Ancient Indian Chemistry

Dr. Iragavarapu Suryanarayana

Chief Scientist(Retired) , ,IICT, Plot

No.177, Road No. 74 , Hyderabad-7

Dept. of Sanskrit, University of

Hyderabad , Hyderabad; 22.08.2013

Chemistry is the study of elements present in the Universe

which involves, the nature of the elements, their occurrence,
their physical and chemical properties, their compounds,
their reactivity , their uses and their applications.
The word chemie was derived from Khem a synonym
for Egypt, because the west believed that all the
knowledge came from Egypt.
Chemistry known as Rasayana sastra or Rasa Sastra or Rasa
Vada or Rasa Prakriya in Sanskrit, the Language of Ancient
Indians used. This is evident from the literary works and
archeological excavations of our nation , the India.
Evolution of knowledge with time by different nations ,
different civilizations can be discussed based on the
evidences and literature available only.

The basic principles of Chemistry emanated or

revealed through the great works of our ancient
rishis can be attributed to three major areas

1. Intellectual thinking about the nature

2. Development of Professional skills for
livelihood
3. Welfare measures like health Care of
the Society

Vaiseshika Darsana of Kanada propounded

the concept of atom and its indivisibility
and the law of cause and effect
Gautama , the propounder of Nyaya theory and school
accepted the Vaiseshika doctrine thus came to know
as Nyaya-vaiseshika school of thought.
Number of commentaries and treatises were written on
Vaiseshika Thought. The most important ones are
Vatsayana s commentary on Nyaya, Prasastapadas
Padartha dharma Samgraha, Sankara Mishras
Upaskara , Udayanas Kiranavali and Kanada Rahasya
And Jayanarayana s Vaiseshika Sutravritti.

Prof.Satya prakash of Allahabad University

discussed the Scientific aspects of this Darsana
and its applications in law of chemical action in
his book Founders of Sciences in Ancient India
published by The Research institute of Ancient
Scientific Studies, New Delhi. 1965.
Dr.S.Radhakrishnan discussed at length the
philosophical aspects of Vaiseshika Darsana
and gave emphasis on the atomic theory and
its universality by devoting one chapter in his
book Indian Philosophy Vol. 2, published by
Oxford University Press, London , 1930.

The basic principles of Science emanated or

revealed through the great works of our ancient
rishis can be attributed to three major areas

1. Intellectual thinking about the nature

2. Development of Professional skills for
livelihood
3. Welfare measures like health Care of
the Society

This first sutra says the substances like Ghee, Lac and
Beeswax will become liquids with the addition of heat .

The second sutra says that Gold, silver, copper, tin, and
lead also gets converted into liquids when they are
subjected to heat and it is common.
The first and second sutras differentiates the high and low
melting materials and mentions the phase changes and
the differentiation of materials by their nature. The phase
changes indicates the laws of thermodynamics. In modern
physical chemistry books what we find
Au (Solid ) + H Au (liquid)
is clearly stated in sanskrit.

2. Development of Professional skills for

livelihood
Agriculture

Housing

Biofertilizers

Building materials

Weaving

Natural dyes and fixers

Artisans

Different metallic
utilities

This text of Yajurveda clearly states that

Gold, silver, Copper, Tin, Lead and Iron
were known to the vedic people. These
materials were of use in society .
Agriculture , use of plant products and their
growth necessitated the use of these
metals. Lot of natural principles presently
we call them as chemistry principles were
adopted by vedic people. This is very
clearly reflected in Mahabharata and Artha
sastra of Kautilya.

Chandogya Upanishad recognized that metals

have intrinsic properties irrespective of the shapes
that these may assume 6.1.5 & 6. It also stipulated
that one can join gold with the help of borax, lead
with the help of tin etc, 4.17.7

6.1.5.




4.17.7

Mahabharata( Sabha Parva 52,2-4) mentions Pipilika

Gold which is a superior quality Gold obtained from
the ant hills or termite mounds. Ants dig the earth
and makes hills. In these hills gold is brought as
particles and deposited in heaps. The kings of the
area between Meru and Mandarachala hills mainly
the tribal kings presented to Yudhishtira, Dronas of
this pipilika gold saying that it is a very special Gold.
Drona is a measure in those days equivalent to a
kuncham or Tavva used earlier. This Pipilika Gold is
equivalent to the present day nano-gold which has
enormous applications in chemistry as well as
industry and in Society.



,

:

2 52 2 4.

Kautilya's Artha shastra is a treasure of the

knowledge discussing about the mines,
metals, precious articles like gems, rubys,
pearls etc.,. A detailed description of the
mines , factories that deals elaborately with
the occurrence, nature and purification
methods have been discussed in detail. It is
stated that in all ores, heaviness of the ore is
indication of the metal content, which can be
stated in modern chemistry principles the
greater the density of the ore , greater is the
metal content'.

They have also characterized the ore based

on the colour to which metal it belongs. For
example the ore from rocks or a region of
the earth, which is heavy unctuous and soft
tawny , greenish, reddish or red is copper
ore. Crow black or of the colour of dove or
yellow pigment studded with white lines
smelling like raw flesh is lead ore. Grey like
saline earth or of a baked lump of the earth
is iron ore.

The director of mines known as

Khanijadhyaksha was expected to be an
expert in the science of metallic veins,
exploration of ores, metallurgy and
colouring of the Gems.
Among
the
duties
of
the
Khanijadhyaksha was that he should
establish factories for copper, lead, tin,
vaikranta, brass, steel, bronze, bell
metal and iron and establish trade in
metal ware.

Artha sastra also describes the qualities of

Gold and silver.
Gold which is of the colour of lotus filament ,
soft, lustrous and not producing any type of
sound is stated to be the best.
The reddish yellow coloured metal is of medium
quality and the red coloured one is the lowest
quality.
This indicates that the colour is taken as a
measure of the purity or quality . As the red
colour increases, the copper content increasing.
Similarly Gold contaminated with lead gives
brittleness to the metal and this material was
used to mould on wooden anvils.

Similarly silver was also characterized by its colour of

white with smooth and soft property is the best silver
metal. The impure one is purified using lead by melting
and separation.
The khanitras or artisans of that time not only skilled in
kshepana(setting),Guna (properties) and making solid
or hollow articles of Gold and silver , but also mixing the
metals in the molten state of correct proportions.
As regards minting the text says that silver coins should
be made of four parts of copper, eleven parts of silver
and one part of iron, tin or lead. Copper coins should be
made of four parts of silver, eleven parts of copper and
one part of iron or any other metal

3. Welfare of the society especially health care.

Intellectuals of the society tried to identify and

use different plants and other materials as
medicines for curing diseases and for longevity,
of the society which they called as Rasayana.
The word Rasayana has been used as a
synonym for chemistry in Sanskrit and other
Indian languages.

The medicinal treatise Charaka Samhita discussed 150

types of diseases with further subdivisions, 341
medicinal plants, 177 medicinal substances of animal
origin, and 64 medicinal substances from Mineral
origin. He also further categorized 102 types of
pathological conditions and congenital defects, 109
anatomic and 42 physiological terms and 33 varieties
of bones. He also differentiated the cereals and
legumes, natural waters, sugar cane derivatives, types
of Honey, different milks and milk products, different
vegetable oils, and alcoholic beverages. This
classification was mostly based on the physical
characteristics and their utilities.

Susruta(7) the great surgical specialist of that time,

developed number of instruments for operations
of the body and made very significant
contributions for the modern anatomy of the
human body. The contributions of Susruta are
even today practiced and he is called as the father
of surgery. During his time many fermentation
products were developed for giving patients during
operations, which act as modern anaesthesia
drugs. He has designed number of surgical devices
and equipments which are of use even today .

Vagbhatas ( Both Vriddha and Laghu ) presented

Ashtanga Sangraha and Ashtanga Hridaya , the
medical treatises constituting along with Charaka
and Susruta the Brhatrayi.
Metal and medicinal plant combinations and
preparations started with Nagarjuna, the great
alchemist of India and the founder of Rasa sastra
and wrote number of books. 8th century 16th
century was the period where Rasa sastra classics
were written by many saints or alchemists. Among
them Vagbhata, Nityanatha, Manthana Bhairava,
SomaDeva, Yasodhara, Chakrapani , Basavaraju
etc., were well known.

Professor Prafulla Chandra Ray of Calcutta,

Father of Indian Chemistry, who has spent his life for
establishing chemistry and chemical industries in
India . Not only he established chemistry in India, he
has written an authoritative book entitled " The
Hindu chemistry . It gives the contributions of our
ancient people to the chemistry and published the
English translations of the great books on Rasa
Sastra with Sanskrit texts with commentary so
that the whole world can know the contributions of
chemistry by Ancient Indians as annexures in 1919.
He has translated the following books into English
and also tried to explain in terms of Modern
Chemistry.

Name of the Book

Rasa Ratnakara,
Rasendra Mangalam,
Rasarnava,
Kakachandeswara Mata,
Rasendrachudamani,
Rasahridaya,
Rasa prakasa sudhakara,
Siddha Yoga
Chakradutta
Rasaratna Samucchaya,
Rasa Chintamani,
Rasa ratnakara
Rasa Rajalakshmi
Rasa nakshatramalika,
Dhatu Ratnamala
Rasa Pradipa
Rasa Kalpa, Dhatukriya or Dhatu
manjari of Rudrayamala Kalpa ,
Suvarnatantram.
Sarveswara Rasayana,
Dhatuvada,
Rasayanasastroddrti

Author
Nagarjuna
"
"
"
Somadeva
Govinda Bikshu
Yasodhara
Vrinda
Chakrapani Dutta
Vagbhata
Madanantha Deva
Nityanatha
Vishnu Deva
Madana Simha
Unknown
"
"
"
Buddhist Tantra
"

Understanding and pursuing the ideas

mentioned in Rasa sastra books in conjunction
with modern technological advances may
yield greater scientific knowledge devoid of the
ill effects of modern knowledge that is
disturbing the nature by undesirable effects
like atmospheric pollution which includes
water pollution, air pollution, ozone depletion,
Green house effect, unusual climatic
disturbances
and
challenges,
village
destabilization, agricultural disasters and
human value degradation.

Modern chemistry research can utilize the ancient

principles of Yantras, Medicinal plants , Metallics ,
their combinations, and their formulations
mentioned in Rasendra Mangalam and Rasarnava of
Nagarjuna , Ashtanga Hridayam, Rasaratna
Samucchayam of Vagbhata, Chakradatta of
Chakrapani, Ananda Kanda of Manthana Bhairava,
Rasa Ratnakaram of Nityanatha, Rasendra
Chudamani of Soma Deva, Rasa Hridaya Tantra of
Govinda Bikshu, Rasa Prakasa Sudhakara of Yasodhara
, Madhava Nidana of Madhavakar, Sarangadhara
Samhita of Sarangadhara Mishra , BhavaPrakasa of
Bhava Mishra and Basavarajeeyam of Basavaraju .

These Yantras have contributed very much during

alchemy period in metallic chemistry and also
understanding the nature of impurities in metals,
minerals and liquids used as perfumes , in beverages .
These yantras are also used to make ksharas , the
alkalis of modern chemistry, Dyes from Plant sources.
Banaras Hindu University Metallurgical engineering and
Rasa Sastra departments in collaboration extensively
worked on these processing methods with modern
techniques and gave the physicochemical and microstructural changes occurring so as to evaluate the
technology of the ancient process of Metallic Bhasmas of
copper, iron, zinc and Lead. They also discussed the
heating ranges of different putas using modern methods

Time Temperature curves for different puta furnaces fired on cow dung cakes

Heating ranges for the kupipaka furnaces

Different putas mentioned in different rasa sastra texts

S.N
o

Text name

Aananda kanda

Ayurveda Prakasa

Rasa Kama dhenu

RasaChintamani

Rasa Jalanidhi

Rasa Tarangini

+
+

+
+

+
+

+
+

Rasa Prakasa
Sudhakara
8 Rasa Ratna
samuchaya
9 Rasarnava
10 Rasendra
Chintamani
11 Rasendrasaras
angraha

Mah Gaja
a

Varah Kukk Kapot Lavaka

a
uta a

Lagh Kum Gorva Bhanda Bhudh valuka surya

u
bha ra
ara
+
+

Classification of puta furnaces using dried cow dung cakes as fuel

S.No Type of Furnace Size in mm

.

Number
of cowdung
cakes

Appro
x.
weight
in kgs.

temp. ranges
&
sustainability
time

Mahaputa

2000

45

Gajaputa

1000

22

Varahaputa

800

18

Up to 700o C
240 min.
Up to 700o C
280 min.
Up to 700o C
130 min

Ardhagajaputa

500

11

Kukutputa

32-40

Kapotaputa

11250 x
111250x11250
5625x5625x5625

2812x2812x2812

Up to 650o C
100 min.

Another interesting work done by Dr. Sushant Sud under the

guidance of Dr.P.Sekhar Reddy is worth mentioning. They have
worked on Haratala, The Arsenic Sulfide and its physiological
activities. They have prepared Rasa Manikya, The Haratala using
three different methods and they found both by physical , chemical
and analytical methods and concluded that the Rasa Manikyta
prepared by traditional methods did not show any toxic effects
where as the one with electric bulb method had the toxic effects.
Therefore one has to pursue the reasons for the toxicity and
comparison of traditional methods and the utility of modern gadgets
in the preparation. Modern gadgets may ease the method of
preparation but its efficacy may not be able to eliminate the toxic
effects. Similar results are also obtained by Prof. Nagaraja, when
he subjected the metallic substance nagabhasma as drug molecule.
He has found that even after 55 putas the complete conversion of
lead into bhasma was not complete. Only when it completed the 60
putas only, the desired medicine could be produced.

Medicinal Plants : An exhaustive research work was done

on chemistry of Medicinal Plants and the Natural products
and a compendium of volumes of natural products
chemistry are available. Prof. Atta Ur- Rahman of
Pakistan who has contributed significantly in natural
products chemistry published a series of volumes on the
chemistry of natural products. Prof. Asima Chatterjee and
Dr. SC Pakrashi of Calcutta produced 6 volumes of
Chemistry of Medicinal Plants of India, wherein more than
500 Medicinal plants of India were discussed. In these
volumes, they presented the Sanskrit slokas referred in our
ancient books like Charak Samhita , Susruta Samhita etc.,
their chemical constituents and therapeutic uses of
different parts and their established chemical structures.

Great chemists of India like Prof. TR

Seshadri, Dr. TR Govindachari, Dr.
Sukhdev, Prof.Asima Chatterjee, etc.,
contributed significantly in natural products
chemistry. Prof. TR Seshadri's work on
Sandalwood, Prof. TR Govindachari's work
on Neem are worldwide acknowledged. CSIR
has started Traditional Knowledge Digital
library wherein 134 medicinal plants and
about 500 formulations based on ancient texts
were adopted in TKDL.

Correlation studies of the medicinal plants

used for curing diseases mentioned in the
ancient books with the chemical constituents
which are used as generic drugs may throw
light on the design of medicines significantly.
In this direction, number of researchers are
working for different diseases like Cancer,
Obesity , Cardiovascular etc.,.

Studies on Cancer :
An excellent review on cancer an ayurvedic
perspective was published by Premalatha
Balachandran and R. Govindarajan (15) from
University of Mississipi, USA, wherein they
mentioned that science of Ayurveda is supposed
to add a step on to the curative aspects of
cancers that have resemblance with clinical
entities of arbuda and granthi mentioned in
ancient texts. They have reviewed the pathology
and therapeutic management of various cancers
described in Ayurveda.

The detailed experimental and clinical studies conducted

on single and compound ayurvedic preparations for their
anticancer efficacy strongly emphasize ayurvedic therapy
as a scientifically driven one and not unconventional one.
They further mentioned that Ayurvedic herbs used in
cancer therapy results not only in total healing but also
reduces the side effects and cancer associated
complications. The anorexia or weight loss could be
effectively managed by Withania Somnifera, Vitis
Vinifera, Plumbigo Zeylenica, Tinospora Cordifolia,
Zingiber officinale, Coptidis Rhizoma etc.,. These
herbs might stimulate the flow of digestive juices, thereby
improving digestion and increasing the appetite. They
have studied about 25 plant species with therapeutic
dosages etc.,.

Another worth mentioning paper on Cancer is of

Dr.B.B.Aggarwal et.al whose title is From traditional
Ayurvedic medicine to modern medicine: identification
of therapeutic targets for suppression of inflammation
and cancer. From The University of Texas, MD
Anderson
Cancer
centre,
Cytokine
researcvh
laboratory, Department of Experimental Therapeutics,
Texas, USA. Which was published in the journal
Expert Opinion . Therapeutic targets , 2006(10), 87 118

Molecular Targets of Ayurvedic Plants