because everybody likes other food like you. It is worth
taking food from home and look for a cheap and good restaurant!
Sure you wont agree where to go mountain or town? Do you like climbing? No?
Then let you go to town! Do you like going out at night? you can just do it in a
town. At least you can go out together in a mountain.
(162 words)
Score for Grammar:
Justification: A range of different structures (auxiliaries should, would, can, like +

to inf/-ing form) and structures for giving advice, but there are
several inaccuracies that hinder understanding. Some unclear bits
due to missing words (e.g., because you dont like being in camp-site it is
worth being in a hotel, like/than). Other clumsy bits are (but you chose
other, Sure you wont agree , Then let you go to town! etc.) Some
problems with articles (the eating, in camp site, in a mountain).
232
Script 05
I think the good class tripps base is the group. On the good trips is one group and
not a two or three or many groups. Firs you can find a place where you can go and
you can feel good yourself. I now that not easy because each of people want to go
otherwere were the us can. Because they are can find a place when every body can
and want to go then can find programs and extercise to do on it. That good if the
trip are 3 or 4 day longest. The best of the travel is the train because its interesting
and slow. On the trains people are talk and jok and do good group things. For the
class trips are the most popular is a camp-site and a colige, because in there doing
it some interesting thing. On the first day the people are eat food from home and
the next days are eat fast-food or eat in a restaurant.
(166 words)
Score for Grammar:
Justification: All simple present forms and the auxiliary can. Some good bits (where
you can go, on the first day, food from home), otherwise broken English
throughout. Mostly inaccurate with recurring basic mistakes
missing there, missing predicate ( that not easy; that good ), overuse
of BE in all forms (they are can find; people are talk). Several
incomprehensible parts (otherwere were the us can; and want to go then can
find programs and extercise to do on it; etc).
Chapter 10 Grammar
233
Lower level Grammar rating practice

The previous section introduced a sample task and presented the Grammar scores
and their justifications for a number of scripts. In this section another lower level
task is introduced together with sample performances. Use the Grammar scale
(Figure 10.1), the Guidelines for rating Grammar (Figure 10.2), the Level-specific
expectations for the Grammar criterion (Table 10.1), and the task-specific rating
scheme provided below to mark the scripts for Grammar. Make sure you document
your decisions by making notes about the reasons why you award or subtract points.
When you have finished rating the scripts, refer to the Key section and compare
your marks and justifications with the benchmarks and justifications given.
The following practice task is a transactional letter writing task in which the
candidate must write a formal letter to the headmaster of a school and request
information about the school.
send him to an English-speaking school. They have read this
advertisement in a Budapest newspaper:

Foreign languages
For more information, write to: Dr. Paul Gregg,
Headmaster

why you are writing
and ask about:
class sizes
the school uniform
the fee to pay
Write a letter of about 100-120 words in an appropriate
style. Do not write any dates or addresses.
Dear Dr. Gregg,
234
asking about school subjects
asking about class sizes
asking about school uniform (if any)
asking about fee
closing
write a formal letter in about 100-120 words
vary the structures of questions
Chapter 10 Grammar
235

Script 01
Dear Dr. Gregg,
Iam writing because I read your advertisement in a newspaper. I think this
advertisement is very good. I have a lot of questions about this school.
I have a brother who 10 years old. My parents think that the foreign languages
is very is very important. They said me, write a letter for Dr. Gregg. My parents
would like to send my brother in this school, but they have some question. I dont
know that how many children learn in a class. My second question that what
subjects do the schools teach? I would like to know that. Have the school uniform
got? And my last question that how much is it?
I think if you send me a letter, my brother would go to this school.
(127 words)
Score for Grammar:
Justification:
236
Script 02
Dear Dr. Gregg,
Im writing to you in order to ask for informations about your school.
My 10-year-old brother wants to go to an English-speaking school, and my
parents think that British International School would be good for him.
I would be very grateful if you can write me about the subjects taught in the
school.
Im also very much interested in the sizes of the classes.
Please write me about the clothing in the school. If there is any school uniform
or not?
It would be very nice of you, if you can write me about the paying, because my
parents want to know about it as soon as possible.
Thank you in advance,
Yours faithfully:
B.M.
(114 words)
Score for Grammar:
Justification:
Chapter 10 Grammar
237
Script 03
Dear Dr. Gregg,
I am writing to you, because Ive read the advertisement of your school in a
newspaper and I would like to know more about it. My ten-year old brother is
supposed to attend an English speaking school.
I would like to know more about the subjects you teach in that school, which
are the most popular with the students and what kind of other subjects you teach
besides foreign languages.
Im interested in how big the classes are and I would like to know if they have
to wear a school uniform and if we should have it made or we can buy it in your
school.
I have another important question: how much is the fee that we have to pay?
Because we are not so wealthy and I would like to know if theres any chance to
pay it in parts. Im looking forward to your answers.
Yours sincelery:
A.G.
(151 words)
Score for Grammar:
Justification:
238
Script 04
Dear Dr. Gregg,
I write for you, because I read the advertisement of your school. We would like to
send my brother, John King to an English-speaking school.
I wait your answer, thank you very much.
G.K.
(119 words)
Score for Grammar:
Justification:
Chapter 10 Grammar
239
Script 05
Dear Dr. Gregg,
The reason why I am writing this letter is that I would like to have more
information about the British International School. My parents have read the
advertisement and they would like to send my 10-year-old brother to an Englishspeaking school.
First of all I would like to ask about the subjects which are taught in the school.
How many subjects are there and in which languages do the students have to learn
them? And what kind of foreign languages can the students learn? I read in the
article that this education system is for students aged 5 to 19. What does it mean?
For example my 10-year-old brother in which class can learn? Are the classes
about the students knowledge?
And do the students have to wear a school uniform, and if your answer is yes,
please tell me something about it. And I have a very important question, what is
the prise of the school, how much do we have to pay for a year? I hope you will
answer my letter.
Your sincerelly:
E.F.
(176 words)
Score for Grammar:
Justification:
240
KEY: Justifications and Scores for Grammar

Script 01
Several good clauses with accurate word order (Im writing because I read your
advertisement; I think this advertisement is very good; I have a lot of questions about this school. My
parents think that the foreign languages; I would like to know that). Some range of structures.
However, there are many inaccuracies: brother who 10 years old; languages is very
important; they said me, write a letter; letter for Dr. Gregg; send my brother in this school; some
question; reported questions dont know that how many; my second question is that what;
conditional. Wrong use of would; preposition in. Question word order and reported
speech errors. A problem with subject-verb agreement (Have the school). Score: 3
Script 02
Good range of structures (present simple and present continuous), good word
order and subject-verb agreement, a passive phrase (subjects taught), infinitive for
purpose, present conditional (would). Inaccuracies do occur: conditional if you can (2
instances); plural informations; question If there is any school uniform or not? The text can
be understood. Score: 5
Script 03
The candidate uses a wide range of structures, practically error-free. There are two
inaccuracies (to pay the it in parts, plural looking forward to your answers). Candidate
varies complex and simple sentences well and makes no word order mistakes.
Variety of question types: direct and indirect. Score: 7
Script 04
Good range of interrogative sentences (incorrect: Can the students sport?), some
instances of passive and auxiliary use. Good word order. Incorrect tense (I write for
you.) I wait your answer is incorrect and should not be written in one sentence with
thank you very much. Score: 5
Script 05
The candidate uses a wide range of structures, almost error-free (present simple
and continuous, present perfect, simple past, auxiliaries, passive). There is one
inaccuracy that does not hinder understanding (my 10-year-old brother in which class can
learn). Candidate varies complex and simple sentences well. Too many sentences
joined in the last but one and second sentences. Score: 6
Chapter 10 Grammar
241

The previous section illustrated the marking of lower level scripts for Grammar
and presented sample scripts for practice. The following section illustrates and
provides practice in marking higher level scripts. Use the information given in the
Grammar scale (Figure 10.1), the Guidelines for rating Grammar (Figure 10.2),
the Level-specific expectations for the Grammar criterion (Table 10.1), and the
task-specific rating scheme provided with the task to mark the scripts.
article for an international student magazine.
No Kidding, an international student magazine, has invited
readers to share their views about the computer. Write an
article to give your opinion and advice to other students.
computers in education
computers and entertainment
health issues
computers and relationships
Write your article with the title given. Write about 200 words.
introducing the topic
giving opinion on computers role in education
giving opinion on computers role in entertainment
giving opinion and advice on health issues
giving opinion and advice on computers and relationships
conclusion
242

express opinion, support arguments, give advice (giving advice could be
incorporated in different parts of the text)
use appropriate language for genre and audience (fellow students)
Script 01
Nowadays computers became more and more important not only in education
or entertainment but all the other areas of life.
Firstly lets take the most significant part, the education. You could get ECDL
diploma about computers. Its absolutely necessary because it is acknowledged in
the European Unio and you can become acquainted with these machines.
You could also have fun with your computer across the Internet. If you join the
Net you will meet a lot of interesting people and you can speak or play with them.
It can be a great fun to search on the webs. And last but not least you could learn a
lot this way. If you have problems you will find solutions. There is numberous
person who first met on the Net and now they are married and live happily.
Sometimes perhaps you think that its unbelievable but it can happen. Its so
important to know about the world a lot and it is easy with the computers. But on
the other hand its true that computers are expensive. And it has harmful effects
especially on your eyes and you can easily fall into that trap to sit in front of the
computer all day instead of have a walk or a picknick.
What is the conclusion? I think computers have more good effects on our life
than bad. But you have to find the balance between dealing with a computer and
other useful things.
(241 words)
Score for Grammar:
Justification: Good range of structures including present tense forms, conditional, passive, auxiliaries (can, could, will), infinitives, comparatives,
there is. Inaccuracies occur: Nowadays computers became, There is numberous
person, fall into that trap to sit, instead of have a walk, our life, but . all the
other areas of life, across the Internet (missing/wrong preposition), the education, ECDL diploma, a great fun (article problems), Its so important to know
about the world a lot (wrong word order).
Chapter 10 Grammar
243
Script 02
Computers make our lives easier. Its not necessary for every single child to have
a top-machine just to play their stupid little games. say the critics. But is this
true? Lets find that out!
Many kids have computers nowdays. But the evolution of these machines is
unnoticably fast and if the kid wants to stay topmodisch as the Germans say,
the mummy and daddy has to pay a great amount of money for all the hardware
and software pakages. So 1 minus point.
But the child has to play with something and the computer is a great way of
learning for the young ones and an even greater way of playing for the older
generation. So 1 plus point.
Some say that monitors make harmful radiation. Well (shortly) you can buy a TFT
(LCD) display if you want to and that has no radiation at all. +1 point.
Another thing is that the kids live an unhealthy life because the sit and play with
computer 24/7. All I have to say is:
Kids you could go out sometimes and play outside games (and not with your
computer!)!
(187 words)
Score for Grammar:
Justification: Not very good range of grammar. Inaccuracies do not hinder

understanding. Some variety of auxiliaries (has to play; could go out
sometimes), solid use of present but no other tense forms. Infinitive
structures and comparatives are used well. Mostly accurate.
244
Script 03
Computers are really important machines in our century. Computers are more and
more important.
In the schools there are lots of computers and we also have computer lessons. In
the secondary schools there are special classes where the students have more C.S.
lessons than in the other classes. Nowadays the Internet is a popular thing for
entertainment. But lots of children like computer games. I dont like those
children who always sit in front of the computer, because its healthier doing some
sports. This is connected to the health issues. Your eyes become worse, you have
to wear glasses and its important to be in the nature and relax. You can go
running or playing basketball or anything else. If you have computer you can send
emails to different people from the world. So this is a good thing, because you can
know lots of people. But at the same time you can be lonely because you cant
meet these people, only in the computer and people need a kind of company.
Computers as we can see have advantages and disadvantages too.
I dont like computers but I know that there are a lot of useful thing with it. You
can learn more about things in that you are interested, and its a good thing if you
have internet too. But the life is not only about computers.
(228 words)
Score for Grammar:
Justification: Good range with there are, infinitive structure (important to be), passive
(is connected to), solid use of comparatives, modals (have to, can).
Complex sentence structure and conditional clauses. Some
inaccuracies (a lot of useful thing; things in that you are interested), problems
with articles (If you have computer; the life is not only about computers) that are
occasionally disruptive.
Chapter 10 Grammar
245
Script 04
The computer is our friend. It was created to help our lives, jobs and it gives us a
new kind of entertainment. Most computer in a workplace are connected to the
internet which can give a whole new dimention of comunication and finding
articles of a question.
Computers in education: more and more schools are buying computers to teach
the students how to use certain programs like Word excel and use the internet.
This is where the education turns into entertainment. Children also like to listen to
music and play with games and one of the newest entertainment is chatting with
each other which can bring people together and can make new relationships.
The bad side of computering is that the monitor can be harmful to eyes, but I
think new monitors will prevent eye problem.
(136 words)
Score for Grammar:
Justification: Good use of present tense forms, passive structures and infinitives
(more and more schools are buying computers, It was created to help our lives),
relative clauses. Not a wide range of auxiliaries, but can (can make new
relationships), and will are used appropriately. Correct comparative and
superlative forms. There are inaccuracies: omission of articles Most
computer, in a workplace, dimention of comunication and finding articles of a
question, how to use certain programs like Word excel and use the internet, will
prevent eye problem. Too many errors in such a short script.
246
Script 05
Our world has changed at the end of the 20th century. A lot of new things were
invited, and the bio-technic improved a lot. It is said that this century is the
century of computers. We can read about computers from the begining of the 20th
century, but the real machines were invited in the 70s. Nowadays it is so common
that it is used in education. There are a lot of ways of using it but the main way is
to teach languages. The computer can help prounancing the words for even an
hour and it isnt unpatient. This is a very useful way of using but there are some
more, useless functions of it. One of them is the computer games. It is said that it
proves the reflexes but its only part of the softwer progressing companies
marketing.
The monitor can even harm the eye, so its a bit dangerous playing for hours
opposite the computer. A lot of secretarys lives on disability because of that. It may
seemed that computers has only harmful effects, but on the other hand it gives us
an ability to communicate with our distant kin. We can hear that a lot of lost
members of families found by the internet. I cant make a decision of the
computers. Everybody should look through the facts and decide.
(225 words)
Score for Grammar:
Justification: There is a range of structures (variety of tense forms, passive, there

are, infinitive structure, auxiliary: can and may), but the number of
inaccuracies shows that their use is problematic (inappropriate tense
has changed at the end of the 20th century; inappropriate passive members
of families found by; inappropriate infinitive structure can help
prounancing, It may seemed). Recurring mistake: no agreement between
subject and predicate (A lot of secretarys lives; computers has).
Higher level Grammar rating practice
The previous section provided practice in rating higher level scripts for Grammar.
In this section another higher level task is introduced together with sample
performances and your task is to mark the scripts for Grammar and give
justifications for your marks.
Use the Grammar scale (Figure 10.1), the Guidelines for rating Grammar (Figure
10.2), the Level-specific expectations for the Grammar criterion (Table 10.1), and
Chapter 10 Grammar
247
the task-specific rating scheme provided with the task to mark the scripts written on
the following task for Grammar. Make notes about the reasons why you award or
subtract points. When you have rated the scripts, go to the Key section and compare
your marks and justifications with the benchmarks and justifications given.
You met Wanda in a Warsaw summer school, where you

practised English with Central European students. She is
visiting you next month. Write her a letter about:
your trip home from Poland
a good time you had recently
what you will show her in Hungary
a Hungarian custom
Write a letter of about 200 words. Do not write any
dates or addresses.
Dear Wanda,
a short opening to tell Wanda who is writing
a description of the trip from Poland
a description of any event when the student had a good time
some notes on sights or programmes the student will show Wanda
a description of a Hungarian custom
closing the letter
write an informal letter in about 200 words
use description
use narration
use a variety of tenses
248

Script 01
Dear Wanda,
Im so happy hearing about your coming next month. Im planning what we will
do during the week youll spend here in Hungary.
What would you like to do? Would you rather go to museums or relax? Anyway,
there are some places that you must see. For example the House of Terror in
Budapest from which you can learn a lot about Hungarian history. If we have the
opportunity to visit the Parlament, we wont miss it. But dont be afraid, in the
evenings well have great parties here in Eger too. Hungarians can relax and we
are the master of entertaining. You will get used to the Hungarian habits. Im sure
of that we will spend here a fantastic time together.
Have I told you my trip home from Poland? It was such a funny journey. I met a
cute spanish guy on the bus and we became friends very soon. Although it was a
long way, I didnt feel it because we were talking during the whole trip. His
grandparents are living in Hungary not so far from Eger, so we could meet us later
too. Do you believe this? You should meet him!
Anyway I had very nice time in Warsaw and I hope you will have also in Hungary.
Fat kiss for you and the others.
Love: Romy
(221 words)
Score for Grammar:

Justification:
Chapter 10 Grammar
249
Script 02
Dear Wanda,
How are you? I hope you are fine. My homeward travel was very calm. I
travelled by train, because for me it is preferential, because (of) my father works at
the Hungarian Railway.
When you will come to Hungary, I will show you almost the whole country.
First the capital city, Budapest and then the typical areas of the country. My
favourite region is Szatmr. You know I am dancing in a folkdance group, and
weve got a dance from Szatmr. It is a very nimble-footed dance. The national
costume is Hungary is very exciting. It has a lot of petticoats and a headdress.
When you will come I will dress you in a Hungarian costume. I hope you like this
idea.
Best wishes:
Vali
(124 words)
Score for Grammar:
Justification:
250
Script 03
Dear Wanda,
Im writing for you, because I know you will come to Hungary next month, and I
hardly can wait the time. You know Warsaw was very exciting and interesting, but
the traffic Hardly I can get to the station, after a traffic jam which contains many
and many cars. So finally I arrived to the station, the train was late, I thought I was
lucky. But not at all. The train wasnt late, it had have a crash near the city. So I had
to wait and wait and wait for the next one. And after a 5 hours waiting, finally I
started the journey to the airport. After that everything going quite smoothly.
Funny story, isnt it?
Anyway I had a very good time in Poland and I think you had too. People were
very friendly and the food was very good. Do you remember when we ordered
something to eat and we didnt really know what it was. Oh that was very funny.
I live in a small village so rather I will show you the capital city Budapest,
especially the Parlament and many and many interesting places. But there is a
famous thing in my village, the old church which was built in the 14. century.
I think in Hungary the food is good. We have several customs, but I will tell you
when you are here. So I wait for you in November. I think you have a good time.
Yours faithfully, George
(246 words)
Score for Grammar:
Justification:
Chapter 10 Grammar
251
Script 04
Dear Wanda,
I am writing to thank you for that good time I spend with you in Warsaw. My
trip home from Poland was very exhausting. It took about two hours and to tell
the truth I dont really like travelling by air. But I was satisfied with the service and
the kind stewardesses.
Anyway I really enjoyed everything in Warsaw. The school was very interesting
and I was fascinated by the beauty of the city.
When you come to Hungary I will also show you the sights of our country. I
think we should start with the capital. But there are also a lot of other places of
interest in the rest of the country.
By the way. It reminds me one of our customs that we always have the tourists
or guests tasted with typical Hungarian meals. For example with Goulash soup.
I must end now. I hope to see you soon. Please let me know the date of your
coming.
All the best,
(164 words)
Score for Grammar:
Justification:
252
Script 05
Dear Wanda,
Im sorry for not writing to you until this time, but I had so many things to do
here at home. My trip from Poland was very interesting. I met a boy who made me
always laughing until the end of the trip. Ill talk about him when youll be here in
Hungary.
I had some good time since I came Hungary from Warsaw. Two weeks after I
got home my parents surprised me. I got a (very) sweet cat. (You know Ive lost
my 8-eight-year cat in April, and I liked very much her.) After it my parents and
me had a beautiful holiday in Hawaii!
I hope youll come to Hungary in a few weeks time, because Id like to show
some famous and interesting places (here in Hungary) like: the Parliament, Lake
Balaton, the Alfold and my favourite town: Debrecen. Debrecen is a beautiful place
where you can find a Basilika, a beautiful inner town, etc. I hope youll enjoy it.
And please dont worry about our customs!!! I think we are very kind people. I
know youll like our special foods, like: Hungarian goulash. We like enjoy ourself,
dancing (it can be modern or a beautiful folk art (dance)). I hope youll enjoy the
time you spend here! Im waiting for your arriving!
Love: xy.
(218 words)
Score for Grammar:
Justification:
Chapter 10 Grammar
253
KEY: Justifications and scores for Grammar

Script 01
The candidate used questions, modal (must), if clause, and a variety of tenses
(simple past, present, future; present continuous). Good, complex sentence
structures. The range is very good but there are occasional inaccuracies (present
continuous hearing coming, agreement master of entertaining, preposition told you
my trip, preposition so we could meet us, articles) that do not disrupt communication.
Score: 6
Script 02
No range of grammar: the candidate uses present and past simple, questions, have
got. There are several errors in this short script: when + will (twice), preposition,
tense. The sentences are simple. Score: 2
Script 03
The candidate uses a good range of structures (modals: can, had to; tenses: present
continuous/simple, past simple, future simple; when + present tense used correctly;
indirect question; passive: which was built) but there are frequent inaccuracies,
especially in the first part of the script (wrong word order but ambitious attempt: I
hardly can wait, Hardly I can get to the station, so rather I will show you; tense: which contains, it
had have a crash, After that everything going quite smoothly, you have a good time; preposition:
Im writing for you, arrived to). Score: 4
Script 04
Good range of structures (past/present tense, should, there are, when + present tense, like +
ing, complex sentence structure). There are some errors. One of them (we always
have the tourists or guests tasted with typical Hungarian meals) disrupts communication. The
other errors are spend (tense), reminds me (missing preposition), the date of your coming.
Many errors in a short script. Score: 5
Script 05
There is a good range of grammar (present continuous, past simple, future; relative
clauses boy who, place where; complex structure: in a few weeks time) but frequent
inaccuracies hinder communication (causative: made me laughing; tense: when youll be
here in Hungary, I had some good time since, Ive lost in April, sentence structure: I hope
youll come to Hungary in a few weeks time, because Id like to show some famous and interesting
places (here in Hungary) like: the Parliament, Lake Balaton, the Alfold and my favourite town:
Debrecen. Debrecen is a beautiful place where you can find a Basilika, a beautiful inner town, etc. I
hope youll enjoy it; agreement: we enjoy ourself; prepositions). Score: 4
Anything that happens in the language classroom in terms of grammar teaching is
relevant to the students use of grammar in their writing. What follows is a brief
254
discussion of what could be added to regular classroom practice in order to

improve the accuracy of students writing.
In preparation for writing, students can be asked to write a list of the
grammatical structures that they think they will need to complete a writing task.
When they have written their scripts, they can be asked to compare the structures
used in their scripts with those on their lists. They can also read each others scripts
and check the grammatical structures their peers used. Alternatively, they can tell
the teacher what grammar they used and the teacher can write a list on the
blackboard. The point of the exercise is to make students aware of the range of
grammatical structures that they can use in a writing task. Teachers should
encourage students to display as much of their knowledge of grammar as the task
allows because raters usually award higher scores for scripts that contain a wide
range of grammatical structures.
Once students have mastered the basic forms of realisation of grammatical
structures, they should be taught alternative realisations of the same grammatical
structures. This way teachers can enhance students ability to avoid repeating the
same form of a grammatical structure. Such a skill is useful for example in scripts
that require candidates to write a lot of questions: alternating the form and type of
questions can break the monotony caused by a string of questions. Similarly,
placing relative clauses in different parts of the sentence and using various relative
pronouns can show raters that the writer has a high degree of control over this
grammatical structure.
The sentence transformation exercise is a common type of exercise that can be
used for improving written texts. By practising the formulation of the same idea
with the use of different grammatical structures, students can be shown techniques
to avoid the same structure repeatedly in their scripts.
Accuracy is important, but teachers need to be careful not to inhibit their
students by placing too much emphasis on grammatical accuracy. Poor writers who
focus primarily on grammatical accuracy fail to write well-developed scripts. Their
main concern is to be correct, they then spend their time rereading the sentences
they write and as a result may lose track of their train of thought and fail to
complete their scripts.
Teachers should train students to revise their scripts by focusing firstly on
content and only secondly on accuracy. One reason for this is that it makes little
sense to spend time on editing a text that may have to be changed because of its
content. This is especially important in an examination where candidates have a
limited amount of time to write.
Students need to be trained how to revise their scripts. If time allows, they
should read their scripts several times, each time focusing on a different type of
grammatical structure. Usually students read their scripts from the beginning to the
end several times and yet fail to recognise their errors. This happens especially
when the script must be edited right after it has been written. When they write
home assignments, students can put their scripts aside when they are done, do a
different exercise or study something else, and after some time they can return to
Chapter 10 Grammar
255
their texts. By now they will probably have forgotten their script and developed
some distance to their scripts. If they read it, they are more likely to spot errors.
This technique can also be applied in an examination situation. If the writing
paper consists of more than one task, candidates should proceed to the second task
as soon as they have completed the first one. Having finished the second task, they
should return to the first task and edit it. Since they have to focus on a different
task, candidates develop a distance to the first script and may be able to spot errors
that they would not recognise otherwise.
If there is only one writing task, candidates can use another technique to spot
errors. They should read their scripts backwards, moving sentence by sentence
from the end of the script towards its beginning. This unnatural way of reading
makes it possible for the reader not to focus on the message of the script but on
the individual sentences. When readers follow the sentences from the beginning to
the end of the script, their attention is focused on the message communicated and
may fail to notice errors.
Giving feedback on accuracy is a technique that can draw writers attention to
their errors. There are various techniques available for giving feedback (e.g.
minimal marking when the teacher only underlines the mistake or marks with a
number next to each line how many errors there are in the line; or the use of
correction symbols). Teachers could use any of these techniques to avoid
correcting all the mistakes. This is especially the case when students can be asked
to redraft their scripts. If the teacher corrects the mistakes, the redrafting is likely
to turn into a copying exercise in which the writer produces a clean copy of the
script without paying attention to the errors. If, however, students have to correct
the mistakes highlighted by the teacher, they may benefit more from the exercise,
for example, they may learn to identify particular mistakes that they make on a
regular basis.
Thus, in order to become better writers, students must be taught to use
grammar correctly and appropriately, to construct their scripts by consciously
incorporating a variety of structures, and to revise their scripts. It is important that
they develop the habit of correcting errors only after they have revised the script
for content. Accuracy errors can be left to the end and can be attended to together
with vocabulary errors. The revision of vocabulary is similar to that of grammar
and will be discussed in the next chapter, which examines the last criterion in the
scale developed by the Hungarian Examination Reform Project: Vocabulary.
blank page p. 256
Chapter 11
Vocabulary
General description of the Vocabulary criterion
The Vocabulary criterion in an analytic scale is intended to assess the breadth and
depth of candidates stock of foreign words (e.g. single words, compound words,
idioms), and of the skill with which they can handle them. Breadth refers to the
number of different words they know, and depth describes their awareness of the
different meanings and uses of a particular item. For instance, the meaning lowlevel learners associate with the word kid is child. More proficient learners know
that this word also means the young of a goat and the soft smooth leather made from its hide.
Furthermore, proficient learners also know that kid can be used not only as a
noun but also as a verb meaning to tease or deceive for fun.
Knowing a word in writing means that candidates can use it correctly to express
the exact meanings they want. For this they must know what a word refers to
(dog biscuit is a hard biscuit for dogs), what its connotation is (the overtone of the
word ogre is negative), what other words it is related to in meaning (generous is the
synonym of unselfish and the antonym of tight-fisted). Moreover, candidates must be
aware of how words combine in a sentence: words tend to co-occur with specific
words (they collocate) and language learners must be able to combine the
appropriate items. For instance, hand over does not go so naturally as pass with the
words the salt. Candidates must know how they can build other words by affixation
(adding a prefix, unhappy, or a suffix, happiness), compounding (mouse and trap form
mousetrap) or conversion (same word used as different parts of speech: a laugh v. to
laugh). Candidates must also be able to reproduce words correctly in writing, in
other words they must be able to spell correctly.
Measures of vocabulary quality
In a general language proficiency examination, vocabulary is assessed on the basis
of range, relevance, sophistication, and correct word choice and usage. Raters
therefore must know what each of these features refers to, and based on this
knowledge they should be able to generate an overall score for the vocabulary
criterion. As in the case of the Grammar criterion, raters must also make sure that
they weigh weaknesses against strengths before deciding the score for the
Vocabulary criterion. It is bad practice if raters assess the vocabulary of a script by
only taking into account the weaknesses.
In the assessment of vocabulary a distinction is made between two types of
words in a script: content words and function words. Content words are the
words that fall within the category of nouns, lexical or full verbs (e.g. come, work),
adjectives and adverbs. Function words, such as auxiliaries (can, should), pronouns,
conjunctions or prepositions, play a mainly grammatical role. When assessing
vocabulary, raters focus on content words.
258
Range
Range refers to the candidates ability to use an adequately broad vocabulary
within a script. A script that contains a large number of different words is awarded
a higher score for vocabulary than a script in which a limited number of words and
phrases are used repetitively. Candidates can avoid repetition, which is interpreted
as a sign of poor vocabulary, with the use of synonyms or superordinate terms (i.e.
using a general term instead of a word: animal instead of cat). Raters must, however,
make a distinction between repetition that originates from poor vocabulary and
repetition that has a well-defined function. As was discussed in the chapter on
Cohesion and Coherence, good writers do repeat key words and phrases in order to
achieve unity and coherence.
Range must be interpreted in relation to the task set. Each task requires the
development of a particular topic or subtopics, which determine the type of
vocabulary that candidates are expected to use. For example, in the case of a task
that instructs candidates to write an advertisement for a house, the words that
raters look for in the script refer primarily to the type of the house, its
characteristic features, and its cost. In a testing situation raters can assess only the
sample of the candidates vocabulary elicited by the writing task and therefore
have to determine the range within that sample.
Range also depends on the required length of the script. A longer script allows
for more repetition and variety. Therefore, raters must keep in mind the length of
the script when they evaluate the range of vocabulary.
Relevance
Closely connected to the writing task is the feature referred to as relevance of
vocabulary. The writing task determines the topics and subtopics candidates must
develop, and raters must assess whether the vocabulary used by the candidates
meets the requirements of the task. These requirements may be specified in the
task-specific rating scheme designed for the task and can vary from the direct
identification of the nature of the expected vocabulary (type of house, special
features, or cost in the case of the advertisement task discussed above; or the
vocabulary of shopping in a composition about shopping habits) to such general
descriptions as the type of language needed for the completion of the task (e.g.
vocabulary appropriate for the expression of an opinion or formulation of a
complaint). Thus, whereas raters assess whether candidates write about the set
topic under the Task Achievement criterion, they evaluate under the Vocabulary
criterion whether candidates can use words relevant to the topic.
Lexical sophistication
Lexical sophistication refers to the ability of candidates to formulate their ideas
succinctly, neatly and articulately. Candidates with good vocabulary skills use
precise and effective words that are appropriate for the topic and with the help of
Chapter 11 Vocabulary
259
which they can convey their ideas with clarity and conciseness. They can use their
vocabulary to formulate complex ideas clearly, and can express themselves
fluently. In order to be able to give evidence of lexical sophistication, candidates
must have a broad vocabulary, must be able to express exactly what they want to
communicate, and must be able to combine words so that the resulting text reads
fluently and naturally. In other words, candidates must know a large number of
words, their grammatical class, rules of word formation, and collocational patterns.
Correct word choice and usage
Vocabulary errors can be grouped into errors that relate to meaning, form and
spelling. One of the most frequent errors is the use of the wrong word to express
an intended meaning. For example, in the sentences
You can journey by train.
I want to learn the American culture.
You will get used to the Hungarian habits.
the words that best represent the intended meanings are travel, study, and customs but
the wrong synonyms are used to express them. Similarly, candidates often confuse
two words that are closely related but opposite in meaning. In the sentences
I borrowed my friend some money.
Hotels in any country serve meals but if they dont, I think you should bring some food with you.
the confusion is caused by the closeness in meaning of the words lend and borrow
and bring and take respectively.
Another type of meaning-related error is caused by false cognates, also called
false friends. These are words that have similar forms in two languages but do not
have the same meaning. For Hungarian learners of English actual is a false friend
when it is used instead of the word current.
Who is his actual girlfriend?
The candidate writing the question
Are human subjects or realistic subjects taught?
made use of the Hungarian cognates humn and rel (tantrgy) instead of the correct
English equivalents arts and science.
When candidates do not know a word, they can combine existing English
words to express an idea. They may use circumlocution to describe or define
something if they do not know the appropriate word. For example, in the sentence
The cheap-expensive question is due to the next question: if you go to a camp-site, it will be cheaper.
260
the candidate avoided using the word price (The question of price is ) by replacing it
with two adjectives that make clear what the missing word is. Circumlocution is
therefore a strategy suitable to compensate for gaps in vocabulary, but its overuse
results in a text that is difficult to read and understand.
Candidates, however, are not always successful in their attempts to compensate
for limited vocabulary. For instance, on the basis of its content the most probable
intended meaning of the following question
Are the classes about the students knowledge?
is
Are the students sorted into groups according to their language knowledge?
but it is obscured by the ineffective original wording.
Another way candidates may try to make up for gaps in their vocabulary is by
coining English words. The words comfortable-feeling and lexical books used in the
sentences
It depends on your comfortable-feeling.
They want us to know many things that can be found in lexical books.
do not exist in English. The correct wordings should be something similar to
expected comfort level in the first sentence and dictionary in the second .
While the above list of errors is not exhaustive, it illustrates the frequent types
of errors that lead to loss of meaning in scripts. The task of the rater is to recognise
vocabulary errors that lead to loss of meaning and assess the extent to which they
affect the overall meaningfulness of the script.
Errors that relate to form are caused by the candidates inadequate mastery of
word form: they are not accurate and effective enough in affixation (the use of
prefixes and suffixes) and compounding. For example, the candidates who wrote
the sentences
It can be freshing.
This can have inreversible effects.
knew the roots fresh and reversible but failed to build the correct adjectives by adding
the prefix (re-) to the root to get refreshing and by placing the correct prefix irbefore the root to form irreversible. A similar derivational error occurs in the
following sentence
Decide if you want a cheap trip or an interested trip.
where the wrong suffix -ed is added to the root interest instead of the correct - ing.
The candidate who wrote the sentence
261
The time of your visiting comes closer and closer.

failed to form the noun visit. Similarly, the candidate who wrote
You will see that it is not a solve for your problem.
could not transform the verb to solve into the noun solution.
Besides such derivation errors, candidates often use the wrong form of a word
to express their ideas. In such cases the word does not fit into the sentence. The
candidate who wrote
Can the students sport?
used sport as a verb to mean to do sports; however, this conversion is incorrect in
English.
Multi-word words, words that consist of more words (e.g. prepositional verbs,
phrasal verbs, idioms), and collocations (words that commonly occur together)
represent yet another source of vocabulary errors. The sentence
We arrived to Borgta at about 12 oclock.
illustrates a frequent prepositional verb error. Hungarian learners of English
frequently use the preposition to instead of in after arrive.
In the following two sentences
We made a lot of photos.
and
I couldnt only make new friendships but also show to the American teenagers what is my culture
like.
candidates altered the idioms. The correct idioms are to take photos and to make new
friends.
Whereas idioms are made up of a group of strongly connected words that are
learnt together as one word, collocations represent relationships between words
and are not taught as fixed expressions. Language learners gradually develop a
sense of what words or types of words can be used together with a particular word
as their language knowledge develops. The following sentences illustrate
collocation errors:
We had to stop because there was a big rain.
You can look at TV on the bus.
I will need English for my business journeys.
This would mean new job possibilities.
262
The candidates used the words big, look at, journey, and possibility with the intended
meaning but in the inappropriate context. The combinations big rain, look at TV,
business journey, and job possibilities are wrong because in these contexts the correct
collocates are heavy, watch, trip and opportunities.
Closely related to idioms and collocations is the type of writing error usually
labelled wrong expression. This is a label raters use to identify a vocabulary error that
cannot be fitted into any of the above-discussed categories: the words used in the
sentence are English words that are used correctly and yet the sentence does not
read naturally in English. For instance, the second half of the sentence
I could also get acquainted with the Italian language itself, which resulted in a progress in the level
of my Italian.
communicates the candidates message, but it is not an acceptable alternative for
the expression of the idea that the candidates command of Italian improved as a
result of the time spent in Italy.
Aspects of vocabulary use typical to the assessment of writing
Spelling and lifting are two aspects of vocabulary that are relevant primarily to the
assessment of written texts. Spelling is especially important because incorrect
spelling can impede communication.
Misspelling is a type of error that is closely associated with vocabulary and
therefore it is assessed under the vocabulary criterion. Besides its meaning,
grammatical category and pronunciation, language learners also learn the way in
which a word is spelt. When assessing vocabulary, raters distinguish minor and
major spelling errors and check the consistency of spelling. Minor spelling errors
do not change words to the extent that their recognition becomes difficult: tripp
trip, sincerelly sincerely, can not cannot, or termal thermal. Major spelling errors alter a
word to such an extent that it becomes very difficult to recognise (colige college,
extercis exercise), or its spelling becomes identical with that of another item (tripe
trip, sweat sweet, were where, now know). The violation of the spelling of words that
receive special emphasis in teaching (than then, whether weather) is also considered
a major spelling error.
Consistency in spelling is another problem that concerns the raters of written
texts. Writers should use the spelling typical of one national variety of English
consistently. For instance, the spellings favour (UK) and favor (US) or summarise
(UK) and summarize (US) should not be used in the same script.
Lifting refers to candidates copying part (e.g. continuous stretches) of the input
text into their own scripts, and it becomes a problem that raters must focus on
when the writing task contains input text(s). Candidates who have not been
trained to avoid lifting may copy into their scripts without any changes, for
instance, parts of a sample letter to which they must write a reply. Raters cannot
accurately assess the language skills of candidates whose scripts contain language
given in the task because it is not lifting skills that they must evaluate but the
263
candidates ability to use their own language skills to produce continuous writing.
Whereas lifting in itself affects the score awarded for the vocabulary criterion, it
can also be the source of vocabulary (and grammatical) errors because candidates
are often unable to build the lifted text correctly into their own scripts.
Error tolerance
It is rarely the case even at the highest levels of a language proficiency examination that raters expect candidates to produce completely error free scripts. At
lower levels a larger percentage of errors and error types are tolerated. Errors that
do not obscure meaning are more generally accepted than those that lead to the
breakdown of communication. Nevertheless, a script with a large number of minor
vocabulary errors may be awarded a lower score for the vocabulary criterion.
As in the case of the assessment of Grammar, raters must check whether it is the
same vocabulary error or different errors that occur in a script. Candidates must
not be repeatedly penalised for the same vocabulary error: raters must make a
distinction between frequent errors and repeated instances of the same type of
error.
Furthermore, some examination boards encourage their raters to treat more
leniently errors due to ambition. A script that contains correct but simple
vocabulary is of lower quality than a script which shows individuality in word
choice and attempts more ambitious expression of ideas, even if, as a result, this is
not always correct.
Dictionary use
Some examination boards allow the use of dictionaries while others do not. In
spite of the fact that allowing the use of dictionaries may seem to have advantages,
it has been shown that it also has disadvantages. The advantages are that candidates
can check, for instance, the correct orthography of words (*formula one / Formula One),
their spelling (*beleive / believe), grammatical behaviour (*I can look him after / I can look
after him), collocation patterns (die of hunger / a hunger for adventure), derived forms
(friend, friendless adj., friendlessness n., friendship n.), synonyms, or meanings. They can
also look up the unknown words they find in the rubrics and thus make sure that
they understand the instructions.
However, the (mis)use of dictionaries may lead to problems. Candidates may
look up and place words into their scripts without checking whether the item fits
their text. They may also miscopy words and misinterpret the abbreviations in the
dictionary entries.
Candidates using a dictionary take longer to complete the writing task, and their
scripts may be shorter yet not of significantly better quality than those written by
candidates who do not use a dictionary. Dictionaries can be especially
disadvantageous for candidates of lower proficiency levels. Such candidates do not
use the dictionary as a checking aid but spend a lot of time looking up words and as a
result they lose their train of thought and write less than the specified word limit.
264
Candidates spend even more time looking up words when they are allowed to use
bilingual dictionaries.
Raters must take into consideration the effect of the dictionary on the scripts.
The vocabulary of a script written with the help of the dictionary should be
assessed differently since candidates draw on resources different from their own
language knowledge and make errors that are not necessarily caused by
deficiencies in their vocabulary knowledge.
The Vocabulary criterion in the scale developed for the Hungarian Model
writing examination
The last criterion in the writing scale developed for the Model examination is
called Vocabulary (Figure 11.1). According to the descriptors of the bands, raters
must assess scripts for the range, accuracy and relevance of the vocabulary used.
The descriptors for accuracy state that (depending on the frequency with which
they occur), raters must tolerate those vocabulary errors that do not lead to the
breakdown of communication. Starting with Band 3, the descriptor for relevance
includes another aspect of vocabulary that must be taken into consideration:
lifting. The fact that this aspect only occurs in the lower bands of the scale does not
mean that only weak candidates are expected to lift text from the input. On the
contrary, it means that, for instance, a script with a wide range of accurate and
relevant vocabulary that communicates clear ideas but contains some chunks lifted
from the prompt cannot be awarded a score of 7. Its score can only be 5, the mean
of Band 7 and Band 3.
Vocabulary
wide range of vocabulary
7 accurate vocabulary communicating clear ideas
relevant to content
6
good range of vocabulary
5 occasionally inaccurate vocabulary communicating mainly clear ideas
overall relevant to content
4
limited range of vocabulary
3 frequently inaccurate vocabulary communicating some clear ideas
occasionally relevant to content with some chunks lifted from prompt
2
no range of vocabulary
1 mostly inaccurate vocabulary communicating few clear ideas
mostly irrelevant to content with several chunks lifted from prompt
0
Figure 11.1 The Vocabulary Scale
265
Raters are given the detailed description of what they have to pay attention to
when assessing vocabulary in the guidelines accompanying the writing scale
(Figure 11.2).
Check
Look for
Lexical range
is there a range of vocabulary items?
variety of words and expressions used
Lexical accuracy
is the vocabulary used accurately?
Lexical relevance
is the vocabulary relevant to the
topic(s) specified in the task?
words used accurately / inaccurately (meaning and

spelling)
relevant vocabulary / irrelevant vocabulary

ratio of words and expressions not lifted / lifted
from task
Figure 11.2 Guidelines for rating Vocabulary

Raters use the same scale and guidelines to assess the vocabulary of scripts
written by candidates for both the lower and higher level examination. The
requirements of each level are explained in the level-specific expectations
(Table 11.1).
Table 11.1 Level-specific expectations for the Vocabulary criterion
Lower level
sufficient vocabulary for expressing ideas
about everyday life/familiar topics and
situations
good control of straightforward vocabulary
clear expression of simple thoughts
some spelling errors acceptable
Higher level
range of vocabulary for personal/familiar and
unfamiliar/general topics
high lexical accuracy
some hesitation/circumlocution
errors (wrong/incorrect word choice
spelling) do not hinder understanding
clear expression of complex thoughts
Lower level candidates are expected to have sufficient vocabulary for the
correct expression of simple ideas about everyday topics and situations. At the
higher level candidates must have richer vocabulary that allows for the accurate
expression of complex ideas not only about personal but also about general topics
and unfamiliar situations. If wrong word choices occur but do not hinder
comprehension, they are acceptable. At both levels raters should focus on the kind
of spelling errors candidates make. Frequent and meaning-obscuring spelling
errors are penalised by lowering the score by one point, whereas occasional errors
that do not disturb meaning should not be penalised.
266
Frequently asked questions in connection with the

Vocabulary criterion
How shall I treat misspelled words?
Spelling mistakes lower the mark by one band if the
problem is persistent.
When is the candidates range of vocabulary wide?
Depending on task and length requirement, the script
should contain several relevant verbs, nouns, a few
idiomatic expressions not lifted from the prompt. In
addition, a few adjectives and adverbs, if relevant, can
enhance effectiveness and thus contribute to wide
range.
What am I to do if the candidate has lifted a lot of the vocabulary
from the rubrics but is using them appropriately and without errors?
It is acceptable if such items are isolated words used in
paraphrased structures. The best way to decide this is to
write the task yourself, then you will see whether it is
easy to avoid lifting of any kind or not.

This section introduces a lower level task together with its task-specific rating
scheme and sample scripts. The task and scripts are discussed from the point of
view of the Vocabulary criterion.
Lower level task
The lower level writing task is a formal letter of application. The candidate has to
reply to an advertisement which is short and concise, so it does not contain long
stretches of text that would encourage lifting.
267
You would like to work in England for a year. You have

read this advertisement in a magazine:
To apply write to:
NW9 OED
why you are writing
your education
Write a letter of about 120 words in an appropriate style.
Dear Sir or Madam,
The vocabulary elicited by the task is defined by the content points listed in the
task-specific rating scheme. With the exception of the first and the last point, the
content points name topics whose development requires the use of specific
vocabulary.
education
word-processing experience (needed)
language skills (minimum intermediate English, Italian not essential)
closing
268
Since the content points clearly establish the nature of the vocabulary raters can
expect, it is unnecessary to specify it in the summary of the requirements.
write a formal letter in about 120 words
realise communicative function: a mix of giving information and persuasion
The following lower level script, with a benchmark of 6 awarded for the
Vocabulary criterion, illustrates how a lower level proficiency candidate uses a
range of appropriate and sufficiently accurate vocabulary to describe the abilities
and experience of an applicant.
Dear Sir or Madam,
I was interested in your advertisement that I read in a magazine
and I would like to apply for the job.
I finished the secondary school two years ago. Since we learnt
type-writing and how to use word-processors, I am very good at
both of them. Due to an Italian friend of mine, I worked for an
Italian company as a secretary, so I have the experience of being a
secretary. I can make all the machines operate, that a secretary
works with. I could also get acquainted with the Italian language
itself, which resulted in a progress in the level of my Italian. I also
passed the intermediate language exam in English a year ago.
I returned home from Italy a month ago, so I do not have a job
at the moment. I can start to work whenever you want me to start.
I can also go for an interview in any time.
Yours faithfully,
B.Zs.
With the exception of the education content point, the candidate produced
enough language in the body of the letter without lifting any expressions from the
task to make possible the evaluation of the range of the vocabulary used. The
range of vocabulary shows that the candidate can use a variety of words to develop
the subtopics given in the task. Table 11.2 presents a summary of the words that
contribute to range in this script.
269
The same table illustrates that the words used in the script are relevant. The
candidate did not develop topics that are not directly in connection with the task
set. When candidates write about topics that are not required by the task, raters
cannot award extra points for vocabulary even if the irrelevant topic is discussed
with an excellent variety of words because these items are not relevant to the task.
Table 11.2 Words contributing to range
Content Point
Words
education
to finish school, learn type-writing
wordprocessing experience
to be good at, work for a company as a secretary, have the experience, operate
machines
language skills
resulted in progress, level, pass a language exam in
to return home, whenever, go for an interview
In spite of the range and relevance of its vocabulary, the script does not meet
the requirements of a highly sophisticated vocabulary. It does not read fluently and
naturally throughout because of occasional wrong word choices and the ineffective
wording of some ideas. The wrong word choices that break the smooth and natural
flow of the text are was instead of got in was interested, due to instead of thanks to in due
to an Italian friend, get acquainted instead of learn in get acquainted with the Italian language,
or the preposition in instead of at in in any time. The remaining disturbing lapses are
due to the unnatural wordings that raters refer to as wrong expression of ideas.
The chunks have the experience of being a secretary, make the machines operate, and resulted in a
progress in the level of my Italian are understandable but strange in English. The ideas
intended to be communicated are expressed in a non-native like manner. The idea
formulated by have the experience of being a secretary can be rephrased as I have already
worked as a secretary, make the machines operate does not read as naturally as operate the
machines, and instead of the pretentious yet inappropriate resulted in a progress in the
level of my Italian chunk the candidate could have written improved my Italian.
With the exception of type-writing, the script is free of spelling errors. The
candidate manages to communicate the ideas with enough clarity for the reader of
the application letter. Considering the fact that this is a lower level script, in spite
of the above lapses raters can reward the candidate for the ambitious if not always
successful attempts at expressing complex ideas creatively.
marks and justifications given for each script for the Vocabulary criterion. When
you read the scripts and their evaluations, you should refer to the Vocabulary scale
(Figure 11.1), the Guidelines for rating Vocabulary (Figure 11.2), the
specifications of the Level-specific expectations for the Vocabulary criterion
(Table 11.1), and the task-specific rating scheme.
270
Script 01
Dear Sir or Madam,
Im writing because I have seen your advertisement in a magazine. Im really
interested in this kind of job, so Id like to applicate for it.
I have secondary schools final exam in several subjects (history, mathematic,
hungarian grammar and literature, geography and English language). Now, Im a
third-year student of the lawyer class at the university in Budapest.
I have an intermediate level of English language and a basic level of German
language. I can speak a bit Italian because my grandmother is Italian.
I know youre looking for a person who has word-processing experience, but I
learn quickly and I have a lot of ambition.
If you would employ me I could start work in the end of the year, after my exams.
I like challenges and Id like to learn the English language deeper.
Your sincerelly.
xy
(144 words)
Score for Vocabulary:
Justification: Good range of relevant vocabulary (several subjects, basic level, ambition,
employ, challenges) with some incorrect uses (applicate; lawyer class;
mathematic; hungarian grammar; learn the english language deeper). No lifting.
Some slips in style (Im waiting for your answer). Your sincerely not spelt
correctly.
271
Script 02
Dear Sir or Madam,
Im writing to you because of the secretary job youve advertised in Express
magazine. I would like to apply. My names Zsfia ltet, Im 18. I left Kossuth
Lajos Grammar School last year. I have learnt English for four years there and
passed the intermediate state exam in 1999. And besides this I have also learnt
German for 4 years. Unfortunately I cant speak Italian, but I can join a beginner
course if it is necessary. In the summer holidays I used to work as a secretary at my
mothers company so I have experiences. I can fax you my language diplom and
the offer of the company. I could start working in two weeks time.
I hope youll answer for my application.
Your faithfully
Zs..
(125 words)
Justification: The candidate uses good but basic vocabulary effectively to

communicate ideas clearly. However, some key words are used
incorrectly (diplom, offer, secretary job). The text is too short to give a
reliable picture of the candidates vocabulary skills.
272
Script 03
Dear Sir or Madam,
I am writing to you, because I saw your advertisement and I interested about it. I
would like to be a secretary in England. I like very much this country and I would
like to work there.
I can word-processing and working with the computer. I can speak English, a little
bit German and I learning Italian language.
I finished a high school with very good experience. I learnt there word-processing
and two languages. (English and German). For example in the school we did a lot
of toppic with word-processor. I was in America for two years although it was very
interesting I went to school and learnt English. It was my best experience.
If it is good for you I could start the job in September. If its problem please tell
me and I will try to change it.
Thanks everything.
Your faithfully
V.Zs.
(144 words)
Justification: The student can use vocabulary relevant for the task. The content
words not lifted from prompt are country, computer; the misspelled
toppic, problem, change, faithfully. The rest either lifted or basic words.
Clear ideas communicated, but little individuality in word choice.
Obviously, the candidate can apply vocabulary from the prompt but
does not add much.
273
Script 04
Dear Sir or Madam,
I would like to apply for this job. I read your advertisement in the newspaper last
week and I decided to try getting the gob. My name is Sndor Mezei and Im
Hungarian. I used to work in a hungarian company as a secretary but I resigned
from this job because I want to work in abroad. So I have found your job
advertisement. I think I will do well this job. I speak three languages: Hungarian,
English and Italian. If I get the job, I could start to work at once. I hope I will get
the job at least one year.
Your sincerely
M.S.
(105 words)
Justification: Several, yet often basic words not lifted from prompt: week, decided,
company, resigned from, abroad, sincerely. This compensates somewhat for
the lack of clarity of some ideas. No concrete nouns and verbs
beyond a basic level. Limited range resulting from ignoring
required elements.
274
Script 05
Dear Sir or Madam,
I read your advertisement, that you are looking for secretary. I think I would be
the best for you to this job. I have a very good world-processing experience. I
speak three languages: English, Hungarian and Italian. I know a little bit of
spanish, romanian and greec. I learned out to high scools. I have got intermediate
level from English and Italian. I like speaking and I now many things about
business. I worked three years at the biggest newspaper so I now everything about
these things. I dont work for two monts because I was travelled in America. I
could start the job imediatly. I dont have children so Im free all day everyday. If
Im who you are looking for, please, write or call me.
Yours faithfully: Szilrd
(129 words)
Justification: Simplistic, basic vocabulary. Lifting (I could start the job). Spelling is not
consistent (spanish) with frequent careless slips (now vs know; monts;
imediatly). Words are used inappropriately (very good world-processing
experience).
275
Lower level Vocabulary rating practice

The previous section introduced a sample task and presented the Vocabulary
scores and their justifications for a number of scripts. In this section another lower
level task is given together with sample performances. Using the Vocabulary scale
(Figure 11.1), the Guidelines for rating Vocabulary (Figure 11.2), the
specifications of the Level-specific expectations for the Vocabulary criterion
(Table 11.1), and the task-specific rating scheme provided below, mark the
following scripts for Vocabulary. Make a note of the reasons why you award or
subtract points. When you finish rating the scripts, refer to the Key section and
compare your marks and justifications with the benchmarks and justifications
given.
Sample lower level practice task
The following is a transactional letter writing task. The candidate must write an
informal letter to a friend about a day trip.
You spent your last holiday in Keszthely at Lake Balaton. You took
a day trip in the countryside with your family. Write a short letter to
your pen-friend about it, and use all the information from the
illustration.
Write a letter of about 120 words on the lines.

Dear Chris,
276
introduction (on holiday at Lake Balaton)
starting out for the trip (time, by car)
Smeg (castle, time)
Borgta (thermal bath, lunch, many people)
Kis-Balaton (bird-watching, photos)
way home (tired, rain)
closing phrase
write an informal letter of 120 words
use friendly style and register
use clear paragraphs and clear thought units
present ideas in logical order (time sequence used as organisation tool)
produce a narrative text (use of past tense forms, possible use of other tense
e.g. for setting the scene, time expressions, possible use of auxiliaries e.g.
had to, etc.)
use some descriptive adjectives and adverbs
277

Script 01
Dear Chris,
Im writing my letter from Lake Balaton. Im staying here for a week. Its a
beautiful countryside! We are in Keszthely. Imagine, the second day we have done
a tripe. It was quite interesting. Weve woken up at 7 oclock. I was sleepy but my
mother has given me a couple of coffee. We have gone at 8 oclock to the castle of
Smeg. It was beautiful. We were there 1,5 hours, but I think, it wasnt enough.
Ive bought a little castle for you because I would like, if you see it. It was half
eleven, and we have gone to Borgta. The road was boring, and in the car was a
terrible warm. We have arrived at 12 oclock. In Borgta there is a termal bath and
to many people. The sun shone so we have gone to the bath. There we have eaten
our lunch.
(148 words)
Justification:
278
Script 02
Dear Chris,
Now Im writing from Keszthely. Im spending here my holiday with my family.
Keszthely is at Lake Balaton, as you know.
Yesterday I took a day trip in the countryside. We started from the hotel at 8
oclock by car. We travelled to Smeg and we were in the castle 1,5 hours long.
We had lunch in Borgta. Theres a thermal bath, which is fantastic, and there
were many people. But we couldnt spent there as much time as we want, because
wanted to watch Kis-Balaton and the beautiful birds. We have taken many photos.
At 9 oclock we had to travel back to Keszthely because it began to rain. The
family was tired, but happy.
I hope youll write me soon. Yours:
(123 words)
Justification:
279
Script 03
Dear Chris,
In my last holiday I was in Keszthely. Keszthely is a very beautiful country.
The first day at 8 a.m. we went to Smeg. We were in the castle about 1.5 hours.
That was very interesting. Than we went to Borgta in a thermalbath. We had
lunch, and known many peoples there. Than we were birdwatching and took some
photos.
In later time we travelled to back. The travelling was very boring. The weather was
bad because it was raining.
Im was very tired because, I must get up early and than we travelled all day.
But apart from the travelling it was a very good trip, I think.
I hope youll write soon!
Best wishes
(116 words)
Justification:
280
Script 04
Dear Chris,
Im writing you again. I spent two weeks in Keszthely, at lake Balaton. I was there
with my family. It was good, very very good, and it was not boring!
We had a day trip on Sunday. We got up at 7 oclock, and after a quick breakfast
we left Keszthely at 8. a.m. We went to Smeg and spent there one and a half
hour. The castle was old and beautiful. We drunk a coffee there and after it we left
the castle.
We arrived to Borgta at about 12 oclock. We had a long bath in Borgtas
thermal water, and after a freshing shower we had a delicious lunch at a restaurant.
There was many people who wanted to eat, so the waiter was very busy!
We left Borgta at 3 oclock and we went to the Kis-Balaton, where we could see
many coloured bird at the lake, and I took many photoes, Ill show them next
time!
We went back Keszthely after the birdwatching. We were tired and a summer rain
caught us. But finally we arrived there, to Keszthely!
See you soon
(186 words)
Justification:
281
Script 05
Dear Chris,
I had a good holiday last year. We spent two month at Lake Balaton. We took a
day trip in the countryside. I think, I write a short letter, what happened. We
repaired the equipment and we start the trip at 8 a.m. I was very tired. The first
station was the castle of Smeg. This trip was 1.5 hours. We saw the castle, than we
go to Borgta. We go to the thermalbath. We spent a lot of time there. Than we go
to the restaurant and we eat a lunch. The lunch was very bad. In the city were
many people. The people was very friendly. Than, we go into the car. We go to
Kis-Balaton. We made a lot of photos. We watch a lot of bird. Than, we go to
Keszthely. The weather was very bad. Im very tired!
(143 words)
Justification:
282
KEY: Justifications and scores for Vocabulary

Script 01
Very simple vocabulary with a few spelling mistakes (tripe; termal) which do not
affect comprehensibility. A misused word (couple of coffee). Most of the words are
elementary (beautiful; interesting; boring) and there is no range of vocabulary items
except for the verbs. Several words are used in an inappropriate way (e.g. Ive
bought you a little castle; the road was boring; in the car was a terrible warm). No chunks lifted.
Score: 3
Script 02
Good vocabulary communicating clear ideas. In fact there are not too many added
words and phrases (fantastic; happy; as you know, want) introduced by the author, but
they are skilfully used. One chunk is lifted (took a day trip in the countryside). Missing
preposition or superfluous pronoun in the closing phrase (write me soon). Somewhat
clumsy use of watch in the collocation watch Kis-Balaton. Score: 4
Script 03
Mostly basic vocabulary with some good collocations (take photos; have lunch, get up
early) and adjectives (beautiful; very interesting, good; boring), but otherwise not much
added to vocabulary used in prompts and rubrics. Especially poor range of verbs.
Consistently misspelled or misused word: than instead of then. Recurring problems
with prepositions, either missing (The first day we went) or misused (In my last
holiday; In later time; travelled to back). Travelling instead of journey. Score: 3
Script 04
All vocabulary items communicate clear ideas about the subject. Good
collocations: a quick breakfast, delicious lunch, Ill show them next time, summer rain caught us.
Some slips include freshing, photoes and inappropriate prepositions arrived to Borgta
(also, to Keszthely). Score: 6
Script 05
Very limited, repetitive vocabulary throughout the letter with chunk lifted from
the prompt. Consistently misused or misspelled than. Hunglish use of station and
make photos. Score: 2
283

The previous section illustrated the marking of lower level scripts for Vocabulary
and presented sample scripts for practice. The following section illustrates and
provides practice in marking higher level scripts. Use the Vocabulary scale (Figure
11.1), the Guidelines for rating Vocabulary (Figure 11.2), the specifications of the
Level-specific expectations for the Vocabulary criterion (Table 11.1), and the taskspecific rating scheme given with the task to mark the scripts.
article for an English-language student magazine. The candidates must give their
opinion concerning the building of a shopping mall and its effects.
You have heard that the local government is planning to

build a new shopping mall with a large parking lot right
next to your school, at the place where there is a large sports
ground now. Your school has an English-language student
magazine. You have decided to write for it an article with
the heading Shopping mall or sports ground? in which you give
your opinion about this plan.
introducing the problem

choosing the alternative needed more
explaining its benefits for local people
explaining its drawbacks for local people
describing future effects on the environment
conclusion
284
Requirements for raters to consider

write an article of approximately 200-250 words
express opinion and support arguments
use appropriate language (modal auxiliaries, comparatives, conditionals)
use appropriate style for genre and audience (fellow students)
Note: the genre (article for student magazine) allows the use of colloquial
target reader.
285

Script 01
I am fully aware that we are supposed to be a consumer society, and I support that.
Honest. But when we start to consume things that are a fair bit more important
than material belongings, then maybe its time to stand up and say back off!
What Im talking about, of course, is the governments plan to build a shopping
mall parking lot combo where the sports ground is.
Now dont get me wrong I understand the many valid reasons for it. After all, it
would make shopping so much easier for the locals who have to travel fifteen
whole minutes to get to the nearest mall and spend unreasonable amounts of their
hard-earned money. Building yet another one here (besides the at least ten other
ones scattered around the city) would also make it possible for the more fitnessconscious to jog to the shops, which would indeed fully compensate the loss of the
football field that undeservingly occupies so much potential commercial area.
Doesnt it?
As you read through this article you are probably thinking Oh, great, hell
surely go on babbling about the environmental effects and everything. Well,
youre wrong. Im not going to rant about the increased traffic, noise damage,
construction waste, and Im definitely not going to even mention the effect of the
mall on the students mentality.
See here, Im not judging the authorities or anything. I just feel the urge to
voice my opinion and stand up for our rights to our health and pace of life.
(253 words)
Justification: The candidate uses a wide range of appropriate vocabulary and a lot
of idioms suitable for content and audience: I am fully aware, Honest, a
fair bit more important, belongings, then maybe its time to stand up and say back
off, dont get me wrong, valid reasons, unreasonable amounts, hard-earned money,
scattered around, fitness-conscious, undeservingly occupies, potential commercial
area, babbling, to rant about, construction waste, to voice my opinion. The text is
free of chunks lifted from the task and spelling mistakes. The
candidate shows good command of vocabulary, fluent use, and a
sufficient degree of lexical sophistication.
286
Script 02
Well I think that it has both advantages and disadvantages. The first advantage is
that there are a lot of flats near the school so it would be easier to these people to
get things like food, clothes, toys for children and so .
But on the other hand, it would be a temptation for students and a reason for not
to go to school. They would go to the cinema instead of going to the lesions. And
the other thing is that we need the sports ground for P.E. lessons and some of us
likes to play football and basketball there at the weekends. And we need sports to
keep ourselves fit. Its better than spending our money on clothes that we wear just
because everybody wears it or a ticket to the cinema.
And the last thing I want to tell you its effect on the environment. We shouldnt
cut out the forest just because we want a shopping mal. They manufacture the
oxigen that we breath in. And its a nice place for spending your free time or you
can take your dog there for a walk. This forest has a special atmosphere that you
should enjoy. We dont need this shopping mal at the edge of the city.
212 words
Justification: The candidate uses good vocabulary (relevant to content)

communicating clear ideas. Good vocabulary: temptation, reason. Good
examples of collocation: keep fit, spend our money on, nice place for spending
your free time, take our dog for a walk, has a special atmosphere; at the edge of the
city. Inappropriate usage: manufacture. There are spelling mistakes:
lesions, oxigen, breath for breathe; mal for mall.
287
Script 03
In my opinion a sports ground is more important than a shopping mall.
First of all in most of the cities the number of free areas where people can go is
becoming less and less. I think it is very bad, because in cities people dont have as
many possibilities to get fresh air than they have in the countryside. People living
in cities can only go to parks, or sports grounds if they dont want to travel a lot.
Moreover sports grounds are useful for children and adults too, because a father
can play football, basketball, etc. With his son or daughter so they can spend their
free time in fresh air and also they are together.
Furthermore it is good for living a healthy life, since if theres a sports ground
around where you live, it is more likely that you go there play rather than watch
TV or listen to music, which means that you do not move.
However there are bad points too.
Firstly, installing a new shopping mall would mean new job possibilities. Secondly,
people living there would be able to do the shopping in one place and may be in
shorter time. There would more place of entertainment, such as cinemas,
restaurants and pubs.
At last people would have a bigger choice of goods, which would probably make
them feel better.
All in all I think the sports ground would be better for the people and the
environment too, and it might make people live a more healthier life.
255 words
Justification: The candidate uses a fairly good range of vocabulary suitable for the
audience; however, there are a few inappropriacies (free areas, move,
installing, job possibilities, at last). There are no chunks lifted from the
prompt. Spelling mistake: may be.
288
Script 04
Im sure, youve heard about the governments new idea. If you havent, I tell you
that they want to build a shopping mall, where theres the sports ground now. I
dont know what do you think about this, but when I heard it, I was amazingly
shocked. Maybe you know, I mad about sports. I especially like football,
basketball, volleyball. Every day after school, I do these relaxing activities, till now.
I dont know what the people say in the neighbourhood about this, but I think,
they wouldnt agree.
There are parents, who has children, and they know, how important doing sports.
I know there are advantages for a huge shopping center. It makes lives much more
comfortable. They wouldnt have to go to the greengrocer, to the butcher, and etc.
every day, they can buy everything at the same place, and probably on lower price
than now, but think about it, how would it effects the environment. Yes, you
should think about this view, too.
Building an enormous shopping mall like this is always a hard work.
It would bring a lot of noise, dirt and dust, and it would take a lot of money at all.
My view seems to be a little bit selfish, because I like much more doing sports,
than do the shopping.
But this is my own opinion, others can have different view.
229 words
Justification: The candidate uses a range or relevant vocabulary. A phrase

incorrectly lifted from prompt: where theres the sports ground now. Wrong
word use: hard work. Inappropriate uses: amazingly shocked; It would bring
a lot of noise, dirt and dust, and it would take a lot of money at all. A few more
inaccuracies occur (Every day after school, I do these relaxing activities, till now;
effects the environment; Yes, you should think about this view, too.); however,
they do not lead to misunderstanding. Spelling is on the whole
correct. Wrong form: greengrocer, butcher (missing s).
289
Script 05
I think all of us has heard about that our favourite sports ground position is
disputed. A new shopping mall is planning to build.
Its difficult to ask the question which is needed more. In my opinion there are to
much shopping mall these days. On the other hand there are just a few place
where you can spend your free time well. On my view children need fresh air and
lots of moving. Its good for health especially after a long and hard day at school.
During playing football, basketball its easy to find some good friend.
You can spend your time in a shopping mal too. You can see a movie or eat in
McDonalds after school, and you dont have to travel so much to do the shopping.
There are some disadvantages about the traffic. If a new shopping mall build here
it will be more dangerous to be on the road. My opinion is that will be really bad
for the environment. Just think about the pollution, litter.
All in all I think its not important to build a new shopping mall.
186 words
Justification: The candidate used simple vocabulary with a lot of inappropriacies.

Spelling mistakes: to much; mal. Several words are misused (position is
disputed; moving; see a movie; disadvantages about the traffic). Confused
words: ask/answer, moving/move, during/ while. Overall, the candidates
use of vocabulary is unsatisfactory.
290
Higher level Vocabulary rating practice

The previous section provided practice in rating higher level scripts for
Vocabulary. In this section another higher level task is introduced together with
sample performances and your task is to mark the scripts for Vocabulary and give
justifications for your marks.
Use the Vocabulary scale (Figure 11.1), the Guidelines for rating Vocabulary
(Figure 11.2), the specifications of the Level-specific expectations for the
Vocabulary criterion (Table 11.1), and the task-specific rating scheme provided
with the task to mark the scripts for Vocabulary. Make a note of the reasons why
you award or subtract points. Having rated the scripts, go to the Key section and
compare your marks and justifications with the benchmarks and justifications
given.
You have just heard that ten Hungarian secondary-school

students can spend a free year in the USA. They will stay with
families and attend a school in Florida. To apply, you need to
write an essay for the organisers of the programme. Give reasons
for your application.
Here are the notes you have prepared:
language practice
other cultures
my culture
new friends
Using all of your notes, write your application with the title given
in about 200-250 words.
291
introducing the situation (occasion and overall reason for writing) and
oneself
effect on language practice
familiarity with other cultures
familiarity with the candidates own culture (how the experience will affect
the perception/understanding/appreciation of the candidates own culture)
new friends
closing part
write a formal essay (reasoned application) in about 200-250 words
give reasons and support them
use the language of persuasion
use conditional structures
use a neutral/formal tone
292

Script 01
There are a couple of reasons why Id like to spend a year in Florida. First of all,
because its a good opportunity to learn English. I would like to aquire an
advanced English language exam. The second reason is that I have never been in
the USA, so I would like to get to know the American culture. I think its so
different from our culture, how people behave, what they eat and do in their free
time. Maybe it would be interesting for them to get acquainted with the Hungarian
culture and someday visit Hungary. There are many fascinating things in our
culture, that probably they dont even know about. My last reason is that I would
like to meet different people, make friends with people of my age from a different
country. Maybe then I could visit them after I came home and they could come
around sometime. It would be a great adventure to spend a whole year in a
country where I have never been before totally alone and fully independent.
(176 words)
Justification:
293
Script 02
I would like to spend a year in Florida because Id like to practice. I started
learning the English language about eight years ago, and it would be very useful
because I need to prepare for my final exam or to take my language exam. But
there are other things which are motivate me. For example to become acquainted
with other people from other country. Im interested in other cultures especially
the american. Ive read about this culture a lot and I suppose it is the most
interesting one that Ive ever known. I think its differ from my culture very much
and it would be very nice to travel to the USA and discover that life. And I would
also like to make new friendships and to meet with different people to hear
different ideas to see other ways of living and organizing life. I suppose this side of
the world is one of the most exiting interesting country that means freedome
peace and perfection.
(166 words)
Justification:
294
Script 03
Florida is the state of sunshine. there is always summer day. It would be good to
spend there a year staying with families. I believe it would be good to know about
the culture. There are beautiful beaches where can I go to sunbath and swim in the
ocean. The best would be Miami or Orlando, but Tampa wouldnt be bed too. In
these cites I can go the basket ball matches like Orando Magic and Miami Heat.
There are good NHL (hockey) teams like Tampa Bay Lightning or Florida
Panthers.
On the other hand, I want to learn the American culture and I want to make
friends with Americans. If someone says Florida everyone associates Miami.
Miami is like a real paradise with palm trees and skateing girls in the beach. Miami
is the East Coasts L.A., I mean L.A. is the West coasts paradise and Miami is the
East sides.
IF I can go there I would be the biggest fan of Miami Dolphins, so they would
win the Super Bowl. In Hungary theres no NBA, NHL and NFL so I want to go
there to see some matches.
About the school, I would learn much to see these matches. East Coast for
LIFE!
(207 words)
Justification:
295
Script 04
I heard about this programme and I would like to spend a year in Florida. I
think there are advantages and disadvantages of this programme.
In my opinion that one year is very long time in an other country far from your
home, far from your family and your friends. But there are advantages. First of all
you would practice the language and you have to be obliged to speak foreign
language, you can speak in native language people dont understand you. Of
course you will attend a school in Florida, where you can make friends, so you will
have more friends, but its true when you will go home and you will be able to
leave them, but you will connect them in letter or in email. When you are in an
other country you are able to know other cultures and you are able to show your
own culture.
I think its a good possibility for everybody, so I would like to spend a year in
Florida with pleasure, but its true that my parents and my sister will be missed for
me.
(185 words)
Justification:
296
Script 05
Everyone says and everyone knows that the best way to learn a foreign
language is to go to the country where they speak that language. Since I have
studied English in the school and havent spent a longer time in an Englishspeaking country, this exchange program would be very helpful for me. I would
probably lose my accent and would pick up words that I hadnt known before.
I was born and I have always lived in Hungary, so I know the culture very well.
In the American school I couldnt only make new friendships but also show to the
American teenagers what is my culture like. And, of course, I would pick up some
parts of their life-style.
As far as I know the American school system is different from most of the
European school -systems and it is almost completely different from the
Hungarian. So this exchange-program would give me a chance to get to know how
they study in the States.
Hopefully, also, I would get a new, second family abroad, since I would be their
new son. I know it is hard to obtain this but I would do everything for it and I
am sure that they also would.
Over all I think I could only gain with this program and I would be really happy
and pleased to participate in it.
(227 words)
Justification:
297
KEY: Justifications and scores for Vocabulary

Script 01
The candidate uses a good range of vocabulary (fascinating, behave, get acquainted with,
make friends with, good opportunity to learn English, different from, people of my age, fully
independent, totally alone) with one inaccuracy: to aquire an advanced English language exam.
The vocabulary is relevant to content. Score: 6
Script 02
The candidate uses some range of vocabulary. There is a mix of correct vocabulary
and various types of errors in a short text. Instances of good vocabulary use: take
my language exam, to become acquainted with, Im interested in, especially, other ways of living,
discover, this side of the world. There is an interference mistake (make friendships). Spelling
mistakes (american, freedome, exiting). Other mistakes (its differ for its different). The
word choice is relevant but not always appropriate for content and audience (a lot,
starting the sentence with and). Score: 4
Script 03
The candidate uses good vocabulary (paradise, I believe, associates) and communicates
ideas with some inappropriacies (learn the American culture). The vocabulary is mostly
irrelevant to the content specified in the task. There are spelling mistakes (there,
sunbath, bed for bad, skateing) that should not occur at this level. Often inappropriate
word choice for content and audience (I want to go there not refined, blunt). Score: 2
Script 04
The candidate uses a limited range of vocabulary communicating clear ideas.
Inappropriate vocabulary: you have to be obliged to speak, speak in native language, connect
them, you are able to know. Mostly appropriate word choice for audience, although the
script is not fully formal. Spelling mistakes: practice, an other. Score: 3
Script 05
Good range of vocabulary (an English-speaking country, lose my accent, pick up words, as far
as I know, exchange program, give me a chance, gain, participate in). Incorrect vocabulary: make
new friendships, some parts of their life-style, to obtain this. Spelling mistakes: exchange program/
exchange-program, over all. Score: 6
If teachers want to practise vocabulary in order to improve the quality of their
students scripts, they should focus on the three key features of vocabulary
discussed in this chapter: range, relevance and accuracy.
The meaning of range can be shown to students if they have to compare two
short texts written on the same topic. One text must be poorly written, the other
one must be well written. They can translate the meaning of good range or rich
vocabulary by simply tallying the number of content words within the texts.
298
The relevance of vocabulary items can be explained to students with the help of
a brainstorming exercise before writing. Students should be asked to list
vocabulary items that they can use when they write about the content points given
in a writing task. They can collect the words on their own or in small groups and
compare the results. Alternatively, they can tell the teacher the words that belong
to a particular content point and the teacher can put them on the board. If any of
the words volunteered by the students do not fit the group of words collected for a
content point, the class can discuss why they are not relevant for the category.
Students must understand that it is the topic that they are writing about that
determines what words they should use in their scripts.
When discussing the writing task, teachers should draw their students attention
to the need to avoid lifting several words in a row from the prompt. Students need
training in recognising key terms and technical terms that they can take from the
prompt and put into their own scripts without being penalised. They should be
taught what circumlocution is and given the opportunity to practise it.
Dictionary skills are as important for language learning as for writing. Students
should be encouraged to use dictionaries when they write in class or at home.
They should use both bilingual and monolingual dictionaries and should learn
what kind of information a dictionary can give them. Some examinations allow
only the use of monolingual dictionaries. Students need to be taught therefore
how to use monolingual dictionaries. The dictionary can be very useful, for
instance, for the interpretation of the rubrics.
Teachers should focus especially on such aspects of dictionary entries as spelling
and register. Students should be encouraged to use consistently either American or
British English spelling in their scripts. They should also learn how they can find
information about the register of a particular word.
In an examination situation lower level candidates should not be allowed to use
a dictionary. They usually spend too much time looking up words and as a result
may fail to complete their scripts or write an incoherent script because of the
disruptions caused by looking up words frequently. Higher language proficiency
learners may benefit in an examination if they know how to use a dictionary
effectively (e.g. to check spelling, to see how a word is used in a sentence, to check
the correct meaning of a word).
Teachers must emphasise the importance of script revision and practise it with
their students. When they revise their scripts, students should focus on the variety
of words, their relevance to the topic discussed, and their accuracy. They should
only revise vocabulary after they have checked the script for content and
organisation.
Closing comments
The reader who has read the chapters and completed the rating activities is now
familiar with the Model writing examination and should be able to use with
confidence the analytic scale developed by the Examination Reform Project.
However, the Model examination was designed on the basis of the same principles
that established international writing examinations have applied in designing their
own tests. Therefore, by learning to use the analytic scale discussed in detail in this
book, readers have indirectly developed skills that should allow them to be able to
familiarise themselves with and apply other analytical rating scales.
Readers are encouraged to compare the scales designed by different testing
centres and evaluate them on the basis of the information presented in this book.
We hope that the detailed discussion of the rating process presented here will
provide some help in the use of other rating scales.
In addition to the chapters on the nature of writing, the various text types, and
the practical information for teachers and students, teachers are also encouraged to
use in their classrooms the analytic scale presented and used for rating in the last
part of the book. The scale is suitable for rating not only examination scripts, but
scripts written by students in-class or at home. Admittedly, this type of rating is
time-consuming, but it is worth the effort occasionally, especially when learners
are preparing for a language examination.
A teacher using the analytic scale can provide much more detailed and
informative feedback for his or her learners. An individual score on the four
criteria included in the scale clearly indicates to the learners what their strengths
and weaknesses in writing are. If their problems are revealed, they can address
them with or without their teachers help.
blank page p. 300
APPENDICES
blank page p. 302
APPENDIX 1
Guidelines for Item Writers
Prompt Selection
Use prompts that are clear. Consider using pictures / drawings as prompts, but
ensure that they are black and white, photocopiable (in size max. A4) and
appropriate for the age.
Provide enough information in the input but not so much that the task becomes
a reading task.
Where possible, input texts should be authentic (e.g. advertisements, articles,
leaflets, brochures, letters, etc.). Where this is not possible (e.g. personal notes,
diary entries, etc.) make sure the text is written in correct and appropriate
English.
The language level of verbal prompts should be below the tested level.
The input text (edited/simplified versions of authentic texts) is as short as
possible. Ideally, it should not be longer than 50 words.
Task Selection
The task should be realistic and plausible, and should be within the candidates
range of experience.
Do not test the candidates background knowledge of the world.
Make sure that the task does not require creativity or imagination from students.
You should provide appropriate prompts which determine what students should
write, give enough information for them to write about, and can elicit the
required amount of language.
Make sure that if personal data or information is required, this should be
provided in an input text or in other prompt(s) so as to standardise correct
answers.
Special care must be taken that the task does not turn into copying.
Task Design
In order to make the task realistic and communicative, create a complete task
environment: it should be clear for students to whom, why, when, where, about
what and how they are supposed to write.
The required length must conform to the Specifications.
Edit each task on one A4 page, or two facing pages.
Provide enough space to complete tasks. The space where students respond
must be lined.
If there is an authentic input text, edit its layout so that it resembles the original
as closely as possible.
304
Rubrics
Use standardised and simplified rubrics, well under the candidates expected
level.
Avoid using exclamation marks and repetitions.
Give all rubrics in English.
Indicate the reason for writing, the audience and the required text type.
Word rubrics so that they cannot be copied to complete the task.
If students are required to write about several things, organise these
requirements in bullet points (rather than list them in a continuous line) so that
they are easier to follow.
Indicate the required length in number of words.
Indicate where to write answers.
APPENDIX 2
Glossary
The following glossary lists the most frequently used expressions in testing in
general and in testing writing in particular.
analytic scale
A rating scale that makes possible the evaluation of a script on several

(assessment) criteria of writing such as organisation accuracy or vocabulary.
Descriptors are given for each criterion at different levels. Instead of a single
score the candidate receives a score for each criterion. See also holistic scale
descriptors
attitude marker
A word or phrase that shows the writers attitude towards what they write
(e.g. well obviously frankly personally). Often confused with discourse marker.
band
The proficiency of a test taker defined with the help of a scale on the basis of
test performance.
benchmark
Student scripts marked by a team of expert raters that illustrate points on a

performance scale. Benchmarks are example or standard performances that
the raters can refer to during the marking process.
blind double
marking
In blind double marking the second rater does not know the scores that the
first rater awarded to a script. In non-blind double marking the first raters
marks are available to the second marker.
candidate
A test/examination taker.
cohesion
The term refers to grammatical and lexical relationships between the

elements of the text for example reference realised by personal/possessive
pronouns demonstratives and comparatives; substitution/ellipsis (the
replacement of an item by a different one or by nothing); conjunction
realised by conjunctions adverbial connectors (and or firstly secondly moreover
therefore in conclusion); or lexical repetition (same word synonym/near
synonym general word).
coherence
A coherent paragraph contains sentences that are logically arranged and flow
smoothly. When a paragraph is incoherent the sentences are discontinuous
and the reader finds it difficult to follow the text.
content points
The issues that should be covered by the candidate writing the task. Usually
the number of points and their complexity will vary according to the level
and the type of the task.
controlled
composition
Writing in which the text to be produced is determined in various ways e.g.

by providing sentences to be combined or completed. See also free
composition guided composition
creative writing
Writing such texts as creative fiction and poetry or creative non-fiction.
descriptors
The statements that define the levels of the assessment criteria (in the case of
the rating scale developed by the Hungarian Examination Reform Project
for writing the assessment criteria are Task Achievement Coherence and
Cohesion Grammar and Vocabulary).
discourse marker
also transition word/device linking word A word (or phrase) which shows the
logical relation between ideas (e.g. however contrast moreover addition or
for instance illustration). See also attitude marker
306
discourse mode
also rhetorical mode The term refers to the way of writing about a topic. There
are four basic rhetorical modes of discourse: description narration
exposition and argument. Exposition is an umbrella term that is used to
refer to comparison and contrast division and classification cause and effect
problem and solution process analysis definition analogy and example and
illustration.
double marking
The assessment procedure during which a candidates performance is

evaluated by two raters separately and then the two marks are compared.
This is the usual way of assessing subjective written performance. There
should be an agreement beforehand on what action to take in case of
discrepancies between the raters. See also blind double marking
free composition
A composition in which the writer can write freely without little external
control or limitation in the form of essay questions or set topics.
guided composition
A composition in which the writer is given more freedom than in the case of
a controlled composition (e.g. the writer produces a paragraph from given
information).
high stakes test
A test whose outcomes affect the candidates future to a large extent. An inclass composition test for instance does not have such serious implications
for the candidates life as a school leaving examination or a university
entrance examination.
holistic scale
A rating scale that makes possible the evaluation of the overall effectiveness
of a script. Descriptors are given for each level but instead of focusing on
specific features of the script (e.g. organisation accuracy or vocabulary)
raters evaluate general writing ability and award one score to the script on
the basis of an overall impression.
input/output text
The input text or prompt is the verbal help provided by the test designer as an
aid. The output text is the product expected from the candidate the script.
inter-rater
reliability
The degree of similarity between grades given by different examiners;

whether two or more examiners will independently give the same marks to
the same set of scripts using the same scale. See also intra-rater reliability
intra-rater
reliability
An examiner has intra-rater reliability if on two different occasions he or she

consistently gives the same marks to the same set of scripts. Some difference
in the marks is allowed but too much variation shows that the raters
judgements are not reliable. See also inter-rater reliability
objective test
In an objective test correct responses are given in the scoring keys that
specify which items are acceptable so markers are not required to make
subjective judgements. Computers can mark objective tests. See also subjective
test
off-/on-site marking These terms define the venue of the actual marking. The former means
marking individually in ones own time. The latter means a central
procedure during which the assessors meet at an agreed time and go through
the marking process together. See also double marking
organisation (of
thoughts)
The discussion of the topic is opened in the introductory section each

developmental paragraph develops one main idea and these ideas follow
each other logically. The discussion is closed in a concluding section.
pilot testing
also pre-testing trialling A stage in the test development process that takes place
before the test is administered in an actual examination. During pilot testing
the examination is administered to a number of language learners to check
whether it meets the necessary standards of quality and reliability.
APPENDIX 2
307
prompt
One or more sentences that provide the student with a situation or topic
about which to write and the directions for the writing. It serves to stimulate
a written response from the student.
range
Refers to the variety of grammatical structures or vocabulary items in a script.
rating scale
It is used for marking subjective tests of writing and speaking. The levels in
the scale are usually indicated with numbers and are usually defined with
descriptors.
register
Refers to the level of formality of a text (e.g. slang colloquial neutral

formal).
reliability
Refers to the consistency of the test scores over time. All things being equal
a candidate taking the same test on two different days should get the same
scores.
rubric
The instructions to the candidates on the examination paper explaining how

a test should be taken. It describes the organisation of the test the time
allocated to the tasks provides instructions for the tasks and how candidates
should respond to them. It can indicate the skill being assessed and can be in
the target language or in the candidates first language.
scale
Describes a series of increasing levels of language ability usually with a

description (descriptor) of the ability expected at each level. In the
assessment of written performance allocation to a particular level is made by
a rater who matches the performance elicited on a task with the descriptors
of the scale. See also descriptors
script
The piece of writing produced by the candidate. See also input/output text
specifications
A description of the test format and design written for test developers and
test users.
subjective test
In a subjective test there is no scoring key specifying correct or incorrect

responses. Instead, candidates produce a range of more or less acceptable
answers, and markers have to refer to a rating scale to assess how well
candidates completed the task. See also objective test
task
What a candidate has to do according to the rubric. In the case of writing

tasks performance on the task is a complex integrated activity which is
rated by humans using specially devised rating scales.
task achievement
How well the candidate has completed the task as outlined in the rubrics by
covering the necessary content points.
validity
Refers to the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure.
washback
The effect of testing on instruction. Language test washback can be either

positive or negative.
The glossary was compiled on the basis of:

Alderson, J. C., Clapham, C., Wall, D. (1995). Language test construction and evaluation.
Cambridge: CUP.
Davies, A., Brown, A., Elder, C., Hill, K., Lumley, T., McNamara, T. (1999).
Dictionary of language testing. Cambridge: CUP.
McNamara, T. (2000). Language testing. Oxford: OUP.
blank page p. 308
INTO EUROPE
Series Editor: J. Charles Alderson
Reading and Use of English
J. Charles Alderson
Mria Cseresznys
This book will help students and teachers prepare for modern European examinations by developing, through a wide variety of English practice tasks, the skills
needed not only to pass examinations, but also to use English in the real world.
The authors review the process of reading, what skills and subskills are involved
and how these can be tested. They also discuss modern approaches to the testing
of grammar and vocabulary the use of the language.
The practice tasks, based on authentic texts, were developed at different levels
of The Common European Framework, in accordance with modern European
testing principles and practice. All the tasks were tried out on large samples of real
students in real secondary schools.
The reader will find the Answer Keys and the explanations especially useful.
INTO EUROPE
The Speaking Handbook
Ildik Cspes
Gyrgyi Egyd
This handbook provides an introduction to the assessment of speaking ability. It is

aimed at those language teachers who need to learn how to design, administer or
prepare students for tests of speaking ability.
The authors discuss what may influence test takers oral performance, and
describe how to design test tasks, including guidelines for designing interview
questions, picture description tasks, role plays and discussion activities. They stress
the importance of the roles of interlocutor and assessor in speaking assessments,
and the Handbook presents a step-by-step description of the procedures that
should be used in the training of interlocutors and assessors.
The Handbook is accompanied by a DVD that illustrates various speaking
activities in different examination modes (individual vs. paired exams). In
addition, it includes a selection of benchmarked performances representing
different levels on the Common European Framework, which have been assessed
by a group of experts. The experts comments are included in the Handbook.
Language teachers who are required to design test tasks and administer
speaking examinations will find the Handbook an indispensable guide to assessing
EFL learners oral language ability in both classroom and exam situations.
INTO EUROPE
Listening
Katalin Fehrvryn H.
Karmen Piorn
This volume in the Into Europe series will help teachers and their students to
improve their listening abilities in English, in order not only to prepare for
modern European examinations but also to use English in real life.
The ability to understand people speaking in a foreign language is an essential
skill in the modern world. Unlike more traditional tests, modern European
examinations include listening tests which are based on authentic texts recorded
from real life. This volume presents a wide variety of different texts and listening
tasks which reflect the sorts of things that learners may encounter on such tests.
The practice tasks it includes were developed in accordance with modern
European testing practice by test writers trained in modern testing techniques. The
book is accompanied by two CDs that contain the recordings of the listening texts.
Language teachers who have to test their students listening abilities and those
who wish to prepare their students for modern English examinations will both
find this a valuable resource.
blank page p. 312

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INTO EUROPE

The Writing Handbook

Other volumes in this series:

Series editors preface

PART ONE Background and aims

PART TWO Task types and task demands

PART THREE Assessing writing ability

SERIES EDITORS PREFACE

INTO EUROPE The Writing Handbook

Other colleagues who took part in the item production, piloting,

INTO EUROPE The Writing Handbook

Can write simple isolated phrases and sentences.

(Council of Europe, 2001: page 61)

Chapter 1 To the Teacher

(Council of Europe, 2001: page 62)

INTO EUROPE The Writing Handbook

Table 1.3 CEF Scale for Reports and Essays

(Council of Europe, 2001: page 62)

Chapter 1 To the Teacher

Table 1.4 CEF Scale for Overall Written Interaction

Can ask for or pass on personal details in written form.

(Council of Europe, 2001: page 83)

INTO EUROPE The Writing Handbook

Table 1.5 CEF Scale for Correspondence

Can write a short simple postcard.

(Council of Europe, 2001: page 83)

(Council of Europe, 2001: page 84)

Chapter 1 To the Teacher

These scales can be used as guidelines by test developers because the

INTO EUROPE The Writing Handbook

Chapter 1 To the Teacher

INTO EUROPE The Writing Handbook

Organisation of this book

INTO EUROPE The Writing Handbook

Writing is therefore an activity that is considerably more controlled than a

Figure 2.1 The writing process

INTO EUROPE The Writing Handbook

Figure 2.2 Sample recipe

Figure 2.3 Sample letter

What ideas do I have to include? In what order do I have to arrange them?

Figure 2.4 Sample writing task

INTO EUROPE The Writing Handbook

INTO EUROPE The Writing Handbook

INTO EUROPE The Writing Handbook

inappropriate. Considering the complexity of the task, it is natural that even

INTO EUROPE The Writing Handbook

In a language examination, however, writers must complete the task in a

C Tips for the writing tutor

INTO EUROPE The Writing Handbook

Chapter 3 Designing Tasks for Writing Skills Assessment

Browsing on the World Wide Web, you found the following

INTO EUROPE The Writing Handbook

Chapter 3 Designing Tasks for Writing Skills Assessment

INTO EUROPE The Writing Handbook

Chapter 3 Designing Tasks for Writing Skills Assessment

INTO EUROPE The Writing Handbook

Is the rubric short clear and comprehensive?

Chapter 3 Designing Tasks for Writing Skills Assessment

INTO EUROPE The Writing Handbook

Chapter 3 Designing Tasks for Writing Skills Assessment