Paris Agreement

the Paris climate conference (COP21) in December 2015, 195 countries adopted the
first-ever universal, legally binding global climate deal.
The agreement sets out a global action plan to put the world on track to avoid
dangerous climate change by limiting global warming to well below 2C.
The agreement is due to enter into force in 2020.
Key elements
The Paris Agreement is a bridge between today's policies and climate-neutrality
before the end of the century.
Mitigation: reducing emissions
Governments agreed a long-term goal of keeping the increase in global average
temperature to well below 2C above pre-industrial levels; to aim to limit the
increase to 1.5C, since this would significantly reduce risks and the impacts of
climate change; on the need for global emissions to peak as soon as possible,
recognising that this will take longer for developing countries; to undertake rapid
reductions thereafter in accordance with the best available science.
Before and during the Paris conference, countries submitted comprehensive
national climate action plans (INDCs). These are not yet enough to keep global
warming below 2C, but the agreement traces the way to achieving this target.
Transparency and global stocktake
Governments agreed to

come together every 5 years to set more ambitious targets as required by

science;

report to each other and the public on how well they are doing to implement
their targets;

track progress towards the long-term goal through a robust transparency and
accountability system.

Adaptation
Governments agreed to

strengthen societies' ability to deal with the impacts of climate change;

provide continued and enhanced international support for adaptation to

developing countries.

Loss and damage

The agreement also

recognises the importance of averting, minimising and addressing loss and

damage associated with the adverse effects of climate change;

acknowledges the need to cooperate and enhance the understanding, action

and support in different areas such as early warning systems, emergency
preparedness and risk insurance.

Role of cities, regions and local authorities

The agreement recognises the role of non-Party stakeholders in addressing climate
change, including cities, other subnational authorities, civil society, the private
sector and others.
They are invited to

scale up their efforts and support actions to reduce emissions;

build resilience and decrease vulnerability to the adverse effects of climate

change;

uphold and promote regional and international cooperation.

Support
The EU and other developed countries will continue to support climate action to
reduce emissions and build resilience to climate change impacts in developing
countries.
Other countries are encouraged to provide or continue to provide such support
voluntarily.
Developed countries intend to continue their existing collective goal to mobilise
USD 100 billion per year by 2020 and extend this until 2025. A new and higher goal
will be set for after this period.
Lima-Paris Action Agenda
This initiative of the Peruvian and French COP Presidencies brought countries, cities,
businesses and civil society members together to accelerate cooperative climate
action in support of the new agreement.
Examples of major announcements
Paris Pledge for Action

EU's role
The EU has been at the forefront of international efforts towards a global climate
deal.
Following limited participation in the Kyoto Protocol and the lack of agreement in
Copenhagen in 2009, the EU has been building a broad coalition of developed and
developing countries in favour of high ambition that shaped the successful outcome
of the Paris conference.
The EU was the first major economy to submit its intended contribution to the new
agreement in March 2015. It is already taking steps to implement its target to
reduce emissions by at least 40% by 2030.
EU Climate Action at COP21 (Storify)
How the EU helped build the ambition coalition (Storify)
Action areas at EU & international level
Next steps
The agreement opened for signature for one year on 22 April 2016.
The agreement will enter into force after 55 countries that account for at least 55%
of global emissions have deposited their instruments of ratification.
The Paris Agreement (French: L'accord de Paris) is an agreement within the framework of
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) dealing with greenhouse
gases emissions mitigation, adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020. An agreement on the
language of the treaty was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of
the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015. It was
opened for signature on 22 April 2016 (Earth Day),[2] and 177 UNFCCC members signed the treaty,
15 of which ratified it. It has not entered into force. [3][4]
The head of the Paris Conference, France's foreign minister Laurent Fabius, said this "ambitious and
balanced" plan is a "historic turning point" in the goal of reducing global warming.[5]

Content[edit]

Aim[edit]
The aim of the convention is described in Article 2, "enhancing the implementation" of the UNFCCC
through:[6]
"(a) Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 C above preindustrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 C above pre-

industrial levels, recognizing that this would significantly reduce the risks and impacts of
climate change;
(b) Increasing the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and foster
climate resilience and low greenhouse gas emissions development, in a manner that does
not threaten food production;
(c) Making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse gas emissions
and climate-resilient development."
Countries furthermore aim to reach "global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as
soon as possible".

Nationally determined contributions and their limits[edit]

The contribution that each individual country should make in order to achieve the
worldwide goal are determined by all countries individually and called "nationally
determined contributions" (NDCs).[7] Article 3 requires them to be "ambitious", "represent
a progression over time" and set "with the view to achieving the purpose of this
Agreement". The contributions should be reported every five years and are to be
registered by the UNFCCC Secretariat.[8] Each further ambition should be more
ambitious than the previous one, known as the principle of 'progression'. [9] Countries can
cooperate and pool their nationally determined contributions. The Intended Nationally
Determined Contributions pledged during the 2015 Climate Change Conference serve
unless provided otherwiseas the initial Nationally determined contribution.
The level of NDCs set by each country[10] will set that country's targets. However the
'contributions' themselves are not binding as a matter of international law, as they lack
the specificity, normative character, or obligatory language necessary to create binding
norms.[11] Furthermore, there will be no mechanism to force[12] a country to set a target in
their NDC by a specific date and no enforcement if a set target in an NDC is not met. [10]
[13]

There will be only a "name and shame" system[14] or as Jnos Psztor, the U.N.

assistant secretary-general on climate change, told CBS News (US), a "name and
encourage" plan.[15]
The negotiators of the Agreement however stated that the NDCs and the 2C reduction
target were insufficient, instead, a 1.5C target is required, noting "with concern that the
estimated aggregate greenhouse gas emission levels in 2025 and 2030 resulting from
the intended nationally determined contributions do not fall within least-cost 2 C
scenarios but rather lead to a projected level of 55 gigatonnes in 2030", and recognizing
furthermore "that much greater emission reduction efforts will be required in order to
hold the increase in the global average temperature to below 2 C by reducing emissions
to 40 gigatonnes or to 1.5 C".[16]

Global stocktake[edit]
The implementation of the agreement by all member countries together will be
evaluated every 5 years, with the first evaluation in 2023. The outcome is to be used as
input for new nationally determined contributions of member states. [17] The stocktake will
not be of contributions/achievements of individual countries but a collective analysis of
what has been achieved and what more needs to be done.

Structure[edit]
The Paris Agreement has a 'bottom up' structure in contrast to most international
environmental law treaties which are 'top down', characterised by standards and targets
set internationally, for states to implement. [18]

Adoption[edit]

Negotiations[edit]
Within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, legal instruments
may be adopted to reach the goals of the convention. For the period from 2008 to 2012,
greenhouse gas reduction measures were agreed in the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. The
scope of the protocol was extended until 2020 with the Doha Amendment to that
protocol in 2012.[19]
During the 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference, the Durban Platform (and
the Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action) was
established with the aim to negotiate a legal instrument governing climate
change mitigation measures from 2020. The resulting agreement was to be adopted in
2015.[20]

Adoption[edit]

Heads of delegations at the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris.

Main article: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference

At the conclusion of COP 21, on 12 December 2015, the final wording of the Paris
Agreement was adopted by consensus by all of the 195 UNFCCC participating member

states and the European Union[3] to reduce emissions as part of the method for reducing
greenhouse gas. In the 12 page Agreement, [21] the members promised to reduce their
carbon output "as soon as possible" and to do their best to keep global warming "to well
below 2 degrees C" [3.6 degrees F].[22]

Signature and entry into force[edit]

Signing by John Kerry in United Nations General Assembly Hall for the United States

The Paris Agreement is open for signature by States and regional economic integration
organizations that are Parties to the UNFCCC (the Convention) from 22 April 2016 to 21
April 2017 at the UN Headquarters in New York.[23]
It will enter into force (and thus become fully effective) only if 55 countries that produce
at least 55% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions (according to a list produced in
2015)[24] ratify, accept, approve or accede to the agreement. [25][26] On 1 April 2016 the
United States and China, which jointly represent almost 40% of global emissions, issued
a joint statement confirming that both countries will sign the Paris Climate Agreement. [27]
[28]

175 Parties (174 states and the European Union) signed the treaty on the first date it

was open for signature.[2][29]

Parties and signatories[edit]

As of 20 May 2016, 176 states and the European Union have signed the Agreement. 17 of those
states have ratified the Agreement.[1]
% of Greenhouse
Party or signatory[1]

gases

Signed

for ratification[24]

Afghanistan

0.05%

22 April 2016

Ratified or

Entry into

acceded

force

% of Greenhouse
Party or signatory

gases

[1]

Signed

for ratification[24]

Albania

0.02%

22 April 2016

Algeria

0.30%

22 April 2016

Andorra

0.00%

22 April 2016

Angola

0.17%

22 April 2016

Antigua and Barbuda

0.00%

22 April 2016

Argentina

0.89%

22 April 2016

Australia

1.46%

22 April 2016

Austria

0.21%

22 April 2016

Azerbaijan

0.13%

22 April 2016

Bahamas, The

0.00%

22 April 2016

Bahrain

0.06%

22 April 2016

Bangladesh

0.27%

22 April 2016

Ratified or

Entry into

acceded

force

% of Greenhouse
Party or signatory

gases

[1]

Signed

for ratification[24]

Ratified or

Entry into

acceded

force

Barbados

0.01%

22 April 2016 22 April 2016

Belarus

0.24%

22 April 2016

Belgium

0.32%

22 April 2016

Belize

0.00%

22 April 2016 22 April 2016

Benin

0.02%

22 April 2016

Bhutan

0.00%

22 April 2016

Bolivia

0.12%

22 April 2016

0.08%

22 April 2016

Botswana

0.02%

22 April 2016

Brazil

2.48%

22 April 2016

Brunei

[a]

22 April 2016

Bosnia and
Herzegovina

% of Greenhouse
Party or signatory

gases

[1]

Signed

for ratification[24]

Bulgaria

0.15%

22 April 2016

Burkina Faso

0.06%

22 April 2016

Burundi

0.07%

22 April 2016

Cambodia

0.03%

22 April 2016

Cameroon

0.45%

22 April 2016

Canada

1.95%

22 April 2016

Cape Verde

0.00%

22 April 2016

0.01%

22 April 2016

Chad

0.06%

22 April 2016

China

20.09%

22 April 2016

Colombia

0.41%

22 April 2016

Central African
Republic

Ratified or

Entry into

acceded

force

% of Greenhouse
Party or signatory

gases

[1]

Signed

for ratification[24]

Comoros

0.00%

22 April 2016

0.06%

22 April 2016

Congo, Republic of the 0.01%

22 April 2016

Costa Rica

0.03%

22 April 2016

Cte d'Ivoire

0.73%

22 April 2016

Croatia

0.07%

22 April 2016

Cuba

0.10%

22 April 2016

Cyprus

0.02%

22 April 2016

Czech Republic

0.34%

22 April 2016

Denmark

0.15%

22 April 2016

Djibouti

0.00%

22 April 2016

Congo, Democratic
Republic of the

Ratified or

Entry into

acceded

force

% of Greenhouse
Party or signatory

gases

[1]

Signed

for ratification[24]

Ratified or

Entry into

acceded

force

Dominica

0.00%

22 April 2016

Dominican Republic

0.07%

22 April 2016

East Timor

0.00%

22 April 2016

Egypt

0.52%

22 April 2016

El Salvador

0.03%

22 April 2016

Equatorial Guinea

[a]

22 April 2016

Eritrea

0.01%

22 April 2016

Estonia

0.06%

22 April 2016

Ethiopia

0.13%

22 April 2016

European Union

[b]

22 April 2016

Fiji

0.01%

22 April 2016 22 April 2016

Finland

0.17%

22 April 2016

% of Greenhouse
Party or signatory

gases

[1]

Signed

for ratification[24]

Ratified or

Entry into

acceded

force

France

1.34%

22 April 2016

Gabon

0.02%

22 April 2016

Gambia, The

0.05%

26 April 2016

Georgia

0.03%

22 April 2016

Germany

2.56%

22 April 2016

Ghana

0.09%

22 April 2016

Greece

0.28%

22 April 2016

Grenada

0.00%

22 April 2016 22 April 2016

Guatemala

0.04%

22 April 2016

Guinea

0.01%

22 April 2016

Guinea-Bissau

0.02%

22 April 2016

Guyana

0.01%

22 April 2016 20 May 2016

% of Greenhouse
Party or signatory

gases

[1]

Signed

for ratification[24]

Haiti

0.02%

22 April 2016

Honduras

0.03%

22 April 2016

Hungary

0.15%

22 April 2016

Iceland

0.01%

22 April 2016

India

4.10%

22 April 2016

Indonesia

1.49%

22 April 2016

Iran

1.30%

22 April 2016

Ireland

0.16%

22 April 2016

Israel

0.20%

22 April 2016

Italy

1.18%

22 April 2016

Jamaica

0.04%

22 April 2016

Japan

3.79%

22 April 2016

Ratified or

Entry into

acceded

force

% of Greenhouse
Party or signatory

gases

[1]

Signed

for ratification[24]

Jordan

0.07%

22 April 2016

Kenya

0.06%

22 April 2016

Kiribati

0.00%

22 April 2016

Korea, North

0.23%

22 April 2016

Korea, South

1.85%

22 April 2016

Kuwait

0.09%

22 April 2016

Laos

0.02%

22 April 2016

Latvia

0.03%

22 April 2016

Lebanon

0.07%

22 April 2016

Lesotho

0.01%

22 April 2016

Liberia

0.02%

22 April 2016

Libya

[a]

22 April 2016

Ratified or

Entry into

acceded

force

% of Greenhouse
Party or signatory

gases

[1]

Signed

for ratification[24]

Ratified or

Entry into

acceded

force

Liechtenstein

0.00%

22 April 2016

Lithuania

0.05%

22 April 2016

Luxembourg

0.03%

22 April 2016

0.03%

22 April 2016

Madagascar

0.08%

22 April 2016

Malaysia

0.52%

22 April 2016

Maldives

0.00%

22 April 2016 22 April 2016

Mali

0.03%

22 April 2016

Malta

0.01%

22 April 2016

Marshall Islands

0.00%

22 April 2016 22 April 2016

Mauritania

0.02%

22 April 2016

Macedonia, Republic
of

% of Greenhouse
Party or signatory

gases

[1]

Signed

for ratification[24]

Ratified or

Entry into

acceded

force

Mauritius

0.01%

22 April 2016 22 April 2016

Mexico

1.70%

22 April 2016

Micronesia

0.00%

22 April 2016

Monaco

0.00%

22 April 2016

Mongolia

0.05%

22 April 2016

Montenegro

0.01%

22 April 2016

Morocco

0.16%

22 April 2016

Mozambique

0.02%

22 April 2016

Myanmar

0.10%

22 April 2016

Namibia

0.01%

22 April 2016

Nauru

0.00%

22 April 2016 22 April 2016

Nepal

0.07%

22 April 2016

% of Greenhouse
Party or signatory

gases

[1]

Signed

for ratification[24]

Ratified or

Entry into

acceded

force

Netherlands

0.53%

22 April 2016

New Zealand

0.22%

22 April 2016

Niger

0.04%

22 April 2016

Norway

0.14%

22 April 2016

Oman

0.06%

22 April 2016

Pakistan

0.43%

22 April 2016

Palau

0.00%

22 April 2016 22 April 2016

Palestine

[c]

22 April 2016 22 April 2016

Panama

0.03%

22 April 2016

Papua New Guinea

0.01%

22 April 2016

Paraguay

0.06%

22 April 2016

Peru

0.22%

22 April 2016

% of Greenhouse
Party or signatory

gases

[1]

Signed

for ratification[24]

Ratified or

Entry into

acceded

force

Philippines

0.34%

22 April 2016

Poland

1.06%

22 April 2016

Portugal

0.18%

22 April 2016

Qatar

0.17%

22 April 2016

Romania

0.30%

22 April 2016

Russia

7.53%

22 April 2016

Rwanda

0.02%

22 April 2016

Saint Kitts and Nevis

0.00%

22 April 2016 22 April 2016

Saint Lucia

0.00%

22 April 2016 22 April 2016

0.00%

22 April 2016

0.00%

22 April 2016 22 April 2016

Saint Vincent and the

Grenadines

Samoa

% of Greenhouse
Party or signatory

gases

[1]

Signed

for ratification[24]

San Marino

Ratified or

Entry into

acceded

force

0.00%

22 April 2016

So Tom and Prncipe 0.00%

22 April 2016

Senegal

0.05%

22 April 2016

Serbia

0.18%

22 April 2016

Seychelles

0.00%

25 April 2016 29 April 2016

Singapore

0.13%

22 April 2016

Slovakia

0.12%

22 April 2016

Slovenia

0.05%

22 April 2016

Solomon Islands

0.00%

22 April 2016

Somalia

[a]

22 April 2016 22 April 2016

South Africa

1.46%

22 April 2016

South Sudan

[a]

22 April 2016

% of Greenhouse
Party or signatory

gases

[1]

Signed

for ratification[24]

Spain

0.87%

22 April 2016

Sri Lanka

0.05%

22 April 2016

Sudan

0.18%

22 April 2016

Suriname

0.01%

22 April 2016

Swaziland

0.05%

22 April 2016

Sweden

0.15%

22 April 2016

Switzerland

0.14%

22 April 2016

Tajikistan

0.02%

22 April 2016

Tanzania

0.11%

22 April 2016

Thailand

0.64%

22 April 2016

Tonga

0.00%

22 April 2016

Trinidad and Tobago

0.04%

22 April 2016

Ratified or

Entry into

acceded

force

% of Greenhouse
Party or signatory

gases

[1]

Signed

for ratification[24]

Ratified or

Entry into

acceded

force

Tunisia

0.11%

22 April 2016

Turkey

1.24%

22 April 2016

Tuvalu

0.00%

22 April 2016 22 April 2016

Uganda

0.07%

22 April 2016

Ukraine

1.04%

22 April 2016

United Arab Emirates

0.53%

22 April 2016

United Kingdom

1.55%

22 April 2016

United States

17.89%

22 April 2016

Uruguay

0.05%

22 April 2016

Vanuatu

0.00%

22 April 2016

Venezuela

0.52%

22 April 2016

Vietnam

0.72%

22 April 2016

% of Greenhouse
Party or signatory

gases

[1]

Signed

for ratification[24]

Zimbabwe

0.18%

Ratified or

Entry into

acceded

force

22 April 2016

Green Climate Fund[edit]

Not part of the Paris agreement (and not legally binding) [31] is a (non-binding) plan to provide $100
billion a year in aid to developing countries for implementing new procedures to minimize climate
change with additional amounts to be provided in subsequent years. [32]
In early March 2016, the Obama administration gave a $500 million grant to the "Green Climate
Fund" as "the first chunk of a $3bn commitment made at the Paris climate talks." [33][34]

Critical reception[edit]

Perfectible accord?[edit]
Al Gore stated that "no agreement is perfect, and this one must be strengthened over time, but
groups across every sector of society will now begin to reduce dangerous carbon pollution through
the framework of this agreement." [35]

Lack of binding enforcement mechanism[edit]

Although the agreement was lauded by many, including French President Francois Hollande and UN
Secretary General Ban Ki-moon,[26] criticism has also surfaced. For example, Professor James
Hansen, a former NASA scientist and a climate change expert, voiced anger about the fact that most
of the agreement consists of "promises" or aims and not firm commitments. [36]
Institutional asset owners associations and think-tanks such as the World Pensions Council
(WPC) have also observed that the stated objectives of the Paris Agreement are implicitly
predicated upon an assumption that member states of the United Nations, including high polluters
such as China, the US, India, Brazil, Canada, Russia, Indonesia and Australia, which generate more
than half the worlds greenhouse gas emissions, will somehow drive down their carbon pollution
voluntarily and assiduously without any binding enforcement mechanism to measure and control
CO2 emissions at any level from factory to state, and without any specific penalty gradation or fiscal
pressure (for example a carbon tax) to discourage bad behaviour. A shining example of what Roman
lawyers called circular logic: an agreement (or argument) presupposing in advance what it wants to
achieve. [37]