PENGUIN BOOKS

T H E C O M P L E T E D EA D SE A S C R O L L S
IN E N G L IS H

Geza Vermes was bom in Hungary in 1924. He studied in Budapest and

in Louvain, where he read Oriental history and languages and in 1953
obtained a doctorate in theology with a dissertation on the historical
framework of the Dead Sea Scrolls. From 1957 to 1991 he taught in
England at the universities of Newcastle upon Tyne (1957-65) and
Oxford (1965-91). He is now Professor Emeritus of Jewish Studies and
Emeritus Fellow of Wolfson College, but continues to teach at the Ori
ental Institute in Oxford. He has edited the Journal of Jewish Studies
since 1971, and since 1991 he has been director of the Oxford Forum for
Qumran Research at the Oxford Centre for Hebrew and Jewish Studies.
Professor Vermes is a Fellow of the British Academy and of the Euro
pean Academy of Arts, Sciences and Humanities. He is the holder of an
Oxford D.Litt. and of honorary doctorates from the universities of
Edinburgh, Durham and Sheffield.
His first article on the Dead Sea Scrolls appeared in 1949 and his first
book, Les manuscrits du desert de Juda, in 1953. It was translated into
English in 1956 as Discovery in the Judean Desert. He is also the author of
Scripture and Tradition in Judaism (1961, 1973, 1983 )\ Jesus the Jew (1973,
1976, 1981, 1983); The Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumran in Perspective (19 7 7 ,
1981, 1982, 1994); Jesus and the World ofJudaism (1983, 1984); The Religion
ofJesus the Jew (1993); and (with Martin Goodman) The Essenes According
to the Classical Sources (1989); (with Philip Alexander) Discoveries in the
Judaean Desert XXVI (1998) and (also with Philip Alexander) XXXVI
(2000); An Introduction to the Complete Dead Sea Scrolls (1999, 2000); The
Dead Sea Scrolls (The Folio Society, 2000); The Changing Faces of Jesus
(2000); The Authentic Gospel ofJesus ("2003) and Jesus in his Jewish Context
(2003). He played a leading part in the rewriting of Emil Schiirers classic
work The History of the Jewish People in the Age ofJesus Christ (1973-87).
His autobiography, Providential Accidents (1998), contains a vivid personal
account of a life-long involvement with the Dead Sea Scrolls.

GEZA V E R M E S

The Complete
Dead Sea Scrolls
in English
Revised Edition

P E N G U IN

BO OKS

PENGUIN BOOKS
Published by the Penguin Group
Penguin Books Ltd, 80 Strand, London wc2R o r l , England
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First published in Pelican Books 1962
Reprinted with revisions 1965, 1968
Second edition 1975
Third edition 1987
Fourth edition published in Penguin Books 1995
Complete edition published by Allen Lane The Penguin Press 1997
Published in Penguin Books 1998
Revised edition 2004
15
Copyright G. Vermes, 1962, 1965, 1968, 1975, 1987, 1995, 1997, 2004
All rights reserved
The extracts on pp. 95 and 247 are reproduced by kind permission
of the Israel Museum, Jerusalem; the extracts on pp. 345, 401, 415,
459 and 537 are reproduced by kind permission of the Israel
Antiquities Authority; p. 581: a cut segment from The Copper Scroll
from The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Reappraisal by John Allegro (Penguin
Books 1956, second edition 1990), copyright John Allegro, 1956,
1964. Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books Ltd
Maps drawn by Nigel Andrews
The moral right of the author has been asserted
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For M and I with love

and in loving memory of P

Contents

Preface

xiii
xiv, xv
xvii
xix

maps

Preface to the Penguin Classics Edition

Chronology
I. Introduction
a bird s- eye view

i
of f i f t y y e a r s of d e a d

sea scr o lls

RESEARCH

TH E PR ESE NT S T A T E OF DEAD SEA SCROLLS S TU D IES

I
IO

QUMRAN AND T H E N EW T E S T A M E N T

21

QUMRAN S G R E A T E S T N O V E L T Y

23

II. The Community

26

APPENDIX: TH E ESS EN ES AND T H E QUMRAN C OM M U NI TY

46

III. The History of the Community

49

IV. The Religious Ideas of the Community

67

List ofAbbreviations
Note on This Translation

91
93
A. T H E R U L E S

The Community Rule (iQS, 4Q255-64, 4Q280, 286-7, 4 Q 52>

sQ 1 1 .^ )
Community Rule manuscripts from Cave 4
(1) 4QSd=4Q258
(2) 4QSe=4Q259
Entry into the Covenant (4Q275)
Four Classes of the Community (4Q279)
The Damascus Document (CD, 4Q265-73, 5Q 12, 6Q15)
Damascus Document manuscripts from Cave 4
vii

97
118
118
123
125
126
127
146

CONTENTS

(1) The opening of the Damascus Document according to

4QD (4Q266-8)
(2) Initiation rules (4Q266)
(3) Rules relating to the disqualification of priests (4(3266,267,273)
(4) Diagnosis of skin disease (4(^266,269,272,273)
(5) Rules concerning gleanings and agricultural priestly dues
(4(^266,269,270,271)
(6) The penal code and the renewal of the covenant ritual
(4Q266, 270)
(7) A hybrid Community Rule-Damascus Document text (4Q265)
The Messianic Rule (iQSa=iQ28a)
The War Scroll (iQM, 1Q 33, 4Q 491-7, 4Q471)
The War Scroll from Cave 4 (4Q491, 493)
The Book of War (4Q285, 1 1Q 14)
The Temple Scroll (1 i Q T = i iQ 19 -2 1, 40365a, 4Q524)
M M T (Some Observances of the Law) (4Q394-9)
The Wicked and the Holy (4Q18 1)
4 Q Halakhah A (4Q251)
4 Q Halakhah B (40264a)
4QTohorot (Purities) A (4Q 274)
4QTohorot Ba-B b (4Q 276-7)
4Q Harvesting (40284a)
The Masters Exhortation to the Sons of Dawn (4Q298)
4 Q Men Who Err (4Q306)
Register of Rebukes (4Q477)
Remonstrances (before Conversion?) (4Q47ia)

147
148
148
149
15 1
152
155
159
163
186
188
191
221
230
231
234
235
238
240
241
243
244
246

B. HYMNS AND POEMS

The Thanksgiving Hymns (iQH, 1Q36, 4Q427-32)
Hymnic Fragment (40433a)
Apocryphal Psalms (I) (1 iQPsa=i 1Q5, 4Q88)
Apocryphal Psalms (II) (4Q88)
Apocryphal Psalms (III) (11 QapPsa= 11Q 11 )
Non-canonical Psalms (4Q380-81)
Lamentations (4Q179, 4Q501)
Songs for the Holocaust of the Sabbath (4Q400-407, 1 1Q 17,
Masada 1039-200)

249
306
307
314
316
319
327
329

CONTENTS

Poetic Fragments on Jerusalem and King Jonathan (4Q448)

Hymn of Glorification A and B (4Q491, fir. 1 1 - 4Q471I))

340
342

C. C A L E N D A R S , L IT U R G IE S A N D P R A Y ER S
Calendars of Priestly Courses (4Q320-30, 337)
Calendrical Document C (4Q326)
Calendrical Document D (4Q394 1-2)
Calendric Signs (Otot) (4Q319)
Horoscopes or Astrological Physiognomies
(4Q186, 4Q534, 4Q561)
Phases of the Moon (4Q 317)
A Zodiacal Calendar with a Brontologion (4Q318)
Order of Divine Office (4Q334)
The Words of the Heavenly Lights (4Q504-6)
Liturgical Prayer (1Q34 and 34 bis)
Prayers for Festivals (4Q507-9)
Daily Prayers (4Q503)
Prayer or Hymn Celebrating the Morning and the Evening
(4Q408)
Blessings (iQSb= 1 Q28b)
Benedictions (4Q280, 286-90)
4QBerakhota: Blessings (4Q286)
4QBerakhotb: Curses of Belial (4Q286-7)
4QBenedictions: Curses of Melkiresha* (4Q280)
Confession Ritual (4Q393)
Purification Ritual A (4Q512)
Purification Ritual B (4Q414)
A Liturgical Work (4Q392-3)

347
363
364
365
37
373
374
3 76
377
381
382
384
386
387
391
391
394
395
396
397
398
399

D. H IS T O R IC A L A N D A P O C A L Y P T IC W O R K S
Apocalyptic Chronology or Apocryphal Weeks (4Q247)
Historical Text A (4Q248)
Historical Texts C -E (4Q 331-3)
Historical Text F (4Q468e)
The Triumph of Righteousness or Mysteries
(1Q 27,4Q 299-301)

403
404
45
407
408

CONTENTS

Time of Righteousness (4Q21 5a)

The Renewed Earth (4Q475)
A Messianic Apocalypse (4Q521)

410
4 11
412

E . W IS D O M L I T E R A T U R E
The Seductress (4Q184)
Exhortation to Seek Wisdom (4Q185)
A Parable of Warning (4Q302)
Sapiential Didactic Work A (4Q412)
A Sapiential Work (i) (4Q413)
A Sapiential Work (ii) (4Q 415-18, 423, 1Q26)
A Sapiential Work (iii): Ways of Righteousness (4Q420-21)
A Sapiential Work: Instruction-like Composition (4Q424)
The Two Ways (4Q473)
Bless, My Soul (4Q434-8)
A Leaders Lament (4Q439)
Fight against Evil Spirits (4Q444)
Songs of the Sage (4 Q 510 -11)
Beatitudes (4Q525)

417
419
42 2
423
424
425
439
441
443
444
449
450
451
455

F. B I B L E I N T E R P R E T A T I O N
Introductory Note
Aramaic Bible Translations (Targums)
The Targum of Job ( 11Q 10, 4Q 157)
The Targum of Leviticus (4Q156)
Appendix: ( a ) g r e e k b i b l e t r a n s l a t i o n s (4Q 119-22, 7Q 1-2)

461
463
465
471
472

(b ) OTHER GREEK FRAGME NTS ( 4 Q 1 2 6 - 7 , 7 Q 3 - I 9 )

472

The Reworked Pentateuch (4Q158, 364-7)

A Paraphrase of Genesis and Exodus (4Q422)
The Genesis Apocryphon (1 QapGen, 1Q20)
Genesis Commentaries (4(^252-43)
Genesis Commentary C (4Q254)
Genesis Commentary D (40254a)
Commentaries on Isaiah (4Q 161-5, 3Q4)
Commentaries on Hosea (4Q166-7)
Commentary on Micah (1Q 14, 4Q168)
Commentary on Nahum (4Q169)

474
478
480
492
495
496
497
5QI
503
504

CONTENTS

Commentary on Habakkuk (iQpHab)

Commentary on Zephaniah (1Q 15, 4Q170)
Commentary on Malachi (40253a)
Commentary on Psalms (1Q 16, 4Q 171, 4Q173)
Commentary on an Unidentifiable Text (4Q183)
Florilegium or Midrash on the Last Days (4Q174)
Testimonia or Messianic Anthology (4Q175)
Ordinances or Commentaries on Biblical Law
(4 Q i 59 , 4 Q 5 i 3- i 4 )
The Heavenly Prince Melchizedek ( 1 1Q 13)
Consolations or Tanhumim (4Q176)
Catenae or Interpretation of Biblical Texts on the Last Days
(4Q177, 4Q182)

59
517
518

519
5H
525
527
529

532
535
536

G . B IB L IC A L L Y B A SE D A P O C R Y P H A L W O R K S
Jubilees (4Q216-28, 1Q 17 -18 , 2Q19-20, 3Q5, 4Q482(?),
11Q 12 )
The Prayer of Enosh and Enoch (4Q369)
The Book of Enoch (4Q201-2, 204-12)
The Book of Giants (1Q 23-4, 2Q26, 4Q203, 530-33, 6Q8)
An Admonition Associated with the Flood (4Q370, 4Q185)
The Ages of the Creation (4Q180)
The Book of Noah (1Q 19, 1Q 19 bis, 4Q534-6, 6Q8,i9)
Words of the Archangel Michael (4Q529, 6Q23)
The Testament of Levi (i) (4Q213 -14 , 1Q 21)
Testaments of the Patriarchs: The Testament of Levi
or Testament of Jacob (4Q537 and 540-41)
The Testament of Judah and Joseph (4Q538-9)
The Testament of Naphtali (4Q215)
Narrative and Poetic Composition3^ (4Q 371-3)
The Testament of Qahat (4Q542)
The Testament of Amram (4Q543-9)
The Words of Moses (1Q22)
Sermon on the Exodus and the Conquest of Canaan (4Q374)
A Moses Apocryphon2 (4Q375)
A Moses Apocryphonb (4Q376, 1Q29)
A Moses Apocryphonc (4Q408)
Apocryphal Pentateuch B (4Q377)

539
543
545
549
55 i
553
554
556
557
561

563
564
565
568

57
574
576
577
578
579
580

CONTENTS

A Moses (or David) Apocryphon (4Q373, 2Q22)

581
Prophecy of Joshua (4Q522, 5Q9)
582
A Joshua Apocryphon (i) or Psalms of Joshua (4Q378-9)
583
A Joshua Apocryphon (ii) (Masada 1039-211)
586
The Samuel Apocryphon (4Q160)
587
A Paraphrase on Kings (4Q382)
589
An Elisha Apocryphon (40481*)
590
A Zedekiah Apocryphon (4Q470)
591
A Historico-theological Narrative based on Genesis
and Exodus (4Q462-4)
592
Tobit (4Q196-200)
594
Apocryphon of Jeremiah (4Q383, 385a, 387, 387a, 388a, 389-90) 602
The New Jerusalem (4Q554-5, 5Qi5> 1Q32, 2Q24,
4Q232, 11Q 18 )
607
Pseudo-Ezekiel3-01 (4Q385, 386, 385b, 388, 385c)
6 11
The Prayer of Nabonidus (4Q242)
614
Para-Danielic Writings (4Q243-5)
615
The Four Kingdoms (4Q55 2-3)
616
An Aramaic Apocalypse (4Q246)
617
Proto-Esther(P) (4Q550)
619
List of False Prophets (4Q339)
621
List of Netinim (4Q340)
622
H. M IS C E L L A N E A
The Copper Scroll (3Q 15)
Cryptic Texts (4Q249, 250, 313)
Two Qumran Ostraca

625
632
634

I. A P P E N D I X
Scroll Catalogue
Index of Qumran Texts
Major Editions of Qumran Manuscripts
General Bibliography

639
657
668
672

General Index

677

xii

Preface

In the spring of 1947 a young Arab shepherd climbed into a cave in the
Judaean desert and stumbled on the first Dead Sea Scrolls. For those of
us who lived through the Qumran story from the beginning, the realiza
tion that all this happened half a century ago brings with it a melancholy
feeling. The Scrolls are no longer a recent discovery as we used to refer
to them, but over the years they have grown in significance and now the
golden jubilee of the first manuscript find calls for celebration with joy
and satisfaction. Following the revolution which liberated all the
manuscripts in 1991 - until that moment a large portion of them was
kept away from the public gaze - every interested person gained free
access to the entire Qumran library. I eagerly seized the chance and set
out to explore the whole collection. Today, after four and a half years of
intense study, I feel confident that I can present the complete canvas of
the Dead Sea Scrolls and disclose to the many interested readers the
message of these ancient manuscripts about ancient Judaism and to a
more limited extent about early Christianity.
In its successive editions this book has endeavoured to serve a dual
audience of scholars and educated lay people. Over the years it has
grown in size - it contained only 255 pages in 1962 - and I trust also in
its grasp of the subject. While this translation of the non-biblical Scrolls
does not claim to cover every fragment retrieved from the caves, it is
complete in one sense: it offers in a readable form all the texts
sufficiently well preserved to be understandable in English. In plain
words, meaningless scraps or badly damaged manuscript sections are not
inflicted on the reader. Those who wish to survey texts consisting only
of broken lines, or of single letters and half-letters, should turn to the
official series Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, in which every surviving
detail is put on record.
In addition to the English rendering of the Hebrew and Aramaic texts
xiii

Jericho

Jerusalem

See map 2

Qo,
Bethlehem

'O'Khirhpf
rumuei Qumran

Khirbet Mird

* Ain Feshkha

Herodium

V
Macherus
D E A D SEA

Mahal

He**

En Gedi

Masada

10 Miles

______ 1 l____ l

Map i : The area surrounding the Dead Sea, showing Qumran

PREFACE

Map 2: The Caves of Qumran

PREFACE

found in the eleven Qumran caves, two inscribed potsherds (ostraca)

retrieved from the Qumran site and two Qumran-type documents
discovered in the fortress of Masada, and brief introductory notes to
each text, this volume also provides an up-to-date general introduction,
outlining the history of fifty years of Scroll research and sketching the
organization, history and religious message of the Qumran Community.
A Scroll catalogue, an essential bibliography and an index of Qumran
texts are appended to facilitate further study and research.
Has the greatly increased source material substantially altered our
perception of the writings found at Qumran? I do not think so. Nuances
and emphases have changed, but additional information has mainly
helped to fill in gaps and clarify obscurities; it has not undermined our
earlier conceptions regarding the Community and its ideas. We had the
exceptionally good fortune that all but one of the major non-biblical
Scrolls were published at the start, between 1950 and 1956: the
Habakkuk Commentary (1950), the Community Rule (1951), the War
Scroll and the Thanksgiving Hymns (1954/5) and the best-preserved
columns of the Genesis Apocryphon (1956). Even the Temple Scroll,
which had remained concealed until 1967 in a Bata shoebox by an
antique dealer, was edited ten years later. The large Scrolls have served
as foundation and pillars, and the thousands of fragments as building
stones, with which the unique shrine of Jewish religion and culture that
is Qumran is progressively restored to its ancient splendour.
Finally, it is a most pleasant duty to express my warmest thanks to
friends and colleagues who helped to make this book less imperfect than
it might otherwise have been. First and foremost, I wish publicly to con
vey my gratitude to Professor Emanuel Tov, editor-in-chief of the Dead
Sea Scrolls Publication Project, for his generosity in answering queries
and assisting in every possible way. My very special thanks are due also
to Professor Joseph M. Baumgarten, who allowed me to consult his edi
tion of the Damascus Document fragments from Cave 4 prior to their
publication in D JD , and to my former pupil, Dr Jonathan G. Campbell,
who did not shirk the onerous task of reading through and commenting
on the rather bulky printout of this volume.
G.V.

Preface to the Penguin Classics edition

Since the end of 1996, when the text of The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in
English was sent to the printers, eighteen further tomes of manuscript
material have appeared in the series Discoveries in the Judaean Desert
(DJD). Today, in January 2003, only three more volumes, two biblical
and one non-biblical, still await publication before the 39-volume venture,
begun in 1955 with D JD I, reaches its fulfilment.
When reviewing The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in 1997, John J. Collins
wittily predicted: It is not inconceivable that a more complete edition may
appear a few years hence. Yet even todays revised and updated version
remains in some way incomplete. It is without the scriptural texts found
in the caves, which I never intended to include. Luckily these are now
available in The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible issued by Martin Abegg, Peter
Flint and Eugene Ulrich (Harper San Francisco, 1999). Neither have I
attempted at any stage to present the English translation of every scrap
devoid of significance (small, unconnected manuscript remains, broken
sentences, single words, half-words or letters). However, I can state even
more confidently than I did seven years ago that the reader will find in
this volume all that is meaningful and interesting in the non-biblical
Dead Sea Scrolls.
The introductory chapters and the bibliographies have also been
brought up to date so that account is taken in them of all fresh material
as well as of the continuous advance of Qumran research.
The publishers have decided to provide this book with a new niche:
forty-one years after its first appearance in 1962 in the Pelican series, it
will have its home from now on next to the great works of world litera
ture in the Penguin Classics library.
I feel deeply honoured.
Oxford, January 2003

G.V.

xviii

Chronology

BCE I 9 7

Judaea became a province of the Seleucid Empire

ruled by the Syrian successors of A l e x a n d e r t h e
g r ea t

187-175
i 75-l6 4
172
171
169
168
167

l66

iv. Beginning of Hellenistic infiltration,

resisted by the Zadokite High Priest o n i a s i i i .
a n t io c h u s
iv
( e p i p h a n e s ). o n i a s deposed and
replaced by his Hellenophile brother j a s o n .
j a s o n expelled from office in favour of m e n e l a u s ,
Hellenizing High Priest from 172 to 162 b c e .
o n i a s i i i murdered at the instigation of m e n e l a u s .
Forced Hellenization.
a n t i o c h u s led by m e n e l a u s profaned and plun
dered the Temple of Jerusalem.
a n t i o c h u s thwarted by the Romans in his second
campaign against Egypt.
Persecution of those Jews who opposed the unifi
cation of the Seleucid Empire on the basis of Greek
culture and religion. Official abolition of Jewish rel
igion and practice under threat of death. The Temple
transformed into a sanctuary of Olympian Zeus.
Rising of the Maccabees supported by all the trad
itional parties under the leadership of j u d a s
seleu cu s

m acc a b ee

164

Truce. Cleansing of the Temple, still held by

162-150

i. m e n e l a u s executed by the Syrians.

appointed High Priest by the king.
j u d a s killed in battle. J o n a t h a n assumed leader
ship of the rebels (16 1-152 b c e ).

M ENELAUS.
d em etr iu s

a lc im u s

l6l

xix

CHRONOLOGY

1 60

I52-I45

145-142

*43
143 / 2- 135/4
142
140
r 35/4
135/4-104
IO4-IO3
IO3-76
76-67
67
67-63

63-40

4-37

37-4
2 7 - I 4 CE
6 BCE (?)

4 BCE-6

CE

I4~37 ce
26-36

3 (?)

the last Hellenizing High Priest, died of a

stroke. End of Syrian military intervention.
A l e x a n d e r b a l a s usurped the Seleucid throne and
appointed J o n a t h a n High Priest (152-143/2 b c e ).
an tio ch u s
vi, son of a l e x a n d e r , raised to the
throne by t r y p h o n , his fathers general. J o n a t h a n
named governor of Syria, s i m o n , his brother, made
military governor of the Palestinian littoral.
J o n a t h a n arrested by t r y p h o n .
s i m o n High Priest and ethnarch.
J o n a t h a n executed in prison.
s i m o n s titles confirmed as hereditary. Foundation
of the Maccabaean, or Hasmonaean, dynasty.
s i m o n murdered by his son-in-law.
jo h n
hyrcanus
i High Priest and ethnarch.
Opposed by the Pharisees.
a r i s t o b u l u s 1 High Priest and king.
a l e x a n d e r j a n n a e u s High Priest, king, and con
queror. Resisted by the Pharisees.
A l e x a n d r a , widow of j a n n a e u s , queen. Friend of
the Pharisees, h y r c a n u s i i High Priest.
h y r c a n u s 11 king and High Priest. Deposed by his
brother a r i s t o b u l u s .
a r isto b u lu s
ii
king and High Priest. Taken
prisoner by p o m p e y in 63 b c e after the fall of
Jerusalem. Judaea became a Roman province.
h y r c a n u s i i reinstated as High Priest without the
royal title.
a n t i g o n u s , son of a r i s t o b u l u s i i , occupied the
throne and pontificate with Parthian support.
h y r c a n u s maimed and exiled.
h e r o d t h e g r e a t . End of Hasmonaean dynasty.
h y r c a n u s executed in 30 b c e .
a lc im u s,

A u g u s t u s emperor.

Birth of j e s u s o f n a z a r e t h .
ethnarch of Judaea and Samaria.
T i b e r i u s emperor.
p o n t i u s p i l a t e prefect of Judaea.
Crucifixion of j e s u s .
archelaus

xx

CHRONOLOGY

66 -7O

First Jewish War ending with the capture of

Jerusalem and the destruction of the Temple by
TITU S.

73/74
132-5

Fall of Masada.
Second unsuccessful Jewish War against Rome led
b y SIM EO N BAR KOSIBA (BAR KOKHBA).

I. Introduction

On the western shore of the Dead Sea, about eight miles south of Jericho,
lies a complex of ruins known as Khirbet Qumran. It occupies one of the
lowest parts of the earth, on the fringe of the hot and arid wastes of the
Wilderness of Judaea, and is today, apart from occasional invasions by
coachloads of tourists, lifeless, silent and empty. But from that place,
members of an ancient Jewish religious community, whose centre it was,
hurried out one day and in secrecy climbed the nearby cliffs in order to
hide away in eleven caves their precious scrolls. No one came back to
retrieve them, and there they remained undisturbed for almost 2,000 years.
The account of the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, as the manu
scripts are inaccurately designated, and of the half a century of intense
research that followed, is in itself a fascinating as well as an exasperating
story. It has been told many a time, but this fiftieth anniversary of the
first Scroll find excuses, and even demands, yet another rehearsal.1

A B IR D S -E Y E V IE W O F F IF T Y Y E A R S O F
D EAD SEA SC R O L LS R E SE A R C H

1 . 1941-1961
News of an extraordinary discovery of seven ancient Hebrew and
Aramaic manuscripts began to spread in 1948 from Israeli and American
sources.2 The original chance find by a young Bedouin shepherd,
1. For the story of my personal involvement with the Dead Sea Scrolls, see Providential
Accidents: An Autobiography, S C M Press, London, and Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham,
Md., 1988.
2. E. L. Sukenik, Megillot genuzot, I, Jerusalem, 1948; W . F. Albright, Bulletin of the
American Schools for Oriental Research n o (April 1948), 1 - 3 ; G . E. Wright, A Sensational
Discovery, Biblical Archaeologist (May 1948), 2 1 -3 .

INTRODUCTION

Muhammad edh-Dhib, occurred during the last months of the British

mandate in Palestine in the spring or summer of 1947, unless it was
slightly earlier, in the winter of 1946.3 In 1949, the cave where the scrolls
lay hidden was identified, thanks to the efforts of a bored Belgian army
officer of the United Nations Armistice Observer Corps, Captain
Philippe Lippens, assisted by a unit of Jordans Arab Legion, com
manded by Major-General Lash. It was investigated by G. Lankester
Harding, the English Director of the Department of Antiquities of
Jordan, and the French Dominican archaeologist and biblical scholar,
Father Roland de Vaux. They retrieved hundreds of leather fragments,
some large but most of them minute, in addition to the seven scrolls
found in the same cave.
Three of the rolls, an incomplete Isaiah manuscript, a scroll of Hymns
and one describing the War of the Sons of Light against the Sons of
Darkness, were purchased in 1947 by the Hebrew Universitys Professor
of Jewish Archaeology, E. L. Sukenik, who proceeded at full speed
towards their publication. The other four were entrusted for study and
eventual publication by their owner, the Arab metropolitan archbishop
Mar Athanasius, head of the Syrian Orthodox monastery of St Mark in
Jerusalem, to the resident staff of the American School for Oriental
Research in Jerusalem, Millar Burrows, W. H. Brownlee and J. C.
Trever. These three took charge of a complete Isaiah manuscript, the
Commentary on Habakkuk and the Manual of Discipline, later renamed
the Community Rule. Finally, after the splitting of British mandatary
Palestine into Israel and Jordan, at the Ecole Biblique et Archeologique
Frangaise in Jordanian Jerusalem two young researchers, the Frenchman
Dominique Barthelemy and the Pole Jozef Tadeusz Milik, were commis
sioned by de Vaux and Harding in late 1951 to edit the fragments collected
in Cave 1.
Between 1951 and 1956, ten further caves were discovered, most of
them by Bedouin in the first instance. Two yielded substantial quantities
of material. Thousands and thousands of fragments were found in Cave 4
and several scrolls, including the longest, the Temple Scroll, were
retrieved from Cave 11. The previously neglected ruins of a settlement
in the proximity of the caves were also excavated by Harding and de
Vaux, and the view soon prevailed that the texts, the caves and the
3. Cf. the interview with the discoverer reported by John C. Trever, The Dead Sea Scrolls:
A Personal Account, Grand Rapids, 1979, 19 1-4 .

INTRODUCTION

Qumran site were interconnected, and that consequently the study of

the script and contents of the manuscripts should be accompanied by
archaeological research.
Progress was surprisingly quick despite the fact that in those halcyon
days, apart from the small Nash papyrus, containing the Ten Command
ments, found in Egypt and now in the Cambridge University Library, no
Hebrew documents dating to Late Antiquity were extant to provide
terms of comparison. In 1948 and 1949, Sukenik published in Hebrew
two preliminary surveys entided Hidden Scrolls from the Judaean Desert,
and concluded that the religious community involved was the ascetic
sect of the Essenes, well known from the first-century c e writings of
Philo, Josephus and Pliny the Elder, a thesis worked out in great detail
from 1951 onwards by Andre Dupont-Sommer in Paris.4 The first
Qumran scrolls to reach the public, and the archaeological setting in
which they were discovered, echoed three striking Essene characteristics.
The Community Rule, a basic code of sectarian existence, reflects Essene
common ownership and celibate life, while the geographical location of
Qumran tallies with Plinys Essene settlement on the north-western
shore of the Dead Sea, south of Jericho. The principal novelty provided
by the manuscripts consists of cryptic allusions to the historical origins
of the Community, launched by a priest called the Teacher of Righteous
ness, who was persecuted by a Jewish ruler, designated as the Wicked
Priest. The Teacher and his followers were compelled to withdraw into
the desert, where they awaited the impending manifestation of Gods
triumph over evil and darkness in the end of days, which had already
begun.
An almost unanimous agreement soon emerged, dating the discovery,
on the basis of palaeography and archaeology, to the last centuries of the
Second Temple, i.e. second century b c e to first century c e . For a short
while there was controversy between de Vaux, who decreed that the pot
tery and all the finds belonged to the Hellenistic era (i.e. pre-63 b c e ),
and Dupont-Sommer, who argued for an early Roman (post-63) date.
But the finding of further caves and the excavation of the ruins of
Qumran brought about, on 4 April 1952, de Vauxs dramatic retraction
before the French Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. His
4. Cf. Observations sur le Manuel de discipline decouvert pres de la Mer Morte, Paris, 19 5 1. His
major synthesis in English is The Essene Writings from Qumran, Oxford, 1961. For the
latest survey, see G . Vermes and Martin Goodman, The Essenes According to the Classical
Sources, Sheffield, 1989.

INTRODUCTION

revised archaeological synthesis, presented in the 1959 Schweich Lec

tures of the British Academy, while admittedly incomplete, is still the
best comprehensive statement available today.5
A third point of early consensus concerns the chronology of the
events alluded to in the Qumran writings, especially the biblical com
mentaries published in the 1950s and the Damascus Document. The socalled Maccabaean theory, placing the conflict between the Teacher of
Righteousness and the politico-religious Jewish leadership of the day in
the time of the Maccabaean high priest or high priests Jonathan and/or
Simon, was first formulated in my 1952 doctoral dissertation, published
in 1953,6 and was soon to be adopted with variations in detail by such
leading specialists as J. T. Milik, F. M. Cross and R. de Vaux.7
As long as the editorial task consisted only of publishing the seven
scrolls from Cave 1, work was advancing remarkably fast. Millar Burrows
and his colleagues published their three manuscripts in 1950 and 19 51.18
Sukeniks three texts appeared in a posthumous volume in 1954-5.9 In
the interest of speed, these editors generously abstained from translating
and interpreting the texts, and were content with releasing the photo
graphs and their transcription. The best-preserved sections of the
Aramaic Genesis Apocryphon followed closely in 1956.10 Even the frag
ments from Cave 1, handled with alacrity and loving care by D.
Barthelemy and J. T. Milik, appeared in 1955.11 The secrecy rule of later
years, restricting access to unpublished texts to a small team of editors
appointed by de Vaux, had not yet been applied. On my first visit to
Jerusalem in 1952 , 1 was allowed to examine the fragments of the Rule of
the Congregation (iQSa), as may be seen from the inclusion in the final
edition of a reading suggested by me to the editors.
5. Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Oxford, 1973.
6. Les Manuscrits du desert dejuda, Tournai and Paris, 1953; Discovery in the Judean Desert,
N ew York, 1956.
7. J. T . Milik, Dix ans de decouvertes dans le desert dejuda, Paris, 1957 (English translation:
Ten Years of Discovery in the Wilderness of Judaea, London, 1959); F. M. Cross, The Ancient
Library of Qumran and Modem Biblical Studies, New York, 1958; R. de Vaux, op. cit. (in
note 5 above).
8. The Dead Sea Scrolls of St Mark's Monastery, I, New Haven, 1950; II/2, N ew Haven, 19$ 1.
9. The Dead Sea Scrolls of the Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 19 54 -5.
10. N . Avigad and Y. Yadin, A Genesis Apocryphon, Jerusalem, 1956. See now J. C.
Greenfield and E. Qimron, The Genesis Apocryphon Col. X I I , in Studies in Qumran
Aramaic, edited by T . Muraoka (Abr-Nahrain Suppl. I), Louvain, 1992, 7 0 -7 7 .
1 1 . Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, I: Qumran Cave 1, Oxford, 1955.

INTRODUCTION

The scroll fragments, partly found by the archaeologists, but mostly

purchased from the Arabs, who nine times out of ten outwitted their
professional rivals, were cleaned, sorted out and displayed in the socalled Scrollery in the Rockefeller Museum, later renamed the Palestine
Archaeological Museum, to become after 1967 once more the Rockefeller
Museum. If the mass of material disgorged by Cave 4 had not upset the
original arrangements, the scandalous delays in publishing in later years
need never have happened.
To deal with Cave 4, Father de Vaux improvised, in 1953 an<^ x954> a
team of seven on the whole young and untried scholars. Barthelemy
opted out, and the brilliant but unpredictable Abbe J. T. Milik, who later
left the Roman Catholic priesthood, became the pillar of the new group.
He was joined by the French Abbe Jean Starcky, and two Americans,
Monsignor Patrick Skehan and Frank Moore Cross. John Marco Allegro
and John Strugnell were recruited from Britain, and from Germany,
Claus-Hunno Hunzinger, who soon resigned and was replaced later by
the French Abbe Maurice Baillet.
It should have been evident to anyone with a modicum of good sense
that a group of seven editors, of whom only two, Starcky and Skehan,
had already established a scholarly reputation, was insufficient to perform
such an enormous task on any level, let alone to produce the kind of last
word edition de Vaux appears to have contemplated. The second serious
error committed by de Vaux was that he wholly relied on his personal,
quasi-patriarchal authority, instead of setting up from the start a super
visory body empowered, if necessary, to sack those members of the team
who might fail to fulfil their obligations promptly and to everyones
satisfaction.
Yet before depicting the chaos characterizing the publishing process
in the 1970s and 1980s, in fairness it should be stressed that, during the
first decade or so, the industry of the group could not seriously be faulted.
Judging from the completion around i960 of a primitive Concordance,
recorded on handwritten index cards, of all the words appearing in the
fragments found in Caves 2 to 10, it is clear that at an early date most of
the texts had been identified and deciphered. The many criticisms
advanced in subsequent years, focusing on these scholars refusal to put
their valuable findings into the public domain, should not prevent one
from acknowledging that this original achievement, in which J. T. Milik
had the lions share, deserves unrestricted admiration.
After the publication of the Cave 1 fragments in 1955, the contents of
5

INTRODUCTION

the eight minor caves (2-3, 5-10) were released in a single volume in
1963.12 In 1965 J. A. Sanders, an American scholar who was not part of
the original team, edited the Psalms Scroll, found in Cave 11 in 1956.13
Finally, with its typescript completed and dispatched to the printers a
year before the fatal date of 1967, the first poorly edited volume of Cave
4 fragments saw the light of day in 1968.14
2. 19 6 7-19 9 0
With the occupation of East Jerusalem in the Six Day War, all the scroll
fragments housed in the Palestine Archaeological Museum came under
the control of the Israel Department of Antiquities. Only the Copper
Scroll and a few other fragments exhibited in Amman remained in
Jordanian hands. The Temple Scroll, which until then had been held by
a dealer in Bethlehem,15 was quickly retrieved with the help of army
intelligence and acquired by the State of Israel. Yigael Yadin, deputy
prime minister of Israel in the 1970s, mixing politics with scholarship,
managed to complete a magisterial three-volume publication by 1977.16
A gentlemanly gesture on the part of the Israelis, who decided not to
interfere with de Vaux, left him and his scattered troop in charge of the
Cave 4 texts.17 As for the unpublished manuscripts from Cave 11, they
were handled by Dutch and American academics.18
Father de Vaux, whose anti-Israeli sentiments were no secret, quietly
12 . M . Baillet, J. T . Milik and R. de Vaux, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert of Jordan, III:
Les petites grottes de Qumran, Oxford, 1962.
1 3 . J. A. Sanders, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert of Jordan, I V : The Psalms Scroll of
Qumran Cave 1 1 (n Q P f) , Oxford, 1965.
14 . J. M . Allegro and A. A. Anderson, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert of Jordan, V : I
(4Q15 8 -18 6 ), Oxford, 1968. A re-edition of this volume by George J. Brooke is planned.
1 5 . Khalil Iskandar Sahin, familiarly known as Kando, a cobbler cum antique dealer, had
been the principal middle man between the Bedouin discoverers of thousands of frag
ments and Roland de Vaux in the 1950s.
16 . Megillat ha-Miqdash IIII, Jerusalem, 1977 (English translation: The Temple Scroll
IIII, Jerusalem, 1983). See also E. Qimron, The Temple Scroll: A Critical Edition with
Extensive Reconstructions, Beer-Sheva/Jerusalem, 1996.
17 . Members of the original editorial team spent a great deal of time working in Jerusalem
in the 1950s, but were subsequently disbanded, most of them occupying full-time teach
ing posts in Britain, France and the United States.
18. J. P. M. van der Ploeg, A. S. van der Woude and B. Jongeling, Le Targum de Job de
la grotte X I de Qumran, Leiden, 19 7 1; D. N . Freedman and K. A. Matthews, The PaleoHebrew Leviticus Scroll (1 iQpaleoLev), Winona Lake, 1985.

INTRODUCTION

withdrew to his tent and remained inactive until his death in 1971.
Another French Dominican, Pierre Benoit, succeeded him as it were by
natural selection in the editorial chair in 1972. The Israeli archaeologi
cal establishment, still aloof, conferred its blessing on him. By then, at
my instigation, C. H. Roberts, Secretary to the Delegates, i.e. chief exec
utive of Oxford University Press, decided to demand speedier publica
tion, but Benoits ineffectual rallying call either elicited no response
from his men, or produced promises which were never honoured.19 In
a lecture delivered in 1977, I coined the phrase which was thereafter
often repeated that the greatest Hebrew manuscript discovery was fast
becoming the academic scandal par excellence of the twentieth century.20
One may ask how and why, after such an apparently propitious begin
ning, a group of scholars, most of whom were gifted, had turned the
editorial work on the Scrolls into such a lamentable story? In my opinion,
the academic scandal of the century resulted from a concatenation of
causes. Lack of organization and unfortunate choice of collaborators can
be blamed on de Vaux. For the majority of the team members who had
other jobs to cope with, the overlong part-time effort caused their origi
nal enthusiasm to fade and vanish. J. T. Milik, the most productive of
them until the mid-seventies, appears to have been disenchanted by the
cool reception of his highly speculative thesis contained in his edition of
The Books ofEnoch: Aramaic Fragments of Qumran Cave 4 (197 6). Academic
imperialism was also a factor. It was easier to hold that These texts
belong to us, not to you! than to admit that the procrastinating editors
had undertaken more than they could deliver. Add to this the initial
unwillingness of the Israelis to shoulder their responsibilities, and, as will
be shown, their lack of foresight and repeated misjudgements before,
finally, in the late 1980s, they began to take an active part in matters of
editorial policy. Need I say more ?
The inevitable began to happen: in 1980 Patrick Skehan died, followed
by Jean Starcky in 1986, both without publishing their assignments.
Eugene Ulrich and Emile Puech became their heirs, while F. M. Cross
and J. Strugnell distributed portions of their texts to serve as dissertation
19. In the 1 970s, only J. T . Milik remained productive - The Books of Enoch: Aramaic Frag
ments of Qumran Cave 4, Oxford, 1976; Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, V I : (4Q 128-57),
Oxford, 1977 - before he, too, entered a state of hibernation. By 199 1, he was persuaded
to relinquish all his unpublished documents, which were re-assigned to new editors.
20. The Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumran in Perspective, London, 1977, 24 (originally the 1977
Margaret Harris Lectures delivered at the University of Dundee).

INTRODUCTION

topics for doctoral students at Harvard University. Though responsible

for some good, and occasionally excellent, monographs, this unfortunate
practice further delayed progress as thesis writers like to keep their cards
close to their chests until their PhDs are in the bag.
In 1986, a year before his death, Pierre Benoit resigned as editor-inchief and the depleted international team elected as his successor the
talented but tardy John Strugnell, who in thirty-three years failed to
produce a single volume of text. In 1987, at a public session of a Scrolls
Symposium held in London, I urged him to publish at once the photo
graphic plates, while he and his acolytes carried on with their work at
their customary snail pace. This request was met with a one-syllable neg
ative answer. To the surprise of many, the Israel Antiquities Authority
(or IAA) acquiesced in Strugnells appointment. His grandiose schemes
never bore fruit. In 1990, after a compromising interview given by him
to an Israeli newspaper, in which he was reported as having made dis
paraging remarks not only about Israelis, but also about the Jewish reli
gion - he called it horrible - his fellow editors persuaded him to tender
his resignation. It was accepted by the IAA on health grounds. Belatedly
even the Israelis saw the light, and de facto terminated the thirty-sevenyear-old and ultimately disastrous reign of the international team.
5. 1990-2003
After John Strugnells withdrawal, the very capable Emanuel Tov, Pro
fessor of Biblical Studies at the Hebrew University, was appointed chief
editor, the first Jew and the first Israeli to head the Qumran publication
project. He began his activities auspiciously by redistributing the unpub
lished texts among freshly recruited collaborators. The new editorial
team, of which I became a member in 1991, consists of some sixty schol
ars compared to the original seven! Unfortunately, Tov did not feel free
to cancel the secrecy rule, introduced and strictly enforced by de Vaux
and his successors, prohibiting access to unpublished texts to all but a
few chosen editors. However, the protective dam erected around the
fragments by the international team collapsed in the autumn of 1991
under the growing pressure of public opinion, mobilized in particular by
Hershel Shanks, in the columns of the widely read Biblical Archaeology
Review (BAR). The first landmark event leading towards full freedom
was the publication in early September by BAR1s parent body, the Biblical
Archaeology Society, of seventeen Cave 4 manuscripts reconstructed with

INTRODUCTION

the help of a computer by Ben Zion Wacholder and Martin Abegg21

from the Preliminary Concordance, alluded to earlier, which was privately
issued in twenty-five copies (in theory only for the use of the official
editors) by John Strugnell in 1988.22 Later in the same month out of the
blue came the announcement by William A. Moffett that the Huntington
Library of San Marino, California, a renowned research institution,
would bring to an end the forty-year-old closed shop by opening its
complete photographic archive of the Qumran Scrolls to all qualified
scholars.23
The IAA and the official editors attempted to resist but, by the end of
October, under pressure from the Knesset, Israels parliament, they were
all forced to recognize that the battle was lost and all restrictions had to
be lifted. Almost at once, the Scroll photograph archives at the Oxford
Centre for Postgraduate Hebrew Studies and at the Ancient Biblical
Manuscript Center at Claremont, previously legally compelled to restrict
access only to persons approved by Jerusalem, were also thrown open to
all competent research scholars. Moreover, in November 1991 the Biblical
Archaeology Society published a two-volume photographic edition of
2 1 .A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls: The Hebrew and Aramaic Texts
from Cave 4, Biblical Archaeology Society, Washington, 1991. T w o further volumes
appeared in 1992 and 1995.
22. A Preliminary Concordance to the Hebrew and Aramaic Fragments from Qumran Caves II
to X (distributed by H. Stegemann, Gottingen, 1988).
23. The following brief account of the Huntington Librarys involvement with the Dead
Sea Scrolls is based on documentary evidence kindly provided by its President, Robert A.
Skotheim. In 1982, Elizabeth Hay Bechtel, a renowned Californian philanthropist and
Scroll Maecenas, deposited at the Huntington a set of negatives of Qumran manuscripts.
These had been taken in 1980 by Robert Schlosser, the chief photographer of the library,
for whom Mrs Bechtel obtained permission from the Jerusalem Department of Antiqui
ties to photograph all the Dead Sea Scrolls. T w o series of pictures were produced, one for
the Ancient Biblical Manuscript Center founded by Mrs Bechtel in Claremont, California,
and another for herself. The latter ended up in a climatized vault specially constructed
at the Huntington with the help of a Bechtel grant of $50,000. In 1986, a year before
her death, Mrs Bechtel donated her Scroll photographs to the Huntington. Paragraph 9
of the agreement made in April 1982 specifies that materials on which no restrictive policy
is applied by Mrs Bechtel will be made available to use by scholars in accordance with
the Huntingtons general policies for its own materials. N o such restriction was ever
conveyed by her to the trustees of the library. Bill Moffett became director of the Library
in 1990. It was on the basis of clause 9 of the agreement that he proposed to the
trustees the opening of the Huntingtons Qumran photographs to all qualified users of the
library.
Bill Moffett, the liberator of the Scrolls, died on 20 February 1995 at the age of sixty-two.

INTRODUCTION

the bulk of the Qumran fragments compiled by Robert Eisenman and

James Robinson.24 How the two Californian professors obtained the
material remains unclear. This new policy has had an essentially beneficial
effect on Qumran studies. Since vested interests are no longer protected,
the rate of publication has noticeably accelerated and from 1992 learned
periodicals have been flooded with short or not so short papers by scholars
claiming fresh insights. Free competition has expedited the official edition
itself. The first Cave 4 volume of biblical texts, announced as imminent
by Father Benoit in 1983, actually appeared - pace the 1992 date on the
cover page - on 4 March 1993.25 Scholarship and the general public were
to become the beneficiaries of the new era of liberty. Only the procrasti
nators and the selfish stood to lose. By 1996, thanks to the highly efficient
stewardship of the editor-in-chief, Emanuel Tov, four further volumes
have been published and another four are in the pipeline. Compared with
the output of the previous regime, this is an admirable change indeed. At
the time of the revision of this book, thirty-six out of the thirty-nine
volumes of Discoveries in the Judaean Desert (DJD) have appeared,
twenty-eight of them since the watershed year of the Scrolls revolution
in 1991.

T H E P R E S E N T STA TE OF
D EA D SEA S C R O L L S S T U D IE S
Between 1947 and 1956, the eleven Qumran caves yielded a dozen
scrolls written on leather and one embossed on copper. To these we have
to add fragments on papyrus or leather, the precise number of which is
unknown but probably in the order of six figures. About 800 original
documents are fully or partly represented. The Cave 4 list alone contains
575 titles,26 though it seems that some twenty documents (4Q 342-61)
probably originating from non-Qumran Judaean desert locations were
mistakenly catalogued as 4Q material. Most scrolls are written in Hebrew,
24. Robert H. Eisenman and James M. Robinson, A Facsimile Edition of the Dead Sea
Scrolls, III, Washington, 199 1. The quality of many of these pictures leaves much to be
desired, but others are serviceable.
25. Patrick W . Skehan, Eugene Ulrich and Judith E. Sanderson, Discoveries in the Judaean
Desert, IX : Qumran Cave 4, IV, Palaeo-Hebrew and Greek Biblical Manuscripts, Oxford, 1992.
26. Cf. Emanuel Tov, T he Unpublished Qumran Texts from Caves 4 and n \ J J S 43
(1992), 10 1-3 6 .

10

INTRODUCTION

a smaller portion in Aramaic and only a few attest the ancient Greek or
Septuagint version of the Bible.27
Among the texts previously known, all the books of the Hebrew
Scriptures are extant at least in fragments save Esther, the absence of
which may be purely accidental.28 Even Daniel, the most recent work to
enter the Palestinian canon in the mid-second century b c e , is attested to
by eight manuscripts.29 There are also remains of Aramaic and Greek
scriptural translations.
Furthermore, the caves have yielded some of the Apocrypha, i.e. reli
gious works missing from the Hebrew Scriptures but included in the
Septuagint, the Bible of Greek-speaking Jews. Caves 4 and n revealed
the Book of Tobit in Aramaic and in Hebrew, Psalm cli, described in the
Greek version as a supernumerary psalm, and the Wisdom of Jesus
ben Sira or Ecclesiastdcus in Hebrew. Part of the latter, chapters xxxixxliv, has also survived at Masada, and hence cannot be later than 73/4 c e ,
the date when the stronghold was captured by the Romans, and two
medieval manuscripts, discovered in the storeroom (genizah) of a synagogue
in Cairo in 1896, have preserved about two thirds of the Greek version.
A third category of religious books, the Pseudepigrapha, though very
popular in some Jewish circles, failed to attain canonical rank either in
Palestine or in the Diaspora. Some of them, previously known in Greek,
Latin or Syriac translations, have turned up in their original Hebrew (e.g.
the Book of Jubilees) or Aramaic (e.g. the Book of Enoch). A good many
further compositions pertaining to this class have also come to light, such
as fictional accounts relating among others to Joseph, Amram, Moses,
Joshua or Jeremiah, as well as apocryphal psalms, five of which have sur
vived also in Syriac translation, others being revealed for the first time at
Qumran.
The sectarian Dead Sea Scrolls, thought to have been composed or
revised by the Qumran Community, constitute, with one exception,30 a
27. The claim that several minute Greek scraps from Cave 7 represent the New Testa
ment is unsubstantiated. Cf. below, pp. 4 7 2 -3.
28. It is suggested that the Aramaic fragments of 4 Q 550 derive from a proto-Esther.
29. 4 Q 2 4 2 -6 testify to the existence of a non-canonical Daniel cycle.
30. The exception is the Damascus Document, well attested in Caves 4, 5 and 6, but pre
viously known from two incomplete medieval manuscripts found in the Cairo Genizah,
and first published by S. Schechter as Documents ofJewish Sectaries, I: Fragments of a Zadokite
Work, Cambridge, 1910; repr. with a Prolegomenon by J. A. Fitzmyer (Ktav, 1970). For a
better edition see Magen Broshi, The Damascus Document Reconsidered, Jerusalem, 1992.

INTRODUCTION

complete novelty. This literature comprises rule books, Bible interpre

tation of various kinds, religious poetry, Wisdom compositions in prose
and in verse, sectarian calendars and liturgical texts, one of them pur
porting to echo the angelic worship in the heavenly temple. To these are
to be added several horoscopes or, more precisely, documents of astro
logical physiognomy, a literary genre based on the belief that the temper,
physical features and fate of an individual depend on the configuration
of the heavens at the time of the persons birth, and a text (brontologion)
predicting prodigies if thunder is heard on certain days, with the moon
passing through given signs of the Zodiac. Finally, the Copper Scroll
alludes in cryptic language to sixty-four caches of precious metals and
scrolls, including another copy of this same inventory written without
riddles.
After a first few gaffes committed before the excavation of the site, the
palaeographical, archaeological and literary-historical study of the evidence
produced a general consensus among scholars concerning (a) the age, (b)
the provenance and (c) the significance of the discoveries. Holders of fringe
opinions have recently tended to explain this consensus as tyrannically
imposed from above by Roland de Vaux and his henchmen. The truth,
however, is that the opinio communis has resulted from a natural evolution
ary process - from arguments which others found persuasive even when
advanced by single individuals often unconnected with the international
team - and not from an almighty establishment forcing an official view
down the throats of weaklings.
(a) The Dating o f the Manuscripts
Palaeography was the first method employed to establish the age of the
texts. Despite the paucity of comparative material, experts independently
arrived at dates ranging between the second century b c e and the first
century c e . By the 1960s, in addition to the Qumran texts, they could
make use also of manuscripts from Masada (first century c e ), as well as
from the Murabbaat and other Judaean desert caves yielding first- and
second-century c e Jewish writings. A rather too rigid, but useful, com
prehensive system was quickly devised by F. M. Cross.31 While admittedly
controversial if unsupported either by actual dates in the manuscripts
3 1 . The Development of the Jewish Scripts, in The Bible and the Ancient Near East: Essays
in Honor of IV. F. Albright, Garden City, N Y , 1961, 13 3-2 0 2.

INTRODUCTION

themselves (a phenomenon, alas, unknown at Qumran) or by external

criteria, these palaeographical conclusions were to receive a twofold boost
from archaeology and radiocarbon dating. The archaeological thesis,
based inter alia on the study of pottery and coins, was formulated by
R. de Vaux (cf. note 5 on p. 4). He assigned the occupation of Qumran to
the period between the second half of the second century b c e and the
first war between Jews and Romans (66-70 c e ).
Radiocarbon tests were first applied to the cloth wrapping of one of
the scrolls as early as 1951. The date suggested was 33 c e , but one had to
reckon with a 10 per cent margin of error each way.32 However, with the
improved techniques of the 1990s, eight Qumran manuscripts were sub
jected to Accelerator Mass Spectrometry or AM S. Six of them were found
to be definitely pre-Christian, and only two straddled over the first cen
tury BCE/first century c e dividing line.33 Most importantly, with a single
exception - the Testament of Qahat being shown to be about 300 years
earlier than expected - the radiocarbon dates confirm in substance those
proposed by the palaeographers. Unfortunately, the manuscripts tested
in 1990 did not include historically sensitive texts. But in 1994 the IAA
invited the Arizona AM S Laboratory at the University of Arizona, Tucson
to analyse eighteen texts and two linen fragments. Thirteen of the manu
scripts came definitely from Qumran and one of these had already been
carbon-dated in Zurich. Three texts were date-bearing. The general con
clusion is as follows: Measurements on samples of known ages are in good
agreement with those known ages. Ages determined from 14C measure
ments on the remainder of the Dead Sea Scroll samples are in reasonable
agreement with paleographic estimates of such ages, in the case where
those estimates are available.34 On the whole, the results of this second
radiocarbon analysis are somewhat disappointing in that, while the dates
arrived at accommodate the palaeographic proposals, the margin of error
is considerably greater than that appearing in the 1990 Zurich tests.
Nevertheless, Arizona has scored on one highly significant point: the
Habakkuk Commentary, chief source of the history of the Qumran sect,
is definitely put in the pre-Christian era between 120 and 5 b c e . In
32. Cf. O. R. Sellers, Radiocarbon Dating of Cloth from the Ain Feshkha Cave, B A SO R
123 (19 51), 22-4.
33. G . Bonani et al., Radiocarbon Dating of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Atiqot 20 (1991),
2 5-3 2.
34. A. J. T . Jull et al., Radiocarbon Dating of Scrolls and Linen Fragments from the
Judean Desert, Radiocarbon 37 (1995), 1 1 - 1 9 . The quotation appears on p. 17.

13

INTRODUCTION

consequence, fringe scholars who see in this writing allusions to events

described in the New Testament will find they have a problem on their
hands. In sum, the general scholarly view today places the Qumran Scrolls
roughly between 200 b c e and 70 c e , with a small portion of the texts
possibly stretching back to the third century b c e , and the bulk of the
extant material dating to the first century b c e , i.e. late Hasmonaean or
early Herodian in the jargon of the palaeographers.
(b) The Provenance o f the Manuscripts
With negligible exceptions, scholarly opinion recognized already in the
1 950s that the Scrolls found in the caves and the nearby ruined settle
ment were related. To take the obvious example, Cave 4 with its 575 (or
perhaps 55$) documents lies literally within a stones throw from the
buildings. At the same time, the Essene identity of the ancient inhabi
tants of Qumran gained general acceptance. Today the Essene theory
is questioned by some, but usually for unsound reasons. They adopt a
simplistic attitude in comparing the two sets of evidence, namely the
classical sources (Philo, Josephus and Pliny the Elder) and Qumran, and
any disagreement or contradiction between them is hailed as final proof
against the Essene thesis. Yet, if its intricacies are handled with sophisti
cation, it is still the best hypothesis today.35 Indeed, it accounts best for
such striking peculiarities as common ownership of property and the
lack of reference to women in the Community Rule, the probable co
existence of celibate and married sectaries (in accordance with Flavius
Josephus account of two kinds of Essenes), and the remarkable coinci
dence between the geographical setting of Qumran and Pliny the Elders
description of an Essene establishment near the Dead Sea between
Jericho and Engedi. I admit of course that the Scrolls and the archaeo
logical data surrounding them do not always fully agree with the Greek
and Latin notices, and that both the Qumran and the classical accounts
need to be interpreted and adjusted, bearing in mind that the Scrolls
35. Cf. most recently in The Essenes According to the Classical Sources, Sheffield, 1989,
1 2 -2 3 . The co-author of this volume, Martin Goodman, has recently questioned the use
of the evidence by Josephus to prove the Essene identity of the sect, arguing that Josephus
never presents a full picture of the Jewish scene of his time and that consequently he may
have referred to a group merely similar to the Essenes. Cf. A Note on the Qumran
Sectarians, the Essenes and Josephus, J J S 46 (1995), 16 1-6 . Despite my admiration for
his learning, I exceptionally beg to differ.

14

INTRODUCTION

represent the views of initiates against those of more or less complete

outsiders.36 But since none of the competing theories associating the
Qumran group with Pharisees, Sadducees, Zealots, or Jewish-Christians
can withstand critical scrutiny, I remain unrepentant in upholding my
statement formulated in 1977 as still valid today: The final verdict must
. . . be that of the proposed solutions the Essene theory is relatively the
soundest. It is even safe to say that it possesses a high degree of intrinsic
probability.37
(c) The Significance o f the Qumran Scrolls
The uniqueness of the Qumran discovery was due to the fact that with
the possible exception of the Nash papyrus referred to earlier (p. 3), no
Jewish text in Hebrew or Aramaic written on perishable material could
previously be traced to the pre-Christian period. Before 1947, the oldest
Hebrew text of the whole of Isaiah was the Ben Asher codex from Cairo
dated to 895 c e , as against the complete Isaiah Scroll from Cave 1, which
is about a millennium older. The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, save
the Hebrew Ben Sira and the Aramaic fragments of the Testament of
Levi from the Cairo Genizah, had survived only in translation. The sec
tarian writings found in the caves, apart from the already mentioned
Damascus Document (p. 11), count as a total novelty.
To begin with, the Qumran Scrolls and the other Judaean Desert finds
have created a new discipline: ancient, i.e. pre-medieval, Hebrew codicology.
We now possess concrete evidence that scribes carefully prepared the
leather or papyrus on which they were to write, often ruling them, with
vegetable ink, kept in ink-wells. Paragraphs and larger unit openings were
indicated by symbols in the margins. Longer compositions were written
on scrolls, on one side of the sheets only, some of them numbered, which
were subsequently sewn together. Papyrus documents were often reused,
with a different text inscribed on the verso. Short works such as letters
were recorded on small pieces of writing material: leather, papyrus, wood
or potsherd. By contrast, no book or codex, with pages covered with
script on both sides and bound together, has come to light at Qumran,
or in any other Judaean Desert site.
The Qumran finds have also substantially altered our views concerning
36. For a fuller argument, see below, pp. 46-8.
37. G . Vermes, The Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumran in Perspective, London, 1994, 1 1 7 .

15

IN TRODUCTION

the text and canon of the Bible. The many medieval Hebrew scriptural
manuscripts, representing the traditional or Masoretic text, are remark
able for their almost general uniformity. Compared to the often mean
ingful divergences between the traditional Hebrew text and its ancient
Greek, Latin or Syriac translations, the few variant readings of the
Masoretic Bible manuscripts, ignoring obvious scribal errors, mainly con
cern spelling. By contrast, the Qumran scriptural scrolls, and especially
the fragments, are characterized by extreme fluidity: they often differ not
just from the customary wording but also, when the same book is attested
by several manuscripts, among themselves. In fact, some of the frag
ments echo what later became the Masoretic text; others resemble the
Hebrew underlying the Greek Septuagint; yet others recall the Samari
tan Torah or Pentateuch, the only part of the Bible which the Jews of
Samaria accepted as Scripture. Some Qumran fragments represent a
mixture of these, or something altogether different. It should be noted,
however, that none of these variations affects the scriptural message itself.
In short, while largely echoing the contents of biblical books, Qumran
has opened an entirely new era in the textual history of the Hebrew
Scriptures.38
The Communitys attitude to the biblical canon, i.e. the list of books
considered as Holy Writ, is less easy to define, as no such list of titles has
survived. Canonical status may be presumed indirectly either from author
itative quotations or from theological commentary. As regards the latter,
the caves have yielded various interpretative works on the Pentateuch
(the Temple Scroll, reworked Pentateuch manuscripts, the Genesis
Apocryphon and other commentaries on Genesis) and the Prophets (e.g.
Isaiah, Habakkuk, Nahum, etc.), but only on the Psalms among the
Writings, the third traditional division of the Jewish Bible. From the
texts available in 1988, I collected over fifty examples of Bible citations
which were used as proof in doctrinal expositions, thus indicating that
they were thought to possess special religious or doctrinal importance.39
On the other hand, the Psalms Scroll from Cave 11 contains seven
apocryphal poems, including chapter li of the Wisdom of Jesus ben Sira,
not annexed to, but interspersed among, the canonical hymns. This may
38. For a major restatement of the whole subject, see Emanuel Tov, Textual Criticism of
the Hebrew Bible, Minneapolis-Assen/Maastricht, 1992.
39. Cf. Biblical Proof-texts in Qumran Literature, J S S 34 (1989), 493-508. It should be
noted, however, that the Damascus Document quotes also the Book of Jubilees and a
work attributed to the Patriarch Levi. It is unclear what their status was.

16

IN TRODUCTION

be explained as a liturgical phenomenon, a collection of songs chanted

during worship; but it may, and in my view probably does, mean that at
Qumran the concept Bible was still hazy, and the canon open-ended,
which would account for the remarkable freedom in the treatment of the
text of Scripture by a community whose life was nevertheless wholly
centred on the Bible.
There are two Apocrypha attested at Qumran. In connection with Tobit
one can note that four out of the five Cave 4 manuscripts are in Aramaic
and only one in Hebrew, but they all reflect the longer version of the
Greek Tobit. So the long-debated original language of this book is still
uncertain, but Aramaic has become the likeliest candidate. On the other
hand, the Hebrew poem from Ben Sira l i has a patently better chance of
reflecting the original than either the Greek translation by the authors
grandson, preserved in the Septuagint, or the Hebrew of the medieval
Cairo Genizah manuscripts, because the Qumran version alone faith
fully reflects the acrostic character of the composition with the lines
starting with the successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet, aleph, bet,
gimel, etc.
Qumran has also added to the Pseudepigrapha several new works
dealing with biblical figures such as Joseph, Qahat, Amram, Moses,
Joshua, Samuel. Among the works in this category which were previously
known, the Aramaic fragments of Enoch deserve special mention because
they appear to attest only four out of the five books of the Ethiopic
Enoch.40 Book 2 (i.e. chapters x x x v i i - l x x i i ), which describes the heav
enly apocalyptic figure called son of man, a subject on which New Testa
ment scholars have wasted a considerable amount of ink without
approaching even the vaguest consensus, is missing at Qumran. Thus
the Aramaic Enoch does not support their speculations any more than
do the Greek manuscripts, which are also without chapters x x x v i i l x x i i of the Ethiopic Enoch.41
The contribution of the Scrolls to general Jewish history is negligible,
and even to the history of the Community is fairly limited. The chief reason
for this is that none of the non-biblical compositions found at Qumran
belongs to the historical genre. The sectarian persons and events men
tioned in the manuscripts are depicted in cryptic language as fulfilment
40. Cf. J. T . Milik, The Books of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments of Qumran Cave 4, Oxford, 1976.
4 1 . Cf. E. Schurer, G. Vermes, F. Millar and M. Goodman, The History of the Jewish People
in the Age ofJesus Christ, III, Edinburgh, 1986, 250-68.

*7

INTRODUCTION

of ancient prophecies relating to the last age. The chief sources of

sectarian history, the Damascus Document and the Bible commentaries
or pesharim, identify the Communitys principal enemies as the kings of
Yavan (Greece) and the rulers of the Kittim (Romans). Also, the Nahum
Commentarys historical perspective extends from Antiochus (no doubt
Epiphanes, c. 170 b c e ) to the conquest by the Kittim (probably 63 b c e ).
Names familiar from Jewish or Graeco-Roman history appear here and
there. The Nahum Commentary alludes to Antiochus, and to another
Syrian Greek king, Demetrius (most likely Demetrius III at the begin
ning of the first century b c e ). Very fragmentary historical calendars
from Cave 4 contain the phrase Aemilius killed, meaning no doubt
Aemilius Scaurus, governor of Syria at the time of Pompeys conquest of
Jerusalem in 63. They mention also Jewish rulers of the MaccabaeanHasmonaean era (second-first centuries b c e ), Shelamzion or SalomeAlexandra, widow and successor of Alexander Jannaeus (76-67 b c e );
Hyrcanus and John (Yohanan), either John Hyrcanus I (135/4-104 b c e )
or more likely II (63-40 b c e ) ,42 and King Jonathan, Alexander Jannaeus
or, in my opinion, more likely Jonathan Maccabaeus (161-143/2 b c e ) . 43
In one respect, despite the absence of detail, the evidence is telling: all
these characters belong to the second or the first half of the first century
b c e . So also do most of the coins discovered at Qumran.
The mainstream hypothesis, built on archaeology and literary analy
sis, sketches the history of the Scrolls Community (or Essene sect) as
follows.44 Its prehistory starts in Palestine - some claim also Babylonian
antecedents - with the rise of the Hasidic movement, at the beginning of
the second century b c e as described in the first book of the Maccabees
(1 Mac. ii, 42-44; vii, 13-17). Sectarian (Essene) history itself originated
in a clash between the Wicked Priest or Priests (Jonathan and/or possibly
Simon Maccabaeus) and the Teacher of Righteousness, the anonymous
priest who was the spiritual leader of the Community. The sect consisted
of the survivors of the Hasidim, linked with a group of dissident priests
who, by the mid-second century, came under the leadership of the sons
of Zadok, associates of the Zadokite high priests. This history continues
at Qumran, and no doubt in many other Palestinian localities, until the
years of the first Jewish rebellion against Rome, when possibly in 68 c e
4 2. Cf. Historical Texts C - E , 4 Q 3 3 1 - 3 3 3 , ed. J. A. Fitzmyer, D JD , X X X V I, 28 1-9 .
4 3. Cf. Qumran Forum Miscellanea II: The so-called King Jonathan Fragment
(4Q 448) \ 7J S 44 0993). 294-300.
44. For a more detailed exposition, see Chapter III below.

18

INTRODUCTION

the settlement is believed to have been occupied by Vespasians soldiers.

Whether the legionaries encountered sectarian resistance - such a
theory would be consonant with Josephus reference to an Essene general
among the revolutionaries45 and to a massacre of the Essenes by the
Romans46 - or whether the threatening presence of the contingents of
Zealot Sicarii, who had already expelled the Essenes from Qumran, pro
voked a Roman intervention, are purely speculative matters. One fact is
certain, however. No one of the original occupants of Qumran returned
to the caves to reclaim their valuable manuscripts.
A variation on this theme, called the Groningen hypothesis, postu
lates a whole series of six Wicked Priests, and identifies the Community
not with the main Essene sect but with one of its splinter groups.47 The
Zealot theory, elaborated in the 1950s in Oxford by Sir Godfrey Driver
and Cecil Roth,48 is hard to reconcile with the totality of the available
evidence, as most of the Qumran documents predate the Zealot period.
More recently Norman Golb of Chicago has launched a forceful attack
on the common opinion. His objections, reiterated in a series of papers,49
culminated in 1995 in a hefty tome.50 The target of his criticism is the
provenance of the scrolls found at Qumran. According to him, the manu
scripts originated in a Jerusalem library (or libraries), the contents of

45. Cf. War 11, 567; hi, 1 1 , 19.

46. Cf. War 11, 15 2 -3 .
47. Cf. F. Garcia Martinez, Qumran Origins and Early History: A Groningen Hypothesis,
Folia Orientalia 25 (1988), 1 1 3 - 3 6 ; F. Garcia Martinez and A. S. van der Woude,
A Groningen Hypothesis of Qumran Origins and Early History, RQ 14 (1989-90),
5 2 1-4 2 .
48. G. R. Driver, The Judaean Scrolls: The Problem and a Solution, Oxford, 196 5; C. Roth,
The Historical Background of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Oxford, 1958.
49. T he Problem of Origin and Identification of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society 124 /1 (1980), 1-2 4 ; W ho Hid the Dead Sea Scrolls?, BA 48
(1982), 6 8 -8 2; Khirbet Qumran and the Manuscripts of the Judaean Wilderness: Obser
vations on the Logic of their Investigation, J N E S 49 (1990), 10 3 -14 . For a criticism of
the Golb thesis, see Timothy H. Lim, The Qumran Scrolls: T w o Hypotheses, Studies in
Religion 21/4 (1992), 455-6 6 .
50. Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls? - The Search for the Meaning of the Qumran Manu
scripts, Scribner, New York/London, 1995. This volume repeats a completely miscon
ceived attack on the Oxford Centre for Hebrew and Jewish Studies and on myself as
director of the Centres Forum for Qumran Research, although the facts misinterpreted
by Professor Golb (first in The Qumran Chronicle 2/1, 1992, 3 -25) have been set out cor
rectly by G . Vermes and P. Alexander, Norman Golb and Modern History (ibid., 2/2,
I 993* I 53~^>

a correction in the same periodical 4 /1-2 , 1994, 74).

19

INTRODUCTION

which were concealed in desert caves when the capital was besieged
between 67 and 70 c e . The chief corollary of the hypothesis is that the
Essenes had nothing to do either with the Qumran settlement - a
fortress in Golbs opinion51 - or with the manuscripts.
The early assumption of Scroll scholars that every non-biblical Dead
Sea text was an Essene writing52 might have justified to some extent
Norman Golbs scepticism. But nowadays specialists distinguish between
Qumran manuscripts written by members of the Essene sect, and others
either predating the Community, or simply brought there from outside.
Emanuel Tov, for instance, has drawn a dividing line on scribal grounds
between scrolls produced at Qumran and the rest.53 However, in my
view the soft underbelly of the Jerusalem hypothesis is revealed - apart
from the patent weakness of the archaeological interpretation, for Qumran
is not a fortress - by the composition of the manuscript collection itself,
5 1 . At the Scrolls Symposium held at the Library of Congress in Washington on 2 1 - 2
April 1993, Magen Broshi, Director of the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum in
Jerusalem, delivered a powerful rebuttal of the Golb conjecture as well as the speculative
theory advanced at another conference, held in New York in December 1992, by Pauline
Donceel-Voute, in whose view Qumran was a winter villa built for wealthy inhabitants of
Jerusalem and the room which de Vaux identified as a scriptorium a dining hall (see
Coenaculum, Res Orientates IV (1992), 6 1-84). Against the latter theory, see R. Reich,
A Note on the Function of Room 30 (the Scriptorium) at Khirbet Qumran, J J S 46
(1995), 157-60 . For P. Donceel-Voute the Qumran complex constitutes a country estate,
a villa rustica (Les mines de Qumran reinterpretes, Archaeologia 298 (1994), 24 -35), and
the same theory is propounded by Yizhar Hirschfeld (Early Roman Manor Houses in
Judea and the Site of Khirbet Qumran, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 57 (1998), 16 1-8 9).
According to A. Crown and L. Cansdale, Qumran was a luxurious hostelry for merchants
(Qumran: Was it an Essene Settlement?, BAR 20, No. 5 (1994), 24 -3 5, 73 8)- The
mainstream opinion that the ruins are the remains of an Essene religious settlement is
forcefully maintained by M. Broshi in The Archaeology of Qumran: A Reconsideration
and W as Qumran, indeed, a Monastery?, in Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls, Sheffield Aca
demic Press (2002), 19 8 -210 , 2 59 -73. For the latest and very competent archaeological
account see Jodi Magness, The Archaeology of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Grand
Rapids, 2002.
In January 1996, two Israeli archaeologists investigated man-made caves close to the
settlement which, in their opinion, were used as sleeping quarters by members of the sect.
See M. Broshi and H. Eshel, How and Where Did the Qumranites Live?, Dead Sea Dis
coveries 6 (1999), 328-48.
52. Cf. e.g. John Strugnell, Moses Pseudepigrapha at Qumran, in Archaeology and History
in the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. Lawrence H. Schiffman {Journal for the Study of the Pseude
pigrapha, Supplement, Series 8, Sheffield, 1990, 221).
5 3 . Hebrew Biblical Manuscripts from the Judaean Desert: Their Contribution to
Textual Criticism, J J S 39 (1988), 10 -19 .

20

INTRODUCTION

definitely pointing towards a sectarian library. If Cave 4 is taken as repre

sentative, whereas several biblical books (Kings, Lamentations, Ezra and
Chronicles) are attested only in single copies; and others, as important as
Numbers, Joshua, Judges, Proverbs, Ruth and Ecclesiastes, in two copies,
we find ten copies of the Community Rule and nine of the Damascus
Document. Over a dozen manuscripts contain sectarian calendars, yet not
one mainstream calendar figures among the 575 (or 555) compositions
found in that cave! So, if the texts discovered at Qumran came from the
capital, can their source have been an Essene library in Jerusalem?54

Q UM RAN AND T H E N EW T E ST A M E N T
Since Qumran and early Christianity partly overlap, it is not surprising
that from the very beginning of Dead Sea Scrolls research some scholars
endeavoured to identify the two. The first attempt came from England
in the early 1950s, with Jacob Teicher of Cambridge modestly advancing
the thesis that Jesus was the Teacher of Righteousness and Saint Paul the
Wicked Priest.55 This trend was continued with loud media support by
J. M. Allegros speculation about the role of ammanita muscaria, a hallu
cinogenic fungus, in the genesis of the Christian Church.56 It reached its
climax with Barbara Thierings discovery that John the Baptist was the
Teacher of Righteousness and the married, divorced and remarried
Jesus, father of four children, the Wicked Priest.57As for Robert Eisenman,
he ignores Jesus, and casts instead his brother, James, in the role of the
Teacher of Righteousness, with Paul playing the Wicked Priest.58 In my
opinion all these theories fail the basic credibility test: they do not
spring from, but are foisted on, the texts.59
54. It may also be wondered why the librarians of Jerusalem should have chosen such a
distant place to hide their manuscripts when equally inaccessible caves could have been
found closer to home?
5 5. See his numerous articles in J J S between 19 51 and 1955.
56. The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross, London, 1970.
5 7. Jesus the Man: A New Interpretation from the Dead Sea Scrolls, Doubleday, London and
New York, 1992; Jesus and the Riddle of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Harper, San Francisco and
New York, 1992.
58. Robert Eisenman and Michael Wise, The Dead Sea Scrolls Uncovered, London and New
York, 1992.
59. See my review of The Dead Sea Scrolls Uncovered in the T L S of 4 December 1992 and
The W ar over the Dead Sea Scrolls, The New York Review of Books, 11 August, 1994, 10 -13 .

INTRODUCTION

These - to say the least - improbable speculations as well as the no

less fantastic claim that Qumran Cave 7 yielded remains of the Gospel of
Mark and other New Testament writings in Greek60 need not detain us
any longer.
Turning to the real relationship between the Scrolls and the New
Testament, this can be presented under a threefold heading. (1) We note
(a) fundamental similarities of language (both in the Scrolls and in the
New Testament the faithful are called sons of light); (b) ideology (both
communities considered themselves as the true Israel, governed by twelve
leaders, and expected the imminent arrival of the Kingdom of God);
(c) attitude to the Bible (both considered their own history as a ful
filment of the words of the Prophets). However, all correspondences
such as these may be due to the Palestinian religious atmosphere of the
epoch, without entailing any direct influence.
(2) More specific features, such as monarchic administration (i.e. single
leaders, overseers at Qumran, bishops in Christian communities) and the
practice of religious communism in the strict discipline of the sect and at
least in the early days in the Jerusalem church (cf. Acts ii, 44-5), would
suggest a direct causal connection. If so, it is likely that the young and in
experienced church modelled itself on the by then well-tried Essene society.
(3) In the study of the historical Jesus, the charismatic-eschatological
aspects of the Scrolls have provided the richest gleanings for comparison.
For example, the Prayer of Nabonidus, known since the mid-1950s,61
and concerned with the story of Nabonidus cure by a Jewish exorcist
who forgave his sins, provides the most telling parallel to the Gospel
account of the healing of a paralytic in Capernaum whose sins Jesus
declared forgiven.62
The second example is the so-called Resurrection fragment (4Q521,
cf. below, pp. 412-3).63 In this poem, the age of the eschatological king
dom is characterized, with the help of Psalm cxlvi, 7-8 and Isaiah lxi, 1,
by the liberation of captives, the curing of the blind, the straightening of
the bent, the healing of the wounded, the raising of the dead and the
proclamation of the good news to the poor. Likewise, in the Gospels,
60. Cf. below, pp. 4 7 2 -3 .
6 1. Cf. below, p. 614.
62. Cf. G . Vermes, Jesus the Jew, London, 1973, 67-9; The Religion ofJesus the Jew, Lon
don, 1993, 19 2 -3.
63. See also G . Vermes, Qumran Forum Miscellanea I\ J J S 43 (1992), 30 3-4 , and Emile
Puech, Une apocalypse messianique, RQ 15 (19 9 1-2), 4 7 5 -5 2 2 .

INTRODUCTION

victory over disease and the devil is viewed as the sure sign of the initial
manifestation of Gods reign. Jesus is reported to have announced:
If it is by the finger of God that I cast out demons, the Kingdom of God has
come upon you.

(Lk. xi, 20)

Similarly, to John the Baptists inquiry whether Jesus was the final mes
senger the following reply is sent:
Go and tell John what you hear and see: the blind receive their sight, and the
lame walk, lepers are cleansed and the deaf hear, and the dead are raised up, and
the poor have good news preached to them.

(Matth. xi, 4-5)

Note furthermore that Community Rule 4:6 lists healing as the chief
eschatological reward and that according to the Palestinian Aramaic para
phrases of Genesis iii, 15 the days of the Messiah will bring an ultimate
cure to the children of Eve wounded by the serpent in the garden of Eden.64

Q U M RAN S G R EA T EST N O V ELT Y

If one had to single out the most revolutionary novelty furnished by
Qumran, its contribution to our understanding of the genesis of Jewish
literary compositions could justifiably be our primary choice. Com
parative study of biblical manuscripts, where no two copies display the
same text, and of sectarian works, attested in a number of sometimes
startlingly different redactions, has revealed in one leading scholars
words insufficiently controlled copying.65 In my view, however, the
phenomenon would better be described as scribal creative freedom.
Qumran manuscripts of Scripture, and even more of the Community
Rule and the War Scroll, indicate that diversity, not uniformity, reigned
there and then, and that redactor-copyists felt free to improve the com
position which they were reproducing. Or, to quote myself,
The Dead Sea Scrolls have afforded for the first time direct insight into the cre
ative literary-religious process at work within that variegated Judaism which
flourished during the last two centuries of quasi-national independence, before
the catastrophe of 70

ce

forced the rabbinic successors of the Pharisees to

64. Cf. Targum Neofiti, Fragmentary Targum and Pseudo-Jonathan on Gen. iii, 15.
65. S. Talmon in F. M. Cross and S. Talmon, Qumran and the Origin of the Biblical Text,
Cambridge, Mass., 1975, 380.

23

INTRODUCTION

attempt to create an orthodoxy by reducing dangerous multiplicity to a simple,

tidy and easily controllable unity.66

Looking at the Qumran discoveries from an overall perspective, it is - I

believe - the student of the history of Palestinian Judaism in the interTestamental era ( 1 5 0 B C E - 7 0 c e ) who is their principal beneficiary. For
such an expert, the formerly quite unknown sectarian writings of the
Dead Sea literature have opened new avenues of exploration in the
shadowy era of the life of Jesus, the rise of Christianity and the emer
gence of rabbinic Judaism. From the Jewish side, it was previously poorly
documented. The rabbis of the first and second centuries c e had not
permitted religious writings of that epoch to go down to posterity unless
they conformed fully to their ideas, and although some of these texts
were preserved by Christians (viz. the Apocrypha and many of the
Pseudepigrapha), the fact that they had served as a vehicle for Church
apologetics caused their textual reliability to be suspect. But the Scrolls
are unaffected by either Christian or rabbinic censorship, and now that
their evidence is complete, historians will be thoroughly acquainted, not
with just another aspect of Jewish beliefs or customs, but with the whole
organization, teaching and aspirations of a religious community flourish
ing during the last centuries of the Second Temple.
The Scrolls have understandably awakened intense interest in the
academic world, but why have they appealed so strongly to the imagina
tion of the non-specialist? I would say, the outstanding characteristic of
our age appears to be a desire to reach back to the greatest attainable
purity, to the basic truth free of jargon. Affecting the whole of our out
look, it has necessarily included the domain of religious thought and
behaviour, and with it, in the Western world, the whole subject of
Judaeo-Christian culture and spirituality. A search is being made for the
original meaning of issues with which we have become almost too familiar
and which with the passing of the centuries have tended to become
choked with inessentials, and it has led not only to a renewed preoccupa
tion with the primitive but fully developed expression of these issues in
the Scriptures, but also to a desire for knowledge and understanding of
their prehistory.
The laws and rules, hymns and other liturgical works as well as the
Bible commentaries of the Qumran Community respond to this need

66. The Dead Sea Scrolls Forty Years On, Oxford, 1987, 1 5 -1 6 .

24

INTRODUCTION

in that they add substance and depth to the historical period in which
Jewish Christianity and rabbinic Judaism originated. They reveal one
facet of the spiritual ferment at work among the various Palestinian reli
gious parties at that time, a ferment which culminated in a thorough
re-examination and reinterpretation of the fundamentals of the Jewish
faith. By dwelling in such detail on the intimate organization of their
society, on the role attributed to their Teacher and on their ultimate hopes
and expectations, the sect of the Scrolls has exposed its own resulting
synthesis. This in its turn has thrown into relief and added a new dimen
sion to its dissenting contemporaries. Thus, compared with the ultra
conservative rigidity of the Essene Rule, rabbinic Judaism reveals itself
as progressive and flexible, while the religion preached and practised by
Jesus of Nazareth stands out invested with religious individuality and
actuality. Also, by comparison to all three, the ideology of the Gentile
Church sounds a definitely alien note.67 Yet at the same time, the com
mon ground from which they all sprang, and their affinities and borrow
ings, show themselves more clearly than ever before. It is no exaggera
tion to state that none of these religious movements can properly be
understood independently of the others.
Essenism is dead. The brittle structure of its stiff and exclusive brother
hood was unable to withstand the national catastrophe which struck
Palestinian Judaism in 70 c e . Animated by the loftiest of ideals and devoted
to the observance of perfect holiness, it yet lacked the pliant strength
and the elasticity of thought and depth of spiritual vision which enabled
rabbinic Judaism to survive and flourish. And although the Teacher of
Righteousness clearly sensed the deeper obligations implicit in the
Mosaic Law, he was without the genius of Jesus the Jew who succeeded
in uncovering the essence of religion as an existential relationship between
man and man and man and God.

67. On this, see G . Vermes, The Religion of Jesus the Jew, London and Minneapolis, 1993.

25

II. The Community

Since the early 1950s, the information garnered from the Scrolls and
from Qumrans archaeological remains has been combined by experts to
form a persuasive portrait of the people to which they allude. Yet for all
the advances made in knowledge and understanding, the enigma of the
sect is by no means definitely solved. After all this time, we are still not
certain that we have collated the whole evidence correctly or interpreted
it properly. Questions continue to arise in the mind and there is still no
way to be sure of the answers.
Our perplexity is mainly due to an absence in the documents, singly or
together, of any systematic exposition of the sects constitution and laws.
The Community Rule legislates for a group of ascetics living in a kind of
monastic society, the statutes of the Damascus Document for an ordinary
lay existence; M M T (Miqsat Ma'ase ha-Torah, or Some Observances of
the Law) probably echoes the prehistory or early history of the sect; and
the War Rule and Messianic Rule in their turn, while associated with the
Community Rule and the Damascus Document, and no doubt reflecting
to some extent a contemporary state of affairs, first and foremost plan
for a future age.
Taken together, however, it is clear from this literature that the sec
taries regarded themselves as the true Israel, the repository of the
authentic traditions of the religious body from which they had seceded.
Accordingly, they organized their movement so that it corresponded
faithfully to that of the Jewish people, dividing it into priests and laity
(or Aaron and Israel), and the laity grouped after the biblical model into
twelve tribes. This structure is described in the War Scrolls account of
reconstituted Temple worship as it was expected to be at the end of time:
... the twelve chief Priests shall minister at the daily sacrifice before God ...
Below them ... shall be the chiefs of the Levites to the number of twelve, one
for each tribe ... Below them shall be the chiefs of the tribes ...
26

(iQ M 11, 1-3)

THE

COMMUNITY

Still following the biblical pattern, sectarian society (apart from the tribe
of Levi) was further distinguished into units of Thousands, Hundreds,
Fifties and Tens (iQ S n, 21; CD xm , 1-2). To what extent these figures
are symbolical, we do not know, but it is improbable that Thousands
amounted to anything more than a figure of speech. It is not irrelevant,
in this connection, to note that the archaeologists have deduced from
the fact that the cemetery contained 1,100 graves, dug over the course of
roughly 200 years, that the population of Qumran, an establishment of
undoubted importance, can never have numbered more than 150 to 200
souls at a time. Also, it should be borne in mind that the total member
ship of the Essene sect in the first century ce only slightly exceeded
four thousand (Josephus, Antiquities xvm , 21).
To consider now the two types separately, the monastic brotherhood
at Qumran alludes to itself in the Community Rule as the men of holi
ness and the men of perfect holiness, and to the sect as the Community
and Council of the Community or the men of the Law (4Q Sd=4Q258).
The establishment was devoted exclusively to religion. Work must have
formed a necessary part of their existence; it is obvious from the remains
discovered at Qumran that they farmed, made pots, cured hides and
reproduced manuscripts. But no indication of this appears in the docu
ments. It is said only that they were to eat in common and bless in com
mon and deliberate in common (iQS vi, 2-3), living in such a way as to
seek God with a whole heart and soul (iQ S 1, 1-2). Perfectly obedient
to each and every one of the laws of Moses and to all that was com
manded by the Prophets, they were to love one another and to share
with one another their knowledge, powers and possessions (iQ S 1, 11).
They were to be scrupulous in their observance of the times appointed
for prayer, and for every other aspect o f a liturgical existence conducted

apart from the Temple of Jerusalem and its official cult. Separate from
the habitation of unjust men (iQ S vm , 13), they were to study the
Torah in the wilderness and thereby atone for the Land (iQ S vm , 6,
10) and its wicked men, for whom they were to nourish an everlasting
hatred (iQ S ix, 21), though this went together with a firm conviction
that their fate was in Gods hands alone. And the poet proclaims in the
Hymn with which the Community Rule ends:
I will pay to no man the reward of evil;
I will pursue him with goodness.
For judgement of all the living is with God
And it is He who will render to man his reward.
27

(iQ S x, 17 -18 )

THE COMMUNITY

They were to be truthful, humble, just, upright, charitable and modest.

They were to
watch in community for a third of every night of the year, to read the Book and
to study the Law and to bless together.

(iQ S vi, 7-8)

These are, as may be seen, mostly the sort of recommendations to be

expected of men devoting themselves to contemplation. A point to bear
in mind, however, is that the contemplative life is not a regular feature of
Judaism. An additional distinctive trait of these sectaries is that another
qualification was required of them besides holiness: they were expected
to become proficient in the knowledge of the two spirits in which all
men walk, the spirits of truth and falsehood, and to learn how to dis
criminate between them. They were taught in the so-called instruction
concerning the Two Spirits, the earliest Jewish theological tractate
incorporated into the Community Rule, how to recognize a son of
Light or potential son of Light, and how to distinguish a son of Dark
ness belonging to the lot of Belial (iQ S 111, 13-iv, 25; cf. below
PP- 73- 4)The hierarchy at Qumran was strict and formal, from the highest
level to the lowest. Every sectary was inscribed in the order of his rank
(iQ S vi, 22) - the term order recurs constantly - and was obliged to
keep to it in all the Community meetings and at table, an order that was
subject to an annual review on the Feast of the Renewal of the Covenant.
But after democratic beginnings, with the Congregation (literally, the
Many) as such forming the supreme authority, testified to by what
seems to be the earliest formulation of the communal constitution (cf.
4QSm =4Q256, 258, see below, pp. 118-19), ^ <sons f Zadok, the
priests, members of the Zadokite high-priestly family, took over the
leadership of the sect. Although nothing to this effect is mentioned
specifically in the Community Rule, the superior, the so-called mebaqqer
or Guardian, was undoubtedly one of their number, as was the Bursar of
the Congregation entrusted with handling the material affairs of the
Community. In their hands lay the ultimate responsibility for decisions
on matters of doctrine, discipline, purity and impurity, and in particular
everything pertaining to justice and property (iQ S ix, 7). It was also a
basic rule of the order that a priest was required to be present at any
gathering of ten or more members who were meeting for debate, Bible
study or prayer. A priest was to recite the grace before the common meals
and to pronounce blessings (iQ S vi, 3-8). He was no doubt the man
28

THE COMMUNITY

whose duty it was to study the Law continually (iQ S vi, 7; v iii , 11-12 ).
One interesting feature of the priesthood at Qumran is that their prece
dence was absolute. In Judaism as represented by the Mishnah, the priest
is superior to the Levite, the Levite to the Israelite, and the Israelite to
the bastard (Horayot 111,8). But the priestly precedence is conditional.
If the bastard is a man of learning, we are told, and the High Priest an
uneducated boor, the bastard ... precedes the High Priest.
The highest office was vested in the person of the Guardian, known
also, it would seem, as the Master (maskit). The Community was to be
taught by him how to live in conformity with the Book of the Community
Rule (iQS 1, 1; 4QSa=4Q255), and to be instructed by him in the doc
trine of the two spirits. He was to preside over assemblies, giving leave
to speak to those wishing to do so (iQ S vi, 11-13 ). He was to assess, in
concert with the brethren, the spiritual progress of the men in his charge
and rank them accordingly (iQ S vi, 21-2). And negatively, he was not
to dispute with the men of the Pit (or Dawn) and not to transmit to
them the sects teachings (iQ S ix, 16-17). Of ^ sects institutions, the
most significant appears to have been the Council of the Community, or
assembly of the Congregation. From a passage ordering all the members
to sit in their correct places - the Priests shall sit first, and the elders
second, and all the rest of the people according to their rank (iQ S vi,
8-9) - the Council seems to have been a gathering of the whole commu
nity, under the priests and men of importance, marshalled by the
Levites, and with the Guardian at the head. But in another text, gener
ally held to be an early section, the rule is as follows:
In the Council of the Community there shall be twelve men and three Priests,
perfecdy versed in all that is revealed of the Law, whose works shall be truth,
righteousness, justice, loving-kindness and humility. They shall preserve the
faith in the Land with steadfastness and meekness and shall atone for sin by the
practice of justice and by suffering the sorrows of affliction. They shall walk with
all men according to the standard of truth and the rule of the time.
(iQ S

viii,

1-4 )

These three priests and twelve men are referred to also as fifteen men
in a hybrid version of the Community Rule and the Damascus Document
(4Q265 fr. 7 ii). Their presence was obviously essential: both documents
state that when they are in Israel, the Council of the Community shall
be established in truth (iQ S v i i i , 4-$; 4Q265 fr. 7 ii, 7-8). But whether
they formed the nucleus of the sect as a whole, or the minimum quorum
29

THE

COMMUNITY

of the leadership of the Community, symbolically portrayed as consist

ing of the twelve tribes and the three Levitdcal clans, or a special elite
within the Council designated elsewhere the Foundations of the Com
munity, must be left open to question. The purpose of the meetings is
in any case clear. It was to debate the Law, to discuss their current busi
ness, to select or reject newcomers under the guidance of the Guardian,
to hear charges against offenders and to conduct a yearly inquiry into
the progress of every sectary, promoting or demoting them in rank,
again under the Guardians supervision (iQ S v, 23-4; vi, 13-23). Dur
ing their sessions, order and quiet were to prevail: a person wishing to
offer his opinion or ask a question was to crave permission in a pre
scribed way. He was to rise and tell the Guardian and the Congregation,
I have something to say to the Congregation and then wait for their
consent before going ahead (iQ S vi, 8-13).
The procedure followed in inquiries into infringements of the Law
and the sects Rule has been preserved, and the list of faults with their
corresponding sentences tells us more about the mentality of the Dead
Sea ascetics than any isolated exposition of their doctrine and principles
can do.
Beginning with the blackest sins: any transgression, by commission or
omission, of one word of the Law of Moses, on any point whatever earned
outright expulsion. No former companion might from then on associate
with the sinner in any way at all (iQ S vm , 21-4). Expulsion followed,
secondly, the pronouncement for any reason whatever of the divine Name:
If any man has uttered the [Most] Venerable Name, even though frivolously, or as a
result of shock, or for any other reason whatever, while reading the Book or bless
ing, he shall be dismissed and shall return ... no more.

(iQ S vi, 27-vn , 2)

Thirdly, a sectary was expelled for slandering the Congregation (iQ S

vii, 16). Fourthly, he was sent away for rebelling against the Founda
tions of the Community :
Whoever has murmured against the authority of the Community shall be
expelled and shall not return.

(iQ S

v ii,

17)

Lastly, where a man had been a member of the Council for at least ten
years and had then defected to walk in the stubbornness of his heart,
not only was he to be expelled, but the same judgement was extended to
any of his former colleagues who might take pity on him and share with
him their food or money (iQ S v i i , 22-3).
3

THE

COMMUNITY

The remaining offences are of a kind that might be confessed and

censured in any Christian religious order of today, though one cannot
perhaps say the same of the penances imposed for them.
In a descending order of gravity: a man who betrayed the truth and
walked in the stubbornness of his heart (iQ S vn, 18-21), or trans
gressed the Mosaic Law inadvertently (iQ S vm , 24-ix, 1), was visited
with two years of penance. He was to lose his rank and during the first
year be separated from the purity of the Congregation, and during the
second year, from its drink. Both notions will be developed presently.
He was then to be re-examined by the Congregation and subsequently
returned to his place in the order.
Lying in matters of property, in all probability the partial concealment
of personal possessions, earned exclusion from purity for a year and a
cut by one quarter in the food ration (iQ S vi, 25-7). The penal code of
4Q265, which closely resembles that of iQ S, prescribes for deceiving a
companion an exclusion for six months and a halving of the guilty persons
food portion. Disrespect to a companion of higher rank, rudeness and
anger towards a priest, slander and deliberate insult, all earned one year
of penance and exclusion from purity (iQ S vi, 25-7; vn, 2-5). After
this, the sentences decrease to six months, three months, thirty days and
ten days of penance.
For lying deliberately and similarly deceiving by word or deed, for
bearing malice unjustly, for taking revenge, for murmuring against a
companion unjustly and also for going naked before his companion,
without having been obliged to do so - a curious proviso - the sectary
was to atone for six months. For failing to care for a companion and for
speaking foolishly: three months. For falling asleep during a meeting of
the Council, for leaving the Council while members were standing (in
prayer?), for spitting in Council, for guffawing foolishly, for being so
poorly dressed that when drawing his hand from beneath his garment
his nakedness has been seen: thirty days. The penal code contained in
another of the Cave 4 manuscripts of the Damascus Document (4Q266)
mentions also ten days penance, in addition to the thirty days expulsion
inflicted on someone who has fallen asleep during a meeting! And for
leaving an assembly three times without reason, for interrupting another
while speaking, for gesticulating with the left hand: ten days (iQS v i i , 15).
A fascinating fragment (4Q477) has preserved in writing cases of misbe
haviour by named sectaries: Yohanan son of ... was short-tempered ;
Hananiah Notos led astray the spirit of the Community and either
31

THE

COMMUNITY

pampered himself or showed favouritism to his near kin(?); and another

Hananiah son of Sim[on] loved something no doubt prohibited.
That the common table was of high importance to Qumran daily life
is evident from the fact that only the fully professed and the faultless,
that is to say those who were inscribed ... for purity and not sub
sequently disqualified, were allowed to sit at it. There is no explicit men
tion of a ritual bath preceding the meals, but from various references to
purification by water, as well as the presence of bathing installations at
Qumran, it is likely that the sectaries immersed themselves before eating
as did the Essenes according to Josephus (War n, 129). But little more is
learnt of the meal itself from the Community Rule than that when the
table had been prepared for eating, and the new wine for drinking, the
priest was to be the first to bless the food and drink (iQ S vi, 4-5). The
implication would be that after him the others did the same, an in
ference supported by the Messianic Rule, where a similar meal is des
cribed attended by two Messiahs (iQ Sa 11, 17-21). Some uncertainty
surrounds the meaning of new wine, but it would seem from the use in
the Scrolls (with the exception of the Temple Scroll), of the alternative
Hebrew words for wine - tirosh and yayin - that the latter often has
pejorative connotations. More likely than not, the wine drunk by the
sectaries, the drink of the Congregation, was unfermented grape-juice.
Another topic to be considered under the heading of communal life
and institutions is the crucial one of induction into the sect. And if it
should seem strange to place it towards the end rather than at the begin
ning, the explanation is that with an idea, however sketchy, of what was
entailed by adherence to the movement, the process by which it admit
ted a Jew into its company becomes easier to follow. According to the
regime adopted at Qumran, a person desiring to join the sect remained
on probation, certainly for two years and possibly for three or more. His
first move was to appear before the Guardian at the head of the Con
gregation, meaning no doubt during a session of the Congregation,
who inquired into his principles to discover if he was a suitable postu
lant. If they were satisfied, he entered the Covenant (iQ S vi, 13-15).
That is to say, he solemnly swore there and then to adhere to the Torah
as the sect interpreted it, vowing
by a binding oath to return with all his heart and soul to every commandment of
the Law of Moses in accordance with all that has been revealed of it to the sons
of Zadok... the Keepers of the Covenant.

32

(iQ S v, 7-9)

THE

COMMUNITY

After a further period of unspecified length, during which he received

instruction from the Guardian in all the rules of the Community, he
appeared once more before the Congregation, who confirmed him as a
novice or dismissed him. But although he was now accepted into the
Council of the Community, he was nevertheless still not admitted to
purity for another full year. The same rule applied also in the group
represented by 4Q265 fr. 1.
This concept of pure things (itohorah, taharah or tohorot, literally
purity or purities) needs some comment. It seems to designate here as
in rabbinic literature ritually pure food (cf. also 4Q274 1), as well as the
vessels and utensils in which it is contained or cooked. It includes also
garments. The tohorot, moreover, are distinguished by the rabbis from
mashqin, liquids, the latter being considered much more susceptible to
contract impurity than solid comestibles. Hence, in ordering the novice
not to touch the pure things of the Congregation, the Community for
bade him all contact with its pots, plates, bowls and necessarily the food
that they held. He was not, in effect, to attend the common table and
had to eat elsewhere. Although the context is very different, a parallel
rule figures in the Temple Scroll ( l x i i i , 13-14), prohibiting a Gentile
woman married to her Jewish captor to touch his tohorah for seven years.
During this first year of the novitiate, the newcomer could not share
the sects property. At a third Community inquiry, he was examined for
his understanding and observance of the Law and, if his progress was
judged to be adequate, he handed over his money and belongings to the
Bursar of the Congregation, but they were set aside and not yet absorbed
into Community ownership. During this second year, furthermore, the
ban on touching the pure things was relaxed, but he could still not touch
liquids, the Drink [mashqeh] of the Congregation (iQ S vi, 20-21; vn,
20; cf. also 4Q284 1). Finally, with the second year over, the novice had
once more to undergo an examination, after which, according to the
judgement of the Congregation, he was at last inscribed among the
brethren in the order of his rank for the Law, and for justice, and for
purity. Also, his property was amalgamated with theirs and he possessed
the right from then on to speak his mind in the Council of the Community
(iQ S vi, 13-23).
In sum, this strict and extended curriculum falls into two stages. The
postulant is first brought into the Covenant, swearing total fidelity to
the Mosaic Law as interpreted by the sects priestly teachers, and to sep
arate from all the men of injustice who walk in the way of wickedness
33

THE

COMMUNITY

(iQ S v, i o - i i ). He then secondly embarks on a course of training as a

preliminary to joining the holy Congregation (iQ S v, 20). In other
words, entering the Covenant and entering the Community was not one
act, but two.
It has long been debated whether the Qumran sectaries were married
or celibate. From the image of their life projected so far on the basis of
the Community Rule, few will probably disagree that the idea of the
presence of women among them appears incongruous. The impression
received is that of a wholly masculine society: indeed, they were actually
enjoined not to follow a sinful heart and lustful eyes, committing all
manner of evil (iQS 1, 6). In further support of the argument for
celibacy, the word ishab, woman, occurs nowhere in the Community Rule.
Or rather, to be more exact, it is encountered once in the final Hymn, in
the cliche, one born of woman (iQ S xi, 21). Moreover, against the
Cave 4 Damascus Document regulation (4Q270 fir. 7), which envisages a
membership of married people and imposes the penalty of expulsion on
anyone murmuring against the Fathers but only a ten-day penance for
murmuring against the Mothers, the Community Rule speaks only of
the crime of murmuring against the authority of the Community (iQ S
v i i , 17). Silence concerning the presence of women seems therefore
deliberate. Yet the fact cannot be overlooked that although in the main
graveyard itself the twenty-six tombs so far opened at random (out of
1,100) have all contained adult male skeletons, the archaeologists have
uncovered on the peripheries of the cemetery the bones of six women
and three children too (R. de Vaux, Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls,
47-8; J.-R Humbert, Fouilles de Kh. Qumran, 346-52). A more extensive
exploration of the cemetery would eliminate most of these uncertainties.
The Damascus Document, the hybrid Community Rule-Damascus
Document text (4Q265) and the Temple Scroll, as well as the Messianic
Rule and occasionally the War Rule and MMT, are concerned with a
style of religious existence quite at variance with that at Qumran. In the
towns or camps, as the Damascus Document terms them (CD xn,
19, 23), adherents of the sect lived an urban or village life side by side
with, yet apart from, their fellow Jewish and Gentile neighbours. They
had wives and reared children, but clearly their sexual morality followed
particularly strict rules. A Cave 4 Damascus Document manuscript lays
down that whoever has approached his wife, not according to the rules,
(thus) fornicating, he shall leave and will not return again (4Q270 fr. 7 i).
The married sectaries employed servants, engaged in commerce and
34

THE COMMUNITY

trade (even with Gentiles), tended cattle, grew vines and com in the sur
rounding fields, and discharged their duties to the Temple by way of
offerings, but in doing so they were obliged like their brothers in the
desert to show absolute obedience to the Law and to observe the sects
appointed times. There is no indication, however, that the continual
and intensive study of the Torah played any part in their lives. Nor in
their regard is there any mention of instruction in the doctrine of the
two spirits, as membership of the group was a birthright and not the
outcome of a process of selection and training.
How many of these people, if any, lived in Jerusalem is not known, but
they must at least have visited the city from time to time, since a statute
forbids them to enter the house of worship (possibly the Temple) in a
state of ritual uncleanness, or to lie with a woman in the city of the
Sanctuary to defile the city of the Sanctuary with their uncleanness (CD
i, 22; x i i , i ; T S x l v , 11-12 ).
Little is revealed in the Damascus Document of how the life span of
the individual progressed in the towns, and for this we have to turn to
the Messianic Rule in the hope that it reflects contemporary actuality as
well as the ideal life of an age to come.
According to the latter Rule, members of the Covenant were permit
ted to marry at the age of twenty, when they were estimated to have
reached adulthood and to know [good] and evil (iQ Sa 1, 9-11). For
the subsequent five years they were then allowed to assist (as opposed
to taking an active part) at hearings and judgements. At twenty-five, they
advanced one grade further and qualified to work in the service of the
Congregation (iQ Sa 1, 12-13). At thirty, they were regarded as at last
fully mature and could participate in the affairs of the tribunals and
assemblies, taking their place among the higher ranks of the sect, the
chiefs of the thousands of Israel, the chiefs of the Hundreds, Fifties and
Tens, the Judges and the officers of their tribes, in all their families, [under
the authority] of the sons of [Aar]on the Priests (iQ Sa 1, 8-16). As
office-holders, they were expected to perform their duties to the best of
their ability and were accorded more honour or less in conformity with
their understanding and the perfection of their way. As they grew
older, so their burdens became lighter (iQ Sa 1, 19).
As at Qumran, supreme authority rested in the hands of the priests,
and every group of ten or more was to include a priest learned in the
Book of Meditation and to be ruled by him (CD xm , 2-3). His prece
dence, on the other hand, is not represented as absolute in the towns.
35

THE

COMMUNITY

It is explicitly stated that in the absence of a properly qualified priest, he

was to be replaced by a Levite who would perform all the functions of a
superior except those specially reserved in the Bible to the priesthood
such as applying the laws of leprosy (CD xm , 3-7). The Cave 4 manu
scripts of the Damascus Document (4Q266, 269, 272-3) describe at
length the diagnosis of the onset and eventual cure of skin disease.
Priests with speech defects, those who had been prisoners of war or had
settled and been active among Gentiles were disqualified from perform
ing priestly duties or eating sacred food (4Q266 fr. 5). The Cave 4 ver
sion of the Damascus Document legislates also on agricultural priestly
dues (4Q266 fir. 6; 271 fr. 2).
As in the Community Rule, the head of the camp is designated in the
Damascus Document, as well as in 4QD51 (4Q266 fr. 5 i) and in the
hybrid 4Q265 fr. 1 ii, as the mebaqqer or Guardian. He appears, how
ever, not to be supported by a council. In fact, the words Council of the
Community are absent from this document apart from the transitional
4Q265 firs. 1 ii and 7 ii, where the use of the term is more general in the
first case and represents the ideal nucleus of the sect in the second.
There is reference to the company of Israel, on the advice of which it
would be licit to attack Gentiles (CD x i i , 8), but this type of war coun
cil, mentioned also in the Messianic Rule (iQSa 1, 26), can surely have
had nothing to do with the assemblies described in the Community
Rule. (The only possible parallel is the council of Holiness in CD xx,
24, in which a not strictly observant member was to be judged.) The
Guardian of the camps, in any case, stands on his own as teacher and
helper of his people. He shall love them, writes the author,
as a father loves his children, and shall carry them in all their distress like a shep
herd his sheep. He shall loosen all the fetters which bind them that in his Con
gregation there may be none that are oppressed or broken.

(CD xm , 9-10)

The Guardian was to examine newcomers to his congregation, though

not, it should be noted, to determine their spirit, and was to serve as
the deciding authority on the question of their admission (cf. also
4Q265 fr. 1 ii). These offices are of course already familiar to us from
the Community Rule. But an additional task of the mebaqqer in the
towns was to ensure that no friendly contact occurred between his con
gregation and anyone outside the sect. Whatever exchanges took place
had to be paid for; and even these transactions were to be subject to his
consent (CD xm , 14-16).
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THE

COMMUNITY

Instead of dealing with offenders in Community courts of inquiry, the

towns had their tribunals for hearing cases, equipped moreover with
judges. These were to be ten in number, elected for a specific term and
drawn from the tribes of Levi, Aaron and Israel: four priests and Levites,
and six laymen (CD x, 4-7). They were to be not younger than twentyfive and not older than sixty - in the Messianic Rule, which also speaks
of judges, the age-limi ts are thirty and sixty years (iQ S a i, 1 3 - 1 5 ) - and
were to be expert in biblical law and the constitutions of the Covenant.
The arrangement would seem, in fact, to be fairly straightforward. Yet it
is not entirely so. For example, it is evident that the Guardian was also
implicated in legal matters; he had to determine whether a proper case
had been made out against a sectary and whether it should be brought
before the court (CD ix, 16-20), and in certain cases he appears to have
imposed penalties on his own (CD xv, 13-14). The Priest overseeing
the Congregation of one of the Cave 4 fragments of the Damascus
Document (4Q270 fr. 7 i-ii) appears to perform the same single judicial
function as the Guardian in the case of an inadvertent sin. We are not
told whether the ten judges sat together, whether they were all drawn
from the locality in which they lived, or whether they travelled as it were
on circuit as nowadays. The code of law they were expected to administer,
as laid down in the Damascus Document, differs in content from that of
the Community Rule. Furthermore, although, unlike the Qumran code,
a sentence is prescribed only rarely, sometimes it is the death penalty.
We have here, in addition to matters relating primarily to communal
discipline to a large extent identical with the Community Rule, a more
detailed sectarian reformulation of scriptural laws regulating Jewish life
as such.
The first group of statutes, concerned with vows, opens with the
injunction that in order to avoid being put to death for the capital sin of
uttering the names of God, the sectary must swear by the Covenant
alone. Such an oath would be fully obligatory and might not be can
celled (CD xvi, 7-8). If he subsequently violated his oath, he would
then have only to confess to the priest and make restitution (CD xv,
1-5). The sectary is also ordered not to vow to the altar articles acquired
unlawfully, or the food of his own house (CD xvi, 13-15), and not to
make any vow in the fields but always before the judges (CD ix, 9-10).
He is threatened with death if he vows another to destruction by the
laws of the Gentiles (CD ix, 1). As for the right conferred by the Bible
on fathers and husbands to annul vows made by their daughters or wives,
37

THE COMMUNITY

the Damascus Document limits it to the cancellation of oaths which

should have never been made in the first place (CD xvi, 10 -12 ; for a
somewhat different rule, see T S l i i i , i 6 - l i v , 5). It is clearly stated that
no accusation is valid without prior warnings before witnesses (CD ix,
2-3). A record of reported moral failings (4Q477) has already been
quoted (cf. above, pp. 31-2).
A few ordinances are concerned with witnesses. No one under the age
of twenty was to testify before the judges in a capital charge (CD ix,
23-x, 2). Also, whereas the normal biblical custom is that two or three
witnesses are needed before any sentence can be pronounced (Deut. xix,
15; cf. also 1 iQ T S l x i , 6-12), a single witness being quite unacceptable,
unus testis nullus testis, sectarian law allowed the indictment of a man
guilty of repeating the same capital offence on the testimony of single
witnesses to the separate occasions on which it was committed, provid
ing they reported it to the Guardian at once and that the Guardian
recorded it at once in writing (CD ix, 17-20). With regard to capital
cases, to which should be added apostasy in a state of demonic posses
sion (CD xn, 2-3), the adultery of a betrothed girl (4Q159, fir. 224,
10 -11), slandering the people of Israel and treason (TS l x i v , 6-13), it is
highly unlikely that either the Jewish or the Roman authorities would
have granted any rights of execution to the sect. So this is probably part
of the sects vision of the future age, when it as Israel dejure would con
stitute de facto the government of the chosen people.
The penal code of the Damascus Document (4Q270) stipulates irrev
ocable expulsion in the case of a man fornicating with his wife. This
may refer to illicit sexual relations with a menstruating woman or, per
haps more likely, with a pregnant or post-menopausal woman since, as
Josephus clearly states in connection with married Essenes, sex between
spouses was licit only if it could result in conception (War 11, 161).
A section devoted to Sabbath laws displays a marked bias towards
severity. In time, rabbinic law developed the Sabbath rules in still greater
detail than appears here, but the tendency is already manifest.
The sectary was not only to abstain from labour on the sixth day from
the moment when the suns orb is distant by its own fullness from the
gate (wherein it sinks) (CD x, 15-16), he was not even to speak about
work. Nothing associated with money or gain was to interrupt his Sabbath
of rest (CD x, 18-19). No member of the Covenant of God was to go
out of his house on business on the Sabbath. In fact, he was not to go
out, for any reason, further than 1,000 cubits (about 500 yards), though
38

THE COMMUNITY

he could pasture his beast at a distance of 2,000 cubits from his town
(CD x, 21; xi, 5-6). He could not cook. He could not pick and eat fruit
and other edible things lying in the fields. He could not draw water and
carry it away, but must drink where he found it (CD x, 22-3). He could
not strike his beast or reprimand his servant (CD xi, 6, 12). He could
not carry a child, wear perfume or sweep up the dust in his house (CD
xi, 10 -11). He could not assist his animals to give birth or help them if
they fell into a pit; he could, however, pull a man out of water or fire
without the help of a ladder or rope (CD xi, 13-14 , 16-17). Interpreting
the Bible restrictively (Lev. xxiii, 38), the sects lawmaker (or makers)
commanded him to offer no sacrifice on the Sabbath save the Sabbath
bumt-offering, and never to send a gift to the Temple by the hand of
one smitten with any uncleanness permitting him thus to defile the
altar (CD xi, 19-20). He was also never to have intercourse while in the
city of the Sanctuary (CD xn, 1-2; 11Q T S x l v , 1-12).
The punishment imposed for profaning the Sabbath and the feasts in
any of these ways was not death as in the Bible (Num. xv, 35), nor even
expulsion as in the Community Rule. It was seven years imprisonment.
It shall fall to men to keep him in custody. And if he is healed of his error, they
shall keep him in custody for seven years and he shall afterwards approach the
Assembly.

(CD xn, 4-6)

In the last group, the ordinances appear to be only loosely connected,

though some of them involve relations with the larger Jewish-Gentdle
world. One such forbids killing or stealing from a non-Jew, unless so
advised by the company of Israel (CD xn, 6-8). Another proscribes the
sale to Gentiles of ritually pure beasts and birds, as well as the produce
of granary and wine-press, in case they should blaspheme by offering
them in heathen sacrifice. M M T further prohibits acceptance of offer
ings (wheat or meat) by Gentiles (4Q394 firs. 3-7). A ban is similarly laid
on selling to Gentiles foreign servants converted to the Jewish faith (CD
x i i , 11). But in addition to these regulations affecting contacts with nonJews, a few are concerned with dietary restrictions. Thus:
No man shall defile himself by eating any live creature or creeping thing, from
the larvae of bees to all creatures which creep in water.

(CD

xii,

12 -13 )

Others deal with the laws of purity (CD xn, 16-18) and purification
(CD x, 10-13) and with uncleanness resulting from various sexual
discharges and childbirth (4Q266 fir. 6 i-ii). Outside the Damascus
39

THE

COMMUNITY

Document, the B section of M M T (4Q394-5), 4QPuritdes (4Q274,

276-7, 284) and the Temple Scroll (11Q T S x l v - l i ) provide ample
information on purity matters, including the law relative to the burning
of the red heifer whose ashes were a necessary ingredient for the mak
ing of the water for (removing) uncleanness (M M T 4Q394 3-7 i, 395;
4Q276-7).
Two types of meeting are provided for, with equal laconism: the
assembly of the camp presided over by a priest or a Levite and the
assembly of all the camps (CD xiv, 3-6). Presumably the latter was
the general convention of the whole sect held on the Feast of the
Renewal of the Covenant, the annual great festival alluded to in 4QD
(266, 270), when both the men of holiness and the men of the Covenant
confessed their former errors and committed themselves once more to
perfect obedience to the Law and the sects teachings. According to the
available texts, the sectaries were to be mustered and inscribed in their
rank by name, the priests first, the Levites second, the Israelites third. A
fourth group of proselytes is unique to the towns, but as has been
observed these were Gentile slaves converted to Judaism. A further
remark that in this order the sects members were to be questioned on
all matters leads one to suppose that the allusion must be to the yearly
inquiry into their spiritual progress mentioned in the Community Rule
(CD xiv, 3-6).
Two Cave 4 manuscripts of the Damascus Document describe the
expulsion ceremony of an unfaithful member. He was cursed and dis
missed by the Priest overseeing the Congregation and cursed also by all
the inhabitants of the camps. Should the latter maintain contact with the
renegade, they would forfeit their own membership of the sect (4Q266
fir. 11 ii; 270 fr. 7 i-ii).
Apart from these familiar directions, we learn only that the priest who
mustered the gathering was to be between thirty and sixty years old and,
needless to say, learned in the Book of Meditation. The Guardian of
all the camps, in his turn, was to be between thirty and fifty, and to have
mastered all the secrets of men and the language of all their clans. He
was to decide who was to be admitted, and anything connected with a
suit or judgement was to be brought to him (CD xiv, 7-12).
As for the initiation of new members, the Statutes appear to legislate
for young men reaching their majority within the brotherhood and for
recruits from outside. This is not entirely clear, but the instruction that
an aspirant was not to be informed of the sects rules until he had stood
40

THE

COMMUNITY

before the Guardian can hardly have applied to a person brought up

within its close circle (CD xv, 5-6, 10 -11).
Of the sects own young men the Damascus Document writes merely:
And all those who have entered the Covenant, granted to all Israel for ever, shall
make their children who have reached the age of enrolment, swear with the oath
of the Covenant.

(CD xv, 5-6)

The Messianic Rule is more discursive. There, enrolment into the sect is
represented as the climax of a childhood and youth spent in study.
Teaching of the Bible and in the precepts of the Covenant began long
before the age of ten, at which age a boy embarked on a further ten years
of instruction in the statutes. It was not until after all this that he was
finally ready.
From [his] youth they shall instruct him in the Book of Meditation and shall
teach him, according to his age, the precepts of the Covenant. They [shall be
edu]cated in their statutes for ten years ... At the age of twenty years [he shall
be] enrolled, that he may enter upon his allotted duties in the midst of his family
(and) be joined to the holy congregation.

(iQ Sa 1, 6-9)

The newcomer from outside who repented of his corrupted way was to
be enrolled with the oath of the Covenant on the day that he spoke to
the Guardian, but no sectarian statute was to be divulged to him lest
when examining him the Guardian be deceived by him (CD xv, 7-11).
Nevertheless, if he broke that oath, retribution would be exacted of
him. The text subsequently becomes fragmentary and unreliable, but he
is told where to find the liturgical calendar which his oath obliges him to
follow.
As for the exact determination of their times to which Israel turns a blind eye,
behold it is stricdy defined in the Book of the Divisions of the Times into their
Jubilees and Weeks.

(CD xvi, 2-4)

It should be added here that one big difference between the organization
of the brethren in the towns and those of the monastic settlement is
that new members were not required to surrender their property. There
was none of the voluntary communism found at Qumran. On the other
hand, where the desert sectaries practised common ownership, those of
the towns contributed to the assistance of their fellows in need. Every
man able to do so was ordered to hand over a minimum of two days
wages a month to a charitable fund, and from it the Guardian and the
41

THE COMMUNITY

judges distributed help to the orphans, the poor, the old and sick, to
unmarried women without support and to prisoners held in foreign
hands and in need of redemption (CD xiv, 12-16).
When the two varieties of sectarian life are compared, we find many
similarities, especially since the fragments of 4QD and 4Q265 have
become accessible, but some of the differences still remain striking. In the
desert of Qumran men lived together in seclusion; in the towns they were
grouped in families, surrounded by non-members with whom they were
in inevitable though exiguous contact. The desert brotherhood was to
keep apart from the Temple in Jerusalem until the restoration of the true
cult in the seventh year of the eschatological war; the town sectaries par
ticipated in worship there. The judges of the towns had no counterparts
at Qumran. The Qumran Guardian was supported by a Council; the town
Guardians acted independently. Unfaithful desert sectaries were sen
tenced to irrevocable excommunication, or to temporary exclusion from the
common life, or to suffer lighter penances; the penal code concerned with
the towns envisages also the death penalty (whether actually executed or
not) as well as corrective custody. The common table and the purity
associated with it played an essential role at Qumran; in connection with
the towns the common meal, but not the pure food, goes unmentioned.
Furthermore, at Qumran all the new recruits came from outside; in the
towns, some were converts but others were the sons of sectaries. The
desert novices underwent two years of training and were instructed in the
doctrine of the two spirits; the towns converts were subjected to neither
experience. In the desert, property was owned in common; in the towns,
it was not. And last but not least, the desert community appears to have
practised celibacy, whereas the town sectaries patently did not.
Yet despite the dissimilarities, at the basic level of doctrine, aims and
principles, a perceptible bond links the brethren of the desert with those
of the towns. They both claim to represent the true Israel. They both
are led by priests, Zadokite priests according to iQ S, the Damascus
Document and the Messianic Rule, but not 4QSb(=4Q256), 4QSd
(=40258) and M M T.1 Both form units of Thousands, Hundreds, Fifties
1. T he absence of any mention of the sons of Zadok, the Priests in M M T deals a serious
blow to the hypothesis that a proto-Sadducaean priestly group lurks behind this docu
ment. The basis of this theory is that three legal doctrines (out of a list of more than
twenty) voiced in M M T are attributed to the Sadducees in rabbinic literature. But the
soundest position is to consider these teachings as priestly halakhot, held by the fore
runners of the Qumran Community and the later Sadducees.

42

THE

COMMUNITY

and Tens, both insist on a wholehearted return to the Mosaic Law in

accordance with their own particular interpretation of it. They are both
governed by priests (or Levites). The principal superior, teacher and
administrator of both is known by the unusual title of mebaqqer. In both
cases, initiation into the sect is preceded by entry into the Covenant, sworn
by oath. Both groups convene yearly to review the order of precedence
of their members after an inquiry into the conduct of each man during
the previous twelve months. Above all, both embrace the same unortho
dox liturgical calendar that sets them apart from the rest of Jewry.
There can be only one logical conclusion: this was a single religious
movement with two branches. It does not, however, answer all our ques
tions. It does not tell us in particular whether the differentiation resulted
from a relaxation or from a hardening of the original ascetic rules.
Neither are we told whether the sectaries of desert and towns maintained
regular contact among themselves. After all, the history of religions
furnishes scores of examples of sister sects which turned into mortal
enemies. Did the Qumran and towns fellowships profess and practise
unity? A few vital clues suggest that they did.
One indication of a living relationship between the two groups derives
from the Qumran library itself. In it were discovered no less than ten
copies of the Damascus Document and other writings reflecting the
same form of life. It seems hardly likely that they would have figured so
prominently among the Qumran literary treasures if they had been the
rule books of some rival institution. Besides, there was no trace of any
other book in the caves relating to an opposing religious faction except
perhaps in the shape of rebuttal in M M T. Another pointer towards unity
appears in the passage of the Damascus Document outlining the proce
dure for the assembly of all the camps and prescribing that the mem
bers were to be inscribed by name in hierarchical rank. This clause
corresponds exactly to the statute in the Community Rule ordaining a
yearly ranking of the sectaries (iQ S ii , 19-23), with a solemn ritual for
the Renewal of the Covenant (for an analysis of the rite, see pp. 80-81).
This leads us to suppose that the Feast of the Covenant, when the desert
brethren held their annual spiritual survey, was also the occasion for that
of the towns. Can we go further still and establish that the two cere
monies took place, not only at the same time, but at the same place? In
effect, the literary and archaeological evidence tends to support the
theory that the assembly of all the camps, identical with the yearly
assembly of the Qumran branch, gathered at Qumran.
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THE

COMMUNITY

The first clue turns on the qualifications of the mebaqqer of the Com
munity Rule and the Damascus Document respectively. As may be remem
bered, the superior at Qumran was required to be expert in recognizing
the nature of all the children of men according to the kind of spirit
which they possess (iQ S in, 13-14), while the mebaqqer of the towns
was to be concerned rather more with a mans deeds, possessions,
ability, etc., than with his inner spirit. When, however, the Damascus
Document describes the attributes needed of the Guardian of all the
camps, what do we find but a reformulation of those accredited to the
superior of the desert community, that he should know all the secrets of
men and all the languages of their clans? It would emerge from this,
therefore, that the Guardian of all the camps and the Guardian at Qumran
were one and the same person. The next hint comes from the fact that
the Damascus Document is directed to both desert and town sectaries.
As an example, the passage from the Exhortation advising men to choose
whatever is pleasing to God and to reject whatever he hates, that you
may walk perfectly in all His ways and not follow after thoughts of the
guilty inclination and after eyes of lust (CD 11, 15-16), seems to be
addressed to celibates. Yet in this very same document we later come
upon injunctions aimed explicitly at non-celibates:
And if they live in camps according to the rule of the Land, marrying and beget
ting children, they shall walk according to the Law and according to the statute
concerning binding vows, according to the rule of the Law which says, Between
a man and his wife and between a father and his son (Num. xxx, 17).

(CD

vii,

6-9)

The Exhortation would seem in short to be a sermon intended for deliv

ery on a certain occasion to married and unmarried members of the sect;
and as its theme is perseverance in the Covenant, the appropriate setting
would be the Feast of the Renewal of the Covenant in the third month
(4Q266 fr. 1 1 ; 270 fr. 7 i-ii), i.e. the Feast of Weeks or Pentecost (see
below, pp. 79-80), and the venue, Qumran.
These literary pointers are supported by two archaeological finds.
Firstly, the twenty-six deposits of animal bones buried on the Qumran
site - goats, sheep, lambs, calves, cows or oxen - have for long intrigued
scholars. Can J.T . Milik be correct in identifying them as the remains of
meals served to large groups of pilgrims in the Qumran mother-house of
the sect (Ten Years of Discovery in the Wilderness of Judaea, p. 117)?
Naturally, he too connects the gathering with the Covenant festival.
44

THE

COMMUNITY

The second archaeological clue also is concerned with bones. The

skeletons of four women and one child, and possibly of two further female
bodies and those of two children, were found in the extension of the
Qumran cemetery. Now, if the Renewal of the Covenant was attended
by sectaries from the towns and their families, this may well account for
the presence of dead women and children among the otherwise male
skeletons of the graveyard proper.
Drawing the threads of these various arguments together, there would
seem to be little doubt not only that the desert and town sectaries were
united in doctrine and organization, but that they remained in actual
and regular touch with each other, under the ultimate administrative and
spiritual authority of the shadowy figure of the Priest, of whom we hear
so little, and his dominant partner, the Qumran Guardian, Guardian of
all the camps. Qumran, it seems, was the seat of the sects hierarchy and
also the centre to which all those turned who professed allegiance to the
Council of the Covenant.

APPENDIX: T H E E S S E N E S
AND T H E QUMRAN C O M M U N IT Y
The Essenes
Prior to Qumran, the primary sources concerning the Essenes, a Jewish
religious community flourishing during the last two centuries of the
Second Temple era (<c. 1 5 0 B C E - 7 0 c e ) , were furnished by the Greek writ
ings of two Jewish authors, Philo of Alexandria (That Every Good Man
Should be Free, 75-91; Apologyfor the Jews, quoted in Eusebius, Praeparatio
evangelica vm , 6-7) and Flavius Josephus (War 11, 119 -6 1; Antiquities
xvni, 18-22), and by the Roman geographer and naturalist, Pliny the
Elder, who left a short but very important notice in Latin (Natural
History v, 17, 4 [73])- For a more detailed account, see Geza Vermes and
Martin Goodman, The Essenes According to the Classical Sources (Sheffield,
1989). Despite the apparent importance attributed to it by Philo, Jose
phus and Pliny, the sect is not explicitly mentioned either in the New
Testament or in rabbinic literature. There is no general agreement
regarding the meaning of the groups name: Essaioi or Essenoi in Greek,
and Esseni in Latin. The designation may signify the Pious, or the
Healers, devoted to the cure of body and soul. If the latter interpreta
tion is adopted, it provides a parallel to the Greek Therapeutai, the title
given by Philo to an Egyptian-Jewish ascetic society akin to the Essenes
(cf. H JP 11, 593-7; Vermes-Goodman, The Essenes . . . , 15-17). There
are a number of other, less well-established, explanations.
The membership of the Palestinian group exceeded four thousand.
Josephus and Philo locate them in Judaean towns; Pliny refers only to a
single Essene settlement in the wilderness between Jericho and Engedi.
Individual congregations, directed by superiors, resided in commonly
occupied houses. Initiation consisted of one year of probation, and two
years of further training, leading to full table-fellowship on swearing an
oath of loyalty to the sect. Only adult men qualified according to Philo
and Pliny, but Josephus reports that boys were also trained by them.
Serious disobedience resulted in expulsion from the order.
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THE COMMUNITY

One of the principal characteristics of the Essenes was common owner

ship of property. New members handed over their belongings to the
superiors, who collected also the wages earned by every sectary. Agriculture
was the main Essene occupation. Having renounced private possessions,
the members received all that they needed: food, clothes, care. Further
peculiarities included the wearing of white garments; ritual bathing
before meals which were given only to initiates, and cooked and blessed
by priests; the rejection of animal sacrifice and of oaths to support their
statements, and, above all, of marriage. Josephus, however, admits that
one Essene branch adopted the married state as long as sex was used
only for the purpose of procreation.
Theologically, they showed extreme reverence for the Law and were
famous for their strictest observance of the Sabbath. Their esoteric
teachings were recorded in secret books. Experts in the healing of body
and soul, they also excelled in prophecy. They preferred belief in Fate to
freedom of the will and, rejecting the notion of bodily resurrection,
envisaged a purely spiritual afterlife.
Essenes and Qumran
The common opinion identifying or closely associating the Qumran
sectaries with the Essenes is based on three principal considerations.
1. There is no better site than Qumran to correspond to Plinys settle
ment between Jericho and Engedi.
2. Chronologically, Essene activity placed by Josephus in the period
between Jonathan Maccabaeus (c. 150 b c e ) and the first Jewish war
(66-70 c e ) and the sectarian occupation of the Qumran site coincide
perfectly.
3. The similarities of common life, organization and customs are so
fundamental as to render the identification of the two bodies extremely
probable as long as some obvious differences can be explained.
A good many contradictions appear in the diverse sources and are not
simply due to a lack of harmony between the Scrolls and the GraecoLatin documents. Thus Qumran attests both communism and private
property; married and unmarried states. Likewise, Josephus speaks of
celibate and married Essenes and, as has been noted (p. 38 above), the
47

THE

COMMUNITY

prohibition to fornicate with ones wife remarkably echoes the married

Essenes ban on marital sex when the woman was not in a state to con
ceive.2 Furthermore, the Qumran movement incorporated two separate
branches and the manuscripts reflect an organizational and doctrinal
development of some two centuries. It would be unreasonable to expect
complete agreement among the sources. It must finally be borne in mind
that the sectarian compositions were written by initiates for insiders,
whereas Pliny and Philo, and to some extent even Josephus (although he
claims to have undergone a partial Essene education), are bound to have
reproduced hearsay evidence, unlikely to echo fully the views and beliefs
prevalent among members. Hence the identification of Essenism and
the Qumran sect remains in my view the likeliest of all proposed solutions.

2. The Therapeutai or Egyptian ascetics of Philo adopted celibacy, but formed separate
male and female communities (mature men having left behind family and property, and
women being mostly aged virgins; cf. Philo, Contemplative Life, 13, 68) whose members
met for worship. A badly damaged manuscript from Cave 4 (4Q502), repeatedly mention
ing old men and women, is interpreted by J . M . Baumgarten as probably alluding to a
similar institution (4Q 502, Marriage or Golden Age Ritual?, J J S 34 (1983), 125-3 5).
4 Q 50 2 consists of 344 papyrus fragments. Its editor, M. Baillet (D J D , V II , 8 1-10 5 ), gave
it the title Marriage Ritual, which is almost certainly a misnomer (see Baumgarten
above). N ot a single coherent section of this liturgical composition has survived; hence no
meaningful translation can be supplied. However, it is worth noting that fr. 2 contains the
phrase daughter of truth and an allusion to the examination of women concerning their
intelligence and understanding. Josephus states in connection with the marrying Essenes
that they trained their women - like their men - for three years (War 11, 16 1; cf.
G. Vermes, Discovery in the Judean Desert, New York, 1956, 57, note 176; J. M. Baumgarten,
D JD , X V II I, 143).

48

III. The History o f the Community

The absence from the Dead Sea Scrolls of historical texts proper should
not surprise us. Neither in the inter-Testamental period, nor in earlier
biblical times, was the recording of history as we understand it a strong
point among the Jews. Chroniclers are concerned not with factual infor
mation about bygone events, but with their religious significance. In
Scripture, the secular past is viewed and interpreted by the prophets as
revealing Gods pleasure or displeasure. Victory or defeat in war, peace
or social unrest, abundance of harvest or famine, serve to demonstrate the
virtue or sinfulness of the nation and to forecast its future destiny. And
when prophecy declined in the fif t h century b c e , it was still not suc
ceeded by a growth of historiography: only the memoirs of Ezra and
Nehemiah and the retelling of the age-old stories of the kings of Israel
and Judah in the Books of Chronicles belong to the historical genre. It
was followed instead by eschatological speculation, by apocalyptic visions
of the end of time, with their awe-inspiring beasts and battles, and by
announcements of the ultimate triumph of truth and justice in a future
Kingdom of God.
In the Scrolls, the apocalyptic compositions form part of this later
tradition. On the other hand, apart from occasional snippets in a liturgical
calendar (4Q322, 324), an odd poem alluding to KingJonathan (4Q448),
and deductive conclusions made from the comparative study of rules, most
of the knowledge we possess of the sects history originates from works
of Bible interpretation. The Qumran writers, while meditating on the
words of the Old Testament prophets, sought to discover in them allu
sions to their own past, present and future. Convinced that they were
living in the last days, they read the happenings of their times as the
fulfilment of biblical predictions.
Yet all that these non-historical sources provide are fragments. Even
with the help of the archaeological data from Qumran they cannot be
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made into a consistent and continuous narrative. For an understanding

of the sects past as it developed within the larger framework of late
Second Temple Jewish history, we have to rely principally on Flavius
Josephus, the Palestinian Jew who became a Greek man of letters, and on
other Jewish Hellenists, such as the authors of the Books of the Maccabees,
and Philo of Alexandria, all of whom inherited the Greek predilection
for recording and interpreting the past and set out to depict the life of
the Jews of Palestine in itself, and as part of the Graeco-Roman world,
from the early second century b c e to the first anti-Roman war in 66-70
c e . It is only with the help of the wider canvas painted by these ancient
writers that places can be found for the often cryptic historical allusions
contained in the Scrolls.

1 IN T E R - T E S T A M E N T A L JE W IS H HISTORY:
200 bce-7 0

ce

At the beginning of the second century b c e , Palestinian Jewry passed

through a state of crisis. Alexander the Great had conquered the Holy
Land in 332 b c e and, after the early uncertainties which followed his
death, it became part of the empire of the Greeks of Egypt, known as the
Ptolemies. During the third century, the Ptolemies avoided, as much as
possible, interfering with the internal life of the Jewish nation and, while
taxes were required to be paid, it remained under the rule of the High
Priest and his council. Important changes in the patterns of population
nevertheless took place during this time. Hellenistic cities were built along
the Mediterranean coast, such as Gaza, Ascalon (Ashkelon), Joppa (Jaffa),
Dor and Acco, re-named Ptolemais. Inland also, to the south of the Lake
of Tiberias, the ancient town of Beth Shean was reborn as the Greek city
of Scythopolis; Samaria, the capital city of the Samaritans, was Hellenized
as Sebaste; and in Transjordan, Rabbath-Ammon (Amman) was re-founded
as Philadelphia. In other words, Greeks, Macedonians and Hellenized
Phoenicians took up permanent residence on Palestinian soil and the
further spread of Greek civilization and culture was merely a matter of time.
With the conquest of the Holy Land by the Seleucids, or Syrian
Greeks, in 2 0 0 b c e , the first signs appeared of Jews succumbing to a for
eign cultural influence. In the apocryphal Book of Ecclesiasticus, dated
to the beginning of the second century b c e , its author, Jesus ben Sira, a
sage from Jerusalem, rages against those ungodly men who have for
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saken the Law of .the Most High God (xli, 8). But the real trouble
started when Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175-164 b c e ) officially promoted
a Hellenizing programme in Judaea that was embraced with eagerness
by the Jewish elite. The leader of the modernist faction was the brother
of the High Priest Onias III. Known as Jesus among his compatriots, he
adopted the Greek name of Jason, and set about transforming Jerusalem
into a Hellenistic city, by building a gymnasium there and persuading the
Jewish youth to participate in athletic games. As 2 Maccabees describes
the situation:
So Hellenism reached a high point with the introduction of foreign customs
through the boundless wickedness of the impious Jason, no true High Priest. As
a result, the priests no longer had any enthusiasm for their duties at the altar, but
despised the temple and neglected the sacrifices; and in defiance of the law they
eagerly contributed to the expenses of the wresding-school whenever the open
ing gong called them. They placed no value on their hereditary dignities, but
cared above everything for Hellenic honours.

(2 Mac. iv, 13 -15 )

Jason was succeeded by two other High Priests with the same Greek
sympathies, Menelaus and Alcimus. In 169 b c e Antiochus IV visited
Jerusalem and looted the Temple. But when in 167 he actually prohibited
the practice of Judaism under pain of death and rededicated the
Jerusalem Sanctuary to Olympian Zeus, the abomination of desolation,
the opponents of the Hellenizers finally rose up in violent resistance. An
armed revolt was instigated by the priest Mattathias and his sons the
Maccabee brothers, supported by all the traditionalist Jews, and in par
ticular by the company of the Pious, the Asidaeans or Hasidim, stalwarts
of Israel, every one of them a volunteer in the cause of the Law (1 Mac.
ii, 4 2 -3 ). Led by Judas Maccabaeus and, after his death on the battlefield,
by his brothers Jonathan and Simon, the fierce defenders of Judaism
were able not only to restore Jewish worship in Jerusalem, but against all
expectations even managed to eject the ruling Seleucids and to liberate
Judaea.
The Maccabaean triumph was, however, not simply a straightforward
victory of godliness and justice over idolatry and tyranny; it was accom
panied by serious social and religious upheavals. There was firsdy a change
in the pontifical succession. With the murder in 171 b c e of Onias III
and the deposition of the usurper, his brother Jason, the Zadokite family,
from which the incumbents of the High Priests office traditionally came,
lost the monopoly which it had held for centuries. Furthermore, when
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Onias IV, the son of Onias III, was prevented from taking over the High
Priesthood from Menelaus, he emigrated to Egypt and in direct breach
of biblical law, which authorizes only a single sanctuary in Jerusalem,
erected a Jewish temple in Leontopolis with the blessing of King Ptolemy
Philometor (182-146 b c e ). His inauguration of Israelite worship outside
Zion, with the connivance of some priests and Levites, must have scandal
ized every Palestinian conservative, especially other priests who belonged,
or were allied, to the Zadokite dynasty.
There was trouble also within the ranks of the Maccabees themselves.
The Hasidim - or part of their group - defected when Alcimus, whom
they trusted, was appointed High Priest in 162 b c e . This move on their
part turned out to be naive; Alcimus Syrian allies massacred sixty of them
in one day (1 Mac. vii, 2-20).
Lasdy, a major political change came about when Jonathan Maccabaeus,
himself a priest but not a Zadokite, accepted in 153-152 b c e pontifical
office from Alexander Balas, a usurper of the Seleucid throne. Alexander
was anxious for Jewish support and was not mistaken in thinking that an
offer of the High Priesthood would be irresistible. For the conservatives
this was an illegal seizure of power. But they were even more scandalized
by the appointment in 140 b c e , following Jonathans execution in 143142 by the Syrian general Tryphon, of Simon Maccabee as High Priest
and hereditary leader of the people by means of a decree passed by a
Jewish national assembly.
From then on, until Pompeys transformation of the independent Jewish
state into a Roman province in 63 b c e , Judaea was ruled by a new dynasty
of High Priests, later Priest-Kings, known as the Hasmonaeans after the
grandfather of the Maccabees, Hasmon, or Asamonaeus according to
Josephus (War 1, 36). During the intervening years, all Simons succes
sors, but especially John Hyrcanus I (134-104 b c e ) and Alexander Jan
naeus (103-76 b c e ), for whom their political role took precedence over
their office of High Priest, occupied one by one the Hellenistic cities of
Palestine and conquered the neighbouring territories of Idumaea in the
south, Samaria in the centre and Ituraea in the north.
Throughout this period of territorial expansion, the Hasmonaean rulers
enjoyed the support of the Sadducees, one of the three religious parties
first mentioned under Jonathan Maccabaeus (cf. Josephus, Antiquities
x i i i , 1 7 1 ) and regular allies of the government. They were opposed by
the Pharisees, an essentially lay group formed from one of the branches

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of the Hasidim of the Maccabaean age. Already in the days of John

Hyrcanus I there was Pharisaic objection to his usurpation of the High
Priesthood, though they were willing to recognize him as national leader
(Antiquities xm , 2 8 8 - 9 8 ) , but on one other occasion, at least, their opposi
tion was overcome by force. Accused of plotting against Alexander Jannaeus in 8 8 b c e in collusion with the Syrian Seleucid king Demetrius III
Eucaerus, 8 0 0 Pharisees were condemned by Jannaeus to die on the
cross (Antiquities xm , 3 8 0 - 8 3 ; W an, 9 6 - 8 ) .
After Pompeys seizure of Jerusalem, the Hasmonaean High Priest
hood continued for another three decades, but the political power for
merly belonging to them passed to the Judaized Idumaean, Herod the
Great, when he was promoted to the throne of Jerusalem by Rome in
3 7 b c e . It is to the last year or two of his reign - he died in 4 b c e - that
the Gospels of Matthew and Luke date the birth of Jesus of Nazareth
(Matth. ii, 1; Lk. i, 5).
After the ephemeral rule of the successor to Herod the Great, Herod
Archelaus ( 4 b c e - 6 c e ), who was deposed by Augustus for his misgovemment of Jews and Samaritans alike, Galilee continued in semi
autonomy under the Herodian princes Antipas ( 4 B C E - 3 9 c e ) and Agrippa
( 3 9 - 4 1 c e ) , but Judaea was placed under the direct administration of
Roman authority. In 6 c e , Coponius, the first Roman prefect of Judaea,
arrived to take up his duties there. This prefectorial regime, whose most
notorious representative was Pontius Pilate ( 2 6 - 3 6 c e ) , lasted for thirtyfive years until 4 1 , when the emperor Claudius appointed Agrippa I as
king. He died, however, three years later, and in 4 4 c e the government
of the province once more reverted to Roman officials, this time with
the tide of procurator. Their corrupt and unwise handling of Jewish affairs
was one o f the chief causes o f the war o f 66 which led to the destruction
of Jerusalem in 7 0 c e , and to the subsequent decline of the Sadducees,
the extinction of the Zealots in Masada in 7 4 , the disappearance of the
Essenes, and the survival and uncontested domination of the Pharisees
and their rabbinic successors.
It is into this general course of events that the history of Qumran has
to be inserted. Document by document the Scrolls will be scrutinized and
the literary information combined, both with the findings of Qumran
archaeology and with the incidental reports provided by Josephus. In
the end it is hoped that the history of the Essene sect will begin to fall
reliably into place.

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2 T H E H IS T O R Y O F T H E E S S E N E S
(a) Concealed References in the Scrolls
The search for clues to the origins and story of the movement begins
with the Damascus Document because it is a writing particularly rich
in such hints. Here, the birth of the Community is said to have occurred
in the age of wrath, 390 years after the destruction of Jerusalem by
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. At that time, a root sprung from
Israel and Aaron, i.e. a group of pious Jews, laymen and priests, came into
being in a situation of general ungodliness. These people groped for the
way for twenty years, and then God sent them a Teacher of Righteous
ness to guide them in the way of His heart (1, 511). The Teacher did
not meet with unanimous approval within the congregation, and a faction
described as seekers of smooth things, removers of the bounds and
builders of the wall, all metaphors seeming to point to religious laxity
and infidelity, turned against him and his followers. The leader of the
breakaway party, though accorded a number of unflattering sobriquets,
such as Scoffer, Liar or Spouter of Lies, seems to be one and the
same person. His associates erred in matters of ritual cleanness, justice,
chastity, the dates of festivals and Temple worship; they were lovers of
money and enemies of peace. In the ensuing fratricidal struggle, the
Teacher and those who remained faithful to him went into exile in the
land of Damascus where they entered into a new Covenant. There,
the Teacher of Righteousness was gathered in, meaning that he died. In
the meantime, the wicked dominated over Jerusalem and the Temple,
though not without experiencing Gods vengeance at the hands of the
Chief of the Kings of Greece.
A similar picture emerges from the Habakkuk Commentary with its
explicit mention of desertion by disciples of the Teacher of Righteous
ness to the Liar, and also by members unfaithful to the new Covenant.
The allusions to the protagonists of the conflict are sharper in this work
than in the Damascus Document. We learn that the villain, known in this
Scroll as the Wicked Priest as well as the Liar and Spouter of Lies,
was called by the name of truth before he became Israels ruler and was
corrupted by wealth and power (vm, 8 -11) - the implication being that
for a time he had met with the sects approval. Subsequently, however, he
defiled Jerusalem and the Temple. He also sinned against the Teacher of
Righteousness and his disciples, chastising him while the House of
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Absalom looked silently on (v, 9-12), and confronting him in his place of
exile on the sects Day of Atonement (xi, 6-8). He vilified and outraged
the elect of God, plotted to destroy the Poor, i.e. the Community, and
stole their riches. As a punishment, God delivered him into the hand of
his enemies, who took vengeance on his body of flesh (ix, 2). At the
last judgement, predicts the Commentary, the Wicked Priest will empty
the cup of wrath of God. His successors, the last Priests of Jerusalem,
are also charged with amassing money and wealth by plundering the
peoples, i.e. foreigners. But, so the commentator asserts, all their riches
and booty will be snatched from them by the Kittdm, the conquerors of
the world commissioned by God to pay them their just deserts.
Because of lacunae, one cannot be quite sure from the Habakkuk
Commentary that the Teacher was a priest. The Commentary on Psalms
(Ps. xxxvii, 4 Q 171, 173), by contrast, makes this plain. Interpreting
verses 23-4, it reads: this concerns the Priest, the Teacher of [Right
eousness]. It further supplies a significant detail by assigning to the vio
lent of the nations, that is to say to the Gentiles as opposed to the Jews,
the execution of judgement on the Wicked Priest. Another point of
interest is that the enemies of the sect are alluded to as the wicked of
Ephraim and Manasseh, i.e. as of two distinct factions. They appear also
in the Commentary on Nahum.
In the Messianic Anthology or Testimonia (4Q175), references appear
in the final section, borrowed from a Joshua Apocryphon or Psalms of
Joshua (4Q379 fr. 22 ii), to two instruments of violence who ruled
Jerusalem. They are cursed for making the city a stronghold of ungod
liness and for committing an abomination in the land. They are also said
to have shed blood like water on the ramparts of the daughter of Zion.
The relationship of the two tyrants to one another cannot be established
with certainty because of the fragmentary nature of the manuscript. They
could be father and son. On the other hand, the expression instruments
of violence depends on Genesis xlix, 5 where it describes the brother
murderers, Simeon and Levi, the destroyers of Shechem.
The Nahum Commentary moves on to an age following that of the
Teacher of Righteousness and the Wicked Priest, as neither of them is
mentioned. The principal character here is the furious young lion, a
Jewish ruler of Jerusalem. He is said to have taken revenge on the seekers
of smooth things, whom he reproached for having invited Demetrius
the king of Greece to Jerusalem. The attempt failed; no foreigner entered
the city from the time of Antiochus until the coming of the rulers of the
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Kittim. The enemies of the furious young lion were hanged alive on
the tree, a familiar Hebrew circumlocution for crucifixion. As in the
Commentary on Psalm xxxvii, the sobriquets Ephraim and Manasseh
are attached to the Communitys opponents. Ephraim is said to walk in
lies and falsehood, but because of gaps in the manuscript, the description
of Manasseh is less clear. It seems nevertheless that this party included
great men, mighty men and men of dignity.
The Nahum Commentary was the first of the Qumran Scrolls to dis
close historical names: those of two Seleucid kings, Antiochus and
Demetrius. But their identity has still to be determined because nine
monarchs in all bore the first name, and three the second. Additional
names figure in various Cave 4 manuscripts of a liturgical calendar
(4 Q 33 i - 3): Shelamzion, the Hebrew name of Queen SalomeAlexandra, widow of Alexander Jannaeus, who reigned from 76 to
67 b c e ; Hyrcanus and John, probably John Hyrcanus II, son of
Alexandra and High Priest from 76 to 67 and again from 63 to 40; and
Emilius, no doubt M. Aemilius Scaurus, the first Roman governor of
Syria from 65 to 62 b c e , who is charged with killing people. Note also
that the Balakros of 4Q243 may be the Seleucid usurper Alexander Balas.
A remarkable piece of prayer-poetry (4Q448) refers to King
Jonathan in connection with Jerusalem and diaspora Jewry. A good case
has been made out by E. and H. Eshel (IEjf 42, 1992, 199-229) for iden
tifying him with Alexander Jannaeus, but in my opinion an even stronger
argument points towards Jonathan Maccabaeus as King Jonathan (cf.
J J S 44, 1993, 294-300). Also, one of the proposed readings of line 9 of
the List of False Prophets (4Q339), [John son of Sim]on, would provide
an allusion to John Hyrcanus I. Finally, the person called Potlaos - Ptollas - Peitholaos (4Q468e) may refer to one of two historical figures who
lived either in the middle or the end of the first century b c e .
In the Commentaries on Habakkuk and Nahum, the Kittim are repre
sented as instruments appointed by God to punish the ungodly priests of
Jerusalem. The War Rule, however, testifies to a changed attitude towards
them on the part of the sect by making the Kittim appear as the chief
allies of Belial or Satan and the final foe to be subjugated by the hosts of
the sons of Light. The Rule of War (4Q285), although very fragmentary,
appears to point in the same direction.
Several Qumran Hymns reflect the career and sentiments of a teacher,
possibly of the Teacher of Righteousness himself. According to them, he

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was opposed by interpreters of error, traitors, deceivers, and those

who seek smooth things, all of whom were formerly his friends and
members of [his] Covenant, bearers of the yoke of [his] testimony.
In one of them, the reference to a devilish scheme is reminiscent of
the allusion in the Habakkuk Commentary to the visit of the Wicked
Priest to the Communitys place of exile in order to cause them to
stumble:
Teachers of lies [have smoothed] Thy people [with words],
and [false prophets] have led them astray ...
They have banished me from my land like a bird from its nest...
And they, teachers of lies and seers of falsehood,
have schemed against me a devilish scheme,
to exchange the Law engraved on my heart by Thee
for the smooth things (which they speak) to Thy people.
And they withhold from the thirsty the drink of Knowledge,
and assuage their thirst with vinegar,
that they may gaze on their straying,
on their folly concerning their feast-days,
on their fall into the snares.

(iQ H xn [formerly iv], 7-12)

Another Hymn appears to hint at the Teachers withdrawal from society

and to announce with confidence his eventual glorious justification:
For Thou, O God, hast sheltered me
from the children of men,
and hast hidden Thy Law [within me]
against the time when Thou shouldst reveal
Thy salvation to me.

(iQ H xm [formerly v], 1 1-12 )

Some scholars consider these poems autobiographical, i.e. written by the

Teacher, but this is mere speculation.
It would be unrealistic, taking into account the vagueness of all these
statements, the cryptic nature of the symbolism and the entire lack of
any systematic exposition of the sects history, to expect every detail to be
identified. We can, however, attempt to define the chronological frame
work of the historical references and thus be in a position to place at
least some of the key events and principal personalities within the con
text of Jewish history as we know it.

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(b) The Chronological Framework

The chronological setting of Qumran history may be reconstructed
from archaeological and literary evidence. The excavations of 1951-6
date the beginning, the terminus a quo, of the sectarian establishment to
150-140 b c e and its end, the terminus ad quem, to the middle of the first
war against Rome, 68 c e . 1 The literary allusions, particularly the identi
fiable historical names, confirm this general finding. It goes without say
ing, however, that the initial phases of the Communitys existence must
have preceded by some years or decades the actual establishment of the
sect at Qumran. The first task therefore is to examine the Scrolls for
indications of its origins. The Nahum Commentary implies that a king
by the name of Antiochus was alive at the beginning of the period with
which the documents are concerned. This Antiochus, although one
among several so called, can only have been Antiochus IV Epiphanes,
notorious for his looting of Jerusalem and the profanation of the Temple
in 169-168 b c e .
More significant as a chronological pointer is the dating, in the
Damascus Document, of the sects beginnings to the age of wrath, 390
years after the conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar in 586 b c e .
This should bring us to 196 b c e but, as is well known, Jewish historians
are not very reliable in their time-reckoning for the post-exilic era. They
do not seem to have had a clear idea of the length of the Persian domi
nation, and they were in addition not free of the theological influence of
the Book of Daniel, where a period of seventy weeks of years, i.e. 490
years, is given as separating the epoch of Nebuchadnezzar from that of
the Messiah. As it happens, if to this figure of 390 years is added, firstly
twenty (during which the ancestors of the Community groped for their
way until the entry on the scene of the Teacher of Righteousness), then
another forty (the time span between the death of the Teacher and the
1. This interpretation of the data yielded by the excavation is that of R. de Vaux (see
Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls, 1973). In her recent brilliant survey, Jodi Magness
questions de Vauxs theory regarding the first phase of the limited sectarian occupation of
the Qumran site during the second half of the second century b c e and argues that the
communal buildings were first erected around 100 b c e (see The Archaeology of Qumran and
the Dead Sea Scrolls, 2002 , 63 - 9 ). If she is right, the initial edifice was already on a rela
tively large scale and would correspond to the needs of an already well-established group.
In fact, her theory is compatible with the early Hasmonaean beginnings of the sect based
on literary considerations, albeit without supporting archaeological evidence.

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dawn of the messianic epoch), the total stretch of years arrived at is 450.
And if to this total is added the duration of the Teachers ministry of, say,
forty years - a customary round figure - the final result is the classic
seventy times seven years.
Yet even if the literal figure of 390 is rejected, there are still com
pelling reasons for placing the age of wrath in the opening decades of
the second pre-Christian century. Only the Hellenistic crisis which
occurred at that time, and which is recalled in various Jewish literary
sources from the last two centuries b c e , provides a fitting context for the
historical allusions made in the sectarian writings (cf. Daniel ix-xi;
Enoch xc, 6-7; Jubilees xxm , 14-19; Testament of Levi xvn; Assump
tion of Moses iv-v). Also, it is the Hasidim of the pre-Maccabaean and
early Maccabaean era who best correspond to the earlier but unorga
nized group as it is described there (cf. pp. 51-2).
As for the terminus ad quern of Qumran history, as this is linked to the
appearance of the Kittim, we have to determine who these people were. In
its primitive sense, the word Kittim described the inhabitants of Kition,
a Phoenician colony in Cyprus. Later the name tended to be applied
indiscriminately to those living in all islands and most maritime countries
(Josephus, Antiquities 1, 128). But from the second century b c e , Jewish
writers also used Kittim more precisely to denote the greatest world
power of the day. In Maccabees (i, 1; viii, 5) they are Greeks; Alexander
the Great and Perseus are called kings of the Kittim. In Daniel xi, 30
on the other hand, the Kittim are Romans; it was the ambassador of the
Roman senate, Poppilius Laenas, brought to Alexandria by ships of Kit
tim, i.e. the Roman fleet, who instructed the king of the North, the
Seleucid monarch Antiochus Epiphanes, to withdraw at once from Egypt.
The term Romans is substituted for Kittim already in the old Greek
or Septuagint version of Daniel xi, 30. None of these texts is critical of
the Kittim. They are seen as the ruling force of the time, but not as
hostile to Israel. In fact, in Daniel they humiliate the enemy of the Jews.
It is not till a later stage, especially after 70 c e , that they come to symbolize
oppression and tyranny.
In the Habakkuk Commentary, the portrait of the Kittim is neutral, as
in Maccabees and Daniel. (In the Damascus Document they play no
part; the alien adversary there is the Chief of the Kings of Greece1.)
Feared and admired by all, they are seen to be on the point of defeating
the last Priests of Jerusalem and confiscating their wealth, as they have
done to many others before. Such a representation of a victorious and
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advancing might would hardly apply to the Greek Seleucids of Syria,

who by the second half of the second century b c e were in grave decline.
But it does correspond to the Romans, whose thrust to the east in the
first century b c e resulted in their triumphs over Pontus, Armenia and
Seleucid Syria, and finally, with the arrival of Pompey in Jerusalem in
63 b c e , in the transformation of the Hasmonaean state into Judaea, a
province of the Roman republic.
Since the identification of the Kittdm as Romans is nowadays gener
ally accepted, it will suffice to cite a single, but very striking, feature in
the Habakkuk Commentary to support it. Interpreting Hab. 1, 14-16 as
referring to the Kittdm, the commentator writes: This means that they
sacrifice to their standards and worship their weapons of war (iQpHab.
vi, 3-5). Now this custom of worshipping the signa was a characteristic
of the religion of the Roman armies both in republican and in imperial
times, as Josephus testifies in his report of the capture of the Temple of
Jerusalem by the legionaries of Titus in 70.
The Romans, now that the rebels had fled to the city, and the Sanctuary itself
and all around it were in flames, carried their standards into the Temple court,
and setting them up opposite the eastern gate, there sacrificed to them.

(War vi, 316)

It is also worth noting that the Kittim of the War Scroll, the final oppo
nents of the eschatological Israel, are subject to a king or emperor
(melekh). Previously, in the Commentaries of Habakkuk and Nahum,
they are said to have been governed by rulers (moshelim). In sum, there
fore, the time-limits of the sects history appear to be at one extreme the
beginning of the second century b c e , and at the other some moment
during the Roman imperial epoch, i.e. after 27 b c e . And this latter date
is determined by Qumran archaeology as coinciding with the first Jewish
war, and even more precisely with the arrival of the armies of Vespasian
and Titus in the neighbourhood of the Dead Sea in June 6 8 c e .
(c) Decipherment o f Particular Allusions
The age of wrath having been identified as that of the Hellenistic crisis
of the beginning of the second century b c e , the root as the Hasidim of
the pre-Maccabaean age, and the Kittim as the Romans, the next major
problem is to discover who was, or were, the principal Jewish enemy or
enemies of the sect at the time of the ministry of the Teacher of Right
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eousness variously known as the Scoffer, the Liar, the Spouter of Lies
and the Wicked Priest (iQpHab, 4QpPsa, CD).
It is not unreasonable to conclude that all these insults are directed at
the same individual. It would appear from the Damascus Document that
the Scoffer and the Liar (cf. also 4QpPsa [xxxvn]) were one and the
same (when the Scoffer arose who shed over Israel the waters of lies,
CD i, 14). And we read of the Wicked Priest that he was called by the
name of truth (iQpHab vm , 8-9) at the outset of his career, the inference
being that later he changed into a Liar.
Another basic premise must be that the person intended by the frag
ments of information contained in the Scrolls became the head, the
national leader, of the Jewish people. For although biblical names are
often used symbolically, including that of Israel, the actions attributed
to the Wicked Priest make little sense if the person in question did not
exercise both pontifical and secular power. He ruled over Israel. He
robbed ... the riches of the men of violence who rebelled against God,
probably Jewish apostates, as well as the wealth of the peoples, i.e. the
Gentiles. He built his city of vanity with blood, committed abominable
deeds in Jerusalem and defiled the Temple of God (iQpHab vm).
Taken separately, these observations might be understood allegorically,
but considered together, they constitute a strong argument for recogniz
ing the Wicked Priest as a ruling High Priest in Jerusalem.
The Wicked Priest, then, was a Pontiff who enjoyed good repute
before he assumed office. He was victorious over his adversaries at home
and abroad. He rebuilt Jerusalem (cf. iQpHab vm , 8 -11; 4Q448). And
he was eventually captured and put to death by a foreign rival.
The chronological guidelines established in the preceding section
locate the period in which this individual flourished between the reign o f

Antiochus Epiphanes (175-164 b c e ) and the probable date of the founda

tion at Qumran (150-140 b c e ). During that time, five men held the
office of High Priest. Three of them were pro-Greek: Jason, Menelaus
and Alcimus. The remaining two were the Maccabee brothers, Jonathan
and Simon. All the Hellenizers can be eliminated as candidates for the
role of Wicked Priest since none can be said to have enjoyed anything
like good repute at the beginning of their ministry. Jason and Alcimus
fail also because neither was killed by an enemy, as implied in iQpHab
v i i i - i x . Jason died in exile (2 Mac. v, 7-9) and Alcimus in office (1 Mac.
ix, 54-6). The Maccabee brothers, by contrast, meet all the conditions.
The careers of both men fall easily into two stages, marked, in the case
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of Jonathan, by his acceptance of the High Priesthood from Alexander

Balas, and in the case of Simon by his willingness to become a hereditary
High Priest. Both were also instruments of violence and both died by
violence. Jonathan is nevertheless to be chosen rather than Simon
because he alone suffered the vengeance of the Chief of the Kings of
Greece and died at the hands of the violent of the nations, whereas
Simon was murdered by his son-in-law (i Mac. xvi, 14-16). A gallant
defender of Jewish religion and independence, Jonathan succeeded the
heroic Judas in 161 b c e when the latter fell in battle. But he qualified for
the epithet Wicked Priest when he accepted in 153-152 b c e from
Alexander Balas, a heathen usurper of the Seleucid throne who had no
right to grant them, the pontifical vestments which Jonathan was not
entitled to wear. Captured later by a former general of Alexander Balas,
Tryphon, he was killed by him at Bascama in Transjordan (1 Mac. xiii, 23).
Concerning the identity of the last Priests of Jerusalem, the passion
for conquest, wealth and plunder for which they are reproached points
to the Hasmonaean priestly rulers, from Simons son, John Hyrcanus I
(134-104 b c e ), to Judas Aristobulus II (67-63 b c e ). There can in particu
lar be little doubt that the furious young lion, designated also as the
last Priest in a badly damaged Commentary on Hosea (4Q167 11 2-3),
was one of them, namely Alexander Jannaeus. The application to him of
the words of Nahum, who chokes prey for its lionesses, and the report
that the young lion executed the seekers of smooth things by hanging
men alive, accord perfectly with the known story that Jannaeus crucified
800 Pharisees whilst feasting with his concubines (cf. above, p. 53).
From this it follows that Ephraim, equated in the Commentary on
Nahum with the seekers of smooth things, symbolizes the Pharisees, and
that if so, Manasseh and his dignitaries must refer to the Sadducees. In
other words, the political and doctrinal opponents of the Essene commu
nity, though itself with proto-Sadducaean links on account of its priestly
leadership as insinuated by MMT, were the Sadducees and the Pharisees.
This division of Jewish society into three opposing groups corre
sponds to the conformation described by Josephus as existing from the
time of Jonathan Maccabaeus (Antiquities xm , 171), but the new insight
provided by the Scrolls suggests that the united resistance to Hellenism
first fell apart when the Maccabees, and more precisely Jonathan,
refused to acknowledge the spiritual leadership of the Teacher of Right
eousness, the priestly head of the Hasidim. From then on, the sect saw
its defectors as Ephraim and Manasseh, these being the names of the
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sons of Joseph, associated in biblical history with the apostate Northern

kingdom, and referred to itself as the House of Judah, the faithful South.
Unfortunately, on the most vital topic of all, the question of the iden
tity of the Teacher of Righteousness, we can be nothing like as clear. If
the Wicked Priest was Jonathan Maccabaeus, the Teacher would, of
course, have been one of his contemporaries. Yet all we know of him is
that he was a priest (iQpHab ii , 8; 4QpPs [xxxvn ii, 15=4(3171]), no
doubt of Zadokite affiliation, though obviously opposed to Onias IV
since he did not follow him to Egypt and to his unlawful Temple in
Leontopolis.2 He founded or re-founded the Community. He transmit
ted to them his own distinctive interpretation of the Prophets and, if
we can rely at least indirectly on the Hymns, of the laws relating to the
celebration of festivals. The Liar and his sympathizers in the congrega
tion of the Hasidim disagreed with him, and after a violent confronta
tion between the two factions in which the Liar gained the upper hand,
the Teacher and his remaining followers fled to a place of refuge called
the land of Damascus: it has been suggested that this is a cryptic desig
nation of Babylonia, the original birthplace of the group, or else that
Damascus is a symbolical name for Qumran. The House of Absalom
gave the Teacher of Righteousness no help against the Liar, writes the
Habakkuk commentator (iQpHab v, 9-12), the implication being that this
was support on which he might have relied. I f Absalom is also a symbol,
it doubdess recalls the rebellion of Absalom against his father David, and
thus points to the perfidy of a close relation or intimate friend of the

2. The Zadokite affiliation of the Teacher of Righteousness may be supported by circum

stantial evidence. According to the older version of the Community Rule, represented by
4 Q 258 and 256, the democratic Congregation (the Many) constituted the supreme
authority of the Community with ordinary priests (sons of Aaron) forming the top layer in
doctrinal and legal administration. This position is attributed to the sons of Zadok,
members of the high-priestly family, in the revised iQ S v. In other words, at some early
stage in the history of the sect there was a Zadokite takeover. Combining this information
with the account of C D 1 (supported by 4Q D ), we may reasonably surmise that the
change occurred with the arrival of the Teacher of Righteousness sent by God to take care
of the plant of Aaron and Israel (ordinary priests and lay Jews), who had been groping,
leaderless, for twenty years. The crisis in the Zadokite ranks in the 160s b c e , following
the secession of Onias I V to Egypt, provides the likeliest background for these events (cf.
G . Vermes, The Leadership of the Qumran Community in Geschichte-Tradition-Reflexion
[Martin Hengel Festschrift] I (Tubingen, 1996, 375-84). In this connection it may not be
irrelevant to note that according to 4 Q 26 6 fr. 5 ii priests who had emigrated among the
Gentiles were disqualified.

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Teacher. On the other hand, since the House of Absalom is accused not
of an actual attack but simply of remaining silent during the Teachers
chastisement, this allegorical solution may not be convincing. The allu
sion may then be a straightforward one. A certain Absalom was an ambas
sador of Judas Maccabaeus (2 Mac. xi, 17), and his son Mattathias was one
of Jonathans gallant officers (1 Mac. xi, 70). Another of his sons, Jonathan,
commanded Simons army which captured Joppa (1 Mac. xiii, 11).
Meanwhile, even in his place of exile the Teacher continued to be
harassed and persecuted by the Wicked Priest. In this connection, the
most important and painful episode appears to have been the Priests
pursuit of the Teacher to his settlement with the purpose of pouring on
him his venomous fury. Appearing before the sectaries on their Sabbath
of repose, at the time appointed for rest, for the Day of Atonement, his
intention was to cause them to stumble on the Day of Fasting. It is
impossible to say, from the evidence so far available, precisely what hap
pened on this portentous occasion, or whether it was then or later that
the Wicked Priest laid hands on the Teacher that he might put him to
death. The wording is equivocal. For example, the verb in iQpHab xi,
5, 7, translated to confuse, can also mean to swallow up, and some
scholars have chosen to understand that the Teacher was killed by the
Wicked Priest at the time of the visit. On the other hand, we find
recounted in the imperfect tense (which can be rendered into English as
either the future or the present tense): The wicked of Ephraim and
Manasseh ... seek/will seek to lay hands on the Priest and the men of his
Council... But God redeems/will redeem them from out of their hand
(4QpPsa [xxxvn, 11, 17-19=4(3171]). In other words, we neither know
who the founder of the Essenes was, nor how, nor where, nor when he
died. Only writers upholding the most unlikely Christian identification
of the Community claim to be better informed, but disagree among
themselves. J. L. Teicher thought the Teacher was Jesus. For Barbara
Thiering Jesus was the Wicked Priest, John the Baptist the Teacher;
R. H. Eisenman rejects both and prefers James the Just, the brother of
the Lord, as the Teacher of Righteousness. Only the sensation-seeking
media have been taken in by their theories.
It has been suggested that this inability to identify the Teacher of
Righteousness in the context of the Maccabaean period undermines the
credibility of the reconstruction as a whole. Is it conceivable, it is asked,
that a figure of the stature of the Teacher should have left no trace in the
literature relating to that time? The answer to this objection is that such
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writings are to all intents and purposes restricted to the Books of the
Maccabees, sources politically biased in favour of their heroes and virtually
oblivious of the very existence of opposition movements. Josephus himself
relies largely on i Maccabees and cannot therefore be regarded as an inde
pendent witness. But even were this not so, and he had additional material
at his disposition, his silence vis-a-vis the Teacher of Righteousness would
still not call for particular comment since he also makes no mention of
the founder of the Pharisees. And incidentally, not a few historians hold
that he has nothing to say either of Jesus of Nazareth. The so-called
Testimonium Flavianum {Antiquities xvm , 63-4), they maintain, is a
Christian interpolation into the genuine text of Antiquities (though others,
myself included, think that part of the text is authentic). Be this as it may,
not a word is breathed by him about Hillel, the greatest of the Pharisee
masters, or about Yohanan ben Zakkai, who reorganized Judaism after
the destruction of the Temple, although both of these men lived in
Josephus own century and Yohanan was definitely his contemporary.
Admittedly, the various fragments of information gleaned from the
Dead Sea Scrolls result in an unavoidably patchy story, but it is funda
mentally sound, and the continuing anonymity of the Teacher does
nothing to impair it. For the present synthesis to be complete it remains
now to turn to Josephus for his occasional historical references to indi
vidual Essenes and to Essenism.
To begin with it should be pointed out that four members of the
Community are actually mentioned by the Jewish historian, three of
them associated with prophecy, one of the distinctive interests of the
Teacher of Righteousness himself. The first, called Judas, is encountered
in Jerusalem surrounded by a group of pupils taking instruction in fore
telling the future, which probably means how to identify prophetic
pointers to future events. Josephus writes of him that he had never been
known to speak falsely in his prophecies, and that he predicted the death
of Antigonus, the brother of Aristobulus I (104-103 b c e ) (Antiquities xm ,
3 11-13 ). A second Essene prophet, Menahem, apparently foretold that
Herod would rule over the Jews (xv, 373-8). Herod showed his grati
tude to him by dispensing the Essenes, who were opposed to all oaths
except their own oath of the Covenant, from taking the vow of loyalty
imposed on all his Jewish subjects. A third Essene named Simon inter
preted a dream of Archelaus, ethnarch of Judaea (4 b c e - 6 c e ), in 4 b c e to
mean that his rule would last for ten years (xvn, 345-8). John the
Essene, the last sectary to be referred to by Josephus, was not a prophet,
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but the commander or strategos of the district of Thamna in north

western Judaea, and of the cities of Lydda (Lod), Joppa (Jaffa) and Emmaus
at the beginning of the first revolution (War ii, 567). A man of first-rate
prowess and ability, he fell in battle at Ascalon (111, 11, 19).3
Finally, Josephus depicts in vivid language the bravery of the Essenes
subjected to torture by the Romans.
The war with the Romans tried their souls through and through by every variety
of test. Racked and twisted, burned and broken, and made to pass through every
instrument of torture in order to induce them to blaspheme their lawgiver or to
eat some forbidden thing, they refused to yield to either demand, nor ever once
did they cringe to their persecutors or shed a tear. Smiling in their agonies and
mildly deriding their tormentors, they cheerfully resigned their souls, confident
that they would receive them back again.

(War 11, 15 2-3)

Since it would appear from this passage that the Romans were persecut
ing not individuals, but a group, it is tempting, bearing in mind the
archaeologists claim that the Qumran settlement was destroyed by the
Romans, to associate it with the story of Essenes captured by the Dead
Sea. If such a surmise is correct, the sects disappearance from history
may well have been brought about in the lethal blow suffered by its cen
tral establishment during the fateful summer of 68 c e . The fact that no
attempt was made to recover nearly 800 manuscripts from the caves con
firms, it would seem, such a reconstruction of the end of Qumran and,
with the annihilation of its central establishment, of the whole Essene
movement.

3. T o these four outstanding Essenes we may now add possibly the name of a Bursar or
Guardian, Eleazar son of Nahmani, mentioned in one of the Qumran ostraca (cf. below,
p. 634), and the three imperfect members, Yohanan and two men called Hananiah men
tioned in 4 Q 4 77. See above, pp. 3 1 -2 .

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IV. The Religious Ideas o f

the Community

The first essays in the 1950s on the religious outlook of the Qumran sect
all suffered from a serious defect in that scholars in those days tended to
envisage the Scrolls as self-contained and entided to independent treatment.
Today, with the hindsight of five decades of research and with the entire
corpus to hand, it is easier to conceive of the theology of the Community
as part of the general doctrinal evolution of ancient Judaism.
Nevertheless, it is no simple task to follow that development itself, the
reason being that the systematic exposition of beliefs and customs is not a
traditional Jewish discipline. In a sense, the Instruction on the Two Spirits,
incorporated in the Community Rule, alluded to earlier (p. 28), is an excep
tion, forming the one and only doctrinal treatise among ancient Hebrew
writings. The theology of Judaism, biblical, inter-Testamental, medieval or
modem, when written by contemporary Jewish authors, is often modelled
consciously or unconsciously on Christian dogmatic structures: God,
creation, human destiny, messianic redemption, judgement, resurrection,
heaven and hell. Such structures may and sometimes do distort the reli
gious concepts of Judaism. For example, the interest of the Church in the
messianic role of Jesus is apt to assign a greater importance to Messianism
in Jewish religion than the historical evidence justifies, and Pauls hostility
to the legalism of Israel obscures the Jewish recognition of the humble
realities of everyday life prescribed by the Law as no mere works but as
a path to holiness walked in obedience to Gods commandments.

1 TH E CO VENANT
Since the key to any understanding of Judaism must be the notion of the
Covenant, it may safely be taken as an introduction to Essene religious
thought. The history of mankind and of the Jewish people has seen a
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series of such covenants. God undertook never to destroy mankind again

by a flood; in exchange, Noah and his descendants were required to abstain
from shedding human blood and, on the ritual level, from eating animal
flesh with the life, which is the blood, still in it (Gen. ix, 1-17). To
Abraham, who was childless and landless, God offered posterity and a
country, provided he led a perfect life and marked his body and that of
all his male progeny with a visible reminder of the Covenant between him
self and heaven, circumcision (Gen. xvii, 1-14). Again, in the days of Moses
the Israelites were declared a kingdom of priests, and a holy nation
(Exod. xix, 5), Gods special possession, on condition that they obeyed
the Torah, the divine Teaching of the religious, moral, social and ritual
precepts recorded in the Pentateuch from Exodus xx and repeated in the
farewell discourse addressed by Moses to his people in the Book of
Deuteronomy. After the conquest of Canaan and the distribution of the
land to the tribes, the fulfilment of Gods promise to Abraham, the
Covenant was renewed by Joshua and the Israelites reasserted their
commitment to their heavenly Helper (Jos. xxiv). From then on, the bib
lical story is one of continuous unfaithfulness to the Covenant. But God
was not to be thwarted by human unworthiness and ingratitude, and for
the sake of the handful of just men appearing in every generation he
allowed the validity of the Covenant to endure. Though he punished the
sinful and the rebellious, he spared the remnant because of their fidelity
to it. From time to time, saintly leaders of the Jewish people, King
David and King Josiah before the Babylonian exile (2 Sam. vii; 2 Kings
xxiii, 1-3) and Ezra the Priest after the return from Mesopotamia (Neh.
viii-x), persuaded them to remember their Covenant with God with
solemn vows of repentance and national rededication; but the promises
were usually short-lived. This would no doubt account for the develop
ment of an idea in the sixth century b c e of a new Covenant founded
not so much on undertakings entered into by the community as on the
inner transformation of every individual Jew for whom the will of God
was to become, as it were, second nature.
The time is coming ... when I will make a new Covenant with Israel ... This is
the new Covenant which I will make with Israel in those days ... I will set my
law within them and write it on their hearts ...

(Jer. xxxi, 3 1-3 ; Isa. liv, 13)

It was this same Covenant ideology that served as the foundation of

the Qumran Communitys basic beliefs. The Essenes not only consid
ered themselves to be the remnant of their time, but the remnant of
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all time, the final remnant. In the age of wrath, while God was mak
ing ready to annihilate the wicked, their founders had repented. They
had become the Converts of Israel (cf. CD iv, 2; 4Q266 fr. 5 i). As a
reward for their conversion, the Teacher of Righteousness had been sent
to establish for them a new Covenant, which was to be the sole valid
form of the eternal alliance between God and Israel. Consequently, their
paramount aim was to pledge themselves to observe its precepts with
absolute faithfulness. Convinced that they belonged to a Community which
alone interpreted the Holy Scriptures correctly, theirs was the last inter
pretation of the Law (4Q266 fr. 11; 270 fr. 7 ii), and they devoted their
exile in the wilderness to the study of the Bible. Their intention was to
do according to all that had been revealed from age to age, and as the
Prophets had revealed by His Holy Spirit (iQ S vm , 14-16; cf. 4Q265
fr. 7 ii).
Without an authentic interpretation it was not possible properly to
understand the Torah. All the Jews of the inter-Testamental era, the
Essenes as well as their rivals, agreed that true piety entails obedience to
the Law, but although its guidance reaches into so many corners of
life - into business and prayer, law court and kitchen, marriage-bed and
Temple - the 613 positive and negative commandments of which it con
sists still do not provide for all the problems encountered, especially those
which arose in the centuries following the formulation of biblical legisla
tion. To give but one example, the diaspora situation was not envisaged
by the jurists of an autonomous Jewish society.
Torah interpretation was entrusted to the priests and Levites during
the first two or three centuries following the Babylonian exile. Ezra and
his colleagues, the ancient scribes of Israel, read from the book of the
L aw . . . made its sense plain and gave instruction in what was read. In
this passage from the Book of Nehemiah viii, 8, Jewish tradition acknow
ledges the institution of a regular paraphrase of Scripture known as
Targum, or translation into the vernacular of the members of the con
gregation. When the parties of the Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, etc.,
came into being with their different convictions, they justified them by
interpretations suited to their needs.
A classic example of idiosyncratic Bible interpretation in the Scrolls
concerns a law on marriage. Since no directly relevant ruling is given in
the Pentateuch on whether a niece may marry her uncle, Pharisaic and
rabbinic Judaism understands this scriptural silence to mean that such a
union is licit. When the Bible wishes to declare a degree of kinship
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unlawful, it does so: thus we read apropos of marriage between nephew

and aunt, You shall not approach your mothers sister (Lev. xviii, 13).
Thus a tradition surviving in the Babylonian Talmud is able to go so far
as even to praise marriage with a sisters daughter and to proclaim it as
a particularly saintly and generous act comparable to the loving-kindness
shown to the poor and needy (Yebamoth 62b). The Qumran Essenes did
not adopt this attitude at all. On the contrary, they regarded an uncleniece union as straightforward fornication. Interpreted correctly, they
maintained, the Leviticus precept signifies the very opposite of the mean
ing accepted by their opponents; the truth is that whatever applies to
men in this respect applies also to women.
Moses said, You shall not approach your mother's sister (i.e. your aunt); she is your
mother's near kin (Lev. xviii, 13). But although the laws against incest are written
for men, they also apply to women. When, therefore, a brothers daughter
uncovers the nakedness of her fathers brother, she is (also his) near kin.
(CD v, 8 -11)

The Temple Scroll proclaims clearly this prohibition in proper legal

terms:
A man shall not take the daughter of his brother or the daughter of his sister for
this is abominable.

(11Q T

lxvi,

16 -17 )

Again, according to the strict views of the sectaries, fidelity to the

Covenant demanded not only obedience to the Law, to all that God has
commanded by the hand of Moses, but also adherence to the teaching
o f all His servants, the Prophets (iQ S 1, 2-3). Although not expressly
stated, this special attention to the Prophets implies, firsdy, that the Essenes
subscribed to the principle incorporated into the opening paragraph of
the Sayings of the Fathers in the Mishnah that the Prophets served as an
essential link in the transmission of the Law from Moses to the rabbis.
M o ses received the Torah from (God on) Sinai and passed it on to Joshua;

Joshua to the Elders (= Judges); the Elders to the Prophets; and the Prophets
passed it on to the members of the Great Assembly (= the leaders of Israel in the
post-exilic age).

(Aboth 1, 1)

The second inference to be drawn is that the sect believed the Prophets
to be not only teachers of morality, but also guides in the domain of the
final eschatological realities. But as in the case of the Law, their writings
were considered to contain pitfalls for the ignorant and the misinformed,
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and only the Communitys sages knew how to expound them correctly.
Properly understood, the Books of Isaiah, Hosea and the rest indicate
the right path to be followed in the terrible cataclysms of the last days. A
simple reading can convey only their superficial meaning, but not their
profounder significance. The Book of Daniel sets the biblical example
here when it announces that Jeremiahs prediction that the Babylonian
domination would last for seventy years is not to be taken literally; the
real and final message is that seventy times seven years would separate
Nebuchadnezzar from the coming of the Messiah (Dan. ix, 21-4). But
the Qumran sectaries went even further than Daniel. They argued that it
is quite impossible to discover the meaning without an inspired interpreter
because the Prophets themselves were ignorant of the full import of what
they wrote. Habakkuk, for instance, was commanded to recount the his
tory of the final generation, but he did so without having any clear idea
of how far ahead the eschatological age lay. God did not make known to
him when time would come to an end. Knowledge of the authentic teach
ing of the Prophets was the supreme talent of the Teacher of Righteousness.
The surviving Bible commentaries are almost all concerned with predic
tions concerning the ultimate destiny of the righteous and the wicked, the
tribulations and final triumph of the House ofJudah and the concomitant
annihilation of those who had rebelled against God. But in addition to this
general evidence of the subject-matter, the Scrolls directly impute to the
Teacher a particular God-given insight into the hidden significance of
prophecy. He was the Teacher of Righteousness to whom God made
known all the mysteries ... of His servants the Prophets (iQpHab v i i ,
1-5). He was the Priest [in whose heart] God set [understanding] that he
might interpret all the words of His servants the Prophets, through whom
H e foretold all that would happen to His people (iQ p H ab 11, 8-10). H e
was the Teacher who made known to the latter generations that which God
had done to the latter generation, the congregation of traitors, to those
who departed from the way (CD 1, 12-13). The Teachers interpretation
alone, propagated by his disciples, offered true enlightenment and guidance.
Supported in this way by the infallible teaching of the Community,
the sectary believed himself to be living in the true city of God, the city
of the Covenant built on the Law and the Prophets (cf. CD v i i , 13-18).
Again and again, the architectural metaphors used in the Scrolls sug
gest security and protection. The sect is a House of Holiness, a House
of Perfection and Truth (iQS v i i i , 5, 9), a House of the Law (CD
xix (B2), 10, 13); it is a sure House (CD 111, 19) constructed on solid
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foundations. Indeed the language used is reminiscent of Isaiah xxviii, 1 6,

and of Jesus simile about the Church built not on sand but on rock
(Matth. vii, 24-7; xvi, 18):
But I shall be as one who enters a fortified city,
as one who seeks refuge behind a high wall...
I will [lean on] Thy truth, O my God.
For Thou wilt set the foundation on rock
and tiiz,framework by the measuring-cord of justice;
and the tried stones [Thou wilt lay]
by the plumb-line [of truth],
to [build] a mighty [wall] which shall not sway;
and no man entering there shall stagger.
(iQ H xiv [formerly vi], 24-7)

Fortified by his membership of the brotherhood, the sectary could even

carry his notions of solidity and firmness over into his own self so that he
too became a strong tower:
Thou hast strengthened me
before the battles of wickedness ...
Thou hast made me like a strong tower, a high wall,
and hast established my edifice upon rock;

eternalfoundations
serve for my ground,
and all my ramparts are a tried wall
which shall not sway.

(iQ H xv [formerly v i i ], 7-9)

2 E L E C T I O N AND HOLY L IF E IN T H E
C O M M U N IT Y OF T H E C O V E N A N T
In the ideology of the Old Testament, to be a member of the chosen
people is synonymous with being party to the Covenant. Israel willingly
accepts the yoke of the Law given on Sinai, and God in his turn
acknowledges her as His special possession (Exod. xix, 5):
For you are a people holy to the Lord your God; the Lord your God has chosen
you to be a people for His own possession, out of all the peoples that are on the face
of the earth ... You shall therefore be careful to do the commandment, and the
statutes, and the ordinances which I command you this day.

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Theoretically, there is no distinction between election de jure and

election defacto: every Jew is chosen. But already in biblical times a deep
gulf is in fact seen to divide righteous observers of the Covenant from
the wicked of Israel. Though not deprived of their birthright, the unfaith
ful are viewed as burdened with guilt and as such excluded, provisionally
at least, from the congregation of the children of God. The fully developed
concept of election is summarized in the Palestinian Talmud by the thirdcentury c e Galilean Rabbi Lazar. Expounding the words of Deuteronomy
quoted above, he comments:
When the Israelites do the will of the Holy One, blessed be He, they are called
sons; but when they do not do His will, they are not called sons.
(Kiddushin 6ic)

Inevitably, for the Qumran Essenes such a notion of Covenant member

ship was far too elastic. Consistent with their approach to legal matters,
their attitude in regard to the Covenant was that only the initiates of their
own new Covenant were to be reckoned among Gods elect and, as such,
united already on earth with the angels of heaven.
God has given them to His chosen ones
and has caused them to inherit
the lot of the Holy Ones.
He has joined their assembly
to the Sons of Heaven,
to be a Council of the Community,
a foundation of the Building of Holiness,
an eternal Plantation throughout all ages to come.
(iQ S

xi, 7-9)

They insisted, moreover, on the individual election of each sectary. The

ordinary Jew envisaged entry into the congregation of the chosen pri
marily through birth, and secondly through the symbolical initiation of
an eight-day-old male infant submitted to circumcision. An Essene became
a member of either branch of his sect by virtue of the deliberate and per
sonal adult commitment of himself. For this reason, as will be remem
bered, even children born to married members and brought up in their
schools had to wait until their twentieth birthday before they were allowed
to make their solemn vows of entry into the Covenant. Also, believing in
divine foreknowledge, they considered their adherence to the lot of God
as the effect of grace, as having been planned for each of them in heaven
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from all eternity. They, the elect, were guided by the spirit of truth in
the ways of light, while the unprivileged, Jew and Gentile alike, were
doomed to wander along paths of darkness. The section of the Community
Rule known as the Instruction on the Two Spirits gives a fascinating
description of these two human groups, the chosen and the unchosen.
The Master shall instruct all the sons of light and shall teach them the nature of
all the children of men according to the kind of spirit which they possess ...
From the God of Knowledge comes all that is and shall be. Before ever they
existed He established their whole design, and when, as ordained for them, they
come into being, it is in accord with His glorious design that they accomplish
their task without change ...
He has created man to govern the world, and has appointed for him two
spirits in which to walk until the time of His visitation: the spirits of truth and
injustice. Those bom of truth spring from a fountain of light, but those bom
of injustice spring from a source of darkness. All the children of righteousness
are ruled by the Prince of Light and walk in the ways of light, but all the
children of injustice are ruled by the Angel of Darkness and walk in the ways
of darkness. The Angel of Darkness leads all the children of righteousness
astray, and until his end, all their sins, iniquities, wickedness, and all their unlaw
ful deeds are caused by his dominion in accordance with the mysteries of
God ...
But the God of Israel and His Angel of Truth will succour all the sons of light.
For it is He who created the spirits of Light and Darkness and founded every
action upon them and established every deed [upon] their [ways]. And He loves
the one everlastingly and delights in its works for ever; but the counsel of the
other He loathes and for ever hates its ways.

(iQ S

h i,

13-iv , 1)

Convictions of this kind, with their theories of individual election and

predestination, coupled with a precise knowledge of the boundary divid
ing right from wrong, can lead to self-righteousness and arrogant intoler
ance of the masses thought to be rejected by God. The Essenes, however,
appear to have concentrated more on the blessedness of the chosen than
on the damnation of the unpredestined. Besides, they could always argue
that Jews who refused to repent and remained outside the new Covenant
were responsible for their own doom.
But the spiritual masters of the Community were doubtless aware of
the danger of the sin of pride to which their less enlightened brothers
were exposed and attacked it on three fronts. The Qumran Hymns,
unlike certain biblical Psalms (e.g. Psalm xxvi) which testify to an acute
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form of sanctimoniousness, never cease to emphasize the sectarys frailty,

unworthiness and total dependence on God.
Clay and dust that I am,
what can I devise unless Thou wish it,
and what contrive unless Thou desire it?
What strength shall I have
unless Thou keep me upright
and how shall I understand
unless by (the spirit) which Thou hast shaped for me?

(iQH xvm [formerly x], 5-7)

Not only is election itself owed to Gods grace, but perseverance in the
way of holiness cannot be counted on unless he offers his continuous
help and support.
When the wicked rose against Thy Covenant
and the damned against Thy word,
I said in my sinfulness,
I am forsaken by Thy Covenant.
But calling to mind the might of Thy hand
and the greatness of Thy compassion,
I rose and stood ...
I lean on Thy grace
and on the multitude of Thy mercies.
(iQ H

xii

[formerly iv], 34-7)

Another theme constantly stressed in Essene teaching is that not only

is Gods assistance necessary in order to remain faithful to his Law; the
very knowledge of that Law is a gift from heaven. All their special
understanding and wisdom comes from God.
From the source of His righteousness
is my justification,
and from His marvellous mysteries
is the light in my heart.
M y eyes have gazed
on that which is eternal,
on wisdom concealed from men,
on knowledge and wise design
(hidden) from the sons of men;

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on a fountain of righteousness
and on a storehouse of power,
on a spring of glory
(hidden) from the assembly of flesh.
God has given them to His chosen ones
as an everlasting possession,
and has caused them to inherit
the lot of the Holy Ones.

(iQ S xi, 5-8)

The sentiments expressed in the Hymns, of love and gratitude and aware
ness of Gods presence, represent a true religiousness and must have
helped the sectary not to allow his life - governed as it was by laws and
precepts - to slide into one of mere religious formalism.
Thou hast upheld me with certain truth;
Thou hast delighted me with Thy Holy Spirit
and [hast opened my heart] till this day ...
The abundance of (Thy) forgiveness is with my steps
and infinite mercy accompanies Thy judgement of me.
Until I am old Thou wilt care for me;
for my father knew me not
and my mother abandoned me to Thee.
For Thou art a father
to all [the sons] of Thy truth,
and as a woman who tenderly loves her babe,
so dost Thou rejoice in them;
and as a foster-father bearing a child in his lap,
so carest Thou for all T hy creatures.
(iQ H xvii [formerly ix], 32-6)

Whether the average Essene actually succeeded in fulfilling his high

ideals, we cannot of course know: experience past and present has shown
that paths to sanctity devised by organized religion are beset with snares.
As has been noted earlier (pp. 31-2 on 4Q477), in some individual cases,
moral shortcomings were actually recorded. But there can be no doubt of
the sectaries intention. The aim of a holy life lived within the Covenant
was to penetrate the secrets of heaven in this world and to stand before
God for ever in the next. Like Isaiah, who beheld the seraphim proclaim
ing Holy, holy, holy, and like Ezekiel, who in a trance watched the
winged cherubim drawing the divine throne-chariot, and like the ancient

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Jewish mystics who consecrated themselves, despite official disapproval

by the rabbis, to the contemplation of the same throne-chariot and the
heavenly Palaces, the Essenes, too, strove for a similar mystical know
ledge, as one of their number testifies in a description of his own vision
of the ministers of the Glorious Face.
The [cheru]bim prostrate themselves before Him and bless. As they rise, a whis
pered divine voice [is heard], and there is a roar of praise. When they drop their
wings, there is a [whispere]d divine voice. The cherubim bless the image of the
throne-chariot above the firmament, [and] they praise [the majes]ty of the lumi
nous firmament beneath His seat of glory. When the wheels advance, angels
of holiness come and go. From between His glorious wheels there is as it were
a fiery vision of most holy spirits. About them, the appearance of rivulets of fire
in the likeness of gleaming brass, and a work o f... radiance in many-coloured
glory, marvellous pigments, clearly mingled. The spirits of the living gods
move perpetually with the glory of the marvellous chariot(s). The whispered
voice of blessing accompanies the roar of their advance, and they praise the
Holy One on their way of return. When they ascend, they ascend marvellously,
and when they settle, they stand still. The sound of joyful praise is silenced and
there is a whispered blessing of the gods in all the camps of God.
(4Q405 20, ii-22)

3 W O R S H IP IN T H E C O M M U N IT Y
OF T H E CO V EN A N T
In addition to the worship of God offered through a life of holiness, the
Qumran sectary had more particularly to perform the ritual acts pre
scribed by Moses in the correct manner and at the right times. The
earthly liturgy was intended to be a replica of that sung by the choirs of
angels in the celestial Temple.
To judge from the many references to it, the time element both calendric and horary was crucial. The Community Rule lays down that the
Community was not to depart from any command of God concerning
their times; they shall be neither early nor late for any of their appointed
times, they shall stray neither to the right nor to the left of any of His
true precepts (iQ S 1, 13-15). This injunction asks for exact punctuality
in regard to the two daily moments of prayer meant to coincide with and
replace the perpetual bumt-offering sacrificed in the Temple at sunrise

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and sunset (Exod. xxix, 30; Num. xxviii, 4), but it demands in addition a
strict observance of the sects own liturgical calendar.
He shall bless Him [with the offering] of the lips at the times ordained by Him:
at the beginning of the dominion of light, and at its end when it retires to its
appointed place; at the beginning of the watches of darkness when He unlocks
their storehouse and spreads them out, and also at their end when they retire
before the light; when the heavenly lights shine out from the dwelling-place of
Holiness, and also when they retire to the place of Glory; at the entry of the
(monthly) seasons on the days of the new moon, and also at their end when they
succeed to one another ...

(iQ S ix, 26-x, 4)

To understand the peculiarity of Essenism in this respect, a few words

need to be said about the calendar followed by non-sectarian Judaism.
Essentially, this was regulated by the movements of the moon; months
varied in duration from twenty-nine to thirty days and the year consisted
of twelve months of 354 days. Needless to say, such a lunar year does not
correspond to the four seasons determined by the movements of the sun
in terms of solstices and equinoxes. The shortfall of about ten days
between the lunar and the solar years was therefore compensated for by
means of intercalation, i.e. by inserting after Adar (February/March),
the twelfth month of the year, a supplementary Second Adar at the end
of every thirty-six lunar months.
The Qumran sect rejected this seemingly artificial system and adopted
instead a chronological reckoning, probably of priestly origin, based on the
sun, a practice attested also in the Book of Jubilees and 1 Enoch, and fully
laid out in the remains of a series of calendrical documents (4Q320-30).
The outstanding feature of this solar calendar was its absolute regularity
in that, instead of 354 days, not divisible by seven, it consisted of 364
days, i.e. fifty-two weeks precisely. Each of its four seasons was thirteen
weeks long divided into three months of thirty days each, plus an addi
tional remembrance day (iQ S x, 5) linking one season to another (13
x 7 = 91 = 3 x 30 + 1). In tune in this way with the laws of the Great
Light of heaven (iQ H x i i , 5) and not with the festivals of the nations
(4QpHos=4Qi7i 11, 16), Qumran saw its calendar as corresponding to
the certain law from the mouth of God (iQ H xx [formerly xii], 9). Its
unbroken rhythm meant furthermore that the first day of the year and of
each subsequent season always fell on the same day of the week. For the
Essenes this was Wednesday, since according to Genesis i, 14-19, it was
on the fourth day that the sun and the moon were created. Needless to
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add, the same monotonous sequence also implied that all the feasts of
the year always fell on the same day of the week: Passover, the fifteenth
day of the first month, was always celebrated on a Wednesday; the Feast
of Weeks, the fifteenth day of the third month, always on a Sunday; the
Day of Atonement, the tenth day of the seventh month, on a Friday; the
Feast of Tabernacles, the fifteenth day of the seventh month, on a
Wednesday, etc. This solar calendar with its eternal regularity cannot of
course stand up to the astronomical calculation of 365 days 5 hours 48
minutes and 48 seconds to the year, but the Scrolls so far published give
no indication of how the Essenes proposed to cope with this inconve
nience, or whether indeed they were even aware of it.
One practical consequence of the sects adherence to a calendar at
variance with that of the rest of Judaism was that its feast-days were
working days for other Jews and vice versa. The Wicked Priest was thus
able to travel (journeys of any distance being forbidden on holy days of
rest) to the place of exile of the Teacher of Righteousness while he and
his followers were celebrating the Day of Atonement (cf. above, p. 55).
In fact, it is likely that the persecutors of the sect deliberately chose that
date to oblige the sectaries to attend to them on what they considered to
be their Day of Fasting and Sabbath of repose, and thus confuse them
and cause them to stumble. The same sort of story is told in the Mishnah
of the Patriarch Gamaliel II, who endeavoured to humiliate Rabbi Joshua
ben Hananiah by sending him the following instruction: T charge you
that you come to me with your staff and your money on the Day of
Atonement according to your reckoning (Rosh ha-Shanah 11,9).
Another peculiarity of the liturgical calendar of the Community, attested
in the Temple Scroll, was the division of the year into seven fifty-day
periods - hence the name pentecontad calendar - each marked by an
agricultural festival, e.g. the Feast of New Wine, the Feast of Oil, etc. A
similar system is mentioned by Philo in connection with the Therapeutae
in his book, On the Contemplative Life. One of these festivals, the Feast of
the New Wheat, coincided with the Feast of Weeks and was for the
Essenes/Therapeutae also the principal holy day of the year, that of the
Renewal of the Covenant, the importance of which is discussed above
(p. 44). From the Book of Jubilees, where, as has been said, the same
calendar is followed, it is clear that Pentecost (the Feast of Weeks),
together with the Feast of the Renewal of the Covenant, were celebrated
on the fifteenth day of the third month (Jub. vi, 17-19; cf. also 4Q266
fr. 11 ii; 270 fr. 7 ii). An outline of the ceremony performed on this holy
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day, with its confession of sin and its blessings and curses, is preserved
in the Community Rule (iQ S i, 16n, 25; cf. also 4Q280, 286-7).
The sectaries assemble for the service in strict hierarchical order: the
priests first, ranked in order of status, after them the Levites, and lastly
all the people one after another in their Thousands, Hundreds, Fifties
and Tens, that every Israelite may know his place in the Community of
God according to the everlasting design (iQS 11, 22-3). Blessing God,
the priests then recite his acts of loving-kindness to Israel and the
Levites recall Israels rebellions against him. This recognition of guilt is
followed by an act of public repentance appropriate to a community of
converts.
W e have strayed! We have [disobeyed!] W e and our fathers before us have
sinned and acted wickedly in walking [counter to the precepts] of truth and
righteousness. [And God has] judged us and our fathers also; but He has
bestowed His bountiful mercy on us from everlasting to everlasting.
(iQ S 1, 24-11, 1)

After the confession, the priests solemnly bless the converts of Israel,
calling down on them in particular the gifts of wisdom and knowledge:
May He bless you with all good and preserve you from all evil! May He lighten
your heart with life-giving wisdom and grant you eternal knowledge! May He
raise His merciful face towards you for everlasting bliss!

(iQ S 11, 2-4)

This paraphrase of the blessing of Israel which God commanded Moses

to transmit to Aaron and his sons in Numbers vi, 24-6, and which recalls
the fourth of the daily Eighteen Benedictions of traditional Judaism, is
accompanied by a Levitical curse of the party of Belial and a special
malediction directed by both priests and Levites at any sectary whose
conversion may be insincere:
Cursed be the man who enters this Covenant while walking among the idols of
his heart, who sets up before him self his stum bling-block of sin so that he may
backslide! Hearing the words of this Covenant, he blesses himself in his heart
and says, Peace be with me, even though I walk in the stubbornness of my
heart ...

(iQ S 11, 1 1 - 1 2 )

The Cave 4 sources of the Damascus Document depict also the ritual of
dismissal from the Community. The Priest overseeing the Congregation,
addressing God, declares:

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Thou hast cursed those who transgress (the boundary) but we maintain it.
Thereupon the dismissed man shall leave and whoever eats from what is
his or greets the man who has been dismissed, and agrees with him, ...
his judgement shall be complete (4Q266 fr. 11 ii; 270 fir. 7 ii).
Each benediction and curse is approved by the whole congregation
with a twice repeated Amen.
The ceremony of the Renewal of the Covenant seems to be the only
rite described in any detail in the Community Rule and the Damascus
Document, but as the Essenes laid so much emphasis on the full and
punctilious observance of the Law of Moses it may be taken for granted
that they did not omit the many other basic acts of Jewish religion and
worship. The fact that the Community Rule is satisfied simply to state
without any specification that a single deliberate transgression of the
Mosaic Law would entail irrevocable expulsion from the sect implies that
the elite sectaries subject to this rule did not need detailed guidance: they
were supposed to be fully versed in the Torah. Legislation addressed to
less well-trained members, contained in the Damascus Document and in
the Temple Scroll, is more discursive. Circumcision, for example, which
was certainly practised, is mentioned in connection with female unclean
ness after childbirth when Leviticus xii, 3 is cited in passing (4Q266 fr. 6
ii). It is also referred to figuratively in the context of severing the fore
skin of the evil inclination (iQ S v, 5), or possibly and by implication as
the Covenant of Abraham mentioned in connection with (Gentile) man
servants (CD x i i , 11; xvi, 6). The laws of purity were also assuredly
essential to the sect, and some practical guidance is given in 11Q T S
x l v i - l i , 4Q274-84, and M M T. The dietary laws are dealt with in the
Damascus Document, M M T and the Temple Scroll. For instance, the
eating o f live creatures (e.g. larvae o f bees, fish and locusts) is declared

to be prohibited in CD x i i , 11- 15 . M M T states that a live animal foetus

must be slaughtered before becoming fit for consumption (4Q396 firs.
1-21). Further laws appear in the Temple Scroll x l v i i - x l v i i i . Josephus
also remarks that an Essene was forbidden to eat food prepared by people
not belonging to the brotherhood (War 11, 143).
On three other topics, the Qumran sources are less taciturn: ritual
ablutions, Temple worship and the sacred meal. Discussed already as part
of the life of the sect, it remains now to consider the doctrinal signifi
cance of these rites.
Josephus, as will be recalled, observes that the Essenes took a ritual
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bath twice daily before meals (cf. War 11, 129, 132). 4Q 414 - entitled
Baptismal liturgy - deals definitely with such a bathing ritual but the text
is so mutilated that no readable translation is possible. As regards the
bath itself, the Damascus Document adds that the minimum quantity of
clean water required for a valid act of purification was to be the amount
necessary to cover a man (CD x, 12-13). This is not of course an Essene
invention, but typically, where the Mishnah prescribes a minimum of
forty seabs (about 120 gallons), the sects teaching concentrates on the
practical purpose of the Mishnaic rule, namely that in them men may
immerse themselves (Mikwaot vn, 1), and eliminates the obligation of
having carefully to measure out what that quantity should be. Of greater
interest, however, is the theological aspect, with its insistence on a corre
lation between the inner condition of a man and the outer rite. The
wicked, according to the Community Rule, shall not enter the water ...
for they shall not be cleansed unless they turn from their wickedness
(iQ S v, 13-14). True purification comes from the spirit of holiness
and true cleansing from the humble submission of the soul to all Gods
precepts.
For it is through the spirit of true counsel concerning the ways of man that all
his sins shall be expiated ... He shall be cleansed from all his sins by the spirit of
holiness ... and his iniquity shall be expiated by the spirit of uprightness and
humility. And when his flesh is sprinkled with purifying water and sanctified by
cleansing water, it shall be made clean by the humble submission of his soul to
all the precepts of God.
(iQS 111, 6-9)
T h e second issue has to do with the sects attitude towards the Temple
and Temple sacrifice. W hile some Essenes, notwithstanding their vow o f
total fidelity to the Law of Moses, rejected the validity of the Sanctuary and

Omnisprobus 75;
Antiquities x v m , 19), they evaded the theological dilemma in

refused to participate (temporarily) in its rites (cf. Philo,

Josephus,

which this stand might have placed them by contending that until the
rededication o f the Temple, the only true worship o f God was to be offered
in their establishment. T h e Council o f the Community was to be the
M ost H oly Dwelling for A aron where, without the flesh o f holocausts
and the fat o f sacrifice , a sweet fragrance was to be sent up to G od, and
where prayer was to serve as an acceptable fragrance o f righteousness
( iQ S

viii,

8 -9 ; ix, 4 -5 ). T h e Community itself was to be the sacrifice

offered to G od in atonement for Israels sins ( iQ S

fr. 7 ii).
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Besides this evidence in the Community Rule, the equation of the

Council of the Community with the Temple also appears in the Habakkuk
Commentary ( x i i , 3-4) in a most interesting interpretation of the word
Lebanon. Traditionally, Lebanon is understood by ancient Jewish
interpreters to symbolize the Temple. For example, Deuteronomy iii, 25,
Let me go over ... and see ... that goodly mountain and Lebanon, is
rendered in Targum Onkelos as, Let me go over ... and see ... that
goodly mountain and the Temple. The Qumran commentator, explain
ing the Habakkuk text, For the violence done to Lebanon shall over
whelm you (Hab. 11, 17), proceeds from the belief that the Council of
the Community is the one valid Temple. He then sets out to prove it by
directly associating Lebanon with the Council in the conviction that the
traditional exegesis will be familiar to all his readers: Lebanon = Temple.
Temple = Council of the Community, ergo Lebanon = Council of the
Community.1
The symbolical approach of the sect to sacrificial worship may account
for Essene celibacy (where it was practised). Sexual abstinence was im
posed on those participating in the Temple services, both priests and lay
men; no person who had sexual intercourse (or an involuntary emission,
or even any physical contact with a menstruating woman) could lawfully
take part. More importantly still, bearing in mind the central place occu
pied by prophecy in Essene doctrine, clear indications exist in inter-Testamental and rabbinic literature that a similar renunciation was associated
with the prophetic state. Thus Moses, in order always to be ready to
hear the voice of God, is said by Philo to have cleansed himself of all
calls of mortal nature, food, drink, and intercourse with women (Life of
Moses 11, 68-9). Consequently, despite the attempt made by Philo and by
Josephus to attribute the sects celibacy to misogyny, a more reasonable
explanation would be that it was thought that lives intended to be wholly
consecrated to worship and wholly preoccupied with meditation on
prophecy should be kept wholly, and not just intermittently, pure.
The common table of the Essenes, the third special cultic subject to
be examined, has already been discussed in Chapter II (p. 32), but one
remaining point needs to be mentioned, namely that since the rules
relating to the daily meal and the messianic meal are the same, it is not
unreasonable to infer from the New Testament parallel that the former
1. Another metaphorical use of Lebanon (= the foreign nations) is implied in the quota
tion of Isa. x, 34 in the Rule of W ar (4Q 285 fr. 5).

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was thought to prefigure the latter. As is well known, the evangelist

Matthew portrays the Last Supper as the prototype of the great eschatological feast, quoting Jesus as saying:
I tell you, I shall not drink again of this fruit of the vine until that day when I
drink it new with you in my Fathers Kingdom.

(Matth. xxvi, 29)

4 F U T U R E E X P E C T A T IO N S IN T H E
C O M M U N IT Y O F T H E C O V E N A N T
The Essene sect was born into a world of eschatological ferment, of
intense expectation of the end foretold by the Prophets. Using biblical
models as vehicles for their own convictions, the Teacher of Righteousness
and the Communitys sages projected an image of the future which is
elaborate and colourful, but which cannot always be fully comprehended
by us, partly because some of the associations escape us, and partly because
of gaps in the extant texts. They foresaw in their Communitys story the
fulfilment of the prophetic expectations concerning the salvation of the
righteous. It was from their ranks, swollen by the re-conversion of some
of the Simple of Ephraim (4QpNah=4Qi69 111, 4-5) who had caused
such distress by their previous apostasy, and by other Jewish recruits
(iQSa 1, 1-5; cf. also 4Q 47ia), that the sons of Light would go to battle
against the sons of Darkness. The Community or the exiles of the desert
would move to Jerusalem after a preliminary attack on the army of Belial,
symbolized by the ungodly of the Covenant and their foreign allies
from the environs of Judaea, and an assault on the Kittim occupying the
Holy Land. These events were expected to cover a period of six years.
The seventh, the first sabbatical year of the War, would see the restoration
of Temple worship.
Of the remaining thirty-three years of its duration, four would be sab
batical years, so the War would be waged during twenty-nine: against
the sons of Shem for nine years, against the sons of Ham for ten years,
and against the sons of Japheth for another ten years (iQ M 1-11). The
final conflict would end with the total defeat of the King of the Kittim
and of Satans hosts, and with the joyful celebrations of the Hero, i.e.
God, by the victorious sons of Light.
[Rise up, O Hero!
Lead off Thy captives, O Glorious One!

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Gather up] Thy spoils, O Author of mighty deeds!

Lay Thy hand on the neck of Thine enemies
and Thy feet [on the pile of the slain!
Smite the nations, Thine adversaries],
and devour the flesh of the sinner with Thy sword!
Fill Thy land with glory
and Thine inheritance with blessing!
[Let there be a multitude of cattle in Thy fields,
and in] Thy palaces
[silver and gold and precious stones]!
O Zion, rejoice gready!
Rejoice all you cities ofJudah!
[Keep your gates ever open
that the] hosts of the nations
[may be brought in]!
Their kings shall serve you
and all your oppressors shall bow down before you;
[they shall lick the dust of your feet.
Shout for joy, O daughters of] my people!
Deck yourselves with glorious jewels
[and rule over the kingdom of the nations!
Sovereignty shall be to the Lord]
and everlasting dominion to Israel.
(iQM xix, 2-8)
Such was to be the course of the War in its earthly dimensions. But it
would possess in addition a cosmic quality. The hosts of the sons of
Light, commanded by the Prince of the Congregation, were to be sup
ported by the angelic armies led by the Prince of Light, also known in
the Scrolls as the archangel Michael or Melchizedek. Similarly, the
ungodly of the Covenant and their Gentile associates were to be aided
by the demonic forces of Satan, or Belial, or Melkiresha4. These two
opposing camps were to be evenly matched, and Gods intervention
alone would bring about the destruction of evil (iQ M xvm , 1-3). Else
where the grand finale is represented as a judgement scene in which the
heavenly prince Melchizedek recompenses the Holy Ones of God and
executes the vengeance of the judgements of God over Belial and his
lot (nQMelch 11, 9, 13). Yet, if my interpretation of another nonmessianic composition (4Q246) is correct, the symbolical opponent,
usurping in this writing the title son of God and son of the Most High,
85

THE RELIGIOUS

IDEAS

OF T H E

COMMUNITY

is said to be overcome by the people of God ready to establish with the

help of the Great God an eternal kingdom.
The role of the priests and Levites in this imaginary ultimate grappling
of good with evil, as described in the War Scroll, emerges as that of noncombatants, performing various battle rituals and directing the various
war activities (advance, retreat, ambush, etc.). However, it is more difficult
to determine the function of the commander-in-chief, the so-called Prince
of the Congregation. We learn that on his shield will be inscribed his
name, the names of Israel, Levi and Aaron, and those of the twelve tribes
and their chiefs (iQM v, 1-2); but little room appears to be left in the
War Rule for him to act as the Royal Messiah. God himself is the supreme
agent of salvation and after him in importance is Michael.
In some other Scrolls, by contrast, the theme of Messianism is more
prominent. Complex and sui generis, it envisages sometimes one messianic
figure, royal, Davidic, triumphant (4Q285, 4Q 161, and the Damascus
Document speaking of the Messiah - in the singular, cf. 4Q266 fir. 11 i,
12 - of Aaron and Israel), again and again two, and once possibly even
three Messiahs. The lay King-Messiah, otherwise known as the Branch
of David, the Messiah of Israel, the Prince of [all] the Congregation
and the Sceptre, was to usher in, according to the sects book of Bless
ings, the Kingdom of his people and bring death to the ungodly and
defeat [the kings of the] nations (iQSb v, 21, 25, 28). The recently and
groundlessly advanced theory that the Prince of the Congregation,
Branch of David of 4Q285 is a suffering and executed Messiah is con
tradicted both by the immediate context and the broader exegetical
framework of Isaiah x, 34-xi, 1 on which 4Q285 depends (cf. 4Q 16 1,
frs. 8-10; iQSb v, 20-29). As befits a priestly sect, however, the PriestMessiah comes first in the order of precedence; he is also called the
Messiah of Aaron, the Priest, the Interpreter of the Law (cf. iQSa
11, 20). The King-Messiah was to defer to him and to the priestly
authority in general in all legal matters: As they teach him, so shall he
judge (4QpIsa=4Qi6i frs. 8 -11, 1.23). The Messiah of Aaron was to
be the final Teacher, he who shall teach righteousness at the end of
days (CD vi, 11). But he was also to preside over the battle liturgy
(iQ M xv, 4; xvi, 13; xvm , 5) and the eschatological banquet (iQSa 11,
12-21). It seems that there are some allusions suggesting that the escha
tological High Priest was expected to undergo suffering and humiliation
before being glorified (see 4Q 47ib, 491 fr. 11, 541, fr. 9).
The third figure, the Prophet, is mentioned directly though briefly
86

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RELIGIOUS

IDEAS

OF T H E C O M M U N I T Y

only once: we are told that his arrival was expected together with that of
the Messiahs of Aaron and Israel (iQ S ix, n ). The whole messianic
phrase is absent, however, from all the extant 4Q manuscripts of the
Community Rule. Viewed in the context of inter-Testamental Jewish
ideas, the Prophet was to be either an Elijah returned as a precursor of
the Messiah (Mai. iv, 5; 1 Enoch xc, 31, 37; Matth. xi, 13; xvii, 12), or as
a divine guide sent to Israel in the final days (1 Mac. iv, 46; xiv, 41; Jn. i,
21), no doubt identical with the Prophet promised by God to Moses
(I will raise up for them a prophet like you ... He shall convey all my
commands to them, Deut. xviii, 15-18; cf. Acts iii, 22-3; vii, 37). An
identification of the Prophet with a new Moses is supported by the
inclusion of the Deuteronomy passage in the Messianic Anthology or
Testimonia from Cave 4 (4Q175) as the first of three messianic prooftexts, the second being Balaams prophecy concerning the Star to rise
out of Jacob (Num. xxiv, 15-17), and the third, the blessing of Levi by
Moses (Deut. xxxiii, 11), prefiguring respectively the royal Messiah and
the Priest-Messiah.
If it is proper to deduce from these not too explicit data that, if ever
expected by the Qumran sect, the messianic Prophet (or prophetic
Messiah) was to teach the truth revealed on the eve of the establishment
of the Kingdom, it would follow that his part was to all intents and pur
poses the same as that attributed by the Qumran Essenes to the Teacher
of Righteousness. If this is correct, it would not be unreasonable to sug
gest that at some point of the sects history the coming of the Prophet was
no longer expected; he was believed to have already appeared in the person
of the Teacher of Righteousness.
The evidence available does not permit categorical statements on the
sectaries views about what was to follow the days of the Messiahs. Some
kind of metamorphosis was awaited by them, as is clear from the Com
munity Rule - until the determined end, and until the Renewal (iQS
iv, 25). But one cannot be sure that it was understood as synonymous
with the new creation of the Apocalypses of Ezra (vii, 75) and Baruch
(xxxii, 6). Similarly, the new Jerusalem described in various manuscripts
(cf. 1Q32; 2Q24; 4Q 554-555; 5Q 15; 11Q 18 ) does not match by defin
ition the Holy City descending from above of 1 Enoch (xc, 28-9) or
Revelation xxi, but could be an earthly city rebuilt according to the plans
of angelic architects.
As for the afterlife proper, and the place it occupied in Essene thought,
for many centuries in the biblical age Jews paid little attention to this
87

TH E RELIGIOUS

IDEAS

OF T H E C O M M U N I T Y

question. They believed with most peoples in antiquity that after death
the just and wicked alike would share a miserable, shadowy existence in
Sheol, the underworld, where even God is forgotten: Turn, O Lord,
save my life/ cries the psalmist, for in death there is no remembrance of
thee; in Sheol who can give thee praise? (Ps. vi, 5; cf. Isa. xxxviii, 18; Ps.
lxxxviii, 10-12, etc.) The general hope was for a long and prosperous life,
many children, a peaceful death in the midst of ones family, and burial
in the tomb of ones fathers. Needless to say, with this simple outlook
went a most sensitive appreciation of the present time as being the only
moment in which man can be with God.
Eventually, the innate fear of death, and the dissatisfaction of later
biblical thinkers with a divine justice that allowed the wicked to flourish
on earth and the just to suffer, led to attempts in the post-exilic era to solve
this fundamental dilemma. The idea of resurrection, or rather of the re
unification of body and soul after death, first appears as a metaphor in
Ezekiels vision of the re-birth of the Jewish nation after the Babylonian
captivity as the re-animation of dry bones (Ezek. xxxvii; cf. also 4Q385
firs. 2-3). Later, after the historical experience of martyrdom under the
persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, resurrection was expected to be the
true reward of individuals who freely gave their lives for God - i.e. for
their religion (Dan. xii, 2; 2 Mac. vii, 9; xii, 44; xiv, 46, etc.). At the same
time, the notion of immortality also emerged, the idea that the righteous
are to be vindicated and live for ever in Gods presence. This view is
developed fully in the Greek apocryphal Book of Wisdom (iii, i-v, 16).
Josephus tells us that the Essenes subscribed to this second school of
thought. According to him, they adopted a distinctly Hellenistic concept
of immortality, holding the flesh to be a prison out of which the indes
tructible soul of the just escapes into limitless bliss in an abode beyond
the ocean after its final deliverance (War 11, 154-8). Resurrection, imply
ing a return of the spirit to a material body, can thus play no part in this
scheme.
Until recently, the Scrolls themselves have not been particularly help
ful. The Hymns include equivocal statements such as, Hoist a banner,
O you who lie in the dust! O bodies gnawed by worms, raise up an
ensign ...! (iQ H xiv [formerly vi], 34-5; cf. xix [formerly xi], 10-14),
which may connote bodily resurrection. On the other hand, the poets
language may just be allegorical. Immortality, as distinct from
resurrection, is better attested. The substance of Josephus account is
confirmed, though not surprisingly without any typically Hellenistic
88

TH E RELIGIOUS

I D E A S OF T H E C O M M U N I T Y

colouring (no doubt introduced by him to please his Greek readers).

The Community Rule, discussing the reward of the righteous and the
wicked, assures the just of eternal joy in life without end, a crown of
glory and a garment of majesty in unending light (iQ S iv, 7-8), and
sinners of eternal torment and endless disgrace together with shameful
extinction in the fire of the dark regions (iQ S iv, 12-13). ^ ls interest
ing to observe that immortality was not conceived of as an entirely new
state, but rather as a direct continuation of the position attained on entry
into the Community. From that moment, the sectary was raised to an
everlasting height and joined to the everlasting Council, the congre
gation of the Sons of Heaven (iQ H xi [formerly 111], 20-22).
Shortly after the liberation of the Scrolls in 1991 a previously unknown
poetic text, usually designated as the Resurrection fragment (4Q521),
surfaced which, echoing Isaiah lxi, 1, describes God in the age of the
Messiah as healing the wounded and reviving the dead. If this poem is an
Essene composition and not a psalm dating to the late biblical period, it can
be said that one out of many hundreds of Qumran manuscripts definitely
testifies to the sects belief in bodily resurrection.
In sum, the portrait of the sectary as it is reflected in his religious ideas
and ideals bears the marks of a fastidious and deeply committed observance
of the Mosaic Law, an overwhelming assurance of the correctness of his
beliefs, and certainty of his own eventual salvation. But whereas these
characteristics may strike readers today as far too self-confident, one
would do well not to overlook other traits conspicuous, in particular, in
the Essenes prayers and hymns, which testify to an absolute dependence
on the Almighty and a total devotion to what was believed to be Gods cause.
For without Thee no way is perfect,
and without Thy will nothing is done.
It is Thou who hast taught all knowledge
and all things come to pass by Thy will.
There is none beside Thee to dispute Thy counsel
or to understand all Thy holy design,
or to contemplate the depth of Thy mysteries
and the power of Thy might.
Who can endure Thy glory,
and what is the son of man
in the midst of Thy wonderful deeds?
What shall one bom of woman

THE RELIGIOUS

IDEAS

OF T H E C O M M U N I T Y

be accounted before Thee?

Kneaded from the dust,
his abode is the nourishment of worms.
He is but a shape, but moulded clay,
and inclines towards dust.
(iQS xi, 17-22)

List o f Abbreviations

BAR
BAS OR
CBQ
CD
D JD
DSS
D SSU
Fr.
H
H JP

1E J
JB L
JJS
JN E S
JQ R
JS J
JS S
M
MMT
MQC
N TS
p
Psa
Q
RB

Biblical Archaeology Review

Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
Catholic Biblical Quarterly
Cairo Damascus Document
Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, Oxford, 1955Dead Sea Scrolls
R. Eisenman and M. Wise, The Dead Sea Scrolls Uncovered,
Shaftesbury/Rockport, Mass., 1992
Fragment
Hodayot=Hymns
E. Schiirer, G. Vermes, F. Millar and M. Goodman,
The History of the Jewish People in the Age ofJesus Christ, Vols.
IIII, Edinburgh, 1973-87
Israel Exploration Journal
Journal of Biblical Literature
Journal ofJewish Studies
Journal ofNear Eastern Studies
Jewish Quarterly Review
Journalfor the Study ofJudaism
Journal of Semitic Studies
Milhamah=W2LT Rule
Miqsat Ma'ase ha-Torah=Some Observances of the Law
J. Trebolle Barrera and L. Vegas Montaner, eds., The Madrid
Qumran Congress 19 9 1, Vols. III, Leiden, 1992
New Testament Studies
pesher=szcKanzn Bible commentary
Psalms Scroll a= 11 QPsa
Qumran cave (iQ, 2Q, etc.=Qumran cave 1,2 , etc.)
Revue biblique
91

L I S T OF A B B R E V I A T I O N S

RQ
S
Sa
Sb
S-D
TS
UDSS

Revue de Qumran
Sere&=Community Rule=iQS
Serekb: Appendix a=Messianic Rule=iQSa
Serekh: Appendix b=Blessings= i QSb
Hybrid Community Rule-Damascus Document (4Q265)
Temple Scroll= 1 1 Q TS
A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead Sea Scrolls IIII,
ed. B. Z. Wacholder and M. G. Abegg, Washington, 1991-5.

Note on This Translation

The purpose of this translation is to enable the reader to come into direct
contact with the literary works found at Qumran. The English does not
follow slavishly the Hebrew and Aramaic originals but aims at being faith
ful, intelligible and as far as possible readable. For this reason the Hebrew
word order had to be altered and the numbering of the English lines,
which often did not correspond to those of the manuscript, had to be
sacrificed. However, since the 1995 fourth Penguin edition, every fifth
line of the manuscript has been indicated in the margin of the transla
tion.
As stated in the preface, only meaningful texts are included in this
volume, with the occasional exception of some broken lines which never
theless reveal important information. When the same writing is extant
in several manuscripts, the translation either represents a composite text,
or indicates significant variants, but identical passages are not normally
repeated. Experts are referred to the D JD volumes.
Lacunae impossible to complete with any measure of confidence are
indicated by dots in the translation. Texts supplied from a different man
uscript of the same document appear between {}. Hypothetical but likely
reconstructions are placed between [ ] and glosses necessary for fluency
between (). Biblical quotations appearing in the text are printed in italics,
as well as the titles and headings which figure in the manuscripts. Each
scroll is divided into columns. The beginning of each of these columns is
indicated in the translation by bold Roman numerals: I, II, III, etc. The
word vacat indicates an empty space in the manuscript.
Finally, I wish to acknowledge here the considerable debt we all owe
to J. T. Milik and J. Strugnell for their pioneering decipherment of many
of the Cave 4 texts.

93

A. The Rules

The Manual of Discipline*,

Israel Museum, Jerusalem

The Community Rule

(iQS, 4Q255-64,4Q280, 286-7, 4Q502. 5Qr i > r3)

Discovered in Cave 1, the eleven relatively well-preserved columns of this manu

The
Manual ofDiscipline (The Dead Sea Scrolls ofSt Mark's Monastery, II, New Haven).
script (iQ S) were first published in 1951 by M. Burrows under the tide

Important fragments of ten other manuscripts of the Rule containing a certain

number of variant readings were also found in Cave 4 (4Q Sa_i = 4Q 2 5 5-64), and
two small fragments in Cave 5 (5 Q ii= iQ S 11, 4 -7 and 1 3 quoting iQ S 111, 4-5
and 11, 19). Other citations of the Community Rule, especially the penal code
from iQ S

vii,

may be found in the 4Q fragments of the Damascus Document

(cf. 4Q266, fr. 10 and 270, fr. 7) and in the hybrid S -D (4Q265). The latter
quotes also from iQ S iv, vi and v i i i . Finally, 4Q 502, fr. 16 includes a quotation
from iQ S iv, 4-6. See also 1 1Q 29 in DJD , XXIII, 433-4, quoting iQ S

vii,

23.

The iQ manuscript bears the stamp of editorial modification. For instance, in

I will

conceal knowledge with discretion is corrected to

impart knowledge with discretion. The section covered by columns

viii-ix

was particularly subjected to alteration as indicated by corrections and

column x the original I will

interlinear additions in iQ S, but remarkably none of these appears in the 4QS

manuscripts. The same section is considerably abridged in 4 Q S e=4Q259, where
the text jumps from iQ S v i i i , 15 direcdy to ix, 12.
The Community Rule is probably one of the oldest documents of the sect; its
composition may have originated around 100

bce,

and the Cave 1 copy itself is

said to have been produced during the quarter of a century following that date.
It seems to have been intended for the Communitys teachers, for its Masters
or Guardians, and contains extracts from liturgical ceremonies, an outline of a
tractate on the spirits of truth and falsehood, statutes concerned with initiation
into the sect and with its common life, organization and discipline, a penal code,
and finally a poetic dissertation on the fundamental religious duties of the Master
and his disciples, and on the sacred seasons proper to the Community.
Literary analysis suggests that the main document begins at iQ S v, 1. This is
where 4Q S d (=4(^258) starts. The preceding columns in iQ S i-iv prefix to the

97

THE

RULES

Rule proper a liturgical text (iQ S i, i - iii , n ) and the probably independent
tractate on the two spirits (iQ S

iii,

12-iv , 25). Among the 4Q manuscripts only

4 Q S b (=40256) contains remnants of all the sections of iQ S. The other docu

ments represent either iQ S

i-iv

or iQ S v -x i. 4 Q S e (4Q259) substitutes, it

seems, the text of 4QOtot (4Q 319) for that of iQ S x -xi.

There are, to my knowledge, no writings in ancient Jewish sources parallel to
the Community Rule, but a similar type of literature flourished among Christians
between the second and fourth centuries, the so-called Church Orders repre
sented by works such as the Didache, the Didascalia, the Apostolic Constitution.
The contents of iQ S may be divided into three main sections, but further
subheadings appear in the text itself:
1. Entry into the Covenant, followed by an instruction on the two spirits
(i-iv).
2. Statutes relating to the Council of the Community (v-ix).
3. Directives addressed to the Master, and the Masters Hymn (ix-xi).
Some of the variant readings appearing in the Cave 4 manuscripts have been
adopted in this translation, but the significandy different texts of 4Q S d (4Q258)
and 4 Q S e (4Q259) will be appended to iQ S.
For the editio princeps of 1 Q S, see M. Burrows et al., The Dead Sea Scrolls of St
Mark's Monastery Vol. II, Fasc. 2: Plates and transcription ofthe Manual ofDiscipline,
1951. Cf. also J. H. Charlesworth et al., eds., The Dead Sea Scrolls Vol. I: Rule ofthe
Community and Related Documents, 1994, 1-51. S. Metso, The Textual Development
of the Qumran Community Rule (1997).

iQ S
I
[The Master shall teach the sai]nts to live(?) {according to the Book}
(4Q255, 257) of the Community [Rul]e, that they may seek God with a
whole heart and soul, and do what is good and right before Him as He
commanded by the hand of Moses and all His servants the Prophets;
that they may love all that He has chosen and hate all that He has
5 rejected; that they may abstain from all evil and hold fast to all good;
that they may practise truth, righteousness, and justice upon earth and
no longer stubbornly follow a sinful heart and lustful eyes, committing
all manner of evil. He shall admit into the Covenant of Grace all those
who have freely devoted themselves to the observance of Gods precepts,
that they may be joined to the counsel of God and may live perfectly
98

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COMMUNITY

RULE

before H im in accordance with all that has been revealed concerning

their appointed times, and that they may love all the sons o f light, each
according to his lot in G o d s design, and hate all the sons o f darkness,

10

each according to his guilt in G o d s vengeance.

All those who freely devote themselves to His truth shall bring all
their knowledge, powers and possessions into the Com m unity o f God,
that they may purify their knowledge in the truth o f G o d s precepts and
order their powers according to His ways o f perfection and all their pos
sessions according to H is righteous counsel. T h e y shall not depart from
any command o f G od concerning their times; they shall be neither early

15

nor late for any o f their appointed times, they shall stray neither to the
right nor to the left o f any o f His true precepts. All those who embrace
the Com munity Rule shall enter into the Covenant before G od to obey
all His commandments so that they may not abandon H im during the
dominion o f Belial because o f fear or terror or affliction.
On entering the Covenant, the Priests and Levites shall bless the G od
of salvation and all His faithfulness, and all those entering the Covenant

20

shall say after them, Amen, A m en!

T h en the Priests shall recite the favours o f G od manifested in His
mighty deeds and shall declare all His merciful grace to Israel, and the
Levites shall recite the iniquities o f the children o f Israel, all their guilty
rebellions and sins during the dominion o f Belial. And after them, all
those entering the Covenant shall confess and say: W e have strayed!
W e have [disobeyed!] W e and our fathers before us have sinned and

25

acted wickedly in walking [counter to the precepts] o f truth and right

eousness. [And G od has] judged us and our fathers also; I I but H e has
bestowed His bountiful mercy on us from everlasting to everlasting. And
the Priests shall bless all the men o f the lot o f G od who walk perfectly in
all His ways, saying: M ay H e bless you with all good and preserve you
from all evil! M a y H e lighten your heart with life-giving wisdom and
grant you eternal knowledge! M ay H e raise H is merciful face towards
you for everlasting bliss!
And the Levites shall curse all the men o f the lot o f Belial, saying: Be
cursed because o f all your guilty wickedness! M ay H e deliver you up for
torture at the hands o f the vengeful Avengers! M ay H e visit you with
destruction by the hand o f all the Wreakers o f Revenge! Be cursed with
out mercy because o f (4 Q 2 5 6 ) the darkness o f your deeds! Be damned in
the shadowy place o f everlasting fire! M ay G od not heed when you call
on H im , nor pardon you by blotting out your sin! M ay H e raise H is

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RULES

angry face towards you for vengeance! M ay there be no Peace for you
10 in the mouth o f those who hold fast to the Fathers! And after the bless
ing and the cursing, all those entering the Covenant shall say, Amen,
A m en !
And the Priests and Levites shall continue, saying: Cursed be the
man who enters this Covenant while walking among the idols o f his
heart, who sets up before himself his stumbling-block o f sin so that he
may backslide! Hearing the words o f this Covenant, he blesses himself
in his heart and says, Peace be with me, even though I walk in the stub
bornness o f my heart (Deut. xxix, 18 -19 ) , whereas his spirit, parched
15

(for lack o f truth) and watered (with lies), shall be destroyed without par
don. G o d s wrath and His zeal for His precepts shall consume him in
everlasting destruction. Ail the curses o f the Covenant shall cling to him
and G od will set him apart for evil. H e shall be cut o ff from the midst o f
all the sons o f light, and because he has turned aside from G od on
account o f his idols and his stumbling-block o f sin, his lot shall be
among those who are cursed for ever. And after them, all those entering
the Covenant shall answer and say, Amen, Am en!
T h u s shall they do, year by year, for as long as the dominion o f Belial

20

endures. T h e Priests shall enter first, ranked one after another according
to the perfection o f their spirit; then the Levites; and thirdly, all the
people one after another in their Thousands, Hundreds, Fifties, and
Tens, that every Israelite may know his place in the Community o f G od
according to the everlasting design. N o man shall move down from his
place nor move up from his allotted position. For according to the holy
design, they shall all o f them be in a Community o f truth and virtuous

25

humility, o f loving-kindness and good intent one towards the other, and
(they shall all o f them be) sons o f the everlasting Company.
N o man [shall be in the] Com m unity o f His truth who refuses to
enter [the Covenant of] G od so that he may walk in the stubbornness o f
his heart, for I I I his soul detests the wise teaching o f just laws. H e shall
not be counted among the upright for he has not persisted in the con
version o f his life. His knowledge, powers, and possessions shall not
enter the Council o f the Community, for whoever ploughs the mud o f
wickedness returns defiled (?). H e shall not be justified by that which his
stubborn heart declares lawful, for seeking the ways o f light he looks
towards darkness. H e shall not be reckoned among the perfect; he shall
neither be purified by atonement, nor cleansed by purifying waters, nor

sanctified by seas and rivers, nor washed clean with any ablution. Unclean,
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COMMUNITY

RULE

unclean shall he be. For as long as he despises the precepts o f G od he

shall receive no instruction in the Community o f His counsel.
For it is through the spirit o f true counsel concerning the ways o f man
that all his sins shall be expiated, that he may contemplate the light o f
life. H e shall be cleansed from all his sins by the spirit o f holiness uniting
him to His truth, and his iniquity shall be expiated by the spirit o f
uprightness and humility. And when his flesh is sprinkled with purifying
water and sanctified by cleansing water, it shall be made clean by the
humble submission o f his soul to all the precepts o f G od. L et him then
order his steps {to walk}

(4Q255) perfectly in all the ways commanded 10

by G od concerning the times appointed for him, straying neither to the

right nor to the left and transgressing none o f His words, and he shall be
accepted by virtue o f a pleasing atonement before G od and it shall be to
him a Covenant o f the everlasting Community.
T h e Master shall instruct all the sons o f light and shall teach them the
nature o f all the children o f men according to the kind o f spirit which
they possess, the signs identifying their works during their lifetime, their
visitation for chastisement, and the time o f their reward.

15

From the G od o f Knowledge comes all that is and shall be. Before ever
they existed H e established their whole design, and when, as ordained
for them, they come into being, it is in accord with H is glorious design
that they accomplish their task without change. T h e laws o f all things
are in His hand and H e provides them with all their needs.
H e has created man to govern the world, and has appointed for him
two spirits in which to walk until the time o f H is visitation: the spirits
o f truth and injustice. Those bom o f truth spring from a fountain o f
light, but those bom o f injustice spring from a source o f darkness. All the 20
children o f righteousness are ruled by the Prince o f Ligh t and walk in
the ways o f light, but all the children o f injustice are ruled by the Angel
o f Darkness and walk in the ways o f darkness. T h e Angel o f Darkness
leads all the children o f righteousness astray, and until his end, all their
sin, iniquities, wickedness, and all their unlawful deeds are caused by his
dominion in accordance with the mysteries o f G od. Every one o f their
chastisements, and every one o f the seasons o f their distress, shall be
brought about by the rule o f his persecution; for all his allotted spirits
seek the overthrow o f the sons o f light.
But the G od o f Israel and H is Angel o f Truth will succour all the sons
o f light. For it is H e who created the spirits o f Ligh t and Darkness and

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founded every action upon them and established every deed [upon] their
[ways]. And H e loves the one

IV

everlastingly and delights in its works

for ever; but the counsel of the other H e loathes and for ever hates its ways.
T hese are their ways in the world for the enlightenment o f the heart o f
man, and so that all the paths o f true righteousness may be made straight
before him, and so that the fear o f the laws o f G od may be instilled in his
heart: a spirit o f humility, patience, abundant charity, unending good
ness, understanding, and intelligence; (a spirit of) mighty wisdom which
5 trusts in all the deeds o f G od and leans on His great loving-kindness; a
spirit o f discernment in every purpose, o f zeal for just laws, o f holy intent
with steadfastness o f heart, o f great charity towards all the sons o f truth,
o f admirable purity which detests all unclean idols, o f humble conduct
sprung from an understanding o f all things, and o f faithful concealment
o f the mysteries o f truth. T hese are the counsels o f the spirit to the sons
o f truth in this world.
And as for the visitation o f all who walk in this spirit, it shall be heal
ing, great peace in a long life, and fruitfulness, together with every ever
lasting blessing and eternal joy in life without end, a crown o f glory and
a garment o f majesty in unending light.
But the ways o f the spirit o f falsehood are these: greed, and slackness
10 in the search for righteousness, wickedness and lies, haughtiness and pride,
falseness and deceit, cruelty and abundant evil, ill-temper and much folly
and brazen insolence, abominable deeds (committed) in a spirit o f lust,
and ways o f lewdness in the service o f uncleanness, a blaspheming tongue,
blindness o f eye and dullness o f ear, stiffness o f neck and heaviness o f
heart, so that man walks in all the ways o f darkness and guile.
And the visitation o f all who walk in this spirit shall be a multitude o f
plagues by the hand o f all the destroying angels, everlasting damnation
by the avenging wrath o f the fury o f G od, eternal torment and endless
disgrace together with shameful extinction in the fire o f the dark regions.
T h e times o f all their generations shall be spent in sorrowful mourning
and in bitter misery and in calamities o f darkness until they are destroyed
without remnant or survivor.
15

T h e nature o f all the children o f men is ruled by these (two spirits),

and during their life all the hosts o f men have a portion o f their divisions
and walk in (both) their ways. And the whole reward for their deeds shall
be, for everlasting ages, according to whether each mans portion in their
two divisions is great or small. Fo r G od has established the spirits in
equal measure until the final age, and has set everlasting hatred between

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their divisions. Truth abhors the works o f injustice, and injustice hates
all the ways o f truth. And their struggle is fierce in all their arguments
for they do not walk together. But in the mysteries o f His understand
ing, and in H is glorious wisdom, G od has ordained an end for injustice,
and at the time o f the visitation H e will destroy it for ever. T h en truth,
which has wallowed in the ways o f wickedness during the dominion o f
injustice until the appointed time o f judgement, shall arise in the world

20

for ever. G od will then purify every deed o f man with H is truth; H e will
refine for H im self the human frame by rooting out all spirit o f injustice
from the bounds o f his flesh. H e will cleanse him o f all wicked deeds
with the spirit o f holiness; like purifying waters H e will shed upon him
the spirit o f truth (to cleanse him) o f all abomination and injustice. And
he shall be plunged into the spirit o f purification, that he may instruct
the upright in the knowledge o f the M ost H igh and teach the wisdom o f
the sons o f heaven to the perfect o f way. For G od has chosen them for
an everlasting Covenant and all the glory o f Adam shall be theirs. There
shall be no more lies and all the works o f injustice shall be put to shame.
Until now the spirits o f truth and injustice struggle in the hearts o f
men and they walk in both wisdom and folly. According to his portion o f
truth so does a man hate injustice, and according to his inheritance in
the realm o f injustice so is he wicked and so hates truth. For G od has

25

established the two spirits in equal measure until the determined end,
and until the Renewal, and H e knows the reward o f their deeds from all
eternity. H e has allotted them to the children o f men that they may
know good [and evil, and] that the destiny o f all the living may be accord
ing to the spirit within [them at the time] o f the visitation.

V And this is the Rule for the men of the Community who have freely pledged
themselves to be converted from all evil and to cling to all His commandments
according to His will
T h e y shall separate from the congregation o f the men o f injustice and
shall unite, with respect to the Law and possessions, under the authority
o f the sons o f Zadok, the Priests who keep the Covenant, and o f the
multitude o f the men o f the Community who hold fast to the Covenant.
Every decision concerning doctrine, property, and justice shall be deter
mined by them.
T h e y shall practise truth and humility in common, and justice and
uprightness and charity and modesty in all their ways. N o man shall
walk in the stubbornness o f his heart so that he strays after his heart and
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eyes and evil inclination, but he shall circumcise in the Com m unity the
foreskin o f evil inclination and o f stiffness o f neck that they may lay a
foundation o f truth for Israel, for the Community o f the everlasting
Covenant. T h e y shall atone for all those in Aaron who have freely pledged
themselves to holiness, and for those in Israel who have freely pledged
themselves to the House o f Truth, and for those who join them to live in
community and to take part in the trial and judgement and condemna
tion o f all those who transgress the precepts.
On joining the Community, this shall be their code o f behaviour with
respect to all these precepts.
W hoever approaches the Council o f the Community shall enter the
Covenant o f G od in the presence o f all who have freely pledged them
selves. H e shall undertake by a binding oath to return with all his heart
and soul to every commandment o f the Law o f M oses in accordance
with all that has been revealed o f it to the sons o f Zadok, the Priests,
Keepers o f the Covenant and Seekers o f H is will, and to the multitude o f
10 the men o f their Covenant who together have freely pledged themselves
to H is truth and to walking in the way o f His delight. And he shall under
take by the Covenant to separate from all the men o f injustice who walk
in the way o f wickedness.
For they are not reckoned in His Covenant. T h e y have neither inquired
nor sought after H im concerning H is laws that they might know the
hidden things in which they have sinfully erred; and matters revealed
they have treated with insolence. Therefore W rath shall rise up to con
demn, and Vengeance shall be executed by the curses o f the Covenant,
and great chastisements o f eternal destruction shall be visited on them,
leaving no remnant. T h e y shall not enter the water to partake o f the
pure M eal o f the men o f holiness, for they shall not be cleansed unless
they turn from their wickedness: for all who transgress H is word are
unclean. Likewise, no man shall consort with him in regard to his work
15

or property lest he be burdened with the guilt o f his sin. H e shall indeed
keep away from him in all things: as it is written, Keep away from all that

is false (Exod. xxiii, 7). N o member o f the Community shall follow them
in matters o f doctrine and justice, or eat or drink anything o f theirs, or
take anything from them except for a price; as it is written, Keep away
from the man in whose nostrils is breath, for wherein is he counted? (Isa. ii,
22). For all those not reckoned in H is Covenant are to be set apart,
together with all that is theirs. N one o f the men o f holiness shall lean

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upon works o f vanity: for they are all vanity who know not H is Covenant,
and H e will blot from the world all them that despise His word. All their
deeds are defilement before Him , and all their property unclean.
But when a man enters the Covenant to walk according to all these

20

precepts that he may be joined to the holy Congregation, they shall

examine his spirit in community with respect to his understanding and
practice o f the Law, under the authority o f the sons o f Aaron who have
freely pledged themselves in the Community to restore H is Covenant
and to heed all the precepts commanded by Him , and o f the multitude
o f Israel who have freely pledged themselves in the Community to
return to His Covenant. T h e y shall inscribe them in order, one after
another, according to their understanding and their deeds, that every
one may obey his companion, the man o f lesser rank obeying his sup
erior. And they shall examine their spirit and deeds yearly, so that each
man may be advanced in accordance with his understanding and perfec
tion o f way, or moved down in accordance with his distortions. T h e y
shall rebuke one another in truth, humility, and charity. L e t no man

25

address his companion with anger, or ill-temper, or obdu[racy, or with

envy prompted by (4Q 258)] the spirit o f wickedness. L e t him not hate
him [because o f his uncircumcised] heart, but let him rebuke him on the
very same day lest

VI

he incur guilt because o f him. And furthermore,

let no man accuse his companion before the Congregation without hav
ing admonished him in the presence o f witnesses.
These are the ways in which all o f them shall walk, each man with his
companion, wherever they dwell. T h e man o f lesser rank shall obey the
greater in matters o f work and money. T h e y shall eat in common and
bless in common and deliberate in common.
W herever there are ten men o f the Council o f the Community there
shall not lack a Priest among them. And they shall all sit before him
according to their rank and shall be asked their counsel in all things in
that order. And when the table has been prepared for eating, and the
new wine for drinking, the Priest shall be the first to stretch out his hand
to bless the firstfruits o f the bread and new wine.
And where the ten are, there shall never lack a man among them who
shall study the L aw continually, day and night, concerning the right con
duct o f a man with his companion. And the Congregation shall watch in
community for a third o f every night o f the year, to read the Book and to
study the Law and to bless together.

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This is the Rule for an Assembly of the Congregation

Each man shall sit in his place: the Priests shall sit first, and the elders
second, and all the rest o f the people according to their rank. And thus
shall they be questioned concerning the Law, and concerning any coun10 sel or matter coming before the Congregation, each man bringing his
knowledge to the Council o f the Community.
N o man shall interrupt a companion before his speech has ended, nor
speak before a man o f higher rank; each man shall speak in his turn. And
in an Assembly o f the Congregation no man shall speak without the con
sent o f the Congregation, nor indeed o f the Guardian o f the C on grega
tion. Should any man wish to speak to the Congregation, yet not be in
a position to question the Council o f the Community, let him rise to
his feet and say: I have something to say to the Congregation. I f they
command him to speak, he shall speak.
Every man, bom o f Israel, who freely pledges himself to join the
Council o f the Community shall be examined by the Guardian at the
head o f the Congregation concerning his understanding and his deeds.
15

I f he is fitted to the discipline, he shall admit him into the Covenant that
he may be converted to the truth and depart from all injustice; and he
shall instruct him in all the rules o f the Community. And later, when he
comes to stand before the Congregation, they shall all deliberate his
case, and according to the decision o f the Council o f the Congregation
he shall either enter or depart. After he has entered the Council o f the
Com m unity he shall not touch the pure M eal o f the Congregation until
one {full} (4 Q 2 56 ) year is completed, and until he has been examined
concerning his spirit and deeds; nor shall he have any share o f the prop
erty o f the Congregation. T h en when he has completed one year within
the Community, the Congregation shall deliberate his case with regard
to his understanding and observance o f the Law. And if it be his destiny,
according to the judgement o f the Priests and the multitude o f the men
o f their Covenant, to enter the company o f the Community, his property
and earnings shall be handed over to the Bursar o f the Congregation

20

who shall register it to his account and shall not spend it for the Con gre
gation. H e shall not touch the Drink o f the Congregation until he has
completed a second year among the men o f the Community. But when
the second year has passed, he shall be examined, and if it be his destiny,
according to the judgement o f the Congregation, to enter the Com m u
nity, then he shall be inscribed among his brethren in the order o f his

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rank for the Law, and for justice, and for the pure M eal; his property
shall be merged and he shall offer his counsel and judgement to the
Community.

These are the Rules by which they shall judge at a Community (Court of)
Inquiry according to the cases
If one o f them has lied deliberately in matters o f property, he shall be

25

excluded from the pure M eal o f the Congregation for one year and shall
do penance with respect to one quarter o f his food.
W hoever has answered his companion with obstinacy, or has addressed
him impatiently, going so far as to take no account o f the dignity o f his
fellow by disobeying the order o f a brother inscribed before him, he has
taken the law into his own hand; therefore he shall do penance for one
year [and shall be excluded].
If any man has uttered the [Most] Venerable N am e

VII

even though

frivolously, or as a result o f shock or for any other reason whatever, while

reading the Book or blessing, he shall be dismissed and shall return to
the Council o f the Com munity no more.
If he has spoken in anger against one o f the Priests inscribed in the
Book, he shall do penance for one year and shall be excluded for his
souls sake from the pure M eal o f the Congregation. But if he has spoken
unwittingly, he shall do penance for six months.
W hoever has deliberately lied shall do penance for six months.
W hoever has deliberately insulted his companion unjustly shall do
penance for one year and shall be excluded.
W hoever has deliberately deceived his companion by word or by deed

shall do penance for six months.

If he has failed to care for his companion, he shall do penance for
three months. But if he has failed to care for the property o f the C o m
munity, thereby causing its loss, he shall restore it in full. And if he be
unable to restore it, he shall do penance for sixty days.
W hoever has borne malice against his companion unjustly shall do
penance for six months/one year; and likewise, whoever has taken
revenge in any matter whatever.
W hoever has spoken foolishly: three months.
W hoever has interrupted his companion whilst speaking: ten days.
W hoever has lain down to sleep during an Assembly o f the Congrega
tion: thirty days. And likewise, whoever has left, without reason, an

107

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Assembly o f the Congregation as many as three times during one

Assembly, shall do penance for ten days. But if he has departed whilst
they were standing he shall do penance for thirty days.
W hoever has gone naked before his companion, without having been
obliged to do so, he shall do penance for six months.
W hoever has spat in an Assembly o f the Congregation shall do
penance for thirty days.
15

W hoever has been so poorly dressed that when drawing his hand
from beneath his garment his nakedness has been seen, he shall do
penance for thirty days.
W hoever has guffawed foolishly shall do penance for thirty days.
W hoever has drawn out his left hand to gesticulate with it shall do
penance for ten days.
W hoever has gone about slandering his companion shall be excluded
from the pure Meal o f the Congregation for one year and shall do
penance. But whoever has slandered the Congregation shall be expelled
from among them and shall return no more.
W hoever has murmured against the authority o f the Community shall
be expelled and shall not return. But if he has murmured against his
companion unjustly, he shall do penance for six months.
Should a man return whose spirit has so trembled before the authority
o f the Comm unity that he has betrayed the truth and walked in the stub
bornness o f his heart, he shall do penance for two years. During the first

20 year he shall not touch the pure M eal o f the Congregation, and during
the second year he shall not touch the Drink o f the Congregation and
shall sit below all the men o f the Community. T h en when his two years
are completed, the Congregation shall consider his case, and if he is
admitted he shall be inscribed in his rank and may then question con
cerning the Law.
If, after being in the Council o f the Community for ten full years, the
spirit o f any man has failed, so that he has betrayed the Com m unity and
departed from the Congregation to walk in the stubbornness o f his
heart, he shall return no more to the Council o f the Community. M ore25

over, if any member o f the Community has shared with him his food or
property which . . . o f the Congregation, his sentence shall be the same;
he shall be ex[pelled].

VIII

In the Council o f the Community there shall be twelve men and

three Priests, perfectly versed in all that is revealed o f the Law, whose
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works shall be truth, righteousness, justice, loving-kindness and humility.

T h e y shall preserve the faith in the Land with steadfastness and meek
ness and shall atone for sin by the practice o f justice and by suffering the
sorrows o f affliction. T h e y shall walk with all men according to the stan
dard o f truth and the rule o f the time.
W hen these are in Israel, the Council o f the Com m unity shall be

established in truth. It shall be an Everlasting Plantation, a House o f

Holiness for Israel, an Assembly o f Supreme Holiness for Aaron. T h e y
shall be witnesses to the truth at the Judgement, and shall be the elect o f
Goodwill who shall atone for the Land and pay to the wicked their
reward. It shall be that tried wall, that precious corner-stone, whose foun
dations shall neither rock nor sway in their place (Isa. xxviii, 16). It shall
be a M ost H oly Dwelling for Aaron, with everlasting knowledge o f the
Covenant o f justice, and shall offer up sweet fragrance. It shall be a
House o f Perfection and Truth in Israel that they may establish a

10

Covenant according to the everlasting precepts. And they shall be an

agreeable offering, atoning for the Land and determining the judgement
o f wickedness, and there shall be no more iniquity. W h en they have
been confirmed for two years in perfection o f way in the Foundation of
the Community, they shall be set apart as holy within the Council o f the
men o f the Community. And the Interpreter shall not conceal from
them, out o f fear o f the spirit o f apostasy, any o f those things hidden
from Israel which have been discovered by him.

And when these become members of the Community in Israel accord

ing to all these rules, they shall separate from the habitation of unjust
men and shall go into the wilderness to prepare there the way of Him; as
it is written, Prepare in the wilderness the way o f... y make straight in the 15
desert a path for our God (Isa. xl, 3). This (path) is the study of the Law
which He commanded by the hand of Moses, that they may do accord
ing to all that has been revealed from age to age, and as the Prophets
have revealed by His Holy Spirit.
And no man among the members o f the Covenant o f the Community
who deliberately, on any point whatever, turns aside from all that is com
manded, shall touch the pure M eal o f the men o f holiness or know
anything o f their counsel until his deeds are purified from all injustice
and he walks in perfection o f way. And then, according to the judgement
o f the Congregation, he shall be admitted to the Council and shall
be inscribed in his rank. T h is rule shall apply to whoever enters the
Community.
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And these are the rules which the men ofperfect holiness shall follow in their
commerce with one another
20

Every man who enters the Council o f Holiness, (the Council o f those)
who walk in the way o f perfection as commanded by G od, and who
deliberately or through negligence transgresses one word o f the L aw o f
Moses, on any point whatever, shall be expelled from the Council o f the
Com m unity and shall return no more; no man o f holiness shall be asso
ciated in his property or counsel in any matter at all. But if he has acted
inadvertently, he shall be excluded from the pure M eal and the Council

25

and they shall interpret the rule (as follows). For two years he shall take
no part in judgement or ask for counsel; but if, during that time, his way
becomes perfect, {then he shall return} (4 Q 25 8 ) to the (Court o f) Inquiry
and the Council, in accordance with the judgement o f the Congregation,
provided that he commit no further inadvertent sin during two full years.

IX

For one sin o f inadvertence (alone) he shall do penance for two years.

But as for him who has sinned deliberately, he shall never return; only
the man who has sinned inadvertently shall be tried for two years, that
his way and counsel may be made perfect according to the judgement o f
the Congregation. And afterwards, he shall be inscribed in his rank in
the Comm unity o f Holiness.
W h en these become members o f the Community in Israel according
to all these rules, they shall establish the spirit o f holiness according to
everlasting truth. T h e y shall atone for guilty rebellion and for sins o f
unfaithfulness, that they may obtain loving-kindness for the Land with5

out the flesh o f holocausts and the fat o f sacrifice. And prayer rightly
offered shall be as an acceptable fragrance o f righteousness, and perfec
tion o f way as a delectable free-will offering. A t that time, the men o f the
Com m unity shall set apart a House o f Holiness in order that it may be
united to the most holy things and a House o f Com m unity for Israel, for
those who walk in perfection. T h e sons o f Aaron alone shall command
in matters o f justice and property, and every rule concerning the men o f
the Comm unity shall be determined according to their word.
As for the property o f the men o f holiness who walk in perfection, it shall
not be merged with that o f the men of injustice who have not purified their
life by separating themselves from iniquity and walking in the way o f per-

10 fection. T h e y shall depart from none o f the counsels o f the L aw to walk

in all the stubbornness o f their hearts, but shall be ruled by the primitive
precepts in which the men o f the Community were first instructed until
there shall come the Prophet and the Messiahs o f Aaron and Israel.

no

THE COMMUNITY

RULE

These are the precepts in which the Master shall walk in His cvmmerce with all
the living,, according to the rule proper to every season and according to the
worth of every man
H e shall do the will o f G od according to all that has been revealed
from age to age.
H e shall measure out all knowledge discovered throughout the ages,
together with the Precept o f the age.
H e shall separate and weigh the sons o f righteousness according to
their spirit.
H e shall hold firmly to the elect o f the time according to H is will, as

15

H e has commanded.
H e shall judge every man according to his spirit. H e shall admit him
in accordance with the cleanness o f his hands and advance him in accor
dance with his understanding. And he shall love and hate likewise.
H e shall not rebuke the men o f the Pit nor dispute with them.
H e shall conceal the teaching o f the Law from men o f injustice, but
shall impart true knowledge and righteous judgement to those who have
chosen the Way. H e shall guide them all in knowledge according to the
spirit o f each and according to the rule o f the age, and shall thus instruct
them in the mysteries o f marvellous truth, so that in the midst o f the men
o f the Community they may walk perfecdy together in all that has been
revealed to them. T h is is the time for the preparation o f the way into the

20

wilderness, and he shall teach them to do all that is required at that time
and to separate from all those who have not turned aside from all injustice.

These are the rules of conductfor the Master in those times with respect to His
loving and hating
Everlasting hatred in a spirit o f secrecy for the men o f perdition! H e
shall leave to them wealth and earnings like a slave to his lord and like a
poor man to his master.
H e shall be a man zealous for the Precept whose time is for the D ay o f
Revenge. H e shall perform the will o f G od in all his deeds, and in all his
dominion as H e has commanded. H e shall freely delight in all that befalls
him and nothing shall please him save G o d s will. H e shall delight in all
the words o f H is mouth and shall desire nothing except H is command.
H e shall watch always [for] the judgement o f G od, and shall bless his
Maker [for all H is goodness] and declare [His mercies] in all that befalls.
H e shall bless H im [with the offering] o f the lips X at the times
ordained by H im : at the beginning o f the dominion o f light, and at its end
h i

25

THE

RULES

when it retires to its appointed place; at the beginning of the watches of

darkness when He unlocks their storehouse and spreads them out, and also
at their end when they retire before the light; when the heavenly lights
shine out from the dwelling-place of Holiness, and also when they retire to
the place of Glory; at the entry of the (monthly) seasons on the days of the
new moon, and also at their end when they succeed to one another. Their
renewal is a great day for the Holy of Holies, and a sign for the unlocking
of everlasting mercies at the beginning of seasons in all times to come.
At the beginning of the months of the (yearly) seasons
and on the holy days appointed for remembrance,
in their seasons I will bless Him
with the offering of the lips
according to the Precept engraved for ever:
at the beginning of the years
and at the end of their seasons
when their appointed law is fulfilled,
on the day decreed by Him
that they should pass from one to the other the season of early harvest to the summer time,
the season of sowing to the season of grass,
the seasons of years to their weeks (of years) and at the beginning of their weeks
for the season of Jubilee.
All my life the engraved Precept shall be on my tongue
as the fruit of praise
and the portion of my lips.
I will sing with knowledge and all my music
shall be for the glory of God.
(My) lyre (and) my harp shall sound
for H is holy order

and I will tune the pipe of my lips

to His right measure.
With the coming of day and night
I will enter the Covenant of God,
and when evening and morning depart
I will recite His decrees.
I will place in them my bounds without return.

THE

C O M M U N I T Y RULE

I will declare His judgement concerning my sins,

and my transgressions shall be before my eyes
as an engraved Precept.
I will say to God, My Righteousness
and Author of my Goodness to the Most High,
Fountain of Knowledge and Source of Holiness,
Summit of Glory and Almighty Eternal Majesty.
I will choose that which He teaches me
and will delight in His judgement of me.
Before I move my hands and feet
I will bless His Name.
I will praise Him before I go out or enter,
or sit or rise,
and whilst I lie on the couch of my bed.
I will bless Him with the offering
of that which proceeds from my lips
from the midst of the ranks of men,
and before I lift my hands to eat
of the pleasant fruits of the earth.
I will bless Him for His exceeding wonderful deeds
at the beginning of fear and dread
and in the abode of distress and desolation.
I will meditate on His power
and will lean on His mercies all day long.
I know that judgement of all the living
is in His hand,
and that all His deeds are truth.
I will praise H im when distress is unleashed

and will magnify Him also because of His salvation.

I will pay to no man the reward of evil;
I will pursue him with goodness.
For judgement of all the living is with God
and it is He who will render to man his reward.
I will not envy in a spirit of wickedness,
my soul shall not desire the riches of violence.
I will not grapple with the men of perdition
until the Day of Revenge,

^3

THE

RULES

but my wrath shall not turn from the men o f falsehood

20

and I will not rejoice until judgement is made.

I will bear no rancour
against them that turn from transgression,
but will have no pity
on all who depart from the way.
I will offer no comfort to the smitten
until their way becomes perfect.
I will not keep Belial within my heart,
and in my mouth shall be heard
no folly or sinful deceit,
no cunning or lies shall be found on my lips.
T h e fruit o f holiness shall be on my tongue
and no abominations shall be found upon it.
I will open my mouth
in songs o f thanksgiving,
and my tongue shall always proclaim
the goodness o f G od and the sin o f men
until their transgression ends.
I will cause vanities
to cease from m y lips,
uncleanness and crookedness
from the knowledge o f m y heart.
I will impart/conceal knowledge with discretion
and will prudently hedge it within a firm bound

25

to preserve faith and strong judgement

in accordance with the justice o f God.
I will distribute the Precept
by the measuring-cord o f the times,
and . . . righteousness
and loving-kindness towards the oppressed,
encouragement to the troubled heart
X I and discernment to the erring spirit,
teaching understanding to them that murmur
that they may answer meekly
before the haughty o f spirit
and humbly before men o f injustice
who point the finger and speak o f iniquity
and who are zealous for wealth.
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THE

COMMUNITY

RULE

As for me,
my justification is with God.
In His hand are the perfection of my way
and the uprightness of my heart.
He will wipe out my transgression
through His righteousness.
For my light has sprung
from the source of His knowledge;
my eyes have beheld His marvellous deeds,
and the light of my heart, the mystery to come.
He that is everlasting
is the support of my right hand;
the way of my steps is over stout rock
which nothing shall shake;
for the rock of my steps is the truth of God
and His might is the support of my right hand.
From the source of His righteousness
is my justification,
and from His marvellous mysteries
is the light in my heart.
My eyes have gazed
on that which is eternal,
on wisdom concealed from men,
on knowledge and wise design
(hidden) from the sons of men;
on a fountain of righteousness
and on a storehouse of power,
on a spring of glory
(hidden) from the assembly of flesh.
God has given them to His chosen ones
as an everlasting possession,
and has caused them to inherit
the lot of the Holy Ones.
He has joined their assembly
to the Sons of Heaven
to be a Council of the Community,
a foundation of the Building of Holiness,
and eternal Plantation throughout all ages to come.
115

THE

RULES

As for me,
I belong to wicked mankind,
to the company of unjust flesh.
My iniquities, rebellions, and sins,
together with the perversity of my heart,
belong to the company of worms
and to those who walk in darkness.
For mankind has no way,
and man is unable to establish his steps
since justification is with God
and perfection of way is out of His hand.
All things come to pass by His knowledge;
He establishes all things by His design
and without Him nothing is done.
As for me,
if I stumble, the mercies of God
shall be my eternal salvation.
If I stagger because of the sin of flesh,
my justification shall be
by the righteousness of God which endures for ever.
When my distress is unleashed
He will deliver my soul from the Pit
and will direct my steps to the way.
He will draw me near by His grace,
and by His mercy will He bring my justification.
He will judge me in the righteousness of His truth
and in the greatness of His goodness
He will pardon all my sins.
Through His righteousness he will cleanse me
of the uncleanness of man
and o f the sins o f the children o f men,

that I may confess to God His righteousness,

and His majesty to the Most High.
Blessed art Thou, my God,
who openest the heart of Thy servant to knowledge!
Establish all his deeds in righteousness,
and as it pleases Thee to do for the elect of mankind,
grant that the son of Thy handmaid
may stand before Thee for ever.
116

THE

COMMUNITY

RULE

For without T h ee no way is perfect,

and without T h y will nothing is done.
It is T h o u who hast taught all knowledge
and all things come to pass by T h y will.
There is none beside Th ee to dispute T h y counsel
or to understand all T h y holy design,
or to contemplate the depth o f T h y mysteries
and the power o f T h y might.
W h o can endure T h y glory,
and what is the son o f man
in the midst o f T h y wonderful deeds?
W h at shall one born o f woman
be accounted before T hee?
Kneaded from the dust,
his abode is the nourishment o f worms.
H e is but a shape, but moulded clay,
and inclines towards dust.
W h at shall hand-moulded clay reply?
W h at counsel shall it understand?

117

20

Community Rule manuscripts

from Cave 4

4 Q S d=4Q258
This is the best preserved of the ten 4Q S manuscripts. Seven columns of the
text have survived, five of them containing full-length lines. Column 1, with a
wide margin on the right, is almost certainly the beginning of the Scroll. It corres
ponds to iQ S v, 1. The last identifiable passage represents iQ S xi, 7. The word
God (V/) is written twice with palaeo-Hebrew letters (at iQ S ix, 25 and
x, 9). Columns 1 and 11 of Sd (iQ S v, 1-v i, 7) provide a shorter and smoother
version of the Rule than iQ S. The more fragmentary 4Q Sb (=4(^256) supports
the present version on the essential points. The most significant peculiarities
of 4 Q S d (=40258) are the almost complete absence of the full spelling charac
teristic of the Qumran sectarian manuscripts, the different opening line and a
repeated failure to mention the Priests, the Sons of Zadok. For both its occur
rences in iQ S, 4Q S d (and 4 Q S 15) read the Congregation (ha-rabbim), an alter
native reading likely to possess important historical implications.
For the editio princeps, see P. S. Alexander and G. Vermes, D JD , XXVI,
83-128 . See also G. Vermes, The Leadership of the Qumran Community: Sons
of Zadok - Priests - Congregation, in the Martin Hengel Festschrift GeschichteTradition-Reflexion, ed. P. Schafer (Tubingen, 1996), 375-84.
I ( = iQ S v , 1-2 0 ) Teaching for the Master concerning the men o f the
L aw (or: the Master who is the superior o f the men o f the Law ) who
have freely pledged themselves to convert from all evil and hold fast to
all that H e has commanded. And they shall separate from the congrega
tion o f the men o f injustice and shall unite with respect to doctrine and
property, and they shall be under the authority o f the Congregation
concerning all matters o f doctrine and property. T h e y shall practise
humility and righteousness and justice and loving-[kindness] and modesty
in all their ways. And no man shall walk in the stubbornness o f his heart
so as to stray. H e is rather to lay [a foundation] o f truth for Israel for
5 the Community, for all those who have freely pledged themselves to

118

COMMUNITY

RULE MANUSCRIPTS

FROM CAVE 4

Holiness in Aaron and to a House o f Truth in Israel and for those who
jo [in th]em for a Community. W hoever enters the Council [of the
Commu]nity shall undertake by binding (oath) to [return t]o the L aw o f
Moses with all (his) heart and soul, to all that has been revealed from the

L[aw].
[And whoever enters] the Council o f the me[n] o f the C o m m u n ity
shall separate from all the men] o f injustice . . . H e shall not touch the
purity o f the men [of holinejss and shall not eat with (them) [in commu
nity. And no] one o f the men o f the Community [shall follow] their deci
sion in any [doctrine] and judgement. And . . . o f work. N o one from the

10

men o f holiness shall eat . . . [And] they shall not lean upon [work]s o f
vanity, for they are all vanity who [do not know His Covenant and all
who despis]e His word H e will blot them out from the world. All their
deeds are defileme[nt] be [fore Him and al]l [their property unclean.] . . .
Gentiles(P) and they pronounce oaths and execrations and vows. [But
when a man enters the Covenant according to all these precepts, that he
may be joined to the h]oly [Congregation,] they [shall examine their
spirit in community,] am[ong themselves] concern in g their understand-

ing] II (i Q S

v,

21
v i, 7)

and their practice o f the L aw under the

authority o f the sons o f Aaron who have freely pledged themselves to

restore H is Covenant and heed to all the precepts commanded by H im
to be practised by the multitude o f Israel who have freely pledged them
selves to return in common. T h e y shall be inscribed in the order, one
after another, each according to his understanding and his deeds in the
Law, that all may obey one another, the man o f lesser rank the greater.
And they shall examine their spirit and their deeds in the L aw yearly so
that each man may be advanced in accordance with [his] understanding]
or moved down in accordance with his aberrations. T h e y shall rebuke
one another (in) loving-kindness. L et no man address his companion
with anger or ill-temper or wicked envy. Also let no man accuse his com
panion before the Congregation without having rebuked him before
witnesses. These are the ways in which all o f them shall walk, each man
with his companion, wherever they dwell. [The man o f lesser rank] shall
ob[ey] the greater in matters o f work and pro[perty. And they shall e]at
[in common] and bless in common and deliberate] in common. [And
wherever there are ten]

III

( iQ S v i,

7-10)

men o f [the Council o f the

Community, there shall not lack] a pri[est from a]mong them. [And]
they [shall sit, each m]an according to his rank, [before him and shall be
asked their counsel in all things in that order.] And when [the table has
119

THE

RULES

been prepared for eating or the n]ew wine [for drinking, the] priest shall
[be first to stretch out his hand to bless the firstfruit of the bread] and of
10 the wine. [And where the ten are, there shall never lack a man among
them who shall study the Law day and night. And the Congregation
shall w]atch [for one third of every night of the year, to read the Book]
IV ... V (iQ S vii, 13) ... [and whoever draws] his hand from
be[neath his garment] ... V I (iQS v i i i , 6-21) ... [and] to pay to the
wicked [their reward. It shall be a tried wall, that precious corner-stone
whose foundations shall not rock nor sway from] their [pi]ace; (it shall
be) a most holy dwelling-place [for Aaron, with the knowledge of them
all of a covenant of justice and of the offering of fragrance; (it shall be) a
house of perfection and truth for Israe]l to establish a covenant accord
ing to the everlasting precepts.
[They shall be an acceptance to atone for the land and to determine
the judgement of wickedness with no injustice (any more). When these
have been confirmed in the foundation of the Community for two
5 years, [in perfection of way, they shall be separated as holy within the
council of the men] of the Community. And anything hidden from
Is]rael but discovered by the man [who interprets, he shall not conceal it
from them for fear of the spirit of apostasy.] And when these become
(part of) the Community/in Israel, they shall separate fir[om the midst of
the habitation] of the men [of injustice to go into the wilderness to pre
pare there the way of HIM (or: {the truth} (4Q259). This is the study of
the La]w which He has commanded by the ha[nd of Moses, to pra]ctise
all [that has been revealed from age to age, and as the prophets have
revealed by His holy spirit. And no ma]n from the men of the covenant
of the [Community who turns aside from any commandment deliber
ately shall touch the purity of the men of holiness, nor shall he know any
10 of their counsel until his deeds are purified from all injustice so that he
walks in perfection of way. And they shall admit him to the council by
the decision of the Congregation and afterwards he shall be inscribed in
his rank. And this rule (shall apply) to everyone who attaches himself] to
the Community. [And these are the rules which the men of holiness shall
follow, one regarding another.] Everyone who [enters the council of the
Community] ... V II (iQ S v i i , 24-ix, 10, 15) ... they shall exclude
him from purity and from council and from judgement for tw[o year]s
and he shall return to study and to council if he has not committed again
a sin by inadvertence for two full years. For one sin of inadvertence he
shall do penance for two years, and for a deliberately committed sin he
120

COMMUNITY

RULE M AN U SC R IP T S

FROM

CAVE 4

shall return no more. But he shall be tried for two [y]ears concerning the
perfection o f his way and for his counsel according to the decision o f the
Congregation and he shall be inscribed in his rank in the Community o f
holiness. [When] these [become part] o f the Com m unity in Israel
according to these rules, they shall [establish the spirit o f holiness as
eternal truth. T h e y shall atone for guilty rebellion [and the sin o f

unfaithful] ness and shall gain (divine) acceptance for the lan[d without
the flesh] o f holocausts and the fat o f sacrifices and offerings. And the
cor[r]ect free-will gift o f the lips shall be like a fragrance [of righteous
ness and the perfection] o f the way like the free-will offerin[g o f a]greeable [tribute]. And at that time they shall separate a house o f Aaron for
holiness for all [

] o f G od [and a house o f Com m unity for Is]rael who

walk in perfection. O nly the sons o f Aa]ron [shall comm]a[nd in matters

o f ju]stice and property. And the property [of the men o f holiness who
wa]lk in perfection, let [their property] not be mer[ged with] the prop
erty [of the men o f falsehood] who have not confirm ed their way to
separate from all] e[vil things] so as to walk in [the way o f perfection. Let
them not depart from any counsel o f the Law] and they shall be judged
by the [primitive precepts in which the men o f the Com m unity began to
be instructed. H e shall perform the judgement o f every man according

10

to his spirit and he shall admit him according to the cleanness o f his
hands] V I I I ( iQ S ix, 1 5 - x , 3) and shall advance him according to his
understanding, and so shall be his love and his hatred. Furthermore he
shall not rebuke a man and shall not dispute with the men o f the pit. H e
shall conceal his counsel among the men o f injustice, but he shall impart
true knowledge and righteous judgement to those who have chosen the
way, to each according to his spirit and according to the rule o f the age,
[guiding the]m with knowledge. And thus shall he instruct them in the
mysteries o f marvel and truth among the men o f the Com m unity that
they may walk in perfection each man with [his fellow in all that has been]
revealed to them. T h is is the time for the preparation o f the way into the
wilderness. H e shall instruct them in all that is to be done in that time.
[And he shall separate] from every man who has not turned away from
all injustice. And these are the rules o f conduct for the M aster in [those]
ti[mes] [with respect to his loving and] hating. Everlasting hatred for the
men o f the pit in a spirit o f secrecy. H e shall leave to them property and
gain [and the earnings o f toil like a slave to] his [lo]rd and the poor man
to his master. Each shall be zealous for the precept and his time shall
become a day [of revenge.] H e shall [perform the will (of God) in all his

121

THE

RULES

actions and in al]l his dominion a[s H e has commanded. And a] 11 that
befalls him, he shall enjoy as a free gift and without the will [of G O D ]
[he shall not enjoy (anything). H e shall delight in all the words o f His
mouth and shall desire nothing that H e has] n[ot commanded. And] he
10 shall watch al[ways for the judgemen]t o f G O D [
his M aker and in all that befalls he shall declare [

] and he shall bless

] and with the offer

ing o f the lips he shall bless H im at [the times which H e has decreed. A t
the beginning o f the dominion o f light a]nd the com pletion o f its circuit
when it ret]ires to [its] appointed dwelling at the beginning [of the
watches o f darkness. W h en H e opens its storehouse and spreads it out
and at the completion o f its circuit when it retires bef]ore the light.
W h en [the heavenly lights] shine out [from the a] bode [of His holiness
together with their withdrawal to the dwelling o f glory. A t the entry o f
seasons according to the new moon as well as their completion o f their
circuit when one succeeds to the other]; I X ( iQ S x, 4 - 1 2 ) at their
renewal there is a great day for the H oly o f Holies and a sign for the
opening o f the everlasting mercies at the beginning o f the seasons for all
ages to come. A t the beginning o f the months for their seasons and on
the holy days according to their rules for remembrance in [their] seasons,
I

will bless H im [with the offering o f the l]ips according to the precept

[en] graved for ever. A t the beginning o f the years and at the completion
o f the circ[uit o f their seasons, when they ful]fil their determined precept
5

on the day decreed for one to follow another, the seas [on o f early harvest
the summer, and the season o f so]wing the season o f grass, the seasons o f
the ye[ar]s thei[r] weeks [and at the beginning of] their weeks the seasons
o f jubilee. And during all my existence the [en] graved precept shall be on
[my tongue as a fruit] o f praise and a po[rtion] o f my lips. I will sin[g]
with knowledge and all my music is for the glory o f G O D . [And I will]
strike m y lyre to the order [of H is holiness and the pipe o f my lips I will]
tune to [His r]ight measure. [At the coming] o f the day [and the n]ight

10 I will enter the covenant [of G O D and at the departure o f evening and
morning I will recite His precepts. And in them will I re-establish [my
boundaries without return. I will declare His judgement correct con
cerning] my [trans]gression [and] my [rebel] lion shall be before my eyes
[as an engraved precept. And I say to G O D , M y righteousness and to
the M ost High, A]uthor o f my goodness, Foun tain o f Know ledge
and Source o f Holiness , Summit o f G lo ry and Almighty Eternal
M ajesty. I will choose] X ( iQ S x, 1 2 - 1 8 ) that which H e teaches [me
and I will delight in H is judgement o f me. Before I move m y hands] and

122

COMMUNITY

RULE M AN U SC R IP T S

FROM CAVE 4

feet I will bless [His name and before I lift my hand to grow fat from] the
pleasant pro[duce o f the world. A t the beginning o f fear and dread and
in the abode o f distress] a[nd desolation, I will confess (His) marvel and I
will meditate on H is might and on H is mercies] I will lea[n all day long.

I know that in H is hand is the judgement o f all the living and all His
deeds are truth.] W h en [distress] sta[rts I will praise H im and I will exalt
Him for H is salvation. And I will not pay] an [evil] reward [to a man; I
will pursue him with goodness. For the judgement o f all the living is
with G O D , and He] will repay [man his reward . . . ]

XI

...

XII (iQS

xi, 7) . . . [and H e has caused] them [to inher]it the l[ot o f the H oly
Ones] . . .

XIII (iQ S

xi,

14-15)

. . . [He will a]tone [for all] my sins.

[Through H is righteousness H e will cleanse me o f the uncleanness o f

man and from the sins o f the child] ren o f m[en that I may confess to
God] His righteousness] . . .

4QSe=4Q259
Three fragmentary columns of a leather scroll contain damaged sections of iQ S
vii- ix.

The text translated comes from columns 11 and 111 and represents an

important doctrinal section of iQ S (v i i i , 4-ix, n ) in an abridged form. Not

only are some of the interlinear additions to iQ S absent, suggesting their later
editorial nature, but 4 Q S e (4Q259) jumps from iQ S

viii,

15 to ix, 12, thus

omitting among other things the mention of the Prophet and the Messiahs of
Aaron and Israel (iQ S ix, 11). It would seem that the copyist of this manuscript
substituted 4 Q 3 19 (the calendric document of Otot) for the text corresponding
to iQ S x -xi.
For the editio princeps, see P. S. Alexander and G. Vermes, DJD , XXVI,
129-52.

II (iQ S

v ii, 2 0 -v m , 1 0 ) ... And when [he has] com pleted] [two years,

the Congregation shall consider his case and he shall be inscribed in] his
[ran]k and afterwards he may question [concerning the law. And anyone
who has been in the Co]uncil o f the Community until he has completed
[ten years, and then his spirit turned back so that he has betrayed the
Com munity and has departed from] the Congregation to walk [in the
stubbornness o f his heart, he shall return no more to the Council o f the
Community. And any o f the m]en o f the Community who [has shared
with him his purity or his property], his sentence shall be [like his: he
1 23

THE

RULES

10 shall be expelled. In the Council o f the Community there shall be twelve

m]en [and] three priests, [perfect in all that has been revealed from the
whole L a w to practise] truth, righteousness and justice [loving-kindness
and modesty towards one another. T h e y shall preserve f ]aith in the land
with steadfastness and with humility [and a bro]ken [spirit.] And they
shall atone for in[iquity by the practice o f justice and the distress o f
te]sting. T h e y shall walk with all men[ by the standard] o f truth, by the
rule [of the time. W hen these are in] Israel, the Council o f the Com m u
nity shall be established [to be an] everlasting plantation, a House o f
15

Holiness for Israel and an Assembly] o f Supreme Holiness for Aaron.

T h e y shall be witnesses o f the truth at the Judgement, and shall be the
elect o f good [will who atone for] the Lan[d and pay] to the wicked their
reward. It shall be the tried wall,

[that precious] cor[ner-stone. T h e y shall]

ne[ither rock, no]r sway from their place (Isa. xxviii, 16). It shall be a
m[ost] H o ly Dwelling for Aar [on f]o r a Covenan[t o f justice to offer up
sweet] fragrance. It shall be a House o f Perfection and Truth in [Israel
that they may establish a Covenant according to the everlastjing [pre
cepts.] W h en they have been confirmed

III

( iQ S v m , 1 1 - 1 5 ; ix , 12

. .. ) [for two years in the perfection o f way in the Foundation o f the

Community, they shall be set apart] as holy within the Council o f the men
[of the Community. And] the interpreter shall not con[c]eal [from them,
out o f fear o f the spirit o f apostasy, any o f those things hidden from
Israel which have been discover] ed by him. [And when] these shall become
the Community, they shall separate fro[m the habit] ation [of unjust men
and shall] go into the wil[demess to prepare there th]e way o f the Truth;
5

[In the wildemes]s pr[epare the way o f. .. (?), make straight

in the desert a path for our God (Isa. xl, 3). This (path) is [the study o f the
a[s] it is written,

L aw which] H e commanded by the hand o f Moses. (T he manuscript

omits the section corresponding to iQ S v m , 15b to ix, 1 1 , and contin
ues with ix, 12 on the same line.) These are the pre[cepts in which] the
M as [ter shall walk] in his commerce with all the living, according to the
rule proper to every season and according to the wort[h o f every man].

124

Entry into the Covenant

(4Q275)

Previously called 4QTohorot Ba, this tiny fragment represents a document

describing the entry into the Covenant, known from the Community Rule
(iQS), and alludes to a festival in the third month, i.e. the Feast of Weeks of
Pentecost, when according to one of the Cave 4 manuscripts of the Damascus
Document (4Q266) the Qumran Covenant renewal took place.
For the editio princeps, see P. S. Alexander and G. Vermes, D JD , XXVI,
209-16.

[And the Guardian will come] and the elders with him until... and they
shall enter by genealogy... And the Guardian shall [curse (the unrepen
tant), saying Be damned without] mercy. [Let him be cur]sed . . . And
he will remove him] from his inheritance for ev[er] ... when he visits
destruction ...

I25

Four Classes of the Community

(4 Q 2 79 )

Formerly known as 4QTohorot D a, this fragment is one of three small scraps

which have partly preserved the division of the Community into four lots or
classes, already known from C D xiv, 5-6, viz. Priests, Levites, Israelites and
Proselytes.
For the

editio princeps, see P. S. Alexander and G. Vermes, DJD , XXVI,

2 17 -2 3 .

... [The first] lot belongs [to the Pries] ts, the sons of Aaron [and the second lot to the Levites ranked in order] each according to his spirit. And
the [third] lo[t will belong to the children of Israel in order each accord
ing to his spirit. And] the fourth lot will belong to the Prosely[tes] ...

126

The Damascus Document

(CD, 4Q265-73, 5Q12, 6Q15)

Extensive fragments of the Damascus Document have been recovered from

three of the Qumran caves (4Q 265-73, 5Q i2 = C D ix, 7-10 , 6 Q i5= C D iv,
19 -21, v, 13 -14 , v, 18-vi, 2, vi, 20-vn, 1, plus a text unparalleled in CD), but
two incomplete medieval copies of this document had been found already many
years earlier, in 1896-7, amongst a mass of discarded manuscripts in a store

(genizab) of an old Cairo synagogue. Published in 1910 by S. Schechter

{Fragments ofa Zadokite Work, Cambridge), they were reprinted with a new Pro

room

legomenon by J. A. Fitzmyer in 1970, re-edited by Chaim Rabin under the title

The Zadokite Documents (Oxford, 1954) and in the light of the 4Q fragments by
The Damascus Document Reconsidered, Jerusalem, 1992. Cf. also J. M.
Baumgarten et al. inJ. H. Charlesworth et al., eds., The DSSII: Damascus Document...,
1995, 4-79. For the editio princeps, see J. M. Baumgarten, DJD, X V III, 1996.

M. Broshi,

Dating from the tenth and twelfth centuries respectively, the manuscripts
found in Cairo - Manuscript A and Manuscript B - raise a certain number
of textual problems in that they present two different versions of the original
composition. I have setded the difficulty as satisfactorily as I can by following
Manuscript A, to which the 4Q fragments correspond, and by inserting the
Manuscript B variants in brackets or footnotes. At a certain point, as the reader
will see, Manuscript A comes to an end and we then have to rely entirely on
Manuscript B. Furthermore, two of the Cave 4 manuscripts (4Q266 and 268)
show that page 1 of the Cairo document was preceded by another section of which
both the beginning and the end have survived. Also 4Q 266 and 270 indicate
that in antiquity the text corresponding to C D ix, 1 was preceded by C D xvi.
In the translation I have therefore rearranged the order of the pages and placed
pages xv and xvi before page ix.
The tide Damascus Document derives from the references in the Exhortation
to the New Covenant made in the land of Damascus. The significance of this
phrase is discussed in Chapter III together with the chronological data included
in the manuscript. They suggest that the document was written in about
127

10 0 b ce

THE

RULES

and this hypothesis is indirecdy supported by the absence of any mention in the
historical passages of the Kittim (Romans) whose invasion of the Orient did not
take place until after 70

bce.

The work is divided into an Exhortation and a list of Statutes. In the Exhorta
tion, the preacher - probably a Guardian of the Community - addresses his
sons on the themes of the sects teaching, many of which appear also in the
Community Rule. His aim is to encourage the sectaries to remain faithful, and
with this end in view he sets out to demonstrate from the history of Israel and
the Community that fidelity is always rewarded and apostasy chastised.
During the course of his argument, the author of the Damascus Document
frequendy interprets biblical passages in a most unexpected way. I have men
tioned one of these commentaries on the marriage laws in Chapter I V (pp. 69-70),
but there is another intricate exposition of Amos v, 26 -7 on p. 135 which may
not be easy to understand.
In the Bible these verses convey a divine threat: the Israelites were to take
themselves and their idols into exile: You shall take up Sakkuth your king and
Kaiwan your star-god, your images which you made for yourselves, for I will
take you into exile beyond Damascus. But the Damascus Document transforms
this threat into a promise of salvation; by changing certain words in the biblical
text and omitting others its version reads: I will exile the tabernacle of your king
and the bases of your statues from my tent to Damascus.
In this new text, the three key phrases are interpreted symbolically as follows:
tabernacle = Books of the Law; king = congregation; bases of statues =

tabernacle of the
I will raise up the tabernacle of David which isfallen (Amos ix,
11). The king is the congregation; and the bases ofthe statues are the Books of the

Books of the Prophets. Thus: The Books of the Law are the
king; as God said,

Prophets whose sayings Israel despised.

The omission of any reference to the star-god is made good by introducing a
very different Star, the messianic Interpreter of the Law with his companion
the Prince of the congregation. The star is the Interpreter of the Law who
shall come to Damascus; as it is written, A star shall comeforth out ofJacob and a
sceptre shall rise out of Israel (Num. xxiv, 17). The sceptre is the Prince of the
whole congregation . . .
The second part of the Damascus Document, the Statutes, consists of a collec
tion of laws which mosdy reflect a sectarian reinterpretation of the biblical com
mandments relative to vows and oaths, tribunals, purification, the Sabbath and
the distinction between ritual purity and impurity. They are followed by rules
concerned with the institutions and organization of the Community. Some of the
particular laws of the Damascus Rule appear also in the Temple Scroll (cf. p. 192).
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THE DAMASCUS DOCUMENT

Whereas the Exhortation represents a literary genre adopted by both Jewish

and Christian religious teachers (e.g. the Letter to the Hebrews), the methodical
grouping of the Statutes prefigures that of the Mishnah, the oldest extant Jewish
code.
The Statutes as they appear in the Qumran fragments include the form of the
ritual for the Feast of the Renewal of the Covenant, so it may be assumed that
the entire Damascus Document was originally connected with that festival.
4Q266, as will be seen presendy, specifies that it occurred in the third month,
i.e. that it coincided with the Feast of Weeks, celebrated on the fifteenth day of
the third month according to the sects calendar.
The translation of those Cave 4 fragments which are additional to C D will
follow the presentation of the Cairo manuscripts.

The Exhortation
I Listen now1 all you who know righteousness, and consider the works
of G od; for H e has a dispute with all flesh and will condemn all those
who despise Him.

For when they were unfaithful and forsook Him, He hid His face
from Israel and His Sanctuary and delivered them up to the sword. But
remembering the Covenant of the forefathers, He left a remnant to 5
Israel and did not deliver it up to be destroyed. And in the age of wrath,
three hundred and ninety years after He had given them into the hand of
King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon, He visited them, and He caused a plant
root to spring from Israel and Aaron to inherit His Land and to prosper
on the good things of His earth. And they perceived their iniquity and
recognized that they were guilty men, yet for twenty years they were like 10
blind men groping for the way.
And G od observed their deeds, that they sought H im with a whole
heart, and H e raised for them a Teacher o f Righteousness to guide them
in the way o f H is heart. And he made known to the latter generations
that which G od had done to the latter generation, the congregation o f
traitors, to those who departed from the way. T h is was the time o f which
it is written, Like a stubborn heifer thus was Israel stubborn (Hos. iv. 16),
when the Scoffer arose who shed over Israel the waters o f lies. H e caused
them to wander in a pathless wilderness, laying low the everlasting
heights, abolishing the ways o f righteousness and removing the boundary
1. 4Q268 adds: to me.
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15

THE

RULES

with which the forefathers had marked out their inheritance, that he
might call down on them the curses o f H is Covenant and deliver them
up to the avenging sword o f the Covenant. For they sought smooth
things and preferred illusions (Isa. xxx, 10) and they watched for breaks
(Isa. xxx, 1 3) and chose the fair neck; and they justified the wicked and
20 condemned the just, and they transgressed the Covenant and violated
the Precept. T h e y banded together against the life o f the righteous (Ps.
xciv, 2 1) and loathed all who walked in perfection; they pursued them
with the sword and exulted in the strife o f the people. And the anger o f
G od was kindled against

II

their congregation so that H e ravaged all

their multitude; and their deeds were defilement before Him .

Hear now, all you who enter the Covenant, and I will unstop your ears
concerning the ways of the wicked.2
G od loves knowledge. W isdom and understanding H e has set before
5 H im , and prudence and knowledge serve Him. Patience and much for
giveness are with Him towards those who turn from transgression; but
power, might, and great flaming wrath by the hand o f all the Angels o f
Destruction towards those who depart from the way and abhor the
Precept. T h e y shall have no remnant or survivor. For from the begin
ning G od chose them not; H e knew their deeds before ever they were
created and H e hated their generations, and H e hid H is face from the
Land until they were consumed. F o r H e knew the years o f their coming
10 and the length and exact duration o f their times for all ages to come and
throughout eternity. H e knew the happenings o f their times throughout
all the everlasting years. And in all o f them H e raised for H im self
men called by name3 that a remnant might be left to the Land, and that
the face o f the earth might be filled with their seed. And H e made
known H is H o ly Spirit to them by the hand o f H is anointed ones, and
H e proclaimed the truth (to them). But those whom H e hated H e led
astray.

Hear now, my sons, and I will uncover your eyes that you may see and
15 understand the works of God, that you may choose that which pleases
Him and reject that which He hates, that you may walk perfectly in all
His ways and not follow after thoughts of the guilty inclination and after
eyes of lust. For through them, great men have gone astray and mighty
heroes have stumbled from former times till now. Because they walked
2. 4Q 26 6 fir. 2 ii, 3 adds: so that from all the paths of the sin[ners you shall keep away].
3. Or: men called (4Q266, fr. 2 ii, 11).

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in the stubbornness o f their heart the Heavenly Watchers fell; they were
caught because they did not keep the commandments o f G od. And their
sons also fell who were tall as cedar trees and whose bodies were like
mountains. All flesh on dry land perished; they were as though they had

20

never been because they did their own will and did not keep the com
mandment o f their M aker so that H is wrath was kindled against them.

Ill

Through it, the children o f N oah went astray, together with their

kin, and were cut off. Abraham did not walk in it, and he was accounted
a friend o f G od because he kept the commandments o f G od and did not
choose his own will. And he handed them down to Isaac and Jacob, who
kept them, and were recorded as friends o f G od and party to the Covenant
for ever. T h e children o f Jacob strayed through them and were punished
in accordance with their error. And their sons in Egyp t walked in the

stubbornness o f their hearts, conspiring against the commandments o f

G od and each o f them doing that which seemed right in his own eyes.
T h e y ate blood, and H e cut o ff their males in the wilderness. And at
Kadesh H e said to them,

Go up and possess the land (Deut. ix, 23). But they

chose their own will and did not heed the voice o f their Maker, the com
mands o f their Teacher, but murmured in their tents; and the anger o f
G od was kindled against their congregation. Through it their sons per
ished, and through it their kings were cut off; through it their mighty

10

heroes perished and through it their land was ravaged. Through it the
first members o f the Covenant sinned and were delivered up to the
sword, because they forsook the Covenant o f G od and chose their own
will and walked in the stubbornness o f their hearts, each o f them doing
his own will.
But with the remnant which held fast to the commandments o f G od
H e made H is Covenant with Israel for ever, revealing to them the hid
den things in which all Israel had gone astray. H e unfolded before them
His holy Sabbaths and his glorious feasts, the testimonies o f His right-

15

eousness and the ways o f His truth, and the desires o f H is will which a
man must do in order to live. And they dug a well rich in water; and
he who despises it shall not live. Yet they wallowed in the sin o f man and
in ways o f uncleanness, and they said, T h is is our (way). But G od, in
His wonderful mysteries, forgave them their sin and pardoned their
wickedness; and H e built them a sure house in Israel whose like has
never existed from former times till now. Those who hold fast to it are
destined to live for ever and all the glory o f Adam shall be theirs. As G od
ordained for them by the hand o f the Prophet Ezekiel, saying,

*3*

The

20

T H E RULES

Priests, the Levites,

j-o/z^ I V o f Zadok who kept the charge o f my

sanctuary when the children o f Israel strayed from me, they shall offer me fa t
and blood (Ezek. xliv, 15).
T h e Priests are the converts o f Israel who departed from the land o f
Judah, and (the Levites are) those who joined them. T h e sons o f Zadok are
5

the elect o f Israel, the men called by name who shall stand at the end o f
days. Behold the exact list o f their names according to their generations,
and the time when they lived, and the number o f their trials, and the
years o f their sojourn, and the exact list o f their deeds . . .
(T h ey were the first men) o f holiness whom G od forgave, and who
justified the righteous and condemned the wicked. And until the age is
completed, according to the number o f those years, all who enter after
them shall do according to that interpretation o f the Law in which the
first (men) were instructed. According to the Covenant which G od made

10 with the forefathers, forgiving their sins, so shall H e forgive their sins
also. But when the age is completed, according to the number o f those
years, there shall be no more joining the house o f Judah, but each man
shall stand on his watch-tower: The wall is built, the boundary fa r removed
(M ic. vii, 11) .
D uring all those years Belial shall be unleashed against Israel, as H e
spoke by the hand o f Isaiah, son o f Amoz, saying, Terror and the pit and
15

the snare are upon you, O inhabitant o f the land (Isa. xxiv, 17). Interpreted,
these are the three nets o f Belial with which Levi son o f Jacob said that
he catches Israel by setting them up as three kinds o f righteousness. T h e
first is fornication, the second is riches, and the third is profanation o f
the Temple. W hoever escapes the first is caught in the second, and w ho
ever saves himself from the second is caught in the third (Isa. xxiv, 18).
T h e builders o f the w all (Ezek. xiii, 10) who have followed after

20

Precept - Precept was a spouter o f whom it is written, They shall

surely spout (Mic. ii, 6) - shall be caught in fornication twice by taking a
second wife while the first is alive, whereas the principle o f creation is,
M ale and female created He them (Gen. i, 27). V Also, those who entered
the A rk went in two by two. And concerning the prince it is written, He
shall not multiply wives to him self (Deut. xvii, 17); but David had not read
the sealed book o f the L aw which was in the ark (of the Covenant), for it
was not opened in Israel from the death o f Eleazar and Joshua, and the
elders who worshipped Ashtoreth. It was hidden and (was not) revealed

until the coming o f Zadok. And the deeds o f David rose up, except for
the murder o f Uriah, and G od left them to him.
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THE DAMASCUS

DOCUMENT

Moreover, they profane the Temple because they do not observe the
distinction (between clean and unclean) in accordance with the Law, but
lie with a woman who sees her bloody discharge.
And each man marries the daughter o f his brother or sister, whereas

You shall not approach your mother's sister; she is your mother's
near kin (Lev. xviii, 13). But although the laws against incest are written 10

Moses said,

for men, they also apply to women. W hen, therefore, a brothers daughter
uncovers the nakedness o f her fathers brother, she is (also his) near kin.
Furthermore, they defile their holy spirit and open their mouth with
a blaspheming tongue against the laws o f the Covenant o f G od saying,
T h e y are not sure. T h e y speak abominations concerning them; they are
all kindlers offire and lighters of brands (Isa. 1, 11), their webs are spiders'
webs and their eggs are vipers' eggs (Isa. lix, 5). N o man that approaches 15
them shall be free from guilt; the more he does so, the guiltier shall
he be, unless he is pressed. For (already) in ancient times G od visited
their deeds and H is anger was kindled against their works; for it is a
people of no discernment (Isa. xxvii, 11), it is a nation void of counsel inasmuch
as there is no discernment in them (Deut. xxxii, 28). F o r in ancient times,
Moses and Aaron arose by the hand o f the Prince o f Lights and Belial
in his cunning raised up Jannes and his brother when Israel was first
delivered.4
And at the time o f the desolation o f the land there arose removers o f 20
the bound who led Israel astray. And the land was ravaged because they
preached rebellion against the commandments o f G od given by the hand
of Moses and V I o f His holy anointed ones, and because they prophesied
lies to turn Israel away from following God. But G od remembered the
Covenant with the forefathers, and he raised from Aaron men o f discern
ment and from Israel men o f wisdom, and H e caused them to hear. And
they dug the W ell:5 the well which the princes dug, which the nobles of the

people delved with the stave (Num . xxi, 18).

T h e Well is the Law, and those who dug it were the converts o f Israel
who went out o f the land o f Judah to sojourn in the land o f Damascus.
G od called them all princes because they sought H im , and their renown

Stave is the Interpreter o f the Law o f whom

He makes a toolfor His work (Isa. liv, 16); and the nobles of the

was disputed by no man. T h e

Isaiah said,

4. Or: when he acted wickedly against Israel the first time (4Q266, fir. 3 ii, 6-7).
5. 4 Q 266, fr. 3 ii, 10 adds: of which Moses said:

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RULES

people are those who come to dig the Well with the staves with which the
Stave ordained that they should walk in all the age o f wickedness - and
without them they shall find nothing - until he comes who shall teach
righteousness at the end o f days.
N o n e o f those brought into the Covenant shall enter the Temple to
light H is altar in vain. T h e y shall bar the door, forasmuch as G od said,

Who among you will bar its door? And, You shall not light my altar in vain
(Mai. i, 10). T h e y shall take care to act according to the exact interpreta15

tion o f the L aw during the age o f wickedness. T h e y shall separate from

the sons o f the Pit, and shall keep away from the unclean riches o f
wickedness acquired by vow or anathema or from the Temple treasure;
they shall not rob the poor o f H is people, to make o f widows their prey
and o f the fatherless their victim (Isa. x, 2). T h ey shall distinguish between
clean and unclean, and shall proclaim the difference between holy and
profane. T h e y shall keep the Sabbath day according to its exact interpre
tation, and the feasts and the D ay o f Fasting according to the finding o f
the members o f the N e w Covenant in the land o f Damascus. T h e y shall

20 set aside the holy things according to the exact teaching concerning them.
T h e y shall love each man his brother as himself; they shall succour the
poor, the needy, and the stranger.
A man shall seek his brothers well-being V I I and shall not sin against
his near kin. T h e y shall keep from fornication according to the statute.
T h e y shall rebuke each man his brother according to the commandment
and shall bear no rancour from one day to the next. T h e y shall keep apart
from every uncleanness according to the statutes relating to each one,
and no man shall defile his holy spirit since G od has set them apart. For
5 all who walk in these (precepts) in perfect holiness, according to all the
teaching o f G od, the Covenant o f G od shall be an assurance that they

Keeping
the Covenant and grace with those who love me and keep my commandments,
to a thousand generations, Deut. vii, 9).

shall live for thousands o f generations (M S . B: as it is written,

And if they live in camps according to the rule o f the Land (M S . B: as

it was from ancient times), marrying (M S . B: according to the custom o f
the Law ) and begetting children, they shall walk according to the Law
and according to the statute concerning binding vows, according to the

Between a man and his wife and between a

father and his son (Num. xxx, 17). And all those who despise (M S . B: the
rule o f the L aw which says,

commandments and the statutes) shall be rewarded with the retribution

10 o f the wicked when G od shall visit the Land, when the saying shall come

i34

THE DAMASCUS DOCUMENT

to pass which is written6 among the words o f the Prophet Isaiah son o f
Am oz: He w ill bring upon you, and upon your people, and upon your father's
house, days such as have not come since the day that Ephraim departed from
Judah (Isa. vii, 17). W hen the two houses o f Israel were divided, Ephraim
departed from Judah. And all the apostates were given up to the sword,
but those who held fast escaped to the land o f the north; as G od said,
I w ill exile the tabernacle o f your king and the bases o f your statues from my

15

tent to Damascus (Amos v, 2 6 -7 ).

T h e Books o f the L aw are the tabernacle o f the king; as G od said, I w ill
raise up the tabernacle o f David which isfallen (Amos ix, 11). T h e king is the
congregation; and the bases o f the statues are the Books o f the Prophets
whose sayings Israel despised. T h e star is the Interpreter o f the L aw who
shall come to Damascus; as it is written, A star shall comeforth out o fJacob
and a sceptre shall rise out o f Israel (Num. xxiv, 17). T h e sceptre is the Prince

20

o f the whole congregation, and when he comes he shall smite all the
children o f Seth (Num. xxiv, 17).
A t the time o f the former Visitation they were saved, whereas the
apostates

VIII

were given up to the sword; and so shall it be for all the

members o f H is Covenant who do not hold steadfastly to these (M S . B:

to the curse o f the precepts). T h e y shall be visited for destruction by the
hand o f Belial. T h a t shall be the day when G od will visit. (M S . B: As H e
said,) The princes o f Judah have become (M S . B: like those who remove the
bound); wrath shall be poured upon them (Hos. v, 10). F o r they shall hope
for healing but H e will crush them. T h e y are all o f them rebels, for they7
have not turned from the way o f traitors but have wallowed in the ways
of whoredom and wicked wealth. T h e y have taken revenge and borne
malice, every man against his brother, and every man has hated his fel
low, and every man has sinned against his near kin, and has approached
for unchastity, and has acted arrogandy for the sake o f riches and gain.
And every man has done that which seemed right in his eyes and has

6. M S . B continues: by the hand of the prophet Zechariah: Awake, O Sword, against my

shepherd, against my companion, says God. Strike the shepherd that theflock may be scattered and
I will stretch my hand over the little ones (Zech. xiii, 7). The humble of the flock are those
who watch for Him. They shall be saved at the time of the Visitation whereas the others
shall be delivered up to the sword when the Anointed of Aaron and Israel shall come, as it
came to pass at the time of the former Visitation concerning which God said by the hand
of Ezekiel: They shall put a ?nark on theforeheads of those who sigh and groan (Ezek. ix, 4). But
the others were delivered up to the avenging sword of the Covenant.
7. M S. B inserts: they have entered the Covenant of repentance but they have not turned, etc.

135

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10

15

20

chosen the stubbornness of his heart. They have not kept apart from the
people (MS. B: and their sin) and have wilfully rebelled by walking in
the ways of the wicked of whom God said, Their wine is the venom of
serpents, the cruel poison (or head) of asps (Deut. xxxii, 33).
The serpents are the kings of the peoples and their wine is their ways.
And the head ofasps is the chief of the kings of Greece who came to wreak
vengeance upon them. But all these things the builders of the wall and
those who daub it with plaster (Ezek. xiii, 10) have not understood because
a follower of the wind, one who raised storms and rained down lies, had
preached to them (Mic. ii, 11), against all of whose assembly the anger of
God was kindled.
And as for that which Moses said, You enter to possess these nations not
because ofyour righteousness or the uprightness ofyour hearts (Deut. ix, 5) but
because God loved your fathers and kept the oath (Deut. vii, 8), thus shall it
be with the converts of Israel who depart from the way of the people.
Because God loved the first (men) who8 testified in His favour, so will
He love those who come after them, for the Covenant of the fathers is
theirs. But He hated the builders of the wall and His anger was kindled
(MS. B: against them and against all those who followed them); and so
shall it be for all who reject the commandments of God and abandon
them for the stubbornness of their hearts. This is the word which
Jeremiah spoke to Baruch son of Neriah, and which Elisha spoke to his
servant Gehazi.
None of the men who enter the New Covenant in the land of Damascus,
(B I) and who again betray it and depart from the fountain of living
waters, shall be reckoned with the Council of the people or inscribed in
its Book from the day of the gathering in (B II) of the Teacher of the
Community until the coming of the Messiah out of Aaron and Israel.
And thus shall it be for every man who enters the congregation of men
of perfect holiness but faints in performing the duties of the upright. He
is a man who has melted in the furnace (Ezek. xxii, 22); when his deeds
are revealed he shall be expelled from the congregation as though his lot
had never fallen among the disciples of God. The men of knowledge
shall rebuke him in accordance with his sin against the time when he
shall stand again before the Assembly of the men of perfect holiness. But
when his deeds are revealed, according to the interpretation of the Law
in which the men of perfect holiness walk, let no man defer to him with
8. M S . B adds: bore witness against the people, so will He love, etc.

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T HE D A M A S C U S D O C U M E N T

regard to money or work, for all the Holy Ones of the Most High have
cursed him.
And thus shall it be for all among the first and the last who reject (the
precepts), who set idols upon their hearts and walk in the stubbornness
of their hearts; they shall have no share in the house of the Law. They
shall be judged in the same manner as their companions were judged
who deserted to the Scoffer. For they have spoken wrongly against the
precepts of righteousness, and have despised the Covenant and the Pact
- the New Covenant - which they made in the land of Damascus.
Neither they nor their kin shall have any part in the house of the Law.
From the day of the gathering in of the Teacher of the Community
until the end of all the men of war who deserted to the Liar there shall
pass about forty years (Deut. ii, 14). And during that age the wrath of God
shall be kindled against Israel; as He said, There shall be no king., no prince,
no judge, no man to rebuke with justice (Hos. iii, 4). But those who turn
from the sin of Jacob, who keep the Covenant of God, shall then speak
each man to his fellow, to justify each man his brother, that their step
may take the way of God. And God will heed their words and will hear,
and a Book of Reminder shall be written before Him of them that fear
God and worship His Name, against the time when salvation and righteousness shall be revealed to them that fear God. And then shall you dis
tinguish once more between the just and the wicked, between one that serves
God and one that serves Him not (Mai. iii, 18); and He will show loving
kindness to thousands, to them that love Him and watchfor Him, for a thousand
generations (Exod. xx, 6).
And every member of the House of Separation who went out of the
Holy City and leaned on God at the time when Israel sinned and defiled
the Temple, but returned again to the way of the people in small matters,
shall be judged according to his spirit in the Council of Holiness. But
when the glory of God is made manifest to Israel, all those members of
the Covenant who have breached the bound of the Law shall be cut off
from the midst of the camp, and with them all those who condemned
Judah in the days of its trials.
But all those who hold fast to these precepts, going and coming in
accordance with the Law, who heed the voice of the Teacher and confess
before God, (saying), Truly we have sinned, we and our fathers, by walk
ing counter to the precepts of the Covenant, Thy judgements upon us
are justice and truth; who do not lift their hand against His holy precepts
or His righteous statutes or His true testimonies; who have learned from
i

37

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15

20

25

30

T HE RULES

the former judgements by which the members of the Community were

judged; who have listened to the voice of the Teacher of Righteousness
and have not despised the precepts of righteousness when they heard
them; they shall rejoice and their hearts shall be strong, and they shall
prevail over all the sons of the earth. God will forgive them and they
shall see His salvation because they took refuge in His holy Name.9
The Statutes
... (He shall not) X V swear by (the Name), nor by Aleph and Lamed
(Elohim), nor by Alepb and Daleth (Adonai), but a binding oath by the
curses of the Covenant.
He shall not mention the Law of Moses for ... were he to swear and
then break (his oath) he would profane the Name.
But if he has sworn an oath by the curses of the Covenant before the
judges and has transgressed it, then he is guilty and shall confess and
make restitution; but he shall not be burdened with a capital sin.
5
And all those who have entered the Covenant, granted to all Israel for
ever, shall make their children who have reached the age of enrolment,
swear with the oath of the Covenant. And thus shall it be during all the
age of wickedness for every man who repents of his corrupted way. On
the day that he speaks to the Guardian of the congregation, they shall
enrol him with the oath of the Covenant which Moses made with Israel,
10 the Covenant to return to the Law of Moses with a whole heart and soul,
to whatever is found should be done at that time. No man shall make
known the statutes to him until he has stood before the Guardian, lest
when examining him the Guardian be deceived by him. But if he trans
gresses after swearing to return to the Law of Moses with a whole heart
and soul, they (the members) shall be innocent should he transgress. And
should he err in any matter that is revealed of the Law to the multitude
of the camp, the Guardian shall {instruct} (4Q266, fir. 8 i, 5) him and shall
15 issue directions concerning him: he should stu[dy] for a full year.10 And
according to his (the Guardians) knowledge, {no madman, or lunatic
shall enter, no simpleton, or fool, no blind man, or maimed, or lame, or

9. The end of the Exhortation of C D is followed in 4Q 266, fr. 4, lines 1 1 - 1 2 , by a badly

preserved allusion to the Messiah: God [will set up] a shep[herd for His people] and he
will feed [them] in [pastures] ..
10. 4Q 266, fr. 8 i, 6 adds: and (then) draw near.

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T HE D A M A S C U S D O C U M E N T

deaf man, and no minor, none of these shall enter into the Community,
for the Angels of Holiness are [in their midst]} (4Q266, fr. 8 i, 6-9).
(For God made) X V I a Covenant with you and all Israel; therefore a
man shall bind himself by oath to return to the Law of Moses, for in it
all things are strictly defined.
As for the exact determination of their times to which Israel turns a
blind eye, behold it is strictly defined in the Book of the Divisions of the
Times into their Jubilees and Weeks. And on the day that a man swears to
return to the Law of Moses, the Angel of Persecution shall cease to
follow him provided that he fulfils his word: for this reason Abraham
circumcised himself on the day that he knew.
And concerning the saying, You shall keep your vow byfulfilling it (Deut.
xxiii, 24), let no man, even at the price of death, annul any binding oath
by which he has sworn to keep a commandment of the Law.
But even at the price of death, a man shall fulfil no vow by which he
has sworn to depart from the Law.

Concerning the oath of a woman

10
Inasmuch as He said, It is for her husband to cancel her oath (Num. xxx,
9), no husband shall cancel an oath without knowing whether it should
be kept or not. Should it be such as to lead to transgression of the
Covenant, he shall cancel it and shall not let it be kept. The rule for her
father is likewise.
Concerning the statutefor free-will ojferings
No man shall vow to the altar anything unlawfully acquired. Also, no
Priest shall take from Israel anything unlawfully acquired. And no man
shall consecrate the food of his house to God, for it is as he said, Each 15
hunts his brother with a net (or votive-ojfering: Mic. vii, 2). Let no man
consecrate ... And if he has consecrated to God some of his own field ...
he who has made the vow shall be punished ... {[with] one sixth of his
valuation money} (4Q266, fr. 8 ii, 2-3) ...
I X 11 Every vow by which a man vows another to destruction (cf. Lev.
xxvii, 29) by the laws of the Gentiles shall himself be put to death. And
concerning the saying, You shall not take vengeance on the children ofyour
people, nor bear any rancour against them (Lev. xix, 18), if any member of
1 1 . 4Q 266, fr. 8 ii, 8; 270, fr. 6 iii, 15 add: And that which He said:

*39

THE RULES

the Covenant accuses his companion without first rebuking him before12
witnesses; if he denounces him in the heat of his anger or reports him to
his elders to make him look contemptible, he is one that takes vengeance
5 and bears rancour, although it is expressly written, He takes vengeance
upon His adversaries and bears rancour against His enemies (Nah. i, 2). If he
holds his peace towards him from one day to another13 and thereafter
speaks of him in the heat of his anger, he testifies against himself concern
ing a capital matter because he has not fulfilled the commandment of
God which tells him: You shall rebuke your companion and not be burdened
with sin because of him (Lev. xix, 17).
Concerning the oath with reference to that which He said, You shall not take the
law into your own hands (1 Sam. xxv, 26)
10
Whoever causes another to swear in the field instead of before the
Judges, or at their decree, takes the law into his own hands. When any
thing is lost, and it is not known who has stolen it from the property of the
camp in which it was stolen, its owner shall pronounce a curse, and any
man who, on hearing (it), knows but does not tell, shall himself be guilty.
When anything is returned which is without an owner, whoever
returns it shall confess to the Priest, and apart from the ram of the sinoffering, it shall be his.
And likewise, everything which is found but has no owner shall go to
15 the Priests, for the finder is ignorant of the rule concerning it. If no
owners are discovered they shall keep it.
Every sin which a man commits against the Law, and which his com
panion witnesses, he being alone, if it is a capital matter he shall report it
to the Guardian, rebuking him in his presence, and the Guardian shall
record it against him in case he should commit it again before one man
and he should report it to the Guardian once more. Should he repeat it
20 and be caught in the act before one man, his case shall be complete.
And if there are two (witnesses), each testifying to a different matter,
the man shall be excluded from the pure Meal provided that they are
trustworthy and that each informs the Guardian on the day that they
witnessed (the offence). In matters of property, they shall accept two
trustworthy witnesses and shall exclude (the culprit) from the pure Meal
on the word of one witness alone.
12 . Or: through (4Q 270, fr. 6 iii, 18).
1 3 . (4Q 267, fr. 9 i,i) adds: and from one month to another.

140

T HE D A M A S C U S D O C U M E N T

No X Judge shall pass sentence of death on the testimony of a witness

who has not yet attained the age of enrolment and who is not God-fearing.
No man who has wilfully transgressed any commandment shall be
declared a trustworthy witness against his companion until he is purified
and able to return.
And this is the Rule for the Judges of the Congregation
Ten shall be elected from the congregation for a definite time, four 5
from the tribe of Levi and Aaron, and six from Israel. (They shall be)
learned in the Book of Meditation and in the constitutions of the
Covenant, and aged between twenty-five and sixty years. No man over
the age of sixty shall hold office as Judge of the Congregation, for because
man sinned his days have been shortened, and in the heat of His anger
against the inhabitants of the earth God ordained that their understanding 10
should depart even before their days are completed (Jubilees, xxiii, 11).
Concerning purification by water
No man shall bathe in dirty water or in an amount too shallow to
cover a man. He shall not purify himself with water contained in a14
vessel. And as for the water of every rock-pool too shallow to cover a
man, if an unclean man touches it he renders its water as unclean as
water contained in a vessel.
Concerning the Sabbath to observe it according to its law
No man shall work on the sixth day from the moment when the suns 15
orb is distant by its own fulness from the gate (wherein it sinks); for this is
what He said, Observe the Sabbath day to keep it holy (Deut. v, 12). No man
shall speak any vain or idle word on the Sabbath day. He shall make no loan
to his companion. He shall make no decision in matters of money and
gain. He shall say nothing about work or labour to be done on the morrow.
No man shall walk in the field15 to do business on the Sabbath. He 20
shall not walk more than one thousand cubits beyond his town.
No man shall eat on the Sabbath day except that which is already
prepared. He shall eat nothing lying in the fields. He shall not drink
except in the camp. XI If he is on a journey and goes down to bathe, he
shall drink where he stands, but he shall not draw water into a vessel. He
14 . Or: in any (4Q 270, fr. 6 iv, 21).
1 5 . Or: his field (4Q266).

141

T HE RUL ES

10

15

20

shall send out no stranger on his business on the Sabbath day. No man
shall wear soiled garments, or garments brought to the store, unless they
have been washed with water or rubbed with incense. No man shall will
ingly mingle (with others) on the Sabbath.
No man shall walk more than two thousand cubits after a beast to pas
ture it outside his town. He shall not raise his hand to strike it with his
fist. If it is stubborn he shall not take it out of his house.
No man shall take anything out of the house or bring anything in.
And if he is in a booth, let him neither take anything out nor bring any
thing in. He shall not open a sealed vessel on the Sabbath.
No man shall carry perfumes on himself whilst going and coming on
the Sabbath. He shall lift neither stone nor dust in his dwelling.
No man minding a child shall carry it whilst going and coming on the
Sabbath.
No man shall chide16 his manservant or maidservant or labourer on the
Sabbath.17 No man shall assist a beast to give birth on the Sabbath day. And
if it should fall into a cistern or pit, he shall not lift it out on the Sabbath.
No man shall spend the Sabbath in a place near to Gentiles on the
Sabbath.
No man shall profane the Sabbath for the sake of riches or gain on the
Sabbath day. But should any man fall into water or (fire), let him not be
pulled out with the aid of a ladder or rope or (some such) utensil.
No man on the Sabbath shall offer anything on the altar except the
Sabbath bumt-offering; for it is written thus: Except your Sabbath offer
ings (Lev. xxiii, 38).
No man shall send to the altar any burnt-offering, or cereal offering,
or incense, or wood, by the hand of one smitten with any uncleanness,
permitting him thus to defile the altar. For it is written, The sacrifice of the
wicked is an abomination, but the prayer of thejust is as an agreeable offering
(Prov. xv, 8).
No man entering the house of worship shall come unclean and in
need of washing. And at the sounding of the trumpets for assembly, he
shall go there before or after (the meeting), and shall not cause the whole
service to stop, XII for it is a holy service.
No man shall lie with a woman in the city of the Sanctuary, to defile
the city of the Sanctuary with their uncleanness.
16. Or: show bitterness to (4 Q 2 71,
17 . 4 Q 270, fir. 6 v, 17 adds: day.

142

fr.

5 i, 7).

THE D A M A S C U S D O C U M E N T

Every man who preaches apostasy under the dominion of the spirits of
Belial shall be judged according to the law relating to those possessed by
a ghost or familiar spirit (Lev. xx, 27). But no man who strays so as to
profane the Sabbath and the feasts shall be put to death; it shall fall to men
to keep him in custody. And if he is healed of his error, they shall keep him 5
in custody for seven years and he shall afterwards approach the Assembly.
No man shall stretch out his hand to shed the blood of a Gentile for
the sake of riches and gain. Nor shall he carry off anything of theirs, lest
they blaspheme, unless so advised by the company of Israel.
No man shall sell clean beasts or birds to the Gentiles lest they offer
them in sacrifice. He shall refuse, with all his power, to sell them anything
from his granary or wine-press, and he shall not sell them his man- 10
servant or maidservant inasmuch as they have been brought by him into
the Covenant of Abraham.
No man shall defile himself by eating any live creature or creeping
thing, from the larvae of bees to all creatures which creep in water. They
shall eat no fish unless split alive and their blood poured out. And as for
locusts, according to their various kinds they shall plunge them alive
into fire or water, for this is what their nature requires.
15
All wood and stones and dust defiled by the impurity of a man shall be
reckoned like men having defilement of oil on them; whoever touches
them shall be defiled by their defilement. And every nail or peg in the
wall of a house in which a dead man lies shall become unclean as any
working tool becomes unclean (Lev. xi, 32).
The Rule for the assembly of the towns of Israel shall be according to
these precepts that they may distinguish between unclean and clean, and
discriminate between the holy and the profane.
And these are the precepts in which the Master shall walk in his com- 20
merce with all the living in accordance with the statute proper to every
age. And in accordance with this statute shall the seed of Israel walk and
they shall not be cursed.
This is the Rule for the assembly of the camps
Those who follow these statutes in the age of wickedness until the
coming of the Messiah of Aaron XIII and Israel shall form groups of at
least ten men, by Thousands, Hundreds, Fifties, and Tens (Exod. xviii, 25).
And where the ten are, there shall never be lacking a Priest learned in
the Book of Meditation; they shall all be ruled by him.
But should he not be experienced in these matters, whereas one of the
i43

T HE RULES

Levites is experienced in them, then it shall be determined that all the

members of the camp shall go and come according to the latters word.
5
But should there be a case of applying the law of leprosy to a man,
then the Priest shall come and shall stand in the camp and the Guardian
shall instruct him in the exact interpretation of the Law.
Even if the Priest is a simpleton, it is he who shall lock up (the leper);
for theirs is the judgement.
This is the Rule for the Guardian of the camp
He shall instruct the Congregation in the works of God. He shall
cause them to consider His mighty deeds and shall recount all the hap
penings of eternity to them [according to] their [explanation (4Q267,
fr. 9 iv, 2). He shall love them as a father loves his children, and shall
carry them in all their distress like a shepherd his sheep. He shall loosen
10 all the fetters which bind them that in his Congregation there may be
none that are oppressed or broken. He shall examine every man entering
his Congregation with regard to his deeds, understanding, strength,
ability and possessions, and shall inscribe him in his place according to
his rank in the lot of L[ight].
No member of the camp shall have authority to admit a man to the
Congregation against the decision of the Guardian of the camp.
No member of the Covenant of God shall give or receive anything
from the sons of Dawn (shahar) [or: of the Pit (shahat)] except for payment.
15
No man shall form any association for buying and selling without
informing the Guardian of the camp and shall act on (his) advice and
they shall not go {astray. Likewise he who marri[es]} (4Q266, fr. 9 ii, 4) a
woma[n] ... advice. Likewise he who divorces (his wife). And he (the
Guardian) shall instruct {their sons [and their daughters in a spiri] t}
(4Q266, fr. 9 ii, 6-7) of humility and in loving-kindness and shall not
keep {anger} (4Q266, fr. 9 ii, 8) towards them ...
20
This is the Rule for the assembly of the camps during all [the age of
wickedness, and whoever does not hold fast to] these (statutes) shall not
be fit to dwell in the Land [when the Messiah of Aaron and Israel shall
come at the end of days].
[And] these are the [precepts] in which the Master [shall walk in his
commerce with all the living until God shall visit the earth. As He said,
There shall come upon you, and upon your people, and upon yourfather's house,
days] X IV such as have not come since Ephraim departed from Judah (Isa.
vii, 17); but for whoever shall walk in these (precepts), the Covenant of
144

T HE D A M A S C U S D O C U M E N T

God shall stand firm to save him from all the snares of the Pit, whereas
the foolish shall be punished.18
The Rule for the assembly ofall the camps
They shall all be enrolled by name: first the Priests, second the
Levites, third the Israelites, and fourth the proselytes. And they shall be
inscribed by name, one after the other: the Priests first, the Levites sec- 5
ond, the Israelites third, and the proselytes fourth. And thus shall they
sit and thus be questioned on all matters. And the Priest who is appointed
{to head} (4Q267, fr. 9 v, 11) the Congregation shall be from thirty to
sixty years old, learned in the Book of Meditation and in all the judge
ments of the Law so as to pronounce them correctly.
The Guardian of all the camps shall be from thirty to fifty years old,
one who has mastered all the secrets of men and the languages of all 10
their clans. Whoever enters the Congregation shall do so according to his
word, each in his rank. And whoever has anything to say19 with regard to
any suit or judgement, let him say it to the Guardian.
This is the Rule for the Congregation by which it shall provide for all its needs
They shall place the earnings of at least two days out of every month
into the hands of the Guardian and the Judges, and from it they shall
give to the fatherless, and from it they shall succour the poor and the
needy, the aged sick and the man who is stricken (with disease), the cap- 15
tive taken by a foreign people, the virgin with no near kin, and the ma[id
for] whom no man cares ...
And this is the exact statement of the assembly ...
This is the exact statement of the statutes in which [they shall walk until the
coming of the Messia]h ofAaron and Israel who will pardon their iniquity
[Whoever] deliberately lies in a matter of property ... and shall do 20
penance for six days ...
[Whoever slanders his companion or bears rancour] unjustly [shall do
penance for one] year ...

18. Or: transgress (4Q 267, fir. 9 v, 5).

19. 4Q 266, fr. 10 i, 4 adds: to the congregation.

*45

Damascus Document manuscripts

from Cave 4

Three Qumran caves have provided supplementary documentation to the text

preserved in the Cairo Genizah. Of these the evidence furnished by Caves 5
(CD ix, 7-10) and 6 (CD iv, 19-21, v, 13-14, v, 18-vi, 2, vi, 20-vn, 1) is neg
ligible, but the fragments discovered in Cave 4 (4Q266-273) are of the highest
importance. Furthermore 4Q265 provides a kind of hybrid connecting the
Damascus Document and the Community Rule. Palaeographically 4Q266-73
are dated from the mid-first century b c e to the beginning of the first century c e .
The 4Q material represents (1) a prologue missing from CD (4Q266, fr. ia-b;
fr. 2 i, 1-6, combined with 4Q267, fr. 1 and 268, fr. 1) and substantial legal sec
tions which follow the broken ending of the Statutes of CD. These laws relate to
(2) the admission or dismissal of candidates (4Q266, fr. 5); to (3) criteria for dis
qualifying priests (4Q266, fr. 5; 267, fr. 5 ii; 273, firs. 2, 4 i); to (4) detailed rul
ings concerning the diagnosis and quarantining of persons suffering from skin
disease (4Q266, fr. 6; 272, fr. 1); to (5) laws pertaining to gleanings (4Q266, fr.
6 iii-iv) and to the agricultural priesdy dues (4Q270, fr. 3 ii
iii; 271, fr. 2; 269,
fr. 8 i-ii). (6) A penal code partly overlapping with iQS v i i follows (4Q266, fr.
10; 270, fr. 7 i; 269, fr. 11 i-ii). The two main manuscripts (4Q266, fr. 11 and
270, fr. 7 i-ii) end with the ritual for the dismissal of unworthy members used in
the ceremony marking entry into and expulsion from the Covenant. This festi
val was celebrated in the third month and coincided with the Feast of Weeks or
Pentecost. Finally (7) the hybrid S-D (4Q265), in which the Community Rule
and the Damascus Document merge, allows a glimpse into the interrelationship
between the two main constitutional documents of the Community.
For the editioprinceps, see J. M. Baumgarten, DJD , XVIII. For 4Q269, see H.
Stegemann, DJD , XXXVI, 201-11.

146

D A M A S C U S D O C U M E N T M A N U S C R I P T S F ROM C A V E 4

( 1) T H E O P E N I N G O F T H E D A M A S C U S
D O C U M E N T A C C O R D I N G TO 4 QD
(4Q266-8)

Three Cave 4 manuscripts of the Damascus Document (4Q266, fr. ia-b; fir. 2 i,
1-6, combined 4Q267 fr. 1 and 268 fr. 1) have preserved parts of a prologue
unattested in the Cairo version. The prologue contains a tide vaguely reminiscent
of the opening of 4QSd. The context is eschatological and alludes to a revelation
by God to those who search His commandments and walk in the perfection of
way. CD 11, 1 follows on direcdy from the end of the prologue.

4Q266, fr. ia-b

[For the Master to instruct the s]ons of Light to keep away from the
way[s of wickedness] ... until the completion of the appointed time for
the visitation of [the spirit of injustice] ... God [will destrojy all her
deeds, bringing destruction on ... the removers of boundaries and He
will inflict destruction [on the assembly] of wickedness. [And now listen]
to me and I will let you know the awesome des[igns of God] and His
marvellous [mighty deeds]. I will recount to you [all that is concealed]
from man [all the d]ays of his life ...

Fr. 2 (4Q267, fr. 1; 268, fr. 1)

I flesh and creature ... until it comes to them for they shall not be
either early or late from their appointed times ... He decreed an age of
wrath for the people who did not know Him, and He established
appointed times of goodwill for those who search His commandments
and walk in the perfection of way. And He revealed hidden things to
their eyes, and opened their ears so that they might hear deep (secrets)
and understand all future things before they befall them. Listen now, all
you who know righteousness ... (=CD 1,1).

47

T HE RULES

( 2) I N I T I A T I O N R U L E S
(4Q266, fir. 5)

This fragment contains echoes of the Community Rules regulations regarding

admission and dismissal of candidates and CDs identification of the sons of
Zadok as the converts of Israel.
I ...
... [that they may bring near] each according to [his] spirit [and deeds]
... they shall depart by the decision of the Guardian (cf. iQ S vi, 16 -17)
... [And these are the precepts] in which all the converts of Israel [shall
15 wa]lk ... the sons of Zadok, the Priests (cf. CD iv, 2-3), behold the[y
are the converts of Israel ... [the interpretation of the] last Law. And
these are the precepts for the Mas [ter] in which [he shall walk (iQ S ix,
12)] in regard to all Israel, for [God] shall not save any of those who are
not established] in His ways to walk perfectly] ...

( 3)
R U L E S R E L A T I N G TO T H E
D IS Q U A L IF IC A T IO N OF P R IE S T S
4Q 2 66, fr. 5 ii (4Q267, fr. 5 ii; 273, frs. 2, 4 i)

In this section of priesdy legislation, the Community specifies (i) that only
priests able to speak clearly and distincdy were allowed to read the Bible in pub
lic; (2) that priests who had been war prisoners were disqualified from Temple
service; and (3) that priests who migrated to Gentile countries were deprived of
their leading position and forbidden to partake in holy things.
II Whoever speaks too fast (or: too quietly, lit. swift or light with his
tongue) or with a staccato voice and does not split his words to make [his
voice] heard, no one from among these shall read the Book of [the]
La[w] that he may not misguide someone in a capital matter. ... [Any
5 man] from among the sons of Aaron who has been taken prisoner by the
nations ... to defile him with their uncleanness. He shall not come close
to the [holy] worship ... Let him not eat the most holy [things] ... Any
son of Aaron who retreats to ser[ve the nations] ... to teach his people
10 the constitution of the people and also to betray ... [Any son] of Aaron
whose name has been rejected from the Truth ... [who has walked] in
148

D A M A S C U S D O C U M E N T M A N U S C R I P T S F ROM CA V E 4

the stubbornness of his heart, eating from the holy .. . from Israel, the
Council of the sons of Aaron ... who eats, he shall become guilty of the
blood ... in genealogy. And this is the rule for the dwelling [of the towns
of Israel... for the men] of holin[ess in] their [camps and] in their towns
in a[11] ...

( 4) D I A G N O S I S O F S K I N D I S E A S E

(40266,269,272,273)

The rules relating to the diagnosis of a skin disease affecting the scalp and the
face (Lev. xiii, 29-37) are missing from the Cairo manuscripts, but can be par
tially reconstructed from 4Q272 and 266 and also from 4Q269 and 273. The
introductory formula prefixed to Lev. xiii, 33, viz., And as for that which is said,
usually indicative of a repeat citation, suggests that a longer Leviticus quotation
preceded it. The skin disease section is followed by laws relating to various sex
ual discharges causing uncleanness and impurity linked with childbirth.
For the editio princeps, see J. M. Baumgarten, DJD, XVIII, 50-51, 186-7.

4Q266, fr. 6 i (4Q272 1, 273 4 ii, 269 7)

I ... a discoloration or a scab or a bright spot... And the scab resulting
from a blow by wood [or st]one or whatever blow, when the spi[rit]
enters [and sei]zes the artery, and the blood recedes up and down, and
the artery ... after the blood ...
[And the priest shall observe the skin, the living and] the dead. If the
dead (skin) [exceeds] the living (skin), he shall lock him up [until the
blood re] turns to the artery until the flesh grows. And the priest shall
observe him and shall make a comparison [on] the seventh [d]ay, [and if
the spir] it of life is moving up and down, and the flesh grows, [the plague
is healed, clean is] the scab. The priest shall not observe the skin on the
flesh.

149

T HE RUL ES

4Q266, fir. 6

10

10

I But if the discoloration or the scab is lower [than the skin ... and
the Pr]iest sees it as the appearance of living flesh, it is [a leprosy (skin
disease)] which has seized the living skin. And a similar rule concerning
... the Priest shall see on the seventh day. If some living flesh has
become dead, the leprosy is malignant. And the law for the scab of the
head or the bea[rd, when the Priest shall see] that the spirit has entered
the head and the beard seizing the artery, and [the plague] spreads from
under the hair and turns its appearance to fine yellow; for it is like a
plant which has a worm under it and bites its root and makes its flower
wither. And as for that which is said, And the Priest shall order that they
shave his head, but shall not shave the scab (Lev. xiii, 33). This is in order
that the Priest may count the dead and live hair. And he will see whether
anything has been added from the live to the dead (hair) during the
seven days. If there has, he is unclean. But if nothing has been added
from the live (hair) to the dead, and the artery is filled with bl[ood] and
the sp[i]rit of life goes up and down in it, this plague [is cured]. And this
is the rule of the law of leprosy for the sons of Aaron to set apart...
And the law concerning a man with a flux. Any man with a [fl]ux issu
ing from [his] flesh, [o]r one that causes a [lew]d thought to arise or ...
II the woma[n]... [the man who approaches [her] will have [the s]in of
menstrual uncleanness on him. And if she sees (blood) a[gain] and this is
not [during the uncleanness] of seven days, she shall not eat sacred (food)
and shall not en[ter] the Sanctuary until the sun has set on the eighth
day. vacat
And a woman who \conceiv\es and bears a male child [shall be unclean] for
seven [days like] in her menstrual d[ays. On the eighth day theflesh ofhis) fore
skin [shall be circumcised. She shall continuefor thirty-three days in the blood of
her purifying. But if she bears a female child, she shall be unclean for a fort
night as in] her [menstr]uation. For [sixty-six days she shall continue in her
blood ofpurifying (Lev. xii, 2-5). And she] shall not eat [sacred (food) and
shall not enter the Sanctuary, for] it is a capital crime ... [Let her give
the chi]ld to a wet-nurse who is in [(the state of) pur]ity. ... [And] i f she
cannot afford a lamb, then she shall take a turtledove or a young pigeon (Lev.
xii, 8) and she shall substitute it for the [lamb]....

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D A M A S C U S D O C U M E N T M A N U S C R I P T S F R OM C A VE 4

( 5) R U L E S C O N C E R N I N G G L E A N I N G S A N D
A G R IC U LT U R A L P R IE S T L Y D U ES
(4(3266,269,270,271)

III ... [Concerning [gleanings (of grain) and the gleanings (of grapes)
from the vine]yard. (A cluster is up to ten berries.)
And all the gleanings (of grain) up to a seab (measure of capacity=c. 12 5
litres) per bet seab (area requiring one seab of seed for sowing)... [And a
field] which produces no seed, is not subject to (a levy of) terumab-offering
or of fallen grapes or of clusters up to ten berries. And for the harvest of
olives and the fruit of its produce, if it is complete, isolated olives are one
in thirty.
But if the field was ravaged or consumed by burning,
10

4Q 270, fr. 3
should the amount (remaining) be a seab per bet seab, it is to be tithed. If
one person gleans one seab from it one day, the terumab will be one isaron
(=30 per cent of a seab). [Concerning the two] loaves of the terumab. All
the families (lit. houses) of Israel, those who eat the bread of the land, 20
are to offer the terumab once a year (cf. Num. xv, 19-20; Lev. xxiii, 17).
One (loaf) shall be one isaron.

4Q266, fr. 6

IV ... All sacred offerings from the planting of vineyards and all fruit
trees (producing) food shall belong to them (the priests), as is decreed
for them, in the holy [lan]d and in the land of (their) sojourn. And after
wards they may sell of them to bu[y] ... a man may plant, in the fourth
year he may n[ot ea]t (of it) for they sanctified it in [that] y[ear] ...

4 Q 2 7 1, fir. 2 (4Q269, fr. 8 i-ii; 270, fr. 3 iii)

. . . he shall take off from (the grain of) the threshing-floor one tenth of
a bo[mer (measure of volume, c. 220 litres), that is one epb]ab [or bath
151

T HE RULES

(22 litres), as is established]. The ephah and the bath are both the same
measure. And from [the wheat o]ne sixth of [an ephah out of a homer and
one tenth of a bath] for the fruit of trees. Let no one separate himself
(from the norm of 1 out of 200, cf. Ezek. xlv, 1$) by offering one lamb
out of a hundred. Let [no] man eat [from the threshing-floor] and from
5 the garden before [the prie]sts have stretched out their hand [to ble]ss
first. ... a house belonging to a man, he may sell and with ... and he
shall be innocent. ... Let no man bring ... to his pure food. Neither
shall he bring close to his pure food any gold or silver or [copper], or tin
10 or le[ad] from which the nations have made idols, except new (metal)
coming straight from the furnace. Let no man bring any leather or gar
ment or any vessel [which is used for] work and which has been defiled
by the corpse of a man unless they were sprinkled according to the law
[of purity with the water] for uncleanness in the age of wickedness (by) a
man pure of all uncleanness who has allowed the sun to set (i.e. one who
after bathing himself did not proceed until after sunset). No young man
who has not yet reached the age to pass the mu[ster shall sprinkle] ...

(6) T H E P E N A L C O D E A N D T H E R E N E W A L O F
TH E C O V E N A N T R IT U A L

(40266,270)

CD xiv ends with scrappy relics of a penal code. The Cave 4 manuscripts Da
and De include a list of breaches of the rule punished by exclusion and penance
of varying lengths. They closely resemble the code contained in the Community
Rule (iQS v i i ). The principal difference consists in the explicit mention of
women (fornication with ones wife and murmuring against the Mothers) which
once again renders the silence of Serekb concerning any matter pertaining to the
female sex particularly eloquent. The penal code is followed by a Covenant
ritual, which ends the Cave 4 version of the Damascus Document and contains
the words spoken by the priesdy head of the sect, following the expulsion of the
unfaithful members of the congregation. The passage includes the reference to
the third month as the date of this festive assembly and presents the message of
this writing as the last interpretation of the Law.
For the editio princeps, see J. M. Baumgarten, DVD, XVIII, 72-8, 162-70.

D A M A S C U S D O C U M E N T M A N U S C R I P T S F ROM C A VE 4

4Q266, fr. 10 (4Q270, fr. 7 i; 269, fir. 1 1 i-ii)

... II [He shall be excluded for] two [hundred] days and do penance for
one hundred days. But if it was a capital matter and he bears (a grudge),
[he] shall not return [again. And whoev]er has in[sulted] his companion
without a reason [shall be excluded for one year and do pe[nan]ce for
s[ix months] (cf. iQ S vii, 4). Whoever has spoken a foolish word, shall
do penance for t[wen]ty [days and will be excluded] for three month [s
(cf. iQ S v i i , 9). And whoever interrupts the w[ords of his companion 5
and lets himself go, will do penance for ten] days (iQ S vii, 9-10). [And
whoever lies do]wn [and] falls asleep at [the mee]t[ing of the Congregation
... shall be excluded] for thirty days [and] do penance for ten days. [And
likewise, whoever has] left [without the consent of the Congregation and
gratuitously as many as three ti[mes in] one [session], he [shall do penance
for ten] days. But if he has left the session [when they were standing, he
shall do penance for thir]ty day[s]. And whoever has walked [naked] before
[his] companion, whether he has walked in the house or in the field, he
has walked n[aked before the peo]ple; he shall be excluded for six [months] 10
... (iQS vii, 10-12). And whoever has [d]rawn his hand from under
[his] gar[ment and he was so poorly dressed that his nakedness was seen,
he shall be separated for thir]ty [day]s and shall do penance for ten (iQS
v i i , 13-14). And whoever has gu[ffawed foolishly making his voi]c[e
heard, shall be excluded for th]irty (days) and shall do penance for
fif[teen days. And whoever has drawn out] his le[ft h]and [to gesticulate
with it, shall do penance [for ten days (iQ S v i i , 14-15). And who]ever
has gone [slandering his com]panion, they shall exclude him from the 15
purity for one year.

4Q270, fr. 7
I [and shall do penance for six months. But whoever has slandered the
Congregation shall be expelled] and shall not return ag[ain] (iQ S v i i ,
15-16). [If he has murmured against his companion unjustly, he shall do
penance for six months (iQ S v i i , 17-18). And] the m[a]n whose spirit
has so trembled [before the authority of the Community that he has
betrayed the truth and walked in the stubbornness of his heart, he shall
be excluded for two years] and do penance for sixty [days] (iQ S v i i ,
i53

T HE RULES

18-19). [When his two years are completed, the Congregation shall
10 consider [his ca]se, [and if he is admitted,] he shall be inscribed in his
rank and may then question about the law (iQ S v i i , 20-21). And who
ever] has despised the law of the Congregation shall leave and [shall not
return again. And whoever has taken] his food (from another person)
outside the rules, he shall return it to the man fr[om whom] he has taken
it. vacat And whoever has approached his wife, not according to the rules,
(thus) fornicating, he shall leave and will not return again. [If he has
murmured] against the Fathers, he shall leave and shall not return [again
(cf. 1 QS v i i , 17). But if he has murmured] against the Mothers, he shall
do penance for ten days. For the Mothers have no rwqmh (distinction ?)
15 within [the Congregation, vacat
And these are the r]ules in [which they shall walk, all those who have
been corrected. Whoev]er comes [to report some]one to the Priest
[over] seeing

4Q266, fr. 1 1 (4Q270, fr. 7 i-ii)

II
the Congregation, he shall willingly accept His judgement, as He has
ordered by the hand of Moses regarding the soul that sins by inadver
tence that he shall bring his sin-offering and his guilt-offering. And con
cerning Israel it is written, I will go to the ends [of] heaven and will not smell
the smell ofyour sweet odour (Lev. xxvi, 31). And in another passage it is
written, To return to God with crying andfasting (Joel ii, 13). And in another
5 passage it is written, Rend your heart and not your garment (ibid.) and it is
written to return to God with fasting and weeping (Joel ii, 12). And who
ever rejects these rules which follow all the precepts found in the Law of
Moses, shall not be counted with all the sons of His truth, for his soul
has detested the righteous corrections (cf. iQ S 111, 1). As a rebel, he shall
be dismissed from the Congregation. The Priest [over]seeing the Con
gregation shall speak about him. Answering, [he shall] say: Blessed art
Thou, Lord of the universe. Everything is in Thine hands and Thou
10 art the maker of everything. Thou hast founded the [pe]oples according
to their families and the languages of their nations. Thou hast made
them err in confusion without a way. And Thou hast chosen our Fathers
and hast given to their seed the precepts of Thy truth and Thine holy
judgements by which a man, if he practises them, shall live. And Thou
hast established boundaries for us and cursed those who transgress them.
*54

D A M A S C U S D O C U M E N T M A N U S C R I P T S F ROM C A VE 4

And we are the people of Thy redemption and the flock of Thy pasture.
Thou hast cursed those who transgress it (the boundary?) but we main
tain (it). And the dismissed man shall leave, and whoever eats from what 15
is his, and greets (literally, inquires about the welfare - shalwn - of) the
man who has been dismissed, and agrees with him, his case shall be
recorded by the Guardian according to the decree, and his judgement
shall be complete. And all [the inhabitants] of the camps shall assemble
in the third month and shall curse him who turns aside, to the right [or
to the left from the] Law. And this (the foregoing) is the interpretation
of the laws which they shall observe in all the age [of visitation which
will be visited on them during al]l the age of wrath and in their marches
for all those who dwell in their camps and all their towns. Behold all this 20
is according to the last interpretation of the Law.

( 7) A H Y B R I D C O M M U N I T Y R U L E D AM ASCUS D O CUM EN T T EX T
(4 Q 26 5 )

Twelve fragments of a manuscript, dating probably to the end of the first

century b c e , have preserved remains of a writing dependent both on the Com
munity Rule and on the Damascus Document but also including material which
is in neither of these sources. Fr. 1 deals with the initiation into the Community
and the penal code in terms recalling iQS v i - v i i , and fr. 7, lines 7-10 contains
a description of the Council of the Community which is an abridged version of
iQS v i i i , 1-9. It is worth noting that the twelve men and three priests of iQS
vm, 1 is replaced here by fift[een men]. Elements of the Sabbath laws from CD
xi figure on columns 1-11 of fr. 7, while on one point the borrowing is probably
from the Temple Scroll l i i , 17-18. As for material alien to iQS and CD, fr. 2
cites Isaiah liv, 1-2 in full and the last four lines of fr. 7 ii reproduce Lev. xii, 2,
4a, 5, 4b, but omitting xii, 3. This quotation is part of an account of the ages of
the world arranged according to weeks, beginning with the garden of Eden.
For the editio princeps, see J. M. Baumgarten, DJD, XXXV, 57-58.

155

T HE RULES

Fr. i
... as it is written [in the Book of] ... [as] it is written in the B[ook] of
Isaiah the prophet: [Sing, o barren one, who did not bear; break forth in
singing and\ cry aloud you who have not been in travail! For the sons [of the
desolate one] will be more [than the children of her who is married, says the
Lord\. Enlar[ge] the place of [your] ten[t] ... (Isa. liv, 1-2) Its interpretation
concerns ...

Fr- 3
... Why does a ma[n] betray his brother ... [Let no] young man or
woman eat [the sacrifice] of Passover ...

Fr. 4

I ... [and he shall be punished for t]en d[a]ys ... [and he shall be pun
ished] thirty days ... [and he shall be punished during that time with the
half of his food for fifte[en days] ... and he shall be punished for three
5 months wi[th half of his food. The man who speaks before] his fellow
inscribed before him, shall be excluded from purity for six months [and
he shall be punished with half of his food.] 1meat And the man who
insu[lts his fellow ... shall be punished] for thirty days. 1meat And the
10 man who know[ingly] deceives [shall be separated for six] months (iQ S
vii, 3-4) and shall be punished during that time with half of his food.
[And the man who lies] knowingly in any matter shall be punished for
thirty days vacat [And the man who lies concerning property]
know[ingly], they shall exclude him for six months. [And the man who
lies down] II ... [and falls asle]ep during a session of the Congregation
shall be punished for thirt[y days. And i f ... to read from] the book, he
5 falls asleep up to three times and if [he goes out, he shall be punished for
ten days.] And the man who comes to j[oi]n the Council of the
[Commu]nity [the Guardian of] the Congregation [shall examine him].
If it falls to him he shall instruct him for [one] year. [And after he shall
stand] before the Congregation and they shall deliberate [over h]im (cf.
iQ S vi, 15). If he is not found [fit for the discipline (cf. iQ S vi, 14), he
156

D A M A S C U S D O C U M E N T M A N U S C R I P T S F ROM C A VE 4

shall depart (iQ S vi, 16). If he is to enter,] the Guardian shall [teach
him the interpretation] of the Law. He shall not [touch the pure Meal of
the Congregation until] another full year (iQS vi, 16-17). [And on com
pleting] his year (iQ S vi, 18) [they shall hand over his property to] the
Guardian of the Congregation ... [Wh]en he comes ...

Fr. 6
... on Sabbath day let no [man wear] soiled [garment]s (CD xi, 3). No
man shall be dr[ess]ed in garments on which there is dust or ... on the 5
Sabbath day. No [ma]n shall ta[ke] out of his tent a vessel and foo[d] on
the Sabbath day. No man shall lift an animal which has fallen into water
on the Sabbath day (CD xi, 13-14). But if a man falls into water on the
Sabbath [day], he shall pass to him his garment to lift him out, but he
shall not carry an instrument [to lift him out on] the Sabbath [day]
(cf. CD xi, 16 - 17 ). And if the army ... II ... [on] the Sabbath [day].
And let no ... Let [n]o man of the seed of Aaron sprinkle [purifying]
w[aters (cf. iQ S 111 , 9; iv, 2 1 ) on the Sabbath day.] ... And with a beast 5
he shall walk two thousand cubits [on the Sabbath day (CD xi, 5- 6).
Every beast with a defect in it shall be kept at a distance of(?)] thirty
stadia [from the city of the Sanc]tuary (cf. nQTemple l i i , 17 - 18 ) ...
When there shall be in the Council of the Community fift[een men, per
fectly versed in all that is revealed of the Law (iQ S vm , 1 ) and the
Pr]ophets, the Council of the Community shall be established [in truth
(iQS vm, 5). They shall be witnesses to the truth at the judgement and
elect] of Goodwill. They shall be an agreeable offering atoning on behalf
of the Land (cf. iQ S vm , 6, 9) for a[11 iniquity ... He shall terminate the 10
ages of injustice (cf. iQ S iv, 18 )...

Fr- 7
... on the day of s[abbath ... on the da]y of sabbath ... [N]o man from
the seed of Aaron shall sprinkle wa[ter of purification ... They shall not
bathe or wa]sh (their garments) [on] the great day and fast, on the day of
[Atonement. He who goes outside his town to graze the] animals may go
(to a distance of) two thousand cubits. [No man shall eat a blemished
animal] within thirty stadia [from the sanctu]ary (cf. 1 iQ T v, 16-18). ...
i

57

THE

RULES

W h en there shall be in the Council o f the Com m unity fift[een men as

G od had said through H is servants, the prjophets, the Council o f the
Com m unity shall be established [in truth as an everlasting plantation,
witnesses o f truth and elect] o f Goodwill, sweet fragrance to atone for
the land . . . the ages o f injustice will end by the judgement and the . . .
(cf. iQ S

v iii, i-io ) .

vacat In the first week [Adam was created . . . until] he was not brought
to the garden o f Eden and a bone [from his bones was taken to become
the w o m a n ]-----but she (Eve) had [no name (?)] until she was not
brought to him (A dam ). . . F o r holy is a garden o f Eden, and every fresh
shoot that is in it is holy [as it is written, I f a woman conceives and bears a
male child,] then she shall be unclean for seven days; as at the time of her
menstruation, she shall be unclean (Lev. xii, 2). Then [she shall continue for]
thi[rty-three days in the blood] of her purifying (Lev. xii, 4). But if she bears a
female child, [then she shall be unclean two weeks as in her menstruation. And
she shall contin]ue in the blood of her purifying [for sixty-six days (Lev. xii, 5).
She shall not touch] any hallowed things, nor come into the Sanctuary until the
days of her purification are completed] (Lev. xii, 4).

The Messianic Rule

(iQ Sa=iQ 28a)

The Messianic Rule was published in 1955 by D* Barthelemy in D JD , I (Oxford,

1:955, PP* 107-18). Originally included in the same Scroll as the Community
Rule, this short but complete work presents the translator with great difficulties
owing to its bad state of preservation and to the carelessness of the scribe.
Barthelemy named the work The Rule of the Congregation, but I have given
it a new tide for the following reasons: (1) it was intended for all the congrega
tion in the last days'\ (2) it is a Rule for a Community adapted to the require
ments of the messianic war against the nations; (3) it refers to the presence of the
Priest and the Messiah of Israel at the Council, and at the Meal described in
column 11.
As in the Cave 1 version of the Community Rule and in the Damascus Docu
ment, but contrary to the version preserved in 4Q Sd (=40258) and 4Q Sb
(=4(^256), the sons of Zadok, the Priests form the chief authority in the sect.
In the main, the precepts and the doctrinal concepts of the Messianic Rule
foreshadow those of the War Rule. A mid-first-century

bce

date may safely be

proposed. Hundreds of tiny papyrus fragments of this text written in a cryptic

script have been found in Cave

4 . However,

the pieces are so small that they

cannot independently contribute to the textual criticism of iQ S a. See S. J.

Pfann, 4Q 249a-h, D JD , XXXVI, 515-74 .
I This is the Rule for all the congregation of Israel in the last days, when they
shalljoin [the Community to wa]lk according to the law of the sons o f Zadok the
Priests and o f the men of their Covenant who have turned aside \from the] way
of the people, the men of His Council who keep His Covenant in the midst of
iniquity, offering expiation [for the Land]

When they come, they shall summon them all, the little children and
the women also, and they shall read into their [ears a]11 the precepts of
the Covenant and shall expound to them all their statutes that they may
no longer stray in their [errors].
*59

THE

RULES

And this is the Rule for all the hosts of the congregation, for every man bom in
Israel
From [his] youth they shall instruct him in the Book o f Meditation
and shall teach him, according to his age, the precepts o f the Covenant.
H e [shall be edu]cated in their statutes for ten years . . .
A t the age o f twenty years [he shall be] enrolled, that he may enter
upon his allotted duties in the midst o f his family (and) be joined to the
10 holy congregation. H e shall not [approach] a woman to know her by
lying with her before he is fully twenty years old, when he shall know
[good] and evil. And thereafter, he shall be accepted when he calls to
witness the judgements o f the Law, and shall be (allowed) to assist at the
hearing o f judgements.
A t the age o f twenty-five years he may take his place among the foun
dations (i.e. the officials) o f the holy congregation to work in the service
o f the congregation.
A t the age o f thirty years he may approach to participate in lawsuits
and judgements, and may take his place among the chiefs o f the T h o u
sands o f Israel, the chiefs o f the Hundreds, Fifties, and Tens, the Judges
15 and the officers o f their tribes, in all their families, [under the authority]
o f the sons o f [Aar]on the Priests. And every head o f family in the con
gregation who is chosen to hold office, [to go] and come before the con
gregation, shall strengthen his loins that he may perform his tasks among
his brethren in accordance with his understanding and the perfection o f
his way. According to whether this is great or little, so shall one man be
honoured more than another.
W h en a man is advanced in years, he shall be given a duty in the
[ser]vice o f the congregation in proportion to his strength.
20

N o simpleton shall be chosen to hold office in the congregation o f

Israel with regard to lawsuits or judgement, nor carry any responsibility
in the congregation. N o r shall he hold any office in the war destined to
vanquish the nations; his family shall merely inscribe him in the army
register and he shall do his service in task-work in proportion to his
capacity.
T h e sons o f Levi shall hold office, each in his place, under the authority
o f the sons o f Aaron. T h e y shall cause all the congregation to go and
come, each man in his rank, under the direction o f the heads o f family o f
the congregation - the leaders, Judges, and officers, according to the
number o f all their hosts - under the authority o f the sons o f Zadok
the Priests, [and] (under the direction) [of all the] heads o f family o f the

160

THE

MESSIA NIC

RULE

congregation. And when the whole assembly is summoned for judge- 25

ment, or for a Council of the Community, or for war, they shall sanctify
them for three days that every one of its members may be prepared.
These are the men who shall be called to the Council of the Community ...
All the wi[se men] o f the congregation, the learned and the intelligent,
men whose way is perfect and men o f ability, together with the tribal
chiefs and all the Judges and officers, and the chiefs o f the Thousands,
[Hundreds,]

II

Fifties, and Tens, and the Levites, each man in the [cla]ss

o f his duty; these are the men o f renown, the members o f the assembly
summoned to the Council o f the Community in Israel before the sons of
Zadok the Priests.
And no man smitten with any human uncleanness shall enter the
assembly o f G od ; no man smitten with any o f them shall be confirmed in

his office in the congregation. N o man smitten in his flesh, or paralysed

in his feet or hands, or lame, or blind, or deaf, or dumb, or smitten in his
flesh with a visible blemish; no old and tottery man unable to stay still in
the midst o f the congregation; none o f these shall come to hold office
among the congregation o f the men o f renown, for the Angels o f Holiness
are [with] their [congregation]. Should [one] o f them have something to
say to the Council o f Holiness, let [him] be questioned privately; but let

10

him not enter among [the congregation] for he is smitten.

[This shall be the assembly of the men of renown [called] to the meeting of the
Council of the Community
When God engenders1 (the Priest-) Messiah, he shall come with them
[at] the head of the whole congregation of Israel with all [his brethren,
the sons] of Aaron the Priests, [those called] to the assembly, the men of
renown; and they shall sit [before him, each man] in the order of his
dignity. And then [the Mess]iah of Israel shall [come], and the chiefs of
the [clans of Israel] shall sit before him, [each] in the order of his dignity, 15
according to [his place] in their camps and marches. And before them
shall sit all the heads of [family of the congregation, and the wise men of
[the holy congregation,] each in the order of his dignity.
And [when] they shall gather for the common [tab]le, to eat and [to
1. This reading (yolid), which has been queried by many, including myself, seems to be
confirmed by computer image enhancement. E. Puech (R Q 16, 1994, 361) prefers to read
yitgalleh, will be revealed.

161

THE

RULES

drink] new wine, when the common table shall be set for eating and the
new wine [poured] for drinking, let no man extend his hand over the
20 firstfruits o f bread and wine before the Priest; for [it is he] who shall
bless the firstfruits o f bread and wine, and shall be the first [to extend]
his hand over the bread. Thereafter, the Messiah o f Israel shall extend
his hand over the bread, [and] all the congregation o f the Com m unity
[shall utter a] blessing, [each man in the order] o f his dignity.
It is according to this statute that they shall proceed at every me[al at
which] at least ten men are gathered together.

The War Scroll

(iQM, 1Q33,4Q491-7,4Q471)

The nineteen badly mutilated columns of this manuscript from Cave 1 first
appeared in 1954 in a posthumous work by E. L. Sukenik, and were re-edited in
i 955, with an English introduction, under the tide The Dead Sea Scrolls of the

Hebrew University (Jerusalem). A few detached scraps are represented by 1Q 33

and copious fragments of six farther manuscripts were discovered in Cave 4, and
published in 1982 by

M.

Baillet in D JD , V II

(4Q491-6

or

4QMa-f). 4Q497

represents tiny fragments of a related text, and 4Q471 or 4Q M g a shorter ver

sion of

iQM

(cf. E. and H. Eshel, DJD , XXXVI, 439-45). For a new edition of

all the War Scroll material except 4Q471 see J. Duhaime in J. H. Charlesworth

et al., eds., The DSS II, Damascus Document, War Scroll and Related Documents,
1995, 80-203.
Some of the 4Q fragments basically reflect the Cave 1 text and help to com
plete its gaps: M a, M b, M d and M e have been used for this purpose, especially in
columns 1, xiv and xix. On the other hand, M a and M c attest different recen
sions of the War Rule. Representative sections from these manuscripts will be
translated separately.
The contents of the War Rule are as follows:
Proclamation of war against the Kittim (1)
Reorganization of Temple worship (11)
Programme of the forty years war (11)
The trumpets (111)
The

stan d ard s ( i i i - i v )

Disposition and weapons of the front formations (v)

Movements of the attacking infantry (vi)
Disposition and movements of the cavalry (vi)
Age of the soldiers (vi-vn)
The camp

( v i i)

Duties of the Priests and Levites

163

TH E RULES

(exhortation, trumpet signals) ( v i i - i x )

Addresses and prayers of the batde liturgy ( x - x i i )
Prayer recited at the moment of victory (xm)
Thanksgiving ceremony (xiv)
Batde against the Kittim (xv-xix)
Since the five last columns are more or less repetitious, there has been some
doubt concerning the unity of the composition as a whole. Those who consider
all nineteen columns to be the work of one writer find in column i an introduc
tion, in columns

ii-x iv

general rules, and in columns x v-x ix a prophetic

description of the final batde fought according to those rules. Other experts
explain that columns xv-x ix are a Rule annexe dependent on the principal Rule
(ii-xiv).
I am myself inclined to follow the theory first advanced by J. van der Ploeg
(Le Rouleau de la guerre, Leiden, 1959, 11-22). The primitive work, represented
in the present composition by columns 1 and xv-xix, draws its inspiration from
Daniel xi, 40-xii, 3, and describes the final batde against the Kittim. This
account was later combined with the concept of a holy forty years war against
the entire Gentile world, and was extended by the addition of a long series of
Rules concerned with the military and religious preparation and with the con
duct of the fighting (columns

ii-x iv ).

This appears to me to offer a more satis

factory explanation of the literary complexities of the manuscript than do the

previous hypotheses. The text of the manuscripts from Cave 4, especially M a
(4Q 491) and M c (4Q493), indicate that diverse redactions of the War Rule
coexisted in the Qumran library.
The only certain pointer to the date of the compilation of the War Rule is
that, since the author made use of the Book of Daniel written shortly after 164
bce,

his own work must have been started after that time. But a more accurate

dating may be attempted by studying the military strategy and tactics described
in the Scroll. Scholars are divided in their opinion as to whether the sons of light
modelled them on Greek or Roman custom, or whether they merely drew their
ideas from the Bible. Scripture doubtless exercised a definite influence on the
author of this Rule, but there is nevertheless a great deal of material completely
foreign to it, and he must have possessed, in addition, at least some acquaintance
with contemporary warfare.
With Y. Yadin and other archaeologists and historians, I believe that both the
weapons and the tactics of the War Rule correspond to the art of war practised
by the Roman legion rather than by the Greek phalanx. In particular, the square
shield (scutum) of the foot-soldier, and the buckler of the horseman (pamta or

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clipeus), the battle array of three lines (acies triplex), the gates of war or openings
between the units (intervalla), seem to be characteristically Roman. In addition,
only the cavalry were to wear greaves - a custom introduced into the Roman
army during the time of Julius Caesar in the middle of the first century b c e . This
and similar details, as well as the general representation of the Kittim as masters
of the world, lead one to conclude that the War Rule was written some time
after the middle of the first century

bce,

and since the reference to the king of

the Kittim points to the Imperial epoch (after 27

b c e ),

the date of its composi

tion should probably be placed in the last decades of the first century

bce

or at

the beginning of the first century c e .

This work should not be mistaken for a manual of military warfare pure and
simple. It is a theological writing, and the war of which it treats symbolizes the
eternal struggle between the spirits of Light and Darkness. The phases of its
battle are fixed in advance, its plan established and its duration predetermined.
The opposing forces are equally matched and only by the intervention of the
mighty hand of God is the balance between them to be disturbed when he deals
an everlasting blow to Belial and all the host of his kingdom.

I For the M[aster. The Rule of] War on the unleashing of the attack of the sons
of tight against the company of the sons of darkness, the army of Belial: against
the band of Edom, Moab, and the sons ofAmmon, and [against the army of the
sons of the East and] the Philistines, and against the bands of the Kittim of
Assyria and their allies the ungodly of the Covenant.
T h e sons o f Levi, Judah, and Benjamin, the exiles in the desert, shall
battle against them in . . . all their bands when the exiled sons o f light
return from the Desert o f the Peoples to camp in the Desert o f Jerusalem;
and after the battle they shall go up from there (to Jerusalem?).
[The king] o f the Kittim [shall enter] into Egypt, and in his time he
shall set out in great wrath to wage war against the kings o f the north,
that his fury may destroy and cut the horn o f [Israel]. T h is shall be a
time o f salvation for the people o f G od, an age o f dominion for all the
members o f H is company, and o f everlasting destruction for all the company o f Belial. T h e confusion o f the sons o f Japheth shall be [great] and
Assyria shall fall unsuccoured. T h e dominion o f the Kittim shall come to
an end and iniquity shall be vanquished, leaving no remnant; [for the
sons] o f darkness there shall be no escape. [The sons o f righteous]ness
shall shine over all the ends o f the earth; they shall go on shining until
all the seasons o f darkness are consumed and, at the season appointed by

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G od, H is exalted greatness shall shine eternally to the peace, blessing,

glory, joy, and long life o f all the sons o f light.
O n the day when the Kittim fall, there shall be battle and terrible car
lo

nage before the G od o f Israel, for that shall be the day appointed from
ancient times for the battle o f destruction o f the sons o f darkness. A t that
time, the assembly o f gods and the hosts o f men shall battle, causing
great carnage; on the day o f calamity, the sons o f light shall battle with
the company o f darkness amid the shouts o f a mighty multitude and the
clamour o f gods and men to (make manifest) the might o f G od. And it
shall be a time o f [great] tribulation for the people which G od shall
redeem; o f all its afflictions none shall be as this, from its sudden begin
ning until its end in eternal redemption.
On the day o f their battle against the Kittim [they shall set out for]
carnage. In three lots shall the sons o f light brace themselves in battle to
strike down iniquity, and in three lots shall Belials host gird itself to thrust
back the company [of God. And when the hearts o f the detach]ments o f
foot-soldiers faint, then shall the might o f G od fortify [the hearts o f the
sons o f light]. And with the seventh lot, the mighty hand o f G od shall

1 5 bring down [the army o f Belial, and all] the angels o f his kingdom, and
all the members [of his company in everlasting destruction] . . .
{ . . . T h e priests, the Levites and the heads o f [the tribes] . . . the priests
as well as the Levites and the divisions of} (4Q 464) I I the fifty-two
heads o f family o f the congregation.
T h e y shall rank the chief Priests below the H igh Priest and his vicar.
And the twelve chief Priests shall minister at the daily sacrifice before
G od, whereas the twenty-six leaders o f the priesdy divisions shall minister
in their divisions.
Below them, in perpetual ministry, shall be the chiefs o f the Levites to
the number o f twelve, one for each tribe. T h e leaders o f their divisions
shall minister each in his place.
Below them shall be the chiefs o f the tribes together with the heads o f
family o f the congregation. T h e y shall attend daily at the gates o f the
Sanctuary, whereas the leaders o f their divisions, with their numbered
men, shall attend at their appointed times, on new moons and on Sabbaths
and on all the days o f the year, their age being fifty years and over.
T hese are the men who shall attend at holocausts and sacrifices to
5

prepare sweet-smelling incense for the good pleasure o f G od, to atone

for all H is congregation, and to satisfy themselves perpetually before

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TH E WAR SCROLL

H im at the table o f glory. T h e y shall arrange all these things during the
season o f the year o f Release.
During the remaining thirty-three years o f the war, the men o f renown,
those summoned to the Assembly, together with all the heads o f family
o f the congregation, shall choose for themselves fighting-men for all the
lands o f the nations. T h e y shall arm for themselves warriors from all the
tribes o f Israel to enter the army year by year when they are summoned
to war. But they shall arm no man for entry into the army during the
years o f Release, for they are Sabbaths o f rest for Israel. In the thirty-five
years o f service, the war shall be fought during six; the whole congre
gation shall fight it together. And during the remaining twenty-nine years
the war shall be divided. During the first year they shall fight against

10

Aram -Naharaim ; during the second, against the sons o f L u d ; during the
third, against the remnant o f the sons o f Aram, against U z and Hul and
Togar and Mesha beyond the Euphrates; during the fourth and fifth, they
shall fight against the sons o f Arpachshad; during the sixth and seventh,
against all the sons o f Assyria and Persia and the East as far as the Great
Desert; during the eighth year they shall fight against the sons o f Elam;
during the ninth, against the sons o f Ishmael and Keturah. In the ten
years which follow, the war shall be divided against all the sons o f Ham
according to [their clans and in their habitations; and during the ten
years which remain, the war shall be divided against all [the sons o f
Japheth in] their habitations.

[The Rule for the trumpets of Summons and the trumpe]ts ofAlarm according 15
to all their duties
. . . [the trumpets o f Summons shall sound for disposal in]

III

battle

formations and to summon the foot-soldiers to advance when the gates

o f war shall open; and the trumpets o f Alarm shall sound for massacre,
and for ambush, and for pursuit when the enemy shall be smitten, and
for retreat from battle.
On the trumpets calling the congregation they shall write,

The Called

of God.
The Princes of God.
The Army of God.

On the trumpets calling the chiefs they shall write,

O n the trumpets o f the levies they shall write,

On the trumpets o f the men o f renown and o f the heads o f family o f

the congregation gathered in the house o f Assembly they shall write,

Summoned by God to the Council of Holiness.

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THE

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On the trumpets o f the camps they shall write,

The Peace of God in the

Camps of His Saints.

And on the trumpets for breaking camp they shall write, The mighty
Deeds of God shall Crush the Enemy, Putting to Flight all those who Hate
Righteousness and bringing Shame on those who Hate Him.
O n the trumpets for battle formations they shall write, Formations of
the Divisions of Godfor the Vengeance of His Wrath on the Sons of Darkness.
O n the trumpets summoning the foot-soldiers to advance towards the
enemy formations when the gates o f war are opened they shall write,

Reminder of Vengeance in God's Appointed Time.

The Mighty Hand of God

On the trumpets o f massacre they shall write,

in War shall Cause all the Ungodly Slain to Fall.

O n the trumpets o f ambush they shall write,

The Mysteries of God shall

Undo Wickedness.
O n the trumpets o f pursuit they shall write, God has Smitten A ll the
Sons of Darkness; His Fury shall not End until They are Utterly Consumed.
O n the trumpets o f retreat, when they retreat from battle to the
10 formation, they shall write,

God has Reassembled.

O n the trumpets o f return from battle against the enemy when they
journey to the congregation in Jerusalem they shall write,

Rejoicings of

God in the Peaceful Return.

The Rule for the standards of the whole congregation according to their levies
O n the great standard at the head o f the people they shall write, The
People of God, together with the names o f Israel and Aaron, and the names
o f the twelve [tribes o f Israel] according to the order o f their precedence.
O n the standards o f the camp columns formed by three tribes they
15

shall write, . . .

of God, together with the name o f the leader o f the camp

O n the standard o f the tribe they shall write,

Banner of God, together

with the name o f the leader o f [the tribe and the names o f the chiefs o f
its clans].
[On the standard o f the M yriad they shall write, . . .

of God, together

with] the name o f the chief o f the M yriad and the names o f the [leaders
o f its Thousands].
[On the standard o f the Thousand they shall write, . . .

of God,

together with the name o f the chief o f the Thousand and the names o f
the leaders o f its Hundreds].
[On the standard o f Hundred] . . .

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TH E WAR SCROLL

The Votive-Offering of
God, together with the name o f the chief o f Merari and the names o f the

I V O n the standard o f Merari they shall write,

leaders o f its Thousands.

On the standard o f the Thousand they shall write, The Wrath of God
is Kindled against Belial and against the Men of his Company, Leaving no
Remnant, together with the name o f the chief o f the Thousand and the
names o f the leaders o f its Hundreds.
On the standard o f the Hundred they shall write, From God cmtes the
Might of War against A ll Sinful Flesh, together with the name o f the chief
o f the Hundred and the names o f the leaders o f its Fifties.
On the standard o f the Fifty they shall write, The Stand of the Ungodly
is Ended by the Power of God, together with the name o f the chief o f the
Fifty and the names o f the leaders o f its Tens.
On the standard o f the Ten they shall write, Praised be God on the Tenstringed Harp, together with the name o f the chief o f the Ten and the

names o f the nine men under his command.

Truth
of God, Justice of God, Glory of God, Judgement of God, followed by the

W hen they march out to battle they shall write on their standards,
whole ordered list o f their names.

W hen they approach for battle they shall write on their standards,

Right Hand of God, Appointed Time of God, Tumult of God, Slain of God,
followed by the whole list o f their names.
W hen they return from battle they shall write on their standards,

Honour of God, Majesty of God, Splendour of God, Glory of God, together with
the whole list o f their names.

The Rule for the standards of the congregation

W hen they set out for battle they shall write on the first standard

Congregation of God, on the second standard Camps of God, on the third 10

Tribes of God, on the fourth standard Clans of God, on the fifth
standard Divisions of God, on the sixth standard Assembly of God, on the
seventh standard The Called of God, on the eighth standard Hosts of God;
standard

and they shall write the list o f their names with all their order.
W h en they approach for battle they shall write on their standards,

War of God, Vengeance of God, Trial of God, Reward of God, Power of

God, Retributions of God, Might of God, Extermination of God for all the
Nations of Vanity; and they shall write on them the whole list o f their
names.
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RULES

W h en they return from battle they shall write on their standards,

Salvation of God, Victory of God, Help of God, Support of God,

of God,

Thanksgivings of God, Praise of God, P&zce 0/ Go</.

15

[T he measurements o f the standards.] T h e standard o f the whole con

gregation shall be fourteen cubits long; the standard [of the three tribes,]
thirteen cubits long; [the standard o f the tribe,] twelve cubits; [the stan
dard o f the Myriad], eleven cubits; [the standard o f the Thousand, ten
cubits; the standard o f the Hundred,] nine cubits; [the standard o f the
Fifty, eight] cubits; the standard o f the Ten, s[even cubits] . . .

And on the sh[ield of] the Prince o f all the congregation they shall

write his name, together with the names o f Israel, Levi and Aaron, and
the names o f the twelve tribes o f Israel according to the order o f their
precedence, with the names o f their twelve chiefs.
The Rule for the ordering of the battle divisions to complete a front formation
when their host has reached itsfu ll number
T h e formation shall consist o f one thousand men ranked seven lines
deep, each man standing behind the other.
T h e y shall all hold shields o f bronze burnished like mirrors. T h e
5 shield shall be edged with an interlaced border and with inlaid ornament,
a work o f art in pure gold and silver and bronze and precious stones, a
many-coloured design worked by a craftsman. T h e length o f the shield
shall be two and a half cubits and its width one and a half cubits.
In their hands they shall hold a spear and a sword. T h e length o f the
spear shall be seven cubits, o f which the socket and spike shall measure
half a cubit. T h e socket shall be edged with three embossed interlaced
rings o f pure gold and silver and bronze, a work o f art. T h e inlaid orna
ments on both edges o f the ring shall be bordered with precious stones patterned bands worked by a craftsman - and (embossed) with ears o f
com . Between the rings, the socket shall be embossed with artistry like
10 a pillar. T h e spike shall be made o f brilliant white iron, the work o f a
craftsman; in its centre, pointing towards the tip, shall be ears o f com in
pure gold.
T h e swords shall be made o f pure iron refined by the smelter and
blanched to resemble a mirror, the work o f a craftsman; on both sides (of
their blades) pointing towards the tip, figured ears o f corn shall be
embossed in pure gold, and they shall have two straight borders on each
side. T h e length o f the sword shall be one and a half cubits and its width
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four fingers. T h e width o f the scabbard shall be four thumbs. T h ere

shall be four palms to the scabbard (from the girdle), and it shall be
attached (to the girdle) on both sides for a length o f five palms (?). T h e
hilt o f the sword shall be o f pure horn worked by a craftsman, with pat
terned bands in gold and silver and precious stones . . .

vacat

W hen . . . shall stand, the . . . they shall order the seven battle divisions,

15

division after division . . . thirty cubits where the me[n o f the division]
shall stand . . .
V I seven times and shall return to their positions.
And after them, three divisions o f foot-soldiers shall advance and shall
station themselves between the formations, and the first division shall
hurl seven javelins o f war towards the enemy formation. On the point o f

Shining Javelin of the Power of God; and on

Bloody Spikes to Bring
Down the Slain by the Wrath of God\ and on the javelins o f the third divi
sion they shall write, Flaming Blade to Devour the Wicked Struck Down by
the Judgement of God. All these shall hurl their javelins seven times and
the javelins they shall write,

the darts o f the second division they shall write,

shall afterwards return to their positions.

T hen two divisions o f foot-soldiers shall advance and shall station
themselves between the two formations. T h e first division shall be armed

with a spear and a shield, and the second with a shield and a sword, to
bring down the slain by the judgement o f G od, and to bend the enemy
formation by the power o f G od, to pay the reward o f their wickedness to
all the nations o f vanity. And sovereignty shall be to the G od o f Israel,
and H e shall accomplish mighty deeds by the saints o f his people.
Seven troops o f horsemen shall also station themselves to the right
and to the left o f the formation; their troops shall stand on this (side)
and on that, seven hundred horsemen on one flank and seven hundred
horsemen on the other. Two hundred horsemen shall advance with the
thousand men o f the formation o f foot-soldiers; and they shall likewise
station themselves on both [flanks] o f the camp. Altogether there shall
be four thousand six hundred (men), and one thousand cavalrymen with
the men o f the army formations, fifty to each formation. T h e horsemen,
together with the cavalry o f the army, shall number six thousand: five
hundred to each tribe.
T h e horses advancing into battle with the foot-soldiers shall all be
stallions; they shall be swift, sensitive o f mouth, and sound o f wind, and
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10

THE

RULES

o f the required age, trained for war, and accustomed to noise and to
every (kind of) sight. T heir riders shall be gallant fighting men and skilled
horsemen, and their age shall be from thirty to forty-five years. T h e
horsemen o f the army shall be from forty to fifty years old. T h e y [and
their mounts shall wear breast-plates,] helmets, and greaves; they shall
15 carry in their hands bucklers, and a spear [eight cubits] long. [The horse
man advancing with the foot-soldiers shall carry] bows and arrows and
javelins o f war. T h e y shall all hold themselves prepared . . . o f G od and
to spill the blood o f the wicked . . .

VII

T h e men o f the army shall be from forty to fifty years old. T h e

inspectors o f the camps shall be from fifty to sixty years old. T h e officers
shall be from forty to fifty years old. T h e despoilers o f the slain, the
plunderers o f booty, the cleansers o f the land, the keepers o f the bag
gage, and those who furnish the provisions shall be from twenty-five to
thirty years old.
N o boy or woman shall enter their camps, from the time they leave
Jerusalem and march out to war until they return. N o man who is lame,
or blind, or crippled, or afflicted with a lasting bodily blemish, or smitten
5 with a bodily impurity, none o f these shall march out to war with them.
T h e y shall all be freely enlisted for war, perfect in spirit and body and
prepared for the D ay o f Vengeance. And no man shall go down with
them on the day o f battle who is impure because o f his fount , for the
holy angels shall be with their hosts. And there shall be a space o f about
two thousand cubits between all their camps for the place serving as a
latrine, so that no indecent nakedness may be seen in the surroundings
o f their camps.
W h en the battle formations are marshalled facing the enemy, forma10 tdon facing formation, seven Priests o f the sons o f Aaron shall advance
from the middle gates to the place between the formations. T h e y shall
be clothed in vestments o f white cloth o f flax, in a fine linen tunic and
fine linen breeches; and they shall be girdled with fine cloth o f flax
embroidered with blue, purple, and scarlet thread, a many-coloured
design worked by a craftsman. And on their heads they shall wear mitred
turbans. These shall be battle raiment; they shall not take them into the
Sanctuary.
T h e first Priest shall advance before the men o f the formation to
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strengthen their hand for battle, and the six other Priests shall hold in
their hands the trumpets o f Summons, and the trumpets o f the Reminder,
and the trumpets o f Alarm (for massacre), and the trumpets o f Pursuit,
and the trumpets o f Retreat. And when the Priests advance to the place
between the formations, seven Levites shall accompany them bearing in
their hands seven rams horns; and three officers o f the Levites shall
walk before the Priests and Levites. T h e Priests shall sound the two

15

trumpets o f Sum[mons for the gates of] war to open fifty shields (wide)
and the foot-soldiers shall advance, fifty from one gate [and fifty from
the other. W ith them shall advance] the officers o f the Levites, and they
shall advance with every formation according to all this R[ule].
[The Priests shall sound the trumpets, and two divisions o f foot-]
soldiers [shall advance] from the gate [and shall] station [themselves]
between the two [formations] . . .

VIII

the trumpets shall sound to

direct the slingers until they have cast seven times. Afterwards, the Priests
shall sound for them the trumpets o f Retreat and they shall return to the
flank o f the first formation to take up their position.
T hen the Priests shall sound the trumpets o f Summons and three divi
sions o f foot-soldiers shall advance from the gates and shall station them
selves between the formations; the horsemen shall be on their flanks, to

the right and to the left. T h e Priests shall sound a sustained blast on the
trumpets for battle array, and the columns shall move to their (batde) array,
each man to his place. And when they have taken up their stand in three
arrays, the Priests shall sound a second signal, soft and sustained, for them
to advance until they are close to the enemy formation. T h e y shall seize
their weapons, and the Priests shall then blow a shrill staccato blast on the
six trumpets o f Massacre to direct the battle, and the Levites and all the
blowers o f rams horns shall sound a mighty alarm to terrify the heart o f
the enemy, and therewith the javelins shall fly out to bring down the slain.

10

T h en the sound o f the horns shall cease, but the Priests shall continue to
blow a shrill staccato blast on the trumpets to direct the battle until they
have thrown seven times against the enemy formation. And then they shall
sound a soft, a sustained, and a shrill sound on the trumpets o f Retreat.
It is according to this Rule that the Priests shall sound the trumpets
for the three divisions. W ith the first throw, the [Priests] shall sound [on
the trumpets] a mighty alarm to direct the ba[ttle until they have thrown
seven times. Then] the Priests [shall sound] for them on the trumpets [of
Retreat a soft, a sustained, and a shrill sound, and they shall return] to
their positions in the formation.

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[Then the Priests shall blow the trumpets o f Summons and the two
divisions o f foot-soldiers shall advance from the gates] and shall stand
[between the formations. And the Priests shall then blow the trumpets
of] Massacre, [and the Levites and all the blowers o f rams horns shall
sound an alarm, a mighty blast, and therewith] I X they shall set about
to bring down the slain with their hands. All the people shall cease their
clamour but the Priests shall continue to blow the trumpets o f Massacre
to direct the battle until the enemy is smitten and put to flight; and the
Priests shall blow to direct the battle.
And when they are smitten before them, the Priests shall sound the
trumpets o f Summons and all the foot-soldiers shall rally to them from
the midst o f the front formations, and the six divisions, together with the
fighting division, shall take up their stations. Altogether, they shall be
5 seven formations: twenty-eight thousand fighting men and six thousand
horsemen.
All these shall pursue the enemy to destroy him in an everlasting
destruction in the battle o f G od. T h e Priests shall sound for them the
trumpets o f Pursuit, and they shall deploy against all the enemy in a pur
suit to destruction; and the horsemen shall thrust them back on the
flanks o f the battle until they are utterly destroyed.
And as the slain men fall, the Priests shall trumpet from afar; they shall
not approach the slain lest they be defiled with unclean blood. F o r they
are holy, and they shall not profane the anointing o f their priesthood
with the blood o f nations o f vanity.
io

The Rulefor changes in battle order toform the position ofa squa[re with towers],
a concave line with towers, a convex line with towers, a shallow convex line
obtained by the advance of the centre, or {by the advance of) both flanks to
terrify the enemy
T h e shields o f the towers shall be three cubits long and their spears
eight cubits. T h e tower shall advance from the formation and shall have
one hundred shields to each side; in this [manner,] the tower shall be
surrounded on three sides by three hundred shields. And it shall also
have two gates, [one to the right] and one to the left.

15

Michael,
Gabriel, on the third,] Sariel, and on the fourth, Raphael.
Michael and Gabriel [shall stand on the right, and Sariel and Raphael on
T h e y shall write on all the shields o f the towers: on the first,

[on the second,

the left] . . . they shall set an ambush to . . .

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T H E WAR SCROLL

. . . X our camps and to keep us from all that is indecent and evil.
Furthermore, (Moses) taught us, T h o u art in the midst o f us, a
mighty G od and terrible, causing all our enemies to flee before [us]. H e
taught our generations in former times saying, When you draw near to
battle, the Priest shall rise and speak to the people saying, Hear, 0 Israel! You
draw near to battle this day against your enemies. Do notfear! Do not let your
hearts be afraid! Do not be [terrified], and have no fear! For your God goes
with you tofight for you againstyour enemies that He may deliver you' (Deut.
xx, 2-4).
Our officers shall speak to all those prepared for battle. T h e y shall

strengthen by the power o f G od the freely devoted o f heart, and shall

make all the fearful o f heart withdraw; they shall fortify all the mighty
men o f war. T h e y shall recount that which Th o u [saidst] through Moses:

When you go to war in your land against the oppressor who oppressesyou, [you]
shall blow the trumpets, andyou shall be remembered before your God and shall
be savedfrom your enemies (Num. x, 9).
O G od o f Israel, who is like T hee
in heaven or on earth?
W h o accomplishes deeds and mighty works like Thine?
W h o is like T h y people Israel
which T h o u hast chosen for T h yself
from all the peoples o f the lands;
the people o f the saints of the Covenant,
instructed in the laws
and learned in wisdom . . .
who have heard the voice o f M ajesty
and have seen the Angels o f Holiness,
whose ear has been unstopped,
and who have heard profound things?
[Thou, O G od, hast created] the expanse o f the heavens
and the host o f heavenly lights,
the tasks o f the spirits
and the dominion o f the H o ly Ones,
the treasury o f glory
[and the canopy o f the] clouds.
(Thou art Creator of) the earth
and o f the laws dividing it into desert and grassland;

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RULES

o f all that it brings forth

and o f all its fruits [according to their kinds;]
o f the circle o f the seas
and o f the gathering-place o f the rivers
and o f the divisions o f the deeps;
o f the beasts and birds
and o f the shape o f Adam
and o f the gene [rations of] his [seed];
o f the confusion o f tongues
and o f the scattering o f the peoples,
o f the dwelling in clans
15

and o f the inheritance o f lands;

. . . o f the sacred seasons
and o f the cycles o f the years
and o f time everlasting.

XI

Truly, the batde is Thine! T h eir bodies are crushed by the might o f

T h y hand and there is no man to bury them.

T h o u didst deliver Goliath o f Gath, the mighty warrior, into the
hands o f David T h y servant, because in place o f the sword and in place
o f the spear he put his trust in T h y great N am e; for Thine is the battle.
M an y times, by T h y great Nam e, did he triumph over the Philistines.
M an y times hast T hou also delivered us by the hand o f our kings
through T h y loving-kindness, and not in accordance with our works by
which we have done evil, nor according to our rebellious deeds.
5

T ruly the battle is Thine and the power from T h ee ! It is not ours. Our
strength and the power o f our hands accomplish no mighty deeds except
by T h y power and by the might o f T h y great valour. T h is T h o u hast
taught us from ancient times, saying, A star shall come out ofJacob, and a
sceptre shall rise out ofIsrael. He shall smite the temples ofMoab and destroy all
the children of Sheth. He shall rule out ofJacob and shall cause the survivors of
the city to perish. The enemy shall be his possession and Israel shall accomplish
mighty deeds (Num. xxiv, 1 7 - 1 9 ) .
B y the hand o f Thine anointed, who discerned T h y testimonies,
T h o u hast revealed to us the [times] o f the battles o f T h y hands that
T h o u mayest glorify T h yself in our enemies by levelling the hordes o f
Belial, the seven nations o f vanity, by the hand o f T h y poor whom T h o u
hast redeemed [by T h y might] and by the fullness o f T h y marvellous
power. (Thou hast opened) the door o f hope to the melting heart: T h o u
176

TH E WAR SCROLL

wilt do to them as T h o u didst to Pharaoh, and to the captains o f his

10

chariots in the Red Sea. T h o u wilt kindle the downcast o f spirit and they
shall be a flaming torch in the straw to consume ungodliness and never
to cease till iniquity is destroyed.
From ancient times T h o u hast fore [told the hour] when the might o f
T h y hand (would be raised) against the Kittim, saying, Assyria shallfall by

the sword of no man, the sword of no mere man shall devour him (Isa. xxxi, 8).
For T hou wilt deliver into the hands o f the poor the enemies from all
the lands, to humble the mighty o f the peoples by the hand o f those bent
to the dust, to bring upon the [head o f Thine enemies] the reward o f the
wicked, and to justify T h y true judgement in the midst o f all the sons o f
men, and to make for T h yself an everlasting N am e among the people
[whom T h o u hast redeem ed]. . . o f battles to be magnified and sanctified

15

in the eyes o f the remnant o f the peoples, that they may know . . . when
Thou chastisest G o g and all his assembly gathered about him . . .
For T h o u wilt fight with them from heaven . . . X I I For the multi
tude o f the H oly Ones [is with Thee] in heaven, and the host o f the
Angels is in T h y holy abode, praising T h y Nam e. And T h o u hast estab
lished in [a community] for T h yself the elect o f T h y holy people. [The
list] o f the names o f all their host is with T h ee in the abode o f T h y
holiness; [the reckoning o f the saints] is in T h y glorious dwelling-place.
T ho u hast recorded for them, with the graving-tool o f life, the favours
o f [Thy] blessings and the Covenant o f T h y peace, that T h o u mayest
reign [over them] for ever and ever and throughout all the eternal ages.
T ho u wilt muster the [hosts of] Thine [el]ect, in their Thousands and
Myriads, with T h y H o ly Ones [and with all] Thine Angels, that they
may be mighty in battle, [and may smite] the rebels o f the earth by T h y

great judgements, and that [they may triumph] together with the elect o f
heaven.
Fo r T h o u art [terrible], O G od, in the glory o f T h y kingdom, and the
congregation o f T h y H oly Ones is among us for everlasting succour. W e
will despise kings, we will mock and scorn the mighty; for our Lord is
holy, and the K ing o f G lo ry is with us together with the H o ly Ones.
Valiant [warriors] o f the angelic host are among our numbered men, and
the H ero o f war is with our congregation; the host o f H is spirits is with
our foot-soldiers and horsemen. [They are as] clouds, as clouds o f dew
(covering) the earth, as a shower o f rain shedding judgement on all that
grows on the earth.

10

i77

THE

RULES

Rise up, O Hero!

Lead off Thy captives, O Glorious One!
Gather up Thy spoils, O Author of mighty deeds!
Lay Thy hand on the neck of Thine enemies
and Thy feet on the pile of the slain!
Smite the nations, Thine adversaries,
and devour the flesh of the sinner with Thy sword!
Fill Thy land with glory
and Thine inheritance with blessing!
Let there be a multitude of cattle in Thy fields,
and in Thy palaces silver and gold and precious stones!
O Zion, rejoice greatly!
O Jerusalem, show thyself amidst jubilation!
Rejoice, all you cities of Judah;
keep your gates ever open
that the hosts of the nations
may be brought in!

15

Their kings shall serve you

and all your oppressors shall bow down before you;
[they shall lick] the dust [of your feet].
Shout for joy, [O daughters of] my people!
Deck yourselves with glorious jewels
and rule over [the kingdoms of the nations!
Sovereignty shall be to the Lord]
and everlasting dominion to Israel.

... XIII (The High Priest) shall come, and his brethren the Priests and
the Levites, and all the elders of the army shall be with him; and stand
ing, they shall bless the God of Israel and all His works of truth, and
shall execrate Belial there and all the spirits of his company. Speaking,
they shall say:
Blessed be the God of Israel for all His holy purpose and for His
works of truth! Blessed be all those who [serve] Him in righteousness
and who know Him by faith!
Cursed be Belial for his sinful purpose and may he be execrated for his
wicked rule! Cursed be all the spirits of his company for their ungodly
purpose and may they be execrated for all their service of uncleanness!
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TH E WAR SCROLL

Truly they are the company o f Darkness, but the company o f G od is one
o f [eternal] Light.
[Thou art] the G od o f our fathers; we bless T h y N am e for ever. W e
are the people o f Thine [inheritance]; T h o u didst make a Covenant with
our fathers, and wilt establish it with their children throughout eternal
ages. And in all T h y glorious testimonies there has been a reminder o f
T h y mercies among us to succour the remnant, the survivors o f T h y
Covenant, that they might [recount] T h y works o f truth and the judge
ments o f T h y marvellous mighty deeds.
T h o u hast created us for Thyself, [O God], that we may be an ever
lasting people. T h o u hast decreed for us a destiny o f Ligh t according to
T h y truth. And the Prince o f Light T h o u hast appointed from ancient

10

times to come to our support; [all the sons o f righteousness are in his
hand], and all the spirits o f truth are under his dominion. But Belial, the
Angel o f Malevolence, T h o u hast created for the Pit; his [rule] is in
Darkness and his purpose is to bring about wickedness and iniquity. All
the spirits o f his company, the Angels o f Destruction, walk according to
the precepts o f Darkness; towards them is their [inclination].
But let us, the company o f T h y truth, rejoice in T h y mighty hand and
be glad for T h y salvation, and exult because o f T h y suc[cour and] peace.
O G od o f Israel, who can compare with T h ee in might? T h y mighty
hand is with the poor. W hich angel or prince can compare with T h y
[redeeming] succour? [For T h o u hast appointed] the day o f battle from
ancient times . . . [to come to the aid] o f truth and to destroy iniquity, to
bring Darkness low and to magnify Light . . . to stand for ever, and to
destroy all the sons o f Darkness . . .

... X IV like the fire of His wrath against the idols of Egypt.
And when they have risen from the slain to return to the camp, they
shall all sing the Psalm o f Return. And in the morning, they shall wash
their garments, and shall cleanse themselves o f the blood o f the bodies
o f the ungodly. And they shall return to the positions in which they
stood in battle formation before the fall o f the enemy slain, and there
they shall all bless the G od o f Israel. Rejoicing together, they shall praise
H is Nam e, and speaking they shall say:

i79

15

THE

RULES

Blessed be the God of Israel

who keeps mercy towards His Covenant,
and the appointed times of salvation
with the people He has delivered!
He has called them that staggered
to [marvellous mighty deeds],
and has gathered in the assembly of the nations
to destruction without any remnant.
He has lifted up in judgement the fearful of heart
and has opened the mouth of the dumb
that they might praise {the mighty} (4Q491) works [of God].
He has taught war [to the hand] of the feeble
and steadied the trembling knee;
he has braced the back of the smitten.
Among the poor in spirit [there is power]
over the hard of heart,
and by the perfect of way
all the nations of wickedness have come to an end:
not one of their mighty men stands,
but we are the remnant [of Thy people.]
{Blessed be} (4Q491) Thy Name, O God of mercies,
who hast kept the Covenant with our fathers.
In all our generations Thou hast bestowed
Thy wonderful favours on the remnant [of Thy people]
under the dominion of Belial.
During all the mysteries of his Malevolence
he has not made [us] stray from Thy Covenant;
Thou hast driven his spirits [of destruction]
far from [us],
Thou hast preserved the soul of Thy redeemed
[when the men] of his dominion {acted wickedly} (4Q491).
Thou hast raised the fallen by Thy strength,
but hast cut down the great in height
[and hast brought down the lofty].
There is no rescue for all their mighty men
and no refuge for their swift men;
Thou givest to their honoured men a reward of shame,
all their empty existence [hast Thou turned to nothing].

T H E WAR SCROLL

But we, T h y holy people, will praise T h y Nam e

because o f the works o f T h y truth.
W e will exalt T h y splendour because o f T h y mighty deeds
[in all the] seasons and appointed times for ever,
at the coming o f day and at nightfall
and at the departure o f evening and morning.
For great {is the design o f T h y glory} (4 Q 4 9 1)
and o f T h y wonderful mysteries on high
that [Thou shouldst raise up] dust before T h ee
and lay low the gods.

15

Rise up, rise up, O G od o f gods,

raise T h y self in mig{ht, K ing o f Kings} (4 Q 4 9 1)!
M ay all the sons o f Darkness [scatter before T h e e ]!
T h e light o f T h y greatness [shall shine forth]
[on go]ds and men.
[It shall be like a fire bur]ning
in the dark places o f perdition;
it shall bum the sinners in the perdition o f hell,
in an eternal blaze
. . . in all the eternal seasons.
T h e y shall recite there [all the] war [hy]mns. Afterwards they shall
return to [their] cam[ps] . . . X V

For this shall be a time o f distress for

Israel, [and o f the summons] to war against all the nations. There shall
be eternal deliverance for the company o f G od, but destruction for all
the nations o f wickedness.
All those [who are ready] for battle shall march out and shall pitch
their camp before the king o f the Kittim and before all the host of Belial
gathered about him for the D ay [of Revenge] by the Sword o f God.
Th en the H igh Priest shall rise, with the [Priests], his brethren, and
the Levites, and all the men o f the army, and he shall recite aloud the
Prayer in T im e o f W ar [written in the Book] o f the Rule concerning this
time, and also all their Hymns. H e shall marshal all the formations
there, as is [written in the Book o f W ar], and the priest appointed for the
D ay o f Revenge by the voice o f all his brethren shall go forward to
strengthen the [hearts o f the fighting men]. Speaking, he shall say:
Be strong and valiant; be warriors! Fear not! D o not be [confused and
do not let your hearts be afraid!] D o not be fearful; fear them not! D o

181

THE

RULES

10 not fall back . . . for they are a congregation o f wickedness and all their
works are in Darkness; they tend towards Darkness. [They make for
themselves] a refuge [in falsehood] and their power shall vanish like
smoke. All the multitudes o f their community . . . shall not be found.
Damned as they are, all the substance o f their wickedness shall quickly
fade, like a flower in [the summer-time].
[Be brave and] strong for the battle o f G od ! For this day is [the time
o f the battle of] G od against all the host o f Belial, [and o f the judgement
of] all flesh. T h e G od o f Israel lifts His hand in H is marvellous [might]
against all the spirits o f wickedness. [The hosts of] the warrior gods
15

gird themselves for battle, [and the] formations o f the H o ly Ones [pre
pare themselves], for the D ay [of Revenge] . . .

XVI

. . . For the G od o f

Israel has called out the sword against all the nations, and H e will do
mighty deeds by the saints o f H is people.

And they shall obey all this Rule [on] the [day] when they stand before the camps
of the Kittim
T h e Priests shall afterwards sound for them the trumpets o f the
Reminder, and the gates o f war shall open; the foot-soldiers shall advance
and the columns shall station themselves between the formations. T h e
Priests shall sound for them the signal, Battle A rray, and at the sound
o f the trumpets the columns [shall deploy] until every man is in his place.
5 T h e Priests shall then sound a second signal [for them to advance], and
when they are within throwing distance o f the formation o f the Kittim,
each man shall seize his weapon o f war. T h en the six [Priests shall blow
on] the trumpets o f Massacre a shrill staccato blast to direct the battle, and
the Levites and all the blowers o f rams horns shall sound [a battle alarm],
a mighty clamour; and with this clamour they shall begin to bring down
the slain from among the Kittim. All the people shall cease their clamour,
[but the Priests shall continue to] sound the trumpets o f Massacre, and
battle shall be fought against the Kittim (zmeat). And when [Belial] girds
10 himself to come to the aid o f the sons o f darkness, and when the slain
among the foot-soldiers begin to fall by the mysteries o f G od, and when
all the men appointed for battle are put to ordeal by them, the Priests shall
sound the trumpets o f Summons for another formation o f the reserve to
advance into battle; and they shall take up their stand between the for
mations. And for those engaged [in battle] they shall sound the Retreat .

Then the High Priest shall draw near, and standing before the forma
tion, he shall strengthen by the power of God their hearts [and hands] in
182

T H E WAR SCROLL

H is battle. Speaking he shall say: . . . the slain, for you have heard from

15

ancient times through the mysteries o f G od . . .

... XVII

H e will pay their reward with burning [fire by the hand of]

those tested in the crucible. H e will sharpen H is weapons and will not
tire until all the wicked nations are destroyed. Remember the judgement
[of Nadab and Ab]ihu, sons o f Aaron, by whose judgement G od showed
Himself holy in the eyes [of Israel. But Eleazar] and Ithamar H e con
firmed in an everlasting [priestly] Covenant.
Be strong and fear not; [for they tend] towards chaos and confusion,
and they lean on that which is not and [shall not be. To the God] of
Israel belongs all that is and shall be; [He knows] all the happenings o f
eternity. T h is is the day appointed by Him for the defeat and overthrow

o f the Prince o f the kingdom o f wickedness, and H e will send eternal

succour to the company o f H is redeemed by the might o f the princely
Angel o f the kingdom o f Michael. W ith everlasting light H e will enlighten
with joy [the children] o f Israel; peace and blessing shall be with the
company o f G od. H e will raise up the kingdom o f Michael in the midst
o f the gods, and the realm o f Israel in the midst o f all flesh. Righteous
ness shall rejoice on high, and all the children o f H is truth shall jubilate
in eternal knowledge. And you, the sons o f H is Covenant, be strong in
the ordeal o f G od! H is mysteries shall uphold you until H e moves His
hand for H is trials to come to an end.
After these words, the Priests shall sound to marshal them into the

10

divisions o f the formation; and at the sound o f the trumpets the columns
shall deploy until [every man is] in his place. T h en the Priests shall sound
a second signal on the trumpets for them to advance, and when the
[foot-]soldiers approach throwing distance o f the formation o f the Kittim,
every man shall seize his weapon o f war. T h e Priests shall blow the
trumpets o f Massacre, [and the Levites and all] the blowers o f rams horns
shall sound a battle alarm, and the foot-soldiers shall stretch out their
hands against the host o f the Kittim; [and at the sound o f the alarm] they
shall begin to bring down the slain. All the people shall cease their clam
our, but the Priests shall continue to blow [the trumpets o f Massacre and
battle shall be fought against the Kittim.]
. . . and in the third l o t . . . that the slain may fall [by the mysteries] o f
G od . . .

XVIII

[In the seventh lot] when the great hand o f G od is

raised in an everlasting blow against Belial and all the hosts o f his king
dom, and when Assyria is pursued [amidst the shouts o f Angels] and the
clamour o f the H oly Ones, the sons o f Japheth shall fall to rise no more.

183

15

THE

RULES

T h e Kittim shall be crushed without [remnant, and no man shall be

saved from among them].
[At that time, on the day] when the hand o f the G od o f Israel is raised
against all the multitude o f Belial, the Priests shall blow [the six trum
pets] o f the Reminder and all the battle formations shall rally to them
5 and shall divide against all the [camps o f the] Kittim to destroy them
utterly. [And as] the sun speeds to its setting on that day, the H igh Priest
shall stand, together [with the Levites] who are with him and the [tribal]
chiefs [and the elders] o f the army, and they shall bless the G od o f Israel
there. Speaking they shall say:
Blessed be T h y Name, O G od [of gods], for T h o u hast worked great
marvels [with T h y people]! T h o u hast kept T h y Covenant with us from
o f old, and hast opened to us the gates o f salvation many times. For the
[sake o f T h y Covenant T h o u hast removed our misery, in accordance
with] T h y [goodness] towards us. T h o u hast acted for the sake o f T h y
Nam e, O G od o f righteousness . . . [Thou hast worked a marvellous]
10 miracle [for us], and from ancient times there never was anything like it.
F o r T h o u didst know the time appointed for us and it has appeared
[before us] this day . . . [Thou hast shown] us [T h y merciful hand] in
everlasting redemption by causing [the dominion of] the enemy to fall
back for ever. (Thou hast shown us) T h y mighty hand in [a stroke o f
destruction in the war against all] our enemies.
And now the day speeds us to the pursuit o f their multitude . . . T h o u
hast delivered up the hearts o f the brave so that they stand no more. Fo r
Th in e is the power, and the battle is in T h y hands! . . .

X IX F o r our

Sovereign is holy and the K ing o f G lo ry is with us; the [host o f his spir
its is with our foot-soldiers and horsemen. T h e y are as clouds, as clouds
o f dew] covering the earth, and as a shower o f rain shedding righteous
ness on [all that grows there].
[Rise up, O H ero!
Lead o ff T h y captives, O Glorious O n e!
Gather up] T h y spoils, O Author o f mighty deeds!
L a y T h y hand on the neck o f Thine enemies
and T h y feet [on the pile o f the slain!
Smite the nations, Thine adversaries],
and devour flesh with T h y sword!
Fill T h y land with glory
and T hine inheritance with blessing!
184

THE

WAR SCROLL

[Let there be a multitude o f cattle in T h y fields,

and in] T h y palaces
[silver and gold and precious stones]!
O Zion, rejoice greatly!

Rejoice all you cities o f Judah!

[Keep your gates ever open
that the] hosts o f the nations
[may be brought in]!
T h eir kings shall serve you
and all your oppressors shall bow down before you;
[they shall lick the dust o f your feet.
Shout for joy, O daughters of] my people!
D eck yourselves with glorious jewels
[and rule over the kingdom o f the nations!
Sovereignty shall be to the Lord]
and everlasting dominion to Israel.

(iQ M combined with 4Q M b=4Q492)

{Then they shall gather in} the camp that night to rest until the morn
ing. And in the morning {they shall go to the place where the formation
stood before the} warriors o f the Kittim fell, as well as the multitudes o f
Assyria, and the hosts o f all the [assembled] nations {to discover whether}
the multitude o f the stricken are dead {with none to bury them}, those
who fell there under the Sword o f God. And the H igh Priest shall draw
near, [with his vicar, and the chief Priests] {and the Levites} with the
Prince o f the battle, and all the chiefs o f the formations and their num
bered men; [they shall return to the positions which they held before
the] slain [began to fall] from among the Kittim, and there they shall
praise the G od {the M ost H ig h } . . .

185

10

The War Scroll from Cave 4

(4Q491.493)

Of the two groups of fragments belonging to Ma (4Q491), the first echoes sec
tions from columns 11, vn, xvi and xvn of iQM, but it also contains passages
without parallels there. The second unit, a poem, entitled by the editor The
Song of Michael and of the Just, is additional to iQM.
As for the manuscript designated Mc (4Q493), its surviving lines recall iQM
v i i , xvi, etc., but do not represent the same recension.

M a = 4 Q 4 9 1 , frs. 1 - 3
. . . T h ere shall be one thousand cubits between the [camp and the
5 latrine and] no nakedness [whatever] shall be seen in their surroundings.
And when they set out to prepare the battle [to cur]b [the enemy, there
shall be] among them some exempted in the lot o f each tribe according
to their numbered men for [each] days duty. On that day, some men
from all their tribes shall set out from their camps towards the House o f
M eeting . . . the [Priest] s, the Levites, and all the chiefs o f the camps
shall go out towards them. T h e y will pass there before . . . according to
10 the Thousands, Hundreds, Fifties and Tens. W hoever shall not [be clean
because o f his fount on] that [nig]ht shall not go with them to the
battle, for the holy angels shall be with their formations together . . .
W h en the formation called up for that days battle to pass to a ll. . . o f the
war, three formations shall stand, formations behind formations. T h e y
shall set a space between [all] the formations [and they shall go out] to
battle in succession. These are the [foot-soldie]rs and beside them the
[horse]men. [T hey shall stand between the forma]tions. And if they set
up an ambush for a formation, the three ambushing formations shall be
at a distance and shall not ri[se] . . . o f the war and they [shall he]ar the
trumpets o f Alarm and the [foot-] soldiers [will begin to bring dow]n the
186

T H E WAR SC ROL L FROM CAVE 4

guilty dead. Afterwards the ambush shall rise from its hiding-place
arranged in formations. The reassembly: from the right and from the
left, from be[hind and from the front, f Jour direction[s]... in the battles of
annihilation. And all the formations engaged in combat with the ene[my
will be in] one [place. The f]irst formation [will go out to the battle] and
the second stand ... on their post. With the completion of their time, the
first shall return and rise ... The sec[ond] ... When the battle is joined.
And the second formation shall have completed its time and they shall
return and st[and on their post]. And the th[ird] ...
And the chief Priest and his brethren, [the Priests, and] the Levites and
the m[en of the orde]r [shall stand]. And the Priests shall blow the trum
pets continuously ... and a girdle of fine cloth of flax embroidered with
blue, purple and scarlet threads, a many-coloured design produced by a
craftsman, and a fine linen tunic and fine linen breeches and a mitred
turban [on their heads]. They shall not take them to the sanctuary f[or]
they are ba[ttle] raiments. According to all this rule ...

The Book of War

(4Q285,11Q14)

A collection of ten small fragments, designated by J. T . Milik as Serekb kaMilhamah or Rule of War, are akin to the War Scroll, probably representing its
missing end section. Allusions are found to Levites blowing trumpets (fr. 8), to the
archangel Michael (fr. 10), to the Prince of the Congregation, identified as the
Branch of David (frs. 4 and 7), as well as to the Kittim and their slain (frs. 2, 4, 7),
all familiar from iQ M . The poorly preserved benediction (fr. 8) can be recon
structed with the help of 1 1Q 14 which contains, however, some notable variants.
Fragment 4 seems to identify the defeated opponent as the biblical Gog (Ezek.
xxxix), the chief foe of the final age, here no doubt equated with the king of the
Kittim. Fragment 7, erroneously labelled by some as the Pierced Messiah frag
ment, is based on an interpretation of Isa. x, 34-xi, 1, and should be read in con
nection with 4 Q 16 1, frs. 8-10, an Isaiah Commentary from Cave 4, and the
Blessing of the Prince of the Congregation (iQ Sb, v, 20-29), both referring to the
triumphant Davidic Messiah, expected to put an opponent, no doubt the king of
the Kittim, to death. Only frs. 1, 4, 7 and 8 are suitable for translation.
For the editio princeps, see P. S. Alexander and G. Vermes, DJD, XXXVI,
228-46. For 11Q 14 , see F. Garcia Martinez et al., D JD , XXIII, 2 4 3-51. For a
preliminary study, see G. Vermes, The Oxford Forum for Qumran Research:
Seminar on the Rule of War (4 0 2 8 5), J J S 43 (1992), 85-90.

4Q 285, fr. 1
... because of Thy name and ... Michael, G[abrie]l, [Sariel and Raphael]
... with the elect o f ...

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R U L E OF W A R

4Q 285, fr. 4
... wickedness will be smitten ... [the Prin]ce of the Congregation and
all Is[rael] ... [which wa]s written [in the book of Ezekiel the Prophet,
I will strike your bowfrom your left hand and will make your arrows dropfrom
your right hand.] On the mountains of [Israel you shallfall] ... [the king of]
the Kittim ... [the Pr]ince of the congregation [will pursue them] as far
as the [Great] Sea ... [and they shall fle]e from before Israel. In that time
... he shall stand against them and they shall be stirred against them ...
and they shall return to the dry land. In that time ... and they shall bring
him (the king of the Kittim?) before the Prince [of the Congregation]

4Q 285, fr. 7
The Messiah, Branch o f David
[As it is written in the book of] Isaiah the Prophet, [The thickets oftheforest]
will be cut [down with an axe and Lebanon by a majestic one will f]a ll. And
there shall come forth a shoot from the stump ofJesse [ ... ] the Branch of
David and they will enter into judgement with [ . . . ] and the Prince of
the Congregation, the Br[anch of David] will kill him [ .. . by strok]es
and by wounds. And a Priest [of renown(?)] will command [ ... the
s]lai[n] of the Kittd[m ... ]

4Q 285, fir. 8
[Answering, he shall say] to the sons of [I]srael: May you be blessed in
the name of the Most High [God] ... and may His holy name be blessed
for ever and ever. [May all His holy angels be blessed. May] the M[ost
High] God [bless] you. [May He shine His face towards you and open
for you His] good [treasure] which is in heaven [to bring down on your
land] showers of blessing, dew, rain, [early rain] and late rain in His/its
time, and to give [you the fruit of the produce of com, wine and o]il
plentiful. And may the land [prod]uce for [you fruits of delight. And you
shall eat and grow fa]t. And there shall be no miscarriage [in yo]ur [la]n[d]
and no [sickness, blight or mildew] shall be seen in [its] produ[ce. And
there shall be no loss of children n]or stumbling in [your] congrega[tion,
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and wild beasts shall withdraw] from your land and there shall be no
pestil[ence in your land.] Fo r G o d is wi[th you and His holy angels stand
10 in your congregation, and His] holy [name] shall be invoked upon you
. . . in your m id st. . .

11Q 14
And he shall bless them in the name [of the God] o f Israel. Answering he
shall s a y ,. . . to the sons o f Israel: M ay [yo]u be blessed for ever and ever
and may H is . . . be blessed . . . and may His holy angels be blessed. M a y
5 the M ost H igh G od bless you. M ay H e shine H is face towards you and
open to you H is good treasure which is in heaven to bring down on your
land showers o f blessing, dew, rain, early rain and late rain in His/its time
to give you the fruit o f the produce o f corn, wine and oil plentiful. M a y
the land produce for you fruits o f delight. And you shall eat and grow fat.
10 And there shall be no miscarriage in your land and no sickness, blight or
mildew shall be seen in its produce. There shall be no loss o f children, nor
stumbling in your congregation and the wild beasts shall withdraw from
[your land.] T h e sword shall not pass through your land. For G od is with
you and H is holy angels shall be present in your congregation, and H is
holy name shall be invoked upon you.

The Temple Scroll

(i iQ T = u Q i 9 - 2 i, 4 0 3 6 5 a , 4Q 524)

Discovered in 1956 in Cave 11, the Temple Scroll did not emerge from semiclandestinity until the Six Day War in June 1967. It is the longest Qumran
manuscript, measuring over twenty-eight feet. There are also other fragments
pertaining to the same document from Cave 11 (11Q 20) and from Cave 4
(403653). Originally it consisted of sixty-seven columns.
The major part of the scroll deals with the Temple (building and furniture)
and cultic worship, especially sacrifices on Sabbaths and the many feasts of the
year. Most of the legislation depends, directly or indirectly, on Exodus, Leviticus,
and more particularly on Deuteronomy, but there are also occasional non-biblical
regulations. The beginning of the manuscript is badly mutilated. Column 1 is
missing. Columns m -x ii are so fragmented that only a very hypothetical recon
struction, exclusively from biblical texts, is possible (cf. most extensively
E. Qimron, The Temple Scroll, 1996). I have decided not to translate them but
indicate their probable contents in the summary that follows:
1. Covenant between God and Israel (11).
2. Building of the Temple, measurements of the Sanctuary, the Holy of
Holies, the chambers and colonnades (m -vii).

3. Description of the mercy seat, the cherubim, the veil, the table, the golden
lamp-stand, etc. ( v i i - x i ) .
4. Outline

of

the sacrifices and the altar ( x i - x i i ).

5. Daily, weekly and monthly sacrifices and those offered on festivals

(x iii-x x ix ).

6. Buildings in the Temple courtyards: the stairhouse, the house of the laver,
the house for sacred vessels, the slaughterhouse, etc. (xxx-xxxv).
7. The three courtyards of the Temple, one for the priests, one for Jewish men
over twenty years of age, and one for women and children

(x x x v i-x lv ).

8. Purity regulations concerning the Temple and the city of the Sanctuary
(X LV IX L V IIl).

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T HE RULES

9. Purity regulations concerning the cities of Israel (x l v iii - l i ).

10. Judges and officers (li ).
11. Laws relating to idolatry and to sacrificial animals (li - l iii ).
12. Vows and oaths (l iii - l iv ).
13. Laws against apostasy (liv - lv ).
14. Laws relating to priests and Levites and detailed statutes of the Jewish king
(lv i - l ix ).
15. Miscellaneous laws regarding priesdy dues, idols, witnesses, the conduct of
war, the rebellious son, crimes punishable by hanging, and incestuous rela
tions (lx - lxv i ).
The sequence of subjects generally follows the Bible, but an obvious effort has
been made to systematize, harmonize and reinterpret the laws. Sections comple
mentary to Scripture include the Temple legislation (m -xii,

xxx - x lv ),

festivals (x v ii - x xix ), purity material as rules relating to the Temple and the city
(x lv i x l v ii ), and the statutes of the king (lv i - lix ). The aim of the redactor is
to present the message of the scroll not as an interpretation of the Bible, but as
an immediate divine revelation. For this purpose, not only does he formulate the
supplementary legislation as direcdy spoken by God, but also frequendy sub
stitutes I for the Lord = Y H W H of Scripture.
Although the view has been advanced that the Temple Scroll is not a Qumran
composition, the contrary thesis has a solid foundation. The relationship between
this writing and the Damascus Document is particularly striking in the case of
the prohibition of royal polygamy, of marriage between uncle and niece, and of
marital relations within the city of the Sanctuary (compare C D iv, 20-v, 11;
xii, 1-2 with T S lv ii, 16 -18 ; lx v i, 1 5 -1 7 ; x lv , 11-12 ), to name the most
significant instances. Note also that the death penalty of hanging (probably
crucifixion) reserved for traitors appears both in T S lx iv , 6 -13 and in the
Nahum Commentary (cf. p. 504). Since the Damascus Document and the
Nahum Commentary are more likely to depend on the Temple Scroll than vice
versa, the latter may safely be dated to the second century bce. But it may also
have an antecedent history reaching back to the pre-Q u m ran age.

As noted, Cave 4 has also yielded five fairly mutilated fragments (40365a),
palaeographically dated to the mid-first century

bce ,

some of which have been

used by Yadin. Fragment 1 deals with the festival of Unleavened Bread (1 iQ T S

x v ii ,

11); fragment 2 corresponds to 1 1Q T S xxxvm , 4 -1 5 while the other

three fragments cannot be placed within the known version of the text.
The composition is available in a magisterial edition by Yigael Yadin, who
first published it in Hebrew in 1977 and subsequendy, shortly before his death,

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T HE T E M P L E S C R OL L

in English under the tide The Temple Scroll /-/// (Jerusalem, 1983). M y trans
lation is often indebted to Yadins editorial work. Further improvements are due
to E. Qimron, The Temple Scroll: A Critical Edition with Extensive Reconstructions
(Beer-Sheva/Jerusalem, 1996). For 11Q 2 0 -2 1, see F. Garcia Martinez et al.,
DJD, XXIII, 357 -4 14 . For 4 0 36 5a , see S. White, D JD , X III, 319 -33. For
4Q 524, see E. Puech, D JD , XXV, 7 9 -114 .

II [Behold, I will make a covenant.]

[For it is something dreadful that I] will do [to you.] [I myself will
expel from before you] the A[morites, the Canaanites, the Hittites, the
Girgashit]es, the Pe[rizzites, the Hivites and] the Jebusites. Ta[ke care
not to make a cove]nant with the inhabitants of the country [which you
are to] enter so that they may not prove a sn[are for you.] You must
destroy their [alta]rs, [smash their] pillars [and] cut down their [sacred
trees and bum] [their] idols [with fire]. You must not desire silver and
gold so [that you may not be ensnared by them; for that would be abom
inable to me]. You must [not] br[ing any abominable idol] into your
house [and come] under the ban together with it. You shall deftest and
abominate it], for it is under the ban. You shall not worship [another]
go[d, for YH W H , whose name is] [Jealous], is a jealous God. Take care
not to make a [covenant with the inhabitants of the country] [so that,
when they whore] after [their go]ds [and] sacrifice to [them and invite
you,] [you may not eat of their sacrifices and] t[ake their daughters for
your sons, and their daughters may not whore after] their [gods] and
cau[se your sons to whore after them.] .. .*
X III [This is what you shall offer on the altar:] t[wo y]ear[ling lambs]
without blemish [every day as a perpetual holocaust. You shall offer the
first in the morning; and you shall offer the other lamb in the evening; the
corresponding grain-offering will be a te]nth of fine flour mixed with [a
quarter of a hin of beaten oil; it shall be a perpetual holocaust of sooth
ing odour, an offering by fire] to Y H W H ; and the corresponding drinkoffering shall be a quart[er of a hin of] wine. [The priest who offers the
holocaust shall receive the skin of] the burnt-[offering which he has
offered. You shall offer the other lamb in the even]ing with the same
grain-[offering as in the] morning and with the corresponding drinkoffering as an offering by fire, a soothing odour to Y H W H ...
On the S[abbath] days you shall offer two [yearling rams without
1. For the contents of the badly damaged columns m -x ii, see p. 19 1.

x93

10

15
10

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T HE RULES

10

15

blemish and two] XIV [tenths of an ephah of fine flour, mixed with oil,
for a grain-offering and the corresponding drink-offering. This is the
holocaust of every Sabbath in addition to the perpetual holocaust and
the corresponding drink-offering. On the first day of each month you
shall offer a holocaust to Y H W H : two young bulls, one ram, seven
yearling rams without blemish and a grain-offe]ring of fine flour, [three
tenths of an ephah] mix[ed with half a hin of oil, and a drink-offering,
ha] If a hin for [each young bull and a grain-offering of fine flour mixed
with oil, two tenths of an ephah] with a third [of a hin, and wine for a
drink-offering, one third of a bin for each ram;] ... one tenth [of fine
flour for] a grain-[offering, mixed with a quarter of a bin, and wine, a
quarter of a ht]n for each lamb ... a soothing [odour] to Y H W H on the
first day of each month. This is the burnt-offering for each month for
the months of the year... On the first day of the [first] month [the months
(of the year) shall start; it shall be the first month] of the year [for you.
You shall do no] work. [You shall offer a he-goat for a sin-offering.] It
shall be offered by itself to expiate [for you. You shall offer a holocaust:
a bullock], a ram, [seven yearlong ram lambs [without blemish] ...
[ad]di[tdonal to the bu]r[nt-offering for the new moon, and a grainoffering of three tenths of fine flour mixed with oil], half a hin [for each
bullock, and wi]ne for a drink-offering, [half a hin, a soothing odour to
Y H W H , and two] tenths of fine flour mixed [with oil, one third of a hin.
You shall offer wine for a drink-offering,] one th[ird] of a hin for the
ram, [an offering by fire, of soothing odour to Y H W H ; and one tenth of
fine flour], a grain-offerin[g mixed with a quarter of a bin of oil. You
shall offer wine for a drink-offering, a quarter of a hin] for each [ram] ...
lambs and for the he-g[oat] ... XV [ea]ch day ... seven [year] ling
[lambs] and a he-[goat] ... according to this statute. For the ordination
(of the priests), one ram for each [day, and] baskets of bread for all the
ra[ms of the ordination, one basket for] each [ram]. They shall divide all
the rams and the baskets for the seve[n days of the ordination for each]
day; according to [their] division[s, they shall offer to Y H W H the right
thigh] of the ram as a holocaust and [the fat covering the entrails and the]
two kidneys and the fat on them [and on] the loins and the whole fat tail
close to the backbone and the appendage of the liver and the corre
sponding grain-offering and drink-offering according to the sta[tute.
They shall take one unleavened cake from the] basket and one cake of
bread with oil and [one] wafer, [and they shall put it all on the fat]
together with the offering of the right thigh. Those who sacrifice shall
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T HE T E M P L E S C R OL L

wave the rams and the baskets of bread as a wa[ve-offering be] fore
YH WH. This is a holocaust, an offering by fire, of soothing odour before
YH W H . [They shall burn everything on the altar over] the holocaust,
to complete their ordination during the seven days of [ordination].
If the High Priest is to [minister to Y H W H , whoever] has been
ordained to put on the vestments in place of his father, shall offer [a bull
fo]r all the people and another for the priests. He shall offer the one for
the priests first. The elders of the priest[s] shall lay [their hands] X V I
[on] its [hea]d and after them the High Priest and all the [priests. They
shall slaughter] the bull [before YH W H ]. The elders of the priests shall
take from the blood of the bull and [place] it [with their finger on the
horns of the altar] and they shall pour [the blood] around the four comers
of the [altar] ledge ... [and they shall take from its blood and pi] ace it
[on his right ear lobe and on the thumb of his right hand and the big toe
of his] right [foot. They shall sprinkle on him and his vestments some of
the blood which was on the altar]... [he] shall be [holy] all his days. [He
shall not go near any dead body]. He shall [not] render himself unclean
[even for his father or mother,] for [he is] hol[y to Y H W H , his God] ...
[He shall offer on the al]tar and burn [the fat of the first bull] ... [all] the
fat on the entrails and [the appendage of the liver and the two ladne]ys and
the fat on the[m] and [the fat on] the loins, and the corresponding grainoffering and drink-[offering according to their statute,] he shall bur[n
them on the altar.] It shall be [a burnt-] offering, an offering by fire, of
soothing odour be [fore Y H W H . The flesh of the bull], its skin and offal,
they shall burn outside the [sanctuary city on a wood fire] in a place
reserved for sin-offerings. There they shall bur[n it with its head and legs]
together with all its entrails. They shall burn all of it there except the fat.
It is a sin-[offering]. He shall take the second bull, which is for the people,
and by it he shall expiate [for all the people of] the assembly, by its blood
and fat. As he did with the fir[st] bull, [so he shall do] with the bull of the
assembly. He shall place with his finger some of its blood on the horns of
the [altar, and the remainder of] its blood, he shall sprinkle o[n the f]our
corners of the altar ledge, and [its fat and] the corresponding [grain-]
offering and drink-offering, he shall bum on the altar. It is a sin-offering
for the assembly. X V II ... They shall rejoice because expiation has
been made for them ... This day [shall] be a holy gathering for them,
[an eternal rule for all their generations] wherever they dwell. They shall
rejoice and ...
[Let] them [prepare on the fourtee]nth day of the first month
*95

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T HE RULES

10

15

10

15

10

15

[between dusk and dark the Passover of YH W H ]. They shall sacrifice

(it) before the evening offering and shall sacrifice ... men from twenty
years of age and over shall prepare it. They shall eat it at night in the
holy courts. They shall rise early and each shall go to his tent...
On the fifteenth day of this month (there shall be) a ho[ly] gathering.
You shall do no work of labour on it. (It shall be) a seven-day feast of
unleavened bread for Y H W H . You shall offer on each of the[se] seven
days a holocaust to YH W H : two young bulls, a ram, and seven ram lambs
without blemish and a he-goat for a sin-offering and the corresponding
grain-offering and drink-offering [according to the stajtute for the young
bulls, rams, l[am]bs and the he-goat. On the seventh day [(there shall be)
an assembly] for [YHWH]. You shall do no work on it. XVIII ... [he-]
goat for a sin-offering ... [the corresponding grain-offering and drink-]
offering according to the statute; one tenth of fine flour [mixed with a
quarter of a bin of oil and] a quarter of a bin of wine for a drink-offering
... [he shall expiate] for all the guilt of the people of the assembly ...
This shall be an eternal [ru]le for you [for your generations wherever
you dwell.] Then they shall offer the one ram, on[ce], on the day of the
waving of the sheaf.
You shall count seven complete Sabbaths from the day of your bring
ing the sheaf of [the wave-offering. You shall c]ount until the morrow of
the seventh Sabbath. You shall count [fifty] days. You shall bring a new
grain-offering to Y H W H from your homes, [a loaf of fine fl]ou[r],
freshly baked with leaven. They are firstfruits to Y H W H , wheat bread,
twe[lve cakes, two] tenths of fine flour in each cake ... the tribes of
Israel. They shall offer XIX ... their [grain-offerin]g and dr [ink-offer
ing] according to the statute. The [priests] shall wave ... [wave-offering
with the bread of] the firstfruits. They shall b[elong to] the priests and
they shall eat them in the [inner] court[yard], [as a ne]w [grain-offering],
the bread of the firstfruits. Then ... new bread from freshly ripened
ears. [On this] da[y] there shall be [a holy gathering, an eter]nal [rule] for
their generations. [They] shall [do] no work. It is the feast of Weeks and
the feast of Firstfruits, an eterna[l] memorial.
You [shall count] seven weeks from the day when you bring the new
grain-offering to YHW [H ], the bread of firstfruits. Seven full Sabbaths
[shall elapse un]til you have counted fifty days to the morrow of the
seventh Sabbath. [You] shall [bring] new wine for a drink-offering, four
bins from all the tribes of Israel, one third of a bin for each tribe.
They shall offer on this day with the wine twelve rams to Y H W H ; all
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the chiefs of the clans of Israel XX ... [r]ams and the corresponding
grain-offering according to the statute: two [tenths of fine flour mixed
with oil, one third of a h]in of oil for a ram; with this drink-offering ...
seven yearling ram lambs and a he-[goat] ... assembly ... their [grainoffering and drink-offering] (shall be) according to the statute concern
ing young bulls and the ram ... to Y H W H . At the quarter of the day,
they shall offer ... [the r]ams and the drink-offering. They shall offer ...
fourteen yearling ram lambs ... the burnt-offering. They shall prepare
them ... and they shall burn their fat on the altar, [the fat covering the
entrails] and the fat that is on them, and [the appendage of the liver with]
the kidneys he shall remove and the fat on [them], and that which is on
the loins and the fat tail close to the backbone. They shall b[um all on
the altar] together with the corresponding grain-offering and drinkoffering, an offering by fire, of soothing odou[r before YH W H ]. They
shall offer every grain-offering joined to a drink-offering according to
[the statute]. They shall take a handful from [eve]ry grain-offering
offered either with frankincense or dry, (this being) its [memorial portion],
and bum it on the altar. They shall eat the remainder in the [in]n[er]
courtyard. The priests shall e[a]t it unleavened. It shall not be eaten with
leaven. It shall be ea[ten] on that day [before] sun[se]t. They shall salt all
their offerings. You shall never allow the covenant of salt to fail.
They shall offer to Y H W H an offering from the rams and the lambs,
the right thigh, the breast, [the cheeks, the stomac]h and the foreleg as
far as the shoulder bone, and they shall wave them as a wave-offering.
XXI [The priests] portions [shall] be the thigh of the offering and the
breast... [the foreleg]s, the cheeks and the stomachs ... [as an eternal
rule, from the children of Isra]el and the shoulder remaining of the fore
leg [shall be for the Levites] ... an eternal rule for them and for their
seed . . the princes of the Thousands ... [from] the rams and from [the
lambs, one ram and one ram lamb (shall belong) to the priests; to the
Levites], one [ra]m, one lamb; and to every [tribe, on]e [ram], one lamb
for all the tri[bes], the [twe]lve tribes of Israel. They shall eat them [on
that day, in the out]er [courtyard] before Y H W H .
... [the priest] s shall drink there first and the Levites [second] ... the
princes of the standards first... [men of] renown. After them the whole
people, from the great to the small, shall begin to drink the new wine.
They [shall not e]a[t] any un[ri]pe grapes from the vines, for [on] this
[da]y they shall expiate for the tirosb. The children of Israel shall rejoice
before Y H W H , an eternal [rule] for their generations wherever they
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THE RULES

10 dwell. They shall rejoice on [this] d[ay for they have begun] to pour out
an intoxicating drink-offering, the new wine, on the altar of Y H W H ,
year by year.
[You sha]ll count from that day seven weeks, seven times (seven days),
forty-nine days; there shall be seven full Sabbaths; until the morrow of
15 the seventh Sabbath you shall count fifty days. You shall then offer new
oil
from the homes of [the tr]ibes of the children of Isjrael, half a bin
from a tribe, new beaten oil ... oil on the altar of the holocaust, firstfruits before Y H W H . X X II ... [shall expi]ate with it for all the con
gregation before [YHWH] ... with this oil, half a bin ... [according to
the st]atute, a holocaust, an offering by fire, of soothing [odour to
YH W H ] ... [With] this oil they shall light the lamps ... the princes of
the Thousands with ... fourteen [yearling] m[ale lamb]s and the corre
sponding grain-offering and drink-offering ... [for the lambs and] the
5 rams. The Levites shall slaughter ... [and] the priests, the sons of Aaron,
[shall spri]nkle their blood [on the altar all around] ... [and] they shall
bum their fat on the altar of the [holocaust] ... [and the corresponding
grain-offering] and drink-offering, they shall bum over the fats ... [an
offering by fire, of soothing odour to] Y H W H . They shall take away
10 fr[om] ... the right thigh and the breast... the cheeks and the stomach
shall be the priests* portion according to the statute concerning them.
(They shall give) to the Levites the shoulder. Afterwards they shall bring
them (the offerings) out to the children of Israel, and the children of Israel
shall give the prie[st]s one ram, one lamb, and to the Levites, one ram,
one lamb, and to each tribe, one ram, one lamb. They shall eat them on
that day in the outer courtyard before Y H W H , an eternal rule for their
15 generations, year by year. Afterwards they shall eat from the olives and
anoint themselves with the new oil, for on this day they shall expiate for
[al]l [the o]il of the land before Y H W H once yearly. They shall rejoice
X X III ...
The High Priest shall offer the [holocaust of the Levites] first, and
10 afterwards he shall send up in smoke the holocaust of the tribe of Judah,
and w[hen he] is sending it up in smoke, they shall slaughter before him
the he-goat first and he shall lift up its blood in a bowl to the altar and
with his finger he shall pu[t some] of the blood to the four horns of the
alta[r] of the holocaust and to the four comers of the altar ledge, and
shall toss the blood towards the bas[e] of the altar ledge all around. He
15 shall bum its fat on the altar, the fat covering the entrails and that over
the entrails. The appendage of the liver with the kidneys he shall remove
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as well as the fat over them and on the loins. He shall send up in smoke
all of them on the altar together with the corresponding grain-offering
and drink-offering, an offering by fire of soothing odour to Y H W H . And
XXIV ... the flesh, of [soothing] odour; it shall be [an offering by fire
to YH W H . Thus they must do to every] young bull, and to every ram
and to [every lamb] and its limbs (?) shall remain apart. The correspond
ing [grain-offering] and drink-offering shall be on it, an [eternal] rule for
your generations before Y H W H .
After this holocaust he shall offer the holocaust of the tribe of Judah
separately. As he has done with the holocaust of the Levites, so shall he
do with the holocaust of the children of Judah after the Levites. On the
second day he shall first offer the holocaust of Benjamin and after it
he shall offer the holocaust of the children of Joseph, Ephraim and
Manasseh together. On the third day, he shall offer the holocaust of
Reuben separately, and the holocaust of Simeon separately. On the fourth
day he shall offer the holocaust of Issachar separately and the holocaust
of Zebulun separately. On the fifth day he shall offer the holocaust of
Gad separately and the holocaust of Asher separately. On the sixth day
XXV [he shall offer the holocaust of Dan separately and the holocaust
of Naphtali separately] ...
In the [seventh] m[onth, on the first day of the month, you shall have]
a sacred rest, a remembrance announced by a trumpet blast, a [holy]
ga[thering. You shall offer a holocaust, an offering by fire, of soothing
odour be]fore Y H W H . You shall o[ffer on]e [young bull,] one ram,
seve[n] ye [ar] ling [lamb]s [without blemish and one he-goat for a sinoffering, and] the corresponding grain-offering and drink-offering
according to the statute concerning the[m, of soothing odour to
YH W H , in addition to] the perpetual [holocaus]t [and the holo]caust of
the new moon. Afterwards [you shall offer] this [holocaust] at the third
part of the day, an eternal rule for your generation [s wherever you
dwell.] You shall rejoice on this day. On it you shall do no work. A sacred
rest shall this day be for you.
The tenth of this month is the Day of Atonement. You shall mortify
yourselves. For any person who does not mortify himself on this self
same day shall be cut off from his people. You shall offer on it a holocaust
to Y H W H : one young bull, one ram, seven ram lambs, one he-goat for
a sin-offering, in addition to the sin-offering of the atonement and the
corresponding grain-offering and drink-offering according to the statute
concerning the young bull, the ram, the lambs and the he-goat. For the
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io

sin-offering of the atonement you shall offer two rams for holocaust.
The High Priest shall offer one for himself and his fathers house
XXVI ... [The High Prie]st [shall cast lots on the two goats,] o[ne] lot
for Y H W H and one for Azazel. He shall slaughter the goat [on] which
[Y H W H s lot has fallen and shall lift up] its blood in a golden bowl
which is in [his ha]nd, [and do] with its blo[od as he has done with the
blood of] his young bull and shall expiate with it for all the people of the
assembly. He shall send up in smoke its fat and the corresponding grainand drink-offering on the altar of the holocaust. Its flesh, skin and dung
they shall bum beside his young bull. It is a sin-offering for the whole
assembly. He shall expiate with it for all the people of the assembly and
it shall be forgiven to them. He shall wash his hands and feet of the
blood of the sin-offering and shall come to the living goat and shall con
fess over its head the iniquities of the children of Israel together with all
their guilt, all their sins. He shall put them on the head of the goat and
despatch it to Azazel in the desert by the hand of the man who is waiting
ready. The goat shall bear all the iniquities of (the children of Israel).
XXVII ... [and he shall expiate] for all the children of Israel and it
shall be forgiven to them ... Afterwards he shall offer the young bull,
the r[a]m, and [the lambs, according to] the [sta]tute relating to them, on
the altar of the holocaust, and the [ho]locaust will be accepted for the
children of Israel, an eternal rule for their generations. Once a year this
day shall be for them a memorial. They shall do no work on it, for it
shall be [to] them a Sabbath of sacred rest. Whoever shall do work on it
or shall not mortify himself on it, shall be cut off from the midst of his
people. A Sabbath of sacred rest, a holy gathering shall this day be for
you. You shall sanctify it as a memorial wherever you dwell and you shall
do no work.
On the fifteenth day of this month XXVIII . . . [the corresponding]
grain-offering [and drink-offering, all on] the altar, an offering by fire, of
s[oothing odour to Y H W H . On] the second [day:] twelve young bulls,
[two rams, four] teen [lambs] and one he-goat [for a sin-offerin]g [and
the corresponding gr]ai[n-offering and drink-offering] according to the
statute concerning the young bulls, the ram[s], the lambs [and] the hegoat; it is an offering by fire, of soothing odour to Y H W H .
On the third day eleven young bulls, two rams, fourteen lambs and
one he-goat for a sin-offering and the corresponding grain-offering and
drink-offering according to the statute concerning the young bulls, the
rams, the lambs and the he-goat.
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On the fo[ur]th day ten young bulls, two rams, fourteen yearling ram
lambs and one he-goat for a sin-offering and the corresponding grainoffering and drink-offering for the young bulls, XXIX [the rams, the
lambs and the he-goat... On the fifth day... and the corresponding grainoffering] and drink-offer[ing] ... in the house on which I [shall cause]
my name to rest... holocausts, [each on its] day according to the law of this
statute, always from the children of Israel in addition to their freewillofferings in regard to all that they offer, their drink-offerings and all
their gifts that they shall bring to me in order to be acceptable. I shall
accept them and they shall be my people and I shall be for them for ever.
I will dwell with them for ever and ever and will sanctify my [sa]nctuary
by my glory. I will cause my glory to rest on it until the day of creation
on which I shall create my sanctuary, establishing it for myself for all time
according to the covenant which I have made with Jacob in Bethel.
XXX ... You shall make ... for stairs, a stair[case] ... in the house
which you shall build ... You [shall make] a staircase north of the Temple,
a square house, twenty cubits from one corner to the other alongside its
four corners. Its distance from the wall of the Temple shall be seven
cubits on the north-west. You shall make the width of its wall four cubits
... like the Temple and its inside from corner to corner twelv[e cubits.]
(There shall be) a square column in its middle, in the centre; its width
four cubits on each side around which the stairs wind ... XXXI In the
upper chamber of [this] ho [use you shall make a ga]te opening to the
roof of the Temple and a way (shall be) made through this gate towards
the entrance ... of the Temple by which one can reach the upper chamber
of the Temple. Overlay with gold [a] 11 this stairhouse, its walls, its gates
and its roof, from inside [and from] outside, its column and its stairs.
[You] shall do everything as I tell you. You shall make a square house for
the laver in the south-east, on all its sides, (each) twenty-one cubits; fifty
cubits distant from the altar. The width of the wall shall be four cubits,
and the height [t]wenty cubits ... Make gates for it on the east, on the
north and on the west. The width of the gates shall be four cubits and
the height seven XXXII ... You shall make in the wall of this house,
on the inside, recesses, and in them ... one cubit (in) width and their
height four cubits above the ground. They shall be overlaid with gold on
which they shall place their clothes which they have worn on arrival.
Above the house of the ... when they come to minister in the sanctuary.
You shall make a trench around the laver beside its house and the trench
shall go [from the house of] the laver to a cavity. It shall descend

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[rapid] ly to the ground where the water shall flow and disappear. It shall
15 not be touched by any man for it is mingled with the blood of the holo
caust. XXXIII They shall sanctify my people in the sacred vestments
which ...
You shall make a house east of the house of the [l]av[er] according to
the measurement of [the house of the bas]in. Its wall shall be at a dis
tance of seven cubits from the wall of the house of the laver. Its whole
building and rafters shall be like (those of) the house of the laver. It shall
10 have two gates on the north and the south, one opposite the other,
according to the measurement of the gates of the house of the laver.
Inside all the walls of this house shall have apertures, their width (and
15 depth) two cubits each and their height four (?) with which the entrails
and the feet are raised to the altar. When they have completed the send
ing up in smoke XXXIV ... They close the wheels and ... and tie the
5 horns of the young bulls to the rings and ... by the rings. Afterwards
they shall slaughter them and collect [the blood] in bowls and toss it
around the altar base. They shall open the wheels and strip the skin of
the young bulls from their flesh and cut them up into pieces, salt the
10 pieces, wash the entrails and the legs, salt them and send them up in
smoke on the fire which is on the altar, each young bull with its pieces
beside it and the corresponding grain-offering of fine flour on it, the
wine of the drink-offering beside it and some of it on it. The priests, the
sons of Aaron, shall send everything up in smoke on the altar, an offering
15 by fire, of soothing odour before Y H W H . You shall make chains hang
ing from the rafters of the twelve columns XXXV ... whoever is not a
5 priest shall die, and whoever ... [a prie]st who shall come ... and he is
not clothed in the [holy] vest[ments in which] he was ordained, they too
shall be put to death and shall not pro[fane the san]ctuary of their God,
thus incurring the iniquity of mortal guilt. You shall sanctify the en
virons of the altar, the Temple, the laver and the colonnade and they
shall be most holy for ever and ever.
You shall make a place west of the Temple, a colonnade of pillars
10 standing around for the sin-offerings and the guilt-offerings, divided
from one another, the sin-offerings of the priests, the he-goats, and the
sin-offerings of the people and their guilt-offerings. None of these shall
be mingled one with another, for their places shall be divided from one
another in order that the priests may not err concerning all the sin15 offerings of the people, and all the rams (?) of the guilt-offerings, (thus)
incurring the sin of guilt.
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The birds for the altar: he shall prepare turtledoves XXXVI ...
from the corner of ... [to the corne]r of the gat[e, one hundred and
twenty cubits.] The gate (shall be) forty [cubits] wide. Each side shall be
[according to this measurement. The wid]th of [its wa]ll shall be seven
cubits, [and] its [height forty]-five [cubits to the raft]ers of [its] roof.
The width of its ch [ambers] (shall be) twenty-six cubits from comer to
comer. The gates of entrance and exit: the gate shall be fourteen cubits
wide and [tw]enty-eight cubits high from the threshold to the lintel. The
height of the rafters above the lintel shall be fourteen cubits. (The gate
shall be) roofed with a panelling of cedar wood overlaid with pure gold.
Its doors shall be overlaid with fine gold.
From the comer of the gate to the second angle of the courtyard, (there
shall be) one hundred and twenty cubits. Thus shall be the measurement
of all these gates of the inner courtyard. The gates shall lead inside into
the courtyard. X X X V II You shall make [in] side the court [yard] seats
for the priests, and tables in front of the seats, in the inner colonnade by
the outer wall of the courtyard, places made for the priests and their
sacrifices, for the firstfruits and the tithes, for their peace-offering sacri
fices which they shall sacrifice. The sacrifices of the peace-offerings of
the children of Israel shall not be mingled with the sacrifices of the priests.
In the four corners of the courtyard you shall make for them a place
for cooking-stoves where they shall seethe their sacrifices [and] sinofferings. X X X V III ... There they shall eat ... the bird, the turtle
dove and the young pigeons ...
You shall make a second [co]urtyard aro[u]nd [the in]ner [courtyard],
one hundred cubits wide, and four hundred and eighty cubits long on
the east side, and thus shall be the width and length of all its sides: to the
south, to the west and to the north. Its wall shall be [fo]ur cubits wide
and twenty-eight cubits high. Chambers shall be made in the wall out
side and between each chamber there shall be three-[and-a-half cubits]
X X X IX ... that all the congregation of the children of Israel may bow
down before me ... No woman shall come there, nor a child until the
day that he has fulfilled the rule ... [and has paid for] himself [a ransom]
to YHWH, half a shekel, an eternal rule, a memorial wherever they
dwell. The shekel (consists of) twenty gerabs.
When they shall collect from him the half-shekel ... to me. Afterwards they shall enter from the age of twenty ... The na[mes of the
g]ates of this [co]urtyard sha[ll b]e according to the nam[es of] the
children of Is[ra]el: Simeon, Levi and Judah in the east; Reuben, Joseph
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and Benjamin in the south; Issachar, Zebulun and Gad in the west; Dan,
Naphtali and Asher in the north. Between each gate the measurement
(shall be): from the north-eastern comer to the gate of Simeon, ninetynine cubits, and the gate twenty-eight cubits. From this gate of Simeon
to the gate of Levi, ninety-nine cubits, and the gate, twenty-eight cubits.
From the gate of Levi to the gate of Judah X L ... You shall make a
third courtyard ... to their daughters and to the strangers who [were]
bom ... [wijde around the middle courtyard ... in length about one
thousand six [hundred] cubits from one corner to the next. Each side
shall be according to this measurement: on the east, the south, the west
and the no[rt]h. The wall shall be seven cubits wide and forty-nine
cubits high. Chambers shall be made between its gates along the founda
tion as far up as its crowns (= crenellations: Yadin). There shall be three
gates in the east, three in the south, three in the west and three in the
north. The gates shall be fifty cubits wide and their height seventy
cubits. Between one gate and another there shall be three hundred and
sixty cubits. From the comer to the gate of Simeon, three hundred and
sixty cubits. From the gate of Simeon to the gate of Levi, likewise. From
the gate of Levi to the gate of Judah, likewise three [hundred and] sixty
(cubits). X L I ... From the gate of Issachar [to the gate of Zebulun,
three] hundred [and sixty] cubits. From the gate of Zebulun to the gate
of Gad, three hundred and sixty cubits. From the ga[te of] Gad to the
northern comer, three hundred and sixty cubits. From this comer to the
gate of Dan: three hundred and sixty cubits. Thus from the gate of Dan
to the gate of Naphtali, three hundred and sixty cubits. From the gate of
Naphtali to the gate of Asher, three hundred and sixty cubits. From the
gate of Asher to the eastern comer, three hundred and sixty cubits. The
gates shall jut outwards from the wall of the courtyard seven cubits, and
extend inwards from the wall to the courtyard thirty-six cubits. The
entrance of the gate shall be fourteen cubits wide and twenty-eight cubits
high up to the lintel. The rafters at the doorways (?) shall be of cedar
wood and overlaid with gold. The doors shall be overlaid with pure gold.
Between each gate inwards you shall make storehouses, X L I I [rooms
and colonnades.]
The room shall be ten cubits wide, twenty cubits long, and four[teen]
cubits high ... with cedar wood. The wall shall be two cubits wide. On
the outside there shall be storehouses. [The storehouse shall be ten
cubits wide and] twenty cubits [long]. The wall shall be two cubits wide
[and fourteen cubits high] up to the lintel. Its entrance shall be three
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cubits wide. [You shall make in this way] all the storehouses and the [cor
responding] rooms. The colon[nade] ... shall be ten cubits [wi]de.
Between each gate [you shall make eight] een storehouses and the corre
sponding eight[een] rooms ...
You shall make a staircase next to the walls of the gates towards the
colonnade. Winding stairs shall go up to the second and third colon
nades and to the roof. You shall build storehouses and corresponding
rooms and colonnades as on the ground floor. The second and the third
(levels) shall follow the measurement of the lower one. On the roof of
the third you shall make pillars roofed with rafters from one pillar to the
next (providing) a place for tabernacles. The (pillars) shall be eight cubits
high and the tabernacles shall be made on their (roof) each year at the
feast of the Tabernacles for the elders of the congregation, for the princes,
the heads of the fathers houses of the children of Israel, the captains of
the thousands, the captains of the hundreds, who will ascend and dwell
there until the sacrificing of the holocaust on the festival which is the
feast of the Tabernacles, each year. Between each gate there shall be
X L III .. . on the days of the firstfruits of the corn, of the w[ine (tirosh)
and the oil, and at the festival of the offering of] wood. On these days
(the tithe) shall be eaten. They shall not put aside anything from it from
one year to another. For they shall eat it in this manner. From the feast
of the Firstfruits of the com of wheat they shall eat the corn until the
next year, until the feast of the Firstfruits, and (they shall drink) the wine
from the day of the festival of Wine until the next year, until the day of
the festival of the Wine, and (they shall eat) the oil from its festival, until
the next year, until the festival, the day of offering the new oil on the
altar. Whatever is left (to last beyond) their festivals shall be sanctified by
being burnt with fire. It shall no longer be eaten for it is holy. Those
who live within a distance of three days walk from the sanctuary shall
bring whatever they can bring. If they cannot carry it, they shall sell it
for money and buy with it corn, wine, oil, cattle and sheep, and shall eat
them on the days of the festivals. On working days they shall not eat from
this in their weariness for it is holy. On the holy days it shall be eaten,
but it shall not be eaten on working days. X L IV ...
You shall allot [the rooms and the corresponding chambers. From the
gate of Simeo]n to the gate of Judah shall be for the priests ... All that
is to the right and to the left of the gate of Levi, you shall allo[t] to
Aaron, your brother, one hundred and eight rooms and corresponding
chambers and two tabernacles which are on the roof. (You shall allot) to
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the sons of Judah (the area) from the gate of Judah to the corner: fiftyfour rooms and corresponding chambers and the tabernacle that is over
them. (You shall allot) to the sons of Simeon (the area) from the gate of
Simeon to the second comer: their rooms, the corresponding chambers
and tabernacles. (You shall allot) to the sons of Reuben (the area) from
the comer which is beside the sons of Judah to the gate of Reuben: fiftytwo rooms and the corresponding chambers and tabernacles. (The area)
from the gate of Reuben to the gate of Joseph (you shall allot) to the
sons of Joseph, to Ephraim and Manasseh. (The area) from the gate of
Joseph to the gate of Benjamin (you shall allot) to the sons of Kohath
from the Levites. (The area) from the gate of Benjamin to the western
comer (you shall allot) to the sons of Benjamin. (The area) from this
comer to the gate of Issachar (you shall allot) to the sons of Issachar.
(The area) from the gate (of Issachar) XLV ... the second (= incoming)
[priestly course] shall enter on the left... and the first (= outgoing) shall
leave on the right. They shall not mingle with one another nor their
vessels. [Each] priestly course shall come to its place and they shall stay
there. One shall arrive and the other leave on the eighth day. They shall
clean the rooms, one after the other, when the first (priestly course)
leaves. There shall be no mingling there.
No man who has had a nocturnal emission shall enter the sanctuary at
all until three days have elapsed. He shall wash his garments and bathe
on the first day and on the third day he shall wash his garments and
bathe, and after sunset he shall enter the sanctuary. They shall not enter
my sanctuary in their impure uncleanness and render it unclean. No
man who has had sexual intercourse with his wife shall enter anywhere
into the city of the sanctuary where I cause my name to abide, for three
days. No blind man shall enter it in all his days and shall not profane the
city where I abide, for I, Y H W H , abide amongst the children of Israel
for ever and ever.
Whoever is to purify himself of his flux shall count seven days for his
purification. He shall wash his garments on the seventh day and bathe
his whole body in running water. Afterwards he shall enter the city of
the sanctuary. No one unclean through contact with a corpse shall enter
there until he has purified himself. No leper nor any man smitten (in his
body) shall enter there until he has purified himself and has offered ...
XLVI . .. [No] unclean bird shall fly over [my] sanctua[ry] ... the roofs
of the gates ... the outer courtyard ... be in my sanctuary for ever and
ever all the time that I [abide] among them.
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You shall make a terrace round about, outside the outer courtyard,
fourteen cubits wide like the entrances of all the gates. You shall make
twelve steps (leading) to it by which the children of Israel shall ascend
there to enter my sanctuary.
You shall make a one-hundred-cubits-wide ditch around the sanctuary
which shall divide the holy sanctuary from the city so that no one can
rush into my sanctuary and defile it. They shall sanctify my sanctuary
and hold it in awe because I abide among them.
You shall make for them latrines outside the city where they shall go
out, north-west of the city. These shall be roofed houses with holes in
them into which the filth shall go down. It shall be far enough not to be
visible from the city, (at) three thousand cubits.
You shall make three areas to the east of the city, divided from one
another, where the lepers, those suffering from a flux and men who have
had a (nocturnal) emission XLVTI ...
Their cities [shall be] pure ... for ever. The city which I will sanctify,
causing my name and [my] sanctuar[y] to abide [in it], shall be holy and
pure of all impurity with which they can become impure. Whatever is in
it shall be pure. Whatever enters it shall be pure: wine, oil, all food and
all moistened (food) shall be clean. No skin of clean animals slaughtered
in their cities shall be brought there (to the city of the sanctuary). But in
their cities they may use them for any work they need. But they shall not
bring them to the city of my sanctuary, for the purity of the skin corresponds to that of the flesh. You shall not profane the city where I cause
my name and my sanctuary to abide. For it is in the skins (of animals)
slaughtered in the sanctuary that they shall bring their wine and oil and
all their food to the city of my sanctuary. They shall not pollute my sanc
tuary with the skins of animals slaughtered in their country which are
tainted (= unfit for the Temple). You cannot render any city among your
cities as pure as my city, for the purity of the skin of the animal corre
sponds to the purity of its flesh. If you slaughter it in my sanctuary, it
shall be pure for my sanctuary, but if you slaughter it in your cities, it
shall be pure (only) for your cities. Whatever is pure for the sanctuary,
shall be brought in skins (fit) for the sanctuary, and you shall not profane
my sanctuary and my city where I abide with tainted skins.
X L V III ... [the cormorant, the stork, every ki]nd of [heron,] the
hoop[oe and the bat] ...
You may eat [the following] flying [insects]: every kind of great locust,
every kind of long-headed locust, every kind of green locust, and every
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kind of desert locust. These are among the flying insects which you may
5 eat: those which walk on four legs and have legs jointed above their feet
to leap with them on the ground and wings to fly with. You shall not eat the
carcass of any bird or beast but may sell it to a foreigner. You shall not eat
any abominable thing, for you are a holy people to Y H W H , your God.
You are the sons of Y H W H , your God. You shall not gash yourselves
or shave your forelocks in mourning for the dead, nor shall you tattoo
10 yourselves, for you are a holy people to Y H W H , your God. You shall
not profane your land.
You shall not do as the nations do; they bury their dead everywhere,
they bury them even in their houses. Rather you shall set apart areas in
the midst of your land where you shall bury your dead. Between four
cities you shall designate an area for burial. In every city you shall set
15 aside areas for those stricken with leprosy, with plague and with scab,
who shall not enter your cities and profane them, and also for those who
suffer from a flux; and for menstruating women, and women after child
birth, so that they may not cause defilement in their midst by their
impure uncleanness. The leper suffering from chronic leprosy or scab,
who has been pronounced unclean by the priest XLIX . . . with cedar
wood, hyssop and ... your cities with the plague of leprosy and they shall
be unclean.
5
If a man dies in your cities, the house in which the dead man has died
shall be unclean for seven days. Whatever is in the house and whoever
enters the house shall be unclean for seven days. Any food on which
water has been poured shall be unclean, anything moistened shall be
unclean. Earthenware vessels shall be unclean and whatever they contain
shall be unclean for every clean man. The open (vessels) shall be unclean
10 for every Israelite (with) whatever is moistened in them.
On the day when the body is removed from there, they shall cleanse
the house of all pollution of oil, wine and water moisture. They shall rub
its (the houses) floor, walls and doors and shall wash with water the
bolts, doorposts, thresholds and lintels. On the day when the body is
removed from there, they shall purify the house and all its utensils,
15 hand-mills and mortars, all utensils of wood, iron and bronze and all
utensils capable of purification. Clothes, sacks and skins shall be washed.
As for the people, whoever has been in the house or has entered the
house shall bathe in water and shall wash his clothes on the first day. On
the third day they shall sprinkle purifying water on them and shall bathe.
They shall wash their garments and all the utensils in the house.
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On the seventh day they shall sprinkle (them) a second time. They
shall bathe, wash their clothes and utensils and shall be clean by the
evening of (the impurity contracted) from the dead so as to (be fit to)
touch their pure things. As for a man who has not been rendered
unclean on account of L ... they have been unclean. No longer ...
until they have sprinkled (them) the second [time] on the seventh day
and shall be clean by the evening at sunset.
Whoever touches the bone of a dead person in the fields, or one slain
by the sword, or a dead body or the blood of a dead person, or a tomb,
he shall purify himself according to the rule of this statute. But if he does
not purify himself according to the statute of this law, he is unclean, his
uncleanness being still in him. Whoever touches him must wash his
clothes, bathe and he shall be clean by the evening.
If a woman is with child and it dies in her womb, as long as it is dead in
her, she shall be unclean like a tomb. Any house that she enters shall be
unclean with all its utensils for seven days. Whoever touches it shall
be unclean till the evening. If anyone enters the house with her, he shall
be unclean for seven days. He shall wash his clothes and bathe in water
on the first (day). On the third day he shall sprinkle and wash his clothes
and bathe. On the seventh day he shall sprinkle a second time and wash
his clothes and bathe. At sunset he shall be clean.
As for all the utensils, clothes, skins and all the materials made of
goats hair, you shall deal with them according to the statute of this law.
All earthenware vessels shall be broken for they are unclean and can no
more be purified ever.
All creatures that teem on the ground you shall proclaim unclean: the
weasel, the mouse, every kind of lizard, the wall gecko, the sand gecko,

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the great lizard and the chameleon. W hoever touches them dead L I . . .

[and whatever com]es out of the[m] ... [shall be] unclean [to you.] You
shall [not] render yourselves unclean by th[em. Whoever touches them]
dead shall be unclean un[til the] evening. He shall wash his clothes and
bathe [in water and at] sun [set] he shall be clean. Whoever carries any of
their bones, their carcass, skin, flesh or claw shall wash his clothes and
bathe in water. After sunset he shall be clean. You shall forewarn the
children of Israel about all the impurities.
They shall not render themselves unclean by those of which I tell you
on this mountain and they shall not be unclean.
For I, Y H W H , abide among the children of Israel. You shall sanctify
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10 inable by anything that I have separated for them as unclean and they
shall be holy.
You shall establish judges and officers in all your towns and they shall
judge the people with just judgement. They shall not be partial in (their)
judgement. They shall not accept bribes, nor shall they twist judgement,
for the bribe twists judgement, overturns the works of justice, blinds the
eyes of the wise, produces great guilt, and profanes the house by the
15 iniquity of sin. Justice and justice alone shall you pursue that you may
live and come to inherit the land that I give you to inherit for all days.
The man who accepts bribes and twists just judgement shall be put to
death. You shall not be afraid to execute him.
20
You shall not do in your land as the nations do. Everywhere they sacri
fice, plant sacred trees, erect sacred pillars and set up carved stones to
bow down before them and build for them L I I ... You shall not plant
[any tree as a sacred tree beside my altar to be made by you.] You shall
not erect a sacred pillar [that is hateful to me.] You shall not make any
where in your land a carved stone to bow down before it. You shall not
sacrifice to me any cattle or sheep with a grave blemish, for they are
5 abominable to me. You shall not sacrifice to me any cattle or sheep or
goat that is pregnant, for this would be an abomination to me. You shall
not slaughter a cow or a ewe and its young on the same day, neither shall
you kill a mother with her young.
Of all the firstlings bom to your cattle or sheep, you shall sanctify for
me the male animals. You shall not use the firstling of your cattle for
work, nor shall you shear the firstling of your small cattle. You shall eat it
10 before me every year in the place that I shall choose. Should it be blem
ished, being lame or blind or (afflicted with) any grave blemish, you shall
not sacrifice it to me. It is within your towns that you shall eat it. The
unclean and the clean among you together (may eat it) like a gazelle or a
deer. It is the blood alone that you shall not eat. You shall spill it on the
ground like water and cover it with dust. You shall not muzzle an ox
while it is threshing. You shall not plough with an ox and an ass (har
nessed) together. You shall not slaughter clean cattle or sheep or goat in
any of your towns, within a distance of three days journey from my
15 sanctuary. It is rather in my sanctuary that you shall slaughter it, making
of it a holocaust or peace-offering. You shall eat and rejoice before me in
the place on which I choose to set my name. Every clean animal with a
blemish, you shall eat it within your towns, away from my sanctuary at a
distance of thirty stadia. You shall not slaughter it close to my sanctuary
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for its flesh is tainted. You shall not eat in my city, which I sanctify by
placing my name in it, the flesh of cattle, sheep or goat which has not
entered my sanctuary. They shall sacrifice it there, toss its blood to the
base of the altar of holocaust and shall bum its fat. LIII [When I
extend your frontiers as I have told you, and if the place where I have
chosen to set my name is too distan]t, and you say, T will eat meat,
because you [l]ong for it, [whatever you desire,] you may eat, [and you
may slau]gh[ter] any of your small cattle or cattle which I give you
according to my blessing. You may eat it within your towns, the clean
and the unclean together, like gazelle or deer (meat). But you shall
firmly abstain from eating the blood. You shall spill it on the ground like
water and cover it with dust. For the blood is the life and you shall not
eat the life with the flesh so that it may be well with you and with your
sons after you for ever. You shall do that which is correct and good
before me, for I am Y H W H , your God.
But all your devoted gifts and votive donations you shall bring when
you come to the place where I cause my name to abide, and you shall
sacrifice (them) there before me as you have devoted and vowed them
with your mouth. When you make a vow, you shall not tarry in fulfilling
it, for surely I will require it of you and you shall become guilty of a sin.
You shall keep the word uttered by your lips, for your mouth has vowed
freely to perform your vow.
When a man makes a vow to me or swears an oath to take upon himself a binding obligation, he must not break his word. Whatever has
been uttered by his mouth, he shall do it.
When a woman makes a vow to me, or takes upon herself a binding
obligation by means of an oath in her fathers house, in her youth, if her
father hears of her vow or the binding obligation which she has taken
upon herself and remains silent, all her vows shall stand, and her binding
obligation which she has taken upon herself shall stand. If, however,
her father definitely forbids her on the day that he hears of it, none of
her vows or binding obligations which she has taken upon herself shall
stand, and I will absolve her because (her father) has forbidden her LIV
[when he] h[eard of them. But if he annuls them after] the da[y that he
has] hea[rd of them, he shall bear] her guilt: [her] fa[ther has annulled
them. Any vow] or binding oath (made by a woman) [to mortify herself,]
her husband may confi[rm it] or annul it on the day that he hears of it,
and I will absolve her.
But any vow of a widow or a divorced woman, whatever she has taken
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upon herself shall stand in conformity with all that her mouth has
uttered.
Everything that I command you today, see to it that it is kept. You
shall not add to it, nor detract from it.
If a prophet or a dreamer appears among you and presents you with a
sign or a portent, even if the sign or the portent comes true, when he
says, Let us go and worship other gods whom you have not known!, do
not listen to the words of that prophet or that dreamer, for I am testing
you to discover whether you love Y H W H , the God of your fathers,
with all your heart and soul. It is Y H W H , your God, that you must
follow and serve, and it is him that you must fear and his voice that you
must obey, and you must hold fast to him. That prophet or dreamer
shall be put to death for he has preached rebellion against Y H W H , your
God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt and redeemed you from
the house of bondage, to lead you astray from the path that I have com
manded you to follow. You shall rid yourself of this evil.
If your brother, the son of your father or the son of your mother, or
your son, or your daughter, or the wife of your bosom, or your friend
who is like your own self, (seeks to) entice you secretly, saying, Let us
go and worship other gods whom you have not known, neither you,
LV [nor] your [fajthers, some of the gods [of the peoples that are round
about you, whether near you or far off from you], from the one end of
the earth to [the other, you shall not yield to him or listen to him, nor
shall your eye pity] him, nor shall you spare [him, nor shall you conceal
him; but you shall kill him; your hand shall be first against him to put
him to death, and afterwards the hand of all the people. You shall stone
him to death with stones because he sought to] draw you away [from me
who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of bondage.
And all Israel shall hear, and fear, and never again do such an evil thing]
among you. If in on[e of your cities in which I] give you to dw[ell] you
hear this said: Men, [s]ons of [Beli]al have arisen in your midst and have
led astray all the inhabitants of their city saying, Let us go and worship
gods whom you have not known!, you shall inquire, search and investigate carefully. If the matter is proven true that such an abomination has
been done in Israel, you shall surely put all the inhabitants of that city to
the sword. You shall place it and all who are in it under the ban, and you
shall put the beasts to the sword. You shall assemble all the booty in (the
city) square and shall burn it with fire, the city and all the booty, as a
whole-offering to Y H W H , your God. It shall be a ruin for ever and
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shall never be rebuilt. Nothing from that which has been placed under
the ban shall cleave to your hand so that I may turn from my hot anger
and show you compassion. I will be compassionate to you and multiply
you as I told your fathers, provided that you obey my voice, keeping all
my commandments that I command you today, to do that which is
correct and good before Y H W H , your God.
If among you, in one of your towns that I give you, there is found a
man or a woman who does that which is wrong in my eyes by transgress
ing my covenant, and goes and worships other gods, and bows down
before them, or before the sun or the moon, or all the host of heaven, if
you are told about it, and you hear about this matter, you shall search
and investigate it carefully. If the matter is proven true that such an
abomination has been done in Israel, you shall lead out that man or that
woman and stone him (to death) with stones.
LV I ... [You shall go to the Levitical priests o]r to the [j]u[dges then
in office]; you shall seek their guidance and [they] shall pro[nounce on]
the matter for which [you have sought their guidance, and they shall
proclaim the(ir) judgement to you. You shall act in conformity with the
law that they proclaim to you and the saying that they declare to you
from the book of the Law. They shall issue to you a proclamation in
truth from the place where I choose to cause my name to abide. Be careful to do all that they teach you and act in conformity with the decision
that they communicate to you. Do not stray from the law which they
proclaim to you to the right or to the left. The man who does not listen
but acts arrogandy without obeying the priest who is posted there to
minister before me, or the judge, that man shall die. You shall rid Israel
of evil. All the people shall hear of it and shall be awe-stricken, and none
shall ever again be arrogant in Israel.
When you enter the land which I give you, take possession of it, dwell
in it and say, I will appoint a king over me as do all the nations around
me!, you may surely appoint over you the king whom I will choose. It is
from among your brothers that you shall appoint a king over you. You
shall not appoint over you a foreigner who is not your brother. He (the
king) shall definitely not acquire many horses, neither shall he lead the
people back to Egypt for war to acquire many horses and much silver
and gold, for I told you, You shall never again go back that way. He
shall not acquire many wives that they may not turn his heart away from
me. He shall not acquire very much silver and gold.
When he sits on the throne of his kingdom, they shall write for him
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this law from the book which is before the priests. LVII This is the law
[that they shall write for him]... [They shall count,] on the day that they
appoint hi[m] king, the sons of Israel from the age of twenty to sixty
years according to their standard (units). He shall install at their head
captains of thousands, captains of hundreds, captains of fifties and cap
tains of tens in all their cities. He shall select from among them one
thousand by tribe to be with him: twelve thousand warriors who shall
not leave him alone to be captured by the nations. All the selected men
whom he has selected shall be men of truth, God-fearers, haters of
unjust gain and mighty warriors. They shall be with him always, day and
night. They shall guard him from anything sinful, and from any foreign
nation in order not to be captured by them. The twelve princes of his
people shall be with him, and twelve from among the priests, and from
among the Levites twelve. They shall sit together with him to (proclaim)
judgement and the law so that his heart shall not be lifted above them,
and he shall do nothing without them concerning any affair.
He shall not marry as wife any daughter of the nations, but shall take a
wife for himself from his fathers house, from his fathers family. He shall
not take another wife in addition to her, for she alone shall be with him
all the time of her life. But if she dies, he may marry another from his
fathers house, from his family. He shall not twist judgement; he shall
take no bribe to twist a just judgement and shall not covet a field or a
vineyard, any riches or house, or anything desirable in Israel. He shall
(not) rob LVIII ...
When the king hears of any nation or people intent on plundering
whatever belongs to Israel, he shall send for the captains of thousands
and the captains of hundreds posted in the cities of Israel. They shall
send with him (the captain) one tenth of the people to go with him (the
king) to war against their enemies, and they shall go with him. But if a
large force enters the land of Israel, they shall send with him one fifth of
the warriors. If a king with chariots and horses and a large force (comes),
they shall send with him one third of the warriors, and the two (remain
ing) divisions shall guard their city and their boundaries so that no
marauders invade their land. If the war presses him (the king) hard, they
shall send to him half of the people, the men of the army, but the (other)
half of the people shall not be severed from their cities.
I f they triumph over their enemies, smash them, put them to the sword
and carry away their booty, they shall give the king his tithe o f this, the
priests one thousandth and the Levites one hundredth from everything.
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They shall halve the rest between the combatants and their brothers 15
whom they have left in their cities.
If he (the king) goes to war against his enemies, one fifth of the people
shall go with him, the warriors, all the mighty men of valour. They shall
avoid everything unclean, everything shameful, every iniquity and guilt.
He shall not go until he has presented himself before the High Priest
who shall inquire on his behalf for a decision by the Urim and Tummim.
It is at his word that he shall go and at his word that he shall come, he
and all the children of Israel who are with him. He shall not go follow- 20
ing his hearts counsel until he (the High Priest) has inquired for a deci
sion by the Urim and Tummim. He shall (then) succeed in all his ways
on which he has set out according to the decision which L IX ... and
they shall disperse them in many lands and they shall become a h[orror],
a byword, a mockery. With a heavy yoke and in extreme want, they shall
there serve gods made by human hands, of wood and stone, silver and
gold. During this time their cities shall become a devastation, a laughing
stock and a wasteland, and their enemies shall devastate them. They 5
shall sigh in the lands of their enemies and scream because of the heavy
yoke. They shall cry out but I will not listen; they shall scream but I will
not answer them because of their evil doings. I will hide my face from
them and they shall become food, plunder and prey. None shall save them
because of their wickedness, because they have broken my covenant and
their soul has loathed my law until they have incurred every guilt. After
wards they will return to me with all their heart and all their soul, in 10
conformity with all the words of this law, and I will save them from the
hand of their enemies and redeem them from the hand of those who
hate them, and I will bring them to the land of their fathers. I will
redeem them, and increase them and exult over them. I will be their

God and they shall be my people.

The king whose heart and eyes have gone astray from my command
ments shall never have one to sit on the throne of his fathers, for I will 15
cut off his posterity for ever so that it shall no more rule over Israel. But
if he walk after my rules and keep my commandments and do that which
is correct and good before me, no heir to the throne of the kingdom of
Israel shall be cut off from among his sons for ever. I will be with him
and will save him from the hand of those who hate him and from the
hand of those who seek his life. I will place all his enemies before him
and he shall rule over them according to his pleasure and they shall not 20
rule over him. I will set him on an upward, not on a downward, course,
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to be the head and not the tail, that the days of his kingdom may be
lengthened greatly for him and his sons after him.
LX ... and all their wave-offerings. All their firsding male [bea]sts
and all... of their beasts and all their holy gifts which they shall sanctify
to me together with all their holy gifts of praise and a proportion of their
offering of birds, wild animals and fish, one thousandth of their catch,
and all that they shall devote, and the proportion of the booty and the
plunder.
To the Levites shall belong the tithe of the corn, the wine and the oil
that they have sanctified to me first; the shoulder from those who
slaughter a sacrifice and a proportion of the booty, the plunder and the
catch of birds, wild animals and fish, one hundredth; the tithe from the
young pigeons and from the honey one fiftieth. To the priests shall belong
one hundredth of the young pigeons, for I have chosen them from all
your tribes to attend on me and minister (before me) and bless my name,
he and his sons always. If a Levite come from any town anywhere in
Israel where he sojourns to the place where I will choose to cause my
name to abide, (if he come) with an eager soul, he may minister like his
brethren the Levites who attend on me there. He shall have the same
share of food with them, besides the inheritance from his fathers family.
When you enter the land which I give you, do not learn to practise the
abominations of those nations. There shall be found among you none
who makes his son or daughter pass through fire, nor an augur or a
soothsayer, a diviner or a sorcerer, one who casts spells or a medium, or
wizards or necromancers. For they are an abomination before me, all
who practise such things, and it is because of these abominations that I
drive them out before you. You shall be perfect towards Y H W H , your
God. For these nations that LXI ... to ut[ter a word] in [my] n[ame
which I have n]ot comman[ded him to] utter, or wh[o speaks in the name
of oth]er go[ds], that prophet shall be put to death. If you say in your
heart, How shall we know the word which Y H W H has not uttered?,
when the word uttered by the prophet in the name of Y H W H is not
fulfilled and does not come true, that is not a word that I have uttered.
The prophet has spoken arrogandy; do not fear him.
A single witness may not come forward against a man in the matter of
any iniquity or sin which he has committed. It is on the evidence of two
witnesses or three witnesses that a case can be established. If a malicious
witness comes forward against a man to testify against him in a case of a
crime, both disputants shall stand before me and before the priests and
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the Levites and before the judges then in office, and the judges shall
inquire, and if the witness is a false witness who has testified falsely 10
against his brother, you shall do to him as he proposed to do to his
brother. You shall rid yourselves of evil. The rest shall hear of it and shall
be awe-stricken and never again shall such a thing be done in your
midst. You shall have no mercy on him: life for life, eye for eye, tooth for
tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot.
When you go to war against your enemies, and you see horses and
chariots and an army greater than yours, be not afraid of them, for I am
with you who brought you out of the land of Egypt. When you approach 15
the battle, the priest shall come forward to speak to the army and say to
them, Hear, Israel, you approach
LXII [and another man shall
use its fruit. If any man has betrothed a woman but has not yet married
her, he shall return] home. Otherwise he may die in the war and another
man may take her. [The] of[ficers shall continue] to address the army
and say, If any man is afraid and has lost heart, he shall go and return.
Otherwise he may render his kinsmen as faint-hearted as himself.
When the judges have finished addressing the army, they shall appoint 5
army captains at the head of the people.
When you approach a city to fight it, (first) offer it peace. If it seeks
peace and opens (its gates) to you, then all the people found in it shall
become your forced labourers and shall serve you. If it does not make
peace with you, but is ready to fight a war against you, you shall besiege
it and I will deliver it into your hands. You shall put all its males to the
sword, but the women, the children, the beasts and all that is in the city, 10
all its booty, you may take as spoil for yourselves. You may enjoy the use
of the booty of your enemies which I give you. Thus shall you treat the
very distant cities, those which are not among the cities o f these nations.

But in the cities of the peoples which I give you as an inheritance, you
shall not leave alive any creature. Indeed you shall utterly exterminate
the Hittites, the Amorites, the Canaanites, the Hivites, the Jebusites, the
Girgashites and the Perizzites as I have commanded you, that they may 15
not teach you to practise all the abominations that they have performed
to their gods.
LXIII ... [a heifer with which] he has not worked, which [has not
drawn the yoke. The elders of] that city [shall bring down] the heifer to
a ravine with an ever-flowing stream which has never been sown or cul
tivated, and there they shall break its neck.
The priests, the sons of Levi, shall come forward, for I have chosen
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them to minister before me and bless my name, and every dispute and
every assault shall be decided by their word. All the elders o f the city
5 nearest to the body o f the murdered man shall wash their hands over the
head o f the heifer whose neck has been broken in the ravine. T h e y shall
declare, Our hands did not shed this blood, nor did our eyes see it hap
pen. Accept expiation for thy people Israel whom thou hast redeemed, O
Y H W H , and do not permit the guilt o f innocent blood to rest among
thy people, Israel. L et this blood be expiated for them. You shall rid
Israel (of the guilt) o f innocent blood, and you shall do that which is cor
rect and good before Y H W H , your G od. W h en you go to war against
10 your enemies, and I deliver them into your hands, and you capture some
o f them, if you see among the captives a pretty woman and desire her,
you may take her to be your wife. You shall bring her to your house, you
shall shave her head, and cut her nails. You shall discard the clothes o f
her captivity and she shall dwell in your house, and bewail her father and
mother for a full month. Afterwards you may go to her, consummate the
marriage with her and she will be your wife. But she shall not touch
whatever is pure for you for seven years, neither shall she eat o f the
15 sacrifice o f peace-offering until seven years have elapsed. Afterwards she
may eat.

L X IV . . . [the firstfruits o f his virility; he has the right o f the

first-born.]
I f a man has a disobedient and rebellious son who refuses to listen to
his father and mother, nor listens to them when they chastise him, his
father and mother shall take hold o f him and bring him to the elders o f
his city, to the gate o f his place. T h e y shall say to the elders o f his town,
5

T h is son o f ours is disobedient and rebellious; he does not listen to us;

he is a glutton and a drunkard. All the men o f his city shall stone him
with stones and he shall die, and you shall rid yourselves o f evil. All the
children o f Israel shall hear o f it and be awe-stricken. I f a man slanders
his people and delivers his people to a foreign nation and does evil to his
people, you shall hang him on a tree and he shall die. On the testimony
o f two witnesses and on the testimony o f three witnesses he shall be put

io to death and they shall hang him on the tree. I f a man is guilty o f a capi
tal crime and flees (abroad) to the nations, and curses his people, the
children o f Israel, you shall hang him also on the tree, and he shall die.
But his body shall not stay overnight on the tree. Indeed you shall bury
him on the same day. For he who is hanged on the tree is accursed o f
G od and men. You shall not pollute the ground which I give you to
inherit. I f you see your kinsmans ox or sheep or donkey straying, do not

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neglect them; you shall indeed return them to your kinsman. I f your
kinsman does not live near you, and you do not know who he is, you
shall bring the animal to your house and it shall be with you until he
claims (it). L X V

15

...

[Wh]en a birds nest happens to lie before you by the roadside, on any
tree or on the ground, with fledglings or eggs, and the hen is sitting on
the fledglings or the eggs, you shall not take the hen with the young. You
shall surely let the hen escape and take only the young so that it may be
well with you and your days shall be prolonged. When you build a new
house, you shall construct a parapet on the roof so that you do not bring
blood-guilt on your house if anyone should fall from it.

W hen a man takes a wife, has sexual intercourse with her and takes a
dislike to her, and brings a baseless charge against her, ruining her repu
tation, and says, I have taken this woman, approached her, and did not
find the proof o f virginity in her, the father or the mother o f the girl
shall take the girls proof o f virginity and bring it to the elders at the

10

gate. T h e girls father shall say to the elders, I gave m y daughter to be

this mans wife; he has taken a dislike to her and has brought a baseless
charge against her saying, I have not found the proof o f virginity in
your daughter. Here is the proof o f my daughters virginity. T h e y shall
spread out the garment before the elders o f that city. T h e elders o f that
city shall take that man and chastise him. T h e y shall fine him one hun
dred pieces o f silver which they shall give to the father o f the girl,

15

because he (the husband) has tried to ruin the reputation o f an Israelite

virgin. H e shall not

LXVT

. . . [When a virgin betrothed to a man is

found by another man in the city and he lies with her, they shall bring
both o f them to the gate] o f that city and stone them with stones and
they shall be put to death: the girl because she has not shouted (for help,
although she was) in the city, and the man because he has dishonoured
his neighbours wife. You shall rid yourselves o f evil. I f the man has
found the woman in the fields in a distant place hidden from the city,

and raped her, only he who has lain with her shall be put to death. To the
girl they shall do nothing since she has committed no crime worthy o f
death. For this affair is like that o f a man who attacks his neighbour and
murders him. For it was in the fields that he found her and the betrothed
girl shouted (for help), but none came to her rescue.
W h en a man seduces a virgin who is not betrothed, but is suitable to
him according to the rule, and lies with her, and he is found out, he who
has lain with her shall give the girls father fifty pieces o f silver and she
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shall be his wife. Because he has dishonoured her, he may not divorce
her all his days. A man shall not take his fathers wife and shall not lift his
fathers skirt. A man shall not take the wife o f his brother and shall not
lift the skirt o f his brother, the son o f his father or the son o f his mother,
for this is unclean. A man shall not take his sister, the daughter o f his
father or the daughter o f his mother, for this is abominable. A man shall
not take his fathers sister or his mothers sister, for this is immoral. A
man shall not take the daughter o f his brother or the daughter o f his
sister for this is abominable. (A man) shall not take L X V I I . . .

M M T (Miqsat Maase Ha-Torah) Some Observances of the Law

(4Q 394-9)

Mutilated fragments of six Cave 4 manuscripts have acquired international

notoriety on account of a lawsuit filed before the Jerusalem district court which
found that one of the official editors of this text, Elisha Qimron, owned the
copyright of the MMT text as reconstructed by him. Hershel Shanks, of the
Biblical Archaeology Society of Washington, was held responsible for breaching
this copyright and ordered to pay $43,000 damages. However, an appeal having
been lodged with the Israeli Supreme Court, the matter is still subjudice.
When the contents of the six copies are assembled into a single account, they
amount to 120 lines mosdy of a fragmentary nature. The document begins with a
sectarian calendar (section A), which may or may not pertain to the original MMT;
it continues with a series of special rules (section B), and ends with an exhortation
(section C). MMT has been called an episde, but since it lacks the introductory
and concluding formulae of a letter, it is more likely to be a kind of legal tractate.
It is addressed to a single leading personality who is compared to King David.
The dramatispersonae consist of a we party, a you party, and a they party. The
group responsible for MMT, who refer to themselves as we, seek to detach the
leader of the you party from the erroneous views propounded by the they party.
The editors claim that MMT was written by the Teacher of Righteousness and
sent to the Wicked Priest; that the views of the we party are akin to those of the
Sadducees; and that the they party are the Pharisees. However, these are no more
than hypotheses. In particular, the identification of the author with the Teacher
of Righteousness is less likely than that of the leader of the you group with the
man who was to become the Wicked Priest, probably Jonathan Maccabaeus.
It has also been advanced that the original nucleus of the Qumran Community,
responsible for MMT, consisted of early or proto-Sadducees. However, one
should bear in mind that the priests in this writing are never called sons of Zadok
or Sadducees, but are referred to as sons of Aaron (cf. 4QSb (=4(^256) and 4QSd
(4Q258) above, p. 118). The alleged Sadducee connection relies on three legal
rules, out of a list of more than twenty, in MMT which represent opinions identical
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with the halakhah attributed in rabbinic literature to the Sadducees, and con
trasted with the stance taken by the Pharisees (cf. mParah 5:4 and MMT B
13-17; mYad 4:7; mToh 8:9 and MMT B 55-8; mYad 4:6 and MMT B 72-4).
The chief topics of controversy are (1) the calendar (if it is an integral part of the
document); (2) ritual purity (acceptability of Gentile offerings, law on slaughter,
the red heifer ritual, exclusion of the blind and the deaf, law relating to lepers,
purity of running liquids, fourth-year fruit and tithe of cattle, ban on dogs in
Jerusalem, the law regulating contact with dead bodies); (3) marriage and inter
marriage rules, and (4) decrees regulating entry into the congregation. MMT is
particularly important as a source of ancient legal debate. It is unique among the
Dead Sea Scrolls and foreshadows the halakhic process developed and practised
by later rabbis.
Instead of presenting a composite text, the translation will reflect actual manu
scripts and follow their line numbering. If there are overlapping fragments, gaps
in the main manuscript will be filled from the parallel text and the borrowing
will appear between {}. However, to assist the reader who desires to consult the
Qimron-Strugnell edition, the line numbers of their composite text are given in
brackets. Unlike the editors, I have been economical with purely conjectural
restorations of the many gaps. Obscurities in the translation therefore faithfully
reflect the real status of the Hebrew original.
For the editio princeps, see E. Qimron and J. Strugnell, Qumran Cave 4, V
(DJD, X, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1994).

1. M M T A = A S E C T A R IA N C A L E N D A R
(4 Q 3 9 4 1-2 )
(The fragmentary calendar is presented in five parallel columns which originally
covered eighteen lines. Hence the end of the calendar at the top of 4Q394 3-7 i
is listed as lines 19 to 21 by Qimron-Strugnell. Whether this calendar is part of
the original MMT or is merely copied on the same scroll is uncertain.)
I [On the sixteenth o f it (of the second month): sabbath.]
5 On the twenty-third o f it: sabbath.
[On] the thir[tie]th [of it: sabbath.
10 On the seventh o f the third month: sabbath.
O n the fourteenth o f it: sabbath.
15

On the fifteenth o f it: Feast o f Weeks.

On the twenty-] I I [f]irs[t] o f it: sabbath.

222

M M T (MIQSAT MA'ASE HA-TORAH)

[On] the twenty-eighth of it: sabbath.

The first of the sabbath (=Sunday), and the secon[d da]y (=Monday) [and
the third are to be added.
And the season is complete: ninety-one days.
The first of the fourth month: Memorial day.
On the fourth] I I I of it: [sabbath.]
On the eleventh] of it: sabbath.
On the eighteenth of it: sabbath.
On the twenty-fifth of it: sabbath.
On the second of the fift[h] (month): [sa]bb[ath.
On the third of it: Feast of Wine, first of sabbath (Sunday).]
IV [On the ninth of it: sabbath.]
On the sixteenth of it: sabbath.
On the twenty-third of it: sabbath.
[On the thirtieth [of it: sabbath.
On the seventh of the sixth (month): sabbath.
On the fourteenth of it: sabbath.
On the twenty-first] V of it: sabbath.
On the twenty-second of it: Feast of Oil, fir[st of sab]bath (Sunday).
Aflterwards]: offering of Wood].

4Q394 3-7 i
(19) [The (twenty)-eighth of it (of the twelfth month)]: sabbath.
The first [of the] s[abbath (=Sunday) and the second day (=Monday)
and the third are to be ad]ded to it. (20) And the year is complete: threehundred and si[xty-four] (21) days, vacat

2 . M M T B = S P E C IA L R U L E S
(4Q394 3-7 i conflated with 4Q395)
(1) These are some of our teachings [ ] which are [ (2) the] works
which w[e think and a] 11 of them concern [ ] (3) and the purity o f ...
[And concerning the offering of the wh]eat of the [Gentiles which
they ...] (4) and they touch i t ... and de[file i t ... One should not accept
anything] (5) from the wheat [of the Gen] tiles [and none of it is] to enter
the Sanctuary.

THE

RULES

[And concerning] {the sacrifice) (4Q395) . (6) which they cook in a

vessel... {in it} (4Q395) (7) the meat of their sacrifices and that they ...
in the courtyar[d ...] {it} (4Q395) (8) with the broth of their sacrifice.
And concerning the sacrifice of the Gentiles ... [we consider that] they
{sacrifice} (4Q395) (9) to [an idol and] that is [like] a woman fornicating
with him.
10
... {the sacrifice} (4Q395) (10) of peace-off[erings] which they post
pone from one day to the next. But [it is written (cf. Lev. 7:15)] ( 11) that
the meal-offe[ring] {is eaten} (4Q395) with the fat and the meat on the
day of [their] being sacrificed. For the sons] (12) of the priest[s] {are to
take care of this matter} (4Q395) so as not to (13) burden the people
with sin.
{And concerning the purity of the heifer of the sin-offering} (4Q395),
(14) he who slaughters it and he who burns it and he who collects {its
15 ashes and he who sprinkles the} (4Q395) [water] (15) of purification all these {are to be pure} (4Q395) at sunset (16) so that the pure shall
sprinkle the impure. For the sons

(4Q394 3-7 ii conflated with 4Q395)

(17) {of Aaron are to be} (4Q 395)...
And furthermore (18) [concerning the sk]ins of the cattle [and the
sheep ... from] (19) their [skin]s vessel[s ... [they are not to (20) bring]
them to the Sanctuary ...

(4Q397 1-2 conflated with 4Q 398 1-3 )

( 2 1 ) ...
And furthermore concerning the skin[s and bones of unclean animals,
they shall not make from their bones] and from their s[k]i[ns] (22)
handles of v[essels and] ...
And furthermore [concerning the s]kin of the carcass (23) of a clean
[animal], he who carries their carcass shall not touch the [sacred] purity.
(24) And concerning ... (25) ...

224

M M T ( M I Q S A T MA A S E H A - T O R A H )

(4Q394 3-7 ii conflated with 4Q397 3)

[the sons of] (26) the pri[es]ts are to [be care]f[ul] regarding {all these
matters} (4Q397 3) so as not (27) to burden the people with sin.
[And concern]ing that which is written, [If a man slaughters in the camp
or (28) slaughters\ outside the camp an ox or a lamb or a goat (Lev. 7:13) for
... {on the northern side of the camp} (4Q397 3). (29) And we consider
the Sanctuary [as the tent of meeting and Je]rusale[m] as (30) the {camp
and out[side] the} (4Q397 3) camp [i.e. outside Jerusalem], that is the
camp (31) of their towns. Outside the camp ... they bring out the ashes
[(32) of the] altar and they bum ... For Jerusalem] is the place which
(33) [He has chosen] {from all the tri[bes of Israel]} (4Q397 3 ) ...

(4Q396 1-2 i conflated with 4Q 394 8 iii and 4Q 397 5)

(35) ... they [do no]t slaughter in the Sanctuary.
(36) [And concerning pregnant animals] {we consider} (4Q397 5)
[that one should not sacrifice] the mother and the unborn young on the
same day.
(37) [And concerning eating, w]e consider that the unborn young (38)
may be eaten ... (provided it has been slaughtered)... [this is] so and the
saying is written concerning a pregnant animal, vacat
(39) [And concerning the Ammon] {ite and the Moabite} (4Q394 8 iii)
and the {bastard} (4Q397 5) [and the man whose testicles] have been
crushed [and one] whose penis [has been cut off] who enter (40) the
congregation, [... and] they [ta]ke [wives so as to be] {one} (4Q397 5)
bone (with them)... (41) ...

(4Q394 8 iii conflated with 4Q 396 1-2 i-ii

and 4Q397 5)
(42) {impurities.
And furthermore we consider} (4Q397 5) (43) [that they should not
... and should not have intercourse with them. (44) [... and they
should] {not unite with them} (4Q397 5) so as to make them (45) [into
one bone (46) ... that some of the people .. . (47) .. . (48) {from all}

THE

RULES

(4Q397 5) (sexual) mingling (49) ... {and to be fearful of the Sanctuary}

(4Q396 1-2 ii).

(4Q396 1-2 ii)

[And furthermore concerning] {the blind} (4Q394 8 iv) (50) who do not
see how to beware of all mingl[ings]

(4Q394 8 iv conflated with 4Q396 1-2 ii

and 4Q397 6 -13)

10

(51) and do not see the minglings which entail guilt (offering). (52) And
furthermore concerning the deaf who have not heard the decrees and
judgements and purity (rules) and have not (53) heard the judgements of
Israel - for he who has not seen and has not heard (them) does not (54)
know how to practise (them); yet they come to the pure food of the
Sanctuary, vacat
(55) And furthermore concerning the pouring (of liquids), we say that
it contains no (56) purity.
And furthermore the pouring does not separate the impure (57) {from
the pure} (4Q397 6-13) for the poured liquid and that in the receptacle
are alike, (58) one liquid.
And {dogs} (4Q397 6-13) are not to be brought to the sacred camp
for (59) they may eat some of the bones from the Sanctua[ry] to which
meat is still attached. For (60) Jerusalem is {the sacred camp} (4Q397
6-13) and is the place

(4Q396 1-2 iii conflated with 4Q 394 8 iv

and 4Q 397 6 -13)
(61) which He has chosen from all the tribes of Israel, for Jerusalem is
the head (62) of the camps of Israel.
And furthermore concerning the planting of fruit trees planted (63)
in the land of Israel, they are like {firstfruits} (4Q397 6-13) destined for
the {priests} (4Q397 6-13). {And the tithe} (4Q394 8 iv) of the cattle
(64) and sheep is for the priests.
226

M M T (MIQSAT MA'ASE HA-TORAH)

And furthermore concerning the lepers, we (65) s[ay that they shall 5
not c]ome (into contact) with the sacred pure food for {they shall be}
(4Q397 6-13) separated (66) ...
Furthermore it is written that from the time he (the leper) has shaved
and washed, he shall stay outside (67) ... [for seven] days. And now
while their impurity is with them ... [they shall not (68) come into con
tact w]ith the sacred pure food of the house. And you know (69) ... and
it is concealed from him, he is to bring (70) {a sin-offering} (4Q397 6-13).
[And concerning the person who does anything with a high hand it is 10
writ] ten that he is one who despises and reviles (God) (cf. Num. xv,
30-31). (71) ... {impurities of leprosy} (4Q397 6-13), they are not to eat
from the holy things

(4Q396 1-2 iv conflated with 4Q 397 6 -13 )

(72) until the sun has set on the eighth day.
And concerning [the impurities] (73) {of a man, we say that every}
(4Q397 6-13) bone to which (74) flesh is or [is not] attached is to be
treated according to the law of the dead or slain, vacat
(75) And concerning fornication practised by the people, they should
be s[ons of] holiness, (76) as it is written, {.Israel) (4Q397 6-13) is holy 5
Qer. ii, 3).
And concerning [his clea]n ani[mal], (77) it is written that it shall not
be mated with a different kind.
And concerning [his clothes], it is written that they shall [not (78) be
of mixed] material.
And he shall not sow his field and vine[yard with two kind]s. (79) For
they are holy and the sons of Aaron are most h[oly]. (80) And you know
that some of the priests and [the people mingle] (81) [and they] unite 10
and defile the [holy] seed and also (82) their [seed] with whores f[or] ...

(4Q397 r4-21)
(4) And concerning the wome[n ... violen]ce and betrayal. . . (5) For
in these ... [on account of] the violence and fornication they perish[ed
... ] (6) places.
227

THE

RULES

[And furthermore] it is written [in the Book of Moses that] You shall
not bring an abominable thing in[to your house (cf. Deut. vii, 26) for] (7) an
abominable thing is detestable.

3 . M M T C = T H E E X H O R T A T IO N
(4Q397 14 - 2 1 followed by 4Q398)
[And you know that] we have separated from the mass of the peo[ple] ...
(8) and from mingling with them in these matters and from being in
contact with them in these (matters). And you k[now that no] treachery
or lie or evil (9) is found in our hands for we give for [these] th[e ...
10
And furthermore] (10) we [have written] to you (sing.) that you
should understand {the Book of Moses} (4Q398 14 -17 i) and the Book[s
of the Pr]ophets and Davi[d and all ( 11) the events] of every age. And in
{the Book is written} (4Q398 14 -17 i) ... not [for] (12) you {and the
days of old} (4Q398 14-17 i).
And furthermore it is written that [you will depart] from the w[a]y and
that evil will befall you (cf. Deut. xxxi, 29). {And it is written} (4Q398

(4Q398 14 - 17 i)
(13) And it (14) [shall come to pas]s when all these {things} (4Q397 14-21)
[be\fall you in the en[d\ of days, the blessing (15) and the curse, [then you will
call them to mind] and retu[m to Him with a]llyour heart (16) and all your
15 soul (Deut. xxx, 1 - 2 ) at the end of days. (17) [And it is written in the

Book] of Moses and in the Boofks of the Prophet]s that there shall come
... (18) [and the blessings came]

(4Q398 n - 1 3 )
in the days of Solomon the son of David. And the curses (19) came from
in the days of Jeroboam the son of Nebat (20) until Jerusalem and
Zedekiah king of Judah were exiled that He will b[rin]g them to ... And
we recognize that some of the blessings and curses which are (21) written
in the B[ook of Mo]ses have come. And this is at the end of days when
228

M M T (MIQSAT MA'ASE HA-TORAH)

they will come back to Israel (22) for [ever] ... and shall not turn backwar[ds]. And the wicked shall act (23) wickedly and ...
Remember the kings of Israel and understand their works that each of
them who (24) feared [the To] rah was saved from troubles, and to those
who were seekers of the Law, (25) their iniquities

(4Q398 14 - 17 ii conflated with 4Q399)

were [par]doned.
Remember David, that he was a man of piety, and that (26) he was
also saved from many troubles and pardoned.
We have also written to you (sing.) concerning (27) some of the
observances of the Law (miqsat maase ba-Torak), which we think are
beneficial to you and your people. For [we have noticed] that (28)
prudence and knowledge of the Law are with you.
Understand all these (matters) and ask Him to straighten (29) your
counsel and put you far away from thoughts of evil and the counsel of
Belial. (30) Consequently, you will rejoice at the end of time when you
discover that some of our sayings are true. (31) And it will be reckoned
for you as righteousness when you perform what is right and good
before Him, for your own good (32) and for that of Israel, vacat

229

The Wicked and the Holy

(4Q181)

The first fragment of a document from Cave 4 (4Q 181), which its editor has left
untided, describes in a manner similar to Community Rule iv the respective
destinies of the damned and the chosen. See J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson,
D JD , V , 79-80; cf. J. Strugnell, RQ 7 (1970), 2 54 -5;}. T . Milik,7 7 S 23 (1972),
1 14 -1 8 .

.. . for guilt with the congregation of his people, for it has wallowed in
the sin of the sons of men; (and it was appointed) for great judgements
and evil diseases in the flesh according to the mighty deeds of God and
in accordance with their wickedness. In conformity with their congrega
tion of uncleanness, (they are to be separated) as a community of
wickedness until (wickedness) ends.
In accordance with the mercies of God, according to His goodness
and wonderful glory, He caused some of the sons of the world to draw
near (Him) ... to be counted with Him in the com[munity of the g]ods
5 as a congregation of holiness in service for eternal life and (sharing) the
lot of His holy ones ... each man according to his lot which He has cast
for ... for eternal life ...

230

4QHalakhah A
(4Q 251 )

Twenty-six severely damaged fragments, palaeographically dated to the late first

century

bce,

represent extracts from the Pentateuch with textual variations and

exegetical paraphrases. The main topics are the Sabbath, compensation for
injuries, firstfruits, the priests wife, forbidden marital unions, etc.
For the editio princeps, see E. Larson, M. R. Lehman and L. Schiffrnan, D JD ,
XXXV, 2 5-5 1.

Frs. 1-2
... and to draw water from a cistern ... the drawing ... [No] man shall
take anything from his place on the Sabbath, [from outside the house
into it] or from the house outsi[de] ... for him to interpret and read in
the Book on the [Sabbajth ...

Frs. 4-7 i
... [Wh]en m[en] quarrel [and one stri]kes [his fellow with a stone or
with his fist and the man does not] di[e but keeps] his [be]d, [then if the
man rises again] and w[alks outside, he who injur] ed him is not guilty.
Only [he shall pay for the loss of his time] and for his medical [treatment]. vacat
[When a man strikes his slave, male or female] with a rod ... (cf.
Exod. 21:18-20).

231

TH E RULES

Fr. 8
[When a man strikes his slave, male or female,] in the eye [and destroys
it, or if he knocks out the tooth of his slave, male or female, he shall free]
him. He shall pay for the lo[ss of his time and for his medica]l treatment
[for the sake of his eye or his tooth (cf. Exod. 21:26 combined with
21:19). When an ox gores a man or] a woman, the ox shall be killed and
they will stone it [and its flesh shall not be eaten. But the owner of the ox
5 will be not guilty. But if the ox has been accustomed to gore] in the past,
and its owner has been warned but has not kept it in, and it has killed
[a ma]n or a woman, [the ox shall be stoned and its owner also shall be
put to death. If a ransom is laid upon him, then the man shall give ... (cf.
Exod. 21:28-30).

Fr. 9
[Let no man eat wheat, wi]ne or oil unless [the priest has waved] their
best, the firstfruit of the produce. No man shall delay, for [wine] is the
firstfruit of the produce, [and] the wheat. The juice ... (cf. Exod. 22:28).
The firstfruits are the leavened loaves which they bring [on the d]ay of
5 the [firstfruits.] These are firstfruits: let no man eat new wheat... until
the day of the bread of the firstfruits has come ...

Fr. 16
... When a woman is given to a priest, she [may eat] the food of her hus
band. [... One acquired by him for money and one bom into his house,
they] may eat his food. But a whore [and a profaned woman may not eat
the consecrated food. And] every unfaithful deed which [a man] shall
5 commit ... to eat, for it is an abomination ... owner who is without
redeemer...

4QHALAKHAA

Fr. 17
On cases of incest.. . No man shall take the w[ife of his father so as to
uncover the skirt of his father. No man shall take] the daughter of his
brother or the daughter of [his] si[ster]. No man shall uncover the
nakedness of the sister of [his] mo[ther or of his father. This is wicked
ness. A woman shall not be given to the brother of] her father or to the
brother of her mother ... A man shall not uncover the nakedness o f ...
A man shall not give his daughter ...

4QHalakhah B
(40264a)

Three fragments of a legal document, the first of which partly overlaps with var
ious sections of 4Q 421, deal with Sabbath regulations.
For the editio princeps, see J. M. Baumgarten, DJD, XXXV, 53-6.

Fr. 1 i

I ... [No man shall revise the scro]ll of a book reading its script on the
day of [Sabbath] ... But they may read and study it. No man shall make
plans with his mouth ... [on the day of Sabbath. He shall not talk] about
any matter relating to work or wealth or ... on the day of Sabbath. He
shall sp[eak no wo]rd apart from speaking holy words as prescribed and
from pronouncing blessings of God. He may talk about eating and
drink[ing] ...

2 34

4QTohorot (Purities) A
(4Q274)

This is the first of ten Cave 4 manuscripts dealing with purity matters. The text
translated represents column I of the document and the first word of column II.
4Q 274 deals with uncleanness caused by bodily fluxes and issues of blood and
with the means of its removal. Parts of fir. 3 are concerned with the uncleanness
associated with the juice oozing out of fruit.
For the editio princeps, see J. M. Baumgarten, DJD , XXXV, 99-109.

Fr. 1 i
I . . . [Let him not] begin to cast his lot. H e shall lie on a bed o f sorrow
and sit in a seat o f sighs. H e shall dwell in isolation with all the unclean,
and away from (food) purity at a distance o f twelve cubits in the wing
(assigned) to him (?) on the north-west o f every dwelling-house accord
ing to this measure. Every man from among the unclean . . . he shall
bathe in water [on the seven] th d[ay] and wash his clothes, and after
wards he may eat. For this is what he said, He shall cry, Unclean, unclean
(Lev. xiii, 45), as long as [the pla]gue af[fects him].
A woman with a seven-day issue o f blood shall not touch a man with a
flux, nor any vessel touched by a man who has a flux, nor anything he has
lain or sat on. But if she has touched (them), she shall wash her garments
and bathe, and afterwards she may eat. Above all, she shall not mingle
(with the pure) [during] her seven days so that she may not pollute the
c[amp]s o f the Ho[ly] o f Israel. Neither shall she touch any woman with
a long-term issue o f blood. And the person, either male or female, who
counts (the seven days: cf. Lev. xv, 13 ) shall not touch the menstruant
during her uncleanness. O nly when she has purified herself [from] her
[un]cleanness (may she be touched), for the blood o f the menstruant is
reckoned as a flux for anyone who touches it. And if he has touched
235

THE

RULES

[bodily] f[lux or s]emen, h[e shall] be unclean. [And he who has tou]ched
a man from among all these unclean persons during the seven days of
[his] cleans [ing] he shall [n]ot eat. If he has become unclean because of a
corp[se, he shall bathe in wat]er, wash (his garments) and afterwards II
he may e[at].

Fr. 2 i
... when they sprinkle on him for the first time. He shall bathe and wash
(his clothes) before [he eats. If it oc]curs for him on the seventh (day) on
the Sabbath day, he shall not sprinkle on the Sabbath, for [He says: Keep]
the Sabbath (Deut. v, 12). But he shall not touch anything pure until he
has repeated it. All that touches semen be it a man or any vessel shall be
5 immersed. And the bearer of it [shall immer]se. And the garment on
which it (the semen) is and the vessel which carries it shall be immersed
[in wate]r. If there is a man in the camp who is unable to do this (lacks a
spare garment), he shall bath[e and put on an]y garment which has not
been touched by it (the semen) as long as it does not touch his bread
(food). He who touches [his bed or] his [sea]t, if [his] gar[ment] has
not touched it (the semen), [he shall bathe] in water. But if [his garment
has touched it (the bed or the seat)], he shall wash it (the garment).
A man shall wash (his garment) with water for (eating) all consecrated
food ...

4Q 274 3 i-ii
I ... God uncovers the pupil of his eye, he shall read ... all their pre5 cepts ... for he who eats ... and he is unclean ... [if] (the fruits) juice
[has not oozed out, he shall eat it in purity, but all those] which have
been squeezed so that their juice has oozed out, no man should eat them
[if] an unclean man [has to]uched them. [And al]so from the greens ...
or ripe cucumber. Whoever has ...
II ... and any (vessel) which has a seal .. . [shall be unclean] for a
5 cleaner man. Any green [that has no] moisture of dew [on it] may be
eaten. And if it is n[ot eaten, let him put it] into the midst of the
water. For if a man [were to put it on] the ground, and [water] reached
236

4 Q T O H O R O T (P U R IT IE S ) A

it when the rain [descended] on it, if an [unclean man] touches it, [let
him not eat it] in the field by any means until the period [of his purifica
tion] ...
Any earthen vessel which ... which is in its midst... the liquid ...

4QTohorot Ba-Bb
(4Q276-7)

These two fragments deal with the biblical law of the red heifer, the ashes of
which were used for the preparation of the water for (the removal of) unclean
ness necessary for the cleansing of impurity resulting from contact with a dead
body. Relevant extracts from Num. xix are freely quoted. The subject is treated
also in M M T B 13 (4Q394 frs. 3 -7 i, 16-20). The script dates to the late first
century b c e .
For the editio princeps, see J. M. Baumgarten, D JD , XXXV, 1 1 1 - 1 9 .

4Q 276
[And the priest wears the garments] in which he is not ministering in the
Sanctuary ... renders the garments guilty. And he slaughtered [the]
heifer before Him. He shall carry her blood in a clay vessel which is [not
broughjt near the altar. And with his finger he shall sprinkle some of her
5 blood seven [times towajrds the front of the tent of meeting. And he
shall cast the cedarwood, [the hyssop and the scarlet majterial in the
midst of her burning. [And he who burns (it)], a man who is clean of
every corpse uncleanness, [shall wash his clothes and gather] up the
ashes of the heifer [and shall de] posit them to be kept [by the children of
Israel for the water for uncleanness, for the removal of sin. And] the
priest shall put on ...

4Q 277
The priest shall take the hyssop and ... The man cleansed from unclean
ness (lasting until) the evening [shall gather the ashes of the heifer and
give them to] the priest who atones with the blood of the heifer ... with
238

[whi]ch they atone with the law of the [red heifer] ... in water [and he
shall be un]clean until the evening. And he who carries the cauldron of 5
the water for uncleanness shall be uncl[ean and shall wash himself in
water and wash (his clothes)]. And [the] man [shall sprinkle] the water
for uncleanness on those defiled by uncleanness, for a pure priest... on
them, fo[r he shall] atone for the unclean. No wanton man shall sprinkle
on the unclean ... the water for uncleanness and he shall bring him to
the water and shall purify him from corpse uncleanness. ... [The pri]est
shall scatter on them the water for uncleanness to purify [them] ... for
they will indeed be purified and their flesh shall be p[ure] and anyone 10
who touches [him] ... his flux ... and [his] h[ands] are not drenched in
water. His [b]ed and [his] dwelling] shall be unclean .. . they who touch
his flux are like one who has touched the uncleanness of one who has
touched (a corpse); [he will be unc]lean until the evening. And he who
carries his [cl]othes shall wash and shall be unclean until the evening.

239

4Q Harvesting
(40284a)

Four fragments of a document have survived in a late Hasmonaean-early Herodian script (mid-first century b c e ). They deal with matters of uncleanness affect
ing fruits. Only fr. 1 is translatable. The phrase liquids of the Congregation links
this fragment to iQ S vi,

20 , v i i , 20 .

For the editio princeps, see J. M. Baumgarten, DJD, XXXV, 1 3 1-3 .

Fr. 1
... bask[et ... And let him no]t gather them ... may not touch the
liquids of the Congregation, for these [render unclean the] basket and
5 the figs [and the pomegranates, if] their ju[ice] oozes out wh[en he
squee]zes them all and [a man] who has not been brou[ght into the
C]ovenant has gathered them. And if they press [olives in the olive
press], let him not pollute them in a[ny man]ner by opening them until
he pours [them into the press].... in purity ...

240

The Masters Exhortation

to the Sons of Dawn
(4Q298)

Eight fragments of a manuscript which, apart from its title, is written in a cryptic
alphabet, contain an exhortation to a group, designated as sons of dawn by the
Master (maskil), the tide of the teacher in charge of instruction in the Commu
nity (cf. Community Rule). The phrase, sons of dawn (bene ha-shahar) is possi
bly attested in the Damascus Document xm ,

Document Reconsidered, Jerusalem,

19 9 2 , [3 5 ]:

14

(cf. M. Broshi, The Damascus

No member of the Covenant shall

have any dealings with the sons of dawn except for payment). The earlier read
ing was sons of the Pit (bene ha-shahat). S. Pfann suggests that the sons of
dawn (not yet sons of light) are newcomers to the sect at the earliest stages of
their initiation. The exhortation recalls the opening pages of the Damascus
Document. The square script of the tide is said to belong to the second half of
the first century b c e . Parts of frs.

1-2

and

3-4

are large enough to be translated.

For the editio princeps, see Stephen Pfann and M. Kister, DJD , XX, 1-30.

4Q298, firs. 1-2 i

[Wor]d of the Master which he spoke to all the sons of Dawn. Liste[n to
me a]ll men of heart (intelligence) and understand my word. [And
seeke]rs of righteousness, h[ea]r my word in all that proceeds from [my]
lips. Those who [k]now have sear[ch]ed [th]ese (matters) and [have]
returned [to the path] of life ...

241

THE

RULES

Frs. 3-4 ii
... And now listen, [O wise men], and hear, O you with knowledge, hear.
5 And men of understanding, in [crease migh]t, and modesty, you who
search judgement. [You who] kn[ow the way], increase strength, and men
of truth, pursu[e righteousness], and you who love kindness, increase
humility ... appointed time which ... you will understand the end of the
10 ages and you will gaze at ancient things to know ...

4Q Men Who Err

(4Q306)

Three small fragments allude to a group unfaithful to the Covenant (of Israel).
The allusion to dogs recalls 4Q M M T B 58-9.
For the editio princeps, see T . Lim, DJD, XXXVI, 249-54.

Fr. 1
The outcasts (?) who stray and do not practise [the precept], for they
transgress it [from day] to day, from month to mon[th], all that is (in) the
Covenant of I[srael]. ... its flesh and they spit... and he will be angry.
And the dogs will eat [the bones (coming) from the Temple]. He shall
exclude the d[og]s from the (Temple) court...

243

Register of Rebukes
(4 Q477 )

Fragments of two columns of a document contain a list of Community members

rebuked for offences against the rules. This is the only scroll fragment which
reveals the names of individual members: Yohanan son of Ar[

], Hananiah Notos

and Hananiah son of Sim[on]. According to the editor, Esther Eshel, the rebukes
listed here were read out in public by the mebaqqer (or Guardian), hence the tide
given by her, The Rebukes Reported by the Overseer. T o be more precise, it is
likely that the rebukes originated with witnesses of the offence. They reported it
to the Guardian who was to record the infringement (cf. C D ix, 2-4; 16-20).
The epithet Notos attached to the name of Hananiah probably means South
erner in line with a parallel Masada inscription (no. 462: Shimon bar Notos)
according to Y. Yadin and J. Naveh, Masada I (Jerusalem, 1989), 40. D. Flusser,
as quoted by Eshel, associates Notos with the Greek nothos (bastard). In col. 11,

1 . 8, Eshel, following M. Broshi, reads shyr (=tfr) bsrw (i.e. near kin); R. Eisenman
and M. Wise have sbpk bsrw (emission of his body) and J. M. Baumgarten ( JJS 45
(1994), 277) swd bsrw (the carnal foundation of man).
Frs. 1, 2 i and 3: the text is too fragmentary for translation. Note the signifi
cant phrases [to] recall their transgression, men of the [Community?], to
rebuke and [c]amps of the Congregation and they rebuked.
For the editio princeps, see E. Eshel, DJD, XXXVI, 474-83.

Fr. 2

II
... who ... [wh]o acted wickedly ... the Congregation ... Yohanan
son of Ar ... [they rebuked because] he was short-tempered ... with him
... the iniquity with him and also the spirit of pride was with [him] ...
vacat They rebuked Hananiah Notos because he ... [to dis]turb the
spirit of the Community ... and] also to mingle the ... they rebu[k]ed
because evil ... was with him and also because he was not ... and also
244

R E G I S T E R OF R E B U K E S

because he loved his bodily nature (or: showed preference to his near
kin) ... [blank] And [they rebuked] Hananiah son of Sim [on] [because
he] ... and he also loves the goodness ...

Remonstrances (before Conversion?)

(4Q 4 7 i3)

This small fragment, written in Herodian script, contains reproofs addressed in

the second person plural to a group of wicked Jews. The context is that of a war.
It is unlikely to belong to the War Scroll or the Book of War as neither of these
includes speeches to outsiders. According to a conjecture proposed by the
editors, the opponents of the sect thus criticized are the ruling class of Judaea
(Hasmonaeans and perhaps also Sadducees), but nothing in the surviving text
positively supports their cautiously presented surmise. However, the second half
of the fragment can be interpreted in a positive sense, in which case the scene
may be a last-minute mass conversion of unfaithful Jews before the final battle.
For the editio princeps, see Esther Eshel and Menahem Kister, D JD , XXXV I,
4 4 6 -9 .

.. . time(?) you have commanded not to ... You have been unfaithful to
His covenant... [You] said: Let us fight His wars for He has redeemed
us ... Your [mighty men] shall be humbled. And they did not know that
He has despised ... you shall show yourselves mighty in war. And you
have been reckoned ... by His measuring line(?). You shall seek right
eous judgement and the work .. . you shall exalt yourselves. And He has
chosen t[hem] ... for a cry ... And you will return ... sweet

246

B. Hymns and Poems

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Thanksgiving Scroll,
The Shrine of the Book,
Israel Museum , Jerusalem

The Thanksgiving Hymns

(iQH, 1Q36,4Q427-32)

The Hymns Scroll was published by E. L. Sukenik in 1954-5 (T^e Dead Sea Scrolls
of the Hebrew University, Jerusalem). It has suffered a good deal of deterioration
and the translator has difficulty, not only in making sense of the poems, but also
in determining where one ends and another begins. For a method of restoration
of the Hymns, see E. Puech, Quelques aspects de la restauration du Rouleau des
Hymnes, J J S 39 (1988), 38-55. He has convincingly argued that apart from
some fragments, the first three columns of the original Hymns Scroll are lost.
The missing beginning should be followed by the existing columns in the follow
ing order: xvn (sheet 1), x iii-xvi (sheet 2), i-iv (sheet 3), v -v m (sheet 4) and
ix-xii of the editio princeps. Four further columns (xxi-xxiv) may be recon
structed with the help of the former col. xvm and various fragments published
by Sukenik. Puech tentatively suggests also two further columns (xxv-xxvi)
made up from other fragments.
Our presentation of the Hymns is now rearranged according to Puechs thesis
and his reconstruction of the poem in col. vi (formerly xiv) is also adopted
(cf. art. cit., 53-4). No translation is offered for the extremely fragmentary cols,
xxiv-xxvi, though it should be noted that col. xxv includes the beginning of
a new poem, For the Master. A s[ong (?)] from iQ H , fr. 8. Further fragments,
occasionally used to improve the reading of iQ H, may be found at 1Q 35
(cf. also 1Q 36 and 37-40 ; see D /D , I, 136-43) and 4 Q 4 27-32 ; for the latter,
see Eileen Schuller, D JD , XXIX, 69-232.
The poems contained in the Scroll are similar to the biblical Psalms. They are
mosdy hymns of thanksgiving, individual prayers as opposed to those intended
for communal worship, expressing a rich variety of spiritual and doctrinal detail.
But the two fundamental themes running through the whole collection are those
of salvation and knowledge. The sectary thanks God continually for having been
saved from the lot of the wicked, and for his gift of insight into the divine
mysteries. He, a creature of clay, has been singled out by his Maker to receive
favours of which he feels himself unworthy and he alludes again and again to his
249

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

frailty and total dependence on God. Whereas some of the Hymns give expres
sion to thoughts and sentiments common to all the members of the sect, others,
particularly nos. i, 2, and 7 - 1 1 , appear to refer to the experiences of a teacher
abandoned by his friends and persecuted by his enemies. Several scholars tend to
ascribe the authorship of these to the Teacher of Righteousness, and even con
sider that he may be responsible for all the Hymns. But although this hypothesis
is not impossible, no sure conclusion can yet be reached. Nor are we in a position
to date any particular composition. The most we can say is that the collection as
such probably attained its final shape during the last pre-Christian century.
Philos account of the banquet celebrated by the contemplative Essenes, or
Therapeutae, on the Feast of Pentecost may indicate the use to which the Hymns
were put. He reports that when the President of the meeting had ended his
commentary on the Scriptures, he rose and chanted a hymn, either one of his
own making or an old one, and after him each of his brethren did likewise (The
Contemplative Life, 80). Similarly, it is probable that the psalms of this Scroll
were recited by the Guardian and newly initiated members at the Feast of the
Renewal of the Covenant. Hymn 4 (formerly 21) expressly refers to the oath of
the Covenant, and Hymn 5 (formerly 22) appears to be a poetic commentary on
the liturgy marking the entry into the Community. Indeed, the relative poverty
of principal themes may be due to the fact that all this poetry was intended for a
special occasion and its inspirational scope was thereby limited.
Cols. 1i i i are missing.

IV (formerly X V I I ) ...
Hymn 1 (formerly 25)
10

As T h o u hast said by the hand o f Moses,

T h o u forgivest transgression, iniquity, and sin,
and pardonest rebellion and unfaithfulness.
For the bases o f the mountains shall melt
and fire shall consume the deep places o f Hell,
but T h o u wilt deliver
all those that are corrected by T h y judgements,
that they may serve T h ee faithfully
and that their seed may be before T h ee for ever.
T h o u wilt keep Thine oath

250

T HE T H A N K S G I V I N G H Y M N S

and wilt pardon their transgression;

T h o u wilt cast away all their sins.
T h o u wilt cause them to inherit all the glory o f Adam
and abundance o f days.
Hymn 2 (formerly 24)
[I give T h ee thanks]
because o f the spirits which T h o u hast given to me!
I [will bring forth] a reply o f the tongue
to recount T h y righteous deeds,
and the forbearance . . .
and the works o f T h y mighty right hand,
and [the pardon] o f the sins o f the forefathers.
[I will bow down] and implore T h y mercy
[on my sins and wicked] deeds,
and on the perversity o f [my heart],
for I have wallowed in uncleanness,
and have [turned aside] from the counsel [of T h y truth]
and I have not laboured . . .
[For] Thine, T hine is righteousness,
and an everlasting blessing be upon T h y N am e!
[According to] T h y righteousness,
let [T h y servant] be redeemed
[and] the wicked be brought to an end.
For I have understood that [it is T h o u
who dost establish] the path o f whomsoever T h o u choosest;
T h o u dost hedge him in with [true] discernment
that he may not sin against Thee,
and that his humility [may bear fruit]
through T h y chastisement.
[Thou dost purify] his heart in [T h y trials].
[Preserve] T h y servant, [O G od], lest he sin against Thee,
or stagger aside from any word o f T h y will.
Strengthen the [loins o f T h y servant
that he may] resist the spirits [of falsehood,
that] he may walk in all that T h o u lovest,
and despise all that T h o u loathest,

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

[that he may do] that which is good in T h in e eyes.

[Destroy] their [dominion] in my bowels,
for [within] T h y servant is a spirit o f [flesh].
Hymn 5 (formerly 25)
[I thank Thee, O Lord,
for] T h o u didst shed [Thy] H oly Spirit upon T h y Servant

V (formerly X I I I )
All these things [Thou didst establish in T h y wisdom.
T h o u didst appoint] all T h y works
before ever creating them:
the host o f T h y spirits
and the Congregation [of T h y H oly Ones,
the heavens and all] their hosts
and the earth and all it brings forth.
In the seas and deeps . . .
. . . and an everlasting task;
for T h o u hast established them from before eternity.
And the work o f . . .
and they shall recount T h y glory
throughout all T h y dominion
Fo r T h o u hast shown them that
which they had not [seen
by removing all] ancient things
and creating new on^s,
by breaking asunder things anciendy established,
and raising up the things o f eternity.
For [Thou art from the beginning]
and shalt endure for ages without end.
And T h o u hast [appointed] all these things
in the mysteries o f T h y wisdom
to make known T h y glory [to all].
[But what is] the spirit o f flesh
that it should understand all this,
and that it should comprehend

T HE T H A N K S G I V I N G H Y M N S

the great [design o f T h y wisdom]?

W hat is he that is born o f woman
in the midst o f all T h y terrible [works]?
H e is but an edifice o f dust,
and a thing kneaded with water,
whose beginning [is sinful iniquity],
and shameful nakedness,
[and a fount o f uncleanness],
and over whom a spirit o f straying rules.
I f he is wicked he shall become [a sign for] ever,
and a wonder to (every) generation,
[and an object o f horror to all] flesh.
By T h y goodness alone is man righteous,
and with T h y many mercies [Thou strengthenest him].
T h o u wilt adorn him with T h y splendour
and wilt [cause him to reign amid] many delights
with everlasting peace and length o f days.
[For T h o u hast spoken],
and T h o u wilt not take back T h y word.

And I, Thy servant,

I know by the spirit which T h o u hast given to me
[that T h y words are truth],
and that all T h y works are righteousness,
and that T h o u wilt not take back T h y word

V I (formerly XIV)

Hymn 4 (formerly 2 1)
[Blessed art Thou,] O Lord
who hast given understanding
to the heart o f [Thy] servant
that he may understand all these things
and resist [the works] o f wickedness
and bless justly all those who choose T h y will,
[and that he may love all] that T h o u lovest

253

15

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

and loathe all that T h o u [hatest].

T h o u shalt instruct T h y servant
. . . [spi]rits o f man
for T h o u hast cast their (lot) according to the spirits
between good and evil
to accomplish their task.
And I know through the understanding
which comes from Thee,
that in T h y goodwill towards m[a]n
[Thou hast] increased his inheritance] in T h y H o ly Spirit
and thus T ho u hast drawn me near to understanding o f Thee.
And the closer I approach,
the more am I filled with zeal
against all the workers o f iniquity
and the men o f deceit.
Fo r none o f those who approach T hee
rebels against T h y command,
nor do any o f those who know T h ee
alter T h y words;
for T h o u art righteous,
and all Thine elect are truth.
T h o u wilt blot out all injustice and wickedness for ever,
and T h y righteousness shall be revealed
before the eyes o f all T h y creatures.
I know through T h y great goodness;
and with an oath I have undertaken
never to sin against Thee,
nor to do anything evil in T hine eyes.
And thus do I bring into community
all the men o f my Council.
I will cause each man to draw near
in accordance with his understanding,
and according to the greatness o f his inheritance,
so will I love him.
I will not honour an evil man,
nor consider [the bribes o f shame];
I will [not] barter T h y truth for riches,

T HE T H A N K S G I V I N G H Y M N S

nor one o f T h y precepts for bribes.

But [I will lo]ve [each ma]n
according to his sp[eech](?)
and according as T h o u removest him far from T hee,
so will I hate him;
and none o f those who have turned [from] T h y [Cojvenant
will I bring into the Council [of T h y] t[ruth].
Hymn 5 (formerly 22)
[I thank] T hee, O Lord,
as befits the greatness o f T h y power
and the multitude o f T h y marvels for ever and ever.
[Thou art a merciful God] and rich in [favours],
pardoning those who repent o f their sin
and visiting the iniquity o f the wicked.
[Thou delightest in] the free-will offering [of the righteous]
but iniquity T h o u hatest always.
T h o u hast favoured me, T h y servant,
with a spirit o f knowledge,
[that I may choose] truth [and goodness]
and loathe all the ways o f iniquity.
And I have loved T h ee freely
and with all m y heart;
[contemplating the mysteries of] T h y wisdom
[I have sought Thee].
For this is from T h y hand
and [nothing is done] without [T h y will].
V I I (formerly X V )
I have loved T h ee freely
and with all my heart and soul
I have purified . . .
[that I might not] turn aside from any o f T h y commands.
I have clung to the Congregation . . .
that I might not be separated from any o f T h y laws.
I know through the understanding which comes from T h ee
that righteousness is not in a hand o f flesh,

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

[that] man [is not master of] his way

and that it is not in mortals to direct their step.
I know that the inclination o f every spirit
[is in T h y hand];
T h o u didst establish [all] its [ways] before ever creating it,
and how can any man change T h y words?
T h o u alone didst [create] the just
15

and establish him from the womb

for the time o f goodwill,
that he might hearken to T h y Covenant
and walk in all (T h y ways),
and that [Thou mightest show T h yself great] to him
in the multitude o f T h y mercies,
and enlarge his straitened soul to eternal salvation,
to perpetual and unfailing peace.
T h o u wilt raise up his glory
from among flesh.
But the wicked T h o u didst create
for [the time] o f T h y [wrath],
T h o u didst vow them from the womb
to the D ay o f Massacre,
for they walk in the way which is not good.
T h e y have despised [T h y Covenant]
and their souls have loathed T h y [truth];
they have taken no delight in all T h y commandments
and have chosen that which T h o u hatest.
[For according to the mysteries] o f T h y [wisdom],
T h o u hast ordained them for great chastisements
before the eyes o f all T h y creatures,

20

that [for all] eternity

they may serve as a sign [and a wonder],
and that [all men] may know T h y glory
and T h y tremendous power.
But what is flesh
that it should understand [these things]?
And how should [a creature of] dust direct his steps?
It is T h o u who didst shape the spirit

256

T HE T H A N K S G I V I N G H Y M N S

and establish its work [from the beginning];

the way o f all the living proceeds from Thee.
I know that no riches equal T h y truth,
and [have therefore desired
to enter the Council of] T h y holiness.
I know that T h o u hast chosen them before all others
and that they shall serve T h ee for ever.
T h o u wilt [take no bribe for the deeds o f iniquity],
nor ransom for the works o f wickedness;
for T h o u art a G od o f truth
and [wilt destroy] all iniquity [for ever,
and] no [wickedness] shall exist before Thee.

V I I I (formerly X V I )
Because I know all these things
m y tongue shall utter a reply.
Bowing down and [confessing all] my transgressions,
I will seek [Thy] spirit [of knowledge];
cleaving to T h y spirit o f [holiness],
I will hold fast to the truth o f T h y Covenant,
that [I may serve] T h ee in truth and wholeness o f heart,
and that I may love [T h y Nam e].
Blessed art T ho u , O Lord,
M aker [of all things and mighty in] deeds:
all things are T h y work!
Behold, T h o u art pleased to favour [T h y servant],
and hast graced me with T h y spirit o f mercy
and [with the radiance] o f T h y glory.
Thine, Thine is righteousness,
for it is T h o u who hast done all [these things]!
I know that T h o u hast marked the spirit o f the just,
and therefore I have chosen to keep m y hands clean
in accordance with [Thy] will:
the soul o f T h y servant [has loathed]
every work o f iniquity.
And I know that man is not righteous

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

except through Thee,

and therefore I implore T h ee
by the spirit which T h o u hast given [me]
to perfect T h y [favours] to T h y servant [for ever],
purifying me by T h y H o ly Spirit,
and drawing me near to T h ee by T h y grace
according to the abundance o f T h y mercies
[Grant me] the place [of T h y loving-kindness]
which [Thou hast] chosen for them that love T h ee
and keep [T h y commandments,
that they may stand] in T h y presence [for] ever.
L e t no scourge [come] near him
15

lest he stagger aside from the laws o f T h y Covenant.

I [know, O Lord,
that T h o u art merciful] and compassionate,
[long]-suffering and [rich] in grace and truth,
pardoning transgression [and sin].
T h o u repentest o f [evil against them that love Thee]
and keep [Thy] commandments,
[that] return to Th ee with faith
and wholeness o f heart
. . . to serve T hee
[and to do that which is] good in Thine eyes.
Reject not the face o f T h y servant
Hymn 6 (formerly 1)

IX (formerly I)
T h o u art long-suffering in T h y judgements
and righteous in all T h y deeds.
B y T h y wisdom [all things exist from] eternity,
and before creating them T h o u knewest their works
for ever and ever.
[Nothing] is done [without Thee]
and nothing is known unless T h o u desire it.

258

T HE T H A N K S G I V I N G H Y M N S

T h o u hast created all the spirits

[and hast established a statute] and law
for all their works:
T h o u hast spread the heavens for T h y glory
and hast [appointed] all [their hosts]
according to T h y will;
the mighty winds according to their laws
before they became angels [of holiness]
. . . and eternal spirits in their dominions;
the heavenly lights to their mysteries,
the stars to their paths,
[the clouds] to their tasks,
the thunderbolts and lightnings to their duty,
and the perfect treasuries (of snow and hail)
to their purposes,
. . . to their mysteries.
T h o u hast created the earth by T h y power
and the seas and deeps [by T h y might].
Th o u hast fashioned [all] their [inhabitants
according to T h y wisdom,
and hast appointed all that is in them
according to T h y will.
[And] to the spirit o f man
which T h o u hast formed in the world,
[Thou hast given dominion over the works o f T h y hands]
for everlasting days and unending generations.
. . . in their ages
T h o u hast allotted to them tasks
during all their generations,
and judgement in their appointed seasons
according to the rule [of the two spirits.
Fo r T h o u hast established their ways]
for ever and ever,
[and hast ordained from eternity]
their visitation for reward and chastisements;
T h o u hast allotted it to all their seed
for eternal generations and everlasting years . . .
In the wisdom o f T h y knowledge

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

T h o u didst establish their destiny before ever they were.

20

All things [exist] according to [T h y will]

and without T h ee nothing is done.
T hese things I know
by the wisdom which comes from Thee,
for T h o u hast unstopped m y ears
to marvellous mysteries.
And yet I, a shape o f clay
kneaded in water,
a ground o f shame
and a source o f pollution,
a melting-pot o f wickedness
and an edifice o f sin,
a straying and perverted spirit
o f no understanding,
fearful o f righteous judgements,
what can I say that is not foreknown,
and what can I utter that is not foretold?
All things are graven before T h ee
on a written Reminder
for everlasting ages,
and for the numbered cycles
o f the eternal years
in all their seasons;
they are not hidden or absent from Thee.

25

W h at shall a man say

concerning his sin?
And how shall he plead
concerning his iniquities?
And how shall he reply
to righteous judgement?
For Thine, O G od o f knowledge,
are all righteous deeds
and the counsel o f truth;
but to the sons o f men is the work o f iniquity
and deeds o f deceit.

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T HE T H A N K S G I V I N G H Y M N S

It is Thou who hast created breath for the tongue

and Thou knowest its words;
Thou didst establish the fruit of the lips
before ever they were.
Thou dost set words to measure
and the flow of breath from the lips to metre.
Thou bringest forth sounds
according to their mysteries,
and the flow of breath from the lips
according to its reckoning,
that they may tell of Thy glory
and recount Thy wonders
in all Thy works of truth
and [in all Thy] righteous [judgements];
and that Thy Name be praised
by the mouth of all men,
and that they may know Thee
according to their understanding
and bless Thee for ever.

30

By Thy mercies and by Thy great goodness,

Thou hast strengthened the spirit of man
in the face of the scourge,
and hast purified [the erring spirit]
of a multitude of sins,
that it may declare Thy marvels
in the presence of all Thy creatures.
[I will declare to the assembly of the simple]
the judgements by which I was scourged,
and to the sons of men, all Thy wonders
by which Thou hast shown Thyself mighty [in me
in the presence of the sons of Adam].
Hear, O you wise men, and meditate on knowledge;
O you fearful, be steadfast!
Increase in prudence, [O all you simple];
O just men, put away iniquity!
Hold fast [to the Covenant],
O all you perfect of way;
[O all you afflicted with] misery,
261

35

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

be patient and despise no righteous judgement!

[but the foo]lish o f heart
shall not comprehend these things

X (formerly II)
Upon m y [uncircumcised] lips
T h o u hast laid a reply.
T h o u hast upheld m y soul,
strengthening my loins and restoring my power;
m y foot has stood in the realm o f ungodliness.
I have been a snare to those who rebel,
but healing to those o f them who repent,
prudence to the simple,
and steadfastness to the fearful o f heart.
To traitors Th o u hast made o f me
10

a mockery and scorn,

but a counsel o f truth and understanding
to the upright o f way.
I have been iniquity for the wicked,
ill-repute on the lips o f the fierce,
the scoffers have gnashed their teeth.
I have been a byword to traitors,
the assembly o f the wicked has raged against me;
they have roared like turbulent seas
and their towering waves have spat out mud and slime.
But to the elect o f righteousness
T h o u hast made me a banner,
and a discerning interpreter o f wonderful mysteries,
to try [those who practise] truth
and to test those who love correction.
To the interpreters o f error I have been an opponent,
[but a man o f peace] to all those who see true things.

15

To all those who seek smooth things

I have been a spirit o f zeal;
like the sound o f the roaring o f many waters
so have [all] the deceivers thundered against me;
[all] their thoughts were devilish [schemings].

262

THE T H A N K S G I V I N G H Y M N S

T h e y have cast towards the Pit the life o f the man

whose mouth T h o u hast confirmed,
and into whose heart
T h o u hast put teaching and understanding,
that he might open a fountain o f knowledge
to all men o f insight.
T h e y have exchanged them for lips o f uncircumcision,
and for the foreign tongue
o f a people without understanding,
that they might come to ruin in their straying.
Hymn 7 (formerly 2)
I thank T hee, O Lord,
for T h o u hast placed my soul
in the bundle o f the living,
and hast hedged me about
against all the snares o f the Pit.
Violent men have sought after m y life
because I have clung to T h y Covenant.
For they, an assembly o f deceit,
and a horde o f Belial,
know not that m y stand
is maintained by Thee,
and that in T h y mercy T h o u wilt save m y soul
since my steps proceed from Thee.
From T h ee it is
that they assail m y life,
that T h o u mayest be glorified
by the judgement o f the wicked,
and manifest T h y might through me
in the presence o f the sons o f men;
for it is by T h y mercy that I stand.
And I said, M ighty men
have pitched their camps against me,
and have encompassed me
with all their weapons o f war.
T h e y have let fly arrows

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

against which there is no cure,

and the flame o f (their) javelins
is like a consuming fire among trees.
T h e clamour o f their shouting
is like the bellowing o f many waters,
like a storm o f destruction
devouring a multitude o f men;
as their waves rear up,
Naught and Vanity spout upward to the stars.
But although my heart melted like water,
my soul held fast to T h y Covenant,
and the net which they spread for me
has taken their own foot;
they have themselves fallen
into the snares which they laid for my life.
But my foot remains upon level ground;
30

apart from their assembly I will bless T h y Nam e.

Hymn 8 (formerly j )
I thank Thee, O Lord,
for T ho u hast [fastened] Thine eye upon me.
T h o u hast saved me from the zeal
o f lying interpreters,
and from the congregation o f those
who seek smooth things.
T h o u hast redeemed the soul o f the poor one
whom they planned to destroy
by spilling his blood because he served Thee.
Because [they knew not]
that my steps were directed by Thee,
they made me an object o f shame and derision
in the mouth o f all the seekers o f falsehood.
But Thou , O my G od, hast succoured
the soul o f the poor and the needy
against one stronger than he;
T h o u hast redeemed my soul
from the hand o f the mighty.

35

T h o u hast not permitted their insults to dismay me

264

T HE T H A N K S G I V I N G H Y M N S

so that I forsook T h y service

for fear o f the wickedness o f the [ungodly],
or bartered my steadfast heart for folly

Hymn g (formerly 4)
X I (formerly I I I )
T h e y caused [me] to be
like a ship on the deeps o f the [sea],
and like a fortified city
before [the aggressor],
[and] like a woman in travail
with her first-born child,
upon whose belly pangs have come
and grievous pains,
filling with anguish her child-bearing crucible.
Fo r the children have come to the throes o f Death,
and she labours in her pains who bears a man.
Fo r amid the throes o f Death
she shall bring forth a man-child,
and amid the pains o f Hell
there shall spring from her child-bearing crucible
a Marvellous M ighty Counsellor;
and a man shall be delivered from out o f the throes.
W hen he is conceived
all wombs shall quicken,
and the time o f their delivery
shall be in grievous pains;
they shall be appalled
who are with child.
And when he is brought forth
every pang shall come upon the child-bearing crucible.
And they, the conceivers o f Vanity,
shall be prey to terrible anguish;
the wombs o f the Pit
shall be prey to all the works o f horror.

265

10

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

T h e foundations o f the wall shall rock

like a ship upon the face o f the waters;
the heavens shall roar
with a noise o f roaring,
and those who dwell in the dust,
as well as those who sail the seas,
shall be appalled by the roaring o f the waters.
All their wise men
shall be like sailors on the deeps,
for all their wisdom shall be swallowed up
15

in the midst o f the howling seas.

As the Abysses boil
above the fountains o f the waters,
the towering waves and billows shall rage
with the voice o f their roaring;
and as they rage,
[Hell and Abaddon] shall open
[and all] the flying arrows o f the Pit
shall send out their voice to the Abyss.
And the gates [of Hell] shall open
[on all] the works o f Vanity;
and the doors o f the Pit shall close
on the conceivers o f wickedness;
and the everlasting bars shall be bolted
on all the spirits o f Naught.

Hymn 10 (formerly 5)
I thank Thee, O Lord,
for T h o u hast redeemed my soul from the Pit,
and from the hell o f Abaddon
T h o u hast raised me up to everlasting height.
20

I walk on limitless level ground,

and I know there is hope for him
whom T h o u hast shaped from dust
for the everlasting Council.
T h o u hast cleansed a perverse spirit o f great sin
that it may stand with the host o f the H oly Ones,

266

THE T H A N K S G I V I N G H Y M N S

and that it may enter into community

with the congregation of the Sons of Heaven.

T h o u hast allotted to man an everlasting destiny
amidst the spirits o f knowledge,
that he may praise T h y N am e in a common rejoicing
and recount T h y marvels before all T h y works.

And yet I, a creature of clay,

what am I?
Kneaded with water,
what is m y worth and my might?
For I have stood in the realm o f wickedness
and m y lot was with the damned;
the soul o f the poor one was carried away

25

in the midst o f great tribulation.

Miseries o f torment dogged my steps
while all the snares o f the Pit were opened
and the lures o f wickedness were set up
and the nets o f the damned (were spread) on the waters;
while all the arrows o f the Pit
flew out without cease,
and, striking, left no hope;
while the rope beat down in judgement
and a destiny o f wrath (fell) upon the abandoned
and a venting o f fury upon the cunning.

It was a time of the wrath of all Belial

and the bonds o f death tightened without any escape.

The torrents of Belial shall reach

to all sides of the world.
In all their channels
a consuming fire shall destroy
every tree, green and barren, on their banks;
unto the end o f their courses
it shall scourge with flames o f fire,
and shall consume the foundations o f the earth
and the expanse o f dry land.

The bases of the mountains shall blaze

and the roots of the rocks shall turn

267

30

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

to torrents o f pitch;
it shall devour as far as the great Abyss.
T h e torrents o f Belial shall break into Abaddon,
and the deeps o f the Abyss shall groan
amid the roar o f heaving mud.
T h e land shall cry out because o f the calamity
fallen upon the world,
and all its deeps shall howl.
And all those upon it shall rave
and shall perish amid the great misfortune.
For G od shall sound His mighty voice,
and His holy abode shall thunder
with the truth o f H is glory.
35

T h e heavenly hosts shall cry out

and the worlds foundations
shall stagger and sway.
T h e war o f the heavenly warriors shall scourge the earth;
and it shall not end before the appointed destruction
which shall be for ever and without compare.
Hymn 1 1 (formerly 6)
I thank Thee, O Lord,
for T h o u art as a fortified wall to me,
and as an iron bar against all destroyers
T h o u hast set m y feet upon rock . . .
that I may walk in the way o f eternity
and in the paths which T h o u hast chosen

X I I (formerly I V )
5

Hymn 12 (formerly 7)
I thank T h ee, O Lord,
for T h o u hast illumined m y face by T h y Covenant,
I seek T hee,

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THE T H A N K S G I V I N G H Y M N S

and sure as the dawn

Thou appearest as [perfect Light] to me.
Teachers of lies [have smoothed] Thy people [with words],
and [false prophets] have led them astray;
they perish without understanding
for their works are in folly.
For I am despised by them
and they have no esteem for me
that Thou mayest manifest Thy might through me.
They have banished me from my land like a bird from its nest;
all my friends and brethren are driven far from me
and hold me for a broken vessel.
And they, teachers of lies and seers of falsehood,
have schemed against me a devilish scheme,
to exchange the Law engraved on my heart by Thee
for the smooth things (which they speak) to Thy people.
And they withhold from the thirsty the drink of Knowledge,
and assuage their thirst with vinegar,
that they may gaze on their straying,
on their folly concerning their feast-days,
on their fall into their snares.
But Thou, O God,
dost despise all Belials designs;
it is Thy purpose that shall be done
and the design of Thy heart
that shall be established for ever.
As for them, they dissemble,
they plan devilish schemes.

They seek Thee with a double heart

and are not confirmed in Thy truth
A root bearing poisoned and bitter fruit
is in their designs;
they walk in stubbornness of heart
and seek Thee among idols,
and they set before themselves
the stumbling-block of their sin.
They come to inquire of Thee

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

from the mouth o f lying prophets deceived by error

who speak [with strange] lips to T h y people,
and an alien tongue,
that they may cunningly turn
all their works to folly.
For [they hearken] not [to] T h y [voice],
nor do they give ear to T h y word;
o f the vision o f knowledge they say, It is unsure,
and o f the way o f T h y heart, It is not (the way).
But Thou, O G od, wilt reply to them,
chastising them in T h y might
because o f their idols
and because o f the multitude o f their sins,
that they who have turned aside from T h y Covenant
may be caught in their own designs.
T h o u wilt destroy in Judgement
20

all men o f lies,

and there shall be no more seers o f error;
for in T h y works is no folly,
no guile in the design o f T h y heart.
But those who please T h ee
shall stand before T h ee for ever;
those who walk in the way o f T h y heart
shall be established for evermore.
Clinging to T hee, I will stand.
I will rise against those who despise me
and m y hand shall be turned
against those who deride me;
for they have no esteem for me

[that Thou mayest] manifest Thy might through me.

Thou hast revealed Thyself to me in Thy power
as perfect Light,
and T h o u hast not covered my face with shame.
All those who are gathered in T h y Covenant
inquire o f me,
and they hearken to me who walk in the way o f T h y heart,
who array themselves for T h ee
25

in the Council o f the holy.

270

T HE T H A N K S G I V I N G H Y M N S

Thou wilt cause their law to endure for ever

and truth to go forward unhindered,
and Thou wilt not allow them to be led astray
by the hand of the damned
when they plot against them.
Thou wilt put the fear of them into Thy people
and (wilt make of them) a hammer
to all the peoples of the lands,
that at the Judgement they may cut off
all those who transgress Thy word.
Through me Thou hast illumined
the face of the Congregation
and hast shown Thine infinite power.
For Thou hast given me knowledge
through Thy marvellous mysteries,
and hast shown Thyself mighty within me
in the midst of Thy marvellous Council.
Thou hast done wonders before the Congregation
for the sake of Thy glory,
that they may make known Thy mighty deeds to all the living.
But what is flesh (to be worthy) of this?
What is a creature of clay
for such great marvels to be done,
whereas he is in iniquity from the womb
and in guilty unfaithfulness until his old age?
Righteousness, I know, is not of man,
nor is perfection of way of the son of man:
to the Most High God belong all righteous deeds.
The way of man is not established
except by the spirit which God created for him
to make perfect a way for the children of men,
that all His creatures may know
the might of His power,
and the abundance of His mercies
towards all the sons of His grace.
As for me, shaking and trembling seize me
and all my bones are broken;

271

30

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

m y heart dissolves like wax before fire

and my knees are like water
pouring down a steep place.
For I remember my sins
and the unfaithfulness o f my fathers.
W h en the wicked rose against T h y Covenant
and the damned against T h y word,
35

I said in my sinfulness,
I am forsaken by T h y Covenant.
But calling to mind the might o f T h y hand
and the greatness o f T h y compassion,
I rose and stood,
and my spirit was established
in face o f the scourge.
I lean on T h y grace
and on the multitude o f T h y mercies,
for T h o u wilt pardon iniquity,
and through T h y righteousness
[Thou wilt purify man] o f his sin.
N o t for his sake wilt T h o u do it,
[but for the sake o f T h y glory].
For T h o u hast created the just and the wicked

XIII

(formerly V )

Hymn 1 3 (formerly 8)
I thank T hee, O Lord,
5

for T h o u hast not abandoned me

whilst I sojourned among a people [burdened with sin].
[Thou hast not] judged me
according to my guilt,
nor hast T h o u abandoned me
because o f the designs o f m y inclination;
but T h o u hast saved my life from the Pit.
T h o u hast brought [T h y servant deliverance]
in the midst o f lions destined for the guilty,

272

T HE T H A N K S G I V I N G H Y M N S

and of lionesses which crush the bones of the mighty

and drink the blood of the brave.
Thou hast caused me to dwell with the many fishers
who spread a net upon the face of the waters,
and with the hunters of the children of iniquity;
Thou hast established me there for justice.
Thou hast confirmed the counsel of truth in my heart
and the waters of the Covenant for those who seek it.
Thou hast closed up the mouth of the young lions
whose teeth are like a sword,
and whose great teeth are like a pointed spear,
like the venom of dragons.
All their design is for robbery
and they have lain in wait;
but they have not opened their mouth against me.
For Thou, O God, hast sheltered me
from the children of men,
and hast hidden Thy Law [within me]
against the time when Thou shouldst reveal
Thy salvation to me.
For Thou hast not forsaken me
in my souls distress,
and Thou hast heard my cry
in the bitterness of my soul;
and when I groaned,
Thou didst consider my sorrowful complaint.
Thou hast preserved the soul of the poor one
in the den of lions
which sharpened their tongue like a sword.
Thou hast closed up their teeth, O God,
lest they rend the soul of the poor and needy.
Thou hast made their tongue go back
like a sword to its scabbard
[lest] the soul of Thy servant [be blotted out].
Thou hast dealt wondrously with the poor one
to manifest Thy might within me
in the presence of the sons of men.

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

T h o u hast placed him in the melting-pot,

[like gold] in the fire,
and like silver refined
in the melting-pot o f the smelters,
to be purified seven times.
T h e wicked and fierce have stormed against me
with their afflictions;
they have pounded my soul all day.
But Thou, O my G od,
hast changed the tempest to a breeze;
T h o u hast delivered the soul o f the poor one
like [a bird from the net
and like] prey from the mouth o f lions.

Hymn 14 (formerly 9)
I thank T hee (corrected: Blessed art Thou) O Lord,
20

for T h o u hast not abandoned the fatherless

or despised the poor.
For T h y might [is boundless]
and T h y glory beyond measure
and wonderful Heroes minister to Th ee;
yet [hast T h o u done marvels] among the humble
in the mire underfoot,
and among those eager for righteousness,
causing all the well-loved poor
to rise up together from the trampling.
But I have been [iniquity to] those who contend with me,
dispute and quarrelling to my friends,
wrath to the members o f m y Covenant
and murmuring and protest to all m y companions.
[All who have ea]ten my bread
have lifted their heel against me,
and all those joined to my Council
have mocked me with wicked lips.
T h e members o f my [Covenant] have rebelled
and have murmured round about me;

25

they have gone as talebearers

274

T HE T H A N K S G I V I N G H Y M N S

before the children of mischief

concerning the mystery which Thou hast hidden in me.
And to show Thy great[ness] through me,
and because of their guilt,
Thou hast hidden the fountain of understanding
and the counsel of truth.
They consider but the mischief of their heart;
[with] devilish [schemings] they unsheathe
a perfidious tongue
from which ever springs the poison of dragons.
And like (serpents) which creep in the dust,
so do they let fly [their poisonous darts],
vipers [venom] against which there is no charm;
and this has brought incurable pain,
a malignant scourge
within the body of Thy servant,
causing [his spirit] to faint
and draining his strength
so that he maintains no firm stand.
They have overtaken me in a narrow pass without escape
and there is no [rest for me in my trial].
They sound my censure upon a harp
and their murmuring and storming upon a zither.
Anguish [seizes me]
like the pangs of a woman in travail,
and my heart is troubled within me.
I am clothed in blackness
and my tongue cleaves to the roof [of my mouth];
[for I fear the mischief of] their heart
and their inclination (towards evil)
appears as bitterness before me.
The light of my face is dimmed to darkness
and my radiance is turned to decay.
For Thou, O God, didst widen my heart,
but they straiten it with affliction
and hedge me about with darkness.
I eat the bread of wailing

275

30

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

and drink unceasing tears;

truly, my eyes are dimmed by grief,
and my soul by daily bitterness.
[Groaning] and sorrow encompass me
35

and ignominy covers my face.

M y bread is turned into an adversary
and my drink into an accuser;
it has entered into my bones
causing my spirit to stagger
and my strength to fail.
According to the mysteries o f sin,
they change the works o f G od by their transgression.
Truly, I am bound with untearable ropes
and with unbreakable chains.
A thick wall [fences me in],
iron bars and gates [of bronze];
m y [prison] is counted with the Abyss
as being without [any escape]
[The torrents o f Belial] have encompassed my soul
[leaving me without deliverance]

Hymn 14 (formerly 10)

X I V (formerly V I )
T h o u hast unstopped my ears
[to the correction] o f those who reprove with justice

[Thou hast saved me] from the congregation o f [vanity]

and from the assembly o f violence;
T h o u hast brought me into the Council o f . . .
[and hast purified me of] sin.
And I know there is hope
for those who turn from transgression
and for those who abandon sin
and to walk without wickedness
276

T HE T H A N K S G I V I N G H Y M N S

in the way of Thy heart.

I am consoled for the roaring of the peoples,
and for the tumult of k[ing]doms when they assemble;
[for] in a little while, I know,
Thou wilt raise up survivors among Thy people
and a remnant within Thine inheritance.
Thou wilt purify and cleanse them of their sin
for all their deeds are in Thy truth.
Thou wilt judge them in Thy great loving-kindness
and in the multitude of Thy mercies
and in the abundance of Thy pardon,
teaching them according to Thy word;
and Thou wilt establish them in Thy Council
according to the uprightness of Thy truth.
Thou wilt do these things for Thy glory
and for Thine own sake,
to [magnify] the Law and [the truth
and to enlighten] the members of Thy Council
in the midst of the sons of men,
that they may recount Thy marvels
for everlasting generations
and [meditate] unceasingly upon Thy mighty deeds.
All the nations shall acknowledge Thy truth,
and all the people Thy glory.
For Thou wilt bring Thy glorious [salvation]
to all the men of Thy Council,
to those who share a common lot
with the Angels of the Face.
And among them shall be no mediator to [invoke Thee],
and no messenger [to make] reply;
for ...
They shall reply according to Thy glorious word
and shall be Thy princes in the company [of the Angels].
They shall send out a bud [for ever]
like a flower [of the fields],
and shall cause a shoot to grow
into the boughs of an everlasting Plant.

HYMNS

AND

POEMS

It shall cover the whole [earth] with its shadow

[and its crown] (shall reach) to the [clouds];
its roots (shall go down) to the Abyss

[and all the rivers of Eden shall water its branches].

A source of light
shall become an eternal ever-flowing fountain,
and in its bright flames
all the [sons o f iniquity] shall be consumed;
[it shall be] a fire to devour all sinful men
in utter destruction.
T h e y who bore the yoke o f my testimony
have been led astray [by teachers o f lies],
[and have rebelled] against the service o f righteousness.
W hereas Thou, O my G od, didst command them
20

to mend their ways

[by walking] in the way o f [holiness],
where no man goes who is uncircumcised
or unclean or violent,
they have staggered aside from the way o f T h y heart
and languish in [great] wretchedness.

A counsel of Belial is in their heart

[and in accordance with] their wicked design
they wallow in sin.
[I am] as a sailor in a ship
amid furious seas;
their waves and all their billows
roar against me.
[There is no] calm in the whirlwind
that I may restore m y soul,
no path that I may straighten my way
on the face o f the waters.

The deeps resound to my groaning

and [my soul has journeyed] to the gates o f death.

But I shall be as one who enters a fortified city,

25

as one who seeks refuge behind a high wall

until deliverance (comes);

278

THE THANKSGIVING

HYMNS

I will [lean on] T h y truth, O my God.

For T h o u wilt set the foundation on rock
and the framework by the measuring-cord o f justice;
and the tried stones [Thou wilt lay]
by the plumb-line [of truth],
to [build] a mighty [wall] which shall not sway;
and no man entering there shall stagger.
For no enemy shall ever invade [it
since its doors shall be] doors o f protection
through which no man shall pass;
and its bars shall be firm
and no man shall break them.
N o rabble shall enter in with their weapons o f war
until all the [arrows] o f the war o f wickedness
have come to an end.
And then at the time o f Judgement
the Sword o f G od shall hasten,
and all the sons o f H is truth shall awake
to [overthrow] wickedness;
all the sons o f iniquity shall be no more.
T h e H ero shall bend his bow;
the fortress shall open on to endless space
and the everlasting gates shall send out weapons o f war.
T h e y shall be mighty
from end to end [of the earth
and there shall be no escape]
for the guilty o f heart [in their battle];
they shall be utterly trampled down
without any [remnant.
T here shall be no] hope
in the greatness [of their might],
no refuge for the mighty warriors;
for [the battle shall be] to the M ost H igh G od
Hoist a banner,
O you who lie in the dust!
O bodies gnawed by worms,
raise up an ensign for [the destruction o f wickedness]!
279

HYMNS AND

POEMS

[The sinful shall] be destroyed

in the battles against the ungodly.
T h e scourging flood when it advances
5

shall not invade the stronghold

XV

(formerly V I I )

As for me, I am dumb . . .

[my arm] is torn from its shoulder
and my foot has sunk into the mire.
M y eyes are closed by the spectacle o f evil,
and my ears by the crying o f blood.
M y heart is dismayed by the mischievous design,
for Belial is manifest in their (evil) inclination.
All the foundations o f my edifice totter
and my bones are pulled out o f joint;
my bowels heave like a ship in a violent tempest
5

and my heart is utterly distressed.

A whirlwind engulfs me
because o f the mischief o f their sin.
Hymn 1 5 (formerly 1 1 )
I thank Thee, O Lord,
for T h o u hast upheld me by T h y strength.
T h o u hast shed T h y H o ly Spirit upon me
that I may not stumble.
T h o u hast strengthened me
before the battles o f wickedness,
and during all their disasters
T h o u hast not permitted that fear
should cause me to desert T h y Covenant.
T h o u hast made me like a strong tower, a high wall,
and hast established my edifice upon rock;
eternal foundations
serve for my ground,
and all my ramparts are a tried wall
which shall not sway.

280

THE THANKSGIVING

HYMNS

T h o u hast placed me, O m y God,

among the branches o f the Council o f Holiness;
T h o u hast [established my mouth] in T h y Covenant,
and m y tongue is like that o f T h y disciples;
whereas the spirit o f disaster is without a mouth
and all the sons o f iniquity without a reply;
for the lying lips shall be dumb.
F o r T h o u wilt condemn in Judgement
all those who assail me,
distinguishing through me
between the just and the wicked.
Fo r T h o u knowest the whole intent o f a creature,
T h o u discemest every reply,
and T h o u hast established my heart
[on] T h y teaching and truth,
directing m y steps into the paths o f righteousness
that I may walk before Thee
in the land [of the living],
into paths o f glory and [infinite] peace
which shall [never] end.
Fo r T h o u knowest the inclination o f T h y servant,
that I have not relied [upon the works o f my hands]
to raise up [my heart],
nor have I sought refuge
in my own strength.
I have no fleshly refuge,
[and T h y servant has] no righteous deeds
to deliver him from the [Pit o f no] forgiveness.
But I lean on the [abundance o f T h y mercies]
and hope [for the greatness] o f T h y grace,
that T h o u wilt bring [salvation] to flower
and the branch to growth,
providing refuge in (Thy) strength
[and raising up m y heart].
[For in] T h y righteousness
T h o u hast appointed me for T h y Covenant,
and I have clung to T h y truth
and [gone forward in T h y ways].

HYMNS

AND

POEMS

T h o u hast made me a father to the sons o f grace,

and as a foster-father to men o f marvel;
they have opened their mouths like little babes . . .
like a child playing in the lap o f its nurse.
T h o u hast lifted my horn above those who insult me,
and those who attack me
[sway like the boughs] (of a tree);
m y enemies are like chaff before the wind,
and my dominion is over the sons [of iniquity,
For] T h o u hast succoured my soul, O m y G od,
and hast lifted m y horn on high.
And I shall shine in a seven-fold light
in [the Council appointed by] T h ee for T h y glory;
for T h o u art an everlasting heavenly light to me
25

and wilt establish m y feet

[upon level ground for ever].
Hymn 1 6 (formerly 12)
I [thank Thee, O Lord],
for T h o u hast enlightened me through T h y truth.
In T h y marvellous mysteries,
and in T h y loving-kindness to a man [of vanity,
and] in the greatness o f T h y mercy to a perverse heart
T h o u hast granted me knowledge.
W h o is like T hee among the gods, O Lord,
and who is according to T h y truth?
W h o, when he is judged,
shall be righteous before Thee?
Fo r no spirit can reply to T h y rebuke
nor can any withstand T h y wrath.
Yet T h o u bringest all the sons o f T h y truth

30

in forgiveness before Thee,

[to cleanse] them o f their faults
through T h y great goodness,
and to establish them before T h ee
through the multitude o f T h y mercies
for ever and ever.

282

THE THANKSGIVING

HYMNS

For T h o u art an eternal G od;

all T h y ways are determined for ever [and ever]
and there is none other beside Thee.
And what is a man o f N aught and Vanity
that he should understand T h y marvellous mighty deeds?
Hymn 1 7 (formerly 13 )
[I thank] T hee, O God,
for T h o u hast not cast my lot
in the congregation o f Vanity,
nor hast T h o u placed {my decree} (4 Q 4 2 8 7)
in the council o f the cunning.
[Thou hast] called me to T h y grace
and to [Thy] forgiveness T h o u hast brought me,
and, by the multitude o f T h y mercies,
to all judgements o f [righteousness.
As for me, I am an] unclfean ma]n,
and from the womb o f her who conceived me
I am an unclean man,
and from the womb o f her who has conceived me
I am in sinful guilt,
[and from the breast o f my mother] in injustice,
and in the bosom [of my nurse] in great impurity.
And from m y youth (I am) in blo[od,
and until [my old age in the iniquity o f the flesh.
But Thou,] O m y G od,
T h o u hast established my feet in the way o f T h y heart,
and hast opened] my ears to [T h y wonderful] tidings,
and my heart to understand T h y truth
X V I (formerly V I I I )
for I have closed m y ears to T h y teaching
u n til. . .
. . . [without] knowledge
hast T h o u cut out o f me,
and glor[y] . . .
[no] more for me a stumbling-block o f iniquity.
For T h o u dost rev[eal T h y salvation],

283

HYMNS

A N D POEMS

and T h y righteousness is made firm for ever.

For m[an] is not the master o f his way,
f[or] T h o u hast done [all this for T h y glory.]
Hymn 1 8 (formerly 14)
I [thank Thee, O Lord,
for] T h o u hast placed me beside a fountain o f streams
in an arid land,
and close to a spring o f waters
in a dry land,
and beside a watered garden
$

[in a wilderness].
[For T h o u didst set] a plantation
o f cypress, pine, and cedar for T h y glory,
trees o f life beside a mysterious fountain
hidden among the trees by the water,
and they put out a shoot
o f the everlasting Plant.
But before they did so, they took root
and sent out their roots to the watercourse
that its stem might be open to the living waters
and be one with the everlasting spring.
And all [the beasts] o f the forest
fed on its leafy boughs;
its stem was trodden by all who passed on the way
and its branches by all the birds.
And all the [trees] by the water rose above it
for they grew in their plantation;
but they sent out no root to the watercourse.

10

And the bud o f the shoot o f holiness

o f the Plant o f truth
was hidden and was not esteemed;
and being unperceived,
its mystery was sealed.
T h o u didst hedge in its fruit, [O God],
with the mystery o f mighty Heroes
and o f spirits o f holiness
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THE THANKSGIVING

HYMNS

and o f the whirling flame o f fire.

N o [man shall approach] the well-spring o f life
or drink the waters o f holiness
with the everlasting trees,
or bear fruit with [the Plant] o f heaven,
who seeing has not discerned,
and considering has not believed
in the fountain o f life,
who has turned [his hand against] the everlasting [bud].
And I was despised by tumultuous rivers
for they cast up their slime upon me.
But T ho u , O m y G od, hast put into m y mouth
as it were rain for all [those who thirst]
and a fount o f living waters which shall not fail.
W h en they are opened they shall not run dry;
they shall be a torrent [overflowing its banks]
and like the [bottom]less seas.
T h e y shall suddenly gush forth
which were hidden in secret,
[and shall be like the waters o f the Flood
to every tree], both the green and the barren;
to every beast and bird [they shall be an abyss.
T h e trees shall sink like] lead in the mighty waters,
fire [shall burn among them]
and they shall be dried up;
but the fruitful Plant
[by the] everlasting [spring
shall be] an Eden o f glory
[bearing] fruits [of life].
By my hand T h o u hast opened for them
a well-spring and ditches,
[that all their channels] may be laid out
according to a certain measuring-cord,
and the planting o f their trees
according to the plumb-line o f the sun,
that [their boughs may become
a beautiful] Branch o f glory.

HYMNS AND

POEMS

W h en I lift my hand to dig its ditches

its roots shall run deep into hardest rock
and its stem . . . in the earth;
in the season o f heat it shall keep its strength.
But if I take away my hand
it shall be like a thistle [in the wilderness];
its stem shall be like nettles in a salty land,
and thistles and thorns shall grow from its ditches,
25

and brambles and briars.

Its border [trees] shall be like the wild grapevine
whose foliage withers before the heat,
and its stem shall not be open to [the spring].
[Behold, I am] carried away with the sick;
[I am acquainted] with scourges.
I am forsaken in [my sorrow] . . .
and without any strength.
Fo r my sore breaks out in bitter pains
and in incurable sickness impossible to stay;
[my heart laments] within me
as in those who go down to Hell.
M y spirit is imprisoned with the dead
for [my life] has reached the Pit;
my soul languishes [within me]
day and night without rest.

30

M y wound breaks out like burning fire

shut up in [my bones],
whose flames devour me for days on end,
diminishing my strength for times on end
and destroying m y flesh for seasons on end.
T h e pains fly out [towards me]
and my soul within me languishes even to death.
M y strength has gone from my body
and my heart runs out like water;
m y flesh is dissolved like wax
and the strength o f my loins is turned to fear.
M y arm is tom from its socket
[and I can] lift my hand [no more];

286

THE THANKSGIVING

HYMNS

M y [foot] is held by fetters

and m y knees slide like water;
I can no longer walk.
I cannot step forward lightly,
[for m y legs and arms] are bound by shackles
which cause me to stumble.
T h e tongue has gone back which T h o u didst make
marvellously mighty within my mouth;

35

it can no longer give voice.

[I have no word] for my disciples
to revive the spirit o f those who stumble
and to speak words o f support to the weary.
M y circumcised lips are dumb.

X V I I (formerly I X )
[For] the throes o f death [encompass me]
and Hell is upon my bed;
my couch utters a lamentation
[and m y pallet] the sound o f a complaint.
M y eyes are like fire in the furnace
and m y tears like rivers o f water;
my eyes grow dim with waiting,
[for my salvation] is far from me
and my life is apart from me.
But behold,
from desolation to ruin,
and from the pain to the sore,
and from the travail to the throes,
m y soul meditates on T h y marvellous works.
In T h y mercies T h o u hast not cast me aside;
season by season, m y soul shall delight
in the abundance o f mercy.
I will reply to him who slanders me
and I will rebuke m y oppressor;
I will declare his sentence unjust
and declare T h y judgement righteous.

287

HYMNS AND

POEMS

For I know by T h y truth,

10

and I choose T h y judgement upon me:

I delight in my scourges
for I hope for T h y loving-kindness.
T h o u hast put a supplication
in the mouth o f T h y servant
and T h o u hast not threatened m y life
nor rejected my peace.
T h o u hast not failed m y expectation,
but hast upheld my spirit in face o f the scourge.
Fo r it is T h o u who hast founded my spirit
and T h o u knowest m y intent;
in my distress T h o u hast comforted me.
I delight in forgiveness,
and am consoled for the former transgression;
for I know there is hope in T h y grace
and expectation in T h y great power.
Fo r no man can be just in T h y judgement

15

or [righteous in] T h y trial.

T hou gh one man be more just than another,
one person [more] wise [than another],
one mortal more glorious
than another creature [of clay],
yet is there no power to compare with T h y might.
T h ere is no [bound] to T h y glory,
and to T h y wisdom, no measure;
[to T h y truth] there is no . . .
and all who forsake i t . . .

20

and m y oppressor shall [not] prevail against me.

I will be a stumbling-block to [those who swallow me up,
and a snare to] all those who battle against me;
[I will be for my enemies a] cause o f shame,
and a cause o f disgrace
to those who murmur against me.
For Thou , O my G od . . .
T h o u wilt plead my cause;

288

THE THANKSGIVING

HYMNS

for it is according to the mystery of Thy wisdom

that Thou hast rebuked me.
Thou wilt conceal the truth until [its] time,
[and righteousness] until its appointed moment.
Thy rebuke shall become my joy and gladness,
and my scourges shall turn to [eternal] healing
and everlasting [peace].
The scorn of my enemies shall become a crown of glory,
and my stumbling (shall change) to everlasting might.
For in Thy ...
and my light shall shine forth in Thy glory.
For as a light from out of the darkness,
so wilt Thou enlighten me.
[Thou wilt bring healing to] my wound,
and marvellous might in place of my stumbling,
and everlasting space to my straitened soul.
For Thou art my refuge, my high mountain,
my stout rock and my fortress;
in Thee will I shelter
from all the [designs of ungodliness,
for Thou wilt succour me] with eternal deliverance.
For Thou hast known me from (the time of) my father,
[and hast chosen me] from the womb.
[From the belly of] my mother
Thou hast dealt kindly with me,
and from the breast o f her who conceived me
have T h y mercies been with me.

[Thy grace was with me] in the lap of her who reared me,
and from my youth Thou hast illumined me
with the wisdom of Thy judgement.
Thou hast upheld me with certain truth;
Thou hast delighted me with Thy Holy Spirit
and [hast opened my heart] till this day.
Thy just rebuke accompanies my [faults]
and Thy safeguarding peace delivers my soul.
The abundance of (Thy) forgiveness is with my steps
and infinite mercy accompanies Thy judgement of me.

HYMNS

AND

POEMS

Until I am old T h o u wilt care for me;

for my father knew me not
35

and my mother abandoned me to Thee.

For T h o u art a father
to all [the sons] o f T h y truth,
and as a woman who tenderly loves her babe,
so dost T h o u rejoice in them;
and as a foster-father bearing a child in his lap
so carest Thou for all T h y creatures.

Hymn ig (formerly 15)

[I thank T hee, O Lord]

X V I I I (formerly X )
. . . and nothing exists except by T h y will;
none can consider [T h y deep secrets]
or contemplate T h y [mysteries].
W h at then is man that is earth,
that is shaped [from clay] and returns to the dust,
that T h o u shouldst give him to understand such marvels
5

and make known to him the counsel o f [T h y truth]?

Clay and dust that I am,
what can I devise unless T h o u wish it,
and what contrive unless T h o u desire it?
W h at strength shall I have
unless Th o u keep me upright,
and how shall I understand
unless by (the spirit) which T h o u hast shaped for me?
W h at can I say unless T h o u open my mouth
and how can I answer unless T h o u enlighten me?
Behold, T h o u art Prince o f gods
and K ing o f majesties,
Lord o f all spirits,
and Ruler o f all creatures;
nothing is done without Thee,
and nothing is known without T h y will.

290

THE THANKSGIVING

HYMNS

Beside T h ee there is nothing,

and nothing can compare with T h ee in strength;
in the presence o f T h y glory there is nothing,
and T h y might is without price.
W h o among T h y great and marvellous creatures
can stand in the presence o f T h y glory?
H o w then can he who returns to his dust?
For T h y glorys sake alone hast T h o u made all these things.
Hymn 20 (formerly 16)
Blessed art T hou , O Lord,
G od o f mercy [and abundant] grace,
for T h o u hast made known [T h y wisdom to me
that I should recount] T h y marvellous deeds,
keeping silence neither by day nor [by night]!
[For I have trusted] in T h y grace.
In T h y great goodness,
and in [the multitude o f T h y mercies]
For I have leaned on T h y truth
[And unless] T h o u rebuke,
there is no stumbling;
unless T h o u foreknow it,
[there is no] scourge;
[nothing is done without] T h y [will].
[I will cling to T h y ways]
according to m y knowledge [of T h y] truth;
contemplating T h y glory
I will recount T h y wonderful works,
and understanding [T h y goodness
I will lean on the] multitude o f T h y mercies
and hope for T h y forgiveness.
For T h o u T h yself hast shaped [my spirit]
and established me [according to T h y will];
and T h o u hast not placed my support in gain,

HYMNS AND

POEMS

[nor does] my [heart delight in riches];

Thou hast given me no fleshly refuge.
The might of warriors [rests] on abundant delights,
[and on plenty of corn] and wine and oil;
they pride themselves in possessions and wealth.
[But the righteous is like a] green [tree]
beside streams of water,
bringing forth leaves and multiplying its branches;
for [Thou hast chosen them
from among the children of] men
that they may all grow fat from the land.
Thou wilt give to the children of Thy truth
[unending joy and] everlasting [gladness],
and according to the measure of their knowledge,
so shall they be honoured one more than another.
And likewise for the son of man ...
Thou wilt increase his portion
in the knowledge of Thy truth,
and according to the measure of his knowledge,
so shall he be honoured ...
[For the soul] of Thy servant has loathed [riches] and gain,
and he has not [desired] exquisite delights.
My heart rejoices in Thy Covenant
and Thy truth delights my soul.
I shall flower [like the lily]
and my heart shall be open to the everlasting fountain;
my support shall be in the might from on high.
B u t...
and withers like a flower before [the heat].
My heart is stricken with terror,
and my loins with trembling;
my groaning goes down to the Abyss,
and is shut up in the chambers of Hell.
I am greatly afraid when I hear of Thy judgement
of the mighty Heroes,
and of Thy trial of the host
of Thy Holy Ones

THE THANKSGIVING

HYMNS

X I X (formerly X I )

Hymn 2 1 (formerly 1 7)
I thank T hee, m y G od,
for T h o u hast dealt wondrously to dust,
and mightily towards a creature o f clay!
I thank Thee, I thank T hee!
W h at am I, that T h o u shouldst [teach] me
the counsel o f T h y truth,
and give me understanding
o f T h y marvellous works;
that T h o u shouldst lay hymns o f thanksgiving
within m y mouth
and [praise] upon my tongue,
and that o f m y circumcised lips
(Thou shouldst make) a seat o f rejoicing?
I will sing T h y mercies,
and on T h y might I will meditate all day long.
I will bless T h y N am e evermore.
I will declare T h y glory in the midst o f the sons o f men
and my soul shall delight in T h y great goodness.
I know that T h y word is truth,
and that righteousness is in T h y hand;
that all knowledge is in T h y purpose,
and that all power is in T h y might,
and that every glory is Thine.
In T h y wrath are all chastisements,
but in T h y goodness is much forgiveness
and T h y mercy is towards the sons o f T h y goodwill.
For T h o u hast made known to them
the counsel o f T h y truth,
and hast taught them T h y marvellous mysteries.
For the sake o f T h y glory
T h o u hast purified man o f sin
that he may be made holy for Thee,

HYMNS

AND

POEMS

with no abominable uncleanness

and no guilty wickedness;
that he may be one [with] the children o f T h y truth
and partake o f the lot o f T h y H oly Ones;
that bodies gnawed by worms may be raised from the dust
to the counsel [of T h y truth],
and that the perverse spirit (may be lifted)
to the understanding [which comes from Thee];
that he may stand before T h ee
with the everlasting host
and with [Thy] spirits [of holiness],
to be renewed together with all the living
and to rejoice together with them that know.

Hymn 22 (formerly 18)

15

I thank Thee, my G od!

I praise Thee, my Rock!
Fo r T h o u hast made known to me the counsel o f T h y truth
[and hast taught me T h y marvellous mysteries;]
and hast revealed T h y [wonders] to me.

I have beheld {Thy marvels} (4Q427 fr. 1, i) [towards the children]

of grace,
and I know [that] righteousness is Thine,
that in T h y mercies there is [hope for me],
but without T h y grace [destruction] without end.

But a fountain of bitter mourning opens for me,

[and m y tears fall down].
Distress is not hidden from my eyes
20

when I think o f the (evil) inclinations o f man,

o f his return [to dust],

{I understand and observe} (4Q427 fr. 1, iii) sin and the sorrow
of guilt.
T h e y enter m y heart and reach into my bones
t o ...
and to meditate in sorrowful meditation.
I will groan with the zither o f lamentation

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THE THANKSGIVING

HYMNS

in all grief-stricken mourning and bitter complaint

until iniquity and [wickedness] are consumed
and the disease-bringing scourge is no more.
Then will I play on the zither of deliverance
and the harp of joy,
[on the tabors of prayer] and the pipe of praise
without end.
Who among all Thy creatures
is able to recount [Thy wonders]?
May Thy Name be praised
by the mouth of all men!
May they bless Thee for ever
in accordance with [their understanding],
and proclaim Thee with the voice of praise
in the company of [the Sons of Heaven]!
There shall be neither groaning nor complaint
and wickedness [shall be destroyed for ever];
Thy truth shall be revealed in eternal glory
and everlasting peace.
Blessed art [Thou, O my Lord],
who hast given to [Thy servant]
the knowledge of wisdom
that he may comprehend Thy wonders,
and recount Thy ...
in Thy abundant grace!
Blessed art Thou,
O God of mercy and compassion,
for the might of Thy [power]
and the greatness of Thy truth,
and for the multitude of Thy favours
in all Thy works!
Rejoice the soul of Thy servant with Thy truth
and cleanse me by Thy righteousness.
Even as I have hoped in Thy goodness,
and waited for Thy grace,
so hast Thou freed me from my calamities
in accordance with Thy forgiveness;
and in my distress Thou hast comforted me
295

25

30

HYMNS

AND

POEMS

for I have leaned on Thy mercy.

Blessed art Thou, O Lord,
for it is T h o u who hast done these things!
T h o u hast set [hymns o f praise]
within the mouth o f T h y servant,
35

and hast established for me a response o f the tongue.

Hymn 25 (formerly zp)

X X (formerly X II)
. . . {with the everlasting] spirits)
securely in a dwelling {of peac[e,}

(4Q427, fr. 3 ii, 1. 4)

(4Q427, fr. 2 , 11. 1-2)

in sil]ence and quietness in the tents o f security and salvation.

I will praise T h y N am e among them that fear T hee.
Bowing down in prayer I will beg T h y favours
from season to season always:
5

when light emerges from [its dwelling-place],

and when the day reaches its appointed end
in accordance with the laws
o f the Great Light o f heaven;
when evening falls and light departs
at the beginning o f the dominion o f darkness,
at the hour appointed for night,
and at its end when morning returns
and (the shadows) retire to their dwelling-place
before the approach o f light;
always;
at the genesis o f every period
and at the beginning o f every age
and at the end o f every season,
according to the statute and signs
appointed to every dominion
by the certain law from the mouth o f God,
by the precept which is and shall be

10

for ever and ever without end.

W ithout it nothing is nor shall be,
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THE THANKSGIVING

HYMNS

for the God of knowledge established it

and there is no other beside Him.
I, the Master, know Thee O my God,
by the spirit which Thou hast given to me,
and by Thy Holy Spirit I have faithfully hearkened
to Thy marvellous counsel.
In the mystery of Thy wisdom
Thou hast opened knowledge to me,
and in Thy mercies
[Thou hast unlocked for me] the fountain of Thy might.
Before Thee no man is just...
[that he may] understand all Thy mysteries
or give answer [to Thy rebuke.
But the children of Thy grace
shall delight in] Thy correction
and watch for Thy goodness,
for in Thy mercies [Thou wilt show Thyself to them]
and they shall know Thee;
at the time of Thy glory
they shall rejoice.
[Thou hast caused them to draw near]
in accordance [with their knowledge],
and hast admitted them
in accordance with their understanding,
and in their divisions they shall serve Thee

throughout their dominion

[without ever turning aside] from Thee
or transgressing Thy word.
Behold, [I was taken] from dust
[and] fashioned [out of clay]
as a source of uncleanness,
and a shameful nakedness,
a heap of dust,
and a kneading [with water,]
and a house of darkness,

HYMNS

AND

POEMS

a creature o f clay returning to dust,

returning [at the appointed time
to dwell] in the dust whence it was taken.
H o w then shall dust reply to its Maker,
[and how] understand His [works]?
H o w shall it stand before H im who reproves it?
[and the Spring of] Eternity,
the W ell o f G lory
and the Fountain o f Knowledge.
30

N o t even [the wonderful] Heroes [can] declare all T h y glory

or stand in face o f T h y wrath,
and there is none among them
that can answer T h y rebuke;
for T h o u art just and none can oppose Thee.
H o w then can (man) who returns to his dust?
I hold my peace;
what more shall I say than this?
I have spoken in accordance with my knowledge,
out o f the righteousness given to a creature o f clay.
And how shall I speak unless T h o u open my mouth;
how understand unless T h o u teach me?
H o w shall I seek T h ee unless T h o u uncover my heart,
and how follow the way that is straight
unless [Thou guide me?

35

H o w shall my foot] stay on [the path

unless Thou] give it strength;
and how shall I rise . . .

X X I (formerly X V III, 16-3 3+fr. 3)

Hymn 24 (formerly 25)
[How] shall I look,
unless T h o u open my eyes?
O r hear,
20

[unless T h o u unstop m y ears]?

298

THE THANKSGIVING

HYMNS

My heart is astounded,
for to the uncircumcised ear
a word has been disclosed,
and a heart [of stone
has understood the right precepts].
I know it is for Thyself
that Thou hast done these things, O God;
for what is flesh
[that Thou shouldst act] marvellously [towards it]?
It is Thy purpose to do mightily
and to establish all things for Thy glory.
[Thou hast created] the host of knowledge
to declare (Thy) mighty deeds to flesh,
and the right precepts to him that is bom [of woman].
Thou hast [caused the perverse heart to enter]
into a Covenant with Thee,
and hast uncovered the heart of dust
that it may be preserved from evil
and saved from the snares of Judgement
in accordance with Thy mercies.
And I, a creature [of clay
kneaded with water,
a heap of dust]
and a heart of stone,
for what am I reckoned to be worthy of this?
For into an ear of dust [Thou hast put a new word]
and hast engraved on a heart of [stone] things everlasting.
Thou hast caused [the straying spirit] to return
that it may enter into a Covenant with Thee,
and stand [before Thee for ever]
in the everlasting abode,
illumined with perfect Light for ever,
with [no more] darkness,
[for un]ending [seasons of joy]
and un [numbered] ages of peace.
And as for me, a creature of dust, ...

HYMNS

AND

POEMS

Fr- 3

Pile of dust, how shall I stand in front of the tempest?

... and He will guard me
according to the mysteries of His good pleasure. For He
knows ...
And they will hide snares of wickedness, net after net.
... every creature of deceit will come to an end ...
10

[wickedness will] turn to nothing

and the inclination towards iniquity will vanish
and deeds of deceit [will perish].
As for me, creature of [clay] ...
... how will it gain strength for Thee?
Thou art the God of [knowledge]

15

Thou hast made them [according to Thy design]

and without Thee [nothing exists].
[As for me, creature] of dust, I know
through the spirit which Thou hast put into me
th at...
injustice and deceit will be awe-struck
and insolence will cease.
[wo]rks of uncleanness will (turn into) sickness
and judgements (leading to) plague and destruction ...
X X II (formerly X V III ii, 27-29+fr. 1 i+fr. 52
bottom+fr. 4+fr. 47)
... [hol]iness that are in heaven
... and He is wonder.
But they cannot [understand] Thy [marvel] s
and they will not be able to know all [Thy mysteries].
[How then can he who retur]ns to his dust?
As for me, I am a man of sin
who has wallowed [in the ways of uncleanness]

300

THE THANKSGIVING

HYMNS

[and been defiled] by the guilt o f wickedness.

As for me, in the times o f wrath [I have fallen(?)].
H ow can I rise in view o f my wound
and keep m yself. . .
For there is hope for man . . .
As for me, creature o f clay,
I have leaned [on T h y loving-kindness
and on the multitude o f T h y mysteries,] O my G od.
And I know that truthful is [T h y mouth,
and that T h y words are not] revoked.
As for me, I will rely in m y time [on T h y Covenant
and will rai]se myself to the post
which T h o u hast established for me . . .

Fr. 4
. . . As for me, I was frightened by T h y judgements
W h o is found clean in T h y judgement?
And what is [man before Thee?
T h o u bringest] him to judgement
and he returns to his dust.
. . . [my G]o[d].
T h o u hast opened my heart for T h y understanding
and hast unstopped [my] ear[s] . . .
to lean on T h y goodness.

My heart murmurs .. .
and my heart melts like wax
because o f iniquity and sin. . . .
Blessed art Thou , G od o f knowledge,
who hast established . . .
And T h o u hast met T h y servant with this for T h y sake.
Fo r I know T h y [loving-kindness
and in] T h y [mercies] I hope in all my existence,
and I bless T h y name always.
D o not forsake me in the times [of distress (?)]

HYMNS AND

POEMS

XXIII (formerly XVIII, 1-16+fr. 57 i+fr. 2 i)

5

they are confirmed in [the ears] o f T h y servant for ever

. . . [to announce] T h y marvellous tidings
W ithdraw not T h y hand . . .

10

that he may be confirmed in Thy Covenant

and stand before Thee [for ever].
[For Thou, O m y God,] didst open a [fountain]
in the mouth o f T h y Servant.
T h o u didst engrave by the measuring-cord
[T h y mysteries] upon his tongue,
[that] out of his understanding
[he might] preach to a creature,
and interpret these things
to dust like myself.
T h o u didst open [his fountain]
that he might rebuke the creature o f clay for his way,
and him who is born o f woman
for the guilt o f his deeds;
that he might open [the fount of] T h y truth
to a creature whom T h o u upholdest by T h y might;
[that he might be], according to T h y truth,
a messenger [in the season] o f T h y goodness;
that to the humble he might bring
glad tidings o f T h y great mercy,

15

[proclaiming salvation]
from out of the fountain [of holiness
to the contrite] o f spirit,
and everlasting joy to those who mourn.

F r.

. [to prai]se T h ee
and to recount all T h y glory.

302

THE THANKSGIVING

HYMNS

As for me, what am I?

For I was taken from dust.

But Th[ou, O my God],

T h o u hast done all these [for] T h y [g]lory.
According to the greatness o f T h y loving-kindness
put the guard o f T h y righteousness
[in the hand o f T h ]y [servant] for ever
until deliverance.
M ay the interpreters o f knowledge be with all m y steps
and those who decide truth [in all my ways].
For what is dust among al[l] . . .
Ashes are in their hand: nothing at all.

IO

...

and T h o u hast shed [T h y Holy] Spirit over dust

[to bring him into the company] o f the gods
and unite them with the Sons o f Heaven.
T h o u hast shed T h y [Ho]ly [Spirit] to atone for guilt
15

for they are established in T h y truth.

[And T hou , m y God],
T h o u hast acted wondrously for T h y glory

4Q 427 7 i-ii (iQ H , frs. 7, 46, 55, 56,

4Q428 15 ,4 (2 4 3 1 1)

...

I
For I am made to stand with the gods,
and I will not... [glory or majes]ty for me with fine gold;
gold and purified gold, [I will] not... in me;
... will not be reckoned for me.
Chant, O beloved, sing to the King [of glory.
Rejoice, in the congregation of God.
Exult in the tents of salvation.
303

HYMNS AND

POEMS

Give thanks in the dwelling

[of holiness],
extol together with the eternal host.
Magnify our God and glorify our King.
Sanctify His name with powerful lips
and a victorious tongue.
Lift up alone your voice in all ages,
Let a joyous meditation be heard.
Burst out in eternal rejoicings
and prostrate incessantly in the common assembly.
Bless the wonderful Maker of exalted things,
Him who proclaims the power of His hand,
sealing mysteries and revealing secrets,
lifting up those who stumble and fall,
[restoring the progress of those who hope for knowledge
and humbling the meetings of the everlastingly haughty;
[sealjing the mysteries of sp[lendour]
and establishing the won]ders of glory.
O Judge, whose anger is destructive,
... in righteous loving-kindness and great mercy,
be gracious to ...
... mercy to those who bear fruits of His great goodness,
and the source o f ...
II ... wickedness ends ...
[oppression [ceases], the tyrant ceases ...
treachery [sto]ps and there are no senseless perversities.
Light shines and joy bursts forth;
mourning [vanishes] and sorrow flees.
Peace is revealed, dread ceases.
A spring has opened up for an [eternal] bles[sing]
and for healing in all the everlasting ages.
Iniquity has stopped, plague has ceased with no more illn[ess].
... has been gathered in and ... will be no more.
Announce and say: Great is God, Ma[ker of marvels].
For He humbles the proud spirit with no remnant
and from the dust He lifts up the poor to [eternal heights].
And He lifts him up to the clouds
to share a common assembly with the gods.
And ...

THE THANKSGIVING

HYMNS

anger for everlasting destruction.

He raises freely the totterers on earth,
and [His] mi[ght is with] their steps,
and everlasting joy is in their dwellings,
eternal glory without end [for ever].
Let them say: Blessed be God, Author of majestic [w]onders,
who reveals might splendidly,
and justifies with knowledge all His creatures,
so that goodness is on their faces.
They know the multitude of [His] loving [kindness]
and the abundance of His mercies
to all the children of His truth.
We know Thee, O God of righteousness,
and we comprehend [Thy. . . , O King]
of glory.
For we have seen Thy zeal through Thy mighty power
and have observed [Thy] d[eeds
in the abundance] of Thy mercies and wondrous forgiveness.
What is flesh compared to these?
What do [dust and ashes] amoun[t to]
that they recite these things from age to age,
and hold themselves upright [before Thee
and enter into communion with] the Sons of Heaven.
No interpreter can answer according to Thy mouth
and ... to Thee.
For Thou hast established us according to [Thy] ple[asure]
in the territory [of iniquity] ...
... we have spoken to Thee and not to a mediator] ...
[And Thou hast lent] an ea[r] to the issue of our lips.
Annou[nce and say: Blessed be God,
Creator] of the heavens by His power,
Desig[ner] of all their devices [by] His strength,
of the earth by [His] migh[t] ...

Hymnic Fragment
(40433a)

The verso side of this papyrus, palaeographically dated to the first half of the
first century b c e , contains the beginning of the Community Rule (4Q255). The
recto carries a poem similar to the Qumran Hymns or Hodayot and elaborates
the familiar image of the Community as a plant in Gods garden.
For the editio princeps, see E. Schuller, DJD, XXIX, 237-45.

Fr. 2
. . . for the everlasting sea [sons].

For the Master. A sim[il]itude about the glory o f ...

A plant of delight, a plant in His garden and in his
vineyard.
Its twigs will bear fruit and its branches will increase ...
5

and its branches (reaching) above the elevated support o f

heaven;
and its splendour offers itself for everlasting generations,
producing fru[it] for all who are to taste it.

There will be no wild grapes among its fruits.

It will have foliage, leaves and blossoms.
None of its roots will be pulled up from its bed of
balsam for ...

306

Apocryphal Psalms (I)

( n Q P s a= n Q 5 ,4 Q 8 8 )

The incomplete Psalms scroll from Cave 11 (nQPsa), published by J. A.

Sanders (D JD , IV, Oxford, 1965), contains seven non-canonical poems inter
spersed among the canonical Psalms. One of these figures as Ps. 151 in the
Greek Psalter, and four further compositions have been preserved in Syriac
translation. Three previously unknown poems and an extract from the Hebrew
version of Sirach li also feature in the Scroll.
In Ps. 151A and B or Syriac Ps. i, the story of the election of David, the shep
herd boy, as ruler of Israel, and his victory over Goliath, are poetically retold.
Ps. 154 or Syr. Ps. ii is a sapiential hymn, the beginning and end of which are
extant only in Syriac, but 4Q448, column A (lines 8-10) represents a few words
in Hebrew corresponding to Ps. 154, 17-20 (cf. E. and H. Eshel and A. Yardeni,
A Qumran Composition Containing Part of Ps. 154 ... IE J 42 (1992),
201-14). Ps. 155 or Syr. Ps. iii is an amalgam of an individual complaint and
thanksgiving. Part of it is an alphabet acrostic, i.e. the lines begin with consecu
tive letters of the Hebrew alphabet. Plea for Deliverance is an individual thanks
giving hymn, the beginning of which is lost. The Zion Psalm, of which lines 1-3
and 8-15 are also in a fragmentary Psalms scroll from Cave 4 (4Q88 vii-vm), is
another alphabetic acrostic hymn praising Jerusalem. Finally, the Psalm of the
Creation is a further sapiential hymn.
A midrashic account of the poetic activities of David is inserted in column
x x v i i of 11Q5, crediting him with 4,050 compositions, subdivided into psalms,
songs for the daily holocaust, songs for the Sabbath sacrifice, songs for festivals
and songs for exorcism. The mention of fifty-two Sabbaths and the 364 days
indicates that the author envisaged the solar year of the Qumran calendar.
The figure of 4,050 should be viewed against the equally prolific literary
achievement claimed for Solomon in 1 Kings v, 12 (3,000 proverbs and 1,005
songs according to the Hebrew text; 3,000 proverbs and 5,000 songs according
to the Septuagint). As for Josephus, he attributes to Solomon 1,005 books of poems
and 3,000 books of parables (Antiquities v i i i , 44).
307

HYMNS

AND

POEMS

Only this catalogue, written in prose, is definitely sectarian. The psalms

themselves probably belong to the second century b c e at the latest, but they may
even date to the third century b c e .
Psalm i f i A

XXVIII

Hallelujah. O f David, son o f Jesse.

1 I was smaller than my brothers, and younger than the sons o f m y

father.
H e made me shepherd o f his flock, and a ruler over his kids.

2 M y hands have made a pipe and my fingers a lyre.

5

I have rendered glory to the Lord ; I have said so in my soul.

3 T h e mountains do not testify to him, and the hills do not tell (of him).
T h e trees praise my words and the flocks my deeds.

4 For who can tell and speak o f and recount the works o f the Lord?
G od has seen all, he has heard all, and he listens to all.

5 H e sent his prophet to anoint me, Samuel to magnify me.

M y brothers went out to meet him, beautiful o f figure, beautiful o f
appearance.
io

6 T h e y were tall o f stature with beautiful hair, yet the Lord did not
choose them.

7 He sent and took me from behind the flock, and anointed me with
holy oil,
as a prince o f his people, and a ruler among the sons o f his Covenant.

Psalm i $ i B
T h e first display o f D avids power after G o d s prophet had anointed
him.
i T h en I saw the Philistine taunting [from the enemy lines] . . .

Syriac Psalm ii = Psalm 154

1 XVIII

[Glorify G od with a great voice. Proclaim his majesty in the

congregation o f the many.

2 G lorify his name amid the multitude o f the upright and recount his
greatness with the faithful.

3 Join] your souls to the good and to the perfect to glorify the M ost
High.

4 Assemble together to make known his salvation.

308

A P O C R Y P H A L P S A L M S (I)

And be not slow in making known his strength, and his majesty to all
the simple.
5 For wisdom is given to make known the glory of the Lord and to
recount the greatness of his deeds. She is made known to man,
7

to declare his strength to the simple, and to give insight into his

greatness to those without understanding,

8 they who are far from her gates, who have strayed from her
entrances.

9 For the Most High is the Lord of Jacob, and his majesty is over all his
works.
10 And a man who glorifies the Most High is accepted by him as one
bringing an offering,
11 as one offering he-goats and calves, as one causing the altar to grow
fat on a multitude of bumt-offerings, as an agreeable incense by the 10
hand of the righteous.
12 From the doors of the righteous her voice is heard, and from the con
gregation of the devout her song.
13 When they eat their fill, she is mentioned, and when they drink in
community together.
14 Their meditation is on the Law of the Most High, and their words
are for making known his strength.
15 How far from the wicked is her word, and her knowledge from the
insolent.
16 Behold the eyes of the Lord have compassion on the good,
17 and his mercy is great over those who glorify him; from an evil time

15

he saves [their] souls.

18 [Bless] the Lord who redeems the humble from the hand of
strfangers]
[and delivjers [the perfect from the hand of the wicked;]
19 [who lifts up a horn out of Ja]cob, and a judge [out of Israel].
20 [He desires his tabernacle in Zion, and chooses Jerusalem for ever.]
Syriac Psalm iii = Psalm 155

1 X X IV O Lord, I have called to Thee, hear me.

2 I have spread out my hands towards Thy holy dwelling-place.
3 Turn Thine ear and grant me my request,
4 and do not withhold my plea from me.
5 Construct my soul and do not cast it away,

309

HYMNS

AND

POEMS

6 and do not leave it alone before the wicked.

7 May the true judge turn away from me the rewards of evil.
8 Lord, do not judge me according to my sins,
for no living man is righteous before Thee.
9 Lord, cause me to understand Thy Law and teach me Thy judgements,
io And the multitude shall hear of Thy deeds, and peoples shall honour
Thy glory.
io i i Remember me and forget me not, and bring me not to unbearable
hardships.
12 Put away from me the sin of my youth, and may my sins not be
remembered against me.
1 3 Lord, cleanse me from the evil plague, and let it not return to me.
14 Dry up its roots within me, and permit not its leaves to flourish in me.
15 Lord, Thou art glory; therefore my plea is fulfilled before Thee.
1 6T0 whom shall I cry so that he will grant it to me? What more can
15
the po[wer] of the sons of men do?
17 From before Thee, O Lord, comes my trust.
I cried to the Lord and he answered me; he healed the brokenness of
my heart.
18 I was sleepy [and I] slept; I dreamt and also [I awoke].
19 [Lord, Thou didst support me when my heart was stricken, and I
called upon the Lor]d [my saviour].
20 Now I will see their shame; I have relied on Thee, and I will not be
ashamed. (Render glory for ever and ever.)
21 Redeem Israel, Thy pious one, O Lord, and the house of Jacob,
Thine elect.
Prayerfor Deliverance

XIX For no worm thanks Thee, nor a maggot recounts Thy lovingkindness.

Only the living thank Thee, all they whose feet totter, thank Thee,

when Thou makest known to them Thy loving-kindness, and causest

them to understand Thy righteousness.
For the soul of all the living is in Thy hand; Thou hast given breath to
all flesh.
O Lord, do towards us according to Thy goodness, according to the
greatness of Thy mercies, and according to the greatness of Thy
righteous deeds.
310

APOCRYPHAL PSALMS

(I)

T h e Lord listens to the voice o f all who love his name and does not
permit his loving-kindness to depart from them.
Blessed be the Lord, doer o f righteous deeds, who crowns his pious
ones with loving-kindness and mercies.
M y soul shouts to praise T h y name, to praise with jubilation T h y
mercies,
to announce T h y faithfulness; there is no limit to T h y praises.
I belonged to death because o f my sins, and my iniquities had sold me
to Sheol.

10

But T h o u didst save me, O Lord, according to the greatness o f T h y

mercies, according to the greatness o f T h y righteous deeds.
I, too, have loved T h y name, and have taken refuge in T h y shadow.
W hen I remember T h y power, m y heart is strengthened and I rely on
T h y mercies.
Forgive m y sins, O Lord, and purify me o f my iniquity.
Grant me a spirit o f faithfulness and knowledge; let me not be dis-

15

honoured in ruin.
L et not Belial dominate me, nor an unclean spirit; let pain and the evil
inclination not possess my bones.
For Thou, O Lord, art m y praise, and I hope in T h ee every day.
M y brethren rejoice with me and the house o f m y father is astounded
by T h y graciousness.
. . . for ever I will rejoice in Thee.

Apostrophe to Zion
X X II I will remember you, O Zion, for a blessing;
with all m y might I love you;

your memory is to be blessed for ever.

Your hope is great, O Zion;
Peace and your awaited salvation will come.
Generation after generation shall dwell in you,
and generations o f the pious shall be your ornament.
T h e y who desire the day o f your salvation
shall rejoice in the greatness o f your glory.
T h e y shall be suckled on the fullness o f your glory,
and in your beautiful streets they shall make tinkling sounds.
You shall remember the pious deeds o f your prophets,
and shall glorify yourself in the deeds o f your pious ones.

311

HYMNS

AND

POEMS

Cleanse violence from your midst;

lying and iniquity, may they be cut off from you.
Your sons shall rejoice within you,
and your cherished ones shall be joined to you.
H o w much they have hoped in your salvation,
and how much your perfect ones have mourned for you?
Your hope, O Zion, shall not perish,
and your expectation will not be forgotten.
Is there a just man who has perished?
10

Is there a man who has escaped his iniquity?

M an is tried according to his way,
each is repaid according to his deeds.
Your oppressors shall be cut off from around you, O Zion,
and all who hate you shall be dispersed.
Your praise is pleasing, O Zion;
it rises up in all the world.
M any times I will remember you for a blessing;
I will bless you with all m y heart.
You shall attain to eternal righteousness,
and shall receive blessings from the noble.
Take the vision which speaks o f you,
and the dreams o f the prophets requested for you.
Be exalted and increase, O Zion;

15

Praise the M ost H igh, your Redeemer!

M a y m y soul rejoice in your glory!

Hymn to the Creator

X X V I T h e Lord is great and holy, the M ost H oly for generation after
generation.
10

M ajesty goes before him, and after him abundance o f many waters.

Loving-kindness and truth are about his face; truth and judgement
and righteousness are the pedestal o f his throne.
H e divides light from obscurity; he establishes the dawn by the
knowledge o f his heart.
W h en all his angels saw it, they sang, for he showed them that which
they had not known.
H e crowns the mountains with fruit, with good food for all the living.

312

APOCRYPHAL PSALMS

(I)

Blessed be the master of the earth with his power, who establishes the
world by his wisdom.
By his understanding he stretched out the heaven, and brought forth
[wind] from his st[ores].
He made [lightnings for the rai]n, and raised mist from the end [of the
earth].
An Account of David's Poems

XXVII David son of Jesse was wise and brilliant like the light of the
sun; (he was) a scribe, intelligent and perfect in all his ways before God
and men.
YH W H gave him an intelligent and brilliant spirit, and he wrote
3,600 psalms and 364 songs to sing before the altar for the daily
perpetual sacrifice, for all the days of the year; and 52 songs for the
Sabbath offerings; and 30 songs for the New Moons, for Feast-days and
for the Day of Atonement.
In all, the songs which he uttered were 446, and 4 songs to make
music on behalf of those stricken (by evil spirits).
In all, they were 4,050.
All these he uttered through prophecy which was given him from
before the Most High.

Apocryphal Psalms (II)

(4Q88)

The last four columns (v i i - x ) of a fragmentary Psalms manuscript from Cave 4

have preserved three apocryphal poems. The first of these (cols, vii-vm ) is iden
tical with 11Q5 x x i i already presented (pp. 311-12). Of the other two, the first
(col. ix) focuses on the final judgement and the second (col. x) is a hymn to Judah.
For the editio princeps, see P. W. Skehan et al., D/D, XVI, 102-6.
IX ... Congregation
and they shall praise
the name of the Lord,
for He has come to judge every action,
to remove the wicked from the earth
[so that the sons] of iniquity shall not be found.
The heavens [shall give] their dew
and there shall be no ... [within] their [boundarie]s.
And the earth
shall [give] its fruit in its time
and its [prod]uct shall not fail.
The fruit trees [shall]... of its vineyards
and its ... shall not lie.
The poor shall eat
and the God-fearers shall be sated.
X ...
Then heaven and earth shall exult together.
Let all the stars of the evening twilight exult.
Rejoice, Judah, rejoice!
Rejoice, rejoice and be glad with gladness!

A P O C R Y P H A L P S A L M S (II)

Celebrate your feasts and pay your vows

for there is no Belial in your midst.
Raise your hand and fortify your right hand!
Behold the enemy shall perish
and all the workers of iniquity shall be dispersed.
But Thou, O Lord, art for eve[r].
Thy glory shall be for eve[r and eve]r.
[Ha]ll[eluiah].

Apocryphal Psalms (III)

(n Q ap P sa= n Q i i )

Badly worn remains of five columns of a Scroll with apocryphal psalms, at least
partly devoted to exorcism, have survived in Cave 11. Most of the columns are so
poorly preserved that no continuous reading is possible. In col. i, where the name
of Solomon implies that this was one of the poems attributed to him, the
repeated use of the term demons and mention of healing suggest the genre of
the composition. In col. i i i a powerful angel is mentioned who seems to be
charged with defeating the demon and casting it to the great abyss and the
nethermost [hell]. Col. v, 3-13 has been recognized as the canonical Psalm xci,
preceded by small remains of the exorcistic poem of col. iv and followed by a
liturgical formula, And they shall an[swer, Amen, amen.] Selah. All the lacunae
of col. iv have been conjecturally filled by E. Puech in a French rendering. His
presentation will be reproduced here in English; it provides a possible general
understanding of the text, but with no guarantee that any of the restored details
is correct.
For preliminary editions, see J. P. M. van der Ploeg, Un petit rouleau de
psaumes apocryphes (nQPsApa), in G. Jeremias et al., eds., Tradition und
Glaube (K. G. Kuhn Festschrift) (Gottingen, 1971), 128-39; E. Puech, Les deux
demiers psaumes davidiques du rituel dexorcisme, nQPsAp3 iv 4-v 14, in D.
Dimant and U. Rappaport, eds., The Dead Sea Scrolls: Forty Years of Research
(Leiden, 1992), 64-89; cf. esp. pp. 68-9. For the editio princeps, see F. Garcia
Martinez et al., DJD, XXIII, 181-205.
Ill ...
W h o [has] perform ed these signs] and marvfels on] the earth?
T h e Lord is the one [who] performed th[ese through] His [might].
5 H e adjures all [His] a[ngels] and all the see[d o f holiness] who stand
before [Him,
and makes all the hea]vens testify and the whole earth
[against those] who sinned against [all men],

A P O C R Y P H A L P S A L M S (III)

and acted [wickedly] against every hu[man.

And] they know [the mysteries of] His m[arvels] which they do not.
[and they fear] the Lord ... to kill...
... the Lord ... the Lord ...
and they will fear that great blow.

IV ...
The Lord will strike you with a [grea]t b[low] for your destruction .
and in His anger He will send against you
a mighty angel [to execute] all His decisions,
who will be [without] mercy on you ... against all these,
who [will take] you [down] to the great abyss,
[and to] the nethermost [hell.]
... dark [in the gr]eat abyss ... no more on the earth.
... for ever, and ... by the curse of Abaddon (the bottom of hell)
... the furious anger of the L[ord] ...

V ...
[Ra]phael healed them. Amen, amen. Selah.
Of David ... [an incan]tation in the name of the Lor[d.
Call an]y time on heav[en],
for He will come to you in the ni[ght,
and] you will say to Him:
Who are you, [one bom of] man
And of the seed of the ho[ly on]es?
Your face is a face of in[anity]
And your horns are horns of dream.

You are darkness and not light,

Injustice and not righteousness.
The Prince of the host, the Lord,
[will send] you [down to the lowest he] 11,
[and will close the ga]tes of bronze
through [which n]o light [passes]
and [the] sun wh[ich rises on the] righteous
[will] not [enlighten you] ...
And you will say ...

HYMNS

AND

POEMS

V I ...
To David.

[n words o f incantajtion. [Cry out al]l the time in the name

o f the Lor[d]
towards heave[n when] Beli[al] comes to you.
[And sa]y to him:
W h o are you? [Be afraid of] man and o f the seed o f the ho[ly ones].
Your face is a face o f [nothin] g and your horns are horns o f dr [earn].
[You ar]e [d]arkness and not light; [injustic]e and not righteousness.
[The prin]ce o f the h[os]t [is against you]; the Lord [will cast] you [to]
the nethermost [hell],
[closed by] bronze ga[tes] through [which n]o light [shall pass];
nor [shall shine there the light o f the] sun which [will rise] over the
righteous to il[lumine his face.
And] you will say:
Is [there not an angel with the ri]ghteous when [judgement] comes [for]
S[atan for] he caused him evil?
[And the spirit o f t]ruth [will save him] from dar[kness because
right]eousness is for him.
. . . for ever [all the] son o f Bel[ial. Amen, amen.] Selah.

Non-canonical Psalms
(4Q 380-81)

Two poorly preserved manuscripts, the first consisting of seven and the second
of 110 fragments, contain apocryphal Hebrew religious poetry resembling bibli
cal Psalms more than the Hodayot (iQH) from Qumran. Some of them reuse
and combine canonical Psalms (e.g. fr. 15 re-employing Pss. lxxxvi and lxxxix,
and fir. 24, Ps. xviii). Not one single line has survived intact and only a few of
these largely mediocre poems can be translated. Their editor, Eileen Schuller,
assigns the collection to the Persian-Hellenistic era and considers it to be a presectarian composition. Palaeographically the manuscript is dated to the first half
of the first century b ce. N o historical allusions are included. Like many of the
biblical Psalms, these poems bore titles, three of which have been preserved:
Psalm of Obadiah (4Q380 1 11,8); Hymn of the Man of God (4Q381 24, 4)
and Prayer of Manasseh, King of Judah when the King of Assyria imprisoned
him (4Q381 33, 8). The attributions are no doubt pseudepigraphic. Whether
Obadiah is the minor prophet or the court official mentioned in 1 Kings xviii, 3
cannot be decided.
For the editio princeps, see Eileen Schuller, DJD, XI, 75-172.

4Q380, &. 1
I ... [Jerusalem, that is [the city
chosen by the L]ord from everlasting to [everlasting.]
... the holy ones
[for the na]me of the Lord is called on her,
[and his glory] is seen on Jerusalem and Zion.
Who will utter the name of the Lord,
and who makes all his praises heard?
The Lord [remem] bered him in his favour
and visited him

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

that he might show him the prosperity [of] his [chojsen ones,
making him re[joice in the gladness o f his nation]
(cf. Ps. cvi, 2, 4 -5 ).

II [And] he made for you a man w[ho . . . ]

for he is the one [whose] words they kept
which are for all the sons o f Israe l. . .
. . . your hand will [not] save you,
for the strength o f [your] G od does good.
And those (filled with) wicked hatred,
how long will you delight to do evil? . . .

vacat
Psalm o f Obadiah.
G od . . . truth is in it, and his loving kindness . . .

Fr. 2
. . . mountains and hills . . .
All who are founded on it will shake . . .
[and they will cry to] the Lo rd in their distress.
From their oppression

H e will deliver them,

For the Lord is gracious to the pious . . .
To the man . . .

4Q381, fr. 1
. . . [his wisdom] I have declared,
and I will meditate on his marvel,
and it will become m y teacher.
Ju d gem en t. . . o f my mouth,
and to the simple and they will understand,
and to the senseless and they will know.
O Lord, how mi[ghty] . . . marvels
H e made heaven and earth in his days (?),
and by his word . . . the riverbeds
H e ...

320

NON-CANONICAL PSALMS

night and st[a]rs and constellations . . .

and H e caused them to shine . . .
[every] tree and every fru[it o f the vineyar]d
and every produce o f the field.
And according to his words . . . a ll. . .
m[ankind] and by his spirit he established them
to have dominion over all this,
over the ground and all [its produce(?)]
from new moon to new moon, from festival to festival,
from day to day to eat its fruit, fruit o f . . .
. . . and birds and all that belongs to them
to eat the best o f everything and also . . .
. . . in them and all his hosts and H is ange[ls] . . .
to serve man and to minister to him . . .

Fr. 15
. . . T h o u wilt turn my h eart. . .
[Turn to me and take pity on me;
give thy strength to T h y servant]
and save the son o f T h y handmaid.
Show me [a sign o f T h y favour,
that those who hate me may see and be put to shame
because Thou,] my [G]od, hast helped me (Ps. lxxxvi, 1 6 - 1 7 )
and I will prepare (a sacrifice) for T hee, m y G od.
. . . [Thou dost rule the rag]ing o f the sea;
T h o u stillest its waves.
[Thou didst crush Rahab like a carcass,
T h o u didst scatter Thine enemies with T h y mighty arm]
(Ps. lxxxix, 1 0 - 1 1 ) .
[The world and] all that is in it, T h o u hast founded them
(ibid. 12).
T h o u hast a [mighty] arm; strong is T h y hand,
high T h y right hand (ibid. 14)
[For who in the skies can be compared to thee,] my God?
And who among the sons o f gods
and in all [the council o f the holy ones? . . .
. . . For Thou] art the glory o f its majesty.

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

As for me, Thine anointed one, I have understood . . .

[I will make] thee [know]n, for T h o u hast made me know;
I will have insight, for T h o u hast given me in sigh t. . .
F o r on T h y name, my G od, we shall call,
10

and [we shall wait] for T h y salvation.

And they will put it on like a garment
and like a dress . . .

Fr. 17
. . . In splendour T h o u wilt look on Judah and . . .
M y G od, T h o u wilt swallow them up
And [fire] will de[vour them] . . .

Fr. 24
. . . Psalm o f the Man o f G od.
Lord, G od . . .
H e has redeemed Judah from all distress

and from Ephraim . . .

. . . generation.
Those who have passed his test will praise him
and say, Arise [O G o d ] . . .
T h y name is my salvation,
m y rock, my fortress and [my] refuge [is my God] (Ps. xviii, 3).
On the day o f . . . I will call on the Lord and he will answer me,
m y help . . . those who hate me.
And he will say,. . .

10

[M y c]ry be [fore him] comes to his ears (Ps. xviii, 7)

[From his temple he will hear my] voi[ce].
[And] the earth will [re] el [and rock,
and the foundations o f the mountains tremble . . . for he is
angry.
Smoke went up from his nostrils (Ps. xviii, 7 -9 ) . . .

322

NON-CANONICAL PSALMS

Fr. 3 1
. . . in the net which they have concealed . . .
I will sing to . . .
I will meditate over T h y wonders
for to . . . before T h ee . . .
T h o u dost save me and lift me up from the tents o f death
. . . before a ll . . .
All its ways come to . . .
In a holy place . . . [Selah.] zmeat
. . . [Prayer o f . . . k]ing o f Judah.
Hear o [my] Go[d] . . .
I will recount before those who fear T h ee . . .
W h o can understand T h y [th]oughts?
F o r my oppressors have increased before Thee.
T hou hast known them
and T h o u hast subdued the enemies o f my soul before
Thine e[yes].
For I will live . . .
[and] T h o u shalt [not] conceal my iniquity to those with
understanding.
Th o u shalt slay them (the enemies) O G od o f m y salvation.
T h e days o f m y existence are treasured up.
W h at can a man say (but) Here I am ?
And how [dost T h o u deliver] to the sword
those who wait for me,
those who say . . . on the day o f wrath?
T h e y have woven a crown for my head.
For their glory is a splendid pillar . . .
. . . from the Book o f li[fe].
T hose who frighten me will be cut off
And my enemies will finish . . .
. . . a song and thanksgiving . . .

323

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

Fr.33
. . . Rise [above the heaven] s, O Lord,
and [my] G od . . .
And let us glory in T h y might
for [T h y wonders] are inscrutable
. . . T h o u shalt place me
and T h y chastisement will be my [joy].
. . . everlasting and to extol Thee.
F o r m y sins have become too many for me . . .
But T ho u , my G od, shalt send T h y spi[rit]
[and T h y mercy]
to the son o f T h y handmaid
and T h y loving-kindness to the servant who is near T h ee . . .
I will exult and rejoice in T h ee before those who fear [Thee],
for [Thou shalt judge] T h y servants in T h y righteousness,
and according to T h y loving-kindness
. . . to save . . . to thee. Selah.

vacat
Prayer o f Manasseh, K ing o f Judah when the K ing o f Assyria
gaoled him.
. . . [my G]od . . . m y salvation is near in Thine eyes . . .
I wait for T h y delivering presence,
and I feel faint before T h ee because o f m y s[in].
Fo r [Thou hast] enlarged [T h y mercies(?)],
and I have multiplied guilt.
And thus . . .
from eternal joy
and m y soul shall not see goodness . . .
H e has lifted me up on high
above a nation . . .
And I did not remember thee [in T h y plac]e o f h[oliness];
I did not serve [Thee] . . .

NON-CANONICAL PSALMS

Fr -45
. . . I will make understand . . .
I fear T h ee and will cleanse myself
O f abominations known to me.
I give m y soul to be humbled before Thee.
T h e y have multiplied sin
And they plot against me to imprison me.
But I have trusted T h ee . . .
And do not judge me, m y G o d ,. . .
Those who conspire against me
L et loose their lying tongue . . .

Fr. 4 6
. . . [f]ools.
. . . T h y precepts and T h y splendour and T h y beauty . . .
and like clouds they spread over the fa[ce] o f the earth.
T h e y will be scattered greatly u n til. . .
M an will not be strong and will not rise
. . . [and] T h o u hast [t]ested all.
And the elect, like offerings, Th o u wilt purify before Thee,
but the hated ones T h o u wilt reject like impurity.
And a stormy wind . . . their [pjractice.
And those who fear T h ee shall be before T h ee always.
(Their) horns are horns made o f iron to gore many,
and they will gore . . .
And T h o u wilt make their hoofs o f bronze
but sinners like dung shall be trampled upon the ground . . .

Fr. 69
. . . W h en he saw that the peoples [of the la]nd behaved
abominably,
. . . all the land (turned) wholly into impure uncleanness,
and from the beginning marvellously . . . he consulted his heart

325

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

to destroy them from it (the land) and make on it a

[holy(?)] people.
. . . in you and he gave you through his spirit prophets
to instruct and teach you . . .
5

. . . your [God(?)] descended from heaven and spoke to you

to instruct you and bring you back
from the works o f the inhabitants [of the land].
. . . [pre]cepts, laws and commandments
he established through a covenant by the hand [of Moses].
. . . dwelt (?) on the land. T h en it will be cleansed and . . .
. . . to consider you whether you will be his.
And if [not,] . . .
And to breach the covenant which he made with you
and to become a stranger and n o t . . .
. . . over wickedness and to change the words o f his mouth . . .

Frs. 76-7
. . . [the congregation o f the H o ly o f Holies
and the lot o f the K ing o f Kings . . .
. . . m y words and they will consider the wisdom
which is issued from my mouth.
. . . and a true judge and faithful witness.
Is there strength in you to answer Him . . .
10

. . . to hear.
. . . W h o among you will answer and stand up against his
rebuke? . . .
. . . F o r you have many judges and countless (hostile) witnesses.
B u t . . . the Lord will sit in judgement against you,
judging truly and without injustice . . .
. . . his spirits to pronounce on you true judgements.
Is there understanding for you to learn . . . ?
. . . Lord o f lords, mighty and marvellous and none is like him.
H e has chosen y[ou instead o f power] ful [peoples]
and great nations to be his people to rule over a l l . . .
. . . [hea]ven and earth
and as the highest above all the nations o f the earth . . .

326

Lamentations
(4Q!79> 4Q501)

Several fragments of a poem inspired by the biblical Book of Lamentations have

been preserved in Cave 4 (4Q179). Only fragment 2 offers a text long enough
for intelligible translation. See J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, D JD , V, 75-7;
cf. J. Strugnell, RQ 7 (1970), 250-52. A second work of a similar nature (4Q501)
has appeared in M. Baillet, D JD , V II, 79-80. Both texts are dated to the second
half of the first century b c e .

4Q i 79 , fr. 2
[How] solitary [lies] the city,
the princess o f all the peoples is desolate
like a forsaken woman;
and all her [daughters are forsak[en]
[like] a forsaken woman,
lik e a w o m a n h u r t a n d f o r s a k e n

by her [husband].
All her palaces and [her] wal[ls] are
like a barren woman;
and like a sheltered woman
are all [her] paths;
[all her] . . .
like a woman o f bitterness,
and all her daughters are like women
mourning for [their] hus[bands];
[all her] . . . like women
deprived o f their only children.

327

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

Weep, weep, Jerusalem ]

[her tears flow] upon her cheeks
because o f her sons . . .

4Q 50 1
G ive not our inheritance to strangers,
nor our (hard-earned) property to foreigners.
Remember that we are [the forsaken] o f T h y people
and the forsaken o f Thine inheritance.
Remember the desolate children o f T h y C o ven an t. . .
T [h y] freely devoted . . . ;
they err with no one to bring them back;
they are broken with none to bind them;
[they are bent down with none to ra]ise them up.
T h e damned o f T h y people have surrounded me
with their lying tongues.
T h e y have been turned . . .
and T h y boughs to the progeny o f a woman.
5

Look and see the shame o f the sons o f [T h y people (?),

for] our skin [is burning]
and feverish heat has seized us
because o f their reviling tongue.

328

Songs for the Holocaust of the Sabbath

(4Q 400-407, 1 1 Q 1 7 , Masada 1039-200)

Fragments of a document concerned with heavenly worship were first published

by J. Strugnell under the tide The Angelic Liturgy, Congress Volume Oxford,
Supplements to Vetus Testamentum, V II (Leiden, i960), 318-45. The full material,
viz. eight very damaged manuscripts from Cave 4 (4Q400-407), small frag
ments from Cave n ( 1 1 Q1 7 ) and a large fragment from Masada (1039-200),
was subsequendy edited by Carol Newsom in DJD , XI, 173-40 1. For 1 1 Q 1 7 see
F. Garcia Martinez et al., DJD , XXIII, 259-304.
From the point of view of palaeography all the manuscripts are dated to the
first century

bce,

with the exception of the Masada fragment, which belongs to

the first half of the first century

ce.

The songs contain angelic praises of God

assigned to the first thirteen sabbaths, i.e. the first quarter of the solar year.
They imply the simultaneity of heavenly and earthly worship. Although often
obscure, the poems depict the celestial sanctuary, the throne-chariot, and the
various groups participating in the angelic liturgy; they also include the words of
the benedictions sung by the seven archangels.
The main source of inspiration is the Book of Ezekiel, especially chapters i and
x in connection with the throne-chariot and xl-xlviii for the heavenly sanctuary.
T h e songs include nothing that can be dated. O n the basis o f the script and on
g e n e ra l g ro u n d s th e co m p o sitio n is said to b e lo n g to th e first c e n t u r y b c e .

The

Merkabah, or divine throne-chariot, was a central subject in ancient and

medieval Jewish esotericism and mysticism. Hence this early post-biblical mani
festation of the speculation is of considerable historical importance for the study
of the so-called Merkabah mysticism and of the Hekhaloth (heavenly palaces) lit
erature. It is noteworthy that the Mishnah prohibits the use of Ezekiels passage
about the chariot as a prophetic reading in synagogue (Megillah iv, 10) or even
its discussion in private, unless with a sage already familiar with the subject
(Hagigah 11, 1).
The presence of this Qumran document in the fortress of Masada is best
explained by assuming either that a number of Essenes joined the revolutionaries

329

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

and took with them some of their manuscripts, or that the rebels occupied the
Qumran area after its evacuation by the Community and later transferred some
Essene manuscripts to their final place of resistance.

4Q400 fr. 1 i
[To the Master. Song o f the holocaust o f the] first [Sabbajth, on the
fourth o f the first month.
Praise [the G od o f . . . ] the gods (= elohim) o f supreme holiness; in
[his] divine [kingship, rejoice. For he has established] supreme holiness
among the everlastingly holy, the H o ly o f Holies, to be for him the
priests o f [the inner Temple in his royal sanctuary], ministers o f the
Presence in his glorious innermost Temple chamber. In the congrega5 tion o f all the gods (= elim) o f [knowledge, and in the congregation o f all
the gods of] God, he engraved his precepts for all the spiritual works,
and [his glorious] judgements [for all who lay the foundations of] knowl
edge, the people (endowed with) his glorious understanding, the gods
who are close to knowledge . . . o f eternity and from the fountain o f holi
ness to the sanctuary o f supreme [holiness] . . . prie[sts] o f the inner
Temple, ministers o f the Presence o f the [most] holy K ing . . . his glory.
T h e y shall grow in strength decree by decree to be seven [eternal coun
cils. Fo r he fo]unded them [for] himself as the most [holy, who minister
10 in the h]oly o f holies . . . do not endure [those who per]vert the way.
15

T h ere is [n]othing impure in their sanctuaries. H e engraved for them

[precepts relating to ho]ly gifts; by them, all the everlastingly holy shall
sanctify themselves. H e shall purify the [luminously] pure [to repa]y all
those who render their way crooked. T h eir expiations shall obtain his
goodwill for all those who repent from sin . . . knowledge among the
priests o f the inner Temple, and from their mouth (proceed) the teach
ings o f the holy with the judgements o f [his glory] . . . his [gra]ces for
everlasting merciful forgiveness. In his zealous vengeance . . . he has

20 established for himself as priests o f the inner Temple, the most holy . . . o f
gods, the priests o f the highest heights who are near [to] . . .

33

S O N G S FOR T HE H O L O C A U S T OF T HE S A B B A T H

4Q400 2 (4Q 401, fir. 14, 7-8)

. . . wonderfully to extol T h y glory among the divine beings o f knowl
edge, and the praises o f T h y kingship among the most ho[ly]. M ore
wonderfully than gods and men they are glorified amid all the camps o f
the gods and feared by companies o f men. T h e y recount his royal
majesty according to their knowledge and exalt [his glory in all] his royal
heavens. In all the highest heights [they shall sing] marvellous psalms
according to all [their understanding, and the glorious splendour] o f the
King o f the gods they shall recount on their stations . . . for what shall

we be counted among them? Fo r what shall our priesthood be counted

in their dwellings? [H ow shall our] ho[liness compare with their
supreme] holiness? H o w does the offering o f our tongue o f dust com
pare with the knowledge o f the divine [beings] . . . our jubilation. L et us
extol the G od o f knowledge . . . H o ly o f Holies and H is understanding is
above all those who possess knowledge . . .

4Q402, fr. 4, 9 -10

. . . gods run to his visitation and the voice o f a crowd . . . o f gods in

10

the war o f heaven. And it will be . . .

4Q402 4, n - i5 = M A S A D A F R A G M E N T 1 , 1-7
. . . w onderful new w orks. A ll these he has done w o n d er[fu lly w ith all the

eternally hidden things] . . . all the words o f knowledge; for from the
G od o f knowledge (comes) all that exists for ever, [and from] his [plan]s
(come) all the eternally appointed. H e produces the former things in
their appointed times, and the latter things in their seasons. N one
among those who know the [wonderfully] revealed things can compre
hend them before he makes them. W h en he makes them, none o f [the
doers o f righteous]ness can understand his plan, for they are his glorious
works. Before they come into being, (they derive) [from] his [pla]n.
[For the Master. So]ng o f the holocaust o f the sixth Sabbath on the
ninth o f the [second] month.

331

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

[Praise the G]od o f gods, you inhabitants o f the highest heights... [h]oly
10 o f holies and exalt his glory . . . [knowledge o f the everlasting gods . . .

4Q 403 i , i , 1-2 9 (4Q 404 ~5)= M A SA D A F R A G M E N T

1039-200
[Psalm o f exaltation (uttered) by the tongue] o f the third o f the sover
eign Princes, an exaltation . . . H e shall exalt the G od o f the angels on
high seven times with seven wonderful exaltations.
Psalm o f praise (uttered) by the tongue o f the four[th] to the M ighty
One above all the [gods], seven wonderful mighty deeds. H e shall praise
the G od o f mighty deeds seven times with seven words o f [marvellous]
prais[e].
5

Psalm o f thanksgiving (uttered) by the tongue o f the fifth to the [K]in[g]

o f glory with its seven wonderful thanksgivings. H e shall thank the G od
o f glory se[ven times with se]v[en wor]ds o f wonderful thanksgivings.
[Psalm of] exultation (uttered) by the tongue o f the sixth to [the] G od
o f goodness with its seven [wonderful] exultations. H e shall exult before
the K i[ng of] goodness seven times with sev[en words o f] wonderful
exultation.
Psalm o f [singing (uttered) by the t]ongue o f the seventh o f the [sover
eign] Prin[ces], a powerful song [to the G o]d o f ho[liness] with its
se[ven] marvellous [songs]. H e shall sing [to] the Kin[g o f ho]liness seven
times with [seven w]ords o f [wonderful] so[ngs; sev]en psa[lms (singing)
his blessings; sev]en [psalm]s o f magnification o f [his righteousness;
seven psalms] o f exaltation o f [his] kingshi[p; seven] psalms o f [praises o f
his glory; sev]en p[salms o f thanksgivings for his marvellous deeds];
[seven psalms o f ex]ul[tation of] his power; seven [psalms singin]g his

10 holiness; . . . [seven times with seven wonderful words, words o f exalta

tion o f the Sovereign Princes.]
In the glo[ri]ous name o f G od, [the first of] the sov[erei]gn Princes
sha[ll bless] all the . . . [with seven wonderful words blessing all] their
[councils] in [his holy] sanctuary [with sev]en wonderful wo[rd]s, [and he
shall bless those who kn]ow the everlasting things.
[In the name of] his truth, [the second o f the sovereign Princes shall
bless] all [their] sta[tions with] se[ven] wonderful word[s and he shall bless
with] seven [wonderful] words. [He shall bless all those who exalt the]
King with seven g[lor]iou[s] w[ords o f his] marvels, [all the] eternally pure.

332

S O N G S FOR T HE H O L O C A U S T OF T HE S A B B A T H

[In the name of] his exalted kingship, the third [of the sovereign
Princes shall bless all who are lif]ted up [in knjowledge with se[ven w]ords
o f exal[ta]tion . . . [of his true kn]ow[ledge], he shall bless with seven

15

marvellous words; and he shall bless all [who are destined] for righteous
ness [with seven] wonderful [w]ords.
In the name o f the K in g s majesty, [the fourth] o f the [sovereign]
Princes shall bless with seven [majestic] words [all who] walk [up]rightly.
H e shall bless all the gods [close to] true knowledge [with seve]n right
eous words (for gaining) [his gl]o[rious] favours.
In the name o f [the majesty] o f his marvellous deeds, the fifth [sover
eign] Prince shall bless with seven [words] o f his exalted truth [all who]
. . . purity. [He shall bless] all who eagerly do his will with seven [marvel-

20

lous words. And he shall bless] all who confess him with seven majestic
[wor]ds that they may thank [him for ever].
In the name o f [the mighty deeds o f] the gods the sixth sovereign
Prince shall bless with seven words o f his marvellous mighty deeds all
who are mighty in wisdom. H e shall bless all the perfect o f w ay with
seven marvellous words to be in attendance for [ever]. H e shall bless all
who wait for him with seven marvellous words that they may obtain the
return o f his [gracious] favours.
In the name o f his holiness, the seventh o f the sovereign Princes shall
bless with seven words o f his marvellous holiness all the holy founders o f
kno[wledge. H e shall bless] all who exalt his statutes with sev[en] marvellous [wo]rds (which shall be for them) stout shields. H e shall bless all
[who are destined for] righteousness [and always] forever [pra]ise his
glorious kingship with seven [marvellous words] for everlasting peace.
In [the name o f his holiness] all the [sovereign] Princes [shall bless
together] the G od o f the divine beings [in] all their sevenfold te s ti
monies]. T h e y shall bless those destined for righteousness and all the
blessed . . . the eter[na]ll[y ble]ssed for them.
Blessed be [the] Lo[r]d, the Kin[g of] all, who is above all blessing and
p[raise. H e shall bless all the holy] who bless [him and proclaim him
righ]te[ous] in the name o f his glory. [And he shall b]less all who are
blessed for ever.

333

25

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

4Q 403 1, i, 30-46 (4Q405)

Fo r the Master. Song o f the holocaust o f the seventh Sabbath on the six
teenth o f the month.
Praise the most high God, O you high among all the gods o f knowledge.
L e t the holy ones o f the gods sanctify the King o f glory, who sancti
fies by his holiness all his holy ones.
O Princes o f the praises o f all the gods, praise the G od o f majestic
praises,
For in the splendour o f praises is the glory o f H is kingship.
In it are (contained) the praises o f all the gods together with the
splendour o f all [His] king[ship].
Exalt H is exaltation on high, O gods, above the gods on high, and
H is glorious divinity above all the highest heights.
Fo r H e [is the G od o f gods], o f all the Princes on high, and the K ing
o f king[s] o f all the eternal councils.
35

B y a discerning goodwill (expressed by) the words o f H is mouth a [11

the gods on high] come into being, at the opening o f His lips, all the
eternal spirits, by His discerning goodwill, all H is creatures in their
undertakings.
Exult, O you who exult [in his knowledge, with] an exultation among
the wonderful gods;
utter H is glory with the tongue o f all who utter knowledge;
may H is wonderful exultation be in the mouth o f all who utter [His
knowledge].
[For He] is the G od o f all who exult in everlasting knowledge,
and the Judge through H is might o f all the spirits o f understanding.
Celebrate O all celebrating gods, the K ing o f majesty, for all the gods
o f knowledge celebrate H is glory,
and all the spirits o f righteousness celebrate His truth, and seek accep
tance o f their knowledge by the judgements o f H is mouth,
and o f their celebrations when His mighty hand executes (?) judge
ments o f reward.

40

Sing to the G od o f power with an offering o f the princely spirit, a

song o f divine joy,
and a jubilation among all the holy, a wonderful song for eter[nal]
rejoicing.

334

S O N G S FOR T HE H O L O C A U S T OF T HE S A B B A T H

W ith these all the f foundations o f the hol]y o f holies shall praise,
the pillars bearing the highest abode, and all the comers o f its struc
ture.
Sing to the G o[d who is a]wesome in strength . . .
to extol together the splendid firmament, the supreme purity o f [His]
holy sanctuary.
[Praise] Him , O divine spirits, prai[sing for ever and] ever the firma
ment o f the highest heavens,
a l l . . . and its walls, a[l]l its [structure, its shape.
[The spi]rits o f the hol[y] o f holies, the living gods, [the spir]its o f
[et]emal holiness above all the holy [ones];
. . . marvellous marvel, majesty and beauty and marvel.

45

[Gl]ory is in the perfect light o f knowledge . . . in all the marvellous

sanctuaries.
T h e divine spirits surround the dwelling o f the K ing o f truth and
righteousness; all its walls . . .

4Q403 1, ii, 6-29

. . . and from among them run gods with the appearance o f coals o f
[fire] . . . walking round about, most holy spirits . . . H o ly o f Holies,
divine spirits, everlasting] appearances . . . and divine spirits, forms o f
flaming fire round about i t . . . wonderful spirits. And the chief dwelling

10

on high, the glory o f H is kingdom, the innermost sanctuary . . . And H e

consecrates the seven elevated holy places. And a voice o f blessing
(comes) from the chiefs o f His innermost sanctuary . . . And a glorious
voice o f blessing . . . is heard by G od (the gods) and the foundations . . .
o f blessing. And all the ornaments o f the innermost sanctuary burst into
wonderful prayers in the innermost sanctuary . . . o f wonder, one inner
most sanctuary to another, by the voice o f holy crowds, and all their
ornaments . . . And the chariots o f H is innermost sanctuary will utter
praises together and their cherubim and wheels will bless wonderfully
the chiefs o f the godly figure and will bless H im in the holy innermost
sanctuary, vacat
For the Master. Song o f the holocaust for the eighth Sabbath on the
tw[enty]-third [of the second month].
[Praise the G od o f all the highest heights, all the holy ones for ever]
and ever,

335

15

H Y M N S A N D P OE MS

they who are second among the priests o f the inner Temple, the sec20 ond council in the wonderful dwelling, with seven words o f . . . eternally.
Extol H im , O sovereign Princes, in his marvellous portion, praise [the
G od o f gods, O you seven priesthoods o f His inner Temple].
. . . height, the seven wonderful domains by the precept concerning
H is sanctuaries.
T h e sovereign Princes o f the [wonderful] priest[hood] . . . the seven
priest[hoods] in the wonderful sanctuary for seven councils o f holiness
. . . the Prince, the angels o f the K ing in the wonderful dwellings. T h e
knowledge o f their understanding is for seven . . . Prince from the priest
25

o f the inner Temple. T h e Princes o f the congregation o f the K ing in the

assembly o f . . . and praises o f exaltation to the K ing o f glory and a tower
o f . . . for the G od o f gods, the K ing o f purity. T h e offering o f their
tongues . . . the seven mysteries o f knowledge in the wonderful mystery
o f the seven domains [of] the H o[ly o f holies]. . . [The tongue o f the first
shall be seven times stronger than the tongue o f the second; the tongue
o f the second shall be] seven times [stronger] than that o f the third; [the
to]ngue o f the thi[rd shall be] seven tim[es] stronger [than that o f the
fourth; the tongue o f the fourth shall be seven times stronger than the
tongue o f the fifth; the tongue o f the fifth shall be seven times stronger
than the tongue of] the sixth; the tongu[e o f the sixth shall be seven times
stronger than the] t[ongue o f the seventh]; the tongue o f the seventh
shall be [seven times] stronger [than the tongue o f the eighth] . . .

4Q 405 14 - 15 , i
. . . tongue o f blessing from the likeness [of the gods] issues a [v]oice o f
blessing for the King o f those who exalt, and their wonderful praise is for
the G od o f gods . . . their many-coloured . . . and they sing . . . the
vestibules by which they enter, the spirits o f the most holy inner Temple
5 . . . [And the likene]ss o f the living gods is engraved on the vestibules by
which the King enters, luminous spiritual figures . . . [K]ing, figures o f a
glorious l[ight, wonderful] spirits; [amo]ng the spirits o f splendour there
are works o f (art o f) marvellous colours, figures o f the living gods . . . [in
the] glorious innermost Temple chambers, the structure o f [the most ho]ly
[sanctuary] in the innermost chambers o f the King, design[s o f go]ds . . .
likeness o f . . . most holy . . . [the Temple] chambers o f the Ki[ng] . . .
figur[es o f the g]o[ds and from] the likeness . . . o f the H oly o f Holies . . .

336

S O N G S FOR T HE H O L O C A U S T OF T HE S A B B A T H

4Q405 19 A B C D ( 1 1 Q 1 7 vii, 5-6)

T h e figures o f the gods shall praise Him, [the most] h[oly] spirits . . . o f
glory; the floor o f the marvellous innermost chambers, the spirits o f the
eternal gods, all . . . fi[gures o f the innermost] chamber o f the King, the
spiritual works o f the marvellous firmament are purified with salt, [spi]rits
o f knowledge, truth [and] righteousness in the holy o f [ho]lies, [f ]orms
o f the living gods, forms o f the illuminating spirits. All their [works (of
art)] are marvellously linked, many-coloured [spirits], artistic figures o f

the gods, engraved all around their glorious bricks, glorious figures on
b[ri]cks o f splendour and majes[ty]. All their works (of art) are living gods,
and their artistic figures are holy angels. From beneath the marvellous
inner [most chambers] comes a sound o f quiet silence: the gods bless . . .
the King . . .

4Q405 20 ii, 21 -2
. . . His glorious chariots. W h en they go . . . they do not turn aside . . .
but advance straight. . .
For the Mas[ter. Song o f the holocaust of] the twelfth [S]abbath [on
the twenty-first o f the third month.]
[Praise the G od o f . . . w]onder, and exalt H im . . . o f glory in the te[nt
o f the G od of] knowledge. T h e [cheru]bim prostrate themselves before
H im and bless. As they rise, a whispered divine voice [is heard], and
there is a roar o f praise. W h en they drop their wings, there is a [whispere]d divine voice. T h e cherubim bless the image o f the throne-chariot
above the firmament, [and] they praise [the majes]ty o f the luminous fir
mament beneath H is seat o f glory. W hen the wheels advance, angels o f
holiness come and go. From between H is glorious wheels, there is as it
were a fiery vision o f most holy spirits. About them, the appearance o f
rivulets o f fire in the likeness o f gleaming brass, and a work o f . . . radi
ance in many-coloured glory, marvellous pigments, clearly mingled.
T h e spirits o f the living gods move perpetually with the glory o f the
marvellous chariot(s). T h e whispered voice o f blessing accompanies the
roar o f their advance, and they praise the H o ly One on their way o f
return. W h en they ascend, they ascend marvellously and when they
settle, they stand still. T h e sound o f joyful praise is silenced and there is

337

10

HYMNS

AND

POEMS

a whispered blessing of the gods in all the camps of God. And the sound
of praise ... from among all their divisions ... and all their numbered
ones praise, each in his turn.

4Q405 23 i
5

. . . his whole-offering. T h e gods praise H im [when they take] up their

station, and all the s[pirits of] the clear firm[am]ent rejoice in H is glory.
A sound o f blessing (is heard) from all His divisions speaking o f the
firmaments o f H is glory, and H is gates praise with a resounding voice.
W h en the gods o f knowledge enter by the doors o f glory, and when the
holy angels depart towards their realm, the entrance doors and the gates
o f exit proclaim the glory o f the King, blessing and praising all the

10 spirits o f G od when they depart and enter by the gates. N o ne among

them skips over a precept, nor do they . . . against the saying o f the K ing
. . . T h e y run not away from the path, nor slip away from H is domain.
T h e y are neither too high for H is commission nor too lowly. Fo r H e
shall be compassionate in the realm o f His furious, destroyin g ange]r;
H e will not judge in the provinces o f H is glorious wrath. T h e fear o f the
K ing o f gods is awe-inspiring to [al]l the gods, [and they undertake]
all H is commissions by virtue o f H is true order, and they go . . .

4Q405 23 ii
5

. . . A t their marvellous stations are spirits, many-coloured like the work

o f a weaver, splendid engraved figures. In the midst o f a glorious appear
ance o f scarlet, colours o f the most holy spiritual light, they hold to their
holy station before [the K]ing, spirits o f [pure] colours in the midst o f an
appearance o f whiteness. T h e likeness o f the glorious spirit is like a work
(of art) o f sparkling fine gold. All their pattern is clearly mingled like the

10 work (of art) o f a weaver. These are the Princes o f those marvellously
clothed for service, the Princes o f the kingdom, the kingdom o f the holy
ones o f the K ing o f holiness in all the heights o f the sanctuaries o f His
glorious kingdom. T h e Princes in charge o f offerings have tongues o f
knowledge, [and] they bless the G od o f knowledge among all H is glori
ous works . . .

338

SONGS

FOR T H E

H O L O C A U S T OF T H E

SABBATH

1 1 Q 1 7 viii
. . . their [mar]vellous marvels by the power o f the G od o f [eter]nity; and
they shall exalt the mighty deeds o f the G[od] . . . From the four founda
tions o f the marvellous firmament they shall pr[oclaim] soundlessly (?) a
divine oracle . . . wall. T h e y bless and praise the G od o f gods . . .

Poetic Fragments on Jerusalem

and King Jonathan
(4Q448)

Written in a very difficult semi-cursive script, this text has been brilliantly de
ciphered by Ada Yardeni and edited by Esther and Hanan Eshel.
The top part of the fragment, or column A, preserving the first two or three
words of ten lines, is an unknown Halleluiah psalm. However, the last three
lines have been identified by E. Eshel, as well as by M. Kister, as belonging to
the last verses of Psalm 154, included in the Psalms Scroll from 1 iQ, and partly
reconstructed from the Syriac (cf. J. A. Sanders, DJD, IV, col. x v i i i , lines
14-16), and ending with an allusion to Gods presence in Zion-Jerusalem (cf.
p- 3 7>Column B, with its nine lines, is complete. It opens with a reference to the
Holy Cky, associated with King Jonathan, but the main theme appears to be a
blessing of Gods kingdom and name on behalf of the entire people of Israel.
Note that Column A also ends with a mention of Zion-Jerusalem.
Column C, with the second half of each of its nine lines missing, also men
tions Israel, together with Gods name and kingdom, as well as what seems to be
the day of war. The editors believe that they can read Jonathan in line 8, but
this is far from certain.
4Q448 is a unique and significant Qumran text of historical importance. The
editors assume that King Jonathan is Alexander Jannaeus or Yannai, i.e. a
Hasmonaean ruler who, as a general rule, is presumed by scholars to have been
hostile to the Qumran Community. They conjecture, therefore, that 4Q448 is
not a sectarian composition. I prefer, by contrast, to identify King Jonathan as
Jonathan Maccabaeus at the start of his political-military career, when he was
celebrated as the liberator of the Jews and of Jerusalem, and link this text to the
statement of the Habakkuk Commentary in vm, 8-9, concerning the good
behaviour when he first arose of the ruler who was to become the Wicked
Priest. The identification of King Jonathan with Jonathan Maccabaeus pro
posed by me is shared also by E. Puech. The name Jonathan appears without
context on a badly damaged fragment designated 4Q523; see E. Puech, DJD,
340

P O E T I C F R A G M E N T S ON J E R U S A L E M A N D K I N G J O N A T H A N

XXV, 75-83. The script is dated to 150-125 b c e , which would suggest that the
person in question is the Maccabee brother rather than Alexander Jannaeus
(103-76 b c e ).
For the editio princeps, see Esther Eshel, Hanan Eshel and Ada Yardeni, DJD,
XI, 403-25; see also G. Vermes, The So-called King Jonathan Fragment
(4Q448)\ 77 S 44 (J 993)> 294-300.
Column A
Halleluiah. Psal[m . . . ] T h o u hast loved as a father . . . T h o u hast acted
as a prince over . . . vacat And those who ha[te T h ee . . . ] fear . . . T h e

many announce . . . fear . . . And for those who are perfect . . . [Behold
the eyes o f the Lord have compassion on the good, and H is mercy] is
[great] over those who glorify Him. [From an evil time H e saves their
soul. H e redeems] the poor from the hand o f oppressors, [and delivers
the perfect from the hand o f the wicked. H e desires] his tabernacle in

10

Zion, (and) ch[ooses Jerusalem for ever].

Column B
H oly C ity for K ing Jonathan and for all the congregation o f T h y people
Israel, who are in the four comers o f heaven. M ay the peace o f them all

10

be on T h y kingdom! M a y T h y name be blessed.

Column C
I will . . . [in] T h y love . . . during the day and until the evening . . . to
draw near to be . . . to visit them for a blessing . . . on T h y name which is
invoked . . . kingdom to be blessed . . . [o]n t[he] day war . . . to King
Jonathan ( ? ) . . .

34i

Hymn of Glorification A and B

(4Q 491, fr. 1 1 -4 Q 4 7 ib )

Two different versions of the same poem have been preserved. The first was
originally thought to be part of the War Scroll (Ma, 4Q491, fr. 11) and was
identified as The Song of Michael and the Just by its editor, M. Baillet. The
editor of the second text, Esther Eshel, proposes the more likely interpretation
that the speaker of the hymn is the eschatological high priest, first humiliated by
his opponents before sharing the glory of the gods or holy ones. The troubled
career of the last priest is also alluded to in the Aramaic Testament of Levi
(4Q541, fr. 9).
For the editio princeps, see M. Baillet, DJD, VII, 26-30 (4Q491) and E. Eshel,
DJD, XXI, 421-32 (40471b).

Glorification Hymn A

(4Q491 , fr. 11)

.. . the righ[teo]us exult [in the streng]th of His might and the holy ones
rejoice in ... in righteousness
He has established it in Israel
Since ancient times His truth and the mysteries of His wisdom (have
been) in al[l] ... power
... and the council of the poor into an eternal congregation
... the perfect... [et]emity a throne of strength in the congregation of
gods so that not a single king of old shall sit on it,
neither shall their noble men ...
My glory is incomparable, and apart from me none is exalted.
None shall come to me for I dwell in ... in heaven, and there is
no ...
I am reckoned with the gods and my dwelling-place is in the
congregation of holiness.
342

HYMN

OF G L O R I F I C A T I O N A A N D

[My] des[ire] is not according to the flesh, [and] all that I value is in the
glory o f . . . [... the pl]ace o f holiness.
W h o is counted despicable on my account, and who is comparable to
me in m y glory?
W h o is like . . . the young (?) like me?
Is there a companion who resembles me? There is none!
I have been taught and no instruction resembles [my instruction] . . .
W h o shall attack me when [I] op[en my mouth]? And who can contain
the issue o f m y lips?
W h o shall summon me to be destroyed by m y judgement? . . .
[F]or I am reckoned with the gods, and my glory is with the sons o f
the King.
N o pure gold or gold o f Ophir . . .

Glorification Hymn B

(40471b)
I am reckoned with the gods and my dwelling-place is in the
congregation o f holiness.
W h o is counted as me to be despised and who is despised as me?
And who is like me, forsaken [by men (Isa. liii, 3), and is there] a
companion who resembles me?
And no instruction resembles my instruction.
[For] I s i t . . .
W h o is like me among the gods?
[And who shall attack me when I open m y mouth]?
And who can contain the issue o f my lips?
And who [shall summon me to be destroyed by my judgement]?
[For I am] the beloved o f the K ing and the friend o f the ho[ly ones].
[No-one] . . . and no-one is comparable [to my glory].
For I [have m y station with the gods, and m y glory is with the sons o f
the King].
I will not be cr[owned with pure gold nor with the gold o f Ophir] . . .
Sin g...

C. Calendars, Liturgies
and Prayers

Phases of the Moon,

Israel Antiquities Authority

Calendars of Priesdy Courses

(4Q320-30,337)

Twelve fragmentary manuscripts from Cave 4, palaeographically dated to the late

second century b c e , present in various forms the peculiar solar calendar - con
structed in six-year sequences - of the Qumran Community. Their year con
sisted of twelve months of thirty days each, plus four extra days added to each of
the four seasons (cf. above, pp. 78-9). Some documents from 4Q (320 and 321)
attempt to combine this calendar with the various priestly courses which served
in turn in the Temple for a week at a time from one sabbath to the following
Friday. They also combine it with the dates of the full moon given according to
the days of the week of duty of the priesdy course, the date of the solar month
and the equivalent date of the lunar calendar of mainstream Judaism (a year of
twelve months of 29 or 30 days = 354 days). E.g. (The full moon falls): On the 5th
(day) in the week of Jedaiah, corresponding to the 29th day of the lunar month,
which falls on the 30th day of the 1st solar month. 4Q321 records in addition
the occurrence of the New Moon. E.g. And the New Moon is on the third day in
the week of Mijamin which is on the twelfth day in the eighth month. An alterna
tive interpretation suggests that the term in question (duqah) designates the day
after the full moon. 4Q32ia is very fragmentary, but it seems almost identical to
4Q32 1For the editio princeps, see S. Talmon with J. Ben-Dov, DJD, XXI, 1-156.

347

CA LENDARS,

LITURGIES AND

PRAYERS

The following table will help readers understand the relationship between the
priesdy courses on weekly duty, the solar dates, the moons phases and the feastdays falling in the month in question.
First month of thefirst year in a six-year cycle
Sigla: bold number=feast; *=New Moon; ^=full moon
Su

12

26

Th

itt

Sa

3
10

4
ii

13

14

l5

16

18

20

21

22

25

27

28

29

23
30^

Course

Feasts

Gamul
Delaiah
Maaziah
Joiarib
Jedaiah

Passover [eve]
Waving of the Sheaf

Mishmarot A (4Q320)
Fr. 1 i
I ... to show it from the east. [And] to cause it to shine [in] the middle of
heaven, in the foundation [of the creatjion, from evening dll morning.
(There is full moon)
On the 4th (day) in the week [of the sons of G]amul in the first month
5 of [thefirs]tyear.
[On the 5th (day) in (the week of) Jedai]ah, (corresponding) to the
29th (day of the lunar month, which falls) on the 30th (day) of the 1st
(solar month).
[On the sabbath in (the week of) Hakjkoz, (corresponding) to the
30th (day of the lunar month, which falls) on the 30th of the second
(solar month).
[On the 1 st (day) in (the week of) Eliajshib, (corresponding) to the
29th (day of the lunar month), (which falls) on the 29th (day) in the third
(solar month).
[On the 3rd (day) in (the week of) Bilg]ah, (corresponding) to the
30th (day of the lunar month, which falls) on the 28th day in the fourth
(solar month).
10
[On the 4th (day) in (the week of) Peta]hiah, (corresponding) to the
348

CALENDARS

OF P R I E S T L Y C O U R S E S

29th (day of the lunar month which falls) on the 27th day in the fifth
(solar month).
On the 6th (day) in (the week of) Delaiah, (corresponding) to the 30th
(day of the lunar month which falls) on the 27th (day) in the sixth (solar
month).
[On the sabbath in (the week of) Seori]m, (corresponding) to the 29th
(day of the lunar month which falls) on the 25 th (day) in the seventh
(solar month).
[On the 2nd (day) in (the week of) Abiah, (corresponding) to the 3]oth
(day of the lunar month which falls) on the 25 th (day) in the eighth
(solar month).
[On the 3rd (day) in (the week of) Jakim, (corresponding) to the 2]9th
(day of the lunar month which falls) on the 24th (day) in the ninth (solar
month).
II On the 5th (day) in (the week of) Immer, (corresponding) to the 30th
(day of the lunar month which falls) on the 23 rd (day) in the tenth (solar
month).
On the 6th (day) in (the week of) Jehezekel, (corresponding) to the
29th (day of the lunar month which falls) on the 22nd (day) in the
eleventh (solar) month.
On the 1 st (day) in (the week of) Jeiarib, (corresponding) to the 30th
(day of the lunar month which falls) on the 22 nd (day) in the twelfth
(solar) month.
The secondyear.
On the 2nd (day) in (the week of) Malchiah, (corresponding) to the 29th
(day of the lunar month which falls) on the 20th (day) in the first (solar
month).
On the 4th (day) in (the week of) Jeshua, (corresponding) to the 30th
(day of the lunar month which falls) on the 20th (day) in the second
(solar month).
On the 5th (day) in (the week of) Huppah, (corresponding) to the
29th (day of the lunar month which falls) on the 19th [in the third]
(month).
On the sabbath in (the week of) Pizzez, (corresponding) to the 30th
(day of the lunar month which falls) on the 18th in the f[ourth] (month).
On the 1st (day) in Gamul, (corresponding) to the [29th (day of the
lunar month which falls) on the 1 7th day in the fifth] (solar month).
349

CALENDARS,

io

LITURGIES AND

PRAYERS

On the 3rd (day) in (the week of) Jedaiah, (corresponding) to the 30th
(day of the lunar month which falls) [on the 1 7th (day) in the sixth] (solar
month).
On the 4th (day) in (the week of) Mijamin, (corresponding) to the 2[9th
(day of the lunar month which falls) on the 15th day] in the seventh
(solar month).
On the 6th (day) in Shecaniah, (corresponding) to the 3[oth (day of
the lunar month which falls) on the 15th (day) in the eighth] (solar
month).
On the sabbath in (the week of) Bil[gah, (corresponding) to the 29th
(day of the lunar month which falls) on the 14th (day) in the ninth] (solar
month).
[On the 2nd (day) in (the week of) Petahiah, (corresponding) to the
30th (day of the lunar month which falls) on the 13 th (day) in the tenth]
(solar month).

Fr. 2
On the 1 st (day) in (the week of) Je[shua, (corresponding) to the 29th
(day of the lunar month which falls) on the 5th (day) in the seventh]
(solar month).
10
On the 3rd (day) in (the week of) Huppah, (corresponding) to the
30th (day of the lunar month which falls) on the 5th (day) in the eighth
(month).
On the 4th (day) in (the week of) Hezir, (corresponding) to the 29th
(day of the lunar month which falls) on the 4th (day) in the ninth (solar
month).
On the 6th (day) in Jachin, (corresponding) to the 30th (day of the
lunar month which falls) on the 3rd (day) in the tenth (solar month).
On the sabbath in (the week of) Jedaiah, (corresponding) to the 29th
(day of the lunar month which falls) on the 2nd (day) of the eleventh
(solar) month.
On the 2nd (day) [of Mijami]n, (corresponding) to the 30th (day of
the lunar month which falls on) the second day in the twelfth (solar)
month.

350

CALENDARS

OF P R I E S T L Y C O U R S E S

Fr. 3 i
II ...
the days, the sabbaths [and] the months [for] years and for sabbatical
years and for jubilees. On the 4th (day) of the week of the sons of
Gamul.

Fr. 4 iii

I II The first year: its feasts. On the third (day in the week of) Meoziah:
the Passover.
On the 1st (day) [in (the week o f) Jeda[iah]: the Waving of the [Sheaf].
On the 5th (day) in (the week of) Seorim: the [Second] Passover, vacat
On the 1st (day) in (the week of) Jeshua: the Feast of Weeks.
On the 4th (day) in (the week of) Meoziah: the Day of Memorial.
[On] the 6th (day) in Jeiarib: the Day of Atonement [in the] seventh
[month], vacat
[On the 4th (day) in (the week of) Jeda]iah: the Feast of Tabernacles.

10

The second {year): itsfeasts. [On the 3rd (day)] in (the week of) Seorim:
the Passov[er].
[On the 1 st (day)] in (the week of) Mijamin: the Waving of the [Sheaf].
[On the 5th (day) in (the week of) Abiah: the Second Passover].

Fr. 4

IV On the 1st (day) [in (the week of) H]uppah: [the Feast of W]eeks.
On the 4th (day) in (the week of) Seorim: the Day of Mem[orial].
On the 6th (day) in (the week of) Malchia[h]: the Day of Ato[nement].
On [the 4th (day) in (the week of)] Mijamin: the Feast o f Tabernacles.
vacat

35i

CALENDARS,

LITURGIES AND

PRAYERS

The third (year): itsfeasts. On the 3rd (day) in (the week of) Abiah: the
Passover.
On the 21 st (day) in (the week of) Shecaniah: the Waving of the Sheaf.
On the 5th (day) in (the week of) Jakim: the [Second] Passover.
On the 1st (day) in (the week of) Hezir: [the Feast of Weeks].
On the 4th (day) in (the week of) Abiah: the Day of Memorial.
On the 6th (day) in (the week o f) Jeshua: the Day of Atonement.
On the 4th (day) in (the week of) Shecaniah: the Feast of Tabernacles.

The fourth (year): itsfeasts.

V [On the 3rd (day) in (the week of) Jaki]m: the Passover.
On the 1 st (day) [in (the week o f) Jeshebeab: the Waving of the Sheaf.
On [the 5th (day) in (the week of) Im]mer: the Second Passover.
[On the 1st (day) in (the week of) Piz]zez: [the Feast] of Weeks.
[On] the 4th (day) in (the week o f) Jakim: the Day of Memorial.
[On] the 6th (day) in (the week of) Huppah: the Day of Atonement.
[On the 4th] (day) in (the week o f) Jeshebeab: the Feast of Tabernacles.
vacat
[The fifth (year): itsfeasts.]
On the 3rd (day) in (the week of) Immer: the Passover.
On the 1st (day) in (the week of) Pizzez: the Waving of the Sheaf.
[On the 5th (day)] in (the week o f) Jehezekel: the Second Passover.
[On the 1st (day) in (the week o f) Joiari]b: the Feast of [Weeks].
[On the 4th (day) in (the week of) Immer: the Day of Memorial].
V I On the 6th (day) in (the week of) Hezir: the Day of Atonement.
On the 4th (day) in (the week of) Pizzez: the Feast of Tabernacles.
vacat

The sixth (year): itsfeasts.

On the 3rd (day) in (the week of) Jehezekel: the Passov[er].
On the 1st (day) in (the week of) Gamul: the Waving of the Sheaf.
[On the 3rd (day)] in (the week of) Maaziah: the [Second] Passover.
On the 1st (day) in (the week of) Malchiah: the Feast of [Weeks].
[On] the 4th (day) in (the week o f) Jehezeke[l: the Day of Memorial].
10
[On] the 6th (day) in (the week o f) Jachin: [the Day of Atonement.
On the 4th (day) in (the week of) Gamul: the Feast of Tabernacles]...
5

352

CALENDARS

OF P R I E S T L Y C O U R S E S

Mishmarot B (4Q 321, fr. 1)

I [And the New Moon is on the 1st (day) in (the week o f) Jedaiah which
is on the tweljfth (day) in it (=the seventh month).
On the second (day) in (the week of) Abia[h which is on the] twe[ntyfifth (day) in the eighth (month).
And the New Moon is on the third (day) in (the week of) Mijamin
which is on the twelfth (day)] in (the eighth month).
On the third (day) in (the week of) Jakim which is on the [twenty] fou[rth (day) in the ninth (month).
And the New Moon is on the fourth (day) in Shecaniah which is on
the eleve]nth (day) in (the ninth month).
On the fifth (day) in (the week of) Immer which is on the thirteenth
(day) in the ten[th (month).
And the New Moon is on the sixth (day) in (the week of) Je]shabeab
[which is on the tenth (day) in (the tenth month)].
On [the s]ixth (day) in (the week o f) Jehezekel which is on the twentysecond (day) in the eleventh (month).
And [the New Moon is on sabbath in (the week of)] Petahiah which is
[on the ninth (day) in (the eleventh month)].
On the first (day) in (the week of) Joiarib which is on the twentysecond (day) in the twelfth month.
And [the New Moon is on the secon]d (day) in (the week of) Delaiah
[which is on the ninth (day) in (the twelfth month)], vacat
[The] second (year), the first (month).

On the second (day) in (the week of) Malchiah which is on the twen[tieth
(day) in the first (month).
And] the New Moon [is on the third (day) in (the week of) Harim
which is on the sejventh (day) in (the first month).
On the fourth (day) in (the week of) Jeshua which is [on] the twenti
eth (day) in the second (month).
And [the New Moon is on the fifth (day) in (the week of)] Hakkoz
which is on the ninth (day) [in (the second month).
On the fifth (day) in (the week of) Huppah which is on the
nineteenth (day) in the third (month).

353

CALENDARS,

LITURGIES AND PRAYERS

And the New Mo[on] is on the sixth (day) [in (the week of) E]l[iashib]
which is on the sixth (day) [in (the third month).
On the sabba]th in (the week of) Pizzez

Fr. 2

II [which is on the eighteenth (day) in the fourth (month).

And the New Moon is on the first (day) in (the week of) Immer which
is on the fifth (day)] in (the fourth month).
On the first (day) in (the week of) [Gamul, which is on the seven
teenth (day) in the fifth (month)].
[And the New Moon is on the second (day) in (the week of)
Je]hezek[el which is on the fourth (day) in (the fifth month).
On the third (day) in (the week of) JedJaiah which is on [the seven
teenth (day) in the sixth (month).
And the New Moon is on the fourth (day)] in (the week of) Maoziah
which is on the fourth (day) in (the sixth month).
On the fourt[h (day) in (the week of) Mijamin which is on the
fifteenth (day)] in the seventh (month).
And the New Moon is on the f[ifth (day)] in (the week of) Seorim
which is on the second in (the seventh month).
On the sixth (day) in (the week of) Shecaniah which is on the fifteenth
(day) in the eighth (month).
And the New] Moon is on the sabbath in Abiah which is on the
second (day) in (the eighth month). [On the sabbath in (the week of)
Bilgah] which is on the fourteenth (day) of the ninth (month).
And the New Moon is [on the first (day)] in the ninth month.
And the second [New Moo]n is on the third (day) in [(the week of)
Hezir, which is on the thirty]-first in [(the ninth month).
On] the second (day) in (the week of) Petahiah which is on the
thirteenth (day) in the tenth (month)].
And the New Moon is on the fourt[h (day) in (the week of) Ja]chin
which is on the twenty-nin[th (day) in (the tenth month)].
On [the third (day) in (the week of) Delai]ah which is on the twelfth
(day) in the ele[venth month.
And the New] Moon is on the sixth (day) in (the week of) Joiar[ib
which is on the tw]enty-ninth (day) in [(the eleventh month)].
354

CALENDARS

OF P R I E S T L Y C O U R S E S

On the fifth (day) in (the week of) Harim which is on the twelfth (day)
of the twelfth month. And the New Moo[n] is on the sabbath [in (the week
of)] Mijamin which is on the twenty-eighth (day) in (the twelfth month).
The third (year). The [first] (month). [On the sixth (day) in (the week
of) Hakkoz which is on the tenth (day)] in the first (month).

Fr- 3
I II And the New Moon is on the second (day) in (the week of) Shecaniah which is on the twenty-seventh (day) in (the first month).
On the first (day) in (the week of) Jakim which is on the tenth (day) in
the second (month).
And the New Moon is on the third (day) in (the week of) Jeshebeab
which is on the twenty-sixth (day) in (the second month).
On the second (day) in (the week of) Immer which is on the ninth
(day) in the third (month).
And the New Moon is on the fifth (day) in (the week of) Pizzez which
is on the twenty-sixth (day) in (the third month).
On the fourth (day) in (the week of) Jehezekel which is on the eighth
(day) in the fourth (month).
And the New Moon is on the sixth (day) in (the week of) Gamul
which is on the twenty-fourth (day) in (the fourth month).
On the fifth (day) in (the week of) Meoziah which is on the seventh
(day) in the fifth (month).
And the New Moo]n is on the first (day) in (the week of) Har[im
which is on the twenty-fourt]h (day) in (the fifth month).

On the sabbath in (the week of) Mal[chiah which is on the seventh

(day) of the sixth (month).
And the New Moon is on the second (day) in (the week of) Hakkoz
which is on the twenty-third (day) in (the sixth month).
On the first (day) in (the week o f) Jeshua which is on the fifth (day)] in
the seventh (month).
And the New Moon on the fourth (day) in (the week of) Eliashib which
is on the [twenty-]second (day) [in (the seventh month).
On the third (day) in (the week of) Huppah which is on the fifth (day)
in the eighth (month).
And the New Moon is in the fifth (day) in (the week of) Bilgah which
is on the twenty-first (day) in] (the eighth month).
355

CALENDARS,

LITURGIES

AND

PRAYERS

On the fourth (day) in (the week of) Hezir which is on the fourth
(day) in the ninth (month).
And the New Moon is on the sabbath in (the week of) J[ehezekel
which is on the twenty-first (day) in (the ninth month).
On the sixth (day) in (the week of) Jachin which is on the third (day)
in the tenth (month).
And the New Moon is on the first (day) in (the week of) Maaziah
which is on the nine]teenth in (the tenth month).
On the sabbath in (the week of) Jedaiah which is on the second (day)
in the eleventh month.
And the New Moon is [on the third (day) in Seorim which is on the
nineteenth (day) in (the eleventh month).
On the second (day) in (the week of) Mijamin which is on the second
(day) in the twelfth month.
And the New] Moon is on the fourth (day) in (the week of) Abiah
which is on the eighteenth (day) in (the twelfth month).
The fourth {year).
On the fourth (day) in (the week of) Shecan[iah which is on the first
(day) in the first month].
And the New Moon is on the sixth (day) in (the week o f) Jakim which
is on the seventeenth (day) in (the first month).
[On the fifth (day) in (the week of) Pizzez which is on the thirtieth
(day) in] the first (month).
On the sabbath [in (the week of)] Petahiah which is on the thirtieth of
the second month.
And the New Moon is on the first (day) in (the week of) Hez[ir which
is on the seventeenth (day) in it. On the first (day) in (the week) of
Delaiah, which is on the twenty-ninth]

Fr. 4
I [On the fifth (day) in the (week) of Jakim which is on the seventh (day)
in the fifth (month).
And the N]ew Moon is on the first (day) in [(the week of) Bilg]ah
which is on the twe[nty-f]ou[r]th (day) in (the fifth month).
On the sabbath in (the week of) Hezir which is on the sevent[h (day)
in the sixth (month).
3 56

CALENDARS

OF P R I E S T L Y

COURSES

And the New Moon is on the second (day) in (the week of) Petahiah]
which is on the twenty-third (day) in (the sixth month).
On the first (day) in (the week of) Jachin which is on the fifth (day) in
the seventh (month).
And the New Moon is on the fourth (day) [in (the week of) Delaiah
which is on the twenty-second (day)] in (the seventh month).
On the third (day) in (the week of) Joiarib which is on the fifth (day)
in the eighth (month).
And the New Moon is on the fifth (day) in (the week of) Harim [which
is on the twenty-first (day) in the eighth month.
On the fou]rth (day) in (the week of) Malchiah which is on the fourth
(day) in the ninth (month).
And the New Moon is on the sabbath in (the week of) Abiah which is
on the [twenty-]first (day) in ([the ninth month).
On the sixth (day) in (the week of) Je]shua which is [on] the third
(day) in the .tenth (month).
And the New Moon is on the first (day) in (the week of) Jakim which
is on the nineteenth (day) in [(the tenth month).
On the sabbath in (the week o f) Jeshebeab which is on the second (day)
of the elev]enth month.
And the New Moon is on the thi[rd (day) in (the week of) Immer]
which is on the nineteenth (day) in (the eleventh month).
[On the second (day) in (the week of) Pizzez which is on the second
(day) in the twel]fth month.
And the New Moon is on the four[th (day) in (the week o f) Jehezek]el
which is on the eighteenth (day) [in the twelfth month.] vacat... (First year)
[In the first] month in (the week of) Gamul; [on the thir]d (day) in
(the week of) Ma[aziah: Passover. In (the week of) Jedaiah: the Waving
of the Sheaf. The (first day) of the second (month) is in (the week of)
Jedaiah; in (the week of) Seorim: the Second Passover. (The first day of
the) third (month is) in (the week of Hakkoz.]
V in Jeshua: the Feast of Week[s] is in it.
[The fou]r[th (month begins) in (the week of) E]liashib.
The fifth (month begins) in [(the week of) Bilgah.
The sixth (month begins) in (the week o f) JJehezekel.
The seve[nth (month begins) in (the week of) Maoziah]. In Maoziah
is the Day of Memorial. In Joiarib is the Day of Atonement. In Jedaiah is
[the Feast of] Tabernacles.
357

CA LENDARS , LI TURGI ES AND PRAYERS

The eighth (month begins) [in (the week of) Seorim].

The ninth (month begins) in (the week o f) Jeshua.
The tenth (month begins) in (the week of) Huppah.
The eleventh (month begins) in (the week of) Hezir.
The twelfth (month begins) in (the week of) Gamul. vacat
The second (year).
The first (month begins) in (the week of) Jedaia[h]. In (the week of)
Seorim is the Passover. In (the week of) Mijamin is the Waving of the
Sheaf.
The second (month begins) in (the week of) M[ijamin. In (the week
5 of) Abiah] is the Second Passover.
The [third (month begins) in (the week of) E]l[iashib] and in (the
week of) Hu[ppah] is the Feast of Weeks.
[The] fourth (month begins) [in (the week of) B]ilgah.
The fifth (month begins) in (the week of) Petahiah.
[The sixth (month begins) in (the week of) Maaziah.
The seventh (month begins) in (the week of) Seorim. In (the week of)
Seorim is the Da]y of Memorial. In (the week of) Malchiah [is the Day
of] Atonement. In (the week of) Mijamin [is the Feast] of Tabernacles.
[The eighth (month begins) in (the week of) Abiah.
The ninth (month begins) in (the week of)] Huppah.
The tenth (month begins) in (the week of) Hezir.
The eleventh] (month begins) in (the week o f) Jachin.
[The twel]fth mo[nt]h (begins) [in (the week of) Jedaiah]. vacat
The third (year).
The first (month begins) in (the week of) M[ijam]in. In (the week of)
Abiah is the Passover. In (the week of) Shecaniah is the Waving of the
Sheaf.
The se[cond] (month begins) in (the week of) Shecaniah and in (the
week of) Jakim is the Second Passover.
The third (month begins) in (the week of) Bilgah. In [(the week of)
Hez]ir

358

C A L E N D A R S OF P R I E S T L Y C O U R S E S

Fr. 4-5
V I [is the Feast] of Week[s.
The fourt]h (month begins) in [(the week of) Petahiah.
The fifth (month begins) in (the week of) Delaiah.
The sixth (month begins) in (the week of) Seorim.
In the seventh (month), in (the week of) Abiah is the D]ay [of Memo
rial. In (the week o f) Jeshua] is the D[ay of Atonement. In (the week of)
Shecaniajh is the Feast of Tabernacles.
The ei[ghth (month begins) in (the week of) Jakim.
The ninth (month begins) in (the week of) Hezir.
The tenth] (month begins) in (the week of) Jachin.
The ele[venth month begins] in (the week of) Joiarib.
[The twel]fth month (begins) in (the week of) Mij]amin.
The fourth (year).
The first (month begins) in (the week of) Shecaniah. In (the week of)
Jakim is the Passover. In (the week of) Jeshebeab is the Waving of the
Sheaf.
The second (month begins) in (the week of) Jeshebeab. In (the week
of) Im[mer is the Second Passover. In (the week of) Jachin is the Fe]ast
of [Weeks.
The fourth (month begins) in (the week of) Delaiah.
The fifth] (month begins) in (the week of) Harim.
The sixth (month begins) in [(the week of) Abiah.
The se]venth (month begins) [in (the week o f) Jakim]. In (the week of)
Jaki[m is the D a]y [of Memorial]. In (the week o f) Huppah [is the D ay

of Atonement. In (the week of) Jeshebeab is the Feast of Tabernacle] s.

The eighth (month begins) in (the week of) Immer.
The ninth (month begins) in [(the week of) Jachin.
The tenth (month begins) in (the week o f) Joiari]b.
The ele[vent]h [month (begins)] in (the week of) Ma[lchiah.
The twelfth month (begins) in (the week of) Shecaniah]. vacat

359

CALENDARS, LITURGIES AND PRAYERS

The fifth {year).

The f[irst] (month begins) in [(the week of) Jeshebeab. In (the week of)
Immer] is the Passover. In (the week of) Pi[zzez i]s the Waving of the
Sheaf.
The se[cond (month begins) in (the week of) Pizzejz. In Jehezekel is
the Second Passover.
The third (month begins) in [(the week of) Delaiah. In (the week of)
Joiarib is the Feast of W]eeks.
The f[ourth] (month begins) in (the week of) Harim.
The fifth (month begins) in (the week of) Hakk[o]z.
[The si]xth (month begins) in (the week of) Jakim.
The seventh (month begins) in (the week of) Immer. In (the week of)
Immer is the Day of Memorial. In (the week of) Hezir is the Day of
Atonement. In (the week of) Pi]zzez is the Feast of Tabernacles.
The eighth (month begins) in (the week of) Jehezekel.
The ninth (month begins) in (the week of) Joiar[ib] and the tenth
(month begins)

Fr- 5
VII [in (the week of) Malchiah.
The eleventh month (begins) in (the week of) Jeshua.
The twelfth month (begins) in (the week o f) Jeshebeab.
[The sixth {year).
The first (month begins) in (the week of) Pizzez. In (the week of)
Jehezekel is the Passover. In (the week of) Gamul is the Waving of the
Sheaf.
The second (month begins) in (the week of) Gamul. In (the week of)
Maaziah is the Second Passover.
The third month (begins) in (the week of) Harim. In (the week of)
Malchiah is the Feast of Weeks.
The fourth (month begins) in (the week of) Hakkoz.
The fifth (month begins) in (the week of) Eliashib. The sixth (month
begins) in (the week of) Immer.
The seventh (month begins) in (the week of) Jehezekel. In (the week
o f) Jehezekel is the Day of Memorial. In (the week o f) Jachin is the Day
5 of Atonement. In (the week of) Gamul i]s the Feast [of Tabernacles.
360

C A L E N D A R S OF P R I E S T L Y C O U R S E S

The eighth (month begins) in (the week of) Maaziah.

The ninth (month begins) in (the week of) Malchiah.
The tenth (month begins) in (the week of) Jeshua].
The eleven[th] month (begins) in (the week of) Huppah.
[The twelfth month (begins) in (the week of) Pizzez].

Mishmarot D (4Q325)
Fr. 1
[... Passover on the thi]rd (day of the week). On the eighteenth (day) in
(the first month) is the sabbath of [(the week of) Joiarib] ... in the
evening.
On the twenty-fifth (day) in (the first month) is the sabbath of (the
week of) Jedaiah. During the same week is [the Feast] of Barley on the
twenty-sixth (day) in (the first month), after the sabbath.
The beginning of the [second] month [is on the s]ixth [day] of (the
week of) Jedaiah.
On the second (day) in (the second month) is the sabbath of Harim.
On the ninth (day) in (the second month) is the sabbath [of Seorim].
On the sixteenth (day) in (the second month) is the sabbath of Malchiah.
On the twenty-third (day) in (the second month) [is the sabbath of
M]ijamin.
On the thirtieth (day) in (the second month) is the sabbath of Hakkoz.
vacat The beginning of the third month after the sabbath

Fr. 2
[On the sixth (day) in (the week of) Bilgah. On the second (day) in (the
fifth month) is the sabbath of I]mmer. On the thi[r]d (day) i[n (the fifth
month) is the Feast of the New Wine after the sabbath of Immer.
On] the ninth (day) in (the fifth month) is the sabbath of Hezir. [On
the sixteenth (day) in (the fifth month) is the sabbath of Aphses. On the
twenty-] third (day) in (the fifth month) is the sabbath [of Petahiah.
On the thirtieth (day) in (the fifth month) is the sabbath of Jehezekel.
The beginning of the sixth month is after the sabbath (=Sunday) of
Jehezekel. On the seventh (day) in (the sixth month) is the sabbath
361

C A L END A R S , L I TURG I ES AND PRAYERS

of Jachin. On the fou]rteenth (day) [in (the sixth month) is the sabbath of
Gamul. On the twenty-first (day) in (the sixth month) is the sabbath
of Delaiah. On the twenty-]second (day) in (the sixth month) is the Feast of
New Oil. After the Feast of New Oil is the Feast of the Offering of Wo]od.

Mishmarot F (4Q328)
... [In the fifth (year): Jeshabe]ab. In the sixth: Hapizzez.
These are the beginnings of the years.
[In the first [year]: Gamul, Eliash[ib], Moazia[h, Huppah.
In] the second: Jedaiah, Bilgah, Se[or]im, He[zir].
[In the third]: Mij[amin], Petahiah, Ab[iah, Jachin].
[In the fourth: Shecaniah, De]laiah, Jakim, Joia[rib.
In the fifth: Jeshabeab, Harim, Immer, Malchiah.
In the s[ixth: Hapizzez, ] ...

Calendrical Document C
(4Q326)

In the first (month) on the fourth (day) is Sabbath ...

On the eighth (day) in it [is Sabbath] ...
On the eleventh (day) in it is Sabbath ...
[On the 14th (day) in it is Passover on the third (day of the week).
On the 15th (day) in it: the feast of the Unleavened Bread on the
fourth (day of the week).
On the 1 8th (day) is Sabbath.
On the 25th (day) in it: Sabbath.
On the 26th (day) in it:] feast of the Gr[ain after the Sabbath.
In the first month] 30 (days).
5
On the second (day) in it: [Sabbath.
On the ninth (day) in it: Sabbath.
On the 1 6th (day)] ...

363

Calendrical Document D
(4Q394 ! - 2)

This text is the opening of M M T (Some Observances of the Law) and has been
dealt with there (see pp. 222-3).

Calendric Signs (Otot)

(4 0 3 * 9 )

The so-called Otot or Signs document was copied as the continuation of 4Q Se

(4Q259). Whether it was part of the original composition is as debatable as the
attachment of a calendar to M M T at 4Q 394 1-2 (cf. above, pp. 222-3).
4Q 319 represents a calendrical system based on the weekly rotation of the
twenty-four priesdy courses during a six-year period and constructed into six con
secutive Jubilees, i.e. 294 years. The sign which recurs in every three years probably
identifies the years in which the shorter lunar year of 354 days is supplemented by
means of the intercalation of an extra month of 30 days (3 x 354+30= 1,092) to equal
the length of three solar years of 364 days each (3X364=1,092). Palaeographically
the manuscript is dated to the first half of the first century b c e .
For the editio princeps, see J. Ben-Dov, DJD, XXI, 199-244.

Frs. 1-3

IV ...
... on the fourth (day) of the wee[k] ...
its light on the fourth (day) o f the wee[k] o f the creation

in (the week of) G[amul.

The sign of Shecaniah: in the fourth (year).
The sign of Gamul: in the (year) of Release (i.e. the first
sabbatical year).
(Second sabbatical cycle):
[The sign of Shecaniah: in the thi]rd (year).
The sign of [GJamul: in the sixth (year).
(Third sabbatical cycle):
The sign [of Shecaniah: in the second (year).
The sign of G]amul: [in the fifth (year).
365

10

C A LENDARS , L ITURGIES AND PRAYERS

(Fourth sabbatical cycle):

The sig]n of Shecaniah: after the (year of) Release.
The sign of Gamu[l: in the fourth (year).
The sign of Shec]an[i]ah:
[in the (year of) Release.
(Fifth sabbatical cycle):
The sig]n of Gamul: in the third (year).
The sign of Shecaniah: [in the sixth (year).
(Sixth sabbatical cycle):
The sign of Gam]ul: [in the second (year).
The si]gn of She[caniah]: in the fifth (year).
(Seventh sabbatical cycle):
The sign of Gam[ul: after the (year of) Release.
The sign of Shecaniah: in the foujrth (year).
The sign of Gamul: in the (year of) Release
(which is) the sign of the en[d of the Jubilee.
The signs of the second J]ubilee: 17 signs.
Of this in the (year of) Release: [2] signs.
... of the creation ...
[The si]gn of Shecaniah:
in the second (year).
[The sign of Gajmul: in the fifth (year).
The sign of Shecaniah: after the (year of) Release.
[The sign of Gajmul:

Frs. 2-5, 9, 23
V [in the fourth (year).
The sign of Shecaniah: in the (year of) Release.
The sign of Gamul: in the third (year).
The sign of Shecaniah: in the sixth (year).
The sign of Gamul: in the second (year).
The sign of Shecaniah: in the fifth (year).
The sign of Gamul: after the (year of) Releasje.
366

CALENDRI C SI GNS (

OTOT)

The sign of Shecaniah: in the fo[urth (year).

The sign of Gamul: in the (year of) Release.
The sign of Shecaniah: in the thi]rd (year).
The sign of Gamul: in the si[xth (year)
The sign] of Shec[aniah
(which is) the sign] of the end of the third Jubilee.

The signs of the third Jubilee: 17 signs].

Of this in the (year of) Release: 2 signs.
[The sign] of Shecaniah: in the second year.
[The sign of Gam]ul: in the fifth (year).
The sign of Shecaniah: after the (year of) Release.
The sig[n of Gamul: in the fourth (year).
The sig]n of Shecaniah: in the (year of) Release.
The sign of Gamul: in the third (year).
The sign [of Shecaniah: in the sixth (year).
The sign of G]amul: in the second (year).
The sign of Shecaniah: in the fifth (year).
The sign [of Gamul: after the (year of)] Release.
The sign of Shecaniah:
in the fourth (year).
The sign of Gamul: [in the (year of) Release.
The sign] of Shecaniah: in the third (year).
The sign of Gamul: in the sixth (year).
The sign of Shec[aniah: in the second (year).
The sign] of Gamul: in the fifth (year).
The sign of Shecaniah: after the (year of) Release
[(which is) the sign of the end of the Jubilee.
The signs of the] fourth |Jubi]lee: 17 signs.
Of this in the (year of) Release: 2 signs.
[The sign of Gamul]: in the fourth year.
The sign of Shecaniah: [in the (year of) Rel]ease.
The sign of Gamul: in [the third (year).
The sign of Shecaniah: in the sixth (year).
367

10

CALENDARS, LITURGIES AND PRAYERS

15

The sign of Gamul]: in the second (year).

The sign of Shecaniah: in the fi[fth (year).
The sign of Gamul: after the (year of) Release.
The sign of Shecaniah]: in the fourth (year).
The sign of [Gamul]: in the (year of) Release.
The sign of She[caniah: in the second (year).
The sign of Gamul: in the fifth (year).
The sign of Shecaniah]: after the [(year of)] Release.
The sign of Ga[mul: in the fourth (year).
The sign of Shecaniah: in the (year of) Release
(which is) the sign of the end of the fifth Jubilee in Jeshebab.
The signs of the fifth Jubilee: 16 signs.
Of this in the (year of) Release:

Frs. 5-8
V I 3 signs.
[The sign of Gamul: in the third year.
The sign of Shecaniah: in the sixth (year).
The sign of Gamul: in] the second (year).
The sign of Shecaniah: in [the fifth year].
The sign of Gamul: after the (year of) Rel]ease.
[The si]gn of Shecaniah: in the fourth (year).
The sign of Ga[mul: in the (year of) Release.
The sign of Shecaniah]: in the third (year).
The sign of Gamul: in the sixth (year).
5

The sign of Shecaniah: [in the second (year).

The sign] of Gamul: in the f[if]th (year).
The sign of Shecaniah: after [the (year of) Release.
The si]gn of Gamul: in [the four]th (year).
The sign of Shecaniah: in the (year of) Relea[se.

368

CALENDRI C SIGNS (

OTOT)

The sign of Gamul: in] the third (year).

The si[gn of Shecaniah: in the s]ixth (year)
(which is) the sign of the end of the sixth Ju[bilee.
The signs of the sixth] Jubilee: i [6 signs].
Of this in [the (year of) Release]: 2 signs.
...
and for the Jubi[lee].

10

[The sign of Gamul: in the second (year).

The sign of Shecaniah: in the fifth (year).
The sign of Gamul: after] the (year of) Relea[se.
The sign of Shecaniah: in the four]th (year).
The sign of Gamu[l: in] the (year of) Relea[se.
The sign of Shecaniah: in the third (year).
The sign] of Gamul: in the sixth (year).
The sig[n of Shecaniah: in] the second (year).
The si[gn of Gamul]: in the fifth (year).
The sign of Shecaniah: [after] the (year of) Relea[se.
The sign of G]amul: in the fourth (year).
The sign of Shecaniah: in the (year of) Re [lease.
The sign] of Gamul: [in the thir]d (year).
The sign of Shecaniah: in the sixth (year).
The sign [of Gamul]: in the sec[ond (year).
The sign of Shecaniah]: in the fifth (year)
(which is) the sign o f the end o f the Jubi[lee.

The signs of the] seventh [Jubilee] 16 signs.

Of this in the (year of) Release: [2 signs].
Sign of the J[ubilees,
ye]ar of Jubilees according to [holy] day[s].
[In Gamul the first (Jubilee),
in Jedaiah the] sec[ond],
in Mijamin the third, [in Shecaniah the fourth]

369

15

Horoscopes or
Astrological Physiognomies
(4 Q 18 6 ,4 Q 5 3 4 ,4 Q 56 1)

Three documents from Cave 4, one in Hebrew and two in Aramaic, all dating
probably to the end of the first century

bce,

contain fragments of horoscopes

or, more precisely, astrological physiognomies claiming a correspondence

between the features and destiny of a person and the configuration of the stars at
the time of his birth.
The Hebrew text, published by J. M. Allegro (4Q186), is written in a childish
cipher. The text runs from left to right instead of the normal right to left and
uses, in addition to the current square Hebrew alphabet, letters borrowed from
the archaic Hebrew (or Phoenician) and Greek scripts. The spiritual qualities of
three individuals described in the work are reflected in their share of Light and
Darkness. The first man is very wicked: eight parts of Darkness to a single part
of Light. The second man is largely good: six parts of Light against three parts
of Darkness. The last is almost perfect: eight portions of Light and only one of
Darkness.
As far as physical characteristics are concerned, shortness, fatness and irregu
larity of features are associated with wickedness, their opposites reflect virtue.
In the astrological terminology of the document, the second Column doubt
less means the second House; and a birthday in the foot of the Bull should
probably be interpreted as the presence, at that moment, of the sun in the lower
part of the constellation Taurus.
The first Aramaic horoscope (4Q534) is, according to J. Starcky, that of the
final Prince of the Congregation, or Royal Messiah. It is just as likely, however,
that the text alludes to the miraculous birth of Noah and it has therefore been
placed together with the other remains of Noah literature (cf. pp. 554-5 below).
4Q 561, also in Aramaic, is too short to allow an identification but it is unlikely
to refer to Noah as the qualities seem to be in some middle position between
good and evil.
Whether the sectaries forecast the future by means of astrology, or merely
used horoscope-like compositions as literary devices, is impossible to decide at

370

H O R O S C O P E S OR A S T R O L O G I C A L P H Y S I O G N O M I E S

present, though I am inclined towards the latter alternative. That such texts are
found among the Scrolls should not, however, surprise anyone. For if many Jews
frowned on astrology, others, such as the Hellenistic Jewish writer Eupolemus,
credited its invention to Abraham! (Cf. G. Vermes,

Scripture and Tradition in

Judaism, Leiden, 1973, 80-82.)

DJD , V, 88-91;
RQ 7 (1970), 274-6; P. S. Alexander, in E. Schiirer, G. Vermes,
F. Millar and M. Goodman, The History of the Jewish People in the Age ofJesus
Christ, III, Edinburgh, 1986, 364-6.
For the texts see J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson,

J. Strugnell,

4Q 186, fr. 1

II ... and his thighs are long and lean, and his toes are thin and long.
He is of the second Column. His spirit consists of six (parts) in the
House of Light and three in the Pit of Darkness. And this is his birthday
on which he (is to be/was?) born: in the foot of the Bull. He will be
meek. And his animal is the bull.
Ill ... and his head ... [and his cheeks are] fat. His teeth are of
uneven length (?). His fingers are thick, and his thighs are thick and very
hairy, each one. His toes are thick and short. His spirit consists of eight
(parts) in the House of Darkness and one from the House of Light...

Fr. 2

. . . order. H is eyes are black and glow ing. H is beard is . . . and it is . . .

His voice is gentle. His teeth are fine and well aligned. He is neither tall,
nor short. And he ... And his fingers are thin and long. And his thighs
are smooth. And the soles of his feet... [And his toes] are well aligned.
His spirit consists of eight (parts) [in the House of Light, of] the second
Column, and one [in the House of Darkness. And this is] his birthday on
which he (is to be/was) bom: ... And his animal is ...

37i

CALENDARS, L ITURGIES AND PRAYERS

4 Q 561
... mixed but not too much. His eyes will be between white and black.
His nose will be long and beautiful. His teeth will be even. His beard
will be thin but not too much so. His limbs will be smoot[h and]
be [tween rejduced and thick ...

Phases of the Moon

(403 *7)

Seventy-six fragments of an astronomical text written in a cryptic alphabet

record the phases of the moon, divided into i/i4ths of the full size of the moon,
over the consecutive days of a 364-day solar calendar. J. T. Milik has recon
structed a fourteen-line section, based on fr. 1 ii, 2-14 and supplemented with
other smaller fragments.
For the text, see J. T. Milik, The Books ofEnoch: Aramaic Fragments of Qumran
Cave 4 (Oxford, 1976), 68-9.
II ... [On the f]ifth (day) of it (the month), [tw]elve (fourteenths of the
moons surface) are covered and thus it [enters the day. On the sixth
(day) of it] thirteen (fourteenths of its surface) are covered and thus it
enters the day. On the seventh (day) of it [fourteen (fourteenths of its
surface)] are covered and thus] it enters the day. vacat On the eighth
(day) of i t ... the firmament above ... its light is to be covered ... on the
first of the Sabbath (Sunday), vacat [On the ninth (day) of it one (four
teenth) portion (of its surface)] is revealed [and thus it enters the night].
On the tenth (day) of it [two (fourteenths of its surface)] are [revealed
and it enters] the night, vacat On the ele[venth (day) of it three (four
teenths of its surface) are revealed] and thus it enters the night, vacat

373

5
10

A Zodiacal Calendar with a Brontologion

(4Q318)

A fascinating, but unfortunately fragmentary, calendar indicates the passage of

the moon through the various Zodiacal signs during the successive months of
the year from Nisan to Adar. The fragment begins with the month of Tevet,
continues with Tishri and ends with Adar. The last four lines of col.

viii

have

preserved a brontologion, i.e. prediction of prodigies or ill-omens by means of an

interpretation of the sound of thunder on certain specified days of the month.
The actual prediction of woe survives only at the end of the text in lines 8-9.
It takes the form of a famine and the invasion of the country by a conquering
foreign army.
For the editio princeps, see J. C. Greenfield and M. Sokoloff, DJD, XXXVI,

259- 745

V I I ..........and on 13 and [1)4 [Pisces; on 15 and 16 Aries; on 17 and 18

Taurus; on 1)9 and 20 and 2[1 Gemini; on 22 and 23 Cancer; on 24 and
25 Leo; on 26 and] 27 and 28 [Virgo; on 29 and 30 Libra] vacat [Tishri.
On 1 and 2 Scorpio; on 3 and 4 Sagittarius; on 5 and 6 and 7] Capricorn;
on 8 and on 13 and 14 Cancer; on 15 and 16 Leo; on 17 and 18 Virgo;
on 19 and 20 and 21 Libra; on 22 [and 23] Scorpio; on 24 and 25
Sagit[tarius]; on 26 and 27 and 28 [Capricorn]; on 29 and 30 Aquari[us].
vacat Shevat. On 1 and 2 [Pisce]s; on 3 and 4 [Aries; on] 5 and [6 and] 7
Taurus; on 8 [and 9 Gemini]; on 10 [and 11] Cancer; on 12 [and] 13 and
14 Leo; [on 15 and 16 Virgo]; on 17 and 18 Libra; on 19 [and 20 and
21 S]corpio; on 22 [and] 23 [Sagit]tarius; on 24 and 25 Capricorn; on
[26 and] 27 and 28 Aquarius; on 29 and 30 Pisces vacat
VIII
Adar. On 1 and 2 Aries; on 3 and 4 Taurus; on 5 [and 6 and 7
Gemini]; on 8 and 9 [Cancer; on 10 and 11 L]eo; on 12 and 13 [and 14]
Virg[o]; on 15 and [16 Libra; on] 17 and on 18 [Scorpio]; [on] 19 and
20 (and 21) Sagittarius]; on 22 and 23 [Cap]ricorn; [on 24 and 25]
Aquarius; on 26 and 27 [and 28] Pi [sees; on 29 and 30] Aries, vacat [If in
374

Taurus] it thunders ... [and] hard labour for the country and sword [in
the cour]t of the king and in the country of ... to the Arabs (?) [ ... ]
starvation and they will pillage one anoth[er ... ]. vacat If in Gemini it
thunders, terror and affliction (will be brought) by strangers and by ...

Order of Divine Office

(4 Q334 )

Cave 4 has yielded seven fragments of a liturgical work made up of six columns,
listing the number of songs and words of praise to be sung during the night and
during the day on consecutive days of the month. Only frs. 2-4 can be built up
into a coherent text. The script is dated to the end of the first century b c e .
For the editio princeps, see U. Glessmer, D JD , XXI, 167-94.

Frs. 2-4

[And on the eighth (day) of it (of the month) at night: e]ight [so]ngs and
forty-... [w]ords of prai[se, and during the day: ... songs and] sixtee[n
wor]ds [of praise. And on the nint]h (day) of it at night: [eight songs and]
fort[y-t]wo [words of praise, and during the d]ay: ... songs [and ...
words of praise]. And on the tenth (day) of i[t] at night: eight songs [and
... words of praise, and during the day: ... songs] and twenty words of
p[raise] ...

376

The Words of the Heavenly Lights

(4Q54-6)

Surviving in three fragmentary manuscripts from Cave 4 (4Q504-6), The

Words of the Heavenly Lights are collective prayers for the days of the week
which are full of biblical reminiscences. In the best-preserved of them (4Q504),
the Sabbath and the fourth day are expressly mentioned in the surviving text.
The editor of the document, M. Baillet (DJD, V II (1982), 137-75), attributes to
it an exaggeratedly early date, the mid-second century b c e .

4Qs 4
I

. . . Amen! Amen!
...

II

. . . W e pray T hee, O Lord, do in accordance with Thyself, in

accordance with the greatness o f T h y might, T h o u who didst pardon

our fathers when they rebelled against T h y saying. T h o u wert angry
with them so as to wish to destroy them, but because o f T h y love for
them and for the sake o f T h y Covenant - for Moses had atoned for their
sin - and in order that T h y great might and the abundance o f T h y
mercy might be known to everlasting

generations,

Thou

didst take

10

pity

on them. So let T hine anger and wrath against all [their] sin turn away
from T h y people Israel. Remember T h y marvels which T h o u didst for
the poor o f the nations. Fo r we were called by T h y N am e . . . to [cause]
us [to repent] with all (our) heart and soul and to plant T h y L aw in our
heart [that we might never depart from it, straying neither] to right nor
to left. For T h o u wilt heal us o f foolishness and o f blindness and confu-

15

sion [of heart . . . Behold] we were sold because o f our iniquities but
despite our offences T h o u didst call us . . . T h o u wilt save us from sin
ning against T h ee . . . and to make us understand the testimonies . . .

Ill

. . . Behold, all the nations are as nothing beside T h ee, they are

counted as void and naught before Thee. W e have called on T h y Nam e

377

CALENDARS, LITURGIES AND PRAYERS

alone. T h o u hast created us for T h y glory and made us T h y children in

5 the sight o f all the nations. Fo r T h o u hast named Israel M y son, my
first-born , and hast chastised us as a man chastises his son. T h o u hast
brought us up throughout the years o f our generations [by means o f] evil
diseases, famine, thirst, pestilence, and the sword . . . o f T h y Covenant.
Because T h o u hast chosen us [from all] the earth [to be T h y people,]
io therefore hast T h o u poured out Thine anger [and jealousy] upon us in
all the fury o f T h y wrath. T h o u hast caused [the scourge] o f T h y
[plagues] to cleave to us o f which Moses wrote, and T h y servants the
Prophets, that T h o u wouldst send evil against us in the last days . . .

IV

. . . T h y dwelling-place . . . a resting-place in Jeru salem , the city

which] T h o u hast [chosen] from all the earth that T h y [Name] might
$ remain there for ever. For T h o u hast loved Israel above all the peoples.
T h o u hast chosen the tribe o f Judah and hast established T h y Covenant
with David that he might be as a princely shepherd over T h y people and
sit before T h ee on the throne o f Israel for ever. All the nations have seen
T h y glory, T h o u who hast sanctified T h yself in the midst o f T h y people
Israel. T h e y brought their offering to T h y great N am e, silver and gold
io and precious stones together with all the treasures o f their lands, that
they might glorify T h y people, and Zion T h y holy city, and the House
o f T h y majesty. And there was neither adversary nor misfortune, but
peace and blessing . . . and they ate and were satisfied and grew f a t . . .

. . . [they forsook] the fount o f living waters . . . and served a strange

god in their land. Also, their land was ravaged by their enemies; for T h y
5 fury and the heat o f T h y wrath overflowed, in the fire o f T h y jealousy,
making o f it a desert where no man could go and return. Yet notwith
standing all this, T h o u didst not reject the seed o f Jacob, neither didst
T h o u cast away Israel to destruction, breaking T h y Covenant with
io

them. For T h o u alone art a living G od and there is none beside T hee.
T h o u didst remember T h y Covenant, T h o u who didst rescue us in the
presence o f all the nations, and didst not forsake us amid the nations.
T h o u wert gracious towards T h y people Israel in all the lands to which
T h o u didst banish them, that they might remember to return to T h ee
and to hearken to T h y voice [according to] all T h o u hadst commanded
by the hand o f Moses T h y servant.

15

For T h o u hast shed T h y H oly Spirit upon us, bringing upon us T h y

blessings, that we might seek T h ee in our distress [and whis]per
(prayers) in the ordeal o f T h y chastisement. W e have entered into dis
tress, have been [stri]cken and tried by the fury o f the oppressor. For we

378

T HE W O R D S OF T HE HE A V E N L Y L I G H T S

also have tired G od with our iniquity, we have wearied the Rock with
[our] sins. [But] in order that we may profit, T h o u hast not wearied us 20
who leadest [us] in the way in [which we must walk. But] we have not
heeded. . .

VI

. . . [Thou hast taken away] all our transgressions and hast purified

us o f our sin for Thine own sake. Thine, Thine is righteousness, O

Lord, for it is T h o u who hast done all this! N ow , on the day when our
heart is humbled, we expiate our iniquity and the iniquity o f our fathers,

together with our unfaithfulness and rebellion. W e have not rejected

T h y trials and scourges; our soul has not despised them to the point o f
breaking T h y Covenant despite all the distress o f our soul. For Thou,
who hast sent our enemies against us, strengthenest our heart that we
may recount T h y mighty deeds to everlasting generations. W e pray
Thee, O Lord, since T h o u workest marvels from everlasting to everlast-

10

ing, to let Thine anger and wrath retreat from us. Look on [our afflic
tion] and trouble and distress, and deliver T h y people Israel [from all]
the lands, near and far, [to which T h o u hast banished them], every man
who is inscribed in the Book o f Life . . . serve T h ee and give thanks to
[T h y holy Name] . . . from those who vex them . . .

VII

15

. . . who deliver

e d us from all distress. Amen! [Amen!]

Hymnsfor the Sabbath Day

G ive thanks . . .
[Bless] H is holy Nam e always
. . . all the angels o f the holy firmament

. . . [above] the heavens,

the earth and all its deep places,
the great [Abyss] and Abaddon
and the waters and all that is [in them.]
[Let] all His creatures [bless Him] always
for everlasting [ages. Amen! Amen!]
. . . bless H is holy Nam e.
Sing to G od . . .

10

379

CALENDARS, LITURGIES AND PRAYERS

Fr. 3
5 I I . . . Blessed be the G od who has given us rest. [Amen], amen. [Prayer
on the] fourth [da]y. Remember, O Lord . . .

Fr. 4
5 I I . . . W e know these through T h y Ho[ly] Spirit which T h o u hast
granted us. [Have mercy on us] and remember us not for the iniquities
o f the men o f old in all their evi[l] dealings, [nor] their stiff necks. T h o u
redeem us and, [pray,] forgive our iniquities and [our] s[ins].

Fr. 6
II

. . . Remember, pray, that we are T h y people and that T h o u hast

carried us marvellously [on the wings of] eagles and hast brought us
towards T hee. And like an eagle which rouses its nestlings and hovefs
over [its young], spreads out its wings, takes one and carries it on [its
pinions], so we dwell apart and are not reckoned among the nations and
io

. . . T h o u art in our midst in the pillar o f fire and the cloud [of] T h y
[holi]ness walking before us, and as it were T h y glory in our mid[st] . . .

Fr. 8 recto
II

. . . [Rememb]er, O Lo[r]d t h a t . . . T h o u hast fashioned A[dam], our

[f]ather, in the likeness o f [Thy] glory; T h o u didst breathe [a breath o f

5 life] into his nostrils and, with understanding, knowledge [Thou didst
give him] . . . T h o u didst make [him] to rule [over the Gar] den o f Eden
which T h o u didst plant . . . and to walk in the land o f glory . . . he
guarded. And T h o u didst enjoin him not to st[ray . . . ] . . . he is flesh and
to dust [he will return (?)] . . . And Thou, T h o u knowest . . . for everlastio ing generations . . . a living G od and T h y hand . . . man in the ways o f . . .
[to fill the] earth with [violence and to shed [innocent blood] . . .

380

Liturgical Prayer
(1Q 34 and 34 bis)

The following fragments, published b yj. T . Milik (D JD , I, 152-5), belong to a

collection of prayers for Jewish festivals. The title of the present section is lost,
but reference to the renewal of the Covenant seems to indicate that we have
here another part of the sects Pentecostal liturgy.
I . . . T h o u wilt cause the wicked to be our ransom and the unfaithful to

be our redemption. [Thou wilt] blot out all our oppressors and we shall
praise T h y N am e for ever [and ever]. For this hast T h o u created us and
[to say to Thee] this: Blessed art T h o u . . .
H . . . the Great Light (of heaven) for the [day] time, [and the Little
Light (of heaven) for the night] . . . without transgressing their laws, . . .
and their dominion is over all the world.
But the seed o f man did not understand all that T h o u caused them to
inherit; they did not discern T h ee in all T h y words and wickedly turned
aside from every one. T h e y heeded not T h y great power and therefore
T hou didst reject them. For wickedness pleases T h ee not, and the
ungodly shall not be established before Thee.
But in the time of Thy goodwill Thou didst choose

for Thyself a people.

T h o u didst remember T h y Covenant and [granted] that they should be

set apart for T h yself from among all the peoples as a holy thing. And
T h o u didst renew for them T h y Covenant (founded) on a glorious
vision and the words o f T h y H o ly [Spirit], on the works o f T h y hands
and the writing o f T h y Right Hand, that they might know the founda
tions o f glory and the steps towards eternity . . . [Thou didst raise up] for
them a faithful shepherd . . .

3S l

Prayers for Festivals

(4Q5 7- 9)

Three badly worn manuscripts from Cave 4 (4Q 507-9) partly correspond to the
foregoing fragments from Cave 1 ( 1 Q34 and 34 bis). They have preserved
prayers for festivals, two of which are explicitly associated with the Day of
Atonement and the Day of Firstfruits. The editor, M. Baillet (D JD , V II,
17 5 -2 15 ), dates them to the beginning of the first century c e .

4Q507, fir. 1
W e are (encompassed) by iniquity since the womb, and since the breast
by guilt. W hile we live, we walk in iniquity . . .

4Q508, fr. 1 (cf.

1 Q 3 4 bis)

[And the righteous . . . to grow fat thanks to the clouds o f heaven and the
produce o f the land, to distinguish the righteous from the wicked. And
T h o u shalt make o f the wicked our expiation, and by the upright T h o u
shalt destroy all our oppressors. And we will praise T h y na[m]e for ever
and ever. F o r [Thou hast created us for this] and we answer T h ee with
this: Blessed be . . .

Fr. 2 (cf. 1 Q 3 4 bis)

. . . Prayer for the D ay o f Atonement. Remember O Lord, the feast o f
mercies and the time o f return ( ? ) . . . T h o u hast established it for us as a
feast o f fasting, and an everlas[ting] p recept. . . T h o u knowest the hidden
things and the things reveal [ed] . . .
382

P R A Y E R S FOR F E S T I V A L S

Fr. 3
... Thou didst establish [Thy Covenant] with Noah ...

4Q509, fr. 3 (cf. 1Q 3 4 bis)

For Thou hast caused us to rejoice, removing our grief, and hast assem
bled our banished ones for a feast o f ... Thou shalt gather our dispersed
women for the season of ... Thy [me]rcies on our congregation like
ra [in-drops on the earth in the season of sowing ... and like showers on
the gr]ass in the seasons of sprouting and ... We shall recount Thy mar
vels from generation to generation. Blessed be the Lord who has caused
us to rejoice ...

Fr. 132
II [Prayer for the Day of] Firstfruits. Remember, O Lord, the feast of
... and the pleasing free-will offerings which Thou hast commanded ...
[to br]ing before Thee the firstfruits of [Thy] works ...

383

Daily Prayers
(4 Q 5 3 )

A manuscript from Cave 4 (4Q503) consisting of 225 papyrus fragments, edited

by M. Baillet (D JD , V II, 105-36), lists evening and morning benedictions for
each day of the month. The calendar followed appears to be lunar since evening
precedes morning. The editor places the writing in the first quarter of the first
century b c e .
I l l And when the sun rises . . . the firmament o f heaven, they shall bless.
5 A n sw erin g they shall say:] Blessed be the Go[d o f Israel . . . ] Today . . .
in the fourt[h o f the gates o f l i g ht . . . ] On the fifth [of the month in the
eve]ning, they shall bless. Answering, they shall say: Blessed be the G od
10

[of Israel] who hides . . . before him in every division o f his glory . . .
today the fourteenth] . . . light o f the day. Peace be on you, Israel . . .
[W hen the sun] rise[s] to illumine the earth, they shall bless, and again
the numbe[r shall be] ele[ven days] to the feasts o f joy and the appointed

15

times o f g[lory,] for [this d]ay is in the fifteenth o f the gate[s o f light] . . .
[Peace be on you,] Israel. On the sixth o f the month in the evening, they
shall bless. Answering, they shall [say]: Bles[sed be the God] o f I srael. . .
And when [the sun rises to illumine the earth, they shall bless. Answ er
ing, they shall say]

Frs. 7 - 9
5 I V . . . Peace [be on you, Israel] . . . On the seventh o f [the month in the
evening, they shall bless. Answering, they shall say:] Blessed be the G od
o f Is[rael] . . .

384

D A I L Y PRAYERS

Fr.

ii

[On the tjwelfth o f the month in the evening [they shall bless] . . . (This
probably continues up to the 26th o f the month.)

Prayer or Hymn Celebrating the

Morning and the Evening
(4Q408)

One medium sized and fifteen or sixteen small fragments represent a collection
of liturgical prayers of which only one can be partly translated. The document is
akin to 4Q 375 and 376 as well as to 1Q 29. Palaeographically the document is
placed in the late second century b c e .
For the editio princeps, see Annette Steudel, DJD, XXXVI, 298-319.

Fr. 1
. . . [Bl]essed art Thou, O Lord, who art righteous in all T h y ways. Be
m ighty in strength . . . [in T h y judge]ments. T h o u who art faithful . . .
T h o u art understanding [with all intelligence . . . might. T h o u who art
. . . to bring o u t . . . who hast created the morning as a sign to reveal the
dominion o f the light as the boundary o f the daytime . . . for their work.
To bless T h y holy name T h o u hast created them. For the light is good
10

. . . [Thou art . . . ] who hast created the evening as a sign to reveal the
dominion [of darkness] . . . from labour. T h o u hast [c]reated them to
bless T h y holy name] when they see that the light is good and when . . .
T h o u hast created the evening as a sign (to mark) the appearance o f the

10 dominion o f [darkness] . . .

386

Blessings
(iQSb=iQ28b)

These fragments from a collection of blessings were originally attached to the

Scroll containing the Community Rule and the Messianic Rule. They have been
skilfully pieced together by J. T . Milik (D JD , I,
around

118-29),

wh dates them to

100 bce.

The Blessings were to be recited by the Master or Guardian, and were, as it

seems, intended for the messianic age, and perhaps for the ceremony of the
institution of the new Community. It is, however, possible that they were actu
ally used during the course of some liturgy anticipating and symbolizing the
coming of the messianic era. All the members of the Covenant are blessed first,
followed by someone who seems to be the priesdy head of the Community, the
Messiah of Aaron. The next blessing is addressed to the sons of Zadok, the
Priests (and Levites?), and finally the Prince of the Congregation, the Messiah
of Israel, is blessed. The rest of the document is lost.
For an additional fragment, see G. J. Brooke and J. M. Robinson, A Further
Fragment of iQSb: The Schoyen Collection M S

1909\ J J S

46

(1995),

120-33.

The Blessing of the Faithful

I Words of blessing. The Master shall bless them that fear [God and do]
His will, that keep His commandments, and hold fast to His holy
[Covenant], and walk perfectly [in all the ways of] His [truth], whom He
has chosen for an eternal Covenant which shall endure for ever.
May the [Lord bless you from the Abode of His holiness]; may He open
for you from heaven an eternal fountain which [shall not fail]!
May He [favour] you with every [heavenly] blessing; [may He teach you]
the knowledge of the Holy Ones!

387

CALENDARS, LITURGIES AND PRAYERS

[M ay H e unlock for you the] everlasting [fountain; may H e not

withhold the waters o f life from] them that thirst!

The Blessing of the High Priest

II...
Ill M a y

the Lord lift H is countenance towards you; [may H e delight in

the] sweet odour [of your sacrifices]!

M a y H e choose [all] them that sit in your pries[dy college]; may H e store
up all your sacred offerings, and in the [season o f] . . . all your seed!
M a y H e [lift] H is countenance towards all your congregation!
5 M a y H e place upon your head [a diadem] . . . in [everlasting] glory; may
H e sanctify your seed in glory without end!
M a y H e grant you everlasting [peace] . . .
M a y H e fight [at the head o f] your Thousands [until the generation o f
falsehood is ended] . . . [to bend] many peoples before you . . . all the
riches o f the world . . .
20 F o r G od has established all the foundations o f . . . may H e lay the
foundation o f your peace for ever!

The Blessing of the Priests

W ords o f blessing. T h e M [aster shall bless] the sons o f Zadok the
Priests, whom G od has chosen to confirm His Covenant for [ever, and
to inquire] into all His precepts in the midst o f His people, and to
instruct them as H e commanded; who have established [His Covenant]
on truth and watched over all H is laws with righteousness and walked
25

according to the way o f H is choice.

M a y the Lord bless you from H is holy [Abode]; may H e set you as a
splendid jewel in the midst o f the congregation o f the saints!
M ay H e [renew] for you the Covenant o f the [everlasting] priesthood;
may H e sanctify you [for the House] o f H oliness!
M a y H e [judge all] the leaders by your works, and all [the princes] o f the
peoples by the words from out o f your lips!
M a y H e give you as your portion the firstfruits o f [all delectable things];
may H e bless by your hand the counsel o f all flesh!

388

BLESSINGS

I V . . . may everlasting blessings be the crown upon your head!

[For] H e has chosen you [to] . . . and to number the saints and to [bless]
your people . . . the men o f the Council o f G od by your hand, and not
by the hand o f a prince . . .
. . . M ay you be as an Angel o f the Presence in the Abode o f Holiness to

25

the glory o f the G od o f [hosts] . . .

M ay you attend upon the service in the Temple o f the Kingdom and
decree destiny in company with the Angels o f the Presence, in
common council [with the H oly Ones] for everlasting ages and time
without end; for [all] His judgements are [truth]!
M ay H e make you holy among H is people, and an [eternal] light [to
illumine] the world with knowledge and to enlighten the face o f the
Congregation [with wisdom]!
[May He] consecrate you to the H oly o f Holies! For [you are made] holy
for H im and you shall glorify H is Nam e and His holiness . . .
V ...

The Blessing of the Prince of the Congregation

T h e M aster shall bless the Prince o f the Congregation . . . and shall

20

renew for him the Covenant o f the Community that he may establish
the kingdom o f H is people for ever, [that he may judge the poor with
righteousness and] dispense justice with {equity to the oppressed}
(Sch0yen) o f the land, and that he may walk perfectly before H im in all
the ways [of truth], and that he may establish H is holy Covenant at the
time o f the affliction o f those who seek God.
M ay the Lord raise you up to everlasting heights, and as a fortified tower
upon a high w all!
[M ay you smite the peoples] with the might o f your hand and ravage the
earth with your sceptre; may you bring death to the ungodly with the
breath o f your lips!
[M ay H e shed upon you the spirit o f counsel] and everlasting might, the
spirit o f knowledge and o f the fear o f G od ; may righteousness be the
girdle [of your loins] and may your reins be girdled [with faithfulness]!
M ay H e make your horns o f iron and your hooves o f bronze; may you
toss like a young bull [and trample the peoples] like the mire o f the
streets!

389

25

CALENDARS, LITURGIES AND PRAYERS

For God has established you as the sceptre. The rulers ... [and all the
kings of the] nations shall serve you. He shall strengthen you with His
holy Name and you shall be as a [lion; and you shall not lie down until
you have devoured the] prey which naught shall deliver ...

Benedictions
(4Q280, 286-90)

Five fragmentary copies of a text containing liturgical blessings and curses, each
unit ending with Amen, amen, have survived in Cave 4. Of these 4QBerakhota
(4Q286), preserved on three photographic plates (PAM 43.311-13), provides
continuous passages. They parallel Community Rule 11 and War Rule xm, and
the style of 4Q286 1 also recalls the Songs of the Holocaust for the Sabbath
(4Q400-407). I agree with Bilhah Nitzan that 4QBerakhot is probably an inde
pendent version of part of the ceremony of the renewal of the covenant included
in iQS 11, 3-17. 4Q280 depends mainly on Community Rule ii, but reveals
Satans specific name, Melkiresha (My king is wickedness), the counterpart of
Melchizedek (My king is justice), chief of the Army of Light (cf. below, pp. 532,
571)For the editio princeps, see B. Nitzan, DJD, XI, 1-74 (4Q286-90), and DJD,
XXIX, 1-8 (4Q280).

4Q286=4QBerakhota
Blessings
Fr. 1 a ii
II The seat of Thy splendour and the footstool of Thy glory in the
[h]eights of Thy standing and Thy holy stepping-place. And Thy glorious
chariots, their cherubim and their wheels and all [their] companies;
foundations of fire and flames of brightness and shinings of majesty and
str[eam]s of fire and wonderful luminaries; [majesjty and splendour and
glorious height, holy foundation and sou[rce of] majesty and height of
glory, ma[rvel of thanjksgivings and reservoir of might, splendour of praises
and great in wonderful things and healing[s] and miraculous deeds, foun
dation of wisdom and pattern of knowledge and source of understand39i

CALENDARS, LITURGIES AND PRAYERS

ing, source of prudence and holy counsel and true foundation, treasurehouse of intelligence, building of righteousness and place of uprightness,
great] in loving-kindness and in meekness and true loving-kindness and
everlasting mercies and mysteries of mar[vels] in [the]ir revelations] and
10 holy weeks in their appointed time and squads of months ... [... of
ye]ars in their circuits and glorious festive seasons in [their] ... fixed
moments ... and the sabbatical years of the land in [their] divisions,
ap]pointed times for libe[rty ... eternity ... [l]ight and dar[kness ... ]

Fr. 2
... [thei]r ... in the strength of their majesty and all the [sp]irits of those
who bring to the Sanctua[ry] ... in [their] companies and in] their
[do]minions, the mighty of the gods with power, vacat ... zeal for
judgement with strength, vacat... [they shall] all [bless in com]munity
5 Thy holy name... . [Ho]ly of Holies [they] will curse ... knowledge of
understanding ... vacat... joyous cry ...

Fr. 3
... ru[ling] angels ... in [a]ll their services ... [sp]arks and lightnings ...
5 the angels of rain cl[oud]s, and heavy clouds and thick [clouds] and dewdrops ... and all the spirits of dominations ... when they were created
... [suc]ceed one another ...

Fr -5
... the earth and everything [on it,
and the world and all its] inhabitants.
The ground and all its devices;
[the earth and al]l that exist on it.
[The mountains and al]l the hills;
the valleys and all the ravines;
the dry lan[d ...] its [ce]dars;
the low-lying woods and all the deserts of desolation
... and its voids;
392

BENEDICTIONS

and the foundations of its structure.

The jackals and ...
... the tall trees, their fruit
and all the cedars of Leban[on] ...
[Grain, win]e and oil and all the produce.
... and all the wave-offerings of the world
in tw[elve] months ...
... Thy words. Amen, amen.

Fr. 7a i
I ... and all their elect...
... and all who know the song o f ...
and the blessings of truth in the fe [stive] times
... and the kingdom shall be lifted up among the p[eople]s
... the assembly of the pure gods
and all who possess everlasting knowledge
to prai[se and to bl]ess Thy glorious name
in all the [everlasting ages]. Amen, amen.

Frs. 20+13+4Q288
[Every one should rebuke his fellow in truth, and virtuous humility and
with] righteous [intention [in the Community of God. And whoever]
has erred when returning [to the truth], they shall rebuke him [accord
ing to] their [commandments]. They shall rebuke him and have mercy
[on him if he transgr]esses. Let no [man] bear gru[dge against his fellow
from one day] to [ano]ther. [Let him] not hate him in his heart [so as
n]o[t to bear guilt because of him. And whatever is revealed to the men]
of the Community let him instruct [him with] his mer[ciful love] and
with the spirit [of humility he shall distance him from the deeds of]
deceitfulness. The [Guardian of the Congregation shall ad]monish him
regarding all [the regulations] perfecting his deeds from all [sin through
re]buking him before witnesses. Let no man take revenge] on his own
behalf in any matter for he will be punished [for six months/one year (?)]
... Let no one take the law [in his own hand, disobeying the order of his
fellow. Let him not speak to him] in anger or out of envy prompted by
393

C A LENDARS , LITURGIES AND PRAYERS

the spirit of wickedness, disregarding the dignity of his colleague with

10 [heated] anger, standing up against him without [justification].

4Q287, fr. 3
... and they shall bless Thy holy name with benedictions o f ... the Holy
of Holies. And all the creatures of flesh [shall bl]ess Thee, all of them
that Thou has crea[ted] ... the beasts and the birds and the worms and
the fish of the sea and all... Thou hast created them all renewing ...

Fr. 10
... against the anointed ones of [His] hol[y] spirit...

4Q286 (4Q287, fr. 6)=4QBerakhotb

Curses o f Belial
Fr. 7 ii

II
council of the Community shall all say together, Amen, amen. After
wards [they] shall damn Belial and all his guilty lot. They shall answer
and say, Cursed be [B]elial in his hostile design, and damned in his guilty
dominion. Cursed be all the spirits of his [lo]t in their wicked design,
and damned in their thoughts of unclean impurity. For they are the lot
5 of darkness and their visitation is for eternal destruction. Amen, amen.
Cursed be the Wickefd One in all the ages ] of his dominions, and
may all the sons of Belial be damned in all the works of their service
until their annihilation [for ever, Amen, amen.]
And [they shall continue to say: Be cursed, Ang]el of Perdition and
Spir[it of Destruction, in all the thoughts of your g[uilty] inclination
[and all your abomina]ble [plots] and [your] wicked design, [and] may
10 you be [da]mned ... Amen, am[en].
[Cursed be a] 11 those who practise] their [wicked designs] and estab
lish [in their heart] their (evil) devices, [plotting against Go]d[s
Covenant] ... to exchange the judgements of truth for folly.]
394

BENEDICTIONS

4Q 2 8o=4QBenedictionsf
Curses o fMelkiresha
Fr. 2
[May God set him apart] for evil from the midst of the Sons of Li[ght
because he has turned away from following Him.
And they shall continue saying: Be cur]sed, Melkiresha4, in all the
thou[ghts of your guilty inclination. May] God [deliver you up] for
torture at the hands of the vengeful Avengers. May God not heed [when]
you call on Him. [May He raise His angry face] towards you. May there
be no (greeting of) Peace for you in the mouth of all those who hold
fast to the Father[s. May you be cursed] with no remnant, and damned
without escape.
Cursed be those who practice their wicked designs] and [establish in
their heart your (evil) devices, plotting against the Covenant of God . . . ,
seers of [His] truth.
[Who] ever refuses to enter [His Covenant, walking in the stubborn
ness of his heart] ...

395

Confession Ritual
(4Q393)

Fragmentary remains of a communal confession of sins, spoken in the first per

son plural, recall the language of Psalm li, Jeremiah and Deuteronomy, and
resemble confession prayers in Ezra ix, 5-15; Daniel ix, 4-19; iQS 1, 24-11, 1. In
the latter text, the parallel confession is part of the ceremony of the renewal of
the Covenant. The script is dated to mid-first century b c e .
For the editio princeps, see Daniel Falk, DJD, XXIX, 45-61.
I ... in order that Thou be justified by Thy wor[ds] ... we were poured
out through our iniquities ... they [stiff]ened the neck. Our God, hide
5 Thy face from [our] si[ns and] blot out [al]l our iniquities and create in
us a new spirit, O Lord... . [do not] withhold faithfulness and to rebels
.. . and bring back sinners to Thee. And [do not] reject from Thee the
broken [spir]it, O God. According to Thy people in order to ... and
10 always on ... nations and kingdoms ... their word[s] ... to Thy peoples
in order to ...
II
... the faithful God who keep [the] covenant and loving-kindness
to those who love [Thee and who keep Thy commandments which
Thou didst command] to Moses. Do not forsake Thy people [and]
Thine [inheritance. And let no man walk in the stubbornness of his
[evil] heart. O God, in Thy goodwill ... Thy people and Thine inheri5 tance shall not be forsa[k]en and let no man walk in the stubbornness of
his evil heart. And where is Strength? And on whom shalt Thou cause
Thy face to shine without his being purified? And they shall be sancti
fied and exalted above everything. It is Thou O Lord who hast chosen
our fathers from of old. Thou hast caused us to stand for them as a
remnant to give us (the covenant) which Thou hast established with
Abraham for Israel that they might possess the proud ... mighty men,
the hosts of those who are powerful, giving us houses filled with ...
water, vineyards and olive trees [and] an inheritance of the people ...
396

Purification Ritual A
(4Q512 )

Badly worn papyrus fragments from Cave 4 (4Q512) contain prayers: to be

recited to obtain purification from various kinds of ritual uncleanness. M. Baillet
(DJD, VII, 263-86) suggests an early first-century b c e date for the script.

Frs. 29-32
V II And he will bless there [the God of Israel. Answering, he will say: 5
Blessed art Thou, God of Israel. And I stand] before Thee on the feas[t]
... Thou hast ... me for purity ... and his bumt-offering and he will
bless. Answering he will say: Blessed art Thou, [God of Israel, who hast
delivered me from al]l my sins and purified me from impure indecency
and hast atoned so that I come ... purification and the blood of the 10
bumt-offering of Thy goodwill and the pleasing memorial...

Fr. 1 1
X [And on completing [his] seven days of purification] ... and he shall
wash his clothes with w[ater and cleanse his body] and he shall put on his
garments and shall bless ag[ain] ... the God of Isra[e]l...

397

Purification Ritual B
(4Q414)

Thirty-six badly damaged fragments, written on the verso of 4Q 4 15, represent a

purificatory ritual and prayers. The script dates to the turn of the era. Some
lines are parallel to 4 Q 512 , frs. 42-44 ii, 2-5.
For the editio princeps, see E. Eshel, D JD , XXXV, 135-54.

Fr. 2 ii 3-4
.. . and thou shalt purify us according [to] Thy precepts of holiness for
the first, the third and the seventh ... by the truth of Thy covenant. .. to
5 be purified from the impurity o f ... And then he shall enter the water ...
Answering, he shall say, Blessed a[rt Thou, God of Israel] for from the
utterance of Thy mouth is declared the purity of all: to be separated
from all the guilty men of uncleanness who cannot be purified by the
purifying water ...

398

A Liturgical Work
(4Q392-3)

This is a religious text, possibly liturgical, but strongly reminiscent of the lan
guage of the Thanksgiving Hymns.
For the editio princeps, see D. Falk, D JD , XXIX, 23-44.

Fr. 1
... each to be united with [G]od and not to depart from a[11] ... and
their soul will cling to His Covenant and ... the words of the mouth of
... The Go[d] ... the heaven above and to search out the ways of the
sons of man (leaving) no secret [in their heart(?)]. He created darkness
[and l]ight is His, and in His dwelling is the most perfect light, and all 5
gloominess ceases before Him. It is not for Himself the distinction
between light and darkness, for He has distinguished them for the sons
of man: light during the day by means of the sun; (and during the) night
(by means of) moon and stars. The inscrutable light is with Him, and
His knowledge is without [end, f]or all the works of God are multiple

(?). We who are flesh, should we not consider this? With us . . . for
coundess signs and wonders ... [wi]nds and lightnings ... [s]ervants of
the most holy pla[ce]. From before Him proceed the lufminaries] ...

Frs. 2 and 5 (4Q393 1 i)

... [they did not lis]ten to the signs and wonders ... plagues [which no
kingdom has seen] until this day and ... He has brought us out [of
the land of Egypt] without being counted. In the mighty waters he made
a path ... the great [abyss] [and He made] him [sin]k like stone in the 10
deep ...
399

D. Historical and
Apocalyptic Works

Conquest of Egypt and Jerusalem

or Acts of a Greek King,
Israel Antiquities Authority

Apocalyptic Chronology
or Apocryphal Weeks
(4Q247)

A fragment consisting of seven mutilated lines, and palaeographically dated to

the last decades of the first century

bce,

appears to belong to an apocalyptic

account of world history, divided into weeks of years and possibly centred on the
Temple of Jerusalem. Despite the lack of continuous narration, the significant
details justify the inclusion of this text in the volume.
For the editio princeps, see M. Broshi, D/D, XXXVI, 18 7-9 1.

... [determined [end] ... [And afterwards will co]me the fif[th] week ...
four-hundred [and eighty years (after the exodus from Egypt)] Solo[mon]
(built the Temple; cf. 1 Kings vi, 1 ) . . . (It was destroyed in the time) [of
Zedejkiah king of Judah ...
(It was restored by) the Levites and the people of the Lan[d] ... (Final
stage)... kin[g] of the Kittim ...

Historical Text A
(4Q248)

The story told in this ten-line fragment, which contains only broken lines,
resembles the account of Daniel xi concerning the King of the North (Antiochus I V Epiphanes) who invades Egypt and ill-treats Jerusalem.
For the editio princeps, see M. Broshi and E. Eshel, D JD , XXXVI, 192-200.

... in Egypt and Greece and ... Therefore they shall eat... their [s]ons
and their daughters in a siege in ...
5
And (the Lord) shall cause [His] wind to pass [through] their court
yards and ... he shall come to Egypt and sell her dust and ... to the city
of the Temple and shall capture her with all [her ... ] And he shall turn
against the lands of the nations and shall return to Egyp[t] ... [And
when the shattering of the power of the ho[ly] people [comes to an
10 end] ... When all these [come into being] the children [of Israel] shall
return ...

404

Historical Texts C-E

(formerly Mishmarot Ca_c)
(4Q3 3 i- 3)

Three very badly mutilated calendric documents include references to Jewish

and Roman historical personalities (Shelamzion/Salome Alexandra, wife of
Alexander Jannaeus; Hyrcanus II, her son; Yohanan the high priest, probably
John Hyrcanus I; the Kittim (Romans) and Aemilius (no doubt M. Aemilius
Scaurus, governor of Syria). They all lived in the late second or the first half of
the first century b c e . The compositions recall the early rabbinic historical calen
dar known as Megillat Taanit (see HJP, 1 14-5).
For the editio princeps, see J. A. Fitzmyer, DJD, XXXVI, 281-9.

Text C (4Q 331)

Fr. 1 i
[the] priest... Johanan to bring to ...

F r. 1 ii

... Shelamzion ...

Text D (4Q332)

Fr. 2
... [to] give him honour among the Arab[s] ... [on the n]inth of Shebat that is ... which is the twentieth (day) of the month ... Shelamzion came
... to oppose ... Hyrcanus rebelled ... to oppose ...
405

HISTORICAL AND APOCALYPTIC

WORKS

Fr -3
... [of the Kit]tim killed ... [on the] fifth [day] in (the week of) Jedaiah this is ...

Text E (4Q333)
Fr. 1
... [in (the week of) Je]hezekel which is ... Aemilius killed ... [in] the
seventh [mon]th ... (the week of) Gamul... Aemilius killed ...

Historical Text F
(4Q468e)

A tiny fragment is the only surviving part of a historical document containing the
unusual name of Pwtlys. The editor, M. Broshi, reads it as Ptollas, a Hellenized
form of the Hebrew name Putiel, and probably identical with a companion of
Herods son Archelaus, who accompanied him to Rome in 4

bce.

The journey

was preceded by civil riots in Jerusalem which were suppressed by the army,
ldlling.three thousand people (cf. Josephus, Ant. xvii, 2 13 -18 ; War ii, 8-14). Two
other scholars, D. R. Schwartz and W . Horbury (see J J S 50, 308-11), suggest a
reading of Peitholaus, a pro-Roman Jew associated with the massacre of many of
his compatriots in mid-first century b c e (cf. Ant. xiv, 84-5; War, i, 162-3).
For the editio princeps, see M. Broshi, D JD , XXXVI, 4 0 7 -11.

[to k]ill the multitude of men ... Potlaus/Potlays. And the persons that

407

The Triumph of Righteousness or Mysteries

(1Q 2 7 ,4 Q 2 9 9 -3 0 1)

Originally entitled The Book of Mysteries by J. T . Milik (D JD , I, 102-5), these

fragments expound the familiar theme of the struggle between good and evil,
but their nature is difficult to determine. Perhaps they derive from a sermon, or
from an apocalyptical writing. Three further manuscripts (4Q 299-301) yield
badly damaged fragments belonging to the same writing. 4Q 300 3 and 4Q 299
partly overlap with 1Q 27. An earlier passage may be reconstructed from 4Q 300
and 4Q299.
For the editioprinceps, see L. H. Schiffman, DJD, XX, 3 1-12 3 .

1Q 2 7 combined with 4Q 300, fr. 3 and 4Q299, fir. 1

I ... all {so that they might know the difference between g[ood and evil]
. . . } (4Q300) the mysteries of sin ... {all their wisdom} (4Q300).
They know not the mystery to come, nor do they understand the
things of the past. They know not that which shall befall them, nor do
they save their soul from the mystery to come.
5
And this shall be the sign for you that these things shall come to pass.
When the breed of iniquity is shut up, wickedness shall then be ban
ished by righteousness as darkness is banished by the light. As smoke
clears and is no more, so shall wickedness perish for ever and righteous
ness be revealed like a sun governing the world. All who cleave to the
mysteries of sin shall be no more; knowledge shall fill the world and
folly shall exist no longer.
This word shall surely come to pass; this prophecy is true. And by this
may it be known to you that it shall not be taken back.
Do not all the peoples loathe iniquity? And yet it is spread by them
all. Does not the fame of truth issue from the mouth of all the nations?
10 Yet is there a lip or tongue which holds to it? Which nation likes to be
408

TH E TRIUMPH

OF R I G H T E O U S N E S S

OR M Y S T E R I E S

oppressed by another stronger than itself, or likes its wealth to be

wickedly seized? And yet which nation has not oppressed another, and
where is there a people which has not seized [another]s wealth? ...

4Q299, fir. 3a 4-6 (4Q300 5)

... And what shall man be called ... wise and righteous, for man has no
... , nor concealed wisdom save the wisdom of wicked cunning and the
de[sign of ] ... a deed that shall not be done again except... the word of
his Maker. And what shall a m[an] do ... who rebels against the word of
his Maker, his name shall be expunged from the mouth of a ll... Listen,
you who hold up [truth (?)] ... eternity and the plans of existence and
the thou[ghts] ... every mystery and establishes every plan. He is the
author of all [that is to come.] He is from before eternity. He is His
name and for e[ver] ...

4Q 300 ia-b ii 4=4(3299 2 i 14

... [the sorc]erers, experts in sin, have uttered the parable and proclaimed
the riddle in advance. And then you will know if you have considered ...
and the attestations of heave [n] ... your foolishness for the [s]eal of the
vision is sealed away from you. And you have not considered the mysteries
of eternity and have not comprehended understanding. Th[en] you will
say ... for you have not considered the root of wisdom. And if you open
the vision, it will remain shut from you ... all your wisdom for the ... is

for you . . . his name for [wh]at is the hidden wisdom .. .

4Q 30 1
Fr. 1

I will cause my spirit to flow and I will divide my words for you accord
ing to your kinds ... [a p]arable and a riddle. And those who search for
the roots of understanding together with those who hold unto the [won
derful] my[steries] ... those who are silly, and the scheming men for all
the acomplishments of their actions ...
409

Time of Righteousness
(4 0 2 15 a )

Previously classified as part of the Testament of Naphtali (4Q 215), the four
fragments of 4 0 2 15 a , of which only one is translatable, belong to a work of
poetic eschatology. The subject is the end of wickedness and the portrayal of
final blessedness.
For the editio princeps, see E. Chazon and M. Stone, DJD, XXXVI, 172-86.

Fr. 1 ii
... and the stressful constraint and the ordeal of the pit and they shall be
refined by them to become the elect of righteousness, and all their
wickedness will be blotted out (?) because of His loving-kindness. For
the age of wickedness is complete and all injustice has [passed] away.
[For] the time of righteousness has come and the earth is full with
knowledge and the praise of God. In the day[s of] ... has come the age
5 of peace and the precepts of truth and the testimony of righteousness to
make one understand the ways of God and the might of His deeds for
ever and ever. Every ... shall bless Him and every man shall prostrate
himself before Him. [And they shall have] one [he]art. For He knows
their recompense before they were created and had assigned the service
of righteousness as their boundaries ... in their generations. For the
dominion of righteousness/of goodness has come and He shall raise up
10 the throne of the [kingdom], and intelligence is greatly exalted; pru
dence and soundness are tried by [His] h[o]ly desi[gn] ...

4 10

The Renewed Earth

(4Q475)

A single fragment of a poem, palaeographically datable to the late first century

bce,

depicts the eschatological bliss of the Holy land.

For the editio princeps, see T . Elgvin, DJD, XXXVI, 464-73.

... [He has] chosen [Zio]n, and in righteous life ...

[And] they did forget [His precepts] and did not seek them.
And the land ...
... (His) hands in the midst of them and explained to them all the
[laws?]
... [a] 11 the earth so that there will be no more guilt in the land, nor will
be ...
... [dest]ruction and all hatred and the whole world will be like a moth.
And all [its] inhabitants ...
... And the land will be at rest for ever,
And [its] inhabitants] w ill...
[And they will become] a beloved son and they will seek all of it,
and righteousness ...

411

A Messianic Apocalypse
(4Q 521)

Commonly referred to as the Resurrection fragment, this writing consists of

sixteen fragments. The script is dated to the beginning of the first century

b ce .

Whether the designation apocalypse is fully justified is a moot point: the writ
ing comes across as a composition in verse akin to the poetry of the late biblical
period. The surviving fragments do not appear to include anything patendy sec
tarian. The term Messiah, probably in the singular, is used without the addi
tion of Aaron or Israel, and the noun hasidim, absent from the big scrolls and
litde attested elsewhere, figures in lines 5 and 7. The divine name Lord repre
sents, not the Tetragram, but Adonai (four times). The poem incorporates Ps.
cxlvi, 6 -7 and Isa. lxi, 1, the latter cited also in the New Testament (Lk. iv, 18).
As in the Gospels, healing and resurrection are linked to the idea of the King
dom of God. Line 12 furnishes the most explicit evidence concerning the raising
of the dead. Fragment 7, line 6, repeats the same idea, referring to God as He
who will raise the dead of His people.
For the editio princeps, see E. Puech, DJD , XXV, 1-38; cf. G. Vermes, Qumran
Forum Miscellanea I, J J S 43 (1992), 303-4.

Fr. 2

II ... [the hea]vens and the earth will listen to His Messiah, and none
therein will stray from the commandments of the holy ones.
Seekers of the Lord, strengthen yourselves in His service!
All you hopeful in (your) heart, will you not find the Lord in this?
For the Lord will consider the pious (hasidim) and call the righteous
by name.
Over the poor His spirit will hover and will renew the faithful with
His power.
And He will glorify the pious on the throne of the eternal Kingdom.
412

A MESSIANIC APOCALYPSE

He who liberates the captives, restores sight to the blind, straightens

the b[ent] (Ps. cxlvi, 7-8).
And f[or] ever I will clea[ve to the h]opeful and in His mercy ...
And the fr[uit... ] will not be delayed for anyone
And the Lord will accomplish glorious things which have never been
as [He ... ]
For He will heal the wounded, and revive the dead and bring good
news to the poor (Isa. lxi, 1).
... He will lead the uprooted and make the hungry rich ...

Fr. 7
... [the ear]th and all that is on it;
and the sea [and all that is in it] and all the ponds of water and rivers
who are doing good before the Lor[d] ...
... like those who curse and are (destined) for death [when] the Lifegiver will raise the dead of His people.
And we will thank and proclaim to you the righteousness of the Lord,
who ...

E. Wisdom Literature

T h e Seductress,

Israel Antiquities Authority

The Seductress
(4Q 184)

A long and relatively well-preserved Wisdom poem from Cave 4 (4Q184)

depicts, by means of the metaphor of the harlot, the dangers and attraction of
false doctrine. Palaeographically, the text is dated to the first century

bce,

but

the work may be much older, possibly antedating the Qumran sect.
For the editio princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, DJD, V, 82-5.
Cf. also J. Strugnell, RQ 7 (1970), 263-8.

... speaks vanity

and ... errors.
She is ever prompt to oil her words,
and she flatters with irony,
deriding with iniquitous l[ips].
Her heart is set up as a snare,
and her kidneys (affections) as a fowlers nets.
Her eyes are defiled with iniquity,
her hands have seized hold of the Pit.
Her legs go down to work wickedness,
and to walk in w ron g-d oin gs.
Her... are foundations of darkness,
and a multitude of sins is in her skirts.
Her... are darkness of night,
and her garments...
Her clothes are shades of twilight,
and her ornaments plagues of corruption.
Her couches are beds of corruption,
and her ... depths of the pit.
Her inns are couches of darkness,
and her dominions in the midst of the night.
She pitches her dwelling on the foundations of darkness
4*7

W I S D O M LITERATURE

io

15

she abides in the tents of silence.

Amid everlasting fire is her inheritance,
not among those who shine brightly.
She is the beginning of all the ways of iniquity.
Woe (and) disaster to all who possess her!
And desolation to all who hold her!
For her ways are ways of death,
and her paths are roads of sin,
and her tracks are pathways to iniquity,
and her by-ways are rebellious wrong-doings,
Her gates are gates of death,
and from the entrance of the house
she sets out towards the underworld.
None of those who enter there will ever return,
and all who possess her will descend to the Pit.
She lies in wait in secret places,
In the citys squares she veils herself,
and she stands at the gates of towns.
She will never re[st] from wh[orin]g,
her eyes glance hither and thither.
She lifts her eyelids naughtily
to stare at a virtuous man and join him,
and an important man to trip him up,
at upright men to pervert their way,
and the righteous elect to keep them from the
commandment,
at the firmly established to bring them down wantonly,
and those who walk in uprightness to alter the statute;
to cause the humble to rebel against God,
and turn their steps away from the ways of justice,
to bring insolence to their heart,
so that they march no more in the paths of uprightness;
to lead men astray to the ways of the Pit,
and seduce with flatteries every son of man.

418

Exhortation to Seek Wisdom

(4 Q i 8 5 )

Large fragments of a Wisdom poem in which a teacher encourages his people,

his sons, the Simple, to search for Wisdom have been preserved in Cave 4
(4Q185). The script is believed to be late Hasmonaean, i.e. from the first half of
the first century

bce.

As is often the case in Wisdom literature, events of the

patriarchal and Mosaic past are used for didactic purposes.

For the editio princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, D /D , V, 85-7.
Cf. J. Strugnell, RQ 7 (1970), 269-73.

I...

And you, sons of men, woe to you!

For he (man) sprouts from his ground like grass,
and his grace blossoms like a flower.
His [gl]ory blows away and his grass dries up,
and the wind carries away its flower
so that it is found no more ...
They shall seek him but shall not find him,
and there is no hope (for him);
and his days are like a shadow over the ea[rth].
Now pray hearken to me, my people;
heed me, O you Simple;
become wise through the might of God.
Remember His miracles which He did in Egypt,
and His marvels in the land of Ham.
Let your heart shake because of His fear,
II and do His w ill...
... your souls according to His good graces,
and search for yourself a way towards life,
a highway [towards .. . ]

W I S D O M LITERATURE

10

a remnant for your sons after you.

And why have you given up your soul to vanity,
... judgement?
Hearken to me, O my sons,
and do not rebel against the words of YH W H .
Do not walk ...
[but in the way He established] for Jacob,
and in the path which He decreed for Isaac.
Is one day not better ...
... His fear,
and not to be afflicted (?) by dread and the fowlers net.
... to be set apart from His angels,
for there is no darkness, nor gloom ...
And you, what do you understand ...
before Him evil shall go towards every people.
Happy is the man to whom it (Wisdom) has been given thus,
... the evil,
nor let the wicked boast, saying:
It has not been given me, nor ...
[For God gave it] to Israel,
and with a good measure He measures it;
and He will redeem all His people,
and He will put to death those who hate His Wisdom.
Seek her and find her, grasp her and possess her!
With her is length of days and fatness of bone,
the joy of the heart and ...
Happy is the man who works it
who does not seek i t ... of deceit,
nor holds to it with flatteries.
As it has belonged to his fathers,

15

so will he inherit it,

and hold fast to it with all the strength of his might,
and all his immeasurable ...
and he shall cause his offspring to inherit it.
I know how to labour for good ...

420

E X H O R T A T I O N TO SEEK W I S D O M

III . . .
[God inspects] all the chambers of the womb
and He tries all its inward parts.
[God shapes] the tongue
and knows its words.
God makes the hand
[and understands their deeds (?)] ...

A Parable of Warning
(4Q302)

This text comprises eighteen badly damaged papyrus fragments palaeographically dated to the end of the second century b c e . The topic of the first fragment
seems to be the giant good tree which produces thorns.
For the editio princeps, see B. Nitzan, D JD , XX, 13 5 -4 1.

Fr. 2 ii
II Sages, reflect on this.
If a man has a good tree
[which grows] as far as heaven
[and its branches reach (?)]
to the ex[tremitie]s of the lands,
yet it [prjoduces thorny fruits (?)
... former rain and latter rain ...
and in thirst...

Fr. 3 ii
... God will avenge Himself on you for your transgression ... your
designs and He does not stand up against you to rebuke you, and to dis
pute with you. Gods seat is in heaven and His dominion is over the
lands and seas ...

4 22

Sapiential Didactic Work A

(4Q412)

This badly mutilated wisdom composition is represented by four fragments.

They contain only one translatable sentence.
For the editio princeps, see A. Steudel, D JD , XX, 164-7.

Fr. 1
[P]ut a lock on your lips and protecting doors to your tongue .. .

423

A Sapiential Work (i)

(4Q41 3)

Two fragments have preserved the first four lines of a column from a Wisdom
composition. The script is Herodian, dating to the turn of the era. The word
God is written with palaeo-Hebrew letters in lines 2 and 4.
For the edittoprinceps, see E. Qimron, D JD , XX, 16 9-71.

... I will teach you [knowledge(P)] and wisdom,

And understand the ways of man
and the works of the sons of ma[n].
[According to] Gods [loving-kindness] towards man,
He has enlarged his inheritance in the knowledge of His truth,
and according to His rejection of every ev[il man,]
no-one who [walks after] his ears and his eyes shall live.
And now [His] loving-kindness ... the ancient,
they will consider the years of all the generations
as God has revealed ...

424

A Sapiential Work (ii)

(4Q4i 5"i8 423> j Q 26)

A substantial Wisdom composition, probably dating to the second century

bce,

has survived in six fragmentary manuscripts, one from Cave i (1Q 26) and five
partly overlapping scrolls from Cave 4 (4Q 415, 4 16 , 4 17 , 4 18 a and b and 423).
Apart from the last-mentioned manuscript, dated to the first half of the first cen
tury c e , all are said to be early Herodian (30-1

b c e ).

The work is unquestionably

sectarian and displays a terminology akin to the Community Rule, the Damascus
Document and the Thanksgiving Hymns. T . Elgvin has attempted to recon
struct the original work and he sums up its contents as follows: argument with a
neighbour; relationship of the elect to God and man; God as provider for all his
creatures; business ethics; a modest life; deposit to be returned in full; the hope of
the just man; divine mysteries to be studied and the praise of Gods name; atti
tude to parents, wife, children; the elect and the sages escape from Gods anger;
God as permanent judge of wickedness; God as creator of the heavenly beings
and luminaries; God as future judge; mankinds submission to God; the fate of
the just and the wicked; religious life; first-born sons of God in praise of him;
the use of insight; Gods eternal plant: the saints; Gods providence; the distrib
ution of the portions of the elect; the farmer and the garden of Eden; Warning:
God is to try man. Cf. T . Elgvin, The Reconstruction of Sapiential Work A ,
RQ 16(1995), 559-80.
For the editio princeps, see J. Strugnell and D. J. Harrington, DJD, XXXIV,
I - 5 3 (4Q 4I 5 4 J 8c and 1Q26), and T . Elgvin, ibid., 505-33 (4Q423).

4Q 416 , fr. 1 (= 4 0 4 18 , fr. 2)

From heaven He judges the work of wickedness
and all the sons of truth will be accepted ...
... [until] his end
and all those who have wallowed in it
425

10

W I S D O M LITERATURE

15

shall be frightened and scream.

For heaven ...
The waters and abysses shall be frightened,
and all the spirits of flesh shall be laid bare.
And the sons of heaven ... its [judjgement.
And all injustice will yet come to an end
and the age of trut[h] will be completed ...
... in all the everlasting ages.
For He is the God of truth, and from the beginning
of years ...
to establish righteousness between good and ev[il].
[For] his is a fleshly [inclination
and his foundation ...

4Q 416, fr. 2 ii (4Q 417 2 ii, 4Q 418 8, 21, 22, 4 0 4 18 a )

[for] He opens His mercies ...
and to give nourishment to all the living.
If he keeps his hand tight,
the spirit of all flesh is gathered in.
Do not take ...

and the debtor ... let him quickly repay (his debt).
As for you, settle with him,
for you must keep an eye on your money purse.
At[tend] your creditor on behalf of your friend
and you have gi[ven] all your life for (?) him.
Give quickly what is his and take [your] purse.

Let your spirit not diminish because of your words;

do not exchange your holy spirit for any wealth,
for no price equals i t ...
For no man thrusts you away.
With favour seek His face
and speak according to His tongue
and you will then find your pleasure
426

A S A P I E N T I A L W O R K (ii)

... do not. . .
Do not abandon your precepts
and take care of yourself with your mysteries.
If he assigns you some work to do,
do not rest or give sleep to your eyes
until you have done
[his] command [ments] ...
[and] do not add ...
And if it is to be humbled, do not...
Lift up your eyes and see
that mans zeal is great
for deceitful is the heart more than every ...
And also by His gentle wisdom you will hold fast to His service
... you will consult with him.
And you will be his first-bom son
and (he will) have compassion on you
like a man on his only son;
... for you are his servant and his chosen one
Do not trust...
and do not keep awake because o f ...
and become for him like a slave ...
Do not strike him who is without your strength
lest you stumble and your shame increase greatly.
[Do not s]ell yourself for wealth
it is better for you to be a slave in spirit.
And serve your master freely
And do not sell your glory for a price.
Do not give money in pledge for your inheritance
lest it impoverish your body.
Do not satiate yourself with bread while there is no clothing.
Do not drink wine while there is no food.
Do not seek luxury when you lack bread.
Do not glorify yourself in your need if you are poor
lest you degrade your life.
Also do not treat with contempt the vessel of your bosom (wife)

W I S D O M LITERATURE

4 Q 4 17, fir. 2 i (= 4 0 4 16 fr. 2 i)

10

15

... each time so that he shall not fill you

and according to his spirit speak against him ...
without rebuke.
Forgive the worthy and ...
And you shall not swallow up his spirit,
for you have spoken in whisper ...
And he has recited quickly his rebuke ...
Do not overlook your sin ...
for he is as righteous as you are.
For he is a prince among pr[inces]
... he will do.
For how unique is he in all activity with [out] ...
Do not reckon an unjust man as a help,
nor one filled with hatred ... [apart from] the wickedness
of his deeds
at his visitation.
Know how to walk with him ...
Let [instruction not depart from your heart
and God will be for you, yourself.
Widen ... in your poverty,
for who is more insignificant than a poor man.
Do not be jolly while in mourning
lest you labour all your life.
Look at the approaching mystery
and grasp the sources (or : begetters) of salvation,
and know who is to inherit glory or injustice.
Will they not...
and for their mourning everlasting joy.
Be an advocate for your business ... all your sins.
Pronounce your judgement like a righteous ruler.
Do not ta[ke] ...
and do not overlook your sin.
Be like a poor man in your dispute;
His judgement... take.
Then God will see and His anger will cease,
428

A S A P I E N T I A L W O R K (ii)

and He will forgive your sins ...

[Fo]r before His anger
no one can stand,
And who is righteous in His judgement?
And without pardon, how can the poor [stand firm
before Him]?
And as for you, if you are in need of food,
your need and your plenty ... you will make abundant.
Be led to the sustenance of His delight,
and take from Him your inheritance
and do not add agai[n] ...
[By the word] of his mouth everything is
and whatever He feeds you with, eat it.
... of your life, vacat
If in your need you borrow money from people
do not... day and night
and there shall be no rest for your soul
[until] you have repaid [your] creditor [his money].
Do not lie to him so that you will not bear guilt for it.
Furthermore, because of the reproach ...
You will not trust his neighbour.
In your need he will close his hand.
Your strength ...
If you receive a stroke ...
Do not hide from him who strikes you
So that he will not reveal your shame ...

4Q 4 16 2 iii (4Q 417 2 ii 26, 4 Q 418 9-10)

and remember that you are poor ...

What you lack, you will not find ...
[If someone has left] a deposit with you,
do not put your hand on it lest it be burnt
and your body be devoured by its flame.
A[s you have received] it, so return it
and you will rejoice if you have no responsibility for it.
Accept no goods from someone whom you do not know

W I S D O M LITERATURE

io

15

lest he increase your poverty.

But if he has thrust it on you, let it be a deposit until death,
but do not let your spirit be destroyed by it.
Then you will lie with the truth
and your memory will flowe[r for ev]er when you die,
and your posterity will inherit joy.
You are poor, do not desire anything save your
inheritance,
and do not be devoured by it lest you change your
boundary.
But if He brings you back to glory, walk in it,
and in the approaching mystery search its beginnings.
Then you will know
His inheritance and you will walk in righteousness
For God will shine His face on all your ways.
Honour Him who glorifies you and praise His name always.
For your head is above the summit of the mountains
and He has given you a seat among the nobles
and has made you to rule over an inheritance of glory.
Seek always His pleasure.
You are a poor man. Do not say:
Since I am poor, I will not seek knowledge.
Shoulder every discipline
and with every ... refine your heart,
and your thoughts with a multitude of understanding.
Search the approaching mystery
and consider all the ways of truth,
and behold all the roots of injustice.
Then you will know what is bitter for a man
and what is sweet for a human being.
H o n o u r you r father in yo u r poverty

and your mother in your steps.

For his father is like God to a man
and his mother like a ruler to a human being.
For they are the crucible from which you were bom
and as He placed them over you as rulers
and a frame for the spirit (?), so serve them,
and as He has revealed to you the approaching mystery,

430

A S A P I E N T I A L W O R K (ii)

honour them for your honours sake

and in ... the splendour of their face
for your lifes sake and for the length of your days.
And if you are as poor as ...
without precept.
You have taken a wife in your poverty,
take the offspring ...
from the approaching mystery
when you are joined together.
Walk with the helpmate of your flesh ...

4Q 4 16 iv (4Q 418 10 5-10 )

... his father and his mother and he will cling [to his wife
and they will become one flesh]
He made him rule over her
and she ...
He did not make her father rule over her
and He separated her from her mother
and towards you [will be her longing
and she will be] one flesh for you.
He will separate your daughter for another
and your sons ...
And you will become one with the wife of your bosom,
for she is the flesh of your na[kedness]
and whoever rules over her apart from you
has changed the boundary of his life.
He has made you to rule over her spirit
so that she may walk according to your pleasure.
Let her not increase vows and free-will offerings ...
Bring back (her?) spirit to your good pleasure,
and annul by the utterance of your mouth
every binding oath of hers by which to vow a vow.
And by your will, stop her ...
of your lips ... forgive her for your sake.
Let her not multiply ...

43i

W I S D O M LITERATURE

4 0 4 * 7 1 1 (4 Q 4 i8 .

43-45 0

... [And] you, O man of understanding,...

Look on ...
and grasp the wonderful mysteries of the God of awe.

10

15

Look at the approaching mysteries

And the ancient deeds ...
... what was and what will be ...
.. . in each deed and de[ed] ...
[day and] night he meditates on the approaching mystery
and studies (it) always.
Then you will know truth and injustice,
wisdom [and folly ... ]
... in all their ways
together with their visitation
for all the eternal ages and everlasting visitation.
Then you will know the difference
between [go]od and evil relating to their deeds.
For the God of knowledge is the foundation of truth,
and through the approaching mystery
He set apart its foundation,
the work of [His hands] ...
... and in pure understanding were revealed
.. . the secrets of his thought
with his perfect conduct in all his deeds.
Always seek these eagerly,
and understand all their results.
And then you will know everlasting glory
and His marvellous mysteries, and the might of His deeds.
And you will understand the beginning of your reward
at the memorial of the time that has come.
Engraved is the decree and all the visitation is determined.
For Gods ordinance is engraved
over all the iniquities] of the sons of Seth.
And a book of memorial is written before Him
for those who keep His word.
And this is the vision issuing from the meditation
on the book of memorial.
432

A S A P I E N T I A L W O R K (ii)

And He gave it as a heritage

to mankind and to the people of the spirit.
For his (mans) shape is modelled on the holy ones,
but meditation belongs no more to the fleshly spirit,
for it cannot distinguish between g[ood] and evil
according to the judgement of its spirit.
And you, son of understanding, look ... at the approaching mystery
and know the heritage of all the living.
And his conduct and his visitation ...
... whether large or small...
do not be touched by wickedness ...
[For whoever is touched] by it
will not be innocent.
According to his inheritance in it
He will be wick[ed] ...
Son of the intelligent,
Consider your mysteries
And the foundation of ...

4Q 418, fr. 55
... watchfulness will be in our heart...
and confidence in all our ways, vacat
... knowledge,
and they have not searched for understanding,
and] ... have not chosen, vacat
Is [he] not the God of knowledge,
... on the truth,
establishing all [their ways of understanding?
He has assigned to all those who inherit truth
... watchfulness ...
Have not peace and quiet... ?
[Have] you not known ... ?
For the holy angels ... in heaven
[and] ... truth.
And they will pursue all the roots of understanding,
And watch over ...
[And ac] cording to their knowledge

W I S D O M LITERATURE

they will be honoured, one more than another,

and in conformity with his intelligence
will his honour increase.
... Are they (the angels?) inert like man?
Are they quiet like a son of man?
Are they not... eternity,
Inheriting an everlasting possession?
Have you not seen ... ?

4 0 4 1 8 , fr. 6 9 ( 4 . Q 4 1 7 5 1 - 5 )

10

11...
And now, O you foolish hearts,
What good is to (someone) who is n ot...
[What] is silence for someone who does not exist,
and what is judgement if it has no foundation?
Why do the dead groan over their ...
... you have been shaped
and your return is to eternal destruction.
For it shall wake up ... your sin
Darkness will roar against your dispute.
And all those who will exist for ever,
those who search truth will be aroused for your judgement
[and then] all the foolish hearts will be destroyed,
and the sons of injustice will be found no more,
[and a] 11 the supporters of wickedness will be put to shame.
The foundations of the firmament scream at your judgement
and all the ... will thunder.
And you, elect of truth
and pursuers of [righteousness and] jud[gement]
... guardians of all knowledge,
how will you say:
We labour for understanding
and keep awake to pursue knowledge
... and be not weary in all the years of eternity.
Will he not delight in truth for ever
and knowledge ...
434

A S A P I E N T I A L W O R K (ii)

The s[ons of] heaven whose inheritance is eternal life,

Will they indeed say:
We have laboured in the works of truth
and we exhausted ourselves in all the ages.
Will they not walk in eternal light
[and inherit g]lory and great splendour.
15

And you, O son of [understanding] ...

4Q 418 , fr. 81 (4Q423 8 1)

Your lips are the opening of a spring to bless the holy,
and in the eternal spring you have praised ...
The [Hol]y ... has separated you from every spirit (bound to)
flesh.
As for you, separate from all that He hates,
and keep away from all the abomination of the soul.
For He has made all,
and caused them to inherit each his heritage.
He is your portion and your heritage among the sons of man,
[and] He has made you ruler [in] his [heritage.
And in this you glorify Him, in consecrating yourself to Him.
When He made of you the holy of holies for the whole world
And in all these
He cast your lot.
And He has much increased your glory
and has made you the first-born for Himself among ...
... and I give you My goodness.
As for you, is not My goodness for you?
In His faithfulness He has walked always.
... your deeds.
And as for you, search His judgements from all your accusers
with a ll... love Him,
and with eternal loving-kindness, and with mercy towards
all who keep His word.
And his zeal...
And as for you, He has opened understanding to you
435

W I S D O M LITERATURE

10

15

20

and has made you the ruler over His treasury

and appointed [you] a receptacle of truth ...
... them with you,
and to revoke anger from the men of goodwill by your hand.
And to visit... with you,
and before you take your heritage from His hand,
glorify(?) His holy ones;
and bef[ore]...
... He has opened the [sprjing of all the holy ones,
and everyone called holy by His name ...
... with all the ages,
his beauty and splendour to become an everlasting] plant.
... will walk all those who inherit the earth.
For in heav[en] ...
And you, O man of understanding,
if He has made you rule over handcraft
and knowledge] ...
secret (?) to all mortal men.
And from there you will seek your prey
and ... understand much.
And by all your instructors increase in learning.
... bring from your poverty
to all those who seek pleasure.
Then you will establish ...
... you will be filled
and you will be satisfied with plenty of good.
By the skill of your hands ...
For God has assigned a heritage to all the [living]
and all those wise in heart have become intelligent...

Fr. 103 ii
5

... For all of them will seek their times

and each man according to [his] pleasure ...
like a spring of living water which contains a secret.
... Do not mix with your merchandise that which ...
Why should it be a mixture like a mule,
and you should be like one dres[sed in mixed materials],
436

A S A P I E N T I A L W O R K (ii)

in wool and in linen,

and you should labour with an ox and an ass (yoked) together.
Your produce also would be like that of one who sows
mixed seeds.
Let the seed and the crop and the produce of the [vineyard]
be holy

4Q 423, firs. 1, 2
... and every fruit that is grown
and every tree that is pleasant
and desirable providing understanding.
Is this not a pl[easant and desirable] garden
providing much understanding?
He made you (Adam) rule over it
to cultivate and guard it. vacat
... [the soil] will sprout for you thorn and thistle
and it will not give you its strength
... because of your unfaithfulness, vacat
... she (Eve) gave birth
and all the sentiments of her who has concei[ved] ...
... all your secrets ... and all your affairs.
For it will sprout [for you] everything ...
... [knowing] evil, knowing good ...

4Q 423, &. 5
... and beware lest you ... the judgement of Korah.
And as He has unstopped your ear ...
... and the prince of your people ...
He has divided the inheritance of all the rulers
and the formation of every [dee]d is in His hand.
He [knows] the reward of [their works
and] j[udges] them all in truth.
He visits the sons and the fathers,
437

W I S D O M LITERATURE

[the sojourners] (proselytes) with all the natives.

He will speak...
[If you are a fjarmer,
pay attention to the seasons of the summer
and gather in your produce in its time,
and the period o f ...
... the good with the evil
Observe your produce and your work,
In your labour consider ... the good with the bad,
the intelligent man with the fool

A Sapiential Work (iii):

Ways of Righteousness
(4Q 420-21)

Two badly fragmented copies of a Wisdom composition portray the behaviour

of the righteous man in universal terms. However, since the vocabulary of
4Q 421 1 i echoes the terminology of the Community Rule, the whole work may
be classified as sectarian.
For the editio princeps, see T . Elgvin, D JD , XX, 173-20 2.

4Q420, fr. 1 (4Q 421, fr. 1 ii)

II to practise righteousness in the ways of God (4Q421 1 ii).
... he shall not reply before he has heard,
nor shall he speak before he has gained understanding.
He shall patiently respond and ... shall issue a word.
He shall seek truth (and) judgement
and by searching righteousness he shall find its outcome.
A humble and modest man shall not turn back
until...
A faithful m an shall not depart from the w ays o f righteousness

and he shall set his heart on ...

and the bones (of) his hands on ...
He shall be redeemed through righteousness;
through understanding ... his fields.
His territory ...
to [practise righteousness ...

439

W I S D O M LITERATURE

4 Q 4 2 1, fir. ia i
... [He shall bring all] his wisdom, knowledge, understanding and good
things [into the Community of G od]... (cf. iQS 1, 11- 12 ) to regulate all
(placement of) one before another ... the first lot will fall. And thus they
shall set out.. . (cf. iQS 11, 21-23).

A Sapiential Work
Instruction-like Composition
(4Q424)

The main aim of this poetic composition is to instruct the just man how to
ensure the progress of wisdom by not entrusting its propagation to the un
worthy. Palaeographically it is dated to the second half of the first century b c e .
For the editio princeps, see S. Tanzer, DJD, XXXVI, 333-46.

Fr. 1
... and he will choose to build it,
and will spread plaster on its wall.
He too ... will become loose because of the rain.
Do not learn a precept in the company of hypocrites
nor come to the furnace with a totterer,
for he will melt away like lead,
and will not stand up to the fire ...
and do not entrust a sleepy man with something delicate,
for he will not treat your work gently ...
D o not send . . . learning (?),

for he will not smooth down your paths.

Do not [send ... ] a grumbler to procure money for your
need,
nor put your trust in a. man with twisted lips,
[for] he will surely twist your judgement by his lips.
His desire will not follow the truth,
... by the fruit of his lips.
Do not put a stingy man in charge of mone[y],
... mete out your food according to your desire ...
... those who bring abundance ...
but at the time of gathering he will be found ungodly.

W I S D O M LITERATURE

The short-tempered ... the simple,

for he will surely swallow them up ...

Fr. 3
... and he will not do his deed by weighing it.
A man who judges before inquiry,
and one who believes before . . . ,
do not put him in charge of those who pursue knowledge,
for he will not understand their manner
so as to justify the just and declare the wicked [wicked];
he too will be for contempt.
Do not send a blind man to bring a vision to the upright;
likewise] do not send a .man who is hard of hearing to inquire
into judgement,
for he will not smooth out a quarrel between people.
Like one who scatters into the wind ...
... who does not test,
so is he who speaks to an ear which does not listen,
and talks to a man deep asleep through a spirit...
Do not send a fat-hearted (dense) man to acquire thoughts,
for the wisdom of his heart is hidden,
and he will not be in charge o[f his heart],
and will not find wisdom for his hands.
An intelligent man gains understanding],
a knowing man will bring forth wisdom ...
an upright man delights in justice,
a man of truth rej[oices in] ...
a mighty man is zealous for ...
He is an adversary to all changers of boundaries,
... righteousness for the poor o f ...
He disputes with all who move the boundaries.
A merciful man [gives] alms to the poor.
He is concerned for all those without property;
The sons of righteousness ...

The Two Ways

(4Q473)

Inspired by Deuteronomy xi, 26-28, this fragmentary text, palaeographically

dated to the end of the first century

bce

, is akin to the Instruction on the Two

Spirits in the Community Rule (iQ S 111, 13-iv , 25).

For the editio princeps, see T . Elgvin, DJD, XXII, 289-99.

... and He has placed [before you] t[wo] ways one which is goo[d and
one which is evil. If you choose the good way], He will bless you. But if
you walk in the [evil] way, [He will curse you] ... and in your [te]nts, and
He will destroy you with ... and mildew, snow, ice and hai[l] ... with all.

443

W I S D O M LITERATURE

Bless, My Soul
(Barki nafshia-e, 4Q 434-438)

Cave 4 has yielded five manuscripts (4Q 434-438) of a poetic composition desig
nated by the opening words of the first section as Barki nafshi or Bless, my soul.
A sixth manuscript (4Q439) is said to be akin to it. The pieces translated are not
unlike some of the Thanksgiving Hymns, but include no sectarian features.
For the editio princeps, see M. Weinfeld and D. Seely, D JD , XXIX, 255-334 .

4Q 434, fr. 1
Bless, my soul, the Lord
for all His marvels for ever,
and may His name be blessed.
For He has delivered the soul of the poor,
and has not despised the humble,
and has not forgotten the misery of the deprived.
He has opened His eyes towards the distressed,
and has heard the cry of the fatherless,
and has turned His ears towards their crying.
He has been gracious to the humble by His great kindness,
and has opened their eyes to see His ways,
and [thei]r e[ar]s to hear His teaching.
He has circumcised the foreskin of their heart,
and has delivered them because of His kindness,
and has directed their feet towards the way.
He has not forsaken them amid the multitude of their
misery,
neither has He handed them over to the violent,
nor has He judged them together with the wicked.
[He has] not [directed] His anger against them,
444

B L E S S , M Y S OUL

neither did he annihilate them in His wrath.

While all His furious wrath was not growing weary,
He has not judged them in the fire of His ardour,
but He has judged them in the greatness of His mercy.
The judgements of His eyes were to try them,
and He has brought His many mercies among the nations,
[and from the hand of] men He has delivered them.
He has not judged them (amid) the mass of nations,
and in the midst of peoples He has not judged [them].
But He hid them in [His] ...
He has turned darkness into light before them,
and crooked places into level ground,
He has revealed to them abundance of peace and truth.
He has made their spirit by measure,
and has established their words by weight,
and has caused them to sing(?) like flutes.
He has given them a [perfect] heart,
and they have walked in the w[ay of His heart],
He has also caused them to draw near to the w[ay of his
heart].
For they have pledged their spirit.
He sent and covered them and commanded that no plague
[should affect them].
His angel fixed his camp around them;
He guarded them lest [the enemy?] destroy them.

io

Fr. i ii
n . . . in [their] misery [and] afflicti[on]s [and] He de [liver] ed
them [from] all affliction.
... and Thou hast done for them against the sons of man
and Thou hast delivered them for Thy sake.
... and they expiated for their iniquities and the iniquities of
their fathers,
and they atoned in wa[ter] ...
... by Thy judgements and to the way which Thou didst
teach again ...

445

W I S D OM LITERATURE

Fr. 2
... to comfort the poor woman for her mourning ...
... the nations to [des]truction and He will raze the
peoples.
And the wicked ...
Renew the works of the heaven and of the earth,
And they will exult and [the whole earth] will be filled
with His glory
He will atone [for] their [guilt] and great goodness will
comfort them.
... eating its fruit and goodness.
Like a man comforted by his mother, so will He comfort
them in Jerusalem.
Like a bridegroom] with the bride, so will He dwel[l] with
her [for e]ver.
[Fo]r His throne is for ever and ever and His glory
... and all the nations.
... the arm[y of heav]en will be in it and their delightful
[l]and ...
I will bless the ...
... Blessed be the name of the Most Hi[gh]...

Fr. 7b
... their portions from there from the des[ert to] the
gate of hope.
And He made a covenant with them
for peace with the birds [of hea]ven and the beasts of
the field.
He made manure of their enemies, He ground Edom
and Moab into dust...

B L E S S , MY S OUL

4Q 436 (combined with 4Q 435 i)

I understanding to strengthen the contrite heart and the spirit (which is)
in it for ever; to comfort the weak in the time of their distress and the hands
of the fallen so that they may rise; to make instruments of knowledge;
to give knowledge to the wise and the upright to increase understand
ing; so that they may understand Thy deeds which Thou hast done in
the years of old, in the years of all generations. Eternal understanding
which ... before me, and Thou keepest Thy law before me and Thou hast
entrusted Thy covenant to me. And Thou dost strengthen the heart...
to walk in Thy ways. Thou hast visited my heart and Thou hast sharp- 5
ened my kidneys (affections) that they may not forget Thy precepts. ...
Thou hast... Thy law. Thou hast opened my kidneys and hast strength
ened me to pursue Thy ways ... Thou hast made my mouth into a sharp
sword and opened my tongue for words of holiness. And Thou hast set
discipline [on them] that they may not meditate on mans actions, on the
whisper of his lips. Thou hast strengthened my feet ... and with Thy
hand Thou hast strengthened my right hand. And Thou hast sent me on
the straigh[t path].
... Thou hast chased away from me. And Thou hast placed a pure 10
heart in its stead; Thou hast chased away the evil inclination [from my]
II And Thou hast placed [the spirit of holine]ss into my heart and hast
taken away from me the eyes of fornication. And Thou hast looked
... Thy [wa]ys; Thou hast removed from me the stiff neck and replaced
it with humility. Thou hast taken away [from me] the rage of anger and
hast placed in me the spirit of patience [4Q435, fir. 1]. A haughty heart
and lofty eyes Thou hast... from me ... to me. Thou hast blotted out
the spirit of lies [4Q435 i] ... hast given me ...

4Q 437 (combined with 4Q 434-5)

Fr. 2 i
I ... from the congregation of the seekers after ...
They have concealed [a net] to catch me and they pursued
[my] sou[l].
447

W I S D O M LITERATURE

10

15

... their [swor]d penetrated their heart and their bows

were broken.
[For all thi]s I will bless Thy name during my life,
for Thou hast delivered me from the trap of the nations ...
[peo]ples.
Thy mercies are a shield around me and Thou hast
guarded my soul among the nations ...
Thou hast [not] made my friends ashamed of me.
I have not forgotten Thy precepts.
In the affliction of [my] soul [Thou hast not forsaken me,
and] Thou hast not hidden Thy face from my supplications.
Thou hast seen all my moanings and my iniquitiefs] ...
When my spirit was fainting, Thou hast listened to my voice.
[Thou hast hi]dden [me] in Thy quiver [and] ... me.
Thou hast made of me a pointed arrow; Thou hast concealed
me in the hiding place of Thy palm.
[... and from the mud] Thou hast delivered me lest I sink in it,
and from the stream of the gentiles lest it sweep me away
and from ... and I sank in its depth.
And from hell Thou hast brought up my soul.
Thou hast placed life [before me]
and Thou hast seated the congregation of the men of
marvels before me.
And among the children of righteousness Thou hast
comforted me.
And according to the line of judgement Thou hast
cheered up my soul,
And according to the weight of justice Thou hast vivified
my spirit.
I bless the Lord with al[l my power and I praise]
His [g]oodness with the joy of my heart.
I have remembered Thee, O Lord, and my heart is firm
b[efo]re Thee.
I have hoped in Thy salvation, O Lord ... I have remembered.
And my heart has rejoiced and my horn will rise towards Thee.
My soul thirsts. [My] soul [c]leaves to Thee. On thy deeds
will I meditate.
I have remembered Thee on my [couc]h during the watches
of the night.
448

A Leaders Lament
(4Q439)

Two small fragments have survived of a poetic lament bya person in authority.
The text is too small to allow us to determine whether these are the words or
pseudepigraphic words of a head of the sectarian community.
For the editio princeps, see M. Weinfeld and D. Seely, DJD, XXIX, 335-4 1.

Fr. I i
I ... [to] assemble the right[eous] of my people and to
establish the way of life ...
[to brin]g into the covenant the men of my company...
my inheritance.
Therefore my eyes are a spring of water ... discipline
and those who will stand up after them, who ...
And behold my whole city has changed into thorns ...
[Be]hold all my judges have become fooli[sh] ...
my righteous ones simple-minded, wh[o].. . traitors ...

449

Fight against Evil Spirits

(4Q444)

The main purpose of the person reciting this prayer, of which six small frag
ments have survived, is to curse the spirits of wickedness. The genre is the same
as 4 Q 5 1 0 - 1 1 .
For the editio princeps, see E. Chazon, DJD, XXIX, 367-78.

Fr. 1-4 i

I As for me, on account of my fear of God He has opened my

mouth,
And through His holy spirit... truth for all [thes]e.
They have become spirits of dispute in my body,
Precept[s of] ... [from] the frame of the flesh.
And God has placed in [my] h[eart]
the spirit of knowledge and understanding, truth and
righteousness...
And fortify yourself by the precepts of God,
And to fight against the spirit of wickedness and not...
His judgements. Cursed be ...

450

Songs of the Sage

( 4 Q 5 10 -11)

Scraps of two manuscripts from Cave 4 (4 Q 5 10 -11) represent a mixture of

sapiential psalms and poems of exorcism. Their editor, M. Baillet (D JD , V II,
215-62), assigns the script to the end of the first century

bce,

or the turning of

the era. The first fragment preserves an interesting list of names of demons.

4Q510
... praises. Ben[edictions for the K]ing of glory. Words of thanksgiving
in psalms o f ... to the God of knowledge, the Splendour of power, the
God of gods, Lord of all the holy. [His] dominion] is over all the powerful
mighty ones and by the power of his might all shall be terrified and shall
scatter and be put to flight by the splendour of the dwelling] of his kingly
glory. And I, the Master, proclaim the majesty of his beauty to frighten
and ter[rify] all the spirits of the destroying angels and the spirits of the
bastards, the demons, Lilith, the howlers (?) and [the yelpers . . .] they
who strike suddenly to lead astray the spirit of understanding and to
appal their heart and their ... in the age of the domination of wickedness
and the appointed times for the humiliation of the sons of ligh[t], in the
guilt of the ages of those smitten by iniquity, not for eternal destruction
but for the humiliation of sin. Exalt, O just, the God of marvels. My
psalms are for the upright... May all whose way is perfect exalt him.

4 Q 5 11, fr. 1
... [on the ea]rth and in all the spirits of his dominion always. Let the
seas b[le]ss him in their turn and all the creatures living in them. May
they proclaim the ... of beauty all of them. Let them rejoice before the
45i

W I S D O M LI TERATURE

God of justice with shouts of salvation, for there shall be no destroyer in

their territories, and no spirit of wickedness shall walk in there. For the
glory of the God of knowledge has shone forth in his words, and none of
the sons of iniquity shall endure.

Fr. 2
I For the Master. [First] Song. Praise the name of his holiness; all who
know [justice], exalt him ... He put an end to the chief of the domina
tions without... eternal [joy] and everlasting life, to cause light to shine
5 ... his [l]ot is the best of Jacob and the inheritance of G[o]d ... of Israel
... they who guard the way of God and the pat[h] of his [hol]iness for
the saints of his people. By the discerning knowledge [of Go]d, he placed
Israel in twelve camps ... the lot of God with the ange[ls] of the lumi
naries of his glory. In his name the praises ... he has established for the
feast of the year and for a common government that they may walk [in]
10 the lot of [God] according to [his] glory [and] serve him in the lot of the
people of his throne. For the God o f ...

Fr. 8
[For the Master]. Second [S]ong to frighten those who terrify him ...

Fr. 1 8
II I have hated all the works of impurity. For God has caused the
knowledge of understanding to shine in my heart. Just chastisers (deal)
with my perversity, and faithful judges with all my sinful guilt. For God
io is my judge and by the hand of a stranger [He] shall not...

Frs. 28-9
... [they shall] rejoice in God with jubilation. And I [will thank Th]ee
for, because of Thy glory, Thou hast [s]et knowledge on my founda
tions of dust to pr[aise Thee]. ... out of a shape [of clay] was I moulded
452

S O N G S OF THE SAGE

and from darkness was I kneaded ... and iniquity is in the limbs of my
flesh ...

Fr. 30
Thou hast sealed ... the [e]arth ... and they are deep. [The heavens and
the heavens of the] heavens, and the abysses and the dar[k places of the
earth] ... Thou, O my God, hast sealed them all and there is none to
open (them) ... Does one measure by the hollow of a human hand the
waters of the great (ocean)? Are [the heavens estimated by the span (of
fingers)? In one third (of a measure)] can any contain the dust of the
earth, and weigh the mountains in a balance, or the hills in scal[es]? Man
did not make these. How can he measure the spirit of [God]?

Fr- 35
... God in all flesh, and an avenging judgement to destroy wickedness,
and for the raging anger of God towards those seven times refined. God
shall sancti[fy] (some) of the holy as an everlasting sanctuary for himself,
and purity shall endure among the cleansed. They shall be priests, his
righteous people, his host, servants, the angels of his glory. They shall
praise him with marvellous prodigies. I, I spread the fear of God in the
ages of my generations to exalt the name ... [to terrify] by his might al[l]
the spirits of the bastards, subduing them by [his] fear ...

Frs. 63-4
II ... I will bless Thy name and in my appointed periods I will recount
Thy marvels and I will engrave them as precepts of Thy glorys praises.
At the beginning of every thought of a knowing heart and (with) the
offering of that which flows from the righteous lips when ready for all
true worship and with all...

453

W I S D O M LITERATURE

Fr. 63

III
As for me, my tongue shall extol Thy righteousness, for Thou hast
released it. Thou hast placed on my lips a fount of praise and in my heart
the secret of the commencement of all human actions and the comple
tion of the deeds of the perfect of way and the judgements regarding all
the service done by them, justifying the just by Thy truth and condemning the wicked for their guilt. To announce peace to all the men of the
Covenant and to utter a dreadful cry of woe for all those who breach it
.. . IV May they bless all Thy works always and blessed be Thy name for
ever and ever. Amen, amen.

Beatitudes
(4Q525)

The title given to this piece of wisdom poetry, consisting of fifty mosdy small
fragments palaeographically dated to the second half of the first century

bce,

derives from the repeated use of Blessed (ashre), modelled on Ps. i, i, and
recalling the Beatitudes of the New Testament (Matth. v, 3 -11). The main
structural difference between Matthew and 4Q 525 lies in that the former each
time lists the reward of the virtue for which people are blessed, whereas the
Cave 4 text provides ordinary, mosdy antithetic, parallelisms instead.
For the editto princeps, see E. Puech, DJD, XXV, 115 -7 8 .

Fr. 2
II [Blessed is] ... with a pure heart
and does not slander with his tongue.
Blessed are those who hold to her (Wisdoms) precepts
and do not hold to the ways of iniquity.
Blessed are those who rejoice in her,
and do not burst forth in ways of folly.
Blessed are those who seek her with pure hands,
and do not pursue her with a treacherous heart.
Blessed is the man who has attained Wisdom,
and walks in the Law of the Most High.
He directs his heart towards her ways,
and restrains himself by her corrections,
and always takes delight in her chastisements.
He does not forsake her when he sees distress,
nor abandon her in time of strain.
He will not forget her [on the day of] fear,
and will not despise [her] when his soul is afflicted.
455

W I S D O M LITERATURE

For always he will meditate on her,

and in his distress he will consider [her?]
[He will place her] before his eyes,
so as not to walk in the ways of [folly].

Fr- 5

io

[Do not] forsake your [inheritance [to the nations]

nor your portion to strangers ...
For the wise ... will instruct with sweetness.
Those who [f]ear God observe her (Wisdoms) ways
and walk in [all] her precepts
and do not reject her corrections.
The intelligent will bring out...
[and all] those who walk in perfection
will turn aside injustice,
but they will not reject her admonitions
and will carry [her] ...
The sensible will recognize her ways
[and meditate on (?)] her depths.
... will look.
Those who love God will withdraw to it (Wisdom)...

Fr. 14 ii
n ... your feet will [walk] in an open place and you will
advance on the high grou[nd of] your [e]nemy.
[You will love God with all your heart and with all] your
soul,
and He will deliver you from all evil.
Terror will not come upon you ... He will make you
inherit.
He will fill your days with good and you will w[alk]
in great peace
456

BEATITUDES

... you will inherit glory.

And you will end up in the eternal resting place ...
And all who know you will walk together following your
teaching;
... will mourn together and will remember you in your
ways.
For you were g[ood] ...
And now, listen to me, O man of understanding,
And let your mind be attentive to the utter [ances of
my lips].
Allow knowledge to enter your heart (literally: belly)...
Express [your] utterances with just humility [and]
give [not] ...
[Do not] turn against the words of your friend so
that he will not... to you.
Answer as is proper to him who listens to you.
Beware ...
[Do not] pour out your thought before you have
heard their words ... greatly.
First listen to their utterance and afterwards answer
... [With long-] suffering express them and answer
correctly among princes.
... with your lips and a stumbling block of the tongue.
Beware greatly ... lest you are caught by your lips
As well as ensnared by [your] tongue ...
... unseemly words ... from me and were twisted ...

457

15

20

25

F. Bible Interpretation

T h e T a rg u m o f J o b ,

Israel Antiquities Authority

Introductory Note

Five types of biblical commentary have been recovered from the Qumran caves.
The first and least developed form of exegesis is contained in the so-called
Reworked Pentateuch texts, consisting of a quasi-traditional text of the Bible,
occasionally rearranged and supplemented. To this category belong 4Q158,
364-7, 422, 382, etc. The Temple Scroll (11Q19-20) may also be assigned to
this group, as well as the fairly, though not strictly, literal Aramaic translations
or Targums of the Hebrew Scriptures (4Q156-7; 11Q10), to which should be
added some small fragments of the Greek Bible from Caves 4 and 7.
The second type, represented by the Genesis Apocryphon, sets out to render
the Bible story more intelligible and attractive by giving it more substance, by
reconciling conflicting statements, and by reinterpreting in the light of contem
porary standards and beliefs any passages which might seem to give offence. In a
somewhat similar manner, a Commentary on Genesis from Cave 4 (4Q252)
attempts to adjust the chronology of the Flood to the specific sectarian calendar
of the Qumran Community.
The third type of commentary departs from the biblical text and, relying on
one or several passages, creates a new story. Among others, the Admonition
associated with the Flood (4Q370, 185), the Words of Moses (1Q22), the New
Jerusalem texts (4Q554-5, 5Q15, etc.) and the Prayer of Nabonidus (4Q242),
inspired by Genesis, Deuteronomy, Ezekiel and Daniel respectively, come into
this category.
The fourth and most characteristic form of exegesis applies prophetic texts to
the past, present and future of the sect. Normally the commentator expounds a
biblical book verse by verse, e.g. Isaiah (4Q161-4); Nahum (4Q169); Habakkuk
(iQpHab); the Psalms (4Q171, 173), etc., but some works - A Midrash on the
Last Days (4Q174), The Heavenly Prince Melchizedek (11Q13), etc. - follow
the traditional Jewish example and assemble passages from different parts of
Scripture in order to develop a common theme.
Finally, a substantial amount of free compositions modelled on the Bible,
461

BIBLE IN TERPRETATION

e.g. Jubilees (4Q216-28), Enoch and the Giants (4Q201-12, 530-33), or circu
lating together with the Bible, e.g. the Para-Danielic fragments (4Q243-5), and
works attributed to Noah (1Q19, etc.), the Patriarchs Levi (4Q213-14, 537-41),
Moses (4Q374-7, 390), and many others constitute a fifth category of exegesis.
In one way, the Aramaic and Hebrew manuscripts of one of the Apocrypha, the
Book of Tobit (4Q196-200), pertain to this class.

Aramaic Bible Translations

(Targums)

Two books of the Hebrew Bible have survived in Aramaic translation in the
Qumran caves. A small scroll, found in Cave 11 and measuring 109 cm, has pre
served in Aramaic a large portion of the last seven chapters of the Book of Job.
Twenty-seven smaller fragments cover parts of Job xvii, 14 to xxxvi, 33. This
text, together with small remains from Cave 4 of Leviticus (4Qi56=xvi, 12-21,
see below) and of another manuscript ofJob (4Qi57=iii, 5-9; iv, 16-v, 4), repre
sent the oldest extant Aramaic renderings of the Hebrew Bible. The translation
of Job frequendy differs from the customary text of the Hebrew Bible, but it is
unclear whether the divergences are due merely to the difficulty of translating
poetry, or to a Hebrew original not identical with the traditional Scripture.
HebrewJob xl, 12

nQarJob

Look on every one that is proud

and bring him low;
and tread down the wicked
where they stand.

And every proud spirit

you will smash;
and extinguish the wicked
below them.

It is clear, on the other hand, that the prose narrative of xlii, 9-11 displays
notable departures from the text known to us, as may be seen from the following
parallel translations:
HebrewJob xlii

nQarJob

(9) So Eliphaz the Temanite and

Bildad the Shuhite and Zophar the
Naamathite went and did what the
Lord had told them; and the Lord
accepted Jobs prayer.
(10) And the Lord restored the

(9)...
God. God heard the voice of
Job and forgave them (his
friends) their sins because of him.
(10) And God returned
463

BIBLE IN TERPRETATION

fortunes of Job, when he had prayed

for his friends; and the Lord gave
Job twice as much as he had before.
(i i) Then came to him all his
brothers and sisters and all who had
known him before, and ate bread with
him in his house; and they showed
him sympathy and comforted him for
all the evil that the Lord had brought
upon him; and each of them gave him
a piece of money (or: sheep) and a
ring of gold.

to Job with mercy and

doubled all that he had
owned.
(i i) All his friends,
brothers and acquaintances
came to Job and they ate
bread with him in his
house, and they comforted
him for all the misery that
God had brought on him
and each gave him a
ewe-lamb and a ring of gold.

The English version provided below (Job xxxvii, 11 to xlii, 11) should therefore
be read side by side with the translation of the canonical Job. It will be noticed
that Job xxxix, 24 is missing from the Aramaic and xlii, 3 is replaced by xl, 5.
Furthermore, in Job xxxviii, 7 the phrase angels is substituted for sons of God,
a doctrinally suspect expression since Jews rejected the idea of God having
children. The same substitution is found in the Greek Septuagint and the Targum
ofJob used in rabbinic Judaism. Similarly the Targum to Lev. xvi, 14 and xvi, 20
(4Q156) specifies, as do the later Targums, that the Holy designates the House
of Holiness or Sanctuary. In short, the Qumran Targums prefigure to some
extent the style of the later Targums without attesting, however, the exegetical
expansions which characterize the Palestinian Targums to the Pentateuch.
For the editio princeps of 1 1Q10, see J. P. M. van der Ploeg et al., Le Targum de
Job de la grotte X I de Qumran (Leiden, 1971); for a new edition, see F. Garcia
Martinez, E. J. C. Tigchelaar and A. S. van der Woude, DJD, XXIII, 79-180.
For the Targums of Leviticus and Job (4Q156, 157), see J. T. Milik, D JD , VI,
85-91.

464

The Targum of Job

( i i Q io , 4 Q 157)

X X V III (Job xxxvii, 24-30)

(24) [Re]member that His works which they see are great.
(25) Every man looks at Him,
and the sons of men from afar search for Him.
(26) Behold, God is great,
and His days are numerous beyond knowledge
and the sum of His years is infinite.
(27) Behold, [He counts] the [rain] clouds
and He establishes the downpours.
(28) And His clouds let down dr [ops of water
on] a multitude of people.
(29) If He who spreads [the] cl[ouds] of His thunder
and spreads [His] light [... and co]vers.
For by them He judges peoples ...
X X IX (Job xxxvii)
(11) With it (water) He wipes the cloud [s],
and brings fire out of the cloud.
(12) He speaks and they listen to Him
and proceed with their works.
He appoints them over all
that He has created on earth:
(13) either for striking or for (benefiting) the
earth;
either for famine or shortage;
or for something good to be on it.
(14) Listen to this, Job, and arise!
Observe the might of God.

465

BIBLE IN TERPRETATION

(15) [Do you] know what God has put on them

and how He has made light to shine from the cloud?
(16) [Do you k]now how to robe the cloud with
mi[ght]?
(17) Because your robe ...
For He possesses knowledge ...
(18) [Do you know how to] beat the cloud
[to] compress [it into a mir]ror?
(19) He knows ...

10

X X X (Jobxxxviii)
(3) Please gird [your] lo[ins] like a man,
[and I will que]stdon you and you will answer me.
(4) Where were you when I made the earth?
Explain it to me if you possess wisdom.
(5) Do you know who fixed its measures?
Who stretched a line over it?
(6) Or to what were its foundations joined
or who set its cut stone
(7) when the morning stars were shining together
and all the angels of God exclaimed together?
(8) Can you shut in the sea with gates
when it bursts forward from the womb of the abyss,
(9) when the clouds were made into its robe
and the haze its swaddling-clothes.
(10) Can you set boundaries to i t ... ?
(11) Did you say, Up to here!
And you must not go beyond ... [your wa]ves.
(12) In your days did you order [the morning]
( 13 ) ... the win[gs] of the ear[th] ...
X X X I (23)...
for the day of battle and revolt.
(24)... from where will (the wind) go out
and will it blow before Him on the earth?
(2 5) Who fixed a time for the rain
and a path for the quick clouds
(26) to bring it (the rain) down to a land of wilderness
with no man on it,
466

T HE T A R G U M OF J OB

(27) to satiate the low-lying and isolated (places)

to produce sprouting grass.
(28) Has the rain a father
and who begets the mist of dew?
(29) And from whose womb did ice come out
(30) The waters contracted like a st[one] because of
Him,
and the face of the ab[yss?] ...
( 3 1) ... Pleiades or the fence of Orion ...

XXXII (Jobxxxix)
(1) the mountain goats, and the birth p[angs] ...
(2 )... their months are completed,
and do you know when they give birth,
(3) delivering their young and ejecting them,
and do you send away their birth pangs?
(4) They raise their young and make them go;
they depart and do not come back to them.
(5) Who has set the wild ass free
and who has loosed the onagers rope,
(6) to whom I gave the desert for his home
and made the salty land his dwelling.
(7) He laughs at the great commotion of the city
and his masters urging he does not hear.
(8) He chooses for himself mountains for [pasture]
and he goes after everything green.
(9) Does the wild ox wish to serve you
or will he lodge in your stable?
(10) Will you tie [the wild ox] with a yoke
and will he plough(?) in the valley [aft]er you?
And will you ...
Will you depend on hi[m because] great is
[his strength]?

XXXIII
(20) Will you frighten him (the horse) with a strong .
his ... is fear and dread.
(21) He searches out the valley, he trembles and
rejoices,

BI B LE I N T E R P R E T A T I O N

and mightily advances towards the sword.

(22) He laughs at fear and does not shudder,
and does not turn back from the sword.
(23) Upon him hangs a lance,
5

a javelin and a sharp sword,

(2 5) and at the sound of the trumpet, he says, Aha,

and from afar he smells the battle,
and he enjoys the rattle of the weapons and the war
cries.
(26) Does the hawk get excited because of your wisdom
and spread his wings towards the winds?
(2 7) Or does [the eagle] rise at your order
and the bird of prey build [its] nest on high?
(28) It dwells on the rock and nests ...
X X X IV (Jobxl)

(6) [From ...] and from the cloud

God answered Job and said to him:
(7) Like a man, please gird your loins;
I will question you, and you will answer me.
(8) Would you indeed tear up the judgement
and declare me guilty so that you may be
innocent?
(9) Or do you have an arm like God
or thunder with a voice like his?
(10) Throw away, please, pride and haughtiness
and you will put on splendour, glory and honour.
(11) Throw away, please, the heat of your wrath
and observe every proud man and humble him.
(12) And every proud spirit you will smash

and you will extinguish the wicked [in] their

[pi] aces.
(13) And hide them all in the dust
[and] cover [with a]shes ...
XXXV
(2 3 )... the Jordan its banks,
he (the hippopotamus) trusts that he will get it.
468

T HE T A R G U M OF J O B

(24) When he lifts his eyes, who will restrain him,

... his nose with a hook.
(25) Will you pull a crocodile with a hook
or tie up its tongue with a rope?
(26) Will you put a muzzle on his nose
and will you pierce his cheek with your chisel?
(2 7) Will he speak gently with you
or will he speak with you pleadingly?
(28) Will he make a covenant with you
or will you handle him as a slave for ever?
(29) Will you play with him like a b[ird,
and] will you bind him with a string for your
daughters?
X X X V I (Job xlt)
(8) They cling to one another
and no breath passes between them.
(9) One holds to another,
and they do not separate.
(10) His sneezing lights fire between his
eyes
like the shine of dawn (?).
(11) Torches come forth out of his mouth;
they leap like tongues of fire.
(12) From his nostrils smoke goes forth
like burning thorn and incense.
(13) His breath spews out coals
and sparks come out of his mouth.
(14) His strength dwells in his neck
and vigour springs before him.
(15) The folds of his flesh are clinging,
mould[ed over him] like iron.
(16) [His] heart... like stone

469

BI B LE I N T E R P R E T A T I O N

X X X V II (Job xli-xlit)
(26)...
and he is king over all the reptiles.
(1) Job answered and said before God:
(2) I know that Thou canst do all things
and dost not lack in strength and wisdom.
(xl, 5) I have spoken once and will not
revoke it,
a second time, and I will not add to it.
(xiii, 4) Listen, please, and I will speak;
I will question you and you must answer me.
(5) I had heard of you by the hearing of the
ear
and now my eyes see you.
(6) Therefore I am melting and dissolve
and become dust and ashes ...

X X X V III
(9)
... God. God heard the voice of Job and forgave them their sins
because of him. (10) And God returned to Job with mercy and
doubled all that he had owned. (11) All his friends, brothers and
5
acquaintances came to Job and they ate bread with him in his house,
and they comforted him for all the misery that God had brought on
him and each gave him a ewe-lamb and a ring of gold.

470

The Targum of Leviticus

(4Qi S6)

Fr. i

And he (Aaron) shall take some [of the blood of the bull and sprinkle it
with his finger o]n the mercy seat. And before the mercy seat - to the
east - [he shall sprinkle fr]om the blood with his finger [seven times]
(Lev. xvi, 14 ) ....

Fr. 2

... Whe[n he has made an end of atoning] for the House of Holiness
[and for] the tent of meeting and [for the altar, he shall offer] a live goat
(Lev. xvi, 20 )....

471

Appendix

(A) G R E E K B I B L E T R A N S L A T I O N S
(4Q 119 -2 2; 7Q 1-2)
Compared to the quantity of Hebrew and Aramaic manuscripts, the Greek doc
uments found in two of the Qumran caves, Caves 4 and 7, are remarkably few,
and this scarcity is significant in itself as regards the cultural identity of the
Qumran Community. Those which have been identified with certainty belong
to the Greek translation of the Bible, mosdy the Pentateuch. Cave 4 has yielded
remains of two scrolls of Leviticus, one of leather (4Q 119) and one of papyrus
(4Q120), as well as one of Numbers (4Q 121) and of Deuteronomy (4Q 122), all
dating to the second or the first century

bce.

On the whole, they represent the

traditional text of the Septuagint with minor variations such as a word being
replaced by its synonym (harvesting by threshing, for example, or nation by
people), but

4Q LXX

Numbers (4Q 121) testifies to an effort to bring the

lxx

closer to the Hebrew Pentateuch. Since the translation scarcely differs from the
original, there is no purpose in reproducing it. However, it is worth noting that
in Lev. iv, 27 (4Q 120, fr.

20 ,

4) the Tetragram (the divine name Y H W H ) is

rendered semi-phonetically as Iao, and is not replaced, as was customary later, by

the Greek Kurios (Lord).
Among the nineteen minute fragments found in Cave 7 - which contained
only Greek texts - two have been identified as relics of Exodus xxviii, 4 -7 (7Q 1)
and the Letter of Jeremiah, verses 4 3 -4 (7Q2). The former is said to be closer to
the traditional Hebrew text than to the l x x . Both are dated to about

10 0 b c e .

(B) O T H E R G R E E K F R A G M E N T S
(4 Q 126 -7; 7Q 3-19 )
The remaining two Greek texts in Cave 4 date roughly to the turn of the era.
One (4Q 126) cannot be identified and the other (4Q 127) is either a paraphrase
of Exodus, mentioning among others Pharaoh, Moses and Egypt, or possibly an
apocryphal account of Israel in Egypt.

472

APPENDIX

Seventeen out of the nineteen minute Greek papyrus fragments from Cave 7
have been declared by the editors to be unidentifiable. Yet against all verisimili
tude, several of them have generated sensational and even revolutionary claims,
especially that they represented the earliest textual examples of the Greek New
Testament.
The contention originated with a Spanish Jesuit, Jose O Callaghan, who in
1972 persuaded himself that these hardly legible scraps derived from six books
of the New Testament: the Gospel of Mark iv, 28 (7Q6 1), vi, 48 (7Q 15), vi,
52-3 (7Q5), xii, 17 (7Q7); the Acts of the Apostles xxviii, 38 (7Q6 2); 1 Timothy
iii, 16, iv, 1, 3 (7Q4); James i, 23-4 (7Q8) and even one of the latest New Testa
ment writings, 2 Peter i, 15 (7Q10). Of these, the case for Mark vi, 52 -3 is pur
ported to be the strongest. The real facts are the following. W e are dealing
with a fragment on which the written area measures 3.3 x 2.3 cm. Letters
appear on four lines; these are of unknown length since both the beginning and
the end of each line are missing. An unrecognizable trace of another letter is
observed at the top of the fragment. In the editio princeps seventeen letters are
identified of which only nine are certain. A single complete word has survived:
the Greek kai = and!
The leading experts in the field, the late C. H. Roberts of Oxford and the
German Kurt Aland, unhesitatingly discarded O Callaghans theory. Roberts
jokingly told me that if he wanted to waste his time, he was sure he would be
able to demonstrate that 7Q 5 belonged to any ancient Greek text, biblical or
non-biblical. Yet this unlikely and clearly improvable hypothesis was revived in
the 1980s by C. P. Thiede and others, only to encounter the same fate of sum
mary dismissal as Father OCallaghans a decade or so earlier.
For the editio princeps of the 4Q and 7Q material, see P. W . Skehan and
E. Ulrich, D JD , IX (Oxford, 1992), 16 1-97, 219-42; M. Baillet et al., D JD , III
(Oxford, 1962), 142-6. For the theory that yQ contains New Testament texts,
see J. O Callaghan, Los papipros griegos de la cueva 7 de Qumran (Madrid, 1974),
and C. P. Thiede, The Earliest Gospel Manuscripts (London, 1992); Re-Kindling
the Word (Valley Forge, Pa, 1996). For views for and against expressed at a sym
posium, see B. Mayer, ed., Christen und Christliches in Qumran? (Regensburg,
1992). Against the theory, see C. H. Roberts, On Some Presumed Papyrus
Fragments of the New Testament from Qumran, Journal of Theological Studies
23 (1972), 446-7; K. Aland, Neue neutestamentlische Papyri III, New Testament
Study 20 (1973-4), 3 57 -8 1. For the latest authoritative views, see G. Stanton,
Gospel Truth? (London, 1995); E. Puech, Des fragments grecs de la grotte 7 et
le Nouveau Testament?, RB 102 (1995), 570-84; M .-E. Boismard (the first
decipherer of the fragment), A propos de 7Q5 et Me. 6, 5 2 -5 3 , ibid., 102-4.

473

The Reworked Pentateuch

(4 Q 158 ,4 Q 36 4 -7)

Five badly preserved manuscripts have been classified as reworkings of the

Pentateuch, i.e. copies of the Torah partly entailing rearrangements of biblical
passages and partly incorporating interpretative supplements inserted into the
text. The length of the supplement varies from a few words to seven or eight
lines, the most significant example being the long, but broken, addition to the
Song of Miriam in 4Q 365 6a ii, c. Judging from the surviving passages, the origi
nal Reworked Pentateuch must have been a very substantial document, probably
the longest of all the Qumran Scrolls. All the manuscripts may be dated on
palaeographical grounds to the first century b c e . Only those texts which contain
more or less intelligible supplements (printed in italics) are included.
For the editio princeps of the Reworked Pentateuch, see J. M. Allegro, D JD , V,
1-6 (4Q 158) and E. Tov and S. White, D JD , X III, 18 7 -3 5 1 (4Q 364-7).

4 Q 15 8 , firs. 1-2
(Gen. xxxii, 24-32; Exod. iv, 27-28+Supplement)
.. . And |J]ac[ob] w[as left a]lone there. And [a man] wrestl[ed with him.
When the man did not prevail against Jacob, he touched his thigh; and
Jacobs thigh was put out of joint] as he wrestled with him and he seized
5 him. And he said to hi[m, What is your name? ... And he said to him,
Jacob. And he said, Your name shall be Israel, for you have striven with
God and with] men and have prevailed. And Jacob asked [and] sai[d, Tell
me, pray, what is your name. And he said, Why is it that you ask my
name, and he bless]ed him there. And he said to him, May the Lo[rd]
make you fruitful [and multiply] you. [May he grant you kn]owledge and
understanding and may he save you from all violence and ... until this
10 day and until everlasting generations. And he went on his way after he
had blessed him there. And he ... [And] the sun [rose] upon him as he
474

T HE R E W O R K E D P E N T A T E U C H

passed Penuel, limping because o f his thigh----- on this day. And he said,
You shall not e[at the sinew o f the hip which is] upon the two hollows o f
the thigh until [this day. (Exod. iv) And the Lord said] to Aaron, G o to
me[et M oses in the wilderness. So he went and met him at the mountain
o f G od and kissed him. And Moses told Aaron all] the words o f the Lord

15

with which he had s[ent] him and all [the signs which he had charged
him to do. And] the Lord [spoke] to me saying, When you bring out the [people
of Israel] ... to go as slaves and behold these are [four hundred and] thirty
[years] ...

4Q 364, fr. 3
(Supplement+Gen. xxviii, 6)
I I you shall see him . . . you shall see in peace . . . your death. And upon
[your] eyes . . .

[Why should I be bereft of] both ofyou? (Gen. xxvii, 45) And

[Isaac] called [Rebecca his wife and told] her all [these] wor[ds] . . . after

Jacob her son . . . And Esau saw that [Isaac had blessed Jacob and sent
him away to] Pa [dan] Aram to take [a wife] from [there] . . .

4Q 365, fir. 6b, 6a ii, 6c

(Exod. xv, 16-21+Supplement+xv, 22-6)
Fr. 6b

till [T h y people, O Lord], p[ass by,

dll the people pass by whom thou hast purchased.
T h o u wilt bring them in, and plant them] on thine own mountain,
the place, [O Lord, which thou hast made] for thine abode,
[the sanctuary which thy hands have established].
T h e Lo rd will reign for ever and ever.
For when [the horses o f Pharaoh with his chariots and his horsemen]
went [into the sea, the Lo]rd [brought back] the waters o f the sea
upon them; but the people o f Israel walked on dry ground in the midst
o f the sea.
[And the water] s were a wall to them on their right and on their left
(cf. Exod. xiv, 22, 29). [And Miriam the prophetess, sister o f Aaron], took

475

BI B L E I N T E R P R E T A T I O N

[a timbrel in her hand; and al]l the women went out after her with
[timbrels and dancing. And Miriam sang to them,
Sing to the Lord, for he has triumphed gloriously;
the horse and his rider he has thrown into the sea].

Fr. 6a ii, 6c
... thou hast despised...
For pride ...
Thou art great, a saviour...
The hope of the enemy has perished
and... has stopped...
5 They have perished in the mighty waters,
the enemy ... and lifts up to their height.
[Thou hast given a ransom] ...
... [he who ac]tsproudly.
And Moses led [Israe]l onward from the sea, and they went to the
wilderness of Sh[ur; they went three days and found no water]. They
came to Marah, but [they] could [not] drink the water of Marah because
[it was] bit[ter; therefore it was named Marah].
io And the people murmured ag[ainst Moses] saying, What shall we drink?
And Moses cried to [the Lord who showed him] a tree, and he threw it
into [the wate]r, and the water became sweet. There he made for them a
statute and [an ordinance and there he proved them. And he said], If
[you will lis]ten di [li]gently [to the v]oice of the Lord your God and do
that which is right in his eyes and [give heed to his commandments and
judgements, and keep] all his statutes, [I will put none] of the diseases [upon
you] which I put on the Egyptians. For I am the Lord, your [heale]r.

Fr. 23
(Lev. xxii, 42-xxiv, 2+Supplement)
You shall dwell [in bo]oths for seven days; all that are native in Israel
shall dwell in booths, tha[t your] generations may kno]w that I made
your fathers dwell in booths when I brought them out of the land of
Egypt; I am the Lord you[r] God. vacat And Moses declared to the people
of Israel the appointed feasts of the Lord, vacat And the Lord said to
476

T HE R E W O R K E D P E N T A T E U C H

Moses, Command the children of Israel, saying.t When you enter the land
which I am giving toyou as an inheritance, and you dwell upon it securely, you
shall bring wood for a bumt-offering and for all the service of [the H]ouse
which you shall buildfor me in the land, to lay it on the altar of bumt-offering,
[and] the calves... for Passover sacrifices and peace-offerings and thank-offerings
and free-will offerings and bumt-offerings daily ... and for the doors and for
all the service of the House you shall offer ... the festival of Oil, the twel[ve
tribes] they shall offer wood ... Those who offer on the first day shall be Levi
and ...[o n the third day, Reu]ben and Simeon, [and on] thefou[rth] day ...

A Paraphrase of Genesis and Exodus

(4Q422)

Nine fragments of a manuscript written in Hasmonaean characters (first half of

the first century

bce)

contain a paraphrase of Gen. i-iv, vi-ix, judging from dis

connected expressions relating to the creation of the world by Gods word, to

various living creatures, the establishment of man as ruler over the rest of
beings, the prohibition against eating from the tree of knowledge and the rebel
lion against God which led to the flood. Fr. 10 refers to the throwing of Israelite
boys into the Nile, the commissioning of Moses, his vision of the burning bush,
Moses and Aarons encounter with Pharaoh and the plagues which afflicted
Egypt. The text can be arranged in three columns. Further unidentified frag
ments, which are not included here, are numbered from A to T . If the word y a w
in col. 1, line 12 actually means inclination, the phrase evil inclination could
be the earliest attestation of the rabbinic concept.
For the editio princeps, see T . Elgvin and E. Tov, D JD , X III, 4 17 -4 1.

I ...
.. . [The heavens and the earth and all] their host He made by [His]
word. [And God rested on the seventh day from all the work whi]ch He
had made. And [His] holy spirit... [all th]e living and creeping [creatu]res
.. . [He put man on the ear]th to rule over it and to eat the frui[ts of the
10 ground] ... w[ith]out eating from the tree of kn[owledge of good and
evil] ... He rose against Him and they forgot... with an evil inclination
and for deed[s of ] ... peace/payment...
II ... [save Noah] and [his] wife and the w[ives of his sons from] the
5 waters of the Flood ... God [cl]osed behind them ... the windows of
heave[n] op[en]ed under all the heav[en ... for] the waters to rise on the
ear[th forty] days and for[ty] nights was [rain] ov[er] the earth ... and in
10 order to know the glory of the Most Hi[gh] ... to reach to Him, He
enlightened the heaven ... sign for generatio[ns] of eternity ... [and
478

A P A R A P H A S E OF G E NE S I S A N D E X O D U S

never more] will a flood [destroy the earth] ... the periods of day and
night... to shine [o]n heaven and earth ... Ill ... their [s]ons into the
rive[r] ... [And] He sent to them Moses ... in the vision ... in the signs 5
and marvels ... And He sent them to Pharaoh ... plagues ... marvels for
Egypt ... and they carried His word to Pharaoh to send away [their
people]. But He hardened [his] (Pharaohs) heart [to] sin so that the
m[en of Isra]el might know for eternal gene [rations]. And He changed
their [wate]rs to blood. Frogs were in all their land and lice in all their
territories, gnats in their houses and they struck all their ... And He
smote with pestile[nce all] their flock and their beasts He delivered to
de[at]h. He pu[t dark]ness into their land and obscurity into their
[hou]ses so that they could not see one another. [And He smote] their
land with hail and [their] soil [with] frost to cause [al]l the fruit of nour- 10
ishment [to perish]. And He brought locust to cover the face of the
ea[rth], heavy locust in all their territory to eat everything green in
[their] la[nd] ... And God hardened Ph[araohs] heart so that he should
not [dis]miss [them] ... and in order to increase wonders. [And He
smote their first-born], the beginning of al[l their strength] ...

479

The Genesis Apocryphon

(iQ apGen, 1Q 20)

Found in Cave 1, and partly published by N . Avigad and Y. Yadin (A Genesis

Apocryphon, Jerusalem, 1956), iQapGen is an incomplete manuscript with
twenty-two surviving columns of Aramaic text (cf. also 1Q20). Remains of a
further column, The Genesis Apocryphon Col. X I I , have since been edited by
J. C. Greenfield and E. Qimron

(Studies in Qumran Aramaic, Abr-Nahrain,

Suppl. 3 (1992), 70-77). A preliminary transcription and translation of the rest

of the unpublished material, deciphered with the help of advanced infra-red
technology, has been issued by M. Morgenstem, E. Qimron and D. Sinan in
The Hitherto Unpublished Columns of the Genesis Apocryphon, Abr-Nahrain

33 (1995). 30-52The beginning of the manuscript is missing. But since the sheet starting with
col. v is numbered by the Hebrew letter pe, col. x by sade, and col. xvn by qoph,
i.e. the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth letters of the Hebrew alphabet,
it would seem that the surviving section was preceded by sixteen sheets of which
only the end of the last one has been preserved (cf. M. Morgenstem, A New
Clue to the Original Length of the Genesis Apocryphon, J J S 47/2 (1996),
345-7). If so, the story of Noah which begins the existing portion of the scroll
must have been preceded by an extensive account of the creation, Adam and
Eve, and the Genesis story up to Enoch and Noah. Columns 11-v narrate the
miraculous birth of Noah (on Noah see also the minute fragments from

1Q19

and 19 bis), whose father, Lamech, suspects that his wife has conceived by one of
the fallen angels. Her denials fail to convince him and he asks his father,
Methuselah, to travel to Paradise and obtain reassurance from his own father,
Enoch. Columns v i-x v contain Noahs first-person account of the Flood and
of his journeys. Col. x describes Noahs sacrifice after the Flood. Col. xi deals
with the covenant between God and Noah with a mention of a ban on eating
blood. Col.

xii

recounts the planting of a vineyard by Noah and his tasting of

wine. The badly damaged cols, x m -xv contain a vision concerning trees and
its interpretation. Two further columns (x v i - x v i i ) deal with the division of the
480

T HE GE N E S I S A P O C R Y P H O N

earth among the sons of Noah. Col.

x v iii

is completely lost. Cols,

x ix - x x ii,

corresponding to Gen. xii-xv, deal with Abrahams journey to Egypt, his return to
Canaan, the war against the invading Mesopotamian kings, and the renewal to
him of a divine promise of a son. This lively and delightful narrative, largely
devoid of sectarian bias, throws valuable light on inter-Testamental Bible inter
pretation. It is a mixture of Targum, Midrash, rewritten Bible and auto
biography. Most scholars assign the manuscript to the late first century

bce

or

the first half of the first century c e . The composition itself is generally thought to
originate from the second century b c e . Its relationship to the mid-second-century
Book of Jubilees is generally accepted, but views differ on whether it depends on
Jubilees or vice versa. I slightly prefer the theory that in its pre-Qumran version
the Genesis Apocryphon precedes Jubilees, which would postulate for the for
mer a date at least as early as the first half of the second century b c e .

... II Behold, I thought then within my heart that conception was

(due) to the Watchers and the H oly Ones . . . and to the Giants . . . and
m y heart was troubled within me because o f this child. T h en I, Lamech,
approached Bathenosh [my] wife in haste and said to her, . .. by the
M ost High, the Great Lord, the K ing o f all the worlds and Ruler o f the
Sons o f Heaven, until you tell me all things truthfully, i f . . . Tell me [this

truthfully] and not falsely . . . by the King o f all the worlds until you tell
me truthfully and not falsely.
Then Bathenosh m y wife spoke to me with much heat [and] . . . said,
O my brother, O my lord, remember my pleasure . . . the lying together
and my soul within its body. [And I tell you] all things truthfully.

10

M y heart was then greatly troubled within me, and when Bathenosh
my wife saw that m y countenance had changed . . . T h en she mastered
her anger and spoke to me saying, O my lord, O my [brother, remember]
my pleasure! I swear to you by the H oly Great One, the K ing o f [the
heavens] . . . that this seed is yours and that [this] conception is from you.
T h is fruit was planted by you . . . and by no stranger or W atcher or Son

15

o f Heaven . . . [W hy] is your countenance thus changed and dismayed,

and why is your spirit thus distressed . . . I speak to you truthfully.
T h en I, Lamech, ran to Methuselah m y father, and [I told] him all
these things. [And I asked him to go to Enoch] his father for he would
surely learn all things from him. For he was beloved, and he shared the
lot [of the angels], who taught him all things. And when Methuselah
heard [my words . . . he went to] Enoch his father to learn all things
truthfully from him . . . his will.
481

20

BI B L E I N T E R P R E T A T I O N

25

10

15

20

25

10

He went at once to Parwain and he found him there ... [and] he said
to Enoch his father, O my father, O my lord, to whom I ... And I say to
you, lest you be angry with me because I come here ...
V I [I abstained] from injustice and in the womb of her who con
ceived me I searched for truth. And when I emerged from my mothers
womb, I was planted for truth and I lived all my days in truth and walked
in the paths of eternal truth. And the Holy One (was) with me ... on my
pathways truth sped to warn me off the ... of lie which led to darkness
... and I girded my loins with the vision of truth and wisdom ... paths
of violence, vacat Then I, Noah, became a man and clung to truth and
seized ... and I took Amzara, his daughter as my wife. She conceived
and bore me three sons [and daughters]. Then I took wives for my sons
from among my brothers daughters, and I gave my daughters to my
brothers sons according to the law of the eternal precept which the
Most High [ordained] to the sons of man. vacat And in my days, when
according to my reckoning ... ten jubilees had been completed, the
(moment) came for my sons to take wives for themselves ... heaven, I saw
in a vision and was explained and made known the action of the sons of
heaven and ... the heavens. Then I hid this mystery in my heart and
explained it to no man. vacat... to me and a great and ... and in a mes
sage of the Holy One ... and he spoke to me in a vision and he stood
before me ... ,
... and the message of the great Holy One called out to me: To you
they say, O Noah, ... and I reckoned the whole conduct of the sons of
the earth. I knew and explained a ll... two weeks. Then the blood which
the Giants had spilled.... I was at ease and waited until... the holy ones
with the daughters of man ... [Then] I, Noah, found grace, greatness
and truth ...
... till the gates of heaven ... to men and cattle, and wild beasts and
birds ...
V II ... on them; the earth and all that is on it, in the seas and on the
mountains ... all the constellations of heaven, the sun, the moon and the
stars and the Watchers ...
... I shall reward you ... vacat the great Holy One. And I rejoiced in
the words of the Lord of heaven and I shouted ...
it ... you all to your Master ... the King of all the world for ever and
ever until all eternity, vacat... [until] the ark rested on one of the moun
tains of Ararat (HW RRT). And eternal fire ... And I atoned for the
whole earth, all of it. And the beginning of ... and I burned the fat on
482

T HE G E N E S I S A P O C R Y P H O N

the fire. Secondly, ... I poured out their blood on the base of the altar
and I burned all their flesh on the altar. And thirdly the turtledoves ...
on the altar as an offering. ... I put on it fine flour mixed with oil and
with incense as a meal offering.. . . I put salt on all of them. And the
smell of my offering rose up to heaven, vacat...
X I ... the mountains and the deserts ...
... four ... vacat [Then] I, Noah, went out and walked on the earth,
through its length and breadth ... delight on her in their leaves and in
their fruit. And all the land was filled with grass and herbs and grain.
Then I blessed the Lord of heaven who made splendid things. He is for
ever and praise is his. And I repeated the blessing on account of his grace
for the earth and on account of his removing and causing to perish from
it all those who do violence and wickedness and lies and on account of
his rescuing the righteous man ... vacat [God] was revealed to me and
[the Lord] of heaven spoke to me and said to me: Do not fear, Noah. I
shall be with you and with your sons who will be like you for ever ... of
the earth and rule over them ... and over its deserts and its mountains
and all that are on them. And behold, I give all of it to you and to your
sons to eat the green things and the grass of the earth. But you shall not
eat any blood. Your fear and awe ... for ever. ...
X II ... in the mountains of Ararat (HW RRT). And afterwards I
descended ... I and my sons and the sons [of my sons] ... for the
destruction was great on the earth ... after the Flood. To my first son
[Shem] was born, to begin with, a son, Arpachshad, two years after the
Flood. [And] all the sons of Shem, all of them, [were Ela]m, and Ashur,
Arpachshad, Lud and Aram, and five daughters. [And the sons of Ham:
Kush and Misrai]n and Put and Canaan, and seven daughters. And the
sons of Japhet: Gomer and Magog and Media and Yavan [and Tu]bal and
Mashok and Tiras, and four daughters. [And] I began, I and all my sons,
to fill the land and I planted a big vineyard on Mount Lubar and in the
fourth year it produced wine for me ... [And] when the first festival
c[ame], on the first day of the first festival in the ... month ... I opened
this jar (?) and I began to drink on the first day of the fifth year ... On
this day I summoned my sons, my grandsons and all our wives and their
daughters, and we assembled together and we went... and I blessed the
Lord of heaven, the Most High God, the Great Holy One who saved us
from perdition ...
X III ... they were cutting gold and silver and stones and clay and
taking part of them for themselves. I saw the gold and the silver ... iron,
483

15

10

15

10

15

10

BI B LE I N T E R P R E T A T I O N

15

10

15

10

20

and they cut down every tree and took some for themselves. I saw the
sun and the moon and the stars cutting and taking some for themselves.
... I turned to see the olive tree and behold, the olive tree was rising
upwards and for many hours ... many leaves ... appeared in them. I
observed this olive tree and beheld the abundance of its leaves ... they
tied to it. And I was greatly amazed by this olive tree and its leaves. I was
amazed ... the four winds of heaven were blowing powerfully and they
damaged this olive tree, breaking off its branches and smashing them.
First [came] the westerly [wind] and struck it, and shook off its leaves
and fruit, and scattered them in every direction. Then ...
XIV ... listen and hear! You are the great cedar ... standing before
you in a dream on the top of mountains ...
... truth. The willow that springs from it and rises towards the heights
(these are) three sons ... And that which you did see, (namely that) the
first willow caught the stump of the cedar ... and the wood from i t ...
will not separate from you all its days. And among its posterity... will be
called ... will spring a righteous plant ... will stand for ever. And that
which you did see, (namely that) the willow caught the stump [of the
cedar] ...
... the last willow ... vacat... part of their branch entered (got entan
gled with?) the branch of the first (willow), two sons ... And that which
you did see, (namely that) part of their branch entered the branch of the
first... I explained to him the mystery ...
XV ... And that you did see all of them ... they will go around, the
majority of them will be wicked. And that which you did see, (namely
that) a man came from the south of the land, with a sickle in his hand,
and fire with him ... who will come from the south of the land ... And
they will cast wickedness on the fire, all ... And he shall come between
... Four angels ... between all the nations. And all of them will worship
and be confounded ... I will explain to you all, in truth. And thus it is
written concerning you. And I, Noah, awoke from my sleep and the sun

XVI ... until the river Tina ... and all the land of the north, all of it,
until it reaches ... And this boundary passes by the waters of the Great
Sea as far as ... divided by lot to Japhet and his sons to inherit as an eter
nal inheritance, vacat The second lot came to Shem to inherit, he and his
sons, as an eternal inheritance ... the waters of the river Tina ... as far as
the river Tina ... to the great Sea of Salt. And this boundary goes as a
20 spring from this bay ... to the east
10

484

T HE G E N E S I S A P O C R Y P H O N

XVII ... And Shem, my son, divided (his inheritance) among his
sons. And the first (lot) fell to Elam in the north, by the waters of the
river Tigris as far as the Red Sea, whose source is in the north, and it
turns to the west to Assyria as far as the Tigris ... And after it to Aram,
the land between the two rivers, as far as the top of the mountain of
Ashur ... [To] ... fell this Mount of the Ox and the portion stretched 10
and went westwards as far as Magog ... east in the north ... this bay
which is at the head of three portions by this sea to Arpachshad to the
boundary that turns towards the south, all the land watered by the
Euphrates, and all ... all the valleys and plains that are between them,
and the island that is in the middle of the bay ... to the sons of Gomer
... and Amana as far as the Euphrates ... the portion that his father 15
Noah divided and gave him. vacat Japhet divided (his inheritance)
between his sons. He gave the first (lot) to Gomer in the north as far as
the river Tina, and afterwards to Magog, and afterwards to Media, and
afterwards to Yavan (the Greeks), all the islands that are by Lydia. And
(the lot) which is between the bay of Lydia and the second bay, (he gave)
to Tubal ... in the land. And to Meshek the sea ... to Tiras ... which is
by the portion of the sons of Ham ... vacat...
XVIII ...
XIX ... And I said, Thou art

. until now you have not

come to the Holy Mountain.
And I (Abram) departed ... and I travelled towards the south ... until
I came to Hebron [at the time when Hebron] was being built; and I 10
dwelt there [two years].
Now there was famine in all this land, and hearing that there was
prosperity in Egypt I went ... to the land of Egypt ... I [came to] the
river Karmon, one of the branches of the River (Nile) ... and I crossed
the seven branches of the River ... We passed through our land and
entered the land of the sons of Ham, the land of Egypt.
And on the night of our entry into Egypt, I, Abram, dreamt a dream;
[and behold], I saw in my dream a cedar tree and a palm tree ... men
came and they sought to cut down the cedar tree and to pull up its roots, 15
leaving the palm tree (standing) alone. But the palm tree cried out
saying, Do not cut down this cedar tree, for cursed be he who shall fell
[it]. And the cedar tree was spared because of the palm tree and [was]
not felled.
And during the night I woke from my dream, and I said to Sarai my
wife, I have dreamt a dream ... [and I am] fearful [because of] this
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10

dream. She said to me, Tell me your dream that I may know it. So I
began to tell her this dream ... [the interpretation] of the dream ... .
that they will seek to kill me, but will spare you ... [Say to them] of me,
He is my brother, and because of you I shall live, and because of you
my life shall be saved ...
And Sarai wept that night on account of my words ...
Then we journeyed towards Zoan, I and Sarai... by her life that none
should see her ...
And when those five years had passed, three men from among the
princes of Egypt [came at the command] of Pharaoh of Zoan to inquire
after [my] business and after my wife and they gave ... goodness, wisdom,
and truth. And I exclaimed before them ... because of the famine ...
And they came to ascertain ... with much food and drink... the wine ...
(During the party, the Egyptians must have seen Sarai, and on their
return they praised her to the king.)
XX
... . and beautiful is her face! How ... fine are the hairs of her
head! How lovely are her eyes! How desirable her nose and all the radi
ance of her countenance ... How fair are her breasts and how beautiful
all her whiteness! How pleasing are her arms and how perfect her hands,
and how [desirable] all the appearance of her hands! How fair are her
palms and how long and slender are her fingers! How comely are her
feet, how perfect her thighs! No virgin or bride led into the marriage
chamber is more beautiful than she; she is fairer than all other women.
Truly, her beauty is greater than theirs. Yet together with all this grace
she possesses abundant wisdom, so that whatever she does is perfect (?).
When the king heard the words of Harkenosh and his two companions,
for all three spoke as with one voice, he desired her greatly and sent out
at once to take her. And seeing her, he was amazed by all her beauty and
took her to be his wife, but me he sought to kill. Sarai said to the king,
He is my brother, that I might benefit from her, and I, Abram, was
spared because of her and I was not slain.
And I, Abram, wept aloud that night, I and my nephew Lot, because
Sarai had been taken from me by force. I prayed that night and I begged
and implored, and I said in my sorrow while my tears ran down: Blessed
art Thou, O Most High God, Lord of all the worlds, Thou who art
Lord and king of all things and who rulest over all the kings of the earth
and judgest them all! I cry now before Thee, my Lord, against Pharaoh
of Zoan the king of Egypt, because of my wife who has been taken from
me by force. Judge him for me that I may see Thy mighty hand raised
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THE G E N E S I S A P O C R Y P H O N

against him and against all his household, and that he may not be able to
defile my wife this night (separating her) from me, and that they may
know Thee, my Lord, that Thou art Lord of all the kings of the earth.
And I wept and was sorrowful.
And during that night the Most High God sent a spirit to scourge
him, an evil spirit to all his household; and it scourged him and all his
household. And he was unable to approach her, and although he was
with her for two years, he knew her not.
At the end of those two years the scourges and afflictions grew greater
and more grievous upon him and all his household, so he sent for all [the
sages] of Egypt, for all the magicians, together with all the healers of
Egypt, that they might heal him and all his household of this scourge.
But not one healer or magician or sage could stay to cure him, for the
spirit scourged them all and they fled.
Then Harkenosh came to me, beseeching me to go to the king and to
pray for him and to lay my hands upon him that he might live, for the
king had dreamt a dream ... But Lot said to him, Abram my uncle can
not pray for the king while Sarai his wife is with him. Go, therefore, and
tell the king to restore his wife to her husband; then he will pray for him
and he shall live.
When Harkenosh had heard the words of Lot, he went to the king
and said, All these scourges and afflictions with which my lord the king
is scourged and afflicted are because of Sarai the wife of Abram. Let
Sarai be restored to Abram her husband, and this scourge and the spirit
of festering shall vanish from you.
And he called me and said, What have you done to me with regard to
[Sarai]? You said to me, She is my sister, whereas she is your wife; and I
took her to be my wife. Behold your wife who is with me; depart and go
hence from all the land of Egypt! And now pray for me and my house
that this evil spirit may be expelled from it.
So I prayed [for him] ... and I laid my hands on his [head]; and the
scourge departed from him and the evil [spirit] was expelled [from him],
and he lived. And the king rose to tell me ... and the king swore an oath
to me that ... and the king gave her much [silver and gold] and much
raiment of fine linen and purple ... And Hagar also ... and he appointed
men to lead [me] out [of all the land of Egypt]. And I, Abram, departed
with very great flocks and with silver and gold, and I went up from
[Egypt] together with my nephew [Lot]. Lot had great flocks also, and
he took a wife for himself from among [the daughters of Egypt.
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I pitched my camp] X X I [in] every place in which I had formerly

camped until I came to Bethel, the place where I had built an altar. And I
built a second altar and laid on it a sacrifice, and an offering to the Most
High God. And there I called on the name of the Lord of worlds and
praised the Name of God and blessed God, and I gave thanks before
God for all the riches and favours which He had bestowed on me. For
He had dealt kindly towards me and had led me back in peace into this
land. After that day, Lot departed from me on account of the deeds of
our shepherds. He went away and settled in the valley of the Jordan,
together with all his flocks; and I myself added more to them. He kept
his sheep and journeyed as far as Sodom, and he bought a house for him
self in Sodom and dwelt in it. But I dwelt on the mountain of Bethel and
it grieved me that my nephew Lot had departed from me. And God
appeared to me in a vision at night and said to me, Go to Ramath Hazor
which is north of Bethel, the place where you dwell, and lift up your eyes
and look to the east and to the west and to the south and to the north;
and behold all this land which I give to you and your seed for ever.
The next morning, I went up to Ramath Hazor and from that high
place I beheld the land from the River of Egypt to Lebanon and Senir,
and from the Great Sea to Hauran, and all the land of Gebal as far as
Kadesh, and all the Great Desert to the east of Hauran and Senir as far
as the Euphrates. And He said to me, I will give all this land to your
seed and they shall possess it for ever. And I will multiply your seed like
the dust of the earth which no man can number; neither shall any man
number your seed. Rise and go! Behold the length and breadth of the
land, for it is yours; and after you, I will give it to your seed for ever.
And I, Abram, departed to travel about and see the land. I began my
journey at the river Gihon and travelled along the coast of the Sea until
I came to the Mountain of the Bull (Taurus). Then I travelled from
the coast of the Great Salt Sea and journeyed towards the east by the
Mountain of the Bull, across the breadth of the land, until I came to
the river Euphrates. I journeyed along the Euphrates until I came to the
Red Sea (Persian Gulf) in the east, and I travelled along the coast of
the Red Sea until I came to the tongue of the Sea of Reeds (the modem
Red Sea) which flows out from the Red Sea. Then I pursued my way in
the south until I came to the river Gihon, and returning, I came to my
house in peace and found all things prosperous there. I went to dwell at
the Oaks of Mamre, which is at Hebron, north-east of Hebron; and I
built an altar there, and laid on it a sacrifice and an oblation to the Most
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High God. I ate and drank there, I and all the men of my household, and
I sent for Mamre, Omam and Eshkol, the three Amorite brothers, my
friends, and they ate and drank with me.
Before these days, Kedorlaomer king of Elam had set out with
Amrafel king of Babylon, Ariok king of Kaptok, and Tidal king of the
nations which lie between the rivers; and they had waged war against
Bera king of Sodom, Birsha king of Gomorrah, Shinab king of Admah,
Shemiabad king of Zeboim, and against the king of Bela. All these had 25
made ready for battle in the valley of Siddim, and the king of Elam and
the other kings with him had prevailed over the king of Sodom and his
companions and had imposed a tribute upon them.
For twelve years they had paid their tribute to the king of Elam, but in
the thirteenth year they rebelled against him. And in the fourteenth
year, the king of Elam placed himself at the head of all his allies and
went up by the Way of the Wilderness; and they smote and pillaged
from the river Euphrates onward. They smote the Refaim who were at
Ashteroth Kamaim, the Zumzamim who were at Ammon, the Emim
[who were at] Shaveh ha-Keriyyoth, and the Horites who were in the
mountains of Gebal, until they came to El Paran which is in the Wilder
ness. And they returned ... at Hazazon Tamar.
30
The king of Sodom went out to meet them, together with the king [of
Gomorrah], the king of Admah, the king of Zeboim, and the king of
Bela, [and they fought] a battle in the valley [of Siddim] against Kedor
laomer [king of Elam and the kings] who were with him. But the king of
Sodom was vanquished and fled, and the king of Gomorrah fell into the
pits ... [And] the king of Elam [carried off] all the riches of Sodom and
[Gomorrah] ... and they took Lot the nephew X X II of Abram who
dwelt with them in Sodom, together with all his possessions.
Now one of the shepherds of the flocks which Abram had given to Lot
escaped from captivity and came to Abram; at that time Abram dwelt in
Hebron. He told him that Lot his nephew had been taken, together with
all his possessions, but that he had not been slain and that the kings had
gone by the Way of the Great Valley (of the Jordan) in the direction of
their land, taking captives and plundering and smiting and slaying, and
that they were journeying towards the land of Damascus.
Abram wept because of Lot his nephew. Then he braced himself; he 5
rose up and chose from among his servants three hundred and eighteen
fighting men trained for war, and Omam and Eshkol and Mamre went
with him also. He pursued them until he came to Dan, and came on
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them while they were camped in the valley of Dan. He fell on them at
night from four sides and during the night he slew them; he crushed
them and put them to flight, and all of them fled before him until they
came to Helbon which is north of Damascus. He rescued from them all
their captives, and all their booty and possessions. He also delivered Lot
his nephew, together with all his possessions, and he brought back all the
captives which they had taken.
When the king of Sodom learned that Abram had brought back all the
captives and all the booty, he came out to meet him; and he went to
Salem, which is Jerusalem.
Abram camped in the valley of Shaveh, which is the valley of the king,
the valley of Beth-ha-Kerem; and Melchizedek king of Salem brought
out food and drink to Abram and to all the men who were with him. He
was the Priest of the Most High God. And he blessed Abram and said,
Blessed be Abram by the Most High God, Lord of heaven and earth!
And blessed be the Most High God who has delivered your enemies into
your hand! And Abram gave him the tithe of all the possessions of the
king of Elam and his companions.
Then the king of Sodom approached and said to Abram, My lord
Abram, give me the souls which are mine, which you have delivered from
the king of Elam and taken captive, and you may have all the possessions.
Then said Abram to the king of Sodom, I raise my hand this day to
the Most High God, Lord of heaven and earth! I will take nothing of
yours, not even a shoe-lace or shoe-strap, lest you say, Abrams riches
come from my possessions! I will take nothing but that which the young
men with me have eaten already, and the portion of the three men who
have come with me. They shall decide whether they will give you their
portion. And Abram returned all the possessions and all the captives and
gave them to the king of Sodom; he freed all the captives from this land
who were with him, and sent them all back.
After these things, God appeared to Abram in a vision and said to him,
Behold, ten years have passed since you departed from Haran. For two
years you dwelt here and you spent seven years in Egypt, and one year
has passed since you returned from Egypt. And now examine and count
all you have, and see how it has grown to be double that which came out
with you from Haran. And now do not fear, I am with you; I am your
help and your strength. I am a shield above you and a mighty safeguard
round about you. Your wealth and possessions shall multiply greatly.
But Abram said, My Lord God, I have great wealth and possessions but
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what good shall they do to me? I shall die naked; childless shall I go
hence. A child from my household shall inherit from me. Eliezer son
... shall inherit from me. And He said to him, He shall not be your
heir, but one who shall spring [from your body shall inherit from you].

Genesis Commentaries
(4 0 2 52-25 4 3)

From this non-continuous paraphrase of Genesis, four sections are reproduced

here, two of which are of sectarian inspiration. The composition of the first frag
ment attempts to adapt the chronology of the biblical Flood story to the solar
calendar of the Qumran Community. Along more general lines, it seeks also to
explain certain peculiarities of the scriptural text, e.g., why, despite Hams disre
spect to his father, it was not he, but his son Canaan, who was cursed by Noah.
The exegesis attested in this section is distinct from the pesher, and resembles
partly the style of the rewritten Bible such as the Genesis Apocryphon, and
partly the plain, or peshat, interpretation of the rabbis.
The subject of the second excerpt is the blessing ofJudah, i.e. the tribe in which
David originated. The sectarian commentator (see the mention of the men of
the Community in line 5) emphasizes that the royal power will belong for ever
to the descendants of David, thereby implying that all non-Davidic rulers, such
as the contemporary Hasmonaean priest-ldngs, unlawfully occupy the throne.
If so, the composition best fits to the first half of the first century b c e . Only four
tiny fragments of 4Q253 are extant. Fr. 1 mentions the ark. Fr. 3, col. 1 contains
a citation from Mai. iii, 16-18. This is the only translatable excerpt. Fifteen
mosdy insignificant scraps of 4Q254 correspond partly to the Noah story and
partly to the blessings of the Patriarchs. Only frs. 1 and 5 can be translated. Fr.
1, lines 2-4 overlap with 4Q252 ii, 1.6.
For the editio princeps, see G. J. Brooke, DJD, XXII, 185-212,217-36.

4Q252, fir. 1 (Gen. vi, 3-xv, 17)

I [In the] four hundred and eightieth year of the life of Noah came their
end (that of antediluvian mankind). And God said, My spirit shall not abide
in man for ever and their days shall be determined to be one hundred and
twenty years (Gen. vi, 3) - until the end of the Flood. And the waters of the
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Flood arrived on the earth in the six hundredth year of the life of Noah, in the
second month - on the first day of the week - on the seventeenth (of the
month). On that day all the fountains of the great deep burst forth and the
windows of the heavens were opened. And rain fell on the earth forty days and
forty nights (vii, 11- 12 ) until the twenty-sixth day of the third month, the
fifth day of the week. And the waters prevailed upon the \ea\rth a hundred
and fifty days (vii, 24) - until the fourteenth day of the seventh mmth, the
third day of the week. And at the end of a hundred andfifty days, the waters
had abated - two days, the fourth and the fifth day, and on the sixth day the ark came to rest on the mountains of Hurarat (or: Turarat), on the seventeenth day of the seventh month (viii, 3-4). And the waters [continued to abate
until the [ten]th month, thefirst day of (the month) - the fourth day of the
week - and the tops of the mountains appeared (viii, 5). At the end offorty days
- after the tops of the mountains had been seen - Noah [op]ened the win
dow of the ark (viii, 6) - on the tenth day of the ele[venth] month. And he
sentforth the dove to see if the waters had subsided (viii, 8), but she did notfind
a resting-place and returned to him to the ark (viii, 9). He waited an[other]
seven days and again sent her forth (viii, 10). She came back to him with a
plucked olive leafin her beak (viii, 10 -11) - [this is the twenty-] fourth [day]
of the eleventh month, the first day of the wee[k. And Noah knew that the
waters had subsided] from the earth (viii, 11). At the end of another [seven
days, he sentforth the dove and it did not] return again (viii, 12) - this is the
f[irst] day [of the twelfth] month, [the first day] of the week. At the end
of three [weeks after Noah had sent forth the dov]e which did not return
to him any more, the wa[ters] dried up [from the earth and] Noah removed
the covering of the ark and looked, and behold, the face of the ground was dry
(viii, 13). This was the first day of thefirst month. [And it happened] II in
the six hundred and first year of the life of Noah, on the seventeenth day of
the second month that the earth was dry (viii, 14) - on the first day of the
week. On that day Noah went forth from the ark (viii, 18) at the end of a
full year of three hundred and sixty-four days, on the first day of the
week, on the seven [teenth] of the second month vacat on and six vacat
Noah from the ark at the appointed time of a full year vacat And Noah
awoke from his wine and knew what his youngest son had done to him. And he
said, Cursed be Canaan; a slave of slaves shall he be to [his] bro[thers] (ix,
24-5). But he did not curse Ham but only his son, for God had blessed the
sons of Noah. And let him dwell in the tents of Shem (ix, 27). He gave the
land to Abram, his beloved. [Terah] was one hundred and for[t]y-five
years old when he wentforth from Ur of the Chaldees and came to Haran (xi,
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31). Now Ab[ram was se]venty years old and for five years Abram dwelt
10 in Haran. And afterwards Abram went forth to the land of Canaan.
Six[ty-five years] ... the heifer and the ram and the go[at] (xv, 9) ... [the
torch of] fire when it pass[ed over] (xv, 1 7 ) ...

(Gen. xxxvi, 12)

IV Timna was the concubine of Eliphaz son of Esau and she bore to him
Amalek (xxxvi, 12), whom Saul smo[te] as He said to Moses, In the last
days you will wipe out the memory ofAmalek from under the heaven (Deut.
xxv, 19).

Blessings of Jacob (Gen. xlix, 3)

Reuben, you are my first-born, the firstfruit of my strength, pre-eminent in
pride and pre-eminent in power Unstable as water, you shall not have pre5 eminence; you went up toyourfather's bed; you have defiled his couch ... (xlix, 3)
Its interpretation is that he rebuked him because he slept with Bilhah,
his concubine, and he said, '[My] first-[bom] ... (ibid.) Reuben is the
firstfruit. . .

(Gen. xlix, 10)

V The sceptre [shall not] departfrom the tribe ofJudah ... [xlix, 10]. When
ever Israel rules, there shall [not] fa il to be a descendant of David upon the
throne (Jer. xxxiii, 17). For the rulers staff (xlix, 10) is the Covenant of
5 kingship, [and the clans] of Israel are the divisions,1 until the Messiah of
Righteousness comes, the Branch of David. For to him and his seed is
granted the Covenant of kingship over his people for everlasting genera
tions which he is to keep ... the Law with the men of the Community,
for ... it is the assembly of the men o f ...

1. Reading dglyw (standards = divisions) with the Samaritan Pentateuch against the tradi
tional rglyw (feet). Computer enhancement, initiated by George Brooke, has made this
reading certain.

494

Genesis Commentary C
(4Q254)

Fr. 1 (Gen. ix, 24-5)

which he says ... on the doors and ... [And Noah awokefrom his wine] and
knew what [hisyoungest son had done to him. And he said, Cursed be Canaan;]
a slave ofslaves [shall he be to his brothers] (Gen. ix, 24-5).

Frs. 5 -6 (Gen. xlix, 15 -17 )

And he bowed [his shoulder to bear and became] a slave [atforced labour] (Gen.
xlxi, 15). Its interpretation ... [Dan shalljudge] his [peo]ple as on[e] of the
tr[ibes of Israel.] Dan shall be a ser[pent in the way, a vip]er by the pa[th that
bites] the horse's hee[ls] (Gen. xlix, 1 5 - 1 7 ) ...

495

Genesis Commentary D
(4 Q 2 54 a)

Fr -3
[On] the seventeenth of the month ... Noah went out of the ark at the
appointed time year by year ... [a ra]ven and it went out and returned to
announce to the l[ast] generations .. . before him, for the ra[ven] went
out and retur[ned]...

Commentaries on Isaiah
(4 Q 16 1-5 ,3 Q 4 )

Translatable fragments of four commentaries on Isaiah were discovered in Cave

4 (4QpIsaa~d = 4Q161-4). A fifth (4QpIsae = 4Q165) is too mutilated to be ren
dered into English. The first document alludes to the defeat of the Kittim and
expounds the renowned messianic prophecy of Isa. xi. It is related to 4Q285
(cf. p. 188). The second and the third deal with the Jewish opponents of the sect.
The fourth, relying on Isa. liv, identifies the Community as the New Jerusalem.
They may all be assigned to the first century b c e . A small fragment from Cave 3
(3Q4) represents a commentary on Isa. i, 1, but with no continuous text.
For the editio princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, D JD , V, 11-30.

4 Q 16 1, firs. 5-6
... when they return from the desert of the peo[ples] ... the Prince of
the Congregation and afterwards ... will depart from them ... He has
come to Aiath; he has passed through [Migron]. At Mikhmash [he has left his 5
baggage; they have passed by] Maabarah; Geba is their night camp; [Ramah]
trem[bles; Gibea of Saul hasfled\\ Bath Gallim, [cry out a shrill] note; [Laish,]
hear it; [answer her,; Anathoth;] Madmenah [flees]; the inhabitants of Gebim
take refuge. [Today he is to stop in Nob. He shakes] his hand towards the moun
tain of the daughter of Zion, the hills ofJerusalem (x, 28-32).
[The interpretation of the] decree concerns the coming end of days 10
... [trem]bles when he ascends from the Vale of Acco to wage war
against... and none is like him and in all the cities o f .. . and as far as the
frontier of Jerusalem ...

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Frs. 8 -10

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.. . [and the tallest tre]es [shall be cut dawn and\ the lofty [shall be felled] with
the axe, and Lebanon through a powerful one shallfa ll (x, 33-4).
[Its interpretation concerns the Kit]tim who shall crush the house of
Israel and the humble ... all the nations and the valiant shall be dismayed and [their] he [arts] shall melt. [And that which he said, The tallest]
trees shall be cut down, these are the valiant of the Kit[tim] ... [And that
which he sa]id. The heart of the forest shall befelled with the axe, th[ey] ...
for the war of the Kittim. And Lebanon through a po[werful one shall fall
(x, 34). Its interpretation concerns the] Kittim who will be given into the
hand of his great one ... when he flees from be[fore Is]rael...
vacat
[And there shall comeforth a rodfrom the stem ofJesse and a Branch shall
grow out of its roots. And the spirit of the Lord shall rest upon him, the spirit of
wisdom and understanding, the spirit of counsel and might, the spirit of knowl
edge and of thefear of the Lord. And his delight shall be in thefear of the Lord.
He shall notjudge by what his eyes see, or pass sentence by what his ears hear; he
shalljudge the poor righteously and shall pass sentence justly on the humble of
the earth] (xi, 1-3).
[Interpreted, this concerns the Branch] of David who shall arise at the
end [of days] ... God will uphold him with [the spirit of might, and will
give him] a throne of glory and a crown of [holiness] and many-coloured
garments ... [He will put a sceptre] in his hand and he shall rule over all
the [nations]. And Magog ... and his sword shall judge [all] the peoples.
And as for that which he said, He shall not [judge by what his eyes see] or
pass sentence by what his ears hear: interpreted, this means that ... [the
Priests] ... As they teach him, so will he judge; and as they order, [so
will he pass sentence]. One of the Priests of renown shall go out, and
garments o f ... shall be in his hands ...

4Q 162
[For ten acres of vineyard shall produce only one bath, and a homer of seed
shallyield but one ephah] (v, 10).
Interpreted, this saying concerns the last days, the devastation of the
land by sword and famine. At the time of the Visitation of the land there
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shall be Woe to those who rise early in the morning to run after strong drink,
to those who linger in the evening until wine inflames them. They have zither
and harp and timbrel andflute and wine at theirfeasts, but they do not regard
the work of the Lord or see the deeds of His hand. Therefore my people go into
exile for want of knowledge, and their noblemen die of hunger and their multi
tude is parched with thirst. Therefore Hell has widened its gullet and opened its 5
mouth beyond measure, and the nobility of Jerusalem and her multitude go
down, her tumult and he who rejoices in her (v, 11-14 ).
These are the Scoffers in Jerusalem who have despised the Law of the
Lord and scorned the word of the Holy One ofIsrael. Therefore the wrath of the
Lord was kindled against His people. He stretched out His hand against them
and smote them; the mountains trembled and their corpses were like sweepings
in the middle of the streets. And [His wrath] has not relentedfor all these things
[and His hand is stretched out still] (v, 24-5).
10
This is the congregation of Scoffers in Jerusalem ...

4 Q 16 3
Thus said the Lord, the Holy One ofIsrael', You shall be saved by returning and
resting; your strength shall be in silence and trust. But you would not. You
[said], No. We will flee upon horses and will ride on swift steeds. Therefore 5
your pursuers shall be speedy also. A thousand shallflee at the threat of one; at
the threat offive you shall flee [till] you are left like a flagstaff on top of a
mountain and like a signal on top ofa hill. Therefore the Lord waits to be [gra
cious to] you; therefore He exalts Himself to have mercy on you. For the Lord is
a God ofjustice. How blessed are all those who waitfor him! (xxx, 15-18).
This saying, referring to the last days, concerns the congregation of 10
those who seek smooth things in Jerusalem ... [who despise the] Law
and do not [trust in God] ... As robbers lie in wait for a man ... they
have despised [the words of] the Law ...
O people of Zion [who live in Jerusalem, you shall weep no more. At the
sound of] your crying [He will be gracious toyou; He will answeryou] when He 15
[hears it. Although the Lord gives you bread of oppression and water of distress,
your Teacher] shall be hidden [no more and your eyes shall see your Teacher] ...
(xxx, 19-20).

BI B L E I N T E R P R E T A T I O N

4Q i64
Behold, I will set your stones in antimony (liv, i ib).
[Interpreted, this saying concerns] ... all Israel is like antimony sur
rounding the eye.
And I will lay yourfoundations with sapphires (liv, i ic).
Interpreted, this concerns the Priests and the people who laid the
foundations of the Council of the Community ... the congregation of
His elect (shall sparkle) like a sapphire among stones.
[And I will make] all your pinnacles [ofagate] (liv, 12 a).
Interpreted, this concerns the twelve [chief Priests] who shall
enlighten by judgement of the Urim and Tummim ... which are absent
from them, like the sun with all its light, and like the moon ...
[And all your gates ofcarbuncles] (liv, 12 b).
Interpreted, this concerns the chiefs of the tribes of Israel...

Commentaries on Hosea
(4Q 166-7)

Two fragmentary manuscripts (4Q166-7) include exegeses of Hosea. In the

first, the unfaithful wife is the Jewish people led astray by her lovers, the Gentiles.
The second refers cryptically to the furious young lion, mentioned also in the
Commentary on Nahum, and to the last Priest who shall... strike Ephraim.
For the editio princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, D JD, V, 31-2.

4Q 166
II [She knew not that] it was I who gave her [the new wine and oil], who
lavished [upon her silver] and gold which they [usedfor Baal] (ii, 8).
Interpreted, this means that [they ate and] were filled, but they forgot
God who ... They cast His commandments behind them which He had
sent [by the hand of] His servants the Prophets, and they listened to
those who led them astray. They revered them, and in their blindness
they feared them as though they were gods.

Therefore I will take back my com in its time and my wine [in its season]. I will
take away my wool and my flax lest they cover [her nakedness]. I will uncover 10
her shame before the eyes of [her] lovers [and] no man shall deliver herfrom out
of my hand (ii, 9-10).
Interpreted, this means that He smote them with hunger and naked
ness that they might be shamed and disgraced in the sight of the nations
on which they relied. They will not deliver them from their miseries.
I will put an end to her rejoicing, [her feasts], her [new] moons, her Sabbaths, 15
and all herfestivals (ii, 11).
Interpreted, this means that [they have rejected the ruling of the Law,
and have] followed the festivals of the nations. But [their rejoicing shall
501

BI B LE I N T E R P R E T A T I O N

come to an end and] shall be changed into mourning. I will ravage [her
vines and herfig trees], of which she said, *They are my wage [which my lovers
have given me\] I will make of them a thicket and the [wild beasts] shall eat
them ... (ii, 1 2).

4 Q 16 7, fr. 2
.. . and your wound shall not be healed (v, 13).
[Its] interpretation concerns] ... the furious young lion ...
For I will be like a lion [to E]ph[ra]im [and like a young lion to the house of
fudah] (v, 14a).
[Its interpretation con]cems the last Priest who shall stretch out his
hand to strike Ephraim ...
5 [I will go and come back to my place un]til they [will] feel guilty and seek my
face; in their distress they will seek me eagerly (v, 15).
Its interpretation is that God [has hid]den His face from ... and they
did not listen ...

Frs. 7-9
[But they, like Adam, have b]roken the Covenant (vi, 7).
[Its] interpretation ... they have forsaken God and walked according
to the decrees [of the Gentiles] ...

502

Commentary on Micah
(1Q 14 ,4 Q 16 8 )

Tiny fragments from Cave 1 (1Q 14) represent an exposition of Micah. Although
the prophets words are intended to castigate both Samaria and Jerusalem, the
Qumran commentator interprets Samaria as alluding to the Spouter of Lies,
the enemy of the sect, but relates Judah and Jerusalem to the Teacher of Right
eousness and his Community. Further fragments of Micah iv, 8 -12 are given the
title Commentary on Micah (?), in 4Q168 (D JD , V,

36), but since neither the

word pesher, nor any interpretative material is extant, the manuscript may be
biblical.
For the editio princeps, see J. T . Milik, D JD , I, 77-80.

[All this /V)for the transgression [ofJacob andfor the sins of the House ofIsrael.
What is the transgression ofJacob?] Is it not [Samaria? And what is the high
place ofJudah? Is it notJerusalem? I will make of Samaria a ruin in thefields,
and ofJerusalem a plantation of vines] (i, 5-6).
Interpreted, this concerns the Spouter of Lies [who led the] Simple
[astray].
And what is the high place ofJudah? [Is it notJerusalem?] (i, 5).
[Interpreted, this concerns] the Teacher of Righteousness who
[expounded the law to] his [Council] and to all who freely pledged them
selves to join the elect of [God to keep the Law] in the Council of the
Community, who shall be saved on the Day [of Judgement] ...

503

Commentary on Nahum
(4Q169)

Substantial remains of a Nahum Commentary were retrieved from Cave 4

(4Q169). They cover parts of chapters i and ii of the biblical book, and the first
fourteen verses of chapter iii. Their historical significance has been discussed in
Chapter III (pp. 55-62). It is worthy of note that the commentator employs not
only cryptograms (Kittim, furious young lion, etc.), but the actual names of two
Greek kings (Demetrius and Antiochus). Reference to the furious young lion as
one who hangs men alive shows that hanging, probably a synonym for cruci
fixion, was practised as a form of execution. It is also legislated for in the Temple
Scroll

(l x i v ,

6-13), where it is the capital punishment reserved for traitors. In

biblical law, by contrast, only the dead body of an executed criminal is to be

hanged, that is, displayed in public as an example (Deut. xxi, 21).
On palaeographical grounds the manuscript is dated to the second half of the
first century bce .
For the editio princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A Anderson, D JD , V, 3 7 1-4 2 .

Frs. 1-2
[In whirlwind and storm is his way and] cloud is the d[ust of hisfeet (i, 3).
Its interpretation] ... The [whirlwinds and the storm]s are (from) the
fir[mam]ents of his heaven and of his earth which he has cre[ated].
He rebu[kes] the sea and dri[es it up] (i, 4a).
Its [interpretation: the sea is all the K[ittim who are] ... to execut[e]
judgement against them and destroy them from the face [of the earth,]
together with [all] their [com]manders whose dominion shall be finished.
5

[Bashan and] Carmel have withered and the sprout ofLebanon withers (i, 4b).
Its interpretation ... [will per]ish in it, the summit of wickedness for
504

C O M M E N T A R Y ON NA HU M

the ... Carmel and to his commanders. Lebanon and the sprout of
Lebanon are [the priests, the sons of Zadok and the men of] their [counc]il
and they shall perish from before ... the elect... [a]11 the inhabitants of
the world.
The mo[untains quake before him] and the hills heave and the earth [is lifted
up] before him, and [the world and all that dwell in it. Who can stand before 10
his wrath? And who can arise] against hisfurious anger? (i, 56a).
[Its] interpretation] ...
I [Where is the lions den and the cave of the young lions?] (ii, 11).
[Interpreted, this concerns] ... a dwelling-place for the ungodly of the
nations.
Whither the lion goes, there is the lion's cub, [with none to disturb it] (ii,
11b).
[Interpreted, this concerns Deme]trius king of Greece who sought, on
the counsel of those who seek smooth things, to enter Jerusalem. [But
God did not permit the city to be delivered] into the hands of the kings
of Greece, from the time of Antiochus until the coming of the rulers of
the Kittim. But then she shall be trampled under their feet...
The lion tears enoughfor its cubs and it chokes prey for its lionesses (ii, 1 2a).
[Interpreted, this] concerns the furious young lion who strikes by means
of his great men, and by means of the men of his council.
[And chokes prey for its lionesses; and it fills] its caves [with prey] and its dens
with victims (ii, i2a-b).
Interpreted, this concerns the furious young lion [who executes revenge]
on those who seek smooth things and hangs men alive, ... formerly in
Israel. Because of a man hanged alive on [the] tree, He proclaims, Behold
I am against [you, says the Lord of Hosts7].
[I will bum up your multitude in smoke], and the sword shall devour your
young lions. I will [cut off] your prey [from the earth] (ii, 13).
[Interpreted] ... your multitude is the bands of his army ... and his
young lions are ... his prey is the wealth which [the priests] of Jerusalem
have [amassed], which ... Israel shall be delivered ...

505

BI B L E I N T E R P R E T A T I O N

10

[And the voice ofyour messengers shall no more he heard] (ii, 13b).
[Interpreted] II ... his messengers are his envoys whose voice shall no
more be heard among the nations.
Woe to the city of blood; it isfu ll of lies and rapine (iii, ia-b).
Interpreted, this is the city of Ephraim, those who seek smooth things
during the last days, who walk in lies and falsehood.

The prowler is not wantingt noise of whip and noise of rattling wheel, pranc
ing horse andjolting chariot, charging horsemen, flame and glittering spear, a
multitude of the slain and a heap of carcasses. There is no end to the corpses;
they stumble upon their corpses (iii, ic-3).
Interpreted, this concerns the dominion of those who seek smooth
5 things, from the midst of whose assembly the sword of the nations shall
never be wanting. Captivity, looting, and burning shall be among them,
and exile out of dread for the enemy. A multitude of guilty corpses shall
fall in their days; there shall be no end to the sum of their slain. They shall
also stumble upon their body of flesh because of their guilty counsel.
Because of the many harlotries of the well-favoured harlot, the mistress of
seduction, she who sells nations through her harlotries and families through her
seductions (iii, 4).
Interpreted, this concerns those who lead Ephraim astray, who lead
many astray through their false teaching, their lying tongue, and deceit
ful lips - kings, princes, priests, and people, together with the stranger
who joins them. Cities and families shall perish through their counsel;
10 honourable men and rulers shall fall through their tongues [decision].
Behold, I am against you - oracle of the Lord of Hosts - and you will lift up
your skirts to your face and expose your nakedness to the nations and your
shame to the kingdoms (iii, 5).
Interpreted ... cities of the east. For the skirts are ... Ill and the
nations shall... among them their filthy idols.
I will castfilth upon you and treat you with contempt and render you despic
able, so that all who look upon you shallflee from you (iii, 6-ya).
Interpreted, this concerns those who seek smooth things, whose evil
deeds shall be uncovered to all Israel at the end of time. Many shall
understand their iniquity and treat them with contempt because of their
506

C O M M E N T A R Y ON NA HU M

guilty presumption. When the glory of Judah shall arise, the simple of
Ephraim shall flee from their assembly; they shall abandon those who
lead them astray and shall join Israel.
They shall say, Nineveh is laid waste; who shall grieve over her? Whence
shall I seek comfortersfor you? (iii, 7b).
Interpreted, this concerns those who seek smooth things, whose
council shall perish and whose congregation shall be dispersed. They
shall lead the assembly astray no more, and the simple shall support their
council no more.
Are you better than Amon which lay among the rivers? (iii, 8a).
Interpreted, Amon is Manasseh, and the rivers are the great men of
Manasseh, the honourable men o f ...
Which was surrounded by waters, whose rampart was the sea and whose
walls were waters? (iii, 8b).
Interpreted, these are her valiant men, her almighty warriors.
Ethiopia [and Egypt] were her [limitless] strength (iii, 9a).
[Interpreted]...
[Put and the Libyans were your helpers] (iii, 9b).
IV Interpreted, these are the wicked of [Judah], the House of Separa
tion, who joined Manasseh.
Yet she was exiled; she went into captivity. Her children were crushed at the
top of all the streets. They cast lots for her honourable men, and all her great
men were bound with chains (iii, 10).
Interpreted, this concerns Manasseh in the final age, whose kingdom
shall be brought low by [Israel ... ] his wives, his children, and his little
ones shall go into captivity. His mighty men and honourable men [shall
perish] by the sword.
[You shall be drunk] and shall be stupefied (iii, 1 ia).
Interpreted, this concerns the wicked of E[phraim ... ] whose cup
shall come after Manasseh ...

B IB L E IN T E R P R E T A T IO N

[You shall also seek] refuge in the city because of the enemy (iii, i ib).
Interpreted, this concerns ... ] their enemies in the city ...
[Allyour strongholds shall be] like fig trees with newly ripe figs (iii,

Commentary on Habakkuk
(iQpHab)

This well-preserved and detailed exposition of the first two chapters of the Book
of Habakkuk comes from Cave i and was published in 1950 (M. Burrows, The
Dead Sea Scrolls of St Mark's Monastery, I, New Haven, 1950, pis. l v - l x i ).
The palaeographical dating of the manuscript (30-1 b c e ) has been confirmed
by radiocarbon tests (120-5 b c e ; cf. above, pp. 12-13). The Habakkuk Com
mentary is one of the main sources for the study of Qumran origins, as well as
Essene Bible exegesis and the sects theology regarding prophecy. The historical
and doctrinal aspects of the document are analysed in Chapters III and IV.
I [Oracle of Habakkuk the prophet. How long, O Lord, shall I cry] for help
and Thou wilt not [hear]? (i, 1-2).
[Interpreted, this concerns the beginning] of the [final] generation ...
[Or shout to Thee Violence\ and Thou wilt not deliver?] (i, 2b) ...
[Why dost Thou cause me to see iniquity and to look upon trouble? Desolation
and violence are before me] (i, 3).
... God with oppression and unfaithfulness ... they rob riches.
[There is quarrelling and contention] (i, 3b).

So the law is weak [andjustice never goesforth] (i, 4a-b).

[Interpreted] this concerns those who have despised the Law of God

[For the wicked encompasses] the righteous (i, 4c).

[The wicked is the Wicked Priest, and the righteous] is the Teacher of
Righteousness ...

BI BLE I N T E R P R E T A T I O N

[So] justice goesforth [perverted] (i, 4<i).

15

[Behold the nations and see, marvel and be astonished;for I accomplish a deed
in your days, but you will not believe it when] II told (i, 5).
[Interpreted, this concerns] those who were unfaithful together with
the Liar, in that they [did] not [listen to the word received by] the Teacher
of Righteousness from the mouth of God. And it concerns the unfaithful
of the New [Covenant] in that they have not believed in the Covenant of
God [and have profaned] His holy Name. And likewise, this saying is to
5 be interpreted [as concerning those who] will be unfaithful at the end of
days. They, the men of violence and the breakers of the Covenant, will
not believe when they hear all that [is to happen to] the final generation
from the Priest [in whose heart] God set [understanding] that he might
interpret all the words of His servants the Prophets, through whom He
foretold all that would happen to His people and [His land].

10

For behold, I rouse the Chaldeans, that [bitter and hasty] nation (i, 6a).
Interpreted, this concerns the Kittim [who are] quick and valiant in
war, causing many to perish. [All the world shall fall] under the domin
ion of the Kittim, and the [wicked ... ] they shall not believe in the laws
of [G o d ...]

15

[Who march through the breadth of the earth to take possession of dwellings
which are not their own] (i, 6b).
... I l l they shall march across the plain, smiting and plundering the
cities of the earth. For it is as He said, To take possession of dwellings which
are not their own.

They are fearsome and terrible; their justice and grandeur proceed from
themselves (i, 7).
Interpreted, this concerns the Kittim who inspire all the nations with
5 fear [and dread]. All their evil plotting is done with intention and they
deal with all the nations in cunning and guile.
Their horses are swifter than leopards andfleeter than evening wolves. Their
horses step forward proudly and spread their wings; they fly from afar like an
eagle avid to devour. A ll of them comefor violence; the look on theirfaces is like
the east wind (i, 8~9a).
510

C O M M E N T A R Y ON H A B A K K U K

[Interpreted, this] concerns the Kittim who trample the earth with
their horses and beasts. They comefrom afar, from the islands of the sea,
to devour all the peoples like an eagle which cannot be satisfied, and they
address [all the peoples] with anger and [wrath and fury] and indig
nation. For it is as He said, The look on theirfaces is like the east wind.
[They heap up] captives [like sand] (i, 9b).

IV They scoff [at kings], and princes are their laughing-stock (i, 10a).
Interpreted, this means that they mock the great and despise the
venerable; they ridicule kings and princes and scoff at the mighty host.
They laugh at every fortress; they pile up earth and take it (i, 10b).
Interpreted, this concerns the commanders of the Kittim who despise
the fortresses of the peoples and laugh at them in derision. To capture
them, they encircle them with a mighty host, and out of fear and terror
they deliver themselves into their hands. They destroy them because of
the sins of their inhabitants.
The wind then sweeps on and passes; and they make of their strength their
god(i, 11).
Interpreted, [this concerns] the commanders of the Kittim who, on
the counsel of [the] House of Guilt, pass one in front of the other; one
after another [their] commanders come to lay waste the earth. [And they
make of their strength their god]\ interpreted, this concerns [ ... all] the
peoples...
[Art Thou not from everlasting, O Lord, my God, my Holy One? We shall
not die.] Thou hast ordained them, [O Lord], V for judgement; Thou hast
established them, O Rock, for chastisement. Their eyes are too pure to behold
evil; and Thou canst not look on distress (i, 1 2 - 1 3a).
Interpreted, this saying means that God will not destroy His people
by the hand of the nations; God will execute the judgement of the
nations by the hand of His elect. And through their chastisement all the
wicked of His people shall expiate their guilt who keep His command
ments in their distress. For it is as he said, Too pure of eyes to behold evil:
interpreted, this means that they have not lusted after their eyes during
the age of wickedness.

BI B LE I N T E R P R E T A T I O N

0 traitors, why do you stare and stay silent when the wicked swallows up one
more righteous than he? (i, 13b).
10
Interpreted, this concerns the House of Absalom and the members of
its council who were silent at the time of the chastisement of the Teacher
of Righteousness and gave him no help against the Liar who flouted the
Law in the midst of their whole [congregation].
Thou dealest with men like the fish of the sea, like creeping things, to rule
over them. They draw [them all up with a fish-hook], and drag them out with
their net, and gather them in [their seine. Therefore they sacrifice] to their net.
15 Therefore they rejoice [and exult and bum incense to their seine; for by them]
their portion isfat [and their sustenance rich] (i, 14-16).
... V I the Kittim. And they shall gather in their riches, together
with all their booty, like the fish of the sea. And as for that which He said,
5 Therefore they sacrifice to their net and bum incense to their seine: inter
preted, this means that they sacrifice to their standards and worship their
weapons of war. For by them their portion is fat and their sustenance rich:
interpreted, this means that they divide their yoke and their tribute their sustenance - over all the peoples year by year, ravaging many lands.

10

Therefore their sword is ever drawn to massacre nations mercilessly (i, 17).
Interpreted, this concerns the Kittim who cause many to perish by the
sword - youths, grown men, the aged, women and children - and who
even take no pity on the fruit of the womb.

1 will take my stand to watch and will station myselfupon my fortress. I will
watch to see what He will say to me and how [He will answer] my complaint.
15 And the Lord answered [and said to me, Write down the vision and make it
plain] upon the tablets, that [he who reads] may read it speedily (ii, 1-2).
... V II and God told Habakkuk to write down that which would
happen to the final generation, but He did not make known to him when
time would come to an end. And as for that which He said, That he who
reads may read it speedily: interpreted this concerns the Teacher of Right5 eousness, to whom God made known all the mysteries of the words of
His servants the Prophets.

512

C O M M E N T A R Y ON H A B A K K U K

For there shall be yet another vision concerning the appointed time. It shall
tell of the end and shall not lie (ii, 3a).
Interpreted, this means that the final age shall be prolonged, and shall
exceed all that the Prophets have said; for the mysteries of God are
astounding.
I f it tarries, waitfor it, for it shall surely come and shall not be late (ii, 3b). 10
Interpreted, this concerns the men of truth who keep the Law, whose
hands shall not slacken in the service of truth when the final age is pro
longed. For all the ages of God reach their appointed end as he deter
mines for them in the mysteries of His wisdom.
Behold, [his soul] is puffed up and is not upright (ii, 4a).
Interpreted, this means that [the wicked] shall double their guilt upon 15
themselves [and it shall not be forgiven] when they are judged ...
[But the righteous shall live by hisfaith] (ii, 4b).
V III Interpreted, this concerns all those who observe the Law in the
House of Judah, whom God will deliver from the House of Judgement
because of their suffering and because of their faith in the Teacher of
Righteousness.
Moreover.; the arrogant man seizes wealth without halting. He widens his
gullet like Hell and like Death he has never enough. A ll the nations are gathered 5
to him and all the peoples are assembled to him. Will they not all of them taunt
him and jeer at him saying, Woe to him who amasses that which is not his!
How long will he load himselfup with pledgesV (ii, 5-6).
Interpreted, this concerns the Wicked Priest who was called by the
name of truth when he first arose. But when he ruled over Israel his 10
heart became proud, and he forsook God and betrayed the precepts for
the sake of riches. He robbed and amassed the riches of the men of vio
lence who rebelled against God, and he took the wealth of the peoples,
heaping sinful iniquity upon himself. And he lived in the ways of abomi
nations amidst every unclean defilement.
Shall notyour oppressors suddenly arise andyour torturers awaken; and shall
you not become their prey? Because you have plundered many nations, all the 15
remnant of the peoples shall plunder you (ii, 7-8 a).
[Interpreted, this concerns] the Priest who rebelled [and violated] the
5i3

BI B L E I N T E R P R E T A T I O N

precepts [of God ... to command] IX his chastisement by means of the

judgements of wickedness. And they inflicted horrors of evil diseases and
took vengeance upon his body of flesh. And as for that which He said,
5 Because you have plundered many nations, all the remnant of the peoples shall
plunder you: interpreted this concerns the last Priests of Jerusalem, who
shall amass money and wealth by plundering the peoples. But in the last
days, their riches and booty shall be delivered into the hands of the army
of the Kittim, for it is they who shall be the remnant of the peoples.
Because of the blood of men and the violence done to the land, to the city, and
to all its inhabitants (ii, 8b).
Interpreted, this concerns the Wicked Priest whom God delivered
into the hands of his enemies because of the iniquity committed against
10 the Teacher of Righteousness and the men of his Council, that he might
be humbled by means of a destroying scourge, in bitterness of soul,
because he had done wickedly to His elect.
Woe to him who gets evil profit for his house; who perches his nest high to be
safe from the hand of evil! You have devised shame toyour house: by cutting ojf
15 many peoples you have forfeited your own soul. For the [stone] cries out [from]
the wall [and] the beamfrom the woodwork replies (ii, 9-11).
[Interpreted, this] concerns the [Priest] who ... X that its stones
might be laid in oppression and the beam of its woodwork in robbery.
And as for that which He said, By cutting offmany peoplesyou haveforfeited
your own soul: interpreted this concerns the condemned House whose
judgement God will pronounce in the midst of many peoples. He will
bring him thence for judgement and will declare him guilty in the midst
5 of them, and will chastise him with fire of brimstone.
Woe to him who builds a city with blood and founds a town upon falsehood!
Behold, is it notfrom the Lord of Hosts that the peoples shall labourfor fire and
the nations shall strive for naught? (ii, 12-13).
Interpreted, this concerns the Spouter of Lies who led many astray
10 that he might build his city of vanity with blood and raise a congregation
on deceit, causing many thereby to perform a service of vanity for the
sake of its glory, and to be pregnant with [works] of deceit, that their
labour might be for nothing and that they might be punished with fire
who vilified and outraged the elect of God.

514

C O M M E N T A R Y ON H A B A K K U K

For as the waters cover the sea, so shall the earth befilled with the knowledge
of the glory of the Lord (ii, 14).
Interpreted, [this means that] when they return ... X I the lies. And 15
afterwards, knowledge shall be revealed to them abundantly, like the
waters of the sea.
Woe to him who causes his neighbours to drink; who pours out his venom to
make them drunk that he may gaze on theirfeasts (ii, 15).
Interpreted, this concerns the Wicked Priest who pursued the Teacher
of Righteousness to the house of his exile that he might confuse him
with his venomous fury. And at the time appointed for rest, for the Day
of Atonement, he appeared before them to confuse them, and to cause
them to stumble on the Day of Fasting, their Sabbath of repose.

You have filled yourself with ignominy more than with glory. Drink also,
and stagger! The cup of the Lord's right hand shall come round to you and
shame shall come on your glory (ii, 16).
10
Interpreted, this concerns the Priest whose ignominy was greater than
his glory. For he did not circumcise the foreskin of his heart, and he
walked in the ways of drunkenness that he might quench his thirst. But
the cup of the wrath of God shall confuse him, multiplying his ... and 15
the pain o f ...
[For the violence done to Lebanon shall overwhelm you, and the destruction
of the beasts] X II shall terrify you, because of the blood of men and the vio
lence done to the land, the city, and all its inhabitants (ii, 17).
Interpreted, this saying concerns the Wicked Priest, inasmuch as he shall
be paid the reward which he himself tendered to the Poor. For Lebanon
is the Council of the Community; and the beasts are the simple of Judah
who keep the Law. As he himself plotted the destruction of the Poor, so
will God condemn him to destruction. And as for that which He said,
Because of the blood of the city and the violence done to the land: interpreted,
the city is Jerusalem where the Wicked Priest committed abominable
deeds and defiled the Temple of God. The violence done to the land: these
are the cities of Judah where he robbed the Poor of their possessions.

O f what use is an idol that its maker should shape it, a molten image, a 10
fatling of lies? For the craftsman puts his trust in his orwn creation when he
makes dumb idols (ii, 18).
5*5

BI B LE I N T E R P R E T A T I O N

Interpreted, this saying concerns all the idols of the nations which
they make so that they may serve and worship them. But they shall not
deliver them on the Day of Judgement.
Woe [to him who says] to wood, 'Awake , and to dumb [stone, \Arise7 Can
such a thing give guidance? Behold, it is covered with gold and silver but there
is no spirit within it. But the Lord is in His holy Temple]: X III let all the
earth be silent before Him! (Iii, 19-20).
Interpreted, this concerns all the nations which serve stone and wood.
But on the Day of Judgement, God will destroy from the earth all idola
trous and wicked men.

Commentary on Zephaniah
( 1Q 15 ,4 Q 17 0 )

The relics of a Zephaniah Commentary from Cave 1, covering Zeph. i, 18

ii, 2
and using palaeo-Hebrew letters for the divine name, are badly mutilated. A
lengthy quotation is followed by the word pesber (interpretation), and the
expression land ofJudah implies that the divine anger spoken of by the prophet
was understood to be directed against the Judaeans. Two small fragments from
Cave 4 represent two broken lines of Zephaniah i, 12-13; a couple of words
which are not biblical precede the introductory formula, pishro (its interpretation),
but the actual commentary is lost. The two excerpts are presented in the order
of the biblical text.
For the editio princeps, see D. Barthelemy and J. T. Milik, DJD, I, 80; J. M.
Allegro, DJD, V, 42.

4Q i 7
The Lord [will not do goo]d, nor will He do ill. And [their goods shall be
plundered and [their houses laid waste.] ... cannot... (Zeph. i, 12-13).
Its interpretation [concerns] ...

1Q15
... [in the fire of His] jealous [wrath, all the earth] shall be consumed; [for a
full, yea, sudden end He will make of all the inhabitants of the earth (Zeph.
i, 18). Come together [and hold an assembly, O shameless nation, before you are
driven away; like] chaff, a day has passed away [before there comes upon you]
thefierce anger of the Lord (ii, 1-2). The interpretation [of this saying con
cerns all the inhabitants] of the land of Judah ...

5i7

Commentary on Malachi
(Previously Genesis Commentary B)
(4 0 253a)

The document reproduces Malachi iii, 16 -18 , followed by the beginning of its
interpretation.
For the editio princeps, see G. J. Brooke, DJD, XXII, 2 12-5.

[Then those fearing the Lord spoke with one another^ and he heeded [and
heard them and a book of memorial was written before him of those whofeared
the Lord and thought of his name.] They shall be mine, [says the Lord of hosts,
my special possession on the day when I act, and I will spare] them as [a man
spares his son who serves him. Then once more you shall distinguish] between
the righteous and the wicked, [between one who serves God and one who does
not serve him (Mai. iii, 16-18). Its interpretation] ... the righteousness
and over ...

518

Commentary on Psalms
(1Q 16,4Q 171,4Q 173)

Cave 1 has preserved a few scraps of a commentary on Psalms lvii and lxviii.
Most of them are too small for a coherent translation, but frs. 9 -10 mention the
Kittim (Romans), the name of the final enemy. More importandy, two manuscripts
with Herodian script from Cave 4 (4 Q 171, 4 Q 173) include interpretations of
Psalms. The bulk of the text is devoted to Psalm xxxvii, in which the destiny of
the just and the wicked is expounded in connection with the story of the sect and
its opponents, and in particular the struggle between the Teacher of Righteous
ness and the Wicked Priest. Recognizable remains of Psalms xlv and cxxvii also
survive.
For the editio princeps, see J. T . Milik, D JD , I, 8 1-2 ; J. M. Allegro and A A.
Anderson, D JD , V, 42-53.

4 Q 17 1
I ... [Be sil\ent before [the Lord and\ long for him, and be not heated against
the successful, the man who [achieves his plans (xxxvii, 7a).
Its interpretation concerns the Liar who has led astray many by his
lying words so that they chose frivolous things and heeded not the inter
preter of knowledge in order to ... II they shall perish by the sword
and famine and plague.
Relentfrom anger and abandon wrath. Do not be angry; it tends only to evil,
for the wicked shall be cut off (8~9a).
Interpreted, this concerns all those who return to the Law, to those
who do not refuse to turn away from their evil. For all those who are
stubborn in turning away from their iniquity shall be cut off.

BIBLE INTERPRETATION

But those who waitfor the Lord shall possess the land (9b).
Interpreted, this is the congregation of His elect who do His will.
A little while and the wicked shall be no more; I will look towards his place
but he shall not be there (10).
Interpreted, this concerns all the wicked. At the end of the forty years
they shall be blotted out and no [evil] man shall be found on the earth.
But the humble shall possess the land and delight in abundant peace (11).
Interpreted, this concerns [the congregation of the] Poor who shall
accept the season of penance and shall be delivered from all the snares of
Belial. Afterwards, all who possess the earth shall delight and prosper on
exquisite food.
The wicked plots against the righteous and gnashes [his teeth d\t him. [The
Lo]rd laughs at him, for He sees that his day is coming (12-13).
Interpreted, this concerns the violent of the Covenant who are in the
House of Judah, who have plotted to destroy those who practise the law,
who are in the Council of the Community. And God will not forsake
them to their hands.
15

The wicked draw the sword and bend their bow to bring down the poor and
needy and to slay the upright of way. Their sword shall enter their own heart
and their bows shall be broken (14-15).
Interpreted, this concerns the wicked of Ephraim and Manasseh, who
shall seek to lay hands on the Priest and the men of his Council at the
time of trial which shall come upon them. But God will redeem them
from out of their hand. And afterwards, they shall be delivered into the
hand of the violent among the nations for judgement.

vacat Better is the little which the righteous has than the abundance of many
20 wicked people (16).
[Interpreted, this concerns ... those who practise the law ... For
the ar[ms of the wicked shall be broken, but] the Lor[d upholds the righteous]
(I?)[The Lord knows the days of the perfect and their portion shall befor ever. In
evil times they shall not be shamed] (18 -19a).

520

COMMENTARY

ON P S A L M S

I I I . . . to the penitents of the desert who, saved, shall live for a thou
sand generations and to whom all the glory of Adam shall belong, as also
to their seed for ever.
And in the days offamine they shall be [satisfied, but the wicked shall perish
(i9b-2oa).
Interpreted, this [means that] He will keep them alive during the
famine and the time of humiliation, whereas many shall perish from
famine and plague, all those who have not departed [from there] to be
with the Congregation of His elect.

And those who love the Lord shall be like the pride ofpastures (20b).
Interpreted, [this concerns] the congregation of His elect, who shall
be leaders and princes ... of the flock among their herds.
Like smoke they shall all of them vanish away (20c).
Interpreted, [this] concerns the princes [of wickedness] who have
oppressed His holy people, and who shall perish like smoke [blown away
by the wind].
The wicked borrows and does not repay, but the righteous is generous and
gives. Truly, those whom He [blesses shall possess] the land', but those whom He
curses [shall be cut off] (21-2).
Interpreted, this concerns the congregation of the Poor, who [shall possess] 10
the whole world as an inheritance. They shall possess the High Mountain
of Israel [for ever], and shall enjoy [everlasting] delights in His Sanctuary.
[But those who] shall be cut off, they are the violent [of the nations and]
the wicked of Israel; they shall be cut off and blotted out for ever.
The steps of the man are confirmed by the Lord and He delights in all his ways;
though [he stumble, he shall notfall, for the Lord shall support his hand] (2 3-4). 15
Interpreted, this concerns the Priest, the Teacher of [Righteousness
whom] God chose to stand before Him, for He established him to build
for Himself the congregation o f ...
I [have been young] and now am old, yet [I have] not [seen the righteous] for
saken, or his children begging bread. He is [ever] giving liberally and lending
and [his] children become a blessing (25-6).
Interpreted, this concerns ...
521

BIBLE IN TERPRETATION

IV The unjust shall be destroyed for ever and the children of the wi[cked
shall be cut off] (28).
These are the violent...
The righteou[s shall possess the land and dwell] upon it for ever (29).
[Interpreted, this concerns] ...
[The mouth of the righteous utters] wisdom and his tongue speaks [justice.
The law of God is in his heart, his steps will not slip (30-31).
Interpreted, it concerns. . . ] . . .
5

The wicked watches outfor the righteous and seeks [to slay him. The Lord will
not abandon him into his hand or] let him be condemned when he is tried (32-3).
Interpreted, this concerns the Wicked [Priest] who [watched the
Teacher of Righteousness] that he might put him to death [because of
the ordinance] and the law which he sent to him. But God will not
10 aban[don him and will not let him be condemned when he is] tried. And [God]
will pay him his reward by delivering him into the hand of the violent of
the nations, that they may execute upon him [judgement].
[Wait for the Lo]rd and keep to His way, and [He] will exalt you to possess
the land; you will lo[ok] on the destruction of the wicked (34).
[Interpreted, it concerns ... ] who will see the judgement of wicked
ness and with his elect will rejoice in the heritage of truth.
I
[have seen] a wicked man overbearing... [like a cedar ofLebanon]. I passed
before [him, and], lo, he was [no more], though I [sought him,] he could not [be
found (35-6).
15
Interpreted, it concerns] the Liar who ... against the e[lec]t of God,
[and sought] to bring to an end ...
[Mark the blameless man and behold] the upright, [for there is posterity for
the ma]n ofpeace (37).
Its interpretation con[cerns ... ] peac[e].
But the transgressors shall be altogether destroyed; the posterity ofthe wicked
shall be cut off (38).
Interpreted, it concerns ... ] will perish and be cut off from the midst
20 of the congregation of the Community ...
522

C O M M E N T A R Y ON P S A L M S

... he delivers them from the wicked [and saves them, because they take
refuge in him (40).
Interpreted, it concerns ... ] God will save them and deliver them
from the w[icked ... ]
For the choirmaster: according to [the lili]es. [For the sons ofKorah. Maskil.
A song of love (Ps. xiv, 1).
Its interpretation is that th]ey are the seven divisions of the penitents
of Is[rael... ].
My he[art] is astir with a good word. I speak ofmy work to the King (xiv, 1).
[Its interpretation ... spir]it of holiness for ... books o f ...
And my tongue is the pen of [a speedy scribe (xiv, 1).
Its interpretation] concerns the Teacher of [Righteousness] ... God
with an answering tongue ...

40*73
[... Vai]n is it for you to rise early and lie down late. You shall eat the bread of
toil; [he shallfeed those who love him in their] sleep (cxxvii, 2).
[Its interpretation is th]at they shall seek... Teacher of Righteousness
... [prijest at the end of the a[ge] ...

Commentary on
an Unidentifiable Text
(4Qi 83)

Three fragments of a biblical commentary, indicated by the introductory for

mula, And that which he said, which is common in pesher literature, have been
published by J. M. Allegro. None of the quotations has been preserved, but the
phraseology and the historical allusions recall the Habakkuk Commentary and
other pesharim. The divine names God (el) and the Lord (Yhwh) are written in
palaeo-Hebrew script. Only fir. 2 is suitable for translation. 4 Q 172 (DJD, V,
50 -1) is also an amalgam of commentaries on unidentified texts, but the frag
ments are so small as to preclude altogether any translation.
For the editio princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, D JD , V, 8 1-2 .

II
their enemies. And they profaned their sanctuary ... from them. And
they rose for battles one [with another] against his covenant. God saved
and delivered ... goodwill. And he gave them a single heart to wal[k in
5 the way of his truth. And they despised] all the wealth of wickedness and
kept apart from the wa[y of wickedness] ... the erring spirit and with a
tongue of truth ... And they atoned for their iniquity through [their]
strokes ... their iniquity, vacat And that which he said,...

524

Florilegium or
Midrash on the Last Days
(4Qx74)

This collection of texts assembled from 2 Samuel and the Psalter, and combined
with other scriptural passages, serves to present the sectarian doctrine identify
ing the Community with the Temple, and to announce the coming of the two
Messiahs, the Branch of David and the Interpreter of the Law. Originating
from Cave 4 (4Q174) and known also as Florilegium, it probably belongs to the
late first century b c e .

For the editio princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, D JD , V, 53-7.

I ... [I will appoint a place for my people Israel and will plant them that they
may dwell there and be troubled no more by their] enemies. No son of iniquity
[shall afflict them again] asformerly, from the day that [I setjudges] over my
people Israel (2 Sam. vii, 10).
This is the House which [He will build for them in the] last days, as it
is written in the book of Moses, In the sanctuary which Thy hands have
established, 0 Lord, the Lord shall reign for ever and ever (Exod. xv, 17-18).
This is the House into which [the unclean shall] never [enter, nor the
uncircumcised,] nor the Ammonite, nor the Moabite, nor the half-breed,
nor the foreigner, nor the stranger, ever; for there shall My Holy Ones
be. [Its glory shall endure] for ever; it shall appear above it perpetually.
And strangers shall lay it waste no more, as they formerly laid waste the
Sanctuary of Israel because of its sin. He has commanded that a Sanctu
ary of men be built for Himself, that there they may send up, like the
smoke of incense, the works of the Law.
And concerning His words to David, And I [will give] you [rest] from all
your enemies (2 Sam. vii, 11), this means that He will give them rest
from all the children of Belial who cause them to stumble so that they
may be destroyed [by their errors,] just as they came with a [devilish] plan
to cause the [sons] of light to stumble and to devise against them a
525

BIBLE IN TERPRETATION

wicked plot, that [they might become subject] to Belial in their [wicked]
straying.
10

The Lord declares toyou that He will build you a House (2 Sam. vii, 1 ic). I
will raise up your seed after you (2 Sam. vii, 12). I will establish the throne of
his kingdom \for ever] (2 Sam. vii, 13). [I will be] hisfather and he shall be my
son (2 Sam. vii, 14). He is the Branch of David who shall arise with the
Interpreter of the Law [to rule] in Zion [at the end] of time. As it is writ
ten, I will raise up the tent of David that is fallen (Amos ix, 11). That is to
say, the fallen tent of David is he who shall arise to save Israel.

Explanation of How blessed is the man who does not walk in the counsel of
the wicked (Ps. i, 1). Interpreted, this saying [concerns] those who turn
15 aside from the way [of the people] as it is written in the book of Isaiah
the Prophet concerning the last days, It came to pass that [the Lord turned
me aside, as with a mighty hand, from walking in the way of] this people (Isa.
viii, 11). They are those of whom it is written in the book of Ezekiel the
Prophet, The Levites [strayedfa r from me, following their idols (Ezek. xliv,
10). They are the sons of Zadok who [seek their own] counsel and follow
[their own inclination] apart from the Council of the Community.
[Why] do the nations [rage] and the peoples meditate [vanity? Why do the
kings of the earth] rise up, [and the] princes take counsel together against the
Lord and against [His Messiah]? (Ps. ii, 1). Interpreted, this saying con
cerns [the kings of the nations] who shall [rage against] the elect of Israel
in the last days. II This shall be the time of the trial to co[me concern
ing the house of J]udah so as to perfect... Belial, and a remnant of the
people shall be left according to the lot (assigned to them), and they
shall practise the whole Law ... Moses. This is the time of which it is
written in the book of Daniel the Prophet: But the wicked shall do wickedly
and shall not understand, but the righteous shall purify themselves and make
themselves white (Dan. xii, 10). The people who know God shall be
strong. They are the masters who understand ...

52 6

Testimonia or Messianic Anthology

(4Q175)

This short document from Cave 4 (4Q 175), dating to the early first century b c e
and similar in literary style to the Christian Testimonia or collections of mes
sianic proof-texts, includes five quotations arranged in four groups. Only the last
of them is followed by an interpretation.
The first group consists of two texts from Deuteronomy referring to the
prophet similar to Moses; the second is an extract from a prophecy of Balaam
about the Royal Messiah; the third is a blessing of the Levites and, implicidy, of
the Priest-Messiah.
The last group opens with a verse from Joshua, which is then expounded by
means of a quotation from the sectarian Psalms of Joshua (cf. 4Q 379 below,
p. 547). Most experts hold that the commentator, bearing in mind the biblical
passage, is alluding to three characters: a father (an accursed man) and his two
sons. However, the verb arose in the second sentence is in the singular, and it
would seem correct to interpret this text as referring to the two brothers only.
For the editio princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, D JD , V, 57-60.

The Lord spoke to Moses saying:

Y ou have beard the words which this people have spoken to you; all they have
said is right. 0 that their heart were always like this, tofear me and to keep my
commandments always, that it might be well with them and their children for
ever! (Deut. v, 28 -9). I will raise up for them a Prophet like you from among
their brethren. I will put my words into his mouth and he shall tell them all
that I command him. And I will require a reckoning of whoever will not listen
to the words which the Prophet shall speak in my Name (Deut. xviii, 18-19).

He took up his discourse and said:

Oracle of Balaam son of Beor. Oracle of the man whose eye is penetrating.
Oracle of him who has heard the words of God, who knows the wisdom of the 10
Most High and sees the vision of the Almighty, who falls and his eyes are
527

BIBLE IN TERPRETATION

opened. I see him but not now. I behold him but not near. A star shall come out
ofJacob and a sceptre shall rise out of Israel; he shall crush the temples ofMoab
and destroy all the children of Sheth (Num. xxiv, 1 5-17).
And of Levi he said :
Give Thy Tummim to Levi, and Thy Urim to Thy pious one whom Thou didst
15 test at Massak, and with whom Thou didst quarrel at the waters of Meribah;
who said to hisfather and mother, 7 know you not\ and who did not acknowl
edge his brother, or know his sons. For they observed Thy word and kept Thy
Covenant. They shall cause Thy precepts to shine before Jacob and Thy Law
before Israel. They shall send up incense towards Thy nostrils and place a bumtojfering upon Thine altar. Bless his power.; 0 Lord, and delight in the work of
20 his hands. Smite the loins of his adversaries and let his enemies rise no more
(Deut. xxxiii, 8-11).
When Joshua had finished offering praise and thanksgiving, he said:
Cursed be the man who rebuilds this city! May he lay its foundation on his
first-born, and set its gate upon his youngest son (Josh, vi, 26). Behold, an
accursed man, a man of Belial, has risen to become a fowlers net to his
people, and a cause of destruction to all his neighbours. And [his
brother] arose [and ruled in li]es, both being instruments of violence.
25 They have rebuilt [this city and have set up for it] a wall and towers to
make of it a stronghold of ungodliness in Israel, and a horror in Ephraim
and in Judah ... They have committed an abomination in the land, and a
great blasphemy among the children [of Jacob. They have shed blood]
like water upon the ramparts of the daughter of Zion and within the
precincts of Jerusalem.

528

Ordinances or Commentaries
on Biblical Law
(4Qi 59. 4Q5 i 3i 4)

Three manuscripts from Cave 4 (4Q159, 4Q513-14), and probably belonging

to the turn of the era, include reinterpretations of various biblical laws.
In the first statute, the interpreter deduces from Deut. xxiii, 25-6 that a poor
man may eat ears of com in the field of another person, but is not allowed to
take any home. On a threshing-floor, however, he may both eat and gather pro
visions for his family.
Next follows a statute referring to the half-shekel tax contributed by every
Israelite aged twenty to the upkeep of the place of worship. Later Jewish tradi
tion interpreted this passage as instituting a yearly tax to be paid by every male
Israelite (cf. Neh. x, 32; Matth. xvii, 24-7; see also the treatise Shekalim or Shekel
Dues in the Mishnah). The Qumran ordinance, however, insists on one single
payment, thereby complying with the scriptural rule and at the same time with
holding regular support from the Temple in Jerusalem. Here 4Q159 and
4Q513, frs. 1-2, partly overlap.
The third statute (4Q159, frs. 2-4) deals with the prohibition against selling
an Israelite as a slave (cf. Lev. xxv, 39-46); with cases to be judged by a court of
twelve magistrates; with the forbidden interchange of garments between men
and women (cf. Deut. xxii, 5); and with the charge laid by a husband against his
wife that she was not a virgin when he married her (Deut. xxii, 13-21).
Finally, 4Q513, frs. 2-4, and 4Q514 legislate on purity rules.
For the editto princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, D JD , V, 6-9;
M. Baillet, DJD, VII, 287-98.

4 Q 15 9

I I ...

[And] anyone who has made o f it a threshing-floor or a winepress,

any destitute [Israelite] who goes into a threshing-floor may eat there
and gather for himself and for [his] household. But should he walk

529

BI B L E I N T E R P R E T A T I O N

5 among com standing in] the field, he may eat but may not bring it to his
house to store it.
Concerning . . . the money o f valuation that a man gives as ransom for
his life, it shall be half [a shekel. . . ] H e shall give it only once in his life.

gerahs make one shekel according to [the shekel o f the sanctuary

12-13) ] F o r the 600,000, one hundred talents; for the
3,000, half a talent (=30 minabs)\ [for the 500, five minahs\\ and for the
50, half a minab, (which is) twenty-five shekels (cf. Exod. xxxviii, 25-6)

Twenty

(cf. Exod. xxx,

4 Q 15 9 , frs. 2-4
. . . before Isra[el]. T h e y shall [n]ot serve Gentiles among foreign [ers, for
H e has brought them out from the land of] Egypt, and H e has com
manded concerning them that none shall be sold as a slave . . . [t]en men
5 and two priests, and they shall be judged before these twelve . . . spoke in
Israel against a person, they shall inquire in accordance with them.
W hosoever shall reb e l. . . , shall be put to death for he has acted wilfully.
L e t no mans garment be worn by a woman all [the days o f her life].
L e t him [not] be covered with a wom ans mantle, nor wear a wom ans
tunic, for this is an abomination.
I f a man accuses a virgin o f Israel (that she is not a virgin), if this is
when he marries her, let him say so and they shall examine her [concern
ing her] trustworthiness. I f he has not lied concerning her, she shall be
put to death. But if he has humiliated her [false]ly, he shall be fined two
10

minahs, [and] shall [not] divorce her all his life .. . .

4 Q 5 13
\gerahs\ make a shekel according to the she[kel o f the sanc
me\ahs, [two] zuzim ....
also sources o f uncleanness. T h e ephah and the bath, also sources o f
uncleanness, have the same capacity, (viz.) ten Hssarons (=tenths). A bath
5 o f wine corresponds to an ephah o f corn. T h e seah consists o f three and
one-third issarons, sources o f uncleanness, and the tithe o f the ephah [is
the issaron].
. . . [Twjenty

tuary ...] T h e half-[shekel consists o f twe]lv[e

530

O R D I N A N C E S OR C O M M E N T A R I E S ON B I B L I C A L L A W

4 Q 5 14
I H e shall not e a t . . . for all the unclean . . . to count for [him seven days
o f wa]shing and he shall wash and cleanse on the d[a]y o f [his] purifica
tion. W hoever has not begun his purification from his fo[un]t [shall not
eat]. [Neither shall he eat] in his first (degree o f) uncleanness. All those
temporarily unclean shall wash on the day o f their [purification, and
cleanse (their garments) with water and shall become clean. Afterwards
they may eat their bread according to the law o f purity. W hoever has not
begun his purification from his fount* shall not eat (again?) in his first
(degree o f ) uncleanness. W hoever is still in his first (degree o f ) unclean
ness shall not eat. All those temporarily [un] clean shall on the day o f
their purification] wash and cleanse (their garments) with water and
they shall be clean. Afterwards they may eat their bread according to the
l[aw. None] shall e[at] or drink with whom soever] prepares . . .

The Heavenly Prince Melchizedek

(11Q13)

A striking mid-first-century b c e document, composed of eleven fragments from

Cave 11 and centred on the mysterious figure of Melchizedek, was first pub
lished by A. S. van der Woude in 1965. It takes the form of an eschatological
midrash in which the proclamation of liberty to the captives at the end of days
(Isa. bd, 1) is understood as being part of the general restoration of property during
the year of Jubilee (Lev. xxv, 13), seen in the Bible (Deut. xv, 2) as a remission
of debts.
The heavenly deliverer is Melchizedek. Identical with the archangel Michael,
he is the head of the sons of Heaven or gods of Justice and is referred to as
elohim and el. The same terminology occurs in the Songs for the Holocaust of
the Sabbath. These Hebrew words normally mean God, but in certain specific
contexts Jewish tradition also explains elohim as primarily designating a judge.
Here Melchizedek is portrayed as presiding over the final Judgement and con
demnation of his demonic counterpart, Belial/Satan, the Prince of Darkness,
elsewhere also called Melkiresha* (cf. pp. 391, 570). The great act of deliverance
is expected to occur on the Day of Atonement at the end of the tenth Jubilee
cycle.
This manuscript sheds valuable light not only on the Melchizedek figure in
the Epistle to the Hebrews vii, but also on the development of the messianic
concept in the New Testament and early Christianity.
For the editio princeps, see F. Garcia Martinez, E. J. C. Tigchelaar and A. S.
van der Woude, D JD , XXIII, 2 2 1-4 1.

Frs. 1-4

n ... And concerning that which He said, In [this] year ofJubilee [each of
you shall return to his property (Lev. xxv, 13); and likewise, And this is the
manner of release:] every creditor shall release that which he has lent [to his
532

T HE H E A V E N L Y P RI NCE M E L C H I Z E D E K

neighbour. He shall not exact it of his neighbour and his brother], for God's
release [has been proclaimed] (Deut. xv, 2). [And it will be proclaimed at]
the end of days concerning the captives as [He said, To proclaim liberty to
the captives (Isa. lxi, 1). Its interpretation is that He] will assign them to
the Sons of Heaven and to the inheritance of Melchizedek; f[or He will 5
cast] their [lot] amid the po[rtions of Melchize]dek, who will return
them there and will proclaim to them liberty, forgiving them [the
wrong-doings] of all their iniquities.
And this thing will [occur] in the first week of the Jubilee that follows
the nine Jubilees. And the Day of Atonement is the e[nd of the] tenth
|Ju] bilee, when all the Sons of [Light] and the men of the lot of
Mel[chi]zedek will be atoned for. [And] a statute concerns them [to
prov]ide them with their rewards. For this is the moment of the Year of
Grace for Melchizedek. [And h]e will, by his strength, judge the holy
ones of God, executing judgement as it is written concerning him in the 10
Songs of David, who said, e l o h i m has taken his place in the divine council;
in the midst of the gods he holdsjudgement (Psalms lxxxii, 1). And it was con
cerning him that he said, (Let the assembly of the peoples) return to the
height above them; e l (god) will judge the peoples (Psalms vii, 7-8). As for
that which he s[aid, How long will you] judge unjustly and show partiality to
the wicked? Selah (Psalms lxxxii, 2), its interpretation concerns Belial and
the spirits of his lot [who] rebelled by turning away from the precepts of
God to ... And Melchizedek will avenge the vengeance of the judge
ments of God ... and he will drag [them from the hand of] Belial and
from the hand of all the sp[irits of] his [lot]. And all the gods [ofJustice]
will come to his aid [to] attend to the destruction] of Belial. And the height
is ... all the sons of God ... this ... This is the day of [Peace/Salvation] 15
concerning which [God] spoke [through Isa]iah the prophet, who said,

[How] beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of the messenger who pro
claims peace, who brings good news, who proclaims salvation, who says to Zion:
Your e l o h i m [reigns] (Isa. Iii, 7). Its interpretation; the mountains are the
prophets ... and the messenger is the Anointed one of the spirit, concern
ing whom Dan[iel] said, [Until an anointed one, a prince (Dan. ix, 25)] ...
[And he who brings] good [news], who proclaims [salvation]: it is concerning
him that it is written ... [To comfort all who mourn, to grant to those who
mourn in Zion] (Isa. lxi, 2-3). To comfort [those who mourn: its interpretation], to make them understand all the ages of t[ime] ... In truth ... will
turn away from Belial ... by the judgements] of God, as it is written
concerning him, [who says to Zion]\your e l o h i m reigns. Zion is ... , those
533

20

BI B L E I N T E R P R E T A T I O N

who uphold the Covenant, who turn from walking [in] the way o f the
people. Pm&your

elo h im

is [Melchizedek, who will save them from] the

hand o f Belial.
As for that which H e said, Then you shall send abroad the trump[et in\ all
the land (Lev. xxv, 9 ) . . .

Consolations or Tanhumim
(4Q 176)

A large number of small fragments from a Cave 4 manuscript (4Q176), edited

by J. M. Allegro in 1968, represent a scriptural anthology centred on the theme
of divine consolation. Originally, each citation was accompanied by a sectarian
exegesis, but only a few examples of the latter survive. The majority of the extant
remains belong to Isaiah xl-lv (Ps. lxxix, 2-3; Isa. xl, 1-5 ; xii, 8-9; xlix, 13 -17 ;
xliii, 1-2, 4-6; li, 22-3; lii, 1-3 ; liv, 4-10 ; lii, 1-2 ; Zech. xiii, 9). The translated
passage is based on Psalm lxxix, 2-3, and is followed by a new title - From the
Book of Isaiah: Consolations - and the quotation of the opening verses of Isa. xl.
The four asterisks symbolize the Tetragram indicated in the manuscript simply
by dots.
For the editio princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A Anderson, D JD , V, 60-67.

I And he shall accomplish Thy miracles and Thy righteousness among

Thy people. And they shall... Thy sanctuary, and shall dispute with the
kingdoms over the blood o f .. .Jerusalem and shall see the bodies of Thy
priests ... and none to bury them (Ps. lxxix, 3). From the Book of Isaiah:
Consolations [Comfort, comfort, my people] - says your God - speak to the
heart ofJerusalem and c[ry to her that] her [bondage is completed], that her
punishment is accepted, that she has received from the hand of **** double for
all her sins ... (Isa. xl, 1-3).

535

Catenae or Interpretation of
Biblical Texts on the Last Days
(4 Q 17 7 ,4 Q 18 2 )

These two documents consist of over thirty fragments, none of which amounts to
units of coherent text. The connecting theme is eschatology, with the phrase
at the end of days appearing half a dozen times. The majority of the biblical
quotations are from the Psalms (Ps. vi, xi, xii, xiii, xvi), but explicit mentions are
also made of the Book of the Law (or possibly the Second Law) (4Q 177, frs.
1 - 4 , 1 . 14), the Book of Ezekiel, the prophet (4Q 177, fr. 7 , 1 . 3), and the Book
of Jerem[iah the prophet?] (4Q 182, fr. 1 , 1 . 4). The citations are introduced by
as it is written, and the expository sections start withpesher. The following typically
sectarian expressions are attested: party of light (fr. 1-4 ,1. 8), men of his council
(ibid., 1. 16), congregation of seekers of smooth things (fr. 9, 1. 4), men of
Belial (fr. 1 0 -11 , 1 . 4), Interpreter of the Law (ibid., 1 . 5), sons of light (fr.
12 -13

7 I J ) council of the Community (fr.

1 4 , 1 . 5).

For the editio princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, D JD , V, 64-74,

80-81; cf. J. Strugnell, RQ 7 (1970), 236-46, 256.

4 Q 17 7 frs.

io - i i ,

7, 9, 20, 26 (as reconstructed by Strugnell)

... The interpretation of the saying concerns the purifying of the heart
of the men ... to try them and refine them ... by the spirit and the pure
and the purified ... [As for that which] he said, Lest the enemy say, [I have
prevailed over him] (Ps. xiii, 5) ... They are the congregation of the seekers
of smooth things who ... [unt]il they seek to destroy .. . by their jealousy
and hostilit[y] ... The interpretation of this word concerns] ... [whi]ch
is written in the Book of Ezekiel the pr[ophet] ...
[The interpretation of the saying concerns the end] of days when
there will be gathered against them ...

536

G. Biblically Based
Apocryphal Works

Jubilees,
Israel Antiquities Authority

Jubilees
( 4 Q 2 16 - 2 8 ,1Q 17 - 18 ,2 Q 19 - 2 0 ,

3Q5.4Q4 82(?)> 11Q12)

The pseudepigraphon, known prior to Qumran from a complete Ethiopic and

partial Greek, Latin and Syriac translations, has for the first time surfaced in a
large number of mostly small fragments in its Hebrew original in five Qumran
caves. The work itself is a midrashic retelling of the story of Genesis (and the
beginning of Exodus) in the form of a revelation conveyed by angels to Moses.
Apart from some 4Q relics, the texts from 1-3Q and 11Q are too mutilated to
provide the basis for an English translation and their chief significance lies in
their attestation of a Hebrew original generally close to the account preserved in
the ancient versions.
The 4Q material includes some larger fragments suitable for rendering into
English, and 4Q 225, sumamed pseudo-jubilees by the editors, but which could
just as well be accepted simply as an alternative account, reveals supplementary
material of some importance not only for Jubilees in general, but also for the
study of the Akedah or story of the sacrifice of Isaac, certain features of which
receive here their first pre-Christian attestation.
4Q 216 , which in part may be the earliest Jubilees manuscript and should be
dated palaeographically to the last quarter of the second century b c e , testifies in
the form o f small fragm ents to the beginning o f the book (between 1, 1 and 11, 24

of the Ethiopic version). It contains the Hebrew tide of the work, Book of the
Divisions of the Times, repeated also in other 4Q fragments, a tide already
known from the Damascus Document (xvi, 3). 4 Q 2 17 and 218, the first consist
ing of eleven tiny papyrus fragments and the second of a single small leather frag
ment, both probably derive from the opening chapters of Jubilees. 4Q 219 , also
poorly preserved, has preserved tit-bits from chapters xxi, 1 to xxn, 1. Its only
noteworthy contribution is that in col. 11, lines 35-6, it dates the death of Abraham
correcdy to the forty-third jubilee counted from the creation, and not to the
forty-fourth, as the Ethiopic version does. 4QJube 4Q 220 supplies a single lar
gish, hence translatable, fragment of Jub. xxi, 5 -10 written in an early Herodian script (last three decades of the first century

539

bce

). It occasionally overlaps

BI BLI CALLY BASED AP OCRYPHAL W ORK S

with 4Q 219 , thus permitting the filling in of two gaps. The remaining four
4QJub manuscripts are once again so fragmentary that no translation is possible.
4Q 221 consists of thirty-seven tiny fragments, covering small identified portions
of Jub. xxi, 22 to xxxix, 9. The six fragments of 4Q 222 echo Jub. xxv, 9 -12 ;
xxvii, 6 -7 and x l i x , 5(?) and the badly worn papyrus manuscripts of 4Q 2 2 3-4 ,
where identifiable, reflect Jub. xxxn, 18 to x l i , 10.
Remains of three Hebrew manuscripts (4Q 225-7) have preserved a writing
akin to Jubilees or representing a discrepant version of it. In either case,
Pseudo-Jubilees, the title chosen by the editors, is no doubt a misnomer.
Palaeographically, 4Q 225 is dated to the turn of the era; 4Q 226 to the second
half, and 4Q 227 to the final decades, of the first century

bce

. O f the three frag

ments, the first and the third are very damaged, but substantial parts of fragment
2 are extant. The author recounts the sacrifice of Isaac with details which differ
from the Genesis story and display close parallels to the post-biblical representa
tion of the Akedah or Binding of Isaac, anticipating features known from the
Palestinian Targums (Ps. Jonathan and Neofiti on Gen. xxii, 10 in col. 11.4; Ps.
Jon. on Gen. xxii, 11, and Pirqe de-Rabbi Eliezer 105c on the same passage in
col. 11.1). The presence of angels at the sacrifice is repeatedly attested in the
Targums. 4Q 225 provides the earliest (pre-Christian) evidence for the rabbinic
story of Isaacs voluntary self-sacrifice which is thought to have supplied a model
for the formulation by New Testament writers of the teaching on the sacrificial
death of Jesus. Cf. G. Vermes, Scripture and Tradition in Judaism (Brill, 1961),
19 3-227. Cf. also G. Vermes, New Light on the Akedah from 4 Q 2 2 5, J J S 47
(1996), 140-46.
4Q 226 or psjubb is made up of fourteen fragments, half of them unidentifi
able. The first six mention Egypt, the wilderness, Joshuas crossing (of the Jordan)
and the land of Canaan. Fr. 7, the largest, returns to the aftermath of the sacrifice
of Isaac and furnishes a text closely resembling 4Q 225 2, ii. The badly damaged
fr. 2 of 4Q 227 is centred on the figure of Enoch, instructed by angels, testifying
against his contemporaries and the angels called Watchers. Allusion is made to
his writing activity, including astronomical knowledge which was to stop the
righteous from going astray. The two small fragments of 4Q 227 contain refer
ences to Moses and to Enoch (cf. Jub. iv, 17-24) and 4Q 228 consists of one
large and eight tiny fragments, one of which (fr. 1 , 1 . 9) displays the phrase, For
thus is written in the Divisions [of times]. Hence it is identified as an unknown
work quoting the Book of Jubilees.
For the editio princeps of 4 Q 2 16 -2 8 , see J. C. VanderKam and J. T . Milik,
D JD , X III, 1-18 5 .
207-20.

Pr I][QI2> see F. Garcia Martinez et al., D JD , XXIII,

540

JUBILEES

4 Q 2 2 0 , fr. 1

(Jub. xxi, 5-10)

[And do not go a]fter idols and after . . . and do not [eat any bl]ood o f a
wild or domestic animal or a bird which [flies] . . . [And if you sacrifice a
peace-offering as a bumt-offering, sacrifice it for (G o d s) pleasure. And
sprinkle their blood on the alt[ar. And all] the flesh o f the bumt-offering
you will offer on the alt[ar] together with the flour mixed with [o]i[l] o f
its meal-offering. . . . [You] will offer all on the altar as a fire-offering, a

pleasant odour before G od. [And the . . . o f peace-offerin]gs you will

offer on the fire which is on the altar. And the fat [which is on . . . and]
the [f ]at which is on the entrails and the kidneys [and] the [fat which is
on them (cf. 4 Q 2 19 ) ] . . . and the lobes o f the liver with the kidneys you
shall remove [and you shall offer (cf. 4 Q 2 1 9 ) ] . . . with its offering and its
libation . . .
. . . [on] that [day] and on the morrow . . .

10

4Q225 (4Q226) fr. 2

I ... that so[ul] will be cut o ff... [he dwel]t in Haran for twenty [yea]rs
(not seventeen as in Jub. xn, 12, 28). [And A]braham [said] to God,
Behold, I am naked (childless) and it is Eli[ezer, the son] of my household, who will inherit from me. vacat

[And the Lo]rd [said] to A[b]raham, L ift up (your eyes) and gaze at
the stars and see and count the sand that is on the sea shore and the dust
o f the earth as to whether [they can be coun]ted. And Abraham bel[ieved
in] G[o]d and this was reckoned for him as righteousness. And a son was
born af[ter]wards [to Abraha]m and he called his name Isaac. And the
prince Ma[s]temah came [to G ]od and accused Abraham on account o f 10
Isaac. And [G]od said [to Abra]ham, Take your son, Isaac, [your] only
(son) [whom] you [love] and offer him to me as a bum t-offering on one
o f the . . . mountains [which I will tell] you. And he ro[se and he we]n[t]
from the wells to M o[unt Moriah] . . . And Ab[raham] lifted up

II

his

[ey]es [and behold there was] a fire. And he placed [the wood on Isaac,
his son, and they went together]. And Isaac said to Abraham, [his father,
Behold there is the fire and the wood, but where is the lamb] for the

54i

BIBLICALLY BASED APOCRYPHAL WORK S

bum t-offering? And Abraham said to [Isaac, his son, G od will provide
a lamb] for himself. Isaac said to his father, T[ie me well] (Ps. J, N on xxii,
5

1 0 ) . . . the holy angels standing and weeping over [the altar] . . . his sons
from the earth. And the angels o f M [astem ah]. . . were rejoicing and say
ing, N o w he (Isaac) will be destroyed . . . [we shall see] whether he will
be found weak and whether A[braham] will be found unfaithful [to G o d .
And he (God) called,] Abraham, Abraham. And he said. H ere am I.

10 And he said, N [o w I know that (it was a lie that?)] he (Abraham) will no
longer be loving. And the Lord G od blessed Is[aac all the days o f his life
(cf.
(cf.

4Q226 7.3) and he begot] Jacob, and Jacob begot Levi (in the) [third
4Q226 7.5)] genera[tion. And all] the days o f Abraham and Isaac and

Jacob and Lev[i were . . . years]. And the prince Ma[s]temah was bound
[and the holy angels (cf.

4Q226 7.6)]

. . . the prince Ma[s]temah, and

Belial listened to . . .

4Q226, &. 7
Abraham was found faithful to [G]o[d and] . . . for pleasure. And the
L o rd blessed [Isaac all the days] o f his life. And he begot J[acob and
5 Jacob begot] Levi in the thi[rd] generation. [And all the days] o f Abra
ham, Isaac and Ja[cob and Levi were . . . years]. And the holy angels . . .
Fast here . . .

4Q227, fr. 2
. . . [E]noch after they/we taught him . . . six jubilees o f years . . . [e]arth
towards the children o f men. And he testified against all o f them . . . and
5 against the Watchers. And he wrote all the . . . heaven and the ways o f its
host and the [mon]ths . . . [th]at the ri[ghteous] may not stra y . . .

542

The Prayer of Enosh and Enoch

(4Q369)

Ten fragments, including three large ones, have survived of a manuscript writ
ten with Herodian characters, apparently recording prayers. There is no direct
reference to the persons in whose mouths the words are placed, but the context
seems to indicate that the first fragment is associated with Enosh, who according
to Gen. iv, 26, was the first human to call on the name of the Lord. Since line 10
in fr. 1, col. 1 mentions Enoch, the editors have made a reasonable inference in
attributing to him the prayer in fr. 1, col. 11. Fr. 2 alludes to a war against the
lands without any context and frs. 3-9 contain nothing intelligible.
For the editio princeps, see H. Attridge and J. Strugnell, D /D , X III, 353-62.

Fr. 1
I . . . all their fe[stiv]als in their ages . . . o f T h y marvels, for from old

times T h o u hast ordered for them his judgement until the age o f deter
mined judgement through all everlasting commandments, vacat [Kenan
was from the fourth generation and Mehalalel] his [son] was the fifth
generation. [ . . . and Jared his son. And Jared his son was sixth generation and Enoch] his son. Enoch was seven [th] generation . . .

II

10

T h o u hast imparted T h y name as his inheritance to make T h y

name dwell there . . . She (Jerusalem ?) is the glory o f the territory o f T h y

land and on her [Thou] . . . T hine eyes on her and T h y glory shall be
seen there for . . . to his seed for their generations an everlasting pos
session and al[l] . . . T h y good judgements T h o u hast purified him for . . .
in everlasting light and T h o u hast established him for T h ee as a firstbor[n] son . . . like his, as a prince and ruler for all the territory o f T h y
land . . . [the] c[rown] o f the heavens and the glory o f the clouds T h o u
hast set [on him] . . . and the angel o f T h y peace in his congregation

543

BIBLICALLY BASED APOCRYPHAL WORKS

io and ... [given] him righteous rules like a father to his son .. . Thy soul
clings to his love ... for through them Thou [hast established] Thy glory

The Book of Enoch

(4Q2OI-2, 20 4-I2)

Various Qumran caves have yielded for the first time the original Aramaic text
of one of the major Pseudepigrapha, the Book of Enoch, which was previously
known from a complete Ethiopic translation and from a Greek rendering of
chapters i-x x x n and x c v n -c i, c v i-c v n , as well as from a number of Greek
quotations from chapters vi to xv transmitted by the Byzantine writer George
Syncellus. Qumran Cave 4 has yielded seven copies of the writing attested by,
but not strictly identical to, the Ethiopic, and four further copies of the related
Book of Giants, dependent on chapter vi of Enoch, fragments of which have
been discovered also in iQ and 6Q. Palaeographically, all of them are dated to
between

200 b c e

and the end of the pre-Christian era. The differences they dis

play concern partly the structure of the work, e.g. the astronomical section is
more developed in parts than the text from which the Ethiopic Enoch
l x x i i l x x x i i

was made, while the Book of Parables (chaps,

x x x vii

- l x x i ) with

its Son of Man speculation is completely lacking at Qumran. There are also
noticeable stylistic divergences which may be attributable more to the absence
of a unified text of Enoch than to the work of the Ethiopic translator.
The bulk of the fragments is too small for translation. It would be wholly
meaningless to render into English the retranslation into Aramaic of the Ethiopic

and/or Greek text supplied by their editor, J. T . Milik, who has conjecturally
filled the many gaps in the Qumran manuscripts. The passages included in this
volume are those which make sense in themselves. The first excerpt (4Q201)
supplies the Aramaic names of the twenty chiefs of the fallen angels. The second
(4Q204) relates the miraculous birth of Noah, which should be compared to the
parallel accounts in the Genesis Apocryphon col. 11 and in the fragments of the
Book of Noah (1Q 19 , 4Q 534). The third and fourth extracts (4Q206) testify to
a recension noticeably different from the corresponding Ethiopic version. The
fifth (4Q209), the Astronomical Book, is - as has been noted - considerably
longer than the Ethiopic. As for the Book of Giants, it is missing from the

545

BI BLI CALLY BASED AP OCRYPHAL WORK S

Ethiopic, though it circulated in Manichaean, Talmudic and medieval Jewish

literature.
For a preliminary edition, see J. T. Milik, The Books ofEnoch: Aramaic Fragments
of Qumran Cave 4, Oxford, 1976. See also for 4Q201 2-8, 203 and 206 2-3, L.
Stuckenbruck, DJD, XXXVI, 3-48. For 4Q208-9, see E. J. C. Tigchelaar and
F. Garcia Martinez, DJD, XXXVI, 95-171. For the Ethiopic, see M. A. Knibb
with the assistance of Edward Ullendorff, The Ethiopic Book of Enoch I
II,
Oxford, 1978. For a general introduction, cf. H JP III, 250-68.

4 Q 2 0 1 i = E n a ( i E n . vi, 7 -v ii, 1)

III
5

. . . And these are [the names o f their chiefs]. Shemihazah wh[o was their
head, Arataqo]ph (cf. En b), his second; Ramta[el, third] to him; K okabe[l, fourth to h im ;. . . el, fif ]th to him; Ramae[l, sixth to him;] Daniel,
seve[nth to him; Ziqiel (cf. E n a,c), eigh]th to him; Baraqel, nin[th to
him]; Asael, tenth [to him; Hermoni (En0), eleven]th to him; Matarel,

10 twelf[th to him]; Ananel, thirteenth [to him]; Stawel, [fo]urteenth to him;

Shamshi[el, fifteen th to him; Shahriel, [s]ixteenth to him; Tummiel,
seventeenth to him]; Turiel, eighteenth to him; Yomiel, nine [teenth] to
him; [Yehaddiel, twentieth to him.] These are the chiefs o f the chiefs o f
tens. The[se and] their [ch]iefs [took for themselves] wives from all those
whom they chose and [they began (Enb) to go in to them and defile

15 themselves with them and to teach them sorcery and magic (Enb)] . . .
And they became pregnant by them and bo [re giants] . . .

4 Q 2 0 4 = E n c ( i E n . cvi, 19 -c v ii, 2)

II
25

. . . [And af]ter [these shall co]me a greater wicked[ness than that which
will have been accomplished] in [their] d[ays. For]

I know the mysteries

[of the Lord which] the holy ones have explained and showed me and
which

I read [in] the heavenly [tablets]. And I saw written in them that

one generation after another will do evil in this way, and evil will last
[until] generations o f righteousness [arise] and evil and wickedness shall
end and violence shall cease from the earth and un[til good shall come

546

THE B O OK OF ENOCH

on the earth] on them, vacat And now, please go to your [son], Lamech,
[and explain to him] that this child is his son in truth and without lie . . .

30

4Q206 1 xxii (iE n. xxii, 3-7)

. . . [the soul] o f all the sons o f man. And behold, these are the pits for
their prison. T h e y were made thus until the day o f their judgement,
until the final day o f the great judgement which will be imposed on
them, vacat T h ere I saw the spirit o f a dead man complaining and his
moaning rising to heaven and crying and complaining . . .

4Q206 1 xxvi (iE n. xxxii, 1-3 )

. . . [And beyond] those [mountains] roughly northwards, on their eastern
side, I was shown other mountains, [full of] excellent [n]ard, and pepperwort, and cinnamon, [and pe]pper. vacat And from there I was led [to the
east o f all those mountains, far from them, to the east o f the earth and I
was taken over the Red S[ea] and greatly distanced m yself from it and

25

crossed over the darkness far from it. And I passed to the Paradise o f
righteousness . . .

The Astronomical Book o f Enoch

4Q209 7 (cf. iE n. lxxiii, i-lxxiv, 90)
. . . I I . . . [And it (the moon) shines in the remainder o f this night with
three seventh (parts); and it grows during this day to four sevenths and a
half; and then it sets and enters (its gate) and is covered for the remain
der] o f this day to [two] sevenths and a half. [And in the night o f the
twent]y fourth it is covered four sevenths and a half and [four sevenths
and a half] are cut o ff from its light. [And th]en it comes out (from its
gate) and shines in the remainder o f this night two sevenths and a half.
And it grows [in] this [d]ay five sevenths and then it sets and enters (its
gate) and is covered for the remainder o f this day [two] sev[enths. vacat
And in the night, on the twenty-fifth, it is covered five sevenths, (and)
five sevenths are cut off from its light. And then it comes out and shines
for the remainder o f this night two sevenths. And it grows in this day to

547

BI BLI CALLY BASED APOCRYPHAL W ORK S

five sevenths and a half. And then it sets [and] enters the second gate and
is covered for the remainder o f this day one seventh and a half, vacat And
in the night o f the twenty-sixth it is covered five sevenths and a half and
five sevenths and a half are cut o ff from its light.
10

And then it comes out o f the second gate and shines for the remainder
o f this night one seventh and a half. And it grows in this day six sevenths.
And then it sets and enters and is covered for the remainder o f this day
one seventh, vacat And in the night o f the [twe]nty-seventh it is covered
six sevenths and [six] sev[enths] are cut off from its light. [And then it
comes out and shines for the rem ainder o f this night one seventh. And
it grows in this day [six sevenths and a half. And then it sets and enters]

III

[and shines in the night o f the eight]h four [s]ev[enths]. And then

it sets and enters. In this night the sun completes] the passage through
all the sections (?) o f the first gate and recommences to go in and come
out through its sections. [And then the moon] sets and enters. And it
darkens during the remainder o f this night three sevenths. And it grows
in this day four sevenths and [a half]. And then it comes out and domi
nates in the remainder o f this day two sevenths and a h[al]f. vacat And it
5 shines in the night o f the ninth four [sevenths] and a half. And then it
sets and enters. In this night the sun recommences to go through [its]
section[s and to set] in them. And then [the mo]on sets and enters the
fifth gate and darkens in the remainder o f this night [two] sevenths and a
half. And it grows in th[is] day five [sevenths] and in it the ligh [t] equals
five sevenths . . . equals in full. [And then it comes out] o f the [f]if [th]
gate . . .

548

The Book of Giants

(1Q 23-4, 2Q26, 4Q203, 530-33, 6Q8)

The Book of Giants is missing from the Ethiopic version of Enoch, but it circu
lated among the Manichaeans (W. B. Henning, The Book of Giants, Bulletin of
the School of Oriental andAfrican Studies 11, 1943-46, 52-74) as well as in Talmudic and medieval Jewish literature (bNid. 61 a and Midrash Shemhazai and
Azael), as has been convincingly shown by J. T. Milik in his learned book, The
Books of Enoch: Aramaic Fragments of Qumran Cave 4 (Oxford, 1976, 298-339).
Some of the features resemble the Book of Daniel.
For the editio princeps of 4Q530-33, see E. Puech, DJD, XXXI, 9-115.

4Q530
Frs. 2, 6 -12
n . . . about the death o f our soul. And all his colleagues entered and
[OJhiyah explained them what Gilgamesh had told him and H[o]babis
roared and [j]udgement was pronounced on him. And the guilty cursed
the princes, but the giants rejoiced over him and he was curs[ed] again
[and accep]ted it. T h en two o f them dreamed dreams and the sleep o f
their eyes fled from them . . . and they ro[se and op]ened their eyes and

they went to [Shemihaza, their father. Then] he told a story in the con
gregation o f [their colleagues, the Nephilin: . . . I saw [a wonder] in my
dream that night. [Behold a big garden was planted with all kinds o f
trees.] There were there gardeners and they were watering [ev]ery tree
in [that] garden . . . M any [roo]ts grew out o f their stock. [And out o f one
tree grew] three shoots. I was looking until tongues o f fire [came down]
from [heaven]. I was [looking] until the . . . was covered with all the water
and the fire devoured all [the trees] o f the whole orchard. But it did not
[devour the tree and its shoots on] the land whe[n it was destroyed] . . .

549

10

BIBLICALLY BASED APOCRYPHAL WORKS

H ere is the end o f the dream . . . [And] the giants were unable to explain
[the] dre[am]. [And he said ...] You will give this [dr] earn [to Eno]ch, the
15 interpreter scribe, that he might interpret to us the dream, vacat T h en
Ohiyah, his brother, answered and said before the giants, I, too, saw a
wonder in m y dream this night. Behold the Ruler o f heaven descended
to earth and thrones were set and the great H oly One sat. [Hundreds
and hundred]s were ministering to Him. Thousands and thousands . . .
stood b[e]fore Him. And behold, [boo]ks were opened and judgement
was pronounced and the judgem ent. . . [was writ] ten and a signature was
signed. And [the Great one reigns] over all the living and flesh and over
20

[all those who ru]le. Here is the end o f the dream, vacat [And behold] all
the giants were terrified [and] c[al]led Mahawai and he came to the
co[ng]regation o f [the Nephilin(P)] And the giants sent him to Enoch . . .
and said to him, G o [to him ...] previously you listened to his voice and
say to him that he should expl[ain to you the inter[pretation o f the
dreams and that all should rest [w]ith those who hunger strongly after it

4Q 531
Fr. 22
.. . [I showed myself] mighty and by the power of my strong arm and by
the vigour of my might [I rose against a] 11 flesh and made war on them.
5 But I ... not ... [fi]nd ... to strengthen (me), for my adversaries, [the
angels of heave]n dwell [in heave]n and they abide in the holy places and
[I will] not.. . [for the]y are more powerful than I.
vacat ... of wild beasts came and the country people cried .. . And
10 Ohiyah spoke to him thus. My dream has depressed [me] and [the sl]eep
of my eyes [fled from me] for looking at the [vis]ion. Behold I know that
I cannot sleep and cannot hasten for them ... [Then Gil]gamesh said,
Your [dr] earn ...

550

An Admonition
Associated with the Flood
(4Q370,4Q185)

4Q370 is a rewritten account of the Noah story based on Genesis vi-ix; two
fragmentary columns have survived, only the first of which is suitable for trans
lation. Palaeographically, it is said to be late Hasmonaean, i.e. from the first half
of the first century b c e , but the composition itself is pre-Qumran. Both the
Tetragram and the divine name 'el are used. The badly damaged column 11
switches from narrative to ethics and exhortation. Part of it can be reconstructed
with the help of 4Q185.
For the editio princeps of 4Q370, see Carol A. Newsom, DJD, XIX, 85-97.

4Q370 (4Q185)
I [And] He crowned the mountains with pro[duce] and poured food on
them, and he satisfied every soul with good fruit. Whoever does my
will, let him eat and be satisfied, says [the Lo]rd. And let them bless [my
holy] name. But, behold, they have done what is wicked in my eyes, said
the Lord. They rebelled (?) against God through their ac[tio]ns, and the
Lord judged them according to all their ways, and according to the
thoughts of the inclination of their [evil] hearts. And He thundered at
them in [His] power, and all the foundations of the earth [tr]embled,
[and the wa]ters burst forth from the abysses. All the windows of heaven
opened, and all the abyss[es] overflowed [with] mighty waters. And the
windows of heaven [emptied out] rain and He destroyed them by the
Flood ... Therefore everything [perished] on the dry land; and men,
beasts, birds and winged creatures [died]. And the g[iant]s did not escape
... And God made [a sign ... and] set His bow [in the cloud] that He
might remember the covenant ... [that there might no more be on
earth] waters of flood ... and that the mass of waters [might not be let
loo]se ...
55i

BI BLI CALLY BASED AP OCRYPHAL W ORK S

II
(combined with 4Q185) ... their wickedness when they know (how
to distinguish) bet[ween good and evil... For behold], they sprout forth
[like grass], but a shadow are their days o[n the earth. And now pray
hearken to me, my people; heed me, O you Simple for from everlasting]
to everlasting he will have mercy ... the might of the Lord. Remember
the mira[cles which he did in Egypt and his marvels in the land of Ham.
Let your heart shake] because of fear of him, and [your] soul will rejoice
according to his good graces ...

The Ages of the Creation

(4Q180)

A badly worn manuscript from Cave 4 (4Q180) has been published under this
title by J. M. Allegro. Its decipherment and interpretation have been further
improved by J. Strugnell and J. T . Milik. The only section yielding coherent
sense deals with the myth of the fallen angels and the daughters of men, which is
based on Genesis vi, 1-4, and fully developed in 1 Enoch. If Miliks reconstruc
tion is correct, the work presents human history as divided into seventy weeks of
years (70 x 7 years), the first ten of which cover the period from Noah to Abra
ham. The manuscript is claimed by Strugnell to belong to the first century c e .
For the editio princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, D JD , V, 77-9; cf.
J. Strugnell, RQ 7 (1970,) 252-4; J. T . Milik, J J S 23 (1972), 110 -24.

Interpretation concerning the ages made by God, all the ages for the
accomplishment [of all the events, past] and future. Before ever He cre
ated them, He determined the works of ... age by age. And it was
engraved on [heavenly] tablets ... the ages of their domination. This is
the order of the cre[ation of man from Noah to Abraham, un]til he
begot Isaac; ten [weeks (of years)].
And the interpretation concerns Azazel and the angels who [came to
the daughters of men; and] they bore to them giants. And concerning
Azazel ... and iniquity, and to cause them all to inherit wickedness ...
judgements and judgement of the congregation.

553

The Book of Noah

( 1 Q 1 9 ,1 Q 1 9 bis, 4Q 534-6, 6Q 8,I9)

Several groups of small fragments from Qumran Caves 1 ,4 and 6 appear to be the
relics of a Book of Noah mentioned in Jubilees x, 13 and xxi, 10 and reproduced
in an abbreviated form in Aramaic in the Genesis Apocryphon nff. and in Enoch
cvi (cf. J. T . Milik, D JD , I, 84-6; 152; D JD , III, 116 -19 , 136). 1Q 19 and i9 bls are
remains of a Hebrew version; 6Q8 and 19 belong to an Aramaic Noah narrative.
1Q 19 , 6Q8 and iQapGen deal with the miraculous birth of Noah, as does
also 4Q 534, which was originally understood by scholars as describing the birth
of the Royal Messiah (cf. p. 370 above). In 1Q 19 fr. 1 the subject is the miser
able state of mankind before the Flood; frs. 3 and 1 3 - 1 4 (as well as 6Q8) allude
to the birth of Noah, accompanied by miraculous signs.
For the editio princeps of 4Q 534-6 , see E. Puech, D JD , XXXI, 117-70 .

1 Q 1 9 , fir. 3
5

... [to] his father. And when Lamech (Noahs father) saw the ... [the
child made] the rooms of the house [shine] like the rays of the sun .. . to
frighten the ...

Frs. 1 3 - 1 4

... for the glory of your splendour ... for the glory of God ... [will be]
lifted in glorious majesty ... will be glorified amidst [the sons of h]eaven
and ...

554

T HE BOOK OF NOAH

4Q534
I . . . o f his hand: his two kn[ee]s. [And on his head] on his hair a birth
mark o f reddish colour. And the shape o f a lentil (will be) on [his face?],
and small birthmarks on his thigh. [And after t]wo years he will know
(how to distinguish) one thing from another in his heart. In his youth, he
will be like . . . [like a m]an who knows nothing until the time when he

knows the three Books. And then he will acquire prudence and learn
understanding] . . . w[ise] seers come to him, to his knees. And with his
father and his ancestors . . . o f brothers will hurt him. Counsel and pru
dence will be with him, and he will know the secrets o f man. H is wisdom
will reach all the peoples, and he will know the secrets o f all the living.
And all their designs against him will come to nothing, and (his) rule
over all the living will be great. H is designs [will succeed], for he is the
Elect o f God. H is birth and the breath o f his spirit . . . and his designs

10

shall be for ever . . .

4Q536 (4Q534, fr. 7)

. . . Blessed be every m[an who teaches his sons the doctrine o f wisdom].
For he will not die in the days o f wickedness. W oe to you, O fool, for
your mouth will deceive you by . . . (incurring) the death penalty. W h o
will write these words o f mine in a book that will not decay, and keep
this word o f mine [in a scroll (?) which will not] fade away? Behold . . .
and the pleasure o f the wicked will cease for ever . . .

555

10

Words of the Archangel Michael

(4Q529,6Q23)

In this poorly preserved Aramaic fragment the speaker, Michael, addresses the
angels in general and the archangel Gabriel in line 4 about a vision. The subject
is unclear, but since he refers to the sons of Noah, Shem and Ham, and to the
construction of a city filled with wickedness, it is possible that the author alludes
to the building of the tower of Babel. If there are two mountains in each direc
tion (east, west, north, south), the ninth indicated in the text must be special:
Zion or Sinai?
For the editio princeps, see E. Puech, DJD, XXXI, 1-8.

Fr. 1
W ords o f the book which Michael addressed to the angels . . . H e said : I
found there divisions o f fire . . . [and I saw there] nine mountains: two to
the eas[t, and two to the west, and two to the north and two to the
5

so]uth. I saw there the angel Gabriel . . . like a vision. [Then] I showed
him the vision. And he said to me: . . . in the books o f my Master, the
L o rd o f the world, it is written: Behold, . . . [between] the sons o f H am
and the sons o f Shem. And behold my Master, the Lord o f the world . . .
when they . . . the tear from . . . And behold a city was built to the name

10

o f m y Master, [the Lord o f the world, and there] everything that is evil
will be done before my Master, the Lor[d o f the world] . . . And my
Master, the Lord o f the world, will remember his creation . . . [and] my
Master, the Lord o f the world, [will be] merciful to him and to him . . .
the man will be in the faraway province . . . he, and he will say to him:

15

Behold this . . . for me silver and gold . . . And he will say: . . . [and] the
righteous man . . .

556

The Testament of Levi (i)

(4 Q 213-14,1Q 21)

Among the numerous small fragments representing the Aramaic Testament of

Levi from Cave 4, all dating to the mid-first century

bce,

a damaged portion of

two columns of 4 0 2 1 3 a contains parts of a prayer of Levi. As the best part of

the same text survives also in Greek in a manuscript from Mt Athos (Monastery
of Koutloumous, Codex 39, dating to the eleventh century), it is possible to
complete most of the missing sections of this prayer. Other small Aramaic frag
ments of the Testament of Levi, mentioning among other matters the kingdom
of the high priesthood, are listed under 1Q 2 1 (cf. J. T . Milik,

DJD , I, 87-91).
DJD , XXII,

For the editio princeps, see M. E. Stone and J. C. Greenfield,

1-7 1. For the Testament of Levi in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs,
see HJPIII, 767-81.

4 Q 2 I 3a
I

[Then] I raised [my eyes and face] towards heaven [and opened my

mouth and spoke. And I stretched out] the fingers o f my hands and my
hands . . . for truth towards the holy ones and I prayed and said, Lord, 10
T h o u [knowest every heart, and T]hou alone knowest all the thoughts o f
[the heart. And now m y sons are with me. G ive me all] the paths of
truth, and distance [from me, O Lord, the evil spirit and the evil] incli
nation and fornication and repulse [pride from me. And give me counsel,
and w]isdom and knowledge and might [so as to do that which pleases
Thee] and find favour before T h ee [and give thanks for T h y dealings
with me, O Lord, in order to do] that which is splendid and good before
Thee. [And let n]o adversary have dominion over me [to lead me astray
from T h y way. And be merciful t]o me, O Lord, and draw me near that I
may be T h y

II

[servant and minister well to Thee] . . .

[Thou], O Lord, [hast blessed Abraham my father and Sarah m y

557

15

BI BLI CALLY BASED APOCRYPHAL W ORK S

mother and Thou didst say that Thou wouldst give them] a righ[teous]
seed [which would be blessed for ever. Listen therefore to] the prayer of
[Thy] ser[vant Le]vi ... [to practise] righteous judgement for a [11 eter10 nity] ... [And do not remove] the son of Thy servant from be [fore Thee]
... Then I went along ... to my father Jacob. And when ... from AbelMayin. Then I lay down and dwelled ...

4Q 2 I 3
(completed from the Cairo Geniza)
Fr. i i
5 ... [And] I [instruct you, my sons, and I will show to you, my loved ones,
the truth.] The chief of all your deeds shall be [truth, and it shall be with
you for ever.] Righteousness and truth ... you will bring in a blessed har
vest. He who sows good will bring in good, and he who sows evil, his
io sowing will turn against him. And now teach your sons letters, doctrine
and wisdom, and wisdom will be with you for everlasting honour. He
who studies wisdom will be honoured, but he who despises wisdom will
be turned into scorn and disdain. My sons, look at Joseph, my brother,
who has studied letters and wise doctrine for glory and greatness and for
15 kings ... Do not be remiss in the study of wisdom ... Everyone who
studies wisdom ... To every land and province to which he goes as a
brother ... and he is not like a stranger, nor as a ... all will grant him
honour on its account because all wish to learn wisdom. Those who love
him are many and His well-wishers are great in number. They will make
20 him sit on a throne of honour to hear his words of wisdom. Wisdom is
great wealth of honour for those who know it, and a good treasure for
those who buy it. If powerful kings come and a big crowd [and horsemen
and many chariots will be with them, they will carry away the wealth of a
country and of a province, and plunder everything in them, they will not
plunder the treasuries of wisdom, and will not find] ...

40213b
[The seven departed from me] and I woke up from my sleep. Then [I
said, This is a vision and I am so amazed that I should have any vision.
558

T HE T E S T A M E N T OF LEVI (i)

And] I [concealed] this also in my heart [and disclosed it] to no man. And
we went to my father, Isaac, and he too blessed me thus. Then Jacob, my
father, tithed all that he had in conformity with his vow and I was the 5
first at the head [of the priesthood] and to me, one of his sons, he gave a
g ift... to God, and he clothed me with the garment of the priesthood
and he ordained me, and I became a priest of the everlasting God ...

4 Q 2 14 fir. 2
flo sprink]le [blood on the walls of the altar. And again wash your hands
and] your [fleet of [the blood and start offering the salted parts. Offer]
fi[rst the head and cover it with the fa]t and let not [the blood of the sac
rificed bull] be seen [on it. And afterwards] the [neck] and afterwards the
forelegs [and afterwards the breast with the sides, and afterjwards the
thighs and the spine [of the loin. And after the thighs the washed hind
legs] with the intestines. And they all [will be salted with salt as they
should. And] after that fine flour is to be mixed with oil [and] after all
this [pour out] wine [and bum incense over them and] your action
should follow the ru[le].

4 0 2 14 a , fr. 1
... These a[re what he said to me to be fit for offering below the burnt
offering] on the altar. And wh[en you have made an offering from these
trees on the altar and the fire has started] to [be kindled] ...

Frs. 2-3 i 3-6

[The fortieth year of my life she bore in the seventh/fou]rth [month.
And I was again with her and she conceived and bore me a daughte]r and
I gave her the name of Jochebed. I sai[d, She is bom to me for the hon
our of Israel.] In the sixty-fourth year of my life she was bom on the
first (day) of the seventh [month].

559

BI BLI CALLY BASED APOCRYPHAL W ORK S

4Q 214I), frs. 2-6

... s[p]lit [woo]d, [and first examine it for worms and the]n [offer it, for]
thus did I see Abraham, [my father, taking care]. He s[ai]d to me [that
any of the twel]ve (kinds of) trees [is fit for] offering on the altar, [the
fragrance of whose smoke] goes up. And these are [their] names: [the
cedar, the juni]per, the almond tree, [the fir, the pine, the ash,] the
cypress, the ..., the olive tree, the laurel, the myrtle and the ... These
are (the trees) which he [said to me that they are fit to offer] below the
burnt offerings [on the altar. And when you have offered any of] these
[trees] on the altar [and the fire has started to bum them, then you will
start to sprinkle the blood] on the walls of the altar. And again [you will
wash your hands and feet of the blood and start to offer] the sa[lte]d
[l]im[bs]. The he [ad] ...

Testaments of the Patriarchs: the Testament of

Levi or Testament of Jacob
(4 Q 537 and 54 0_ 4 I )

An Aramaic work of which numerous fragments are extant in Cave 4 resembles

the Testament of Levi from among the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs.
The central figure is Levi, but the testament is probably that of his father, Jacob.
Hence 4Q537 is referred to also as the Jacob Apocryphon. Palaeographically its
proposed date is the end of the second century b c e . Both 4Q537 and 541 allude
to an eschatological priesdy figure (recalling the pseudepigraphic Testament of
Levi xvii-xvni) whose mission encounters opposition due to the wickedness of
the men of his generation. 4Q537 probably represents Jacobs dream at Bethel.
The three fragments of 4Q540 are very truncated and provide no basis for
meaningful translation.
For the editio princeps, see E. Puech, D/D, XXXI, 171-90 and 225-56.

4Q537
Fr. 12

... and how will be the buildinfg] ... [and how will the prie]sts be
dressed and [their hands] be purified, and how will [they] offer sacrifices
on the altar, and ho[w on the who]le earth will they always eat part of
their sacrifices [and how they shall drink the water] which will come out
of the city under the walls ...

4Q541, fr. 9
I ... and he will pass on [to them (his sons) his w]isdom. He will atone
for all the sons of his generation and will be sent to all the sons of his
[peo]ple. His word is like a word of heaven, and his teaching is according
561

BI BLI CALLY BASED AP OCRYPHAL WORK S

to the will of God. His eternal sun will shine, and his fire will spring
forth to all the ends of the earth, and will shine over darkness. The dark5 ness will pass away [fr]om the earth, and deep darkness from the dry
land. They will utter many words against him and many [ . . . ]s. They
will invent stories about him, and will utter everything dishonourable
against him. Evil will overturn his generation [because ... ] will be, and
because lies and violence will (fill) his existence, and the people will go
astray in his days and will become perplexed.

4Q541, fr. 24 ii
... Do [n]ot mourn in sackcloth ... and do not ... redeemed whether
they are hid [den] fault [s] or revealed faults and ... Search and seek and
know what is sought by the dove and do not smite one who is exhausted
5 with consumption and troubles ... And you will make a joyous name for
your father and a tried foundation for your brothers. And you will see
and rejoice in the everlasting light and you will not be from among the
enemies, vacat

The Testament of Judah and Joseph

(4Q 538-9 )

Four small fragments of an Aramaic work (4Q538) were first recognized as

belonging to the Testament of Judah by J. T. Milik (Ecrits preesseniens de
Qumran: dHenoch a Amram, in Qumran. Sa pie'te sa theologie et son milieu, ed.
M. Delcor (1976), 91-106). The script belongs to mid-first century b c e . The
five fragments of the Testament ofJoseph (4Q539) are too small for translation.
However, the allusion to my uncle IshmaeF (fr. 3) whose children acquired
Joseph as a slave, and to the minister of Pharaoh, Pentephres, the Greek form of
Potiphar (fir. 4), who bought Joseph from the Ishmaelites, seem to confirm
Miliks identification of the document.
For the editio princeps, see E. Puech, DJD, XXXI, 191-211.

Frs. 1-2

... if there is in their heart [an evil spirit] towards me (Joseph), vacat
When I ... and they came [to me,] they all [brou]ght to me the bags ...
and [they fell to the ground] before Joseph and revered [him]. He then
knew that there was no evil [sp]irit [in their heart] and he could no 5
longer ... (suspect them) ... and he could no longer ... And he presented
his brothers [with] a big [mea]l ... on my (Judahs) shoulder (literally:
neck) and embraced me ...

56 3

The Testament of Naphtali

(4 Q2 I 5)

Two reasonably intact fragments, dating to the turn of the era, represent the
Hebrew text of the Testament of Naphtali, with occasional similarities to the
version which survives in Greek. Fr. i partly overlaps with TNaphtali i, 9,
11-12, without being identical with it. Fr. 2 depicts the blessedness of the end of
time and may belong to a separate sectarian document.
For the editio princeps, see M. E. Stone, DJD, XXII, 73-82.

Fr. 1
... with the sisters(?) of (or: with Ahiyot,) the father of Bilhah, ...
Deborah, who suckled Reb[eccah] ... And he went into captivity and
Laban sent out and rescued him and gave him Hannah, one of [his]
maidservants. [And she conceived and bore] a first [daughter], Zilphah,
and gave her the name Zilphah after the name of the town whe[re] he
was taken into captivity. She conceived and bore Bilhah, my mother, and
5 Hannah called her name Bilhah, for when she was bom, [she was in] a
hurry to suck. And she said, What? Is my daughter in a hurry? And she
called her again Bilhah. vacat When my father Jacob came to Laban,
fleeing from Esau, his brother, and after ... the father of Bilhah my
mother. And Laban led Hannah, the mother of my mother and her two
daughters, [and he gave one to Lea]h and one to Rachel. And when it
10 came to pass that Rachel did not bear sons, ... |Jaco]b my father, and he
gave him Bilhah my mother and she bore Dan [my] brother ...

564

Narrative and Poetic Composition3-0

(formerly AJoseph Apocryphon)
(4Q 371-3)

4Q371-3 form a very fragmentary Hebrew narrative relating to the period of

the Patriarchs and Moses. Palaeographically they are dated to the second half of
the first century b ce . 4Q372 appears to be the relic of an anti-Samaritan polem
ical work, antedating the destruction of the Temple on Mount Gerizim under
John Hyrcanus I (134-104 b ce ). N o sectarian features are apparent in this writ
ing. It should be noted that the joint reference to the tribes of Levi, Judah and
Benjamin (line 14) is paralleled in iQM 1, 2. 4Q373, parallel to 2Q22, describes
the battle between a Jewish hero, possibly Moses, and the giant Og, king of
Bashan (cf. Num. xxi, 21-35). The model of the story is the duel between David
and Goliath.
For the editio princeps, see Eileen Schuller and M. Bernstein, DJD, XXVIII,
155-204.

4Q 372, fir. 1 (4Q 371-2)

... and the pagan priests and the worshippers of [idols] ... the Most
High and He handed them over to the nations ... [and He dispersed]
them in all the lands and among all [the nations] and He disseminated 5
them ... and they did not come ... Israel. And He destroyed them from
the land ... and the nations did not leave for them a tent-peg standing in
the Valley of Vision ... [and they turned] Jerusalem into ruins and the
Mountain of my God into high places of fore[st]... the precepts of God.
Judah was also with him and he stood at the crossroads to ... to be 10
together with his two brothers. And for all this, Joseph was thrown to
un [known] lands, to a strange nation and they (the northern Israelites)
were dispersed in the whole world. All their mountains were deserted
without them ... and fools resided in their land. They made for them
selves a high place on an elevated mountain to excite the jealousy of
565

BIBLICALLY BASED APOCRYPHAL WORK S

15

20

25

30

Israel. They spoke wor[ds o f ... ] of the sons of Jacob and caused disgust
with the words of their mouth, blaspheming against the Tent of Zion.
They spoke [words of falsehood and all the] words of lies to enrage Levi,
Judah and Benjamin by their words. And for all this, Joseph [was put]
into the hands of strangers to consume his strength and break all his
bones until the time of his end. And he cried ... and called on the
mighty God that He should save him from their hands. He said, My
Father and my God, do not abandon me to the hands of the nations.
Execute judgement for me so that the humble and the poor may not per
ish. Thou hast no need of any nation or people to help Thee. [Thy]
fing[er] is greater and more powerful than anything in the world. For
Thou optest for the truth, and in Thy hand there is no violence what
ever. Also Thy mercies are many and Thy loving-kindness is great for all
those who seek Thee. [They took] my land from me and from all my
brothers who have joined me. A nation of enemies resides on i t .. . and
they opened their mouth with anger against all the sons of Jacob, Thy
friend, ... at the time when Thou wilt destroy them from the whole
world and they will give ... I will rise to enact judgement and
righteousness] ... [to do] the will of my Creator and to offer sacrifices
... my God. I will proclaim [Thy] merci[es] ... I will praise Thee, O
Lord, my God, and I will bl[e]ss Thee ... the first things and to teach
Thy precepts to the sinners, and to all who have forsaken [Thy] Law ....
and evil so that Thy testimonies will not rebuke me and to proclaim
[Thy] righteousness ... For Thou art a great, holy, mighty, powerful,
awe-inspiring and wonderful God ... [the heaven] and the earth and
even in the depth of the ocean majesty and ... I know and I have under
stood and . . .

Fr- 3
5

a heart teaching understanding, a mouth [proclaim ing

judgement.

For my words are [sweeter] than honey and surpass wine.

[My] tongu[e] is truth and all the words of my mouth are
righteousness.
Their testimonies shall not destroy and their portions shall
not perish.
For all of them ...
566

N A R R A T I V E A N D P OE TI C C O M P O S I T I O N 1 '

The Lord has opened my mouth

and the words of my tongue are from Him
and they speak to me to proclaim ...
... His mercies.
He will not give His precepts to another nation,
nor will He crown every stranger,
for ... [bet]ween them
(the covenant) which He made with Jacob,
that they should be His people for all eternity.
... [visiting] destruction [on I]srael
to exterminate them by the hand of the nations.
All the plagues in the inheritance of ] ...
and He will seek their blood from their hands.
See what He did to Midian,
... one - he was Zimri the son of Salu (Num. xxv, 14) and the five kings of Midian were killed ...

10

4Q373. (2Q22 i 1-4; 4Q373, fr. 19 1-4)

... all his servants. Og ...
His height was ... cubits and a half and two [cubits was his width ...]
the spear like a cedar tree ... the shield like a tower ... Sweet footed ...
seven stadia distant. He did not stand ... And I did not repeat for the
Lord, our God, smashed him and with [the sword] ... and I made slings
to wound ... for war to take strongholds and to shock...

567

The Testament of Qahat

(4Q542)

The Testament of Qahat is an Aramaic work of which two columns, one com
plete and one damaged, have survived. It is a typical example of moralizing
death-bed literature, similar to the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, but
characterized, like the Testaments of Levi and Amram, by its priestly perspective.
The script has been palaeographically dated to the end of the second century
bce,

but the carbon 14 test, performed in 1990, places it considerably earlier,

possibly to 388-353

bce,

or more probably to 30 3-235

bce.

It is not a sectarian

composition. Only the undamaged part of the text is translated here.

Two further small fragments have survived without providing anything con
tinuous and meaningful. Fr. 2 alludes to darkness and light, and fr. 3 mentions
precious stones extant in large numbers apparently on account of zenuta (forni
cation, whoredom).
For the editio princeps, see E. Puech, D JD yXXXI, 257-82.

... I and the God of gods for all eternity. And He will shine light on you
and will let you know His great Name. And you will know Him, that He
is the God of eternity, and the Lord of all the deeds, and the Ruler of all,
dealing with them according to His good pleasure. And He will make for
you rejoicing and for your sons joy for the generations of truth, for ever.
Now, my sons, be careful with the heritage that is handed over to you,
5 which your fathers have given you. Do not give your heritage to
strangers, and your inheritance to knaves so that you become humiliated
and foolish in their eyes and they despise you, for, although sojourners
among you, they will be your chiefs. So hold to the word of Jacob, your
father, and seize the laws of Abraham and the righteousness of Levi and
mine. And be holy and pure of all fornication in the community. And
10 hold the truth and walk straight, and not with a double heart, but with a
pure heart and a true and good spirit. And you will give me a good name
among you, and a rejoicing to Levi, and joy to Jacob, delight to Isaac,
568

T HE T E S T A M E N T OF Q A HA T

and glory to Abraham, because you will keep and walk (in) the heritage]
which your fathers will have left you: truth and righteousness and
uprightness and perfection and pur[ity and hojliness and the priesthood
according to all that you have been commanded (?), and according to all
that II I will have taught you in truth from now until all [the age] ...
every word of truth will come upon yo[u ...] eternal blessing will reside
on you and will be [come for you] ... stay for all the eternal generations
and will no more ... from your correction and you will establish your- 5
selves to pronounce judgement ov[er ... ] and to see the faults of all the
sinners of the ages ... [to be cast] into the fire and the oceans and into all
the cavities for ... in the generations of truth. And all the sons of
wickedne[ss ... ] And now Amram, my son, [I] instruct you .. . and your 10
sons to their sons. I instruct [you ... ] and they have given to Levi my
father, and Levi my father g[ave (it/them)] to me ... all my books in
testimony that through them you should beware ... [and that there
should be] for you through them much merit when you walk in confor
mity with them, vacat

569

The Testament of Amram

(4Q543-9)

An Aramaic document surviving in five or six (?) fragmentary copies from Cave
4 contains an admonition by Amram, the father of Moses, to his children. The
context is that of the Book of Exodus, but the visions and teachings are the
authors free compositions. Amrams age at his death (137 years) is borrowed
from Exod. vi, 20, but its dating to the 152nd year of the captivity reflects the
tradition according to which the Israelites remained in Egypt, not for 430 years
(Exod. xii, 40), nor 400 years (Gen. xv, 13), but 210 years. Cf. J. Heinemann,
210 Years of Egyptian Exile, J J S 22 (1971), 19-30. The dating of the script
varies between the second half of the second century b c e (4Q543, 544, 547), the
first half of the first century b c e (4Q545, 546) and the second half of the first
century b c e (4Q548, 549).
In the gravely damaged text of a vision, Amram sees the chief Angel of Dark
ness, Melkiresha*, already mentioned (pp. 394-5). He also addresses the leader
of the Army of Light, whose name has disappeared in one of the many lacunae.
But is is highly probable that one of his three names is Melchizedek (see pp.
532-4)For the editioprinceps, see E. Puech, DJD, XXXI, 283-405.

4Q 543, fir. 1 (4Q545, 546)

I Copy of the book of the words of the vision of Amram, son of Kehat, son of
Levi, al[l that] he explained to his sons and enjoined on them on the
day of [his] death, in his one-hundred-and-thirty-seventh year, which was
the year of his death, [in] the one-hundred-and-fifty-second year of Israels
5 exile in E gypt... to call Uzziel, his youngest brother, and he ma[rried]
to him Miriam, [his] daughter, and said (to her), You are thirty years old.
And he gave a banquet lasting seven days. And he ate and drank and made
merry during the banquet. Then, when the days of the banquet were
570

T HE T E S T A M E N T OF A M R A M

completed, he sent to call Aaron, his son, and he was about twenty years
old and said to him, Call, my son, the messengers, your brothers from
the house o f . . .

4Q544, fr. 1 (4Q543,545-7)

Qahat (went) there to stay and dwell and build ... many of the sons of
my uncle together ... a man as our work was very great until the dead
would be buried, vacat In the year of my beginning, when the news of a
war became worrying, with my consent our company returned to the
land of Egypt and I went to bury them and they did not build the tombs
of our fathers. And my father Qahat and my wife Jochebed left me to
stand and build and provide them with all their needs from the land of
Canaan. And we stayed in Hebron while we were building, vacat A war
broke out between the Philistines and the Egyptians and the Philistines
and Canaanites defeated the Egyptians and they closed the fr[ontiers] of 5
Egypt. And it was impossible [for Jochebed, my wife, to go from Egypt
to Canaan] for forty-one years. And we could not return to Egypt.
Therefore [we could] n o t... [the war] between Egypt and Canaan and
the Philistines. And during all this, [Jochebed] my wi[fe, was away from
me in the land of Egypt... my post... for] she was [not] with me. And
I did [not] take ano[ther] wife, vacat Women .. . all, that I would return
to Egypt in peace and would see the face of my wife. [I saw Watchers]
in my vision, a dream vision vacat And behold two (of them) argued 10
about me and said ... and they were engaged in a great quarrel concerning
me. I asked them: You, what are you ... thus ... [about me?] They
answered and [said to me: We have been made m]asters and rule
over all the sons of men. And they said to me: Which of us do you
[choose . . . ]
I raised my eyes and saw one of them. His looks were frightening [like
those of a vi]per, and his [ga]rm[en]ts were multi-coloured and he was
extremely dark ...
And afterwards I looked and behold ... by his appearance and his face
was like that of an adder, and he was covered with ... together, and over 15
his eyes ...

57i

BIBLICALLY BASED APOCRYPHAL WORK S

Fr. 2
... this [Watcher]: Who is he? He said to me: This Wa[tcher] ...
[and his three names are Belial, Prince of Darkness] and MelkireshaV
vacat And I said: My Lord, what ru[le] . . . [And he said to me] ... [and
all his paths are dark]ness, and all his work is darkness, and he is ... in
15 darkness ... you see. And he rules over all darkness ... and I rule over all
light and al[l] ...

4 Q 545 (4 Q 543 a, 54<Sd)

Fr. ia i
I Cop[y of the writing of the words of visio]n of Amram, son of Qahat,
son of Levi, al[l] that [he has explained to his] sons ... on the day of [his]
death in the year one hundred and thirty-six - this is the year of his
death - in the year one hundred and fifty-two of the exile of |T|srael in
5 Egypt. Also it came to him ... and call Uzziel, his younger brother, [and
gav]e him Mir[i]am, his thirty-year-old daughter for wife. He made her
wedding feast last seven [day]s and he ate and drank at her wedding feast
and rejoiced. Then, when the [d]ays of the wedding feast came to an
end, he sent out to call Aaron, his about t[wenty]-year-old son, [and said]
to him, My son, call to me the messengers, your brothers, from the
house o f . . .

Fr. 4
15 V I ... and I will explain to you your name[s] ... [that] he wrote for
Moses. And also about A[aron] ... I will explain to you the mystery of
his worshipping. He is a holy priest [to the Most High God. Also] all his
seed will be holy in all the generations of e[temity] ... The seventh of
the men of (Gods) good will [he will be] called and he will be said ...
and will be chosen as a priest for ever ... vacat

572

THE T E S T A M E N T OF A M R A M

4Q548
... I an[nou]nee to you [the] firm [pat]h. I will indeed inform y[ou ...
For all the Sons of Light] will shine, [and all the Sons] of Darkness will
be dark. [For all the Sons of Light] ... and by all their knowledge they
will ... and the Sons of Darkness will be ... And the Sons of Darkness
will be removed ... For every fool and wick[ed will be dar]k and
every [sag]e and upright will shine. [For all the Sons of Light will g]o to
the light, to ... and all the Sons of Dar[kness go towards death] and
perdition ... The people shall have brightness ... and they will explain
to th[em] ...

The Words of Moses

(IQZ2)

Fragments of four very mutilated columns of a manuscript from Cave i have

been skilfully reconstructed by J. T. Milik. They form a farewell discourse of
Moses which takes its inspiration from various passages of Deuteronomy and is
chiefly remarkable for the emphasis laid on the appointment of special teachers,
or interpreters, of the Law (Levites and Priests). The last two columns are so
mutilated as to be untranslatable. Another document, consisting of two insignifi
cant fragments, tentatively entitled A Moses Apocryphon (2Q21) and including
a prayer attributed to Moses, has been published by J. T. Milik (DJD, III,
79-81).
For the editio princeps, see J. T. Milik, DJD, I, 91-7.
I [God spoke] to Moses in the [fortieth] year after [the children of]
Israel had come [out of the land of] Egypt, in the eleventh month, on
the first day of the month, saying:
[Gather together] all the congregation and go up to [Mount Nebo]
and stand [there], you and Eleazar son of Aaron. Interpret to the heads]
of family of the Levites and to all the [Priests], and proclaim to the chil
dren of Israel the words of the law which I proclaimed [to you] on
5 Mount Sinai. Proclaim care [fully] into their ears all that I [require] of
them. And [call] heaven and [earth to witness against] them; for they will
not love what I have commanded [them to do], neither [they] nor their
children, [during all] the days they shall [live upon the earth].
[For] I say that they will abandon [Me, and will choose the abomina
tions of the nations,] their horrors [and their idols. They will serve] false
gods which shall be for them a snare and a pitfall. [They will sin against
the] holy [days], and against the Sabbath and the Covenant, [and against
the commandments] which I command you to keep this day.
[Therefore I will smite] them with a mighty [blow] in the midst of the
10 land [which they] cross the Jordan [to possess]. And when all the curses
574

T HE W O R D S OF M O S E S

come upon them and catch up with them to destroy them and [blot]
them out, then shall they know that the truth has been [fulfilled] with
regard to them.
Then Moses called Eleazar son of [Aaron] and Joshua [son of Nun
and said to them,] Speak [all these words to the people] . . . :
[Be still,] I I O Israel, and hear! This [day shall you become the people]
of God, your [God. You shall keep My laws] and My testimonies [and
My commandments which I] command you to [keep this] day. [And
when you] cross the [Jordan so that I may give] you great [and good
cities], and houses filled with all [pleasant things, and vines and olives]
which [you have not planted, and] wells which you have not dug,
[beware,] when you have eaten and are full, that your hearts be not lifted
up, and that [you do not forget what I have commanded you to do this
day. For] it is this that will bring you life and length of [days].
5
And Moses [spoke to the children] of Israel [and said to them]:
[Behold,] forty [years have passed since] the day we came out of the
land [of Egypt, and today has God], our God, [uttered these words] from
out of His mouth: [all] His [precepts and] all [His] precepts.
[But how shall I carry] your loads [and burdens and disputes alone]?
When I have [established] the Covenant and commanded [the way] in
which you shall walk, [appoint wise men whose] work it shall be to
expound [to you and your children] all these words of the Law. [Watch
carefully] for your own sakes [that you keep them, lest] the wrath [of
your God] kindle and bum against you, and He stop the heavens above 10
from shedding rain [upon you], and [the water beneath the earth from]
giving you [harvest].
And Moses [spoke further] to the children of Israel. Behold the com
mandments [which God has] commanded you to keep . . .

575

Sermon on the Exodus and

the Conquest of Canaan
(4Q374)

Only one of the sixteen surviving fragments of a writing, palaeographically dated

to the last third of the first century b c e , which deals with the exodus from Egypt
and the occupation of Canaan, is large enough to provide an intelligible account.
The speaker remains anonymous but may conceivably be Joshua.
For the editio princeps, see Carol Newsom, DJD, XIX, 99-110.

Fr. 2
II ... And the nations rose up in anger ... in their actions and in the
uncleanness of the deeds o f ... and there was no remnant for [them] and
none who escaped and for their posterity ...
5
And he made a plantation for u[s] his elect in the land that is the most
desirable of all the lands ... And he made him as a god over the mighty
and as a cause of dread for Pharaoh ... they melted and their heart trem
bled and their entrails dissolved. And he had mercy ... And when he
made his face shine on them for healing, they strengthened [their] heart
once more and knowledge ... None having known you, they melted and
trembled ...

576

A Moses Apocryphon3
(4Q375)

In a style imitating the Pentateuch, and recalling the Sayings of Moses from
Cave 1 (1Q22), 4Q375, fr. 1, col. 1 lays down instructions regarding the treat
ment of a person who claims to be a prophet. Should he exhort people to com
mit apostasy, he is to be executed. However, his tribe may come to his rescue
and lodge an appeal with the anointed priest in the city of the sanctuary. The
very damaged col. 11 contains a sacrificial ritual employing the terminology of
the Day of Atonement from Lev. xvi. The script is early Herodian, i.e. late first
century b c e .
For the editio princeps, see John Strugnell, DJD, XIX, 111-19.

Fr. 1
I ... [You will do all that] your God has commanded you from the
mouth of the prophet. You will keep [all] these [prejcepts and you will
return to the Lord your God with all [your heart and al]l your soul. And
your God will desist from the wrath of his great anger [to save you] from
your misery. And the prophet who will arise and speak defection in your
midst, turning you away from your God, shall be put to death. But if the
tribe from which he originates stands up (for him) and says, Let him not
be put to death, for he is righteous; he is a [trus]tworthy prophet, you,
your elders and your judges will come with that tribe [t]o the place which
your God will choose within one of your tribes (to appear) before [the]
anointed priest on whose head the oil of anointing has been poured.

577

A Moses Apocryphonb
(4Q376. !Q 29)

This mid-first-century b c e text, which partly overlaps with 1Q 29, is a reworking

of Exod. xxviii, 9 -12, dealing with the two engraved stones set in the shoulder
pieces of the high priests liturgical garment (the ephod). Another fragment
introduces the secular head of the community, the Prince of the whole con
gregation (cf. iQ M v ,i; C D

v ii,

20, etc.) in his military role, confronting the

enemies of Israel or attacking one of their towns.

For the editio princeps, see John Strugnell, D JD , XIX, 121-36 .

Fr. 1

I I they shall shed light on you. And he shall go out with it with tongues
of fire. The left-hand stone on his left side will show itself to the eyes of
all the assembly until the priest has completed his speech. And after
wards the ... has gone up ... And you shall keep and d[o al]l [that] he
shall speak to you. And the prophe[t] ...
... preaches rebellion ...
I l l according to all this judgement. And if the Prince of the whole
congregation shall be in the camp and ... his enemy and Israel is with
him, or if they go against a city to besiege it or any matter which ... to
the Prince ... the distant field ...

578

A Moses Apocryphon0
(4Q408)

One medium-sized and sixteen small fragments represent a collection of liturgi

cal prayers of which only one can be partly translated. The document is akin to
4Q 375 and 376 as well as to 1Q 29. Palaeographically the document is placed in
the late second century

bce.

For the editio princeps, see Annette Steudel, D JD , XXXVI, 298-319.

Fr. 3 + 3a
... [Bl]essed art Thou, O Lord, who art righteous in all Thy ways. Be
mighty in strength ... [in Thy judge]ments. Thou who art faithful ...
Thou art understanding [with all intelligence ... might. Thou who art
... to bring ou t... who hast created the morning as a sign to reveal the
dominion of the light as the boundary of the daytime ... for their work.
To bless Thy holy name Thou hast created them. For the light is good
... [Thou art ...] who hast created the evening as a sign to reveal
the dominion [of darkness] ... from labour. Thou hast [c]reated them to
bless Thy holy name when they see that the light is good and when ...
Thou hast created the evening as a sign (to mark) the appearance of the 10
dominion of [darkness] ...

579

Apocryphal Pentateuch B
(formerlyA Moses Apocryphon0)
(4Q377)

This is part of an apocryphal account of the story of the Israelites at Sinai and in
the wilderness. Fragment 2 ii introduces an elder called Elibah, who curses the
Jews who fail to observe the Law mediated by Moses during the latters stay with
God on the mountain.
For the editio princeps, see J. VanderKam and M. Brady, D/D, XXVIII,
20 5-17.

Fr. 2 ii
I I ... they will understand the precepts of Moses. And Elibah answered
and said: Hearken, congregation of the Lord, and listen, all the assembly!
... Cursed be the man who does not stand by, keep and prac[tise] all the
5 comman[dments of the L]ord (issued) by the mouth of Moses, His
anointed, and follow the Lord, the God of our fathers, He who com
manded us from the mountain of Sinai. And He spoke to the people of
Israel face to face as a man speaks to his friend ... He made us look at a
consuming fire from under the heaven. And on the earth, He stood on
the mountain to make it known that there is no god beside Him and no
rock like Him. [And all] the assembly ... and trembling seized them
10 because of the glory of God and the marvellous voices ... and they stood
at a distance. And Moses the man of God (was) with God in the cloud
and the cloud covered him. For ... when he was hallowed and out of His
mouth he spoke like an angel. For who is a messenger like him? ... a
man of grace who were not created from everlasting to everlasting ...

580

A Moses (or David) Apocryphon

(4Q 373. zQ**)

Three small Cave 4 fragments which partly overlap with 2Q 22 published by M.

Baillet (D JD , III, 8 1-2 ) represent a historical narrative of an unnamed speaker
in the first person, and with the single actual name of Og, king of Bashan (cf.
Num. xxi, 33-5; Deut. iii, 4-5, 11). Baillet and the editor of 4Q 373, Eileen
Schuller, wonder whether the narrator is David and the subject is his fight with
Goliath, a theory based on a few verbal similarities to 1 Samuel xvii, which can
not, however, easily account for the mention of Og, apart from his height (see
Deut. iii, 11) which was comparable to that of the giant Goliath (cf. 1 Sam. xvii,
4). S. Talmon, on the other hand, has argued that the topic of the fragment is
more likely to be the defeat of Og by Moses, richly elaborated by Targum,
Midrash and Talmud (cf. L. Ginzberg, The Legends of theJews I, 160; III, 340-47;
V, n. 181; VI, 667-8, 684-700). On the whole, the second alternative seems
slightly preferable.
For the editio princeps, see E. Schuller and M. Bernstein, D JD , XXVIII,
199-204.

4Q 373 1-2 (2Q22)

... all his servants Og ... his height was ... and a half cubits and two
[cubits were his breadth ... ] a spear like a cedar tree ... a shield like a
tower. The nimble-footed ... he who removed them seven stadia. [I] did
not stand ... and I did not change. The Lord our God broke him. I pre
pared wounding slings together with bows and not ... for war to con
quer fortified cities and to rout...

581

Prophecy of Joshua
(4Q 522,5Q 9)

Tw o mutilated columns, as well as several further small fragments, of a narrative

appear to describe the future conquest and/or division of the Holy Land. It
appears to be related to the extremely fragmentary 5Q9, published by J. T .
Milik in D JD , III, 179-80, which mentions the name of Joshua. Col. 1 of 4Q 522
consists of a list of localities, of which a number appear in Joshua xv-xxi (e.g.
Beer Sheba, Bealoth, Keilah, Adullam, etc.) and Judges i (Ashkelon, Kitron).
Col. 11 predicts the conquest of Zion by David and the building of the Temple. In
col. 11, 4 and 7 God is referred to in the third person, but in lines 9 -10 he seems
to be the speaker.
For the editio princeps of 4Q 522, see E. Puech, D JD , XXV,

39- 74.

Fr. 9

10

I I ... For behold a son is bom to Jesse, son of Perez, son of Ju[dah] ...
[He is to take] the Rock of Zion and from there he is to possess the
Amorites ... to build a house for the Lord, the God of Israel. Gold and
silver ... cedars and cypress trees will he br[ing from] Lebanon to build
it. And the sons o f ... and David. The Lor[d] will make (him) dwell in
security ... [The Lord of h]eaven will reside with him [for] ever. But
now the Amorites are there and the Canaan[ites] ... inhabitant whom I
consider guilty, whom I have not sought... from you. And the Shilonite
and the ... I have made him a slave ... And now ... to a distance from
... Eleazar ...

582

A Joshua Apocryphon (i)

or Psalms of Joshua
(4Q378-9)

Usually designated by the misnomer Psalms of Joshua, this badly mutilated

composition represents a rewritten account of the story of Joshua. 4Q 378, written
in Herodian formal script, consists of twenty-seven mostly tiny fragments, while
the late Hasmonaean 4Q 379 comprises forty-one. The majority of the frag
ments are too small for meaningful translation. According to Carol Newsom,
the overall form of the composition is a farewell speech by Joshua. It contains
admonitions, curses and prayers (e.g. prayer for our sins, 4Q 378 6 i, I.4, a
prayer listing the twelve tribes of Israel - Levi, Reuben, Gad, and Dan are legible,
4Q 379 1), songs (songs of praise, 4Q 379 22 ii, 7, and a praise mentioning
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Eleazar and Ithamar, 4Q 379 17). The biblical
text used recalls the Septuagint and the Samaritan Pentateuch. The numbering
of the fragments appears to be arbitrary, as it does not correspond to the
sequence of the biblical story. 4Q 379 22 ii is quoted in 4QTestimonia (4Q 175).
For the editio princeps, see Carol Newsom, D JD , XXII, 241-99.

4 Q3 78 14
. . . And the children [of Israel] wept [for Moses in the plains o f M oab
(Deut. xxxiv, 8) by the Jordan at] Jericho at Bethjeshimoth [as far as
Abel-shittim (Num . xxxiii, 4 8 -9 ) for thirty days and (then) the days o f
weeping and] mourning for Moses were ended (Deut. xxxiv, 8). And the
children o f Isra e l. . . [the covenant wh]ich the Lord made for . . .
. . . T h y [dr]ead and fear . . .

583

BIBLICALLY

B ASED A PO CR YPH AL WORKS

4Q 378 1 1
.. . for the Lord yo[ur God] ... [to es]tablish his words which he spoke
... [the oath] which he swore to Abraham to give [him] a good and
5 broad [land], a land of brooks of water, [of fountains and springs, flowing
forth in val]leys and hills, a land of wheat and barley, [of vines and fig
trees and pomegranates, a land of olive trees and] honey (Deut. viii,
7-8). For [this is] a land flowing with milk and honey; [ ... a land]
who[se sto]nes are iron and out of whose hi[ll]s [you can dig] copper
(Deut. viii, 9 ) ...

4Q 378 22 i
... Moses, O my God. And he did not annihilate them because of their
sins ... thy people by the hand of Joshua, minister of thy servant Moses
5 thy ... by the hand of Moses(?) to Joshua for the sake of thy people ...
[the covenant] which thou hast made with Abraham ...
.. . loving-kindness to thousands

4Q 37912
... they [cr]ossed (the Jordan) on dry grounds (cf. Josh, iv, 22) in [the
5 fi]rst month of the forty-f[irst] year of their exodus from the lan[d] of
Egypt (cf. Josh, iv, 19). That was a jubilee year at the beginning of their
entry into the land of Canaan. And the Jordan overflows its banks from
the f[our]th (?) month until the wheat harvest...

4Q 379 22 ii (combined with 4 Q 17 5 , lines 21-30 )

5 Blessed be the Lord, the God of I[srael] ...
When Josh[ua] fini[sh]ed offering prai]se in [his] thanksgivings, [he
said]: C[ursed be the m]an who rebui[l]ds [this cit]y! [May he lay its
foundations] on [his] first-born, and [s]et its gate on [his y]oungest son
10 (Josh, vi, 26). Behold, an [accur]sed [man of Belial] [has risen] to
be [com] e a fowlers net to his people and a cause of destruction to all his
584

A JOSHUA APOCRYPHON

OR P S A L M S

OF J O S H U A

neighbour^]. And [his brother] arose [and ruled in li]es, both of them
being instruments of violence. They have rebuilt [th]is [city] and have
set up for it a wall and towers to make it a stronghold of ungodliness in
Israel and a horror in Ephraim and in Judah and a great evil among the
children of Jacob. [And they have com]mitted an abomination in the
land and a great blasphemy and sh[ed blood] like wa[ters on the ram
parts of the daughter] of Zion and in the precincts of Jerusalem ...

A Joshua Apocryphon (ii)

(Masada 1039-211)

Tw o fragments detached from an apocryphal account of the end of the Book of

Joshua are thought by their editor, S. Talmon, to have originated at Qumran.
The composition belongs to the genre of rewritten Bible and testifies to a free
dom in retelling scriptural stories. The handwriting places the manuscript
towards the turn of the era.
For a preliminary edition, see Shemaryahu Talmon, Fragments of a Joshua
Apocryphon - Masada

1039-211

(final photo

5254), J J S 47 (1996), 128-39.

Fr. A

... they were afraid ... [they were praising] the name of the Most High
for they saw th[at... God] was fighting for His people against their ene
mies [and they were not afraid ... ] because of them for God was with
them and blessed them and sa[ve]d them. [And whatever] he said about
them happened to them and no word [fe]ll to the ground, and He multi
plied their [seed gready].

586

The Samuel Apocryphon

(4Q160)

Fragments of an account of the story of Samuel from Cave 4 (4Q160), said to

pertain to the second century b c e , were published by J. M. Allegro. They follow
the first book of Samuel and include a narrative passage, a dialogue between
Samuel and Eli, a prayer and an autobiographical discourse.
For the editio princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, DJD, V, 9-11.

Fr. I
[F]or [I have s]worn [to] the house [of Eli that the iniquity of the house
of Eli relating to sacrifices and offerings shall never be expiated. And]
Samuefl] heard the words of the Lord ... [and] Samuel lay down before
Eli. And he rose and opened the ga[tes of the house of the Lord. And
Samuel was afraid] to report to Eli the oracle. Answering, Eli said [to
Samuel: Samuel, my son, let] me know the vision of God. Do not [hide
it from me, pray! May God do to you thus and may He add to it] if you
hide from me anything of the words that He spoke to you. [And] Samuel
[reported all and hid nothing] ...

Frs. 3-5
... Thy servant. I have not restrained my strength until this (moment),
for ... [let them] be gathered, O my God, to Thy people and be a help
to it and raise it ... [and deliver] their [fe]e[t] from muddy clay [and]
establish for them a rock from of old, for Thy praise [is over all the
peo]ples. Thy people shall take refuge [in Thy house] ... Amid the rage
of the enemies of Thy people, Thou shalt verify Thy glory [and] over
the lands and seas ... and Thy fear is over [al]l... and kingdom. And all
587

BI BLI CALLY BASED AP OCRYPHAL WORK S

the peoples of Thy lands shall know [that] Thou hast created them ...
and the multitudes shall understand that this is Thy people ... Thy holy
ones whom Thou hast sanctified.

A Paraphrase on Kings
(4Q32)

154 papyrus fragments, palaeographically dated to the first half of the first cen
tury b c e , belong to a kind of paraphrase of the Books of Kings as various per
sonal names (Jezebel, Ahab, Obadiah, Elijah, Elisha) clearly indicate. Only one
fragment is extensive enough to allow intelligible translation. An unidentified
speaker recounts events pertaining to the history of Israel in the form of an
address to God.
For the editio princeps, see S. Olyan, DJD, XIII, 363-416.

Fr. 104
... from Thy word and to rely on Thy covenant and their heart be ... to
sanctify Him/it... hands so that they might be Thine, and Thou theirs
and Thou be righteous ... For Thou wilt be a giver of an inheritance ...
and lord over them and Thou wilt be a father to them and not ...
Thou hast forsaken them to the hand of their kings and hast made them
stumble among the people [s] ... n ot... Thy life. Didst Thou give them
[the Law?] by the hand of Moses ... Thy judgements and lifting the
iniquity of Thy people to the heights ... Thy patience and the multitude
[of mercies?] ...

589

An Elisha Apocryphon
(4Q481 *)

Three minute fragments reproduce the Hebrew text of 2 Kings ii, 14-16 with
paraphrastic supplements. Only fr. 2 can be partly reconstructed and translated.
The opening words [And] Elisha went up are without biblical parallel.
For the editio princeps, see J. Trebolle, DJD, XXII, 305-9.

Fr. 2
.. . [And] Elisha went up. [When the sons of the prophets who were over
at Jericho] saw [him over against them, they said, The spirit of Elijah
rests over Elish]a. And they came to meet Elisha, [and bowed to the
ground before him. And they said to him, Behold now, there are with
your servants] fifty [strong] men; [pray, let them go, and seek your mas
ter; it may be that the spirit of the Lord has caught him up and cast him
upon some mou]nta[in or into some valley].

590

A Zedekiah Apocryphon
(4Q470)

Three badly damaged fragments of an early Herodian manuscript speak in

favourable terms of the last Judaean king Zedekiah. He is depicted as conversing
with the archangel Michael who promises to make a covenant with him. The
Bible is less kind towards this evil-doer (2 Kgs xxiv, 19, etc.), but 4Q470 prefig
ures Josephus, who praises Zedeldahs goodness and sense of justice (Antiquities
X, 120), and the Talmud (bShab. 149b; bSanh. 103a; bArak. 17a).
For the editio princeps of 4Q470, see Erik Larson, Lawrence H. Schiffman and
John Strugnell, DJD, XIX, 235-44.

Fr. 1
... Michael... Zedekiah [shall en]ter into a covenant on [th]at day... to
practise and to cause all the Torah to be practised. [At] that time
M[ich]ael shall say to Zedekiah. ... I will make with you [a cov]e[nant]
before the assembly [to p]ractise ...

Fr- 3
... their [c]ry towards heaven ... [to] restore them to health and help
them by the spirit of [his] m[ight] ...
... and by the pillar of fire [many] times ... And Moses wrote when he
spoke according to a[ll] ... Kadesh B[amea] ...

59i

A Historico-theological Narrative
based on Genesis and Exodus
(4Q462-4)

Palaeographically dated to the mid-first century b c e , the two joined fragments

of 4Q462 represent the only meaningful part of a historical narrative told from a
theological point of view. Both the beginning and the end of each of the nine
teen lines are missing, but the general tenor of the story can be guessed: after
repeated oppression and humiliation, God is to remember Jerusalem. The
Tetragram is twice replaced by four dots as in the Community Rule (iQS) vm,
15. There are six further small fragments.
For the editio princeps of 4Q462, see M. Smith, DJD, XIX, 195-209. 4Q463,
or Narrative D, contains only a few broken lines, starting with And God
remembered his word which he said, followed by the quotation of Lev. xxvi, 44.
Apparently the fragment has vanished and the text edited by M. Smith (ibid.,
211-14) is based on J. StrugnelPs transcription. The poorly preserved 4Q464
(ibid., 215-32) refers to Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and apparently toJoseph. Fr. 3 ii,
7 contains the word pesher (interpretation), suggesting that an exegetical com
ment followed in the lacuna.

4Q462
5 ... [Shem and] Ham and Japhet... for Jacob ... for Israe[l] ...
... And he will give (the land?) to the multitude as a heritage.
(=the Lord) who rules ... his glory which ... will fill the waters and the
earth ... They seized his people. The light was with them and [darkness]
was on us ...
10
The [per]iod of darkness [passed away] and the period of light came
and they were to rule for ever. Therefore he will say, ... to Israel, for in
our midst was the people of the beloved, (of) Jac[ob]... And they slaved,
and they were safeguarded and they cried to (=the Lord) ... And
behold they were handed over to Egypt for the second time in the
592

A HI STORI CO- THEOLOGI CAL NARRATIVE

period of the kingship, and [they] were safeguarded ... [and the
inha] bitants of Philistda and Egypt will become a booty and a ruin. And
he will make it stand ...
... the fierceness of her face will be changed to brightness and her
soiled garments [to] ... And he will remember Jerusalem ...

Tobit
(4Q196-200)

Prior to the Qumran finds, the Book of Tobit existed among the Apocrypha in
two, a long and a short, Greek recensions and in various secondary ancient ver
sions. Cave 4 has revealed remains of four Aramaic (4Q196-9) and one Hebrew
(4Q200) manuscripts, of which two scrolls, the papyrus Toba (196) and the
leather Tobb (197), have yielded copious extracts. They all basically represent
the Semitic original from which the longer Greek recension, attested by the
fourth-century c e Codex Sinaiticus, and the Old Latin version were made.
Toba, Tobc and Tobd are palaeographically dated to the first century b c e and
Tobb, as well as the Hebrew Tobe, to the turn of the era ( 3 0 B C E -2 0 c e ) . The
translation of a composite Aramaic text is followed separately by that of the
Hebrew fragments. The Aramaic and the Hebrew overlap only in Tob. xiv, 1-2.
Of the two, the Aramaic, represented by older and more numerous manuscripts,
is likely to be the original language of the composition.
The following illustrate some of the differences between the Aramaic (A), and
the Greek (G) Tobit:
i, 22 (A)
(G)
ii, 1 (A)
(G)
weeks
vi, 6

He was the son of my brother, of my fathers house and of my family.

He was my brothers son and of my kindred.
On the day of the Festival of Weeks
At the feast of Pentecost which is the sacred festival of the seven

(A) Also he salted the rest for the journey. Both o f them w ere go in g

together
(G) and left part of it salted. And they journeyed both of them together
vi, 12 (A) and her father loves her
(G) and her father is an honourable man
xiv, 2 (A) He was fifty-eight years old when he lost his sight and afterward he
lived fifty-four years

594

TOBIT

(G) He was sixty-two years old when he was maimed in his eyes (Sinaiticus)
He was fifty-eight years old when he lost his sight and after eight years
he regained it (Vaticanus)
For the editio princeps of 4Q196-200, see J. A. Fitzmyer, D JD , XIX, 1-79.

4Q 196, Fr. 2
Tob. i, 19ii, 2

(i, 19) [one o]f the men of Nineveh, and he informed the kin[g about me,
th]at I was bury[ing them (the murdered Jews) and] I hid myself. When I
learned that he knew of me [and sought to kil]l [me], I was frightened
and fled. (20) ... [al]l that I possessed and nothing was left to me ...
a[part from Hanna]h my wife and Tobiah my son. (21) But not f[orty]
days passed [before two of] his (Sennacheribs) [sons killed him] and they
fled to the mountains of Ararat. Then [Esarhaddo]n became king [and 5
he] appointed Ahikar, the son of my brother Anael, over all the ac[count] s
[of the kingdom. And he was in ch]arge of all the royal treasury
accounts. (22) And Ahikar intervened for me ... [And Ahi]kar my brother
was the cupbearer, the guardian of the signet ring and the accountant
under Sennacherib, king of Assyria, and Esarhaddon reappointed him.
Now he was the son of my brother, of my fathers house and of my family.
(ii, 1) And in the days of [ki]ng Esarhaddon, when I returned to my home 10
and Hannah my wife and Tobiah my son were restored to me, on the day
of the Festival of Wee[ks, I] had an excellent meal and I reclined to [ea]t (2)
And they put a table in front of me and I saw the many delicacies placed
on it, [and I] said [to Tob]iah my son, My son, go and bring all those among
our brotfhers whom you] can find ... my son, go and bring (them). Let
him be brought (here) and eat [together] with me. And behold I ...

Fr.6
Tob. iii, 9 -15
(iii, 9 )... [Go] after them (after her seven deceased husbands) and let us
n[ot] see a son [or a daughter] of yours [ever.] (10) ... [and she cried and
went] up to the upper room of [her fathers] house ... [may I not hear]

595

BI BLI CALLY BASED APOCRYPHAL WORK S

10

again [such a dis]graceful thing in my life. And ... (i i) against... [May]

thy holy [and glo]rious name [be blessed] for all et[emity. And] may [all
thy works] bless [thee]. (12) [And now I have turned] my face [to]wards
thee and I have [li]fted my eyes. (13) Say that I should depart from [the
earth] ... (14) [Thou, O Lord, kn]owest that I myself am pure o[f a]ll
impurity [of man.
(15) And I have not de]filed [my] nam[e and the name of] my [father]
in all the land of our captivity. I am [the on]ly child [of my father and] he
has no other son who would inherit from him. Nei[ther has he] a brother
or a relation [for whom I] should [keep my] self, or a son f[or whom I
should b]e a wife. Already seve[n] of my [husbands] have per[ished] ...

4 Q i 9 7 * fr- 4 + 4 Q r 9 6>

*3

Tob. v, 19-vi, 12 [vi, 6-8]

I (v, 19 )... Let my son not cleave [to mone]y and like ...(2 1) [And] he said
to her, Do not be afraid. My son will go in peace ... [in pea]ce. Do not be
afraid. And do not worry about him, my sister. (22) ... [his] jour[ney] ...
(vi, 1) Once again [she fell silen]t and cried no more, vacat
(2) ... [and the ang]el was with him and ... [and they went] together.
5 And [night] came [and they reached] the Tigris. (3) And the young man
went down ... [and] a big [fis]h [jumped] out of [the water to swall]ow
the foot of the young man ... (4) ... [C]atch the f[ish! And] the young
man [se]ized [the fish and broujght it to the dry land. And [the angel]
s[aid to him, (5) Cut] it open and remove [its gall and] its [heart and its
liver. Keep] them, but [throw away its] entrails. [Its gall], its [heart] and
its liver are [medicament]. (6) And [he cut out its gall and] its [h]eart and
[its liver ... the f ]ish and he ate (it). Also {he sa[lted the re]st for the jour
ney) (4Q196). Both of them were going [to]gether [until they rea]ched
10 Media, vacat (7) {The young man [as]ked the ang[el]} (4Q196) [and s] aid
to him, Azariah my brother, what kind of medicament is in the heart of
the fish and in its liv[er and in its gall? (8) If you] smoke it in front of a
man or a woman smitten by a demon or an [evil] spirit ... they will
[n]ever come by again. (9) The gall is for applying to the ey[es of a man]
15 ... white film and he will recover. (10) And when they entered Media
and he was already ne[aring Ecbatana, (11) Raphael said to the young]
man, T[o]biah my brother. And he said to him, Here am I. And he said
to him, In the house [of Raguel we shall stay. And the m]an is from the
596

TOBIT

house of our father. And he has a beautiful daughter ...( 12 ) [And] he has
[no other (children) except Sarah a]l[one]. And you are re[lat]ed to her
... [And this young girl]

4 Q 19 7, fr. 4 + 4Q 196, fir. 14 i

Tob. vi, 12 - 18 [vi, 13 -18 ]
I I [wise, stron]g and very beautiful, and her father loves [her] ... her
father. And a just decision has been made concerning you (13) to m[arry
her] ... You will speak about this young girl tonight. You will retain her
and take her to be your wif[e ... And {when we return from [Rages]}
(4Q196), [we shall make for her] a wedding-feast. And I know that
Raguel cannot refuse her to you for he knows ... and to marry his 5
daughter than any (other) ma[n. For h]e kno[ws] that if he were to give
her to [another] man [this would be against the law in the Book] of
Moses. And now [let us speak about] this [young] gir[l] tonight and let us
retain her [for you ... (14) Then Tobiah replied and said to Rapha]el,
Azariah my brother, I have heard ... (that she had seven husbands who
all died) when they went in to her. ...( 15 ) And now I am [af ]raid of this
demon who {loves her ... the demon kills them} (4Q196)
... (bring) my [fath]er and my mother [to the grave .. . They have] no 10
other son [to bury them.] (16) {[Do you not remember the com]mands
of your father} (4Q196) who commanded you ... {[And no]w listen to
me, my brother. Do not (be afraid of) this [de]mon and marry (her)
{tonight... (17) [t]ake from the heart [of the fish] ... (18) ... the demon
[will sme]ll it and will [flee]} (4Q196)
... (When you go in) [to be wi]th her, ri[se up] .. . [And do n]ot be 15
afraid [for] she has been allotted to you and for you ... you will save [her.
And] I suppose that you will have [children by her and ... And when]
Tobiah [h]eard the words of Raphae[l that she was h]is sister and o f ...

4 Q 19 7, fr. 4 + 4Q 196, fir. 14 ii

Tob. vi, 18-vii, 10 [vi, 18-vii, 6]
III [the house of his fathers family] he fell in love with her [gr]eatly and
his heart (was much attached) to her. (vii, 1) And when they entered
Ecbat[ana], Tobiah [said] to him, Aza[riah my brother, lead] me straight
597

BIBLI CALLY BASED AP OCRYPHAL W ORK S

away to the house of Raguel our brother. He led him there and [they]
went [to the house] of Raguel and [they] found Rague[l sjitting in front
of the gate of his home. And first they greeted him and he said to them,
In peace you have come. Enter in peace, my brothers. And he brought
5 them into his house. (2) Then he said to Edna his wife, How much this
young man resembles Tobit, the son of my uncle. (3) And Edna asked
them and said to them, Where are you from, my brothers? and they said to
her, From among the children of Naphtali [who] are captives in Niniveh.
And she said to them, Do you know 'Tobit our brother? And they said to
her, We know him. Is he well? (5) And they said, He is wel[l. And Tojbiah
[sa]id, He is my father. (6) And Raguel jumped to his feet and kissed him
10 and crie[d]. (7) ... A blessing on [you my son. You are the] s[on] of a just
man ... the neck of Tobiah ... (9) he slaughtered] a ram from the flock
.. . to eat and to drink. ... my sister. (10) And [Raguel] heard ...

4 Q 19 7, fir. 5
Tob. viii, 21-ix, 2
5 ( 2 1) ... my son. I am your father and Edna is [your] m[other]... [Do not
be] afraid, my son. vacat (ix, 1) [Then Tobiah called Raphael and said to]
him, (2) Azariah my brother, take with you from here fo[ur slaves] ...
10

. . . [and] you will come to the house o f Gab[ae]l and give him the doc
ument and take [the m o n ey]. . .

4Q 19 6, fir. 17
Tob. xiii, 6 -12
... [with all]
II your heart and [with all] your [s]oul to [do righteousness.
Then he] will turn to you,
and will no l[onger hide] his [face] from you.
[Give] him [thanks] with all your mouth
and ble[ss the Lord] of righteousness and ex[alt him].
[In the land] of captivity I give him thanks
and I dec[lare] his [m]ight and [his] greatne[ss
before a people of s]in.
According to your heart
598

TOBIT

[do] righteousness] before him.

[Who] kno[ws if there will be f Jorgiveness [for you].
(7) And I exalt my God and my [so]ul the ki[ng of heaven].
... all the day[s of my life].
... [and let them al]l [pr]aise his greatness.
(8) Let them speak with psalm [s] ...
(9) [Jerusalem] the holy city,
he will [aff]lic[t you] concerning ...
(10 )... [with righteousness give thanks ...
... from generation to generation they will give ...
[and his] great name [will be for] everlasting [gene]rations.
(12) Cur[sed] be [a]ll [who] despise (you)
and all who are against [you].
And cursed be al[l who hate] you
and all [who spe]ak [a] gainst you.
Cursed be ...

4Q 196, fir. 18 + 4Q 198, fr. 1

Tob. xiii, 1 2-xiv, 3

(18 )... [will] s[a]y, Halle [luiah] ...

[Blessed be for ever] and ever
for in you they will bless [his holy] n[ame] ...
(xiv, 1) [The words of thanksgivings of To]bit [ended] and he died in
peace at the a[ge of one hundred and twelve years and he was buried]. (2)
[He was] fifity-eifght] years [old] ... his [e]yes. He lived a good life and in
all ... {[and he gave] alms and continued to fear God and to pr[aise his
greatness. (3) And he called Tobiah his son and] his [seven]} (4Q198)
sons and commanded him and said to [him] ...

4Q200, fir. 2
Tob. iv, 3-9
... (4) ... and she carried you in [her] womb ... vacat (5) My son,
[re]member] God in all your days ... his word, vacat [Do] what is true
[a]ll the days of [your] l[ife, and do not walk in the way]s of lies. (6) For
599

10
15

BI BLI CALLY BASED APOCRYPHAL W O RK S

when you do what is t[rue ... will] be with you. (7) ... My son, with a
generous hand [give] alms, and do not hi[de your face from any p]oor.
Then [the face of Go]d will not be hid]den [from you. (8) If you have
much, [my] son,... [giv]e al[m]s from it. If you have little, according to
the little (you will give)----

Fr. 4
Tob. x, 7 -9

[And when] the fourteen days of the [wedding] were completed for them
which Raguel had sworn to make for Sarah his daughter, To[b]iah came
[to him] and said to him, Send me away (for) I already know that [my
father does not believe, n]or does my mother believe that she will see
5 m[e] again. And now I request [y]ou, my father, that you send me away
that I may go to my father. Already I have recounted to you how I left
them. (8) And Raguel said to Tobiah, My son, remain with me and I will
send messengers to Tobit y[o]ur father and the[y] ...

Fr. 6
Tob. xii, 20-xiii, 4

.. . [Record in writing all] this story. And he (Raphael) ascended. ( 2 1) ...

[and they saw] him [no more]. (22) And they were blessing [and extolling
God and giving him thanks for] his great d[ee]d and wondered how [an
angel of God] had appeared [to them], (xiii, 1) Then Tobit spoke and
5 wrote a psalm of praise, and s[aid,
Blessed be] the living [God] whose kingdom is for all eternity:
(2) He who [strikes and wh]o is merciful;
He who causes to descend to the nethermost hell,
and he who brings up from the [g]rea[t] abyss.
And who is there who can escape from his hand?
(3) Give him thanks, children of Isra[el, in front of the nations],
you who are exiled among them.
(4) Recite there [his greatness and extol him before al]l the living.
For he is your Lord, and he is [your] God
10 ... [for al]l [eternity].

600

TOBIT

Fr. 7
Tob. xiii, 18-xiv, 2

II ... (xiv, 1) And [Tobits words of praise were] completed, [and he

di]ed in peace aged [one hundred and twelve years]. He was fifty-eight
years old (when he lost) his [s]ight [and] afterward [he lived fifty]-fo[ur
years].

Apocryphon of Jeremiah
(4 Q 3 8 3 . 3 8 5 a> 3 7 > 3 87a, 3 88a 3 89 9 )

Originally considered as part of an Ezekiel apocryphon, the remains of these

manuscripts, written in a well-imitated biblical Hebrew, have been identified
by the editor as pertaining to an apocryphal account of the life of Jeremiah in
Babylon and in Egypt. The script probably dates to the end of the first century
BCE.

For the editio princeps, see D. Dimant, DJD, XXX, 91-260. For the related
4Q384, see M. Smith, DJD, XIX, 136-52.

4Q385a>fr- 18 i-ii
I vacat ... Jeremiah the Prophet [departed] from before the Lord
(Y H W H )... [to accompany the] captives who were taken captive from
the land of Jerusalem and came [to ... Nebuchadnezzar,] king of Babel,
5 when Nabuzaradan, the chief of the bodyguard, smote ... and took the
vessels of the house of God, the priests ... and the sons of Israel and led
them to Babel. And Jeremiah the Prophet went [with them as far as] the
river and he commanded them what they were to do in the land of
[their] captivity ... [And they obeyed] the voice of Jeremiah in regard to
the words which God commanded him ... and they were to keep the
10 covenant of the God of their fathers in the land [of their captivity... and
they were not to d]o as they had done and their kings and priests [and ...
and they] profaned [the na]me of God ...
II In Tahpanes wh[ich is in the land of Egypt... ] and they said to him,
Inquire [of G]od for u s.... But Jeremiah [did not listen] to them and did
not inquire for them of Go[d] ... a jubilation and prayer. And Jeremiah
5 lamented ... lamentations ov]er Jerusalem ... vacat [And the word of the
Lord was addressed to] Jeremiah in the land of Tahpanes which was in
602

A P O C R Y P H O N OF J E R E M I A H

the land of Eg[ypt... Go to] the sons of Israel and the sons of Judah and
Benjamin [... and speak to them saying,] Day by day seek my decrees
and ke[ep] my commandments ... and do not [follow] the i[d]ols of the
nations [after] which [your fathers] wa[lked ... for] they will not sa[ve
y]ou ... nor ...

4Q387>fr- 2 " (4Q385a>fr 4>4Q389 >fr- 8 )

... strengthen yourselves to serve Me with all your heart and al[l your
soul]. ... in their distress. But I will not seek them on account of their
unfaithfulness by which they were unfaithful to me until the completion
of ten jubilee of years. And you will walk in ... and blindness and stupe
faction of the heart. And after the completion of that generation I [will 5
tear away] the kingship from the hand of those who have been holding
fast to it and I shall place over it others from another people and impu
dence will rule on all [the ea]rth and the kingship of Israel will perish. In
those days [there] will [be a king and h]e will be a reviler and he will per
form abominations, but I will tear away [his] kingship and that king will
be (destined) for kings. And My face will be concealed from Israel ... 10
will return to many nations. And the sons of Israel will cry because of the
heavy yoke in the lands of their captivity and there will be no saviour for
them because they despised my decree and their soul loathed my Law ...

Fr. 2 iii (40388a, fr. 7, 4Q389, fr. 8)

... In his days I will break the kingship of [Egypt] ... and I will break
Israel and I will deliver them to the sword, [and I will de]stroy the [l]and
and I will distance man and will leave the land into the hand of the
angels of hostilities. And I will conceal [my] face [from Is]rael. And this
is the sign for them. On the day when I will forsake the land ... the
priests of Israel [will return] to worship other gods [and will perform the
abomin]ations of the [nations] ...

603

BI BLI CALLY BASED APOCRYPHAL W ORK S

Fr- 3 (4Q385a>fr- 5)
5

... three priests who did not walk in the ways of the former [priests] and
are called by the name of the God of Israel. And in their days the pride
of the wicked ones of the Covenant and the worshippers of strange
(gods) will be brought low. Israel will be tom in that generation, each
man waging war against his neighbour because of the Law and the
Covenant. And I will send famine into the [lan]d but not concerning
bread and thirst, but no[t] concerning water ...

40 38 8 a, fr. 7 (4Q387, fr. 2 iii, 4Q389, fr. 8 ii)

I have despised them and they will again perform evil and evil will be
greater than [the former evil, and they will breach] the Covenant which
[I concluded with Abraham and with Isaac and with [Jacob. In] those
[days] a king will rise up [for the nat]ions, a reviler and he will do evil.
And in [his] days I will [stop] Israel from being a people ... In his days I
will break the kingship of [Egypt] ... and I will break Israel and I will
deliver them to the sword, [and I will de]stroy the [l]and and I will distance
man and will leave the land into the hand of the angels of hostilities. And
5 I will conceal [my] face [from Is]rael. And this is the sign for them. On
the day when I will forsake the land ... the priests of Israel [will return]
to worship other gods [and will perform the abomin]ations of the
[nations] ...

4Q 389, fr. 8 (4 0 38 5a 4, 4Q 387, 2 ii-iii, 4 0 3 8 8 a 7 ii)

n ...

a reviler and he will do abominations. And I will tear away his

kingship and he too will be (destined) to (hostile) kings. And my face will
be concealed from Israel and [the kingship] will return to many nations.
And the sons of Israel will cry because of the heavy yoke in the lands of
their captivity and there will be no saviour for them because they
despised my decree and their soul loathed my Law. Therefore I have
5 concealed my face from [them] until they have completed their iniquity.
vacat And this is the sign for them regarding the completion of their
iniquity. [For] I have forsaken the land because of the pride of their heart
604

A P O C R Y P H O N OF J E R E M I A H

towards Me and they have not known that I have despised them and they
will again perform evil which will be greater than the former evil. [And
they will breach the Covenant which I concluded with Abraham and
with Isaac and with [Jacob. In] those [days] a king will rise up [for the
nat]ions, a reviler and he will do evil. And in [his] days I will [stop] Israel
from being a people. In his days I will break the kingship of [Egypt] ...
Egypt and I will break Israel and I will deliver them to the sword ...

4Q390, &. 1
... [and a]gain [I will give them] into the hand of the sons of Aar[on] ...
seventy years. And the sons of Aaron will rule over them, but they will
not walk [in] my [wa]ys which I command you to testify to them. And
they will also do what is evil in my eyes just as everything the Israelites
did in the earlier days of their kingship apart from those who return first 5
from the land of their captivity to build the Sanctuary. And I will speak
to them and send to them a commandment and they will understand all
that they have forsaken, they and their fathers. And from the end of this
generation in the seventh jubilee of the destruction of the land they will
forget decree, festival, Sabbath and Covenant. And they will breach
everything and will commit evil in my eyes. And I will conceal my face
from them and will give them into the hand of their enemies and deliver
[them] to the sword. But I will cause refugees to remain from among 10
them so that [they should] not be an[nih]ilated by my anger [and] when
[my] fa[ce] is concealed from them. And the angels of hostilities will rule
over them and ... and again they will commit evil in [my] eyes and they
will walk in the stub[bomness] of their heart...

Fr. 2 i
I ... and the dominion of Belial will be on them to hand them over to
the sword for a week of yea[rs ... And in] that jubilee, they will break all
my precepts and all my commandments which I will have commanded
th[em ... by the hand of] my servants the prophets, and they will [start]
to contend one with another for seventy years from the day of breaking
the [Law and the] Covenant which they will break. I will give them [into
the hand of the an]gels of Persecutions, and they will rule over them,
605

BIBLI CALLY BASED AP OCRYPHAL W ORK S

and they will not know and understand that I am furious with them
because of their transgressions [by which they will have forjsaken Me
and will have done that which is evil in my eyes, and will have chosen
that which I do not desire, striving for wealth and gain [and .. . , on]e
stealing that which is his fellows, and one oppressing another. They will
10 pollute my Sanctuary [profane my sabbaths]; they will for[ge]t my
[appointed times and will pollute their s[ee]d. Their priests will act
violently...

The New Jerusalem

(4Q 554 - 5 . 5Q i 5 . !Q 3 2>2Q24> 4Q 23 2 1 1 Q 18 )

Fragments belonging to an Aramaic writing describing the Jerusalem of the

eschatological age have been identified in Caves 1 (1Q32), 2 (2Q24), 4 (4Q554-5), 5
(5Qj 5)
11 (11Q18). There are also Hebrew fragments listed under 4Q232.
They are all inspired by Ezekiel xl-xlviii (cf. also Revelation xxi). On palaeographical considerations, the manuscripts are thought to date to around the turn
of the era.
The visionary responsible for this work accompanies an angelic surveyor
who measures everything in the New Jerusalem, from the size of the blocks of
houses, the avenues and the streets, to the detailed dimensions of rooms, stairs
and windows. The dimensions are given in reeds, each of which consists of
seven cubits. But there seem to have been two cubits in use as ancient Jewish
measurements, one approximately 20 inches (521 mm), the other 18 inches (446
mm) long.
For the editio princeps, see J. T. Milik, DJD, HI, 184-93. For smaller frag
ments, see Milik, DJD, I, 134-5;
Baillet, DJD, III, 84-90; E. Puech, Semitica
43-4 (1995), 87-102; DJD, XXXVII. For 11Q18, see F. Garcia Martinez et al.,
DJD, XXm, 305-55.

4 Q 554 . fr- 1
I ... [And they call this gate Gate of] Simeon ...
... [And they call this gate] Gate of Joseph ...
... [And they call this gate] Gate of Reuben ...

15
20

II...
... [And they] c[al]l [the name of] this (one) [Gate] of Naphtali. And 5
from this gate he measured to the [eastern] gate 25 [s]tadia. And they call
this gate Gate of Asher. And he measu[red from] this [ga]te to the eastern 10
comer 25 stadia, vacat And he led me into the city, and he measured each
607

BI BLI CALLY BASED APOCRYPHAL WO RK S

block of houses for its length and width, fifty-one reeds by fifty-one, in a
square a [11]

5Q*5
I [round] = 357 cubits to each side. A passage surrounds the block of
houses, a street gallery, three reeds = 21 cubits, (wide).
[He] then [showed me the dimensions of [all] the blo[cks of houses.
Between each block there is a street], six reeds = 42 cubits, wide. And the
width of the avenues running from east to west: two of them are ten
reeds = 70 cubits, wide. And the third, that to the [lef ]t (i.e. north) of the
Temple, measures eighteen reeds = 12 6 cubits in width. And the wid[th
5 of the streets] running from south [to north: t]wo of [them] have nine
reeds and four cubits = 67 cubits, each street.
[And the] mid [die street passing through the mid] die of the city, its
[width measures] thirt[een] ree[ds] and one cubit = 92 cubits. And all
[the streets of the city] are paved with white stone ... marble and jasper.
[And he showed me the dimensions of the ei]ghty [side-doors]. The
wid[th of the] side-doors is two reeds, [= 14 cubits, ... Each door has
tw]o wings of stone. The width of the w[ing] is [one] reed [= 7 cubits.]
10
And he showed me [the dimensions] of the twelve [entranc]es. The
width of their doors are three reeds [= 21] cubits. [Each door has tw]o
[wings]. The width of the wing is one reed and a half = 10 5 cubits ...
[And beside each door there are two tow]ers, one to [the r]ight and one
to the l[ef ]t. Its width [is of the same dimension as] its length, [five reeds
by five = 35 cubits. The stairs beside] the inside door, on the [righ]t side
of the towers, [rise] to the top of the to[wers. Their width is five cubits.
The towers and the stairs are five reeds by five and] five cubits = 40
[cubits], on each side of the door.
[And he showed me the dimensions of the doors of the blocks of
houses. Their width] is two reeds = 14 cub [its. And the wi]d[th] ... [And
he measured] the wid[th of each threshold: two reeds = 14 cubits, [and
the lintel: one cubit. And he measured above each] threshold i[ts win]gs.
15 And he measured beyond the threshold. Its length is [thirteen] cubits
[and its width ten cubits.]
[And he] le[d m]e [be]yond the threshold. [And behold] another
threshold, and a door next to the inner wall [on the right side, of the
same dimensions as the outer door. Its width] is four [cu]bits, [its] height
608

T HE N E W J E R U S A L E M

seven [cubits], and it has two wings. And in front of this door there is [an
entrance threshold. Its width is one reed] = 7 II [cubits]. And the
l[eng]th of the entrance is two reeds = 1 4 cubits, and its height is two
reeds = 1 4 cubits. [And the door] fa[cing the other do] or opening into
the block of houses has the same dimensions as the outer door. On the
left of this entrance, he showed [me] a round [staircase]. Its length is of
the same dimension as its width: two reeds by two = 1 4 cubits. The
do[ors (of the staircase) facing] the other doors are of the same dimen
sions. And a pillar is inside the staircase around which the stairs ri [se]; its
width and d[epth are six cubits by six], a square. And the stairs which rise
beside it, their width is four cubits, and they rise in a spiral [to] a height
of [two] r[eeds] to [the roof].
And he led me [into] the block of houses, and he showed me the
houses there. From one door to the oth[er, there are fifteen: eigh]t on
one side as far as the corner, and seven from the corner to the other
door. The length of the house[s is three reed]s = 2[i cubits, and their
width], two [reed]s = 14 cubits. Likewise, for all the chambers; [and their
height is t]wo [reeds] = 1 [4] cu[bit]s, [and their doors are in the middle.]
(Their) width is t[w]o reeds = 1 [4] cubits. [And he measured the width
(of the rooms) in the middle] of the house, and inside the upper floor:
four [cubits]. Length and height: one reed = 7 cubits.
[And he showed] me the dimensions of the dining-[halls]. Each has [a
length] of ninete[en] cubits [and a width] of twelve [cubits]. Each con
tains twenty-two couche[s and ele]ven windows of lattice-work (?) above
[the couches]. And next to the hall is an outer conduit. [And he mea
sured] the ... of the window: its height, two cubits; [its width: ...
cubits;] and its depth is that of the width of the wall. [The height of the
inner (aspect of the window) is ... cubits, and that of the outer (aspect),
... cubits.]
[And he measured the l]im[it]s of the ... [Their length] is nineteen
[cubits] and [their] width, [twelve cubits] ...

11Q 18 , fr. 20
[On ever]y seventh day a memorial offering of] bread. And they shall
take the bread outside the Temple to the right of its west side and it shall
be divided. And I looked until it was divided among the eighty-four
priests from all the seven divisions of the tables ... the oldest among

BIBLICALLY BASED APOCRYPHAL WORKS

them and fourteen pri[ests]... priest. Two (loaves) of bread with incense
[on] them. I looked until one of the two (loaves of) bread was given to
the High Priest... with him. And the other was given to his deputy who
stood near (?)...

Pseudo-Ezekiela_d
(4 Q 38 5 >3 86>385 b>3 88>38 5 c)

An apocryphal work, modelled on the Book of Ezekiel, has survived in five Cave
4 manuscripts. It consists of exchanges between God and the prophet, who is
several times named. The eschatological material of 4Q385 includes, among
others, Ezekiels vision of the dry bones and the Chariot passage. On the basis of
its script, 4Q385 is dated to the late Hasmonaean or early Herodian era, i.e.
roughly to mid-first century b c e . There is nothing obviously sectarian in the
document. 4Q386 also deals with the vision of the dry bones (Ezek. xxxvii) and
the future of the land of Israel. 40385b is built on Ezekiels prophecy against
Egypt (Ezek. xxx, 1-3) and 4Q388 alludes once more to the dry bones and the
final battle. 4Q385C consists of seven unidentified scraps.
For the editio princeps, see D. Dimant, DJD, XXX, 7-88. For 4Q391, unsuit
able for translation, see M. Smith, DJD, XIX, 152-93.

4Q385>fr- 2 (=4Q386>fr- 1 *>4Q388>fr- 7)

[And they will know that I am the Lord] who redeems My people, giving
them the Covenant. vacat [And I said, Lord,] I have seen many from
Israel who have loved Thy name and walked [in] the ways [of righteous
ness (?), and] when will [these] things come to pass? And how will their
piety be rewarded? And the Lord said to me, I will make the sons of
Israel see and they will know that I am the Lord. vacat [And He said,]
Son of man, Prophesy concerning the bones, and say, [Come together,
a bone to its bone, and a bit [to its bit. And] s[o it came to pas]s. And
He said a second time, Prophesy, and let sinews come on them, and let
skin spread over them above. [And] s[o it came to pas]s. And He said
again, Prophesy concerning the four winds of heaven and let the win[ds
of heaven] blow [on them and they shall live]. And a great crowd of men
revived and blessed the Lord of hosts wh[o made them live.] And I said,
6 11

BI BLI CALLY BASED APOCRYP HAL W ORK S

10 Lord, when will these things come to pass? And the Lord said to me,
. a tree will bend and stand up ..

Fr. 3
... Lord. And all the people stood up ... [prais]ing the Lord of hosts. I
also s[pok]e with them ... vacat And the Lord spoke to me: Son of
5 [man, Sa]y to them ... [in] their [graves] they shall lie until ... [from]
their [tom]bs and from the land ...

Fr. 4
... instead of my grief rejoice my soul. And the days will hasten quickly
until men will say, Are not the days quickening so that the sons of Israel
may inherit? And the Lord said to me, I will not tur[n aw]ay your face,
5 Ezekiel. Be [hold,] I will shorten the days and the year[s] ... a little, as
you have said to [Me] ... [For] the mouth of the Lord has spoken these
(words). ...

Fr. 6
5 ... the vision that Ezek[iel] saw ... the brightness of the chariot. And
four living creatures ... [and when advancing they do not turn] back.
Every living creature walks on two (legs) and [its] two legs ... there was
breath and their faces are parallel (?). [And the likeness] of the fa[ces:
one is a lion, on]e an eagle, one a calf and one a man. There was [a hand
io (?)] of a man attached to the back of the living creatures and stuck to ...
and the wh[ee]l[s]. A wheel was attached to another when they advanced
and from both sides of the wh[eels there were coals of fire] and there
were in the midst of the coals living creatures like coals of fire ... and the
wheels and the living creatures and the wheels ...

612

P S E U D O - E Z E K I E L ad

4Q 386, fir. i ii-iii

I I ... [the ear]th and they will know that I am the Lord, vacat And He
said to me: Consider, son of man, the land of Israel. And I said: I have
seen it, Lord, and behold it is dry. When wilt Thou gather them? The
Lord said: A son of Belial is planning to oppress my people but I will not
permit him. His residue will not persist, and from the impure no seed
shall remain. From the caper no wine will come nor will a wasp (?) make 5
any honey. And I will slay the wicked in Memphis and I will bring my
sons out of Memphis and turn favourably towards their remnant. As
they say: There is peace and (quiet?); they also say: The earth is as it was
in the days o f ... [in the days] of old. Then I will stir up hea[t] against
them from [the fo]ur directions of heaven ... devouring fire ...
10
III He will have no mercy on the poor and will bring them to Babylon.
Babylon is like a cup in the hand of the Lord, in time He will cast it
away....

4 Q 38 5 b
[And these are the wor]ds of Ezekiel. And the word of the Lord came to
me, sa[ying: Son of man, Prophejsy and say, Behold the day of perdition
of the nations is coming .. . [Egy]pt and anguish will be in Put and the
sword in E[gypt] ... will shake itself and Ethiopia and [Pu]t and the
powerful of Arabia ... of Arabia will fall at the gate[s] of Egypt...

613

The Prayer of Nabonidus

(4Q242)

While the Book of Daniel (iv) writes of the miraculous recovery of Nebuchad
nezzar after an illness which lasted seven years, this interesting Aramaic com
position tells a similar story about the last king of Babylon, Nabonidus. The
principal difference between the two is that Nebuchadnezzar was cured by God
Himself when he recognized His sovereignty, whereas a Jewish exorcist healed
Nabonidus by teaching him the truth and forgiving his sins. J. T. Milik con
siders the work to be older than Daniel, but a late second or early first-century
b c e dating seems to be less adventurous (cf. Priere de Nabonide et autres ecrits
dun cycle de Daniel, RB 63 (1956), 407-11). Cf. also G. Vermes, Jesus theJew,
London, 1973, 67-8.
For the editio princeps, see J. Collins, DJD, XXII, 83-93.
The words of the prayer uttered by Nabunai king of the l[and of
Bajbylon, [the great] king, [when he was afflicted] with an evil ulcer in
Teiman by decree of the [Most High God].
I was afflicted [with an evil ulcer] for seven years ... and an exorcist
pardoned my sins. He was a Jew from [among the children of the exile of
5 Judah, and he said], Recount this in writing to [glorify and exalt] the
name of the [Most High God. And I wrote this]:
I was afflicted with an [evil] ulcer in Teiman [by decree of the Most
High God]. For seven years [T| prayed to the gods of silver and gold,
[bronze and iron], wood and stone and clay, because [I believed] that
they were gods ...

6 14

Para-Danielic Writings
(4Q 243-5)

In addition to the Prayer of Nabonidus, Cave 4 has revealed further Aramaic

remains of a composition akin to the biblical Book of Daniel, with three explicit
mentions of the name Daniel, who appears to be the narrator of the story.
Another personality, Balakros, figures in 4Q243. J. T. Milik tentatively identified
him with the Seleucid ruler Alexander Balas, the patron ofJonathan Maccabaeus.
One of the fragments of 4Q245 represents a list of priests, including possibly
the Maccabee brothers, Jonathan and Simon, and kings. The remaining pieces
are too small for translation.
For the editio princeps, see J. Collins and P. Flint, DJD, XXII, 95-164.

4Q 243, fir. 3 combined with 4Q 244

... The children of Israel chose themselves rather than [God and they
sacrificed their sons to the demons of idolatry. God was enraged against
them and determined to surrender them to Nebu[chadnezzar, king of
Ba]bel and to devastate their land ...

4Q 245, fr. 1, i-ii

... Daniel ... the book given..........[Lev]i, Qahat ... Bukki, Uzzi ... 5
[Zado]k, Abiathar ... Hi[l]kiah ... Onias, [Jona]than, Simon ... and 10
David, Solomon ... Ahazia[h, Joa]sh

615

The Four Kingdoms

(4Q552-3)

Partly overlapping remains of two manuscripts of an Aramaic work further tes

tify to the existence of a rich para-Danielic literature. These poorly preserved
documents allude to the story of the four empires (Dan. vii
viii) in the form of a
metaphor of four trees.
For the editio princeps, see E. Puech, DJD, XXXVII (forthcoming).

4Q 552, fir. 1 ii
... [I saw an angel] II standing on whom light (shone) and four trees
[stood by] him. And the trees rose and moved away from him. And he
said to [me: Do you see] this shape? And I said: Yes. I see it and consider
it. And I saw the tree ... placed.
5
And I asked it: What is your name? And it said to me: Babel. And I
said to it: Are you the one who rules over Persia? And I saw another tree
.. . and I asked it: What is your name? [And it said to me: ... And I said
to it: Are you the one w[ho rules over a]ll the powers of the sea and over
the ports [and over] ... ? [And I saw] the third tree [and] I said to [it:
What is your name and why] is your appearance ...

616

An Aramaic Apocalypse
(4Q246)

Sumamed the Son of God fragment, 4Q246, with its intriguing phrases son of
God and son of the Most High, recalling Luke i, 32, 35, has been in the centre
of learned and popular speculation. On palaeographical grounds the script is
dated to the final decades of the first century

bce.

Four competing interpreta

tions of the son of God figure have been proposed: the tide is to be associated
with the Seleucid ruler, Alexander Balas (J. T . Milik); it designates a Jewish, pos
sibly Hasmonaean, king, with a possible messianic undertone in the use of son
of God (J. A. Fitzmyer); the Antichrist (D. Flusser); still apocalyptically, but in a
positive sense, F. Garcia Martinez argued in favour of an angelic identity, the
son of God is either the heavenly Melchizedek or Michael, the Prince of Light.
The editor has decided to sit on the fence and applies the tide to either the
future Davidic Messiah or a historical Seleucid pretender.
The overall message of the fragment recalls the apocalyptic section of the
Book of Daniel. A Daniel-like person, referred to in column 1, is to explain to a
king seated on a throne a vision or dream alluding to wars involving Assyria and
Egypt, and the arrival of a final ruler, served by all, and called by them, or desig
nating himself, son of God. But the triumph of peace is not attributed to him his reign is rather characterized by internecine struggle between nations and
provinces - but to the Great God, helping the people of God (cf. Dan. vii, 22,
29), whose dominion over mankind is declared eternal (cf. Dan. vii, 14) and free
from the sword.
Relying mainly on the evidence of the existing text, rather than on hypothetical
reconstructions of missing passages, I see in the son of God of 4Q 246 neither
Flussers Antichrist, nor the straight historical individual of the Milik-Puech
variety, but the last historico-apocalyptic sovereign of the ultimate world empire
who, like his model, Antiochus Epiphanes in Dan. xi, 36-7, is expected to pro
claim himself and be worshipped as a god (see J J S 43, 1992, 301-3).
For the editio princeps, see E. Puech, D JD , XXII, 165-84.

617

BI BLI CALLY BASED AP OCRYPHAL W ORK S

I ... [the spirit of God] dwelt on him, he fell down before the throne ...
O [K]ing, you are angry for ever and your years ... your vision and all.
For ever you ... [the gre]at ones. An oppression will come to the earth
... a great massacre in the provinces ... the king of Assyria [and E]gypt
... he will be great on earth ... will make and all will serve ... he will be
called (or: call himself) [gran]d ... and by his name he will be designated
(or: designate himself). II The son of God he will be proclaimed (or:
proclaim himself) and the son of the Most High they will call him. Like
the sparks of the vision, so will be their kingdom. They will reign for
years on the earth and they will trample all. People will trample people
(cf. Dan. vii, 2 3) and one province another province vacat until the people
of God will arise and all will rest from the sword. Their (the people of
Gods) kingdom will be an eternal kingdom (cf. Dan. vii, 27) and all their
path will be in truth. They will jud[ge] the earth in truth and all will
make peace. The sword will cease from the earth, and all the provinces
will pay homage to them. The Great God (cf. Dan. ii, 45) is their helper.
He will wage war for them. He will give peoples into their hands and all
of them (the peoples) He will cast before them (the people of God).
Their dominion will be an eternal dominion (Dan. vii, 14) and all the
boundaries o f ...

618

Proto-Esther (?)
(4Q550)

A number of badly damaged fragments of an Aramaic writing report events said

to have occurred in the Persian court, thus recalling the biblical story of Esther.
The script is dated to the second half of the first century

bce.

J. T . Milik, in a

very learned, but equally conjectural, manner, has reconstructed the background
of the narrative, even restoring the name of Esther from an incomplete word
beginning with the letters aleph and samekh. He has thus discovered an Aramaic
model of Esther at Qumran, although no remains of the canonical Book of Esther
have so far been found there. K. Beyer entides the writing as Documents of
Darius and classifies it as a legendary account relating to Darius I and Xerxes,
kings of Persia, who apparendy worshipped the God of the Jews.
For the

editio princeps, see E. Puech, DJD, XXXVII (forthcoming). See also

J. T . Milik, Les modeles arameens du livre dEsther dans la grotte 4 de

Qumran, RQ 15 (1992), 321-406; K Beyer, Die aramaischen Texte vom Toten
Meer. Ergdnzungsband (Gottingen, 1994), 1 1 3 - 1 7 .

4QProto-Esthera
... [and they lijsten to Patireza, your father ... and amid the officials of the
royal apparel... to work in the service of the king in accordance with all
that you have received ... In that hour the king could not go to sleep
(literally, his spirit was stretched) [and he commanded that the b]ooks of
his father be read before him. And among the books there was a scroll
[the mou]th of which [was] s[ealed] with seven seals by the signet-ring of
his father Darius the heading of which ... [Dar]ius the king to the
officials of the kingdom, Peace. It was opened and read and in it was
found: [... Darjius the King to the kings who will reign after me and to
the officials of the kingdom, Pe[ac]e. It should be known to you that
every tormentor and liar ...
619

BI BLI CALLY BASED AP OCRYPHAL W ORK S

Proto-Estherd
II I The Most High whom you (Jews) fear and worship rules o[ver the
whole e]arth. Everyone whom He wishes (comes) near. Bagasro ...
Whoever speaks an evil word against Bagasro [will be] put to death for
there is no-o[ne to destroy h]is good for [e]ver....

List of False Prophets

(4Q339)

This is a brief list of false prophets, recorded in Aramaic and palaeographically

Herodian in date. The first six names come from the Bible. The last two lines
are completed by the editor as [Hananiah son of Az]ur (Jer. xxviii, 1) and [a
prophet from Gib]eon\ interpreted as the continuation of the description of
Hananiah (see ibid.). One may object to this reconstruction that all the previous
names occupy a single line. The name of Yohanan ben Shimon, i.e. John
Hyrcanus I, son of Simon Maccabaeus, has been suggested by A. Rofe and E.
Qimron. Hyrcanus I was thought to have been endowed with prophetic gifts (cf.
Josephus, Jewish War I, 68-9; Antiquities X III, 300), but the anti-Hasmonaean
Qumran sect would have condemned him as a false prophet. This identification
is distinctly possible, but owing to the fragmentary state of the line the reading is
purely conjectural.
For the editio princeps, see M. Broshi and A. Yardeni, D JD , X IX , 77-9.
T h e lying prophets who arose in [Israel: Balaam [son] o f Beor (Num.
xxii-xxiv); [the] elder from Bethel (1 Kgs xiii, 1 1 - 3 1 ) ; [Zed]ekiah son o f
Ke[n]aanah (1 Kgs xxii, 11); [Aha]b son o f K[o]liah (Jer. xxix, 21);
[Zed]ekiah son o f Ma[a]seiah (ibid.); [Shemaiah the Ne]hlemite (Jer.
xxix, 24); . . . ur; . . . on.

621

List of Netinim
(4Q340)

A badly mutilated fragment, dated to the first half of the first century

bce,

lists

the Temple servants or netinim referred to in the biblical Books of 1 Chronicles,

Ezra and Nehemiah. The text is too broken to make good reading, but it proves
that such lists were in circulation in late Second Temple times.
For the editio princeps, see M. Broshi and A. Yardeni, D /D , X IX , 8 1-4.

These are the netin[im] who have been identified by [their] na[mes]:
Ithra and ... To[biah].

622

H. Miscellanea

A cut segment from The Copper Scroll

The Copper Scroll

(3Q15)

The Copper Scroll (3Q 15), which has stimulated much curiosity and specula
tion, was found by archaeologists in Cave 3 during the excavations of 1952, but
the metal had become so badly oxidized during the course of the centuries that
the scroll could not be unfolded. It was therefore sent to Professor H. Wright
Baker of the Manchester College of Science and Technology who, in 1956,
carefully divided it into longitudinal strips and, in the same year, returned it to
Jordan. It is part of the treasures of the Archaeological Museum of Amman.
The Hebrew text, representing twelve columns of script, was published by J. T .
Milik in 1962. It was preceded by a less trustworthy edition by J. M. Allegro, The
Treasure of the Copper Scroll, London, i960.
The inscription lists sixty-four hiding-places, in Jerusalem and in various
districts of Palestine, where gold, silver, Temple offerings, scrolls, etc., are said to
have been deposited. Allegro reckoned that the treasure amounted to over three
thousand talents of silver, nearly one thousand three hundred talents of gold,
sixty-five bars of gold, six hundred and eight pitchers containing silver, and six
hundred and nineteen gold and silver vessels. In other words, using the postbiblical value of the talent as a yard-stick, the total weight of precious metal
must have added up to sixty-five tons of silver and twenty-six tons of gold.
Who could have possessed such a fortune? Was there ever any truth in it?
The answer is in the negative, according to J. T . Milik. In his view, the
exaggerated sums indicate that the scroll is a work of fiction and that its chief
interest to scholars lies in the fields of linguistics and topography. He dates it
from about

10 0 c e ,

thus ruling out any connection with the rest of the Qumran

writings since the latter were placed in the caves not later than 68

ce.

The treasure was a real one according to other scholars, representing the for
tune of the Essenes (A. Dupont-Sommer, S. Goranson) or the Temple treasure
(J. M. Allegro, N . Golb, A. Wolters). According to Allegro, the Zealots were
responsible for the concealment of the gold and silver and for the writing of the
scroll. It has also been suggested that we are dealing here with funds collected

625

MI S C E L L A N E A

for the rebuilding of the Temple after 70

ce,

or with the hidden treasure of Bar

Kokhba, leader of the second Jewish revolution against Rome in 13 2 -5

ce.

Miliks argument would certainly seem to account for the vast quantities of
treasure mentioned. It does not, however, explain two of the documents most
striking characteristics, namely, the dry realism of its style, very different from
that of ancient legends, and the fact that it is recorded on copper instead of on
the less expensive leather or papyrus. For if it is, in fact, a sort of fairy-story, the
present text can only represent the oudine of such a tale, and who in their senses
would have engraved their literary notes on valuable metal?
The contention that the treasure was a real one is supported by the very argu
ments which undermine Miliks. From the business-like approach, and-the
enduring material on which the catalogue is inscribed, it might sensibly be sup
posed that the writer was not indulging some frivolous dream. Again, in view of
the fact that the Copper Scroll was found among writings known to come from
Qumran, Dupont-Sommer and Goranson would appear justified in allocating
the fortune to the Essenes. It requires, by comparison, a strong feat of the imag
ination to accept that all this wealth belonged originally to the treasure chambers
of the Temple, and that it was placed in hiding, in a hostile environment, in 68
ce,

before, that is to say, there was any immediate danger to the capital city of

Jerusalem. Allegro bypassed this objection by presuming that, as Qumran was by

then in the hands of the Zealots, it was no longer unfriendly to the Jerusalem
authorities. But it has not yet been explained why the sack of the Temple and
city should have been foreseen, and provided for, so early. In favour of the Temple
treasure hypothesis, it is nevertheless possible to envisage that the Jerusalem
sanctuary possessed such riches as these, whereas, despite Dupont-Sommers
undoubtedly true remarks concerning the apparent compatibility of religious
poverty and fat revenues, it is still hard to accept that the Essenes, a relatively
small community, should have amassed such disproportionate wealth.
This is all that can safely be said of the Copper Scroll at the present time.
Further study of the original will allow scholars to improve many of the read
ings. Meanwhile students of Qumran are considerably in J. T . Miliks debt for
his pioneering decipherment of an extremely difficult text.
For the editio princeps, see J. T . Milik,

DJD , III, 199-302.

The Essene Writings from

Further works to consult: A. Dupont-Sommer,

Qumran, Oxford, 1961, 379-93; N. Golb, The Problem of Origin and Identifi
Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society

cation of the Dead Sea Scrolls,

124 (1980), 1-24; S. Goranson, Sectarianism, Geography and the Copper

Scroll, J J S 43 (1992), 282-7; A. Wolters, The Copper Scroll and the Vocabu
lary of Mishnaic Hebrew,

RQi<\ (1989-90), 483-95; Literary Analysis of the

626

T HE C OP P E R S C R OL L

Copper Scroll, in Z. J. Kapera, ed., Intertestamental Essays in Honour ofJ. T.

Milik, vol. i, Cracow, 1992, 239-54; The Copper Scroll. Overview, Text and Trans
lation, Sheffield, 1996; Copper Scroll, in Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed.
L. H. Schiffman and J. C. VanderKam, Oxford and New York, 2000, 144-8.

Col. I

1. A Horebbah which is in the Vale of Achor under the stairs which

go eastwards forty cubits: a box (filled with) silver weighing in all
seventeen talents. K E N .
2. In the tomb o f ... the third: 100 gold bars.
3. In the great cistern which is in the courtyard of the little colonnade, 5
at its very bottom, closed with sediment towards the upper opening:
nine hundred talents.
4. At the hill of Kohlit, containers, sandalwood and ephods (priestly
garments). The total of the offering and of the treasure: seven (tal- 10
ents?) and second tithe rendered unclean. At the exit of the canal on
the northern side, six cubits towards the cavity of immersion. X A r
5. In the hole of the waterproofed refuge, in going down towards the
left, three cubits above the bottom: forty talents of silver.
15
Col. II

6. In the cistern of the esplanade which is under the stairs; forty-two

talents. H N
7 . In the cave of the old Washers House, on the third platform: sixtyfive gold bars. 0 E
8. In the underground cavity which is in the courtyard of the House of
Logs, where there is a cistern: vessels and silver, seventy talents.

9. In the cistern which is against the eastern gate, which is fifteen cubits
away, there are vessels in it.

10. And in the canal which (ends) in it: ten talents. AI

11. In the cistern which is under the wall on the eastern side, at the sharp edge 10
of the rock: six silver bars; its entrance is under the large paving-stone.
12. In the pond which is east of Kohlit, at a northern angle, dig four
cubits: twenty-two talents.
15
Col. I l l

13. In the courty[ard of] ... in southerly direction [at] nine cubits: silver
and gold vessels of offering, bowls, cups, tubes, libation vessels. In
all, six hundred and nine.
627

MISCELLANEA

5 14. In the other, easterly direction dig sixteen cubits: 40 tal. of silver. TP
10 15. In the underground cavity of the esplanade on its northern side: ves
sels of offering, garments. Its entrance is in the westerly direction.
16. In the tomb on the north-east of the esplanade three cubits under
the trap(P): 13 tal.

Col. IV
17. In the great cistern which is in the ... , in the pillar on its northern
side: 14 tal[ents]. K
18. In the canal which goes [towards ... ] when you enter for[ty-o]ne
5
cubits: 55 tal. of silver.
19. Between the two tamarisk trees in the Vale of Akhon, in their midst
dig three cubits. There there are two pots full of silver.
10 20. In the red underground cavity at the mouth of the Aslah: 200 tal. of
silver.
21. In the eastern underground cavity at the north of Kokhlit: 70 tal. of
silver.
22. In the heap of stones of the valley of Sekhakha dig (...) cubits: 12 tal.
of silver.

Col. V
23. At the head of the water conduit... [at] Sekhakha, on the northern
side under the large ... dig [thr]ee cub[its]: 7 tal. of silver.
5 24. In the split which is in Sekhakha in the east of the reservoir of
Solomon; vessels of offering.
10 25. Quite close to them above the canal of Solomon sixty cubits towards
the great stone dig three cubits: 23 tal. of silver.
26. In the tomb which is in the wadi of Kippah (going) from Jericho to
Sekhakha, at its entry from Jericho to Sekhakha, dig seven cubits: 32 tal.

Col. VI
5

27. [In] the eastward-looking cave of the Pillar with two entrances, dig at
the northern entrance three [c]ubits; there is a pitcher there, in it a
book, under it 22 tal.
28. In the eastward-looking cave of the base of the Stone dig nine cubits
at the entrance: 21 tal.
29. In the Dwelling of the Queen on the western side dig twelve cubits:
27 tal.
30. In the heap of stones which is at the Ford of the High Priest
628

THE C OP P E R S C R OL L

Col. VII
dig nine [cubits]: 22 .. . tal.
31. In the water conduit of Q ... [the grea]ter northern reservoir, in the 5
four directions] measure out twenty-[fo]ur cubits: four hundred
talents.
32. In the nearby cave in the proximity of Bet ha-Qos dig six cubits: six
silver bars.
IO
33. At Doq under the eastern corner of the guard-post dig seven cubits:
22 tal.
34. At the mouth of the water exit of Koziba dig three cubits towards the 15
rock: 60 tal., two talents of gold.

Col. VIII
35. [In the wa]ter conduit on the road east of Bet Ahsor, which is east of
Ahzor, vessels of offering and books and a bar of sil[ver].
36. In the outside valley ... at the stone dig seventeen cubits under- 5
neath: 17 tal. of gold and silver.
37. In the heap of stones at the mouth of the Pottery ravine dig three
cubits: 4 tal.
38. In the westward-looking stubble-field of ha-Sho, on the south side, 10
at the underground chamber looking northwards dig twenty-four
cubits: 66 tal.
39. In the irrigation of ha-Sho, at the stone sign in it, dig eleven cubits: 15
70 tal. of silver.

Col. IX
40. At the dovecot (small opening?) at the exit of ha-Notef, measure
out from its exit thirteen cubits, two tusks and, on seven smooth
stones, bars (corresponding to) four staters.
41. At Violet-scarlet over (past?) the eastward-looking underground 5
chamber dig eight cubits ... (?): 23^.
42. In the underground chambers of Horon, in the seaward-looking
underground chamber in the narrow part (?) dig sixteen cubits: 22 tal.
43. A t Q obah a large amount o f money offerings (?).
10
44. At the sound of waters (waterfall) close to the edge of the gutter on
the east side of the exit dig seven cubits: 9 tal.
45. In the underground cavity on the north side of the mouth of the
gorge of Bet Tamar in the parched land of ... (?), all that is in it is 15
herem (= devoted to the Temple).
629

MIS CELLANEA

46. At the dovecot which is at Mesad, at the [water] conduit,

Col. X
southward at the second stair descending from the top: 9 tal.
47. In the cistern next to the canals fed by the Great Wadi, at the bottom:
12 tal.
5 48. At the reservoir which is in Bet Kerem going to the left of ten
notches: sixty-two talents of silver.
49. A t the pond o f the valley o f Y K (?) on its western side is a maah
10

coin coupled with two maahs. T h is is the entrance: three hundred

talents of gold and twenty pitched vessels.

50. Under the Hand (= Monument) of Absalom on the western side dig
twelve notches: 80 tal.
15 51. At the pond of the privy of Siloa under the watering-trough: 17 tal.
52. [At... ] in the four

Col. XI
angles: gold and vessels of offering.
53. Next to them under the corner of the southern portico at the tomb
of Zadok under the pillar of the covered hall: vessels of offering of
resin and offering of senna.
5 54. Next to them at the ...(?) at the top of the westward-looking rock
towards the garden of Zadok under the great closing stone which is
at the conduit: devoted things.
55. In the tomb which is under the galleries (?): 40 tal.
10 56. In the tomb of the Sons o f ... (?) the Yerahite, in it: vessels of offer
ing of cedar, offering of resin.
57. Next to them, at Bet-Eshdatain (Bethesda), in the reservoir where
you enter the small pool: vessels of offering of aloes, offering o f ...
(?)
15

58. Next to them, at the western entrance of the tomb is a channel over
... nine hundred [tal. of silver]

Col. XII

5 tal. of gold.
59. Sixty talents at its entrance from the west under the black stone.
60. Near to them under the threshold of the sepulchral chamber: 42 tal.
61. On Mount Gerizim under the stairs of the higher underground
cavity a box and its contents and 60 tal. of silver.
630

T HE C OP P E R S C R O L L

62. At the mouth of the spring of Bet-Sham vessels of silver and vessels
of gold of offering and silver. In all, six hundred talents.
63. In the great underground duct of the sepulchral chamber towards
the house of the sepulchral chamber. The whole weighing 71 talents
and twenty minas.
64. In the underground cavity which is in the smooth rock north of
Kohlit whose opening is towards the north with tombs at its mouth
there is a copy of this writing and its explanation and the measure
ments and the details of each item.

Cryptic Texts
(4 Q 24 9 ,2 5 0 ,3 13 )

A large number of minute papyrus fragments written in a cryptic script have

been assembled under the title 4Q249. The editor, S. J. Pfann, has subdivided
them into several units, the most important of which are The Midrash on the Book
ofMoses (4Q249) and the cryptic Messianic Rule (4Q249a-i) reconstructed on the basis of iQ Sa. The remainder (4Q249J-Z; 250a-); 313a-!)) are mostly uniden
tified. The pieces are so small that they possess no independent significance.
Even in the case of twenty-two fragments of the Messianic Rule the reconstruc
tion presumes that the text of the Cave 1 manuscript is canonical. Should it,
like most other Qumran manuscripts, lack definite wording, the placement of
the unconnected tiny scraps would become uncertain. The dating of the script
of the Messianic Rule to the middle of the second century

bce

is also highly

questionable. It cannot have been written before the Community Rule and the
Damascus Document and very likely belongs to the mid-first century b c e .
For the editio princeps, see S. J. Pfann, DJD, XXXV, 1-24; D JD , XXXVI,

5I 5 7 I-

4Q249i
(The letters in italics indicate the surviving text. The rest is hypothetical
reconstruction. The examples below are meant to illustrate the nature of
the conjectures. The presumed subject is leprosy and the cleansing of
garments and of the house; cf. Leviticus xiv.)
And he went down (in) the house [of the king to the secre
cavities
(?) .. .from under the [greenish or reddish (?)] . . . [and after] being scraped
10 in it to b[ring them out from the city] .. .from the house . . . [the dust and]
5

[As it is written,]

tarys chamber (Jer. xxxvi, 1 2 ? ) . . . F ]or the [greenish and reddish]

632

CRYPTIC TEXTS

the 5to[ne]j and the [wood] ... [after] removing the [stones] ... [the plaguespot has returned] to the house and demolish [the house] ... [al]/ without
[plague-spot] in [it] ... one [judgz\ment...
[As it is written: the fish that is in the riv]er will die (Ex. vii, 18?) in ... 15

40249a, fr. 1 (= iQSa i, 4-8)

[coming from little children] r[o women, and they shall read into their
ears all the precepts of the Covena]nt and to expound to them all their
statutes that they may no longer stray in their err]ory. And [this is the
Rule for all the host of the congregation, for every] na[txve] in /[srael.
From his youth they shall inst]rw[ct him] in the Z?[ook of Meditation and
according to his age they shall make him understand the precepts of the
Covenant. And he shall receive his discipline in their judgements for
ten] years

633

Two Qumran Ostraca

In the spring of 1996 two Hebrew ostraca were found by Professor James F.
Strange of the University of South Florida. They were discovered in the base of
the eastern face of the wall separating the community centre from the cemetery.
The script is dated to the first century c e .
For the editio princeps, see F. M. Cross and E. Eshel, DJD, XXXVI, 497-50 8.1

Ostracon no. 1
1. In year two of the [...]
2. in Jericho, Honi son of [ ] gave
3. to Elazar son of Nahmani [ ]
4. Hisday from Holon [ ]
5. from this day to perpetui[ty]
6. the boundaries of the house and [ ]
7. and the fig trees, the ol[ive tree (?), and ]
8. when he fulfilled (his oath) to the Community (?) [ ]
9. and Honi [
]
10. to him His [day (?)
]
11. and the [
]
12. And into the hand of [
]
i 3- [
14. Hisday servant of H[oni (?)
15. Holon

]
]

The text documents the gift of a slave, together with an estate and produce. Ref
erence is made to fulfilling an oath, or a period of time as a neophyte, to the

1 . The inclusion of these documents in the 1997 edition was made possible by the kind
ness of F. M. Cross and Esther Eshel, who generously put at my disposal in advance their
decipherment of the two inscribed potsherds.
634

T W O QUMRAN O S TRACA

Yahad in line 8, using the term kml^ywtw lyhd, when he fulfilled (his oath) to
the Community. This terminology resembles that of the Community Rule
(iQS vi), and as such may hint that this ostracon is a draft of an accounting
(ibeshbon) of the Overseer.2The proposed reading, especially in lines 4 and 8, has
been queried by various scholars, Ada Yardeni among them (A Draft Deed on
an Ostracon from Khirbet Qumran, 1E J 47 (1997), 233-7). According to
Yardeni, instead o fHisday from Holon (tHsdy mHwln) one should read these
sackcloths (V hsqym bllw), and instead of when he fulfilled (his oath) to the
Community (wkmlwttw lyhd), and every other tree (wkwl 'yin 'hr). The dam
aged cursive script of the ostracon being what it is, Ada Yardenis readings are
perfectly possible. Nevertheless sackcloths at the head of a list of valuable gifts
is quite out of place. Also, whereas the editors yhd (Community) is questionable,
their interpretation regarding the handing-over of personal property to the sect
is supported by the absence of any indication of family relationship between the
donor and recipient. Normally, a free gift, i.e. with no exchange of money, pre
supposes close family links, for example a gift from father to daughter.

Ostracon no. 2
A second ostracon, written by a different hand of the same period, reads:
i.(?)

2- 0 )
3. |Jose]ph son of Nathna[el...]
4. his [s]ons from En Gedi(?)

2. If the editors reading is correct, line 8 may also be understood as alluding to the com
pletion of a year of initiation in the Community, at the end of which the novice had to
hand over his property to the Bursar of the sect according to Community Rule (iQ S vi,
18-20): And if it be his destiny, according to the judgement of the Priests and the multi
tude of the men of their Covenant, to enter the company of the Community, his property
and earnings shall be handed over to the Bursar of the Congregation who shall register it
to his account and shall not spend it for the Congregation. E lazar son of Nahmani,
mentioned in line 2, may have been the Bursar (or the Overseer/Guardian) of the Com
munity in the first century c e

635

I. Appendix

Scroll Catalogue

Perhaps the greatest disservice rendered to scholarship by Roland de Vaux and

his successors resulted from their obstinate refusal to release the list of the
unpublished texts from Caves 4 and 11. Outsiders were not only denied access
to them but were not even allowed to know what exactly they were not permit
ted to see! W e had to wait until the spring of 1992 for Emanuel Tov, editor-inchief of the Dead Sea Scrolls Publication Project since 1990, to correct this
injustice by releasing the long-awaited secrets and publishing them, at my invi
tation, in the Journal ofJewish Studies. Here follows a complete inventory of the
manuscripts and fragments discovered in the eleven Qumran caves together
with source references for all the published texts.1 For the final list of all the
manuscript finds at Qumran, the other Judaean caves, Wadi Daliyeh, Khirbet
Mird and Masada, see E. Tov, DJD , XXXIX, 2 7 -114 .
NB. A list of the abbreviations used appears on pp. 9 1-2.

CAVE 1
Scrolls

iQIsaa
iQIsab
iQapGen
iQpHab
iQ S

Complete Isaiah in Millar Burrows et al., The Dead Sea

Scrolls ofSt Mark's Monastery, I, New Haven, 1950
Incomplete Isaiah in E. L. Sukenik, The Dead Sea Scrolls
of the Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 1954 (Hebrew),
1955 (English)
Genesis Apocryphon in N . Avigad and Y. Yadin, A
Genesis Apocryphon, Jerusalem, 1956
Commentary on Habakkuk in Millar Burrows et al., op.
cit.
Community Rule in Millar Burrows, The Dead Sea Scrolls
ofSt Mark's Monastery, II, fasc. 2, New Haven, 1951

639

APPENDIX

iQ H
iQ M

Thanksgiving Hymns in E. L. Sukenik, op. cit.

War Scroll in E. L. Sukenik, op. cit.

Fragments
D JD , I

iQ
i= iQ G en
2=i Q Ex
3=iQpaleoLev
4-5=iQ D eu ta_b
6=iQJudg
7= 1 Q Sam
8=iQIsab
9=iQ Ezek
IOI2=lQ P sa_C
i3=iQ phyl
i4=iQ pM ic
i5=iQ pZeph
i6=iQ pPs
i7 -i8 = iQ Ju b a_b
i9 -i9 b is= iQ N o ah
20=iQapGen
2 i= iQ T L e v i ar
2 2 = lQ D M
2 3 -4 = 1 QEnGiants

25
26
27=iQ M yst
28a=iQ Sa
28b=iQ Sb

29
3 0 -3 1
3 2 = iQ JN a r
33=iQ M frs
3 4 - 3 4 fof=iQLitPra_b
35=iQ H frs
36 -40
4 1-6 2
6 3 -8
69

Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus in palaeo-Hebrew script
Deuteronomy
Judges
1 and 2 Samuel
Frs. belonging to the incomplete Isaiah Scroll
Ezekiel
Psalms
Phylactery
Commentary on Micah
Commentary on Zephaniah
Commentary on Psalms
Jubilees
Book of Noah
Genesis Apocryphon
Aramaic Testament of Levi
Divre Mosheh (Sayings of Moses)
Book of Giants (Enoch)
Apocryphal prophecy
Wisdom text
Book of mysteries
Rule of the Congregation (Annex to Community Rule)
Benedictions (Annex to Community Rule)
Liturgical text
Liturgical texts
Aramaic N e w Jerusalem

War Scroll
Liturgical prayers
Thanksgiving Hymns (iQ H )
Hymns
Unidentified Hebrew fragments
Unidentified Aramaic fragments
Unidentified Hebrew fragments

640

SCROLL CATALOGUE

70 -70 bis
7 1-2 = iQ D a n a_b

Unidentified papyrus fragments

Daniel

CAVE 2
D JD , III

2Q
i=2QGen
2-4=2 Q Ex3^
5=2QpaleoLev
6-9=2 QNuma-d
io -i2=2Q D eu ta_c
i3= 2Q Jer
i4=2Q Ps
l 5=2Q Jb
i6-i7=2Q R u th a_b
i8=2Q Sir
i9-20=2Q Juba-b
21=2 QapMoses
22=2QapDavid
23=2QapProph
24=2Q JN ar
25
26=2QEnGiants
2 7 -3 3

Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus in palaeo-Hebrew script
Numbers
Deuteronomy
Jeremiah
Psalms
Job
Ruth
Ben Sira
Jubilees
Moses Apocryphon
David Apocryphon
Apocryphal prophecy
Aramaic text on the New Jerusalem
Legal document
Book of Giants (Enoch)
Unidentified small fragments

CAVE 3
D JD , III

3Q
i=3QEzek
2=3QPs
3=3QLam
4=3 Qplsa
5=3QJub
6=3QHym
7=3Q TJud?
8
9
10 -11

Ezekiel
Psalms
Lamentations
Commentary on Isaiah
Jubilees
Hymn
Testament of Judah?
A text mentioning the Angel of Peace
Sectarian text?
Small unidentified Hebrew fragments
641

APPENDIX

1 2 -13
14
i5=3QTreasure

Small unidentified Aramaic fragments

Unidentified fragments
Copper Scroll

CAVE 4
D JD , X I I

4Q
i=G en-Exa
2-8=G enb-hl
8a=Genh2
8b=Genhpara
8c=Genhtag
9-io =G en ^k
i2=paleoGenm
i 3 - 2 i = E x bk
23=Lev-Num a
24-6=Levb"d
27=Num b

Genesis-Exodus
Genesis
Genesis
Parabiblical Genesis
Title tag of Genesis
Genesis
Genesis
Exodus
Levitdcus-Numbers
Leviticus
Numbers

D JD , X I V

4Q
28=Deuta
29=Deutb
30 -3i=D eu tc~d
32=Deute
33~4=Deutf_g
35=Deuth
36=Deuti
37-40=Deuti_m
4i=Deutn
42-3=D eu t_p
44=Deutq
47=Josha
4 8=Joshb

5 4 =Kgs

Deuteronomy
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
Joshua
ditto
Kings

642

APPENDIX

ii7=E zra
n 8=Ch r

Ezra
Chronicles

D JD , IX

4Q
i ispaleoGen-Ex1
22=paleoExm
45-6=paleoDeutr_s
ioi=paleojobc
i^ L X X L e v 3
12o=papLXXLevb
i2 i= L X X N u m
i22=L X X D eu t
1 2 3=paleoParaJosh
i24-5=paleoUnidi-2
126=Unid gr
i27=papPara Ex gr

Genesis-Exodus
Exodus
Deuteronomy
Job
Greek Leviticus
ditto
Greek Numbers
Greek Deuteronomy
Parabiblical Joshua frs.
Unidentified firs.
Unidentified Greek firs.
Greek parabibl. Exodus frs.

D JD , V I

4Q
28-48=phyla-u
i4 9 55=M eza_S
i56=tgLev

I 5 7 =tgJb

Phylacteries
Mezuzot
Targum of Leviticus
Targum of Job

D J D ,V

4Q
i58=BibPar
159=O rda
i6o=VisSam
i6 i-5= p lsa a-e
1 667=pHosa-b
i68=pMic

i69=pNah
i7o=pZeph
i7i=p P sa
i72=pUnid

I 73=pPsb
i74=Flor

Biblical paraphrases
Ordinances
Vision of Samuel
Commentaries on Isaiah
Commentaries on Hosea
Commentary on Micah
Commentary on Nahum
Commentary on Zephaniah
Commentary on Psalms
Commentary on unidentified texts
Commentary on Psalms
Florilegium

SCROLL CATALOGUE

i75=Testim
i76=Tanh
17 7 = 0 3 ^
178
i79=apLama
i8o=AgesCreat
18 1
i82=Catb
18 3
184=Wiles
18 5
i86=Cryptic

Testimonia
Tanhumim2
Catena A
Unnamed
Apocryphal lamentations
Ages of the creation
Unnamed
Catena B
Unnamed
Wiles of the wicked woman
Unnamed
Cryptic texts

18 7 -9 5
i9<S-9=Tob ar1-^
20o=Tob heb
2 0 i-i= E n a_b

Tobit in Aramaic
Tobit in Hebrew
Enoch

203=EnGiantsa
204-7=Enc_f
20 8 -1 i=Enastra_d
2i2=E n g+Letter
2i3=T L evi ar2
2 i4=TLevi arb
2i5=TN aph
2 15a
2i6=Juba
2 17 -18 = 1^ ^
2i9=Jubd
220=Jube
22I=Jubf
222=Jubg
223~4=papjubh
2 2 5 7 =PsJuba_c
228=citoflub
229=pseudep

ditto (Giants)
ditto
Astrological Enoch
Enoch and his Letter
Aram. Test, of Levi
ditto
Test, of Naphtali
Time of Righteousness
Jubilees
ditto 23-38
ditto 38-53
ditto 55-6 1
ditto 63-85
ditto 87-94
ditto 95-140
ditto 14 1-7 5
ditto 177-8 5
Pseudepigraphic work in
Hebrew
2 3 0 -3 1 sCatSpir3-*5 ^ Catalogue of Spirits
New Jerusalem in Hebrew
232=JNhebr
Frs. with place-names
233=Toponyms
Scribal exercise
234=Gen27:2of
Nabatean text
235=unident.
Cancelled (=4Q98g)
236=Psalm 89

645

Vacant numbers
D JD , X IX
ditto
Milik, Books of Enoch
(DJD, XXXVI)
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
DJD, XXII
ditto
ditto
DJD, XX X V I
D JD , X III
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
Unlocated item
ditto
ditto
ditto
DJD, XXXVI
DJD, XXVII

APPENDIX

237=Psalter
2 3 8=Words
239=Pesh
2 40=CommCant?
241
242=prNab
243-5=psDan ar2-0
246=arApocal
247=ApocWeeks
248=ActsGrKing
249=papMSM
25o=versoMSM
25i=legComm

252-4=pGena_c
255-648-'
264a=halakhah
265=rules
266-73=Da-h
274=TohA
275=Cerem.
276-8=TohB
279=4 Lots
28o=Curses
28i-2=unident.

ditto (=4(397)
Words of judgement
Pesharim on the true Israel
Commentary on the Song
of Songs?
Cancelled (=4(^482)
Prayer of Nabonidus
Pseudo-Daniel in Aramaic
Aramaic apocalypse
Apocalypse of Weeks
Acts of a Greek King
Midrash Sefer Mosheh A
cryp A
Text written on verso of 249
Legal commentary on
Torah
Commentary on Genesis
Serekha_j
Halakhah B
misc. rules
Damascus3-*1
Tohorot A
Comm, ceremony
Tohorot B -C
4 Lots
Curses

283=ditto
284=Purif

284a=Harvest
285=SMilh
286-9o=Bera_e
29i~3=Prayers
294=SapC

2957
2 98=Words of Sage
299 -3= M y stab
30i=M ystc
302=admon
302a=
33-5=C rea ta_c
3o6=Wisd

Purification liturgy
Harvesting
Book of War
Berakhot
Work containing prayers
Didactic work C
Cancelled
Words of a Sage to sons of
Dawn
Mysteries A -B
Mysteries C
Admonitory parable
Cancelled (=302)
Meditation on Creation
People who err

646

DJD, XXVIII
Unlocated iten
ditto

D7D,xxn
ditto
ditto
D/D, XX X V I
ditto
ditto
ditto
DJD, X X X V
DJD, XXII
DJD, XXVI
DJD, X X X V
ditto
D JD , X V III
D JD , X X X V
D JD , X X V I
DJD,
DJD,
DJD,
ditto
DJD,
ditto
DJD,
DJD,
DJD,
DJD,

XXVI
XXIX
XX X V I
XXXV
XX X V I
XI
X X IX
XX X V I

DJD, X X
ditto
ditto

DJD, XX X V I

SCROLL CATALOGUE

307~8=Sap

Sapiential firs.

3 09=A r cursive

Aramaic work in cursive

Unlocated item

script
3 1 0 = Arp ap

Aramaic work on papyrus

ditto

3ii=unclasspap

T ext on papyrus

ditto

3i2= H e b r

Hebrew text in Phoenician

ditto

cursive

3 I 3-C ryp fr

Cryptic text a m m t

3 14 -16

Cancelled

3i7 = M o o n crypt

Frs. on the phases of

D J D , XXXVI

Milik, Books o f Enoch,

the M oon (cryptic)

6 8 -9

3 i8 = Z o d & Bront

Zodiology and Brontology

D J D , XXXVI

3i9= O to t

Otot

D JD , XXL

32 0 -30 = C a l

Calendar

ditto

33i=papH isr*

Historical work on papyrus

r

D JD, X X X V I

3 3 2 -3 = H is tb- c

ditto B - C

ditto

334=O rdo

Ordo

D J D , XXI

3 3 5 -6 = As tr?

Astronomical works

ditto

337= frC al

Calendar

ditto

338=Geneal

Genealogical list

DJD, X X X V I

339=FalseProphs

List o f False Prophets

D J D , X IX

340=Netin

List ofNetinim

ditto

34i=exercise

Scribal exercise

DJD, X X X V I

D JD , X X V n

4Q
(probably not from Qumran)
342=Letterar
343=Lettem ab

Letter in Judaeo-Aramaic
Letter in Nabataean

344=D ebt

Acknowledgement o f debt

345~6=Salear

Sale o f land in Aramaic

347=papD ocar

Aramaic deed on papyrus

348=Deedhebr

Ownership document in
Hebrew

349=Salehebr

Hebrew sale o f property

350=Cereal gr

Account o f cereal in Greek

35 i-4 = C e re a l

Accounts o f cereal

355~8=M o n ey

Accounts o f money

359=List

List o f persons

36o=Exercise

Scribal exercise

647

APPENDIX

36i=papD oodles

Doodles on papyrus

362-3=CryptB

Undeciphered Cryptic B

364-5=Rew orkPentb_e Reworked Pentateuch

DJD, X X V III
D JD , X I I I

36 5 a = 4 Q T emple?

ditto

Temple Scroll

366-7=R ew orkPentd_e Reworked Pentateuch

ditto

368=PentAp

Pentateuch Apocryphon

369=PrEnosh

Prayer o f Enosh

ditto

37o=Flood

Flood admonition

D JD , X X V I I I

3 7 i-3 = N a r r .

Narrative composition

ditto

374= M o sA p A

Moses Apocryphon A

D JD , X I X

375~ 6 = M o sA p A -B

Moses Apocryphon B

ditto

377=PentA pB

Pentateuch Apocryphon C

378~ 9 = A p J osha_b

Apocryphon o f Joshuaa-b

3 8 o -8 i= A p P s

Apocryphal Psalms

ditto

384=papapJerB

ditto B? on papyrus

385=psEzeka
385a=ApJerCa
385b-6=psEzek

Pseudo-Ezekiel3

DJD, X X V III
DJD, X X II
DJD, XI
D JD , X I I I
D JD , X X X
D JD , X I X
D JD , X X X

Apocryphal Jeremiah C a

ditto

Pseudo-Ezekiel

ditto

3 8 7 3 8 7 a=aPJerC

Apocryphal Jeremiah C

ditto

388=psEzekd

Pseudo-Ezekield

ditto

38 8a-9 0 =ap JerC

Apocryphal Jeremiah C

ditto

39i=pappsEzeke

Pseudo-Ezekiel

X IX

3 9 2 - 3 =Lit
3 9 4 - 9 =M M T *-f

Liturgical works

D JD ,
D JD ,
D JD ,
D JD ,
D JD ,
D JD ,
D JD ,
D JD ,
D JD ,
D JD ,

XXXVI

3 8 2 =papparaKings

Para-Kings

383=apJerA

Apocryphal Jeremiah A

MMT

4oo-4<>7=Shir Shaba~h Songs o f Sabbath

X X IX

X
XI

Sacrifice2-11
4o8=W isd

Sapiential work

40 9 = L itA

Liturgical work A

4io=vision

Vision and interpretation

4 11-3

Sapiential works

4 i4 = p u rif
4 i5= In stra
4 i6 -i8 = I n s tr b_<1

Ritual o f purification
Instruction
ditto

X X IX
XXXVI

XX
XXXV
X X X IV

ditto

4i9=Instr-like

Instruction-like composition

4 2 0 -2 i= R ig h ta-b

W ays o f Righteousnessa-b

422=Paraph G en & Ex

Commentary on Genesis

D JD , X X X V I
D JD , X X
D JD , X III

and Exodus
423=Instxg

Instruction^

424=Instr-like

Instruction-like composition

425= W isd B

Sapiential work B

648

D JD , X X X I V
D JD , X X X V I
D JD , X X

SCROLL CATALOGUE

426=W isd A

Sapiential work A

ditto

4 2 7 -3 2 = H o d a-f

Thanksgiving hymnsa-f

D J D , X X IX

433=H od-like

Hodayot-like fr.

ditto

433 aPaP

Hodayot-like fr.

ditto

434~8=Barkia_e

Barki nafshia-e

ditto

439=Lam ent

Lament by a leader

ditto

44o=Hod-like

W ork similar to Hodayot

ditto

44oa=Hod-like

W ork similar to Hodayot

D J D , XXXVI

44o bFr

Fr. mentioning a court

ditto

4 4 i- 2 = P r

Individual thanksgiving A -B

D J D , X X IX

4 4 3= P r

Personal prayer

ditto

444=Incant

Incantation

ditto

445=Lam

Lament

ditto

4 4 6-7= P o e t frs

Poetic texts A -B

ditto

448=apPs&pr

Apocryphal Psalm and

D J D , XI

prayer

449- 5 6 =Prs

Prayers

D J D , X X IX

457a=Creat

Creation

D J D , X X IX

457b=H ym n

Eschatological hymn

ditto

458= N a rrA

Narrative A

D J D , XXXVI

4 5 9 -6 3 N a r r

Narrative

D J D , X IX

464=N arr

Narrative

D J D , X IX

D J D , XXXVI

4Q
465=Samson?

T ext mentioning Samson

466=Congr

T ext mentioning the

467=Jacob

T ext mentioning the

Light o f Jacob

Congregation o f the Lord

468a-d =Frs

Unidentified fragments C

4 68 e -f= H istF

Historical texts F - G

468g=E sch A
4 68h

Eschatological work A

468i=Sect

Sectarian text

468j=U ncl

Unclassified frs.

Cancelled

468k=H ym n

Hymnic text B

4 681=K oh .i:9

T ext mentioning Koh. 1:9

468m =U nidD
4 69=NarrI

Unidentified frs. D

468cc=U nid

Unidentified frs. D

Narrative I

649

D J D , X X V III

APPENDIX

47o=Zedkfr

Fr. mentioning Zedekiah

4 7i=W ar-lik e B

W ar Scroll-like B

D J D , X IX

ditto

47ia= P o lem fr

Polemical fr.

D JD , X X X V I

4 7 ib = G lo r if

Glorification hymn

D J D , X X IX

4 7 ic = P r

Prayer concerning God

ditto

472=Esch .

Eschatological work B

ditto

4 7 2 a=HalakhahC

Halakhah C

D JD , XXXV

4 7 3 = 2 ways

Sapiential work: T w o

D J D , X X II

W ays
474=Rachel

T ext on Rachel and Joseph

475= E a rth

Renewed earth

D J D , XXXVI

ditto

476 = L itB

Liturgical work B

D J D , X X IX

4 76 a = L itC

Liturgical work C

ditto

477=Rebukes

Rebukes to Overseer

D J D , XXXVI

478=Papfest
479=D avid

Fr. on festivals

D J D , X X II

T ext on descendants of

ditto

David
48o=N arr

Narrative F

ditto

48i=M ixed

Fr. on mixed kinds

ditto

48ia=Elish a fr

Fr. mentioning Elisha

ditto

4 8 ib = N a r r

Narrative G

ditto

4 8 ic = P r

Prayer for mercy

ditto

4 8 1 d=Red ink

Fr.

ditto

4 8 ie = N a r r

Narrative H

ditto

D J D , V II

4Q
482=papjub?

Jubilees? on papyrus

4 8 3= p G e n a

Pap. Genesis2

484=TJudah?

Testament o f Judah?

485=Proph

Prophetic or sapiential text

4 8 6~ 7= Sa p a_b

Sapiential work2-15

488=Apar
489=papApocar
490

Aramaic apocryphon

49 i ~ 7 = M a_^

W ar3^

498=H ym Sap

Hymns or sapiential work

499=papH ym Pr

Frs. o f hymns and prayers

Aram aic apocalypse

Related firs.?

500=papBen

Benediction

5 o i= L a m b

Lamentationb

502=papRitM ar

Marriage ritual

503=papPrQ u0t

Daily prayers

650

SCROLL CATALOGUE

504-6=DivHama-c
507-9=PrFesta_c
5 io -n = S h ir a_b
5i2=papRitPur

5 13 -14 = 0 ^
5i5-2o=pap

Words of the Heavenly

Lights2-0
Prayers for Festivals3-0
Canticle of the Sagea-b
Ritual of Purification
Ordinances1*-0
Undeciphered papyrus frs.

D JD , X X V

4Q
52i=MessApoc
522=ProphJosh
523=Jonath
524=Templeb

525=Beat
526=Test

527=LitD
528=SapB

529=Mich
53o-33=Giantsb"*
534-6=Noah
537=Tjac
538=TJud
5 3 9 =T Js
5 4 0 -4 1 =TLevi3-b?
542=TQahat
543 9=Amrama-g

Messianic Apocalypse
Prophecy of Joshua
Jonathan
Temple Scrollb
Beatitudes
Testament?
Liturgical work D
Hymnic or Sapiential work B
Aramaic words of Michael
Book of Giants (Enoch)b_e
Birth of Noah
Aramaic Testament of Jacob
Aramaic Testament of Judah
Aramaic Testament of Joseph
Testament of Levia_b
Aramaic Testament of Qahat
Visions of Amrama-g

D JD , X X X V I I

4Q
550=PrEstha_f
55i=DanSus?

552- 3=4K g-b

S54-S=JNa-b
S56-8=Visa559=papChronol
56o=Exorc
56i=Physiogn
562-8=ArTexts A -G

Proto-Esther3^
Susannah episode in
Daniel?
Four Kingdomsa-b
New Jerusalema-b
Visions3-0
Biblical chronology
Exorcism
Physiognomic horoscope
Unidentified Aramaic texts
A -G

651

APPENDIX

569=ArProv
Aramaic proverbs
5 7 0 - 5 =ArTexts H -M Aramaic texts H -M
576=Genn
Genesis11
577=Flood
Text mentioning the Flood
578=HistB
Historical text B
579=Hymn
Hymnic work
58o=Unid
Unidentified Aramaic text N
5 8 1 = T est
T estament?
58 2=Unid
Unidentified Aramaic text O

CAVE

D J D , I II

sQ
i=Deut
Deuteronomy
2=Kgs
Kings
3=Isa
Isaiah
4=Am
Amos
5=Ps
Psalms
6-7=Lam a_b
Lamentationsa-b
8=Phyl
Phylactery
9=Toponyms
Place-names
io=apMaI
Apocryphal Malachi
n=S
Serekh
1 2=D
Damascus
1 3=S-like
Fragment similar to S
i4=Curses
Liturgical curses
1 5=JNar
Aramaic New Jerusalem
i6-25=U n id Small unidentified and unclassified fragments

CAVE 6
D JD , III
6Q
i=pa!eoGen
2=paleoLev
3=Deut
4=Kgs
5=Ps

Genesis in palaeo-Hebrew
Leviticus ditto
Deuteronomy
Kings
Psalms

652

SCROLL CATALOGUE

6=Cant
7=papDan
8=papEnGiants
9=papSam/Kgs
io=apProph
i i=Vine
i2=apProph
i3=PriestProph
i4=Apoc ar
i5=D
i6=papBen
i7=Cal
i8=papHym
i9=Gen?ar
2o=Deut?
2i=frProph
22=Unid hebr
23=Unidar
24~3i=misc

Song of Songs
Daniel on papyrus
Book of Giants (Enoch)
Samuel-Kings apocryphon on papyrus
Apocryphal prophecy
Allegory of the Vine
Apocryphal prophecy
Priestly prophecy
Aramaic Apocalypse
Damascus
Benedictions on papyrus
Calendar
Hymns on papyrus
Aramaic text related to Genesis?
Deuteronomy?
Prophetic fr.
Unidentified Hebrew text
Unidentified Aramaic texts
Diverse frs.

CAVE

D JD , III

70
i=papLXXEx
2=papLXXEpJer
3~5=papGrBibfrs?

Greek Exodus
Greek Epistle of Jeremiah
Unidentified Greek biblical frs.?3

6-i8=p ap U nid

Unidentified tiny firs.4

i9=Grimpr

Imprints of Greek papyrus on plaster

CAVE 8
D J D , III

8Q
i=Gen
2=Ps
3=Phyl

Genesis
Psalms
Phylactery

<553

APPENDIX

4=Mez
5=Hym

Mezuzah
Liturgical poem

CAVE 9
DJD , III
9Qi=Unid

Unidentified Papyrus fr.

CAVE 10
DJD , III

10Q1

Ostracon

CAVE 11
nQ
i=paleoLev

Leviticus in palaeo-Hebrew

Freedman-Matthews,
Palaeo-Hebr. Lev.

DJD, XXIII
2=Lev
3=Deut
4=Ezek
5 =Psa

6=Psb
7=Psc
8-9=Psd"c
io=tgJob
n=apPsa

i2=Jub
i3=Melch
i4=Ber
i5 -i6 = H y m a_b
i7=ShirShab
i8 = JN

Leviticus
Deuteronomy
Ezekiel
Psalms2
dittob
ditto0
dittod^
Targum of Job
Apocryphal Psalms
Jubilees
Melchizedek
Berakhah

Hymnsa-b
Songs of the Sabbath
Sacrifice
New Jerusalem

654

d j d iv , x x m

SCROLL CATALOGUE

i9=Templea

Temple Scroll

2o=Templeb
2i=Templec
22-3i=Unid

Temple Scroll frs.

Temple Scroll0
Unidentified texts

Yadin, The Temple Scroll

I-IH
ditto and DJD, XXIII
DJD, XXDI

QUMRAN T E X T S OF U N K N O W N ORIGIN
XQ1-4

Phylacteries

XQsa
XQ5b
XQ6
XQ7

Text A
Text B
Aramaic offering
Unidentified

Yadin, Tefillinfrom
Qumran
DJD, XXXVI
ditto
ditto
ditto

QUMRAN OSTRACA
KhQ
KhQ
KhQ

Ostracon 1
Ostracon 2
Ostracon 3

DJD, XXXVI
ditto
ditto

1. The siglum D JD designates the series Discoveries in the Judaean Desert published by
Clarendon Press, Oxford. T he following volumes have appeared so far:
I. D. Barthelemy and J. T . Milik, Qumran Cave I (1955).
II. P. Benoit, J . T . Milik and R. de Vaux, Lesgrottes de Murabbalat (1961).
III. M. Baillet, J. T . Milik and R. de Vaux, Lespetites grottes de Qumran (1962).
IV . J. A. Sanders, The Psalms Scroll of Qumran Cave 1 1 (19 65).
V . J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, Qumran Cave 4 , 1 (4 Q 158 -4 Q 18 6 ) (1968).
V I. R. de Vaux and J. T . Milik, Qumran Grotte 4, II: I. Archeologie. II. Tefillin, Mezuzot
et Targum (4 Q 12 8 -4 Q 157) (1977).
V II. M . Baillet, Qumran Grotte 4, III (4Q482~4Q$zo) (1982).
V III. E. Tov, The Greek Minor Prophets from Nahal Hever (1990).
IX . P. W . Skehan, E. Ulrich and J. E. Sanderson, Qumran Cave 4, IV : Palaeo-Hebrew
and Greek Biblical Manuscripts (1992).
X. E. Qimron and J. Strugnell, Qumran Cave 4, V: Miqsat Ma'ase Ha-Torah (1994).
XI. E. Eshel et al., Qumran Cave 4, VI: Poetical and Liturgical Texts, Part 1 (1998).
X II. Eugene Ulrich, F. M . Cross et al., Qumran Cave 4, VII: Genesis to Numbers (1994).
X III. H. Attridge et alQum ran Cave 4 , VIII: Parabiblical Texts, Part I (1994; in fact 1995).
X IV . Eugene Ulrich and F. M . Cross, Qumran Cave 4, IX : Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges,
Kings (1996).
<555

APPENDIX

X V . E. Ulrich etal., Qumran Cave 4, X : The Prophets (1997).

X V I . E. Ulrich et al., Qumran Cave 4, X I: Psalms to Chronicles (2000).
X V II. F. M. Cross etal., Qumran Cave 4, X II: 1 -2 Samuel (forthcoming).
X V I I I. J. M. Baumgarten, Qumran Cave 4, X III', The Damascus Document (4Q 266-

4 Q2 73)

( i 996)X IX . M . Broshi et al., Qumran Cave 4, X IV : Parabiblical Texts, Part II (1995).

X X . T . Elgvin et al., Qumran Cave 4, XK- Sapiential Texts, Part I (1997).
X X I. S. Talmon ef al., Qumran Cave 4, X V I: Calendrical Texts (2001).
X X II. G . Brooke ef al., Qumran Cave 4, X V II: Parabiblical Texts, Part III (1996).
X X III. F. Garcia Martinez etal., Qumran Cave 11, II: 11Q 2 -1 8 , 11Q 20 -3 0 (1998).
X X IV . M . J. W . Leith, Wadi Daliyeh I: Wadi Daliyeh Seal Impressions (1997).
X X V . E. Puech, Qumran Grotte 4, XVIII: Textes hebreux (4Q 521-528, 4 Q 576 -579 )
(1998).
X X V I. P. Alexander and G . Vermes, Qumran Cave 4, XIX: 4QSerekh Ha-Yabad and
Two Related Texts (1998).
X X V I I. H. Cotton and A. Yardeni, Aramaic, Hebrew and Greek Documentary Texts front
Nahal Hever and Other Sites, with an Appendix Containing Alleged Qumran Texts (The
Seiyal Collection) (1997).
X X V II I . D. M . Gropp, Wadi Daliyeh II: The Samaria Papyri from Wadi Daliyeh.
E. Schuller et al., Qumran Cave 4, XXVIII: Miscellanea, Part 2 (2001).
X X IX . E. Chazon et al., Qumran Cave 4, X X : Poetical and Liturgical Texts, Part 2
(1999).
X X X . D. Dimant, Qumran Cave 4, X X I: Parabiblical Texts, Part 4: Pseudo-Prophetic
Texts (2001).
X X X I . E. Puech, Qumran Cave 4, XX II: Textes arameens, premib-e partie: 4Q 5 29 -549
(2001).
X X X I I. P. W . Flint and E. Ulrich, Qumran Cave 1, II: The Isaiah Scrolls (forthcoming).
X X X I II. D. Pike and A. Skinner, Qumran Cave 4, XXIII: Unidentified Fragments (2001).
X X X I V . J. Strugnell etal., Qumran Cave 4, X X IV : 4Q Instructions: 4Q 4i$ff. (1999).
X X X V . J. Baumgarten et al., Qumran Cave 4, X X V : Halakhic Texts (1999).
X X X V I . S. Pfann, Cryptic Texts; P. Alexander et al., Qumran Cave 4, X X V I: Miscellanea,
Part 1 (2000).
X X X V I I . E. Puech, Qumran Cave 4, XX VII: Textes arameens, deuxibne partie:
4Q 5 50 -57 5, 580-582 (forthcoming).
X X X V I I I . J . Charlesworth et al., Miscellaneous Textsfrom the Judaean Desert (2000).

X X X I X . E. T o v et al., The Textsfrom the Judaean Desert: Indices and an Introduction

(2002).
2. Frs. 1 9 -2 1 have been identified as belonging to Jubilees by M. Kister, RQ 12 (19 85-7),
529 -36.
3 and 4. The latest views are that 7Q4, 7Q8 and 7 Q 1 1 - 1 4 represent remains of chapters
100 and 103 of the Greek version of the Book of Enoch. Cf. E. A. Muro Jr., RQ 18 (1997),
3 0 7 -12 ; E. Puech, RQ 18 (1997), 3 1 3 -2 3 .

656

Index o f Qumran Texts

Figures in bold indicate the classification of fragments; other figures are page
numbers.
V I, 16 157

Q S 9 7 - I I 7 ,12 5 ,15 5

1 98-9
I, 1 1 - 1 2
I, 2 4 - I I ,

V I, 1 6 - 1 7 157
44O

V I, 18 157

I 396

V I , 20 240

i-m , 119 8

v i - v n 155

1-1V 9 7-8

v n 9 7,10 7-8 ,14 6

n 99-100
n, 4-7 9 7

v n , 4 153

v n . 3-4 js6

n , 1 9 98

v n , 9 -10 153

n, 2 1 - 2 3 4 4 0
m 10 0-102
in, 1 1 5 4
m, 4 - 5 9 8

v n , 10 -12153

m , 9 157

v n , 15-16 153

v n , 13120
vn , 13-14153
vn ,

14 -15 153

m , 1 2 - i v , 2 5 9 8 ,4 4 3

v n , 17154

IV 97,10 2-3

v n , 17-18153

I V , 4 - 6 98

v n , 18 -19 153-4

IV, 18 157

v n , 20 240

IV , 2 1 157

V II, 2 0 -2 1 154

V 10 3-5

v n , 20 -v m , 10 123-4

V , i 97, 1 18

v n , 2 3 97

V, 1-20 118-19

v n , 2 4 - i x , 1 0 , 1 5 120

V , i-V I , 7 118, 119

V III 10 8-10

V -IX 9 8

V m , 1 1 5 5 . 1 5 7 > 592

V -X I9 8

V III, 1 - 9 155

vra , 1-10 158

9 7,10 5 -7

v m , 4 -ix, 1 1 1 2 3

V I, 7 - 1 0 1 19-20
V I, 1 4 156

v m , 5 157

V I, 1 5 156

v ra , 6 157

657

APPENDIX

vm, 6 - 2 1 1 2 0
vm, 9157
vm, n-15124
v r a , 15 97
V m , i5 b -IX , 1 1 124
IX 1 1 0 - 11
IX, 1 1 123
IX, 12 97, 124
IX, 1 5 -X , 3 121
IX , 25 118
I X -X I9 8
X ii 1-14
X, 4 - 1 2 122
X, 9 118
X , 1 2 - 1 8 122
X -X I9 8 , 123

X I 1 14 -17
X I, 7 118, 123
X I, 1 4 - 1 5 123
iQ sa 159-62, 632
iQ sa, i 632
iQ S b 387
V , 20 -29 *88
iQ H 249-305, 319
i - m 2 4 9 ,2 50 ,30 3-5
r v - x x m 249,250-303

7 249-305
fir. 8 249
frs 46, 55, 56 303-5

iQ M 159, 163-85,186, 578

1 163, 165-6, 565
n 16 3,16 6 -7
m 16 3,16 7 -8
I V 163, 169-70
V 163, 170-71
V I 163, 17 1-2
v n 16 3 -4 ,17 2 -3 ,18 6
v m 16 4 ,17 3-4
IX 164, 174
X 164, 175-6
X I 164, 176-7
x n 16 4 ,17 7-8
X in 16 4 ,17 8 -9

X I V 164, 179 -8 1
X V 16 4 ,18 1-2
X V -X IX 164
X V I 164, 182-3, 186
16 4 ,18 3
16 4 ,18 3 -4
XEX 164, 184-5
iQ apGen 480-91, 554
iQ pH ab 461, 509-16

xvn
xvm

1Q -3 Q 539
i Q i 4 503

1Q 15517
1Q16 519

, ,

1 Q 1 7 - 1 8 539

1019462 480 535,554

fir. 1 554

fr- 3 554
frs 1 3 - 1 4 554
1Q19 71480, 554
1Q20 480
1 Q 2 1 557
1Q 12 4 6 1,5 7 4 -5 ,5 7 7
1 Q 1 3 - 4 549
1Q 26 425
1Q 2 7 408-9
iQ 28a 159-62
iQ 28b 387-90
1Q 29 38 6 ,578 ,57 9
1Q 32 607
1 Q 3 3 163

rQ34> 34 Wr 381, 382, 383

iQ 3 5 249
1Q 36 249

iQ 37- 4 249

2 Q 19 -2 0 539
2Q 21 574
2Q 22 565, 567, 581
2Q 24 607
2Q26 549

3Q4 497539
3 Q 15 6 2 5-31
4Q D 147
4Q M M T , B 5 8 -9 243

658

I ND E X OF Q U M R A N T E X T S

4QpIsa 497
4Qproto-Esther 619-20
4QSd 118 -2 3
4QSe 12 3 -4
4Q fragments 127, 163
4Q 88 307, 314

firs 1 - 2 504-8
4 Q 17 0 5 17
4 Q 1 7 1 461, 519 -2 3
4 Q 17 2 524
4 Q 17 3 4 6 1,5 19 ,5 2 3
4 Q 17 4 4 6 1,5 2 5 -6

vii-vm 307,314

4Q i 75 527-8, 583>584-5

IX-X 314-15
4Q119472
4 Q 1 19-22 472
4Q120 472
fr. 20 472
4Q121 472
4Q122472
4Q126472
4Q127472
4Q156 463,464
fr. 1 471
fr. 2471
4Q156-7461
4Q i 57 4<*3>4^4>465~7

4 Q 17 6 535

4Q i 77 535
firs 7, 9, io - i i , 20, 26 536
4 Q 17 9 327
fir. 2 327-8
4Q 18 0 553
4 Q 18 1 230

4 Qi8z 536
4 Q 18 3
4 Q 18 4
4 Q 18 5
4Q 18 6

524
4 17 -1 8
4 19 -2 1,4 6 1, 551, 552
370 -71

fr- 1 37i
fr. 2 371
4 Q 19 6 594
fr. 2 595
fir. 6 595-6

4 Q 15 8 4 6 1,4 7 4
frs 1 - 2 474-5

4Q *59 529- 3
firs 2 -4 529-30
4Q 16 0 587
fir. 1 587

fr. *3 596-7
fr. 14 i 597
fir. 14 ii 597-8
fir. 1 7 588-9
fir. 18 599
4 (319 6 -9 594

frs 3-5 587-8

4 Q l6 l
frs 5 -6 497
frs 81 0 4 9 8

4 Q 1 9 6 2 0 0 4 6 2 , 5 9 4 6 0 1

4 Q 19 7 594
fir. 4 596-8

4 Q 1 6 1 - 4 461, 497

4Q161-5 497
4Q 16 2 498-9
4 Q 16 3 499
4 Q 16 4 500
4Q 16 6 50 1-2
4 Q 16 6 -7 501
4 Q 16 7
fir. 2 502
frs 7 -9 502
4Q 16 8 503
4Q 16 9 461, 504

fr- 5 598
4 Q 19 8, fr. 15 9 9
4Q 200
fir. 2 599-600
fr. 4 600
fir. 6 600
fir. 7 601
4 Q 2 0 1-12 462, 545-6

4Q *3 546- 549
4Q 204 545, 546-7
659

APPENDIX

4Q206 545,546
fir. 1 xxii 547
fir. 1 xxvi 547
4Q208 546
4Q209 545,546
fr- 7 547- 8
4Q213, fir. 1 558
4(3213-14462,557
40213a 557-8
4Q21 3b 558-9
4Q2I 4 >fr- 2 559
4Q2i4a
fr. 1559
frs 2-3 559
40214b, firs 2-6 560
4 Q2I5 410, 564
fir. 1 564
fr. 2 564
4Q2 15a 410
fir. 1 ii 410
4Q216 539
4Q216--28 462, 539-40
4Q 2I7 539
4Q218 539
4 Q 2I9 539. 54. 54i
4Q220 539-40
fr. I 24I
4 Q 2 2 I 54O
4Q222 54O

4 Q223-4 5 4 0
4 Q 2 2 5 539, 540
fir. 2 54 1-2
4 Q 2 2 5 - 7 540
4 Q 226 540, 54 1-2

fr. 7 542
4Q227 540
fr. 2 540, 542
4Q 228 540
4 Q 2 32 607
4Q 242 461, 614
4 Q 243, fr. 3 6 1 5
4 Q 2 4 3 -5 4 6 2 ,6 15
4 Q 2 4 4 6 15

40245615
frs 1 i-ii 615
4Q 246 6 17 -18
4Q 2 4 7 4 0 3
4Q 248 404
fr. 15 303-5
4Q 249 6 32

4 Q 2 4 9 a_h 1 5 9
4Q 249a-i 632
4 Q 2 4 9 j-z 632
4 0 2 4 9 a , fr. 1 633
4Q 249 16 3 3 -4
4Q 250 632
4 Q 2 5 a -j 632
4 Q 2 5 1 231
frs 1 - 2 231
frs 4 -7 231
fr. 8 232
fr. 9 232
fir. 16 232
fr. 1 7 2 3 2
4Q 252 461
fir. 1 492-4
4 Q 2 5 2 -4 4 9 2 - 4
4Q 252 ii 492
4 Q 253 492
fr. 1 492
a-. 3 492
4 0 2 5 3 a 518

4Q254492
fr. 1492,495
frs 5-6 492,495
40254a, fr. 3 496
4 Q 255 98, 101, 306
4 Q 2 5 5 -6 4 97
4Q256 98, 99, 106, 118, 159, 221
4Q257 98
4Q 258 97, 98, 105, n o , 118 -2 3 ,
15 9 ,2 2 1

4Q259 9 7 >98> I2o,

123-4, 365
4 0 2 6 4 a 234
4Q 265 97, 146, 155-88
fir. 1 155, 156

660

I ND E X OF Q U M R A N T E X T S

fr. 2 I55
fr. 3 156
fr. 4 156-7
fr. 6 157
fr- 7155 . 157-8
fr. 7U 155
4Q265-73 127-45

fr. 4 ii 149
4 Q 274 2 35-7
fr. 1 i 235-6
fir. 2 i 236
frs 3 i-ii 236-7
4 Q 2 7 5 125
4Q 276 238
4 Q 2 77 238-9
4Q 279 126
4Q 280 391
fr. 2 395
4Q 284, fr. 1 240
4Q 285 188, 497
fr. 1 188
fr. 4 189
fr. 7 189
fr. 8 189-90
4 Q 2 8 6 3 9 1, 394
fr. ia ii 39 1-2
fr. 2 392

4Q 266 127, I49, 15 1, 152

firs 1 a-b 146, 147

fr. 2 145
fir. 2 i 146, 147
fr. 5 146, 148-9
fr. 6 146, 150, 15 1
fir. 6 i 149
fir. 6 iiiiv 146
fir. 8 i 138
fr. 9 ii 144
fir. 10 9 7 , 146, 153
fr. 1 1 146, 154 -5
4 Q 2 6 6 -73 146
40267
fir. 1 146, 147
fir. 5 ii 146, 148
fir. 9 iv 144
fr. 9 v 145
4Q 268 127
fr. 1 146, 147
4Q 269 146, 149, 150
fr. 4149
fr. 8 iii 146, 15 1-2
fr. 1 1 1ii 146, 153
4Q 270 127, 15 1, 152
fr. 3 15 1
fir. 3 iiiii 146
fir. 3 iii 15 1-2
fr. 7 97,146,153-43
fr. 7 iii 146, 1 5 4 - 5
4 Q 27 i 151
fr. 2 15 1-2
4Q 272, fr. 1 146, 149

fr- 3 392
fr- 5 392-3
fr. 7 a i 393
4Q 2 8 6 -7 97, 394
4Q286-9O 3 9 1 - 5
4Q 287
*. 3 394
fr. 6 394
fir. 10 394
4Q 288 393-4
4 Q 2 9 8 241

firs 1 - 2 i 241
frs 3 -4 ii 242
4Q 299 408
fr. 1 408-9
fir. 2 i 409
fir. 3a 409
4 Q 29 9 -30 1 408-9
4Q 300 408-9
fir. 1 ii 389
fr. 134 0 9
fir. 54 0 9
4 Q 30 1, fr. 1 409

4Q 273149
fr. 2, 146, 148
fir. 4 i 146, 148
66l

APPENDIX

4Q3O2 422

4Q339 621

fir. 2 ii 422
fr. 3 U422
4Q 306 243
4 Q 3 13 6 3 2

4Q34O 62 2

4Q364. fr- 3 475

4 Q 36 4 -7 4 6 1,4 7 4
4Q 365
fir. 6a ii 474, 475-6
fir. 6b 475-6
fr. 6c 474, 475-6
fr. 23 476-7

4Q 3 I 3a- b <>32

4 Q3 I7 373
4 Q3 j 8 3 7 4 -5
4 Q 3 I 9 3 ^5 - 9 9
firs 1 - 3 365-6
firs 2 -5 , 9, 23 366-8
firs 5 -8 368-9
4Q 320 348
fr. 1 i 348-50
fir. 2 350
fr.

4 Q 3 6 5 a 19 1 .
4Q 369 543
fr. 1 54 3-4
fr. 2 543

193

frs 3-9 543

4 Q 3 7 0 4 6 i, 5 5 1-2
4 Q 3 7 I - 3 565-6

3i 351

fir* 4 3 5 1-2
fir. 4 iii 3 51
4 Q 3 2 0 -3 0 347-62
4 Q 3 2 1 347
fir. 1 3 5 3 -4
fr. 2 354-5
fr. 3 455-6
firs 4 - 5 358-60
fir. 4 356-8
fir. 5 360-61

4 Q 372 565
fir. 1 565-6
fr- 3 566-7

4 Q373 565. 5Sl

frs 1 - 2 581
fr. 19 567

4Q374 576
fr. 2 576

4Q374-7 462
4Q375 386. 577, 579

4Q32ia 347
4Q 322 347

fr. i 577

4 Q3 7 6

386, 578, 579

fr. 1 578

4Q 325
fir. 1 361
fr. 2 36 1-2
4 Q 3 2 6 363

4 Q377 580
fir. 2 ii 580
4 Q 378 583
fr. 6 i 583
fir. 1 1 584
fir. 14 583
fir. 22 i 584

4Q328 362
4Q 331
fir. 1 i 405
fir. 1 ii 405

4 Q 3 3 I- 3 4 5
4 Q3 3 2

4Q379 527>583

fr. 1 583
fir. 12 584
fir. 1 7 583
fir. 22 583
fir. 22 ii 584-c
4Q 380

fr. 2 405
fr. 3 405

4 Q 3 3 3 . fr- 1 406
4 Q3 3 4 376
frs 2 -4 376

662

I N D E X OF Q U M R A N T E X T S

fir. i 319 -20

fir. 2 319, 320
4Q380-81 319 -26

4Q 390 462, 602

fir. 1 605
fir. 2 i 605-6

4Q381
fir. 1 320-21
fir. 15 319, 320 -21

4Q 3916n
4Q392 399
fr. 1399

&. 17322
24 319, 322
fr- 31323

4Q393 396, 399

4 Q394

frs 2, 5 399

fir.

fir. 33319,324
fr- 45 325
fr. 46 325
fir. 69 325-6
firs 76-7 326
4Q382 461, 589
fir. 104 589
4Q383 602
4Q384 602

4Q385611
fir. 2 6 1 1 - 1 2
fir. 3 612
fir. 4 612
fir. 6 612
4 0 3 8 5 a 602
fir. 4 603, 604-5
fir. 5 604
fir. 18 602-3
4 0 3 8 5 b 6 11, 613

firs 1 - 2 222-3, 3^4> 369

firs 3 - 7 i 223-4, 238
frs 3 - 7 ii 224-5
fir. 8 iii 225-6
fir. 8 iv 226-7

4Q394-9 22 J- 2
4Q395 223-4
4Q396
firs. 1 - 2 i 225-6
firs. 1 - 2 ii 225-6
firs. 1 - 2 iii 226-7
firs. 1 - 2 iv 227
4Q397
firs. 1 - 2 224
fr. 3 225

fr. 5 225-6
firs 6 - 1 3 226-7
firs 1 4 - 2 1 227-8

4Q398
frs 1 - 3 224
firs. 1 1 - 1 3 228-9
firs. 14 1 7 i 2 2 8
firs 14-17 ii 229

4Q385c 611

4Q386
fir. 1 611-12
firs 1 ii
iii 613
4Q387 602
fir. 2 ii 603, 604-5
fir. 2 iii 603, 604-5
fir. 3 604
4 0 3 8 7 a 602
4Q388 6 11
fir. 7 6 1 1 - 1 2
4 0 3 8 8 a 602
fir. 7 603, 604
fir. 7 ii 604-5
4Q389 602

4Q399 229
4Q400
fir. 1 i 330

fr- 1 331
4Q400-407 329-30, 391
4Q401, fr. 14 331
4Q402.fr. 4331-2
4Q403
fr. 1 i 332-3, 334-5
fir. 1 ii 3356

4Q44-5 332-3
663

APPENDIX

4Q405 334
frs. 14-15 i 336
fr-19 337
fir. 20 ii 337-8
fr. 23 i 338
fir. 23 ii 338
4Q408 579
fr- 3 579
fr- 3a 579
4Q412423
fir. 1 423
4Q413 424
4Q414 398
fir. 2 ii 398
4Q4*5 398425
40415-18425-37
4Q416 425
fir. 1 425-6
fir. 2 i 428-9
fr. 2 ii 426-7
fir. 2 iii 429-31
fr.4431
4Q417425
fr. 1 i 432-3
fr. 2 i 428-9
fir. 2 ii 426-7, 429-31
fr. 5 434-5
4Q418
fir. 2 425-5
fir. 8 426-7
firs 9-10 429-31
fir. 10 431
frs 43-45 i 432-3
fr- 55 433-4
fr- <*9434-5
fir. 81 435-6
fir. 103 ii 436-7
4Q4i8a 425, 426-7
4Q4i8b 425
4Q420, fir. 1 439
4Q420-21 439
4Q421 434
fr* 1 439

fir. 1 ii 439
fr. ia i 440
4Q422 461, 478-9
4Q423 425
frs 1-2 437
fr. 5 437-8
fir. 8 435-6
40424 441
fir. 1 441-2
fr. 3442
4Q4 * 7- 32 H 9
4Q431, fr. 1 303-5
4Q433a>fr- 2 36
4Q434
fr. 1 444-5
fr. 1 ii 445
fir. 2 446
fr. 7b 446
4Q434-5 447-8
4Q434-8 444
4Q435, fr. 1447
4Q436 447
4Q437, fir. 2 i 447-8
4Q439 449
fir. i i 449
4Q444 45
frs 1-4. i 450
4Q448 307,340-41
4Q462 592-3
4Q462-4 592
4Q463 592
4Q464 166, 592
4Q468e 407
4Q470 591
fr. 1591
&. 3 591
4Q 471163
4Q47ia 246
4Q47i b 342, 343
4Q473 443
4Q475411
4 Q477 244
fr. 2 244-5
664

I N D E X OF Q U M R A N T E X T S

f r .11397

4 Q 4 & i a 590

frs *9-3* 397

fir. 2 5 9 0

4Q 482(?) 539
4 Q 4 9 I 164, 180, l 8 l , l8 6
firs
fr.

1-3 1 8 6 - 7
11 3 4 2 - 3

4Q49i_7 i63

4Q492 185
4Q493 164, 186
4 Q 4 9 7 163
4 Q 5 0 1 3 2 7 ,3 2 8

4 Q5 oj 9 7
4Q53 384-5
frs 7 -9 384
fr. I I 3 8 5

4 Q5 4 3 7 7 - 8 o
fr* 3 3 8 0
fir. 4 3 8 0
fr. 6 3 8 0
fr. 8 r e c t o 3 8 0

4Q 50 4-6 377

4 Q S 7 . 1 382
4Q S0 7-9 382
4Q 508
fr. I 3 8 2
fir. 2 3 8 2

firs 42-44 ii 398

4Q513 530
frs 1-2 529
firs 2-4 529
4Q 513-14 529
4Q514531
4Q 521412
fir. 2 412-13
fr. 7 4i 2, 4i 3
4Q5i;! 582
fr. 9 582
4QS*3 340- 4 1
4Q524 191,193
4Q5*5 455
fr. 2 455-6
fr. 5 456
fr. 14 ii 456-7
4Q529 556
4Q530, frs 2, 6-12 549-50
40530-33 462, 549
4Q531, fr. 22 550
4Q534 37o, 535- 554. 555

fr- 7 555
4Q534-6 554

3 383

4Q536 555

4 Q5 9
fr- 3 3 8 3

4Q537 561

fr .

fr.

132 383

4 Q 510 451

4Q510 -11 450, 451

4 Q 5 11
fr. I 4 5 1 - 2

fr. 2 452
fir. 8 4 5 2

18 4 5 2
28-9 4 5 2 - 3
fir. 30 4 3 0
&. 35 430
fr. 63 454

fr .

firs

&. 6 3 - 4 4 5 3

4Q512 397

fir. 12 561
4Q537-41 462

40538-9 563

4Q540-4I 561
4 Q541 561
fir. 9 342, 561-2
fir. 24 ii 562
4Q542 568-9
4Q543 57. 571
fr. I 570-71
4Q 543-9 57
4QS43a 572
40544 57
fr. 1 571
fr- * 572

665

APPENDIX

4Q545 570-71. 572

4Q546 57-7x
4Q 546d 572

4QS47 57. 57i

4Q548 57. 573
4Q549 570
4 Q550 619-20
4 Q 5 52 , fr. i ii 616
4Q552"3 616
4Q 554.fr- 1 6o7-8
4Q554-S 46 i>6o7

4Q561 370,
5Q9 582

1 1Q 18 607
fr. 20 609-10
11Q 19 - 2 0 461
11 Q 19 - 2 1 19 1, 193
1 i Q 2o 191
11Q 2 9 97
1 1 Q T 191-220
1 191
n 19 1,19 3

m - x n 191,192
V, 16-18 157

x m - L x v n 19 1-2 ,19 3 -2 2 0
xvn , 11192
x x x v m , 4 - 15 1 9 2

372

5 Q 1 1 97

5Q12

X LV , 1 1 - 1 2 192
m , 17 -18 15 5 ,15 7

12 7-4 5

5Q i3 97
5Ql5 461, 607, 608-9

L v in , 16 -18 19 2
LX IV , 6 - 13 192
LXVT, 1 5 - 1 7 192

6Q 8 549, 554
6Q15 12 7-4 5

6Q 1 9 554

6Q23 556

C D 12 7 -4 5 , 1 5

7Q1 472
7Q1-2 472

I I29-3O

1 , 1 147

7Q2 472

n 130-31

7Q3-19 473

n , 1147

7Q4 473
7Q5 473

i n 131-2
IV 128, 132
IV, 19 - 2 1 127, 146
IV, 20-V, 1 1 192
V 13 2 -3
V , 1 3 - 1 4 127, 146
V, 18 -V I, 2 127, 146
V I 13 3 -4

7Q6 473

7Q7 473
7Q8 473
7 Q 1 0 473
7Q i5 473
XIQ 539
Q5 307-13.314

V I, 20-V II, I 127, 146

v n 134-5,578

1 1 Q 1 0 461, 464, 465-70

1 1 Q 1 1 3 16 -18
1 1 Q 1 2 539, 540

1 1 Q13

v m 135-6
IX 127, 139-40
IX, 1 127
IX , 2-4 244
IX , 7 -10 146, 227
IX, 16 -2 0 244
X I 4I
X I 14 1-2 , 155

4 6 i 5 3 2

frs 1 - 4 532 -4
1 1 Q 1 4 188, 190
1 1 Q 1 7 329

vii 337
viii339
666

I N D E X OF Q U M R A N T E X T S

XI, 3 157
XI, 13-14 157
XI, 16-17 157

xn 142-3
xn, 1-2192
xm 143-4

X IV 144-5
XIV, 5-6126
XV 138-9
XVI 127, 139
MS. A 127
MS. B 127, 136

Damascus Document MSS, Cave 4

146-58
Masada 1039-200 329-30,

332-3

Masada 1039-211 586

fir. A 586
Ostraca 634
no. i 634-5
no. 2 635

M ajor Editions o f Qumran Manuscripts

Microfiche Edition
E. Tov, ed., The Dead Sea Scrolls on Microfiche (Leiden, 1992); A Companion Vol
ume to the Dead Sea Scrolls Microfiche Edition, Leiden, 1995.

Photographic Edition
Robert H . Eisenman and James M. Robinson, eds., A Facsimile Edition of the
Dead Sea Scrolls, III, Washington, 1991.

CD-ROM Edition
T . H. Lim, The Dead Sea Scrolls Electronic Reference Library, Vol. I, Oxford/Leiden,
' 991 -

Computer Reconstructed Edition

B. Z. Wacholder and M. G. Abegg, A Preliminary Edition of the Unpublished Dead
Sea Scrolls IIII, Washington, 19 9 1-5.

Cave 1
M. Burrows, J. C. Trever and W . H. Brownlee, The Dead Sea Scrolls of St Mark's
Monastery, I, New Haven, 1950 (contains Isaiah3, Habakkuk Commentary);
II/2, New Haven, 1951 (Manual of Discipline = iQ S). There is no II/1.
E. L. Sukenik, The Dead Sea Scrolls of the Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 19 54-5
(contains Isaiahb, War Rule, Thanksgiving Hymns).
D. Barthelemy and J. T . Milik, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, I: Qumran Cave
1, Oxford, 1955 (contains all the fragments from iQ).
N. Avigad and Y. Yadin, A Genesis Apocryphon, Jerusalem, 1956.
M. Morgenstern et al., The hitherto unpublished columns of the Genesis
Apocryphon, Abr-Nahrain 33 (1955), 30-52.
P. W . Flint and E. Ulrich, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, XXXII: Qumran
Cave /, II: The Isaiah Scrolls (forthcoming).
668

M A J O R E D I T I O N S OF Q U M R A N M A N U S C R I P T S

Caves 2-5 and 5 -10

M. Baillet, J. T . Milik and R. de Vaux, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert o f Jordan,
III: Les petites grottes de Qumran, Oxford, 1962 (contains fragments and the
Copper Scroll).
Cave 4
J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert o f Jordan, V: I
(4Q 158-4Q 186), Oxford, 1968 (contains mostly exegetical fragments). For
editorial improvements, see J. Strugnell, Notes en marge du volume V des
Discoveries in the Judaean Desert o f Jordan', RQ 7 (1970), 163-276.
J. T . Milik, The Books o f Enoch: Aramaic Fragments o f Qumran Cave 4, Oxford,

J 976R. de Vaux and J. T . Milik, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, VI: Qumran Grotte
4, II: I. Archeologie. II. Tefillin, Mezuzot et Targum (4 Q 128 -4 Q 157), Oxford,
1977M. Baillet, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, VII: Qumran Grotte 4, II I
(4Q482-4Q520), Oxford, 1982 (contains fragments of the War Rule and
remains of liturgical and sapiential compositions).
Carol Newsom, Songs o f the Sabbath Sacrifice: A Critical Edition, Atlanta, 1985.
Judith E. Sanderson, An Exodus Scroll from Qumran: 4QpaleoExodm and the
Samaritan Tradition, Atlanta 1986.
Eileen M. Schuller, Non-Canonical Psalms from Qumran: A Pseudepigraphic
Collection, Atlanta, 1986.
P . W. Skehan, E. Ulrich and Judith E. Sanderson, Discoveries in the Judaean
Desert, IX : Qumran Cave 4, IV, Palaeo-Hebrew and Greek Biblical Manuscripts,

Oxford, 1992.
R. H. Eisenman and M. Wise, The Dead Sea Scrolls Uncovered, Shaftesbury/
Rockport, Mass., 1992.
E. Qimron and J. Strugnell, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, X : Qumran Cave 4,
V, Miqsat M a ase Ha-Torah, Oxford, 1994.
E. Eshel et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, X I: Qumran Cave 4, VI: Poetical
and Liturgical Texts, Part 1, Oxford, 1998.
Eugene Ulrich, F. M. Cross et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, X II: Qumran
Cave 4, VII, Genesis to Numbers, Oxford, 1994.
H. Attridge et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, X II I: Qumran Cave 4, V III,
Parabiblical Texts, P a rti, Oxford, 1994; in fact 1995.
Eugene Ulrich and F. M. Cross, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, XIV : Qumran
Cave 4, IX : Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Kings, Oxford, 1996.
E. Ulrich et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, X V : Qumran Cave 4, X, The
Prophets, Oxford, 1997.

669

APPENDIX

E. Ulrich et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, XVI: Qumran Cave 4, XI: Psalms
to Chronicles, Oxford, 2000.
F. M. Cross et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, XVII: Qumran Cave 4, XII:
i- 2 Samuel (forthcoming).
J. M. Baumgarten, Discoveries in theJudaean Desert, X V III: Qumran Cave 4, XIII,
The Damascus Document (4Q266-4Q273), Oxford, 1996.
M. Broshi et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, XIII: Qumran Cave 4, X IV ,
Parabiblical Texts, Part II, Oxford, 1995.
T . Elgvin et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, X X : Qumran Cave 4, X V ,
Sapiential Texts, Part 1 (1997).
S. Talmon et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, XXI: Qumran Cave 4, XVI:
Calendrical Texts, Oxford, 2001.
G. Brooke et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desen, X X II: Qumran Cave 4, XV II,
Parabiblical Texts, Part III, Oxford, 1996.
E. Puech, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, X XV: Qumran Grotte 4, XVIII, Textes

hebreux (4Q521-528, 4Q576-579), Oxford, 1998.

P. Alexander and G. Vermes, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, XXVI: Qumran
Cave 4, XIX: 4QSerekh Ha-Yabad and Two Related Texts, Oxford, 1998.
E. Schuller et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, XXVIII: Qumran Cave 4,
XXVIII: Miscellanea, Part 2, Oxford, 2001.
E. Chazon et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, XXIX: Qumran Cave 4, X X:
Poetical and Liturgical Texts, Part 2, Oxford, 1999.
D. Dimant, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, X XX: Qumran Cave 4, XXI: Para
biblical Texts, Part 4: Pseudo-Prophetic Texts, Oxford, 2001.
E. Puech, Discoveries in the Judaean Desen, XXXI: Qumran Cave 4, XXII: Textes
arameens, premiere panie: 4Q5 29-549, Oxford, 2001.
D. Pike and A. Skinner, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, XXXIII: Qumran Cave
4, XXIII: Unidentified Fragments, Oxford, 2001.
J. Strugnell et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desen, XXXIV: Qumran Cave 4,
XXIV: 4Qlnstructions: 4Q4i$jf., Oxford, 1999.
J. Baumgarten et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desen, X XX V : Qumran Cave 4,
X X V : Halakhic Texts, Oxford, 1999.
P. Alexander et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desen, XXXVI: Qumran Cave 4,
XXVI: Miscellanea, Pan 1, Oxford, 2000.
E . Puech, Discoveries in the Judaean Desen, X XX VII: Qumran Cave 4, X XVII:
Textes arameens, deuxieme panie: 4 Q 5 5 0 -5 7 5 , $80 -582 (forthcoming).
G. L. Doudna, 4Q Pesher Nahum: a Critical Edition, Sheffield, 2001.

Cave 1 1
J. A. Sanders, Discoveries in the Judaean Desen ofJordan, IV: The Psalms Scroll of
Qumran Cave 1 1 (nQPsa), Oxford, 1965.

670

MA J O R E D I T I O N S OF Q U M R A N M A N U S C R I P T S

J. P. M. van de Ploeg, A. S. van der Woude and B. Jongeling, Le Targum de job

de la grotte X I de Qumran, Leiden, 1971.
Y. Yadin, Megillat ha-Miqdash IIII, Jerusalem, 1977 (English edition, The Temple
Scroll l- lll, Jerusalem, 1983).
D. N. Freedman and K. A. Matthews, The Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus Scroll
(1 iQpaleoLev), Winona Lake, 1985.
E. Qimron, The Temple Scroll: A Critical Edition with Extensive Reconstructions
(Beer-Sheva/Jerusalem, 1996).
F. Garcia Martinez et alDiscoveries in the Judaean Desert, XXIII: Qumran Cave
11, II: 11Q 2-18, 11(220-50, Oxford, 1998.

Unidentified Cave
Y. Yadin,

Tefillin from Qumran (XQPhyl 1-4), Jerusalem, 1969.

OtherJudaean Desert Caves

Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, XXVII: Aramaic,

Hebrew and Greek Documentary Textsfrom Nahal Hever and Other Sites, with an
Appendix containing alleged Qumran texts (The Seiyal Collection II), Oxford,

H. Cotton and A. Yardeni,

1997.
J. Charlesworth

et al., Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, XXXVIII: Miscellaneous

Textsfrom theJudaean Desert, Oxford, 2000.
Wadi Daliyeh

Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, XXIV: Wadi Daliyeh I: Wadi Daliyeh

Seal Impressions, Oxford, 1997.
D. M. Gropp, Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, XXVIII: Wadi Daliyeh 11: The
Samaria Papyrifrom Wadi Daliyeh, Oxford, 2001.

M. Leith,

Damascus Document
M. Broshi,

The Damascus Document Reconsidered, Jerusalem, 1992.

671

General Bibliography

i. Qumran Bibliographies
B. Jongeling, A Classified Bibliography of the Finds in the Desert of Judah:
1958-1969, Leiden, 1971.
J. A. Fitzmyer, The Dead Sea Scrolls: Major Publications and Tools for Study, Mis
soula, Montana, 1975; 2nd edn, 1977; Atlanta, 1990.
F. Garcia Martinez and D. W . Parry, A Bibliography of the Finds in the Desert of
Judah 19 7 0 -19 j 5, Leiden, 1996.

2. General Studies and Monographs

M. Burrows, The Dead Sea Scrolls, New York, 1955.
T . H. Gaster, The Dead Sea Scriptures in English Translation, Garden City, New
York, 1956; 3rd edn, 1976.
G. Vermes, Discovery in the Judean Desert, New York, 1956.
M. Burrows, More Light on the Dead Sea Scrolls, New York, 1958.
F. M. Cross, The Ancient Library of Qumran and Modem Biblical Studies, New
York, 1958; Grand Rapids, 2nd edn, 1980; 3rd edn, Sheffield, 1996.
J. T . Milik, Ten Years of Discovery in the Wilderness ofJudaea, London, 1959.
A. Dupont-Sommer, The Essene Writingsfrom Qumran, Oxford, 1961.
G. Vermes, The Dead Sea Scrolls in English, London, 1962; 2nd edn, 1975; 3rd
edn, 1987; 4th edn, 1995.
G. R. Driver, The Judaean Scrolls: The Problem and a Solution, Oxford, 1965.
Edmund Wilson, The Dead Sea Scrolls 19 47-19 6 9 , London, 1969.
R. de Vaux, Archaeology and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Oxford, 1973.
G . Vermes, The Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumran in Perspective, London, 1977; Philadel
phia, 1981; 2nd edn, London, 1982; 3rd edn, London, 1994.
G. W . E. Nickelsburg, Jewish Literature Between the Bible and the Mishnah,
Philadelphia and London, 1981.
P. R. Davies, Qumran, Guildford, 1982.
B. Z. Wacholder, The Dawn of Qumran: The Sectarian Torah and the Teacher of
Righteousness, Cincinnati, 1983.
D. Dimant, Qumran Sectarian Literature in M. Stone, ed., Jewish Writings of
the Second Temple Period, Assen and Philadelphia, 1984.

672

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

M. A. Knibb, The Qumran Community, Cambridge, 1987.

P. R. Davies, Behind the Essenes: History and Ideology in the Dead Sea Scrolls,
Atlanta, 1987.
P. R. Callaway, The History of the Qumran Community, Sheffield, 1988.
S. Talmon, The World of Qumran from Within, Jerusalem/Leiden, 1989.
G. J. Brooke, ed., Temple Scroll Studies, Sheffield, 1989.
L. H. Schiffinan, ed., Archaeology and History in the Dead Sea Scrolls, Sheffield, 1990.
M. O. Wise, A Critical Study of the Temple Scrollfrom Qumran Cave 11, Chicago,
1990.
H. Shanks, ed., Understanding the Dead Sea Scrolls, Washington, 1992.
F. Garcia Martinez, Qumran and Apocalyptic: Studies on the Aramaic Texts from
Qumran, Leiden, 1992.
D. Dimant and U. Rappaport, eds., The Dead Sea Scrolls: Forty Years of Research,
Leiden, 1992.
J. Trebolle Barrera and L. Vegas Montaner, eds., The Madrid Qumran Congress
1991, Vols. III, Leiden, 1992.
J. A. Fitzmyer, Responses to 101 Questions on the Dead Sea Scrolls, London, 1992.
E. Ulrich and J. C. VanderKam, eds., The Community of the Renewed Covenant,
Notre Dame, 1994.
J. C. VanderKam, The Dead Sea Scrolls Today, Grand Rapids/London, 1994.
B. Nitzan, Qumran Prayer and Religious Poetry, Leiden, 1994.
A. Steudel, Der Midrasch zur Eschatologie aus der Qumrangemeinde
(4QMidrEschaf'b) , Leiden, 1994.
L. H. Schiffinan, Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls, Philadelphia, 1994.
F. Garcia Martinez, The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated: The Qumran Texts in English,

Leiden, 1994.
J.-P. Humbert et al., Fouilles de Khirbet Qumran et de Ain Feshkha I, Album de
photographies - Repertoire du finds photographique - Synthese des notes de chantier
du Pere Roland de Vaux OP, Fribourg/Gottingen, 1994.
D. D. Swanson, The Temple Scroll and the Bible: The Methodology of 11Q T ,
Leiden, 1995.
G. J. Brooke, ed., New Qumran Texts and Studies, Leiden, 1995.
J. Maier, Die Qumran-Essener: Die Texte vom Toten Meer III, Munich, 1995.
N. Golb, Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls? - The Search for the Meaning of the
Qumran Manuscripts, New York/London, 1995.
F. Garcia Martinez and J. Trebolle Barrera, The People of the Dead Sea Scrolls,

Leiden, 1995.
J. G. Campbell, The Use of Scripture in the Damascus Document 1- 8 , 19-20,
Berlin, 1995.
P. R. Davies, Sects and Scrolls: Essays on Qumran and Related Topics, Atlanta, 1996.
H.-J. Fabry et al., Qumranstudien, Gottingen, 1996.
J. G. Campbell, Deciphering the Dead Sea Scrolls, London, 1996; Oxford, 2002.

673

APPENDIX

D. W. Parry and S. D. Ricks, eds., Current Research and Technological Develop

ments on the Dead Sea Scrolls, Leiden, 1996.
D. J. Harrington, Wisdom Textsfrom Qumran, London/New York, 1996.
M. Wise, M. Abegg and E. Cook, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation,
London/San Francisco, 1996.
J. Kampen and M. J. Bernstein, eds., Readings Q M M T, Atlanta, 1996.
S. Metso, The Textual Development of the Qumran Community Rule, Leiden, 1997.
J. J. Collins, Apocalypticism and the Dead Sea Scrolls, London, 1997.
P. W. Flint, The Dead Sea Psalms Scrolls and the Book of Psalms, Leiden, 1997.
M. Bernstein et al., eds., Legal Texts and Legal Issues, Leiden, 1997.
C. A. Evans and P. Flint, eds., Eschatology, Messianism and the Dead Sea Scrolls,
Grand Rapids, 1997.
S. E. Porter and C. A. Evans, eds., The Scrolls and the Scriptures: Qumran Fifty
Years After, Sheffield, 1997.
H. Stegemann, The Qumran Library: On the Essenes, Qumran, John the Baptist and
Jesus, Grand Rapids/Cambridge, 1998.
J. Zimmermann, Messianische Texte aus Qumran, Tubingen, 1998.
J. H. Charlesworth etal., eds., Qumran-Messianism, Tubingen, 1998.
M. E. Stone and E. Chazon, eds., Biblical Perspectives: Early Use and Interpretation
of the Bible in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Leiden, 1998.
Ch. Hempel, The Laws of the Damascus Document, Leiden, 1998.
J. C. VanderKam, Calendars in the Dead Sea Scrolls, London/New York, 1998.
M. Abegg, P. Flint and E. Ulrich, The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible, San Francisco,
*999E. Ulrich, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Origin of the Bible, Grand Rapids, 1999.
J. R. Davila, Liturgical Works, Grand Rapids, 2000.
L. H. Schiffinan, E. Tov and J. C. VanderKam, eds., The Dead Sea Scrolls Fifty
Years after their Discovery 1947-199'/, Jerusalem, 2000.
T. H. Lim et al., eds., The Dead Sea Scrolls in their Historical Context, Edinburgh,
2000.
E. J. C. Tigchelaar, To Increase Learning for the Understanding Ones: 4Q Instruc
tions, Leiden, 2001.
T. H. Lim, H. L. MacQueen and C. M. Carmichael, On Scrolls, Artefacts and
Intellectual Property, Sheffield, 2001.
T . H . Lim , Pesharim, Sheffield, 200 2.

J. Gascoigne et al., eds., Dead Sea Scrolls Special Issue: Journal of Religious History
26/2, 2002.
J. H. Charlesworth, The Pesharim and Qumran History, Grand Rapids/Cambridge,
2002.

P. R. Davies, G. J. Brooke and P. R. Callaway, eds., The Complete World of the

Dead Sea Scrolls, London, 2002.
E. D. Herbert and E. Tov, eds., The Bible as Book: The Hebrew Bible and the
Judaean Desert Discoveries, London, 2002.
674

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

J. Magness, The Archaeology of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls, Grand Rapids,
2002.

5. Bilingual Editions, Concordance, Encyclopedia, Qumran Hebrew

and Aramaic
J. H. Charlesworth ef al., eds., The Dead Sea Scrolls: 1. Rule of the Community and
Related Documents; 2. Damascus Document, War Scroll and Related Documents,
Angelic Liturgy, Tubingen/Louisville, 1994-9.
F. Garcia Martinez and E. J. C. Tigchelaar, The Dead Sea Scrolls Study Edition
/-//, Leiden/Grand Rapids, 2000.
M. G. Abegg et al., The Dead Sea Scrolls Concordance. 1. The Non-Biblical Texts
from Qumran, Leiden, 2003.
E. Qimron, The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Adanta, 1986.
L. H. Schiffman and J. C. VanderKam, Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls, /-//,
New York, 2000.
K. Beyer, Die aramdischen Texte vom Toten Meer, Gottingen, 1984; Ergdnzungsband, 1994.
T . Muraoka, ed., Studies in Qumran Aramaic, Abr-Nahrain, Suppl. 3, Leiden, 1992.

4. Introductions
E. Schiirer, G. Vermes, F. Millar and M. Goodman, The History of the Jewish
People in the Age ofJesus Christ, III, parts 1-2 , Edinburgh, 1986.
G. Vermes, An Introduction to the Complete Dead Sea Scrolls, London, 1999/
Minneapolis, 2000.
J. VanderKam and P. Flint, The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls: their significance
for understanding the Bible, Judaism, Jesus and Christianity, San Francisco, 2002.

5.

The Scrolls and the New Testament

K. Stendahl, ed., The Scrolls and the New Testament, London, 1958.
M. Black, The Scrolls and Christian Origins, London, 1961.
J. Murphy-OConnor, ed., Paul and Qumran, London, 1968; New York, 1990.
M. Black, ed., The Scrolls and Christianity, London, 1969.
J. H. Charlesworth, ed.,John and Qumran, London, 1972; New York, 1990.
G. Vermes, Jesus and the World ofJudaism, London, 1983; Philadelphia, 1984.
R. Eisenman, Maccabees, Zadokites, Christians and Qumran, Leiden, 1983.
M. Newton, The Concept ofPurity at Qumran and in the Letters ofPaul, Cambridge,

1985.
N. S. Fujita, A Crack in the Jar: What Ancient Jewish Documents Tell Us about the
New Testament, New York, 1986.
R. Eisenman, James the Just in the Habbakuk Pesher, Leiden, 1986.
675

APPENDIX

J. H. Charlesworth, e d Jesus and the Dead Sea Scrolls, New York/London, 1992.
F. H. Cryer and T. L. Thompson, eds., Qumran between the Old and the New
Testament, Sheffield, 1998.
J. R. Davila, ed., The Dead Sea Scrolls as Background to PostbiblicalJudaism and
Early Christianity, Leiden, 2003.
G. Vermes, Jesus in hisJewish Context, London/Minneapolis, 2003.

General Index

Page references in italics indicate illustrations. Abbreviations are as on the list on

pages 91-2.
Aaron, 80, 133
Messiah of, 86
sons of, 37, 6372., n o , 121, 221
abbreviations, list of, 9 1-2
Abegg, Martin, xvii, 9
Abraham
and astrology, 371
covenant with God, 68, 81, 131, 139
death, 539
story of, 481, 485-91, 493-4, 54 1-2
Absalom, House of, 54-5, 63-4, 512
Accelerator Mass Spectrometry
(AMS), 13
Admonition Associated with the
Flood, 461, 55 1-2
Aemilius Scaurus (governor of Syria),

and Copper Scroll, 625, 626

D JD V, 6m., 230, 327, 3 7 1,4 1 7 ,
4 19 ,474 , 497, 5 0 1,5 0 4 ,5 17 ,
519, 524*525, 527,

amTnanita muscaria (a fungus), 21

Amram, Testament of, 570-73
AMS, see Accelerator Mass
Spectrometry
Anderson, A A , D JD Vy 6n., 230,
3 2 7 ,3 7 1,4 1 7 ,4 19 ,4 9 7 , 501,

5 4, 5 *9, 524, 525, 527,529,

535.536 ,553,588
animal bones found at Qumran site,

44
Antiochus IV Epiphanes, 51, 56, 58,
59 , 88, 6 1 8

18 , 56, 4 0 5, 406

afterlife, 87-9
Age of Wrath, 54, 58, 59, 69, 137
Ages of the Creation, 553
Agrippa I, 53
Aland, Kurt, 473
Albright, W . F., 1 n.
Alcimus, High Priest, 51, 52, 61
Alexander the Great, 50, 59
Alexander, P., 19W., 118, 123, 125,
126, 188, 371
Allegro, John Marco, 5
on ammanita musearia, 21

529,535,

53<$, 553, 588

Antipas, Prince, 53
apocalyptic writings, 49
Apocalyptic Chronology, 403
Aramaic Apocalypse, 6 18 -19
Messianic Apocalypse, 4 1 2 -1 3
Triumph of Righteousness or
Mysteries, 408-9
Apocrypha, 11, 15, 17, 24
Apocryphal Psalms, 307-26
biblically based apocryphal works,
480-91, 539-622
Apocryphal Weeks, 403

677

APPENDIX

apostasy, 38, 143, 2 12 -13

Aramaic manuscripts, 11 andn., 15,
17, 370 ,461,462
apocrypha, 4,480 -91, 545-8,

batde formations, 170-72, 174 -5,

Baumgarten, J. M., xvi, 4872., 127, 244
DJD XVIII, 146, 149, 152
D JD X X X V , 155, 234, 235, 238,

240

556-63,568-73,595-6,
6 0 8-11, 6 15 -17 , 620-22
Aramaic Apocalypse, 6 18 -19
Aramaic Bible Translations
(Targums), 46 3-71
archaeology, 3-4, 13, 44-5
Archelaus, Herod, 53, 65, 407
assemblies, 29
assembly of all the camps, 40, 43,

145
assembly of the camp, 40, 14 3-4
assembly of the Congregation,
29-30
see also Council of the Community
astrological physiognomies, 12,

370-72
Astronomical Book of Enoch, 545,

Beatitudes, 455-7
Bechtel, Elizabeth Hay, 9n.
Belial, 85, 132, 133, 135, 532, 572
curses of, 80, 394
see also Melkiresha
Ben Asher codex, 15
Ben-Dov, J., 347, 365
Benedictions, 80, 384-5, 39 1-5
see also blessings
Benoit, Pierre, 7, 8
Berakhot, 391, 39 1-4
Bernstein, M., 565, 582
Beyer, K., 620
Bible, 12, 15 -16
biblical canon, 16 -17
biblically based apocryphal works,

539-622

547-8

commentaries/interpretation
(pesharim), 69, 46 1-2
Aramaic translations (Targums),

Athanasius, Mar, 2
Atonement, Day of, 79, 382, 532
Attridge, H., 543
Avigad, N., 4W., 480

463-71
Catenae or Interpretation of
Biblical Texts on the Last
Days, 536
Consolations or Tanhumim, 535
in Damascus Document, 128
Florilegium or Midrash of the
Last Days, 525-6
Greek documents, 472-3

Babylonia, 18, 63, 68, 71

Baillet, Maurice, 5
D JD III, 6n., 473, 581, 608
D JD VII, 48W., 163, 327, 342, 377,

382,384,397,451,529
Balaam, prophecy of, 527, 527-8
Balakros, 56, 616
see also Balas, Alexander
Balas, Alexander, 52, 56, 62, 616, 618
Bar Kokhba (Jewish rebel leader), 626
Barki nafchi (Bless, my soul), 444
Barthelemy, Dominique, 2, 4, 5, 159,

Heavenly Prince Melchizedek,

532-4
historical information within, 18,

49
of law on marriage, 69-70
Ordinances or Commentaries on
Biblical Law, 529 -31
Testimonia or Messianic
Anthology, 527-8

517
Baruch, Apocalypse of, 87
bastards, 29
bathing, ritual, 32, 47, 8 1-2, 141

678

GENERAL INDEX

The Reworked Pentateuch,

474-7

Undentifiable Text Commentary,

New Testament, 1 1 1 3 , 21-3,473
textual reliability, 24
see also specific books of the Bible
Biblical Archaeology Review (BAR), 8
Biblical Archaeology Society, 8-9,
9-10
birds nests, 219
Bless, My Soul, 444-8
blessings, 80, 391-4
Blessings ofJacob, 494
Book of Blessings, 86, 387-90
see also Benedictions
Boismard, M.-E., 473
Bonani, G., 13W.
Brady, M., 580
brontologion, 12, 374, 375
Brooke, George J., 6n., 387,492,
494n., 518
Broshi, Magen, 2 0 1 2 7 , 241, 244,
403,404,407, 622
Brownlee, W. H., 2
Burrows, Millar, 2,4, 97, 98, 509
Bursar of the Congregation, 28, 33,
635n.
Cairo genizah manuscripts, 11 and n.,
17* I27
calendars, 21, 41, 43, 56, 77-9, 307
Calendars of Priestly Courses, 49,
347-62
Calendric Signs (1Otot), 365-9
Calendrical Document C, 363
MMT sectarian, 222-3
Phases of the Moon, 345, 373
Zodiacal Calendar with a
brontologion, 374-5
camps, see towns
Canaan, Sermon on the Conquest of,
576

Cansdale, L., ion.

capital punishment, see death penalty
Catenae or Interpretation of Biblical
Texts on the Last Days, 536
celibacy, 34, 44, 47, 48W., 83
cemetery at Qumran, 27, 34, 45
chariots, 76-7, 329
charity, 41-2
Charlesworth, J. H., 98
Chazon, E., 410, 450
children, 44
entering the Covenant, 41, 73
excavated bones, 34, 45
chosen people, 72-6, 230
Christianity, 24, 25
and the Community, 21, 64
Jewish Christianity, 15, 24-5
Chronicles, Books of, 21, 49
chronology, xix-xxi, 4
Church Orders, 98
circumcision, 68, 73, 81, 139
city of the Covenant, 71-2
Claudius, Emperor, 53
codicology, Hebrew, 15
Collins, J., 615, 616
common ownership, 41, 42, 47
common table, 32, 42, 83-4, 104,
161-2
exclusion from, 106, 107, 108, 109
Community, 11-12, 26
F o u r Classes of, 1 2 6

history, 18-19, 49-50, 53

contribution of Scrolls, 17-18
history of the Essenes, 54-66
list of rebuked members, 244-5
as a plant, 306
religious ideas, 67, 89-90
the Covenant, 67-72
election and holy life, 72-7
future expectations, 84-9
worship, 77-84
structure and rules of, 26-7
at Qumran, 27-34
679

APPENDIX

Community, confd
in towns/camps, 34-41
towns and Qumran compared
and linked, 41-5
see also Essenes
Community Rule, xvi, 2, 3, 23, 26, 29,
95,97-8
on healing, 23
on immortality, 89
infringements and penalties, 30-31
manuscripts
from Cave 1, 98-117
from Cave 4, 118-24
hybrid, 155-8
on meals, 23
on Mosaic Law, 81
no reference to women, 34
number of copies, 21
on punctuality, 77-8
see also Damascus Document
Concordance, 5, 9 and n.
Confession Ritual, 396
Congregation, 28, 63W.
assembly of, 29, 106-7
see also Council of the
Community
Bursar of, 28, 33, 635/z.
dismissal from, 80-81
joining, 32, 33, 105
judges of, 141
Messianic Rule, 4, 159-62
providing for all needs, 145
qualification for, 35
slandering, 30
speaking to, 30

standards of, 168-70

see also Community
Congregation, Prince of, 85, 86, 128,
*35>578
Blessing of, 389-90
horoscope, 370
Congregation, Rule of see Messianic
Rule

Consolations or Tanhumim, 535

contemplative life, 28
converts, 40, 42, 80
Remonstrances before Conversion,
246
Coponius (Roman prefect), 53
Copper Scroll, 6, 12, 625-31
Council of the Community, 45, 82
at Qumran, 27, 29-30
Community Rule on, 104, 105, 106,
108-9, IIO>II9f I2 I23~4
Habakkuk Commentary on, 83, 513
hybrid Community Rule on, 155,158
Messianic Rule on, 161-2
in towns/camps, 36
Covenant, 41, 67-72, 193
community of
election and holy life, 35, 72-7
future expectations, 84-9
worship, 77-84
entry into, 32, 41, 43, 73, 98-101,
105, 125, 160
Feast of the Renewal of, 28, 40,
4J-5. 79-8i, 129,154-5,250
new, 54, 68, 69, 73, 127, 136
oath of, 41, 65, 104, 250
unfaithful to, 243, 246
see also Community
Creation, Psalm ofthe, 307, 312-13
Creation, The Ages of, 553
Cross, F. M., 4 andn., 5, 7, 12, 23/*.,
634
Crown, A., ion.
crucifixion, 56, 504
Cryptic Texts, 632-3
curses, 104
of Belial, 80, 99-100, 394
and expulsion, 40, 80-81
on insincere conversion, 80, 100
of Melkiresha, 395
Damascus Document, 4, n., i6.,
26, 44, 81, 127-8
680

GENERAL INDEX

on the Council of the Community,

29
on the Guardian, 44
historical information in, 18, 54, 58,

59
manuscripts
Exhortation, 44, 128, 129-38
from Cave 4, 146-58

discovery of, 1-2

greatest novelty, 23-5
lack of historical texts, 49
liberation in 1991, 8 -10
and the New Testament, 2 1-3
number and content, 10 -12 , 21
provenance, 14 -15 , 19 -21
and Qumran and towns/camps,

Statutes, 128-9, 1 3 8-45

on the Messiah, 86
number of copies, 21, 43
penal code, 30 -31, 34, 152-4, 156-7
on purification, 82
on skin disease, 36, 149
and sons of dawn, 241
and Temple Scroll, 192
and towns/camps, 34-5
assemblies, 40
code of law, 37-9
Guardians qualifications, 44
head of camp, 36
initiation of members, 40-41, 148
priests, 36, 40, 148-9, 15 1-2
on Wicked Priest, 61
Damascus, land of, 63
Daniel, Book of, 11 and n., 58, 59, 71,
164, 618
Para-Danielic writings, 616, 617
Darius I, King of Persia, 620
dating of the Scrolls, 12 -14

Divisions of the Times, Book of the, 539

see alsoJubilees
Donceel-Voute, Pauline, ion.
Driver, Godfrey, 19 and n.

D avid, K ing, 68, 1 3 2 , 229 , 3 0 7 , 308

dues, priestly, 36, 145, 15 1 2, 216,

descendants, 492
Moses (or David) Apocryphon,
581-2
poetry of, 307, 313
de Vaux, Father Roland, 2, 6-7, 12,

226
Duhaime,J., 163
Dupont-Sommer, Andre, 3 and n.,
625, 626

639
dating the Scrolls, 3 - 4 ,4

and

5* 7, 574

dietary restrictions, see food

Dimant, D., 603, 612

Discoveries in theJudean Desert (DJD),

xiii, xvii, 10, 655-6
Divine Office, Order of, 376

13,

Ecclesiastes, Book of, 21

Ecclesiasticus, Book of, 11, 50 -51
see alsoJesus Ben Sira

6n.

Egypt, 5 52>44

58W.
and publication of the Scrolls, 5,
Dead Sea Scrolls
catalogue, 639-56
dating, 12 - 14

43-4
research and publication, xvi
1947-1967, 2-6
1967-1990, 6-8
1990-2003, 8 -10
significance, 15 -19
Dead Sea Scrolls Bible, xvii
death, life after, 88
death penalty, 37, 38, 139, 141, 192,
218, 504
Demetrius IQ, King, 18, 53, 55, 56
Deuteronomy, Book of, 68, 72, 472,

Eisenman, Robert, 10 and n., 21

n., 244
Eleazar, son of Nahmani, 66n.

and

APPENDIX

election, 72-6
Elgvin, T., 411,425,439,443,478
Elibah, an elder, 580
Elisha Apocryphon, 591
Enoch, 480, 481-2, 542
and Book of Giants, 545, 549
Book of, 17, 59, 78, 540, 545-8
Prayer of Enosh and Enoch, 543-4
Ephraim, 55, 56, 62-3, 64, 84, 502,
506, 520
Eshel, Esther, 244, 246, 340, 342, 398,
4 4634
Eshel, Esther & Hanan, 56, 163, 307,
340, 341
Eshel, Hanan, ion.
Essenes, 3, 25, 46-7
disappearance, 53, 66
and early Christian Church, 22
Feast of Pentecost, 250
hidden treasure, 625, 626
history, 18-19
chronological framework, 58-60
concealed references in the
Scrolls, 54-7
decipherment of particular allu
sions, 60-66
membership, 27, 46
and Qumran, 14-15, 14n., 19, 47-8
religious ideas, 67, 89-90
The Covenant, 67-72
election and holy life, 32, 72-7
future expectations, 84-9
worship, 77-84
writings and library, 20-21
see also Community
Esther, Book of, 11
Proto-Esther, iiw., 620-21
Eusebius, 46
exhortations
Damascus Document, 44, 128,
129-38
Exhortation to Seek Wisdom,
419-21

Masters Exhortation to the Sons of

Dawn, 241-2
MMT C, 228-9
Exodus, Book of, 68,472, 570
Historico-theological Narrative
based on Genesis and Exodus,

593-4

Paraphrase of Genesis and Exodus,

478-9
Exodus, Sermon on the, 576
exorcism, poems of, 316, 451
expulsion from the sect, 30, 40, 46,
80-81, 108, no, 154
Ezekiel, 76, 88, 131-2, 13572.
Book of, 329, 536
Pseudo-Ezekiel, 612-14
Ezra, 21, 49, 68, 69, 87
Falk, Daniel, 396, 399
False Prophets, List of, 56, 622
feasts and festivals, 63
agricultural, 79
liturgical calendar and, 79, 351-2
Pentecost (Feast of Weeks), 44, 79,
125,250
prayers for, 381, 382-3
Renewal of the Covenant, 28, 40,
43 579" 8iI29>25
fifteen men, 29
Fight against Evil Spirits, 450
firstfruits, 232
Firstfruits, Day of, 382
Fitzmyer,J. A., 1 1 1 8 4 0 5 , 596,
618
Flint, P., xvii, 616
Flood, 478
Admonition Associated with the
Flood, 461, 551-2
see also Noah
Florilegium or Midrash on the Last
Days, 525-6
Flusser, D., 244, 618
food, 47
682

GENERAL INDEX

blessing, 32, 105

dietary restrictions, 39, 68, 81, 143,

232
fruits, 240
priests excluded from eating, 36
pure, 33
see also common table
Foundations of the Community, 30
Four Classes of the Community, 126
Four Kingdoms, 617
Freedman, D. N., 6n.
Galilee, 53
Gamaliel II, Patriarch, 79
Garcia Martinez, F., ign., 618
DJD XXIII, 188, 193, 316, 329,
464, 532, 540, 608
DJD XXXVI, 546
garments, pure, 33
Genesis
Apocryphon, xvi, 4, 461, 480-91
commentaries, 461, 492-4
Commentary C, 495
Commentary D, 496
Historico-theological Narrative
based on Genesis and Exodus,

Goranson, J., 625, 626

Greece
culture and Jewish history, 50 -51,
62
as enemy, 18, 59
Greeks referred to as Kittim, 53
Greek manuscripts, 11 andn., 16, 17,

472-3
Tobit, 595-6
Greenfield, J. C., 4n., 374, 480, 557
Groningen hypothesis, 19
Guardian (?nebaqqer)
psalm recital, 250
at Qumran, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33
in towns/camps, 36, 37, 38, 40,
4 1-2 , 144-5, J45
in towns/camps and at Qumran
compared, 42, 43, 44, 45
see also Master
Habakkuk Commentary, xvi, 2, 13-14 ,

71,509-516
interpretation o f Lebanon, 83, 515
portrait of Kittim, 56, 59-60,
5 1 0 -5 11, 512
on Teacher of Righteousness and
Wicked Priest, 54-5, 63, 340,

593-4
and Jubilees, 539
Paraphrase of, 478-9
Gentiles, 25, 74, 224
attacking, 36

interaction with, 35, 36, 39, 143

slaves converted to Judaism, 40
and the Wicked Priest, 55
Giants, Book of, 545, 545-6, 549-50
Ginzberg, L., 582
gleanings, 151
see also tithes
Glessmer, U., 376
Gog, 188
Golb, Norman, 19-20 and n., 625
Goliath, David and, 581, $82
Goodman, Martin, 3n., 14n., ijn.

51 315
Halakhah A, 2 3 1-3
Halakhah B, 234
Hananiah N o to s, 3 1 - 2 , 2 4 4

Hananiah, son of Sim[on], 32, 244

Harding, G. Lankester, 2
Harrington, D. J., 425
harvesting, 240
Hasidim, 18, 51, 52, 59, 62, 63
Hasmonaeans, 52-3, 246
Heavenly Lights, Words of the,

377-80
Hebrew texts, 2, 10 -11, 15, 16, 370,
462
alphabet acrostics, 17, 307, 309-310
Aramaic translations, 461, 463-4

683

APPENDIX

ideology, Scrolls and New Testament,

22
idolatry, 210, 216
immortality, 88-9
initiation into the sect, 32-4, 40-41,
43, 46, 148, 635W.
injuries, compensation for, 231-2
Isaac, 131
sacrifice of, 540, 541-2
Isaiah, Book of, 2, 22, 76, 535
Commentaries on, 497-500
Israel, 38, 61, 72
blessing of, 80
company of Israel, 36
in days of Moses, 68, 580
desert and town brethren and, 42
judges from tribe of, 37
rank of the Israelites, 29, 40, 126
Scrolls and New Testament and, 22
slander against, 38
Israel Anquities Authority (IAA), 8, 9,

Heinemann, J., 570

hekhalotb (heavenly palaces), 329
Henning, W., 549
Herod Archelaus, 53, 65
Herod the Great, 53, 65
Hidden Scrollsfrom theJudaean Desert
(Sukenik), 3
Hirschfeld, Yizhar, 20W.
Historical Texts
A, 404
C-E, 405-6
F. 47
history, see Community; Jewish
history
Holiness, council of, 36, no
Holocaust of the Sabbath, Songs for,

32^-39

Horbury, W., 407

horoscopes, 12, 370-72
Hosea, Commentaries on, 62,
501-2
Huntington Library, California,
9 and n.
Hunzinger, Claus-Hunno, 5
hymns, 2, 16-17, 74~6
Hymn Celebrating the Morning
and the Evening, 386
hymn ending Community Rule, 27,
34, 112-17
Hymn of Glorification A and B,

342-3

Hymnic Fragment, 306

on resurrection, 88
for the Sabbath Day, 379
Songs for the Holocaust of the
Sabbath, 329-39
Teacher of Righteousness and,
56-7.63
Thanksgiving, xvi, 247, 249-305
war, 180-81
see also poetry; psalms
Hyrcanus seeJohn Hycanus I; John
Hyrcanus II

Israel Department of Antiquities, 6

Jacob, 131,474
Blessings of, 494
Testament of, 561-2
James (brother ofJesus), 21
Jannaeus, Alexander, 52, 53, 56, 62,
340
Jason, High Priest, 51, 61
Jeremiah, 71
Apocryphon of, 603-7
Letter of, 472
Jerusalem, 226
Community living in, 35, 42
Essene library in, 2iand n
hidden treasure, 625
history
Hellenization of, 50-51
Antiochus and, 51, 58, 404
Wicked Priest and, 61
last priests of, 55-6, 59, 62
684

GENERAL INDEX

Romans and, 53, 56, 60

destruction of, 53
New Jerusalem texts, 461, 608-611
Poetic Fragments on, 340, 341
prophecies regarding, 84, 87
Jesus ben Sira, 11, 15, 16-17, *7*
50-51
Jesus of Nazareth, 25, 67
birth, 53
Scrolls and study of, 22-3, 24
as Teacher of Righteousness or
Wicked Priest, 21, 64
Jewish history, 67-8
Apocalyptic Chronology or
Apocryphal Weeks, 403
contribution of Scrolls, 17, 24-5
Historical Texts, 404-7
history of the Essenes, 18-19,
54-66
inter-testamental, 50-53
recording of, 49
Job, 463, 463-4
Targum of, 459, 464, 465-70
John the Baptist, 21,23
John the Essene, 65-6
John Hyrcanus I, 18, 52, 56, 62, 405,
565, 622
John Hyrcanus II, 18, 53, 56, 405
Jonathan, King/High Priest
identity of, 18 and n., 56, 340-41

on Essene beliefs and practices, 32,

38, 47, 81-2, 83, 88
Joshua, 21, 68, 70, 528
Apocryhon (i) or Psalms ofJoshua,
55.584-6
Apocryphon (ii), 587
Prophecy of, 583
Joshua ben Hananiah, Rabbi, 79
Josiah, King, 68
Jubilees, 16n., 41, 59, 78, 79, 537,
539~42
Judaea, 52, 53
Judah, House of, 63, 71
blessing of, 492, 494
hymn to, 314-15
Judah, Testament of, 563
Judaism, 28, 67
Community and, 26, 37, 67
Gentile slaves converted to, 40
Jewish Christianity, 24-5
priests status, 29
rabbinic, 24, 25
see alsoJewish history
Judas Aristobulus II, 62
Judas (Essene prophet), 65
judges, 37, 42, 141, 210, 532
Judges, Book of, 21
Jull, A. J. T., 13n.
Khirbet Qumran, 1, ion.
cemetery, 27, 34, 45

see also Jannaeus, Alexander;

Maccabaeus, John
Jonathan, son of Absalom, 64
Jongeling, B., 6n.
Joseph
Apocryphon now Narrative and
Poetic Composition, 565-7
Testament of, 563
Josephus, Flavius, 3, 46, 50, 65
on Community history, 19, 52, 60,
62,65
on the Essenes, 14H., 46, 48 and
65-6

date of occupation, 13, 58

and n.
excavation of, 2, 3
expulsion of Essenes from, 19
population, 27
see also Qumran caves
King-Messiah, 86, 527
Kings, Books of, 21
Elisha Apocryphon, 591
Paraphrase on, 590
Kister, Menahem, 241, 246, 340
Kittim, 18, 56, 59-60, 406
685

APPENDIX

Kittim, confd
in Habakkuk Commentary, 55,
5 10 -5 11, 512
war with, 84, 164, 165-6, 182-5,
188, 497, 498
see also Romans
Knibb, M. A., 546
Laenas, Poppilius, 59
Lamech (father of Noah), 480, 481
Lamentations, Book of, 21, 327-8
language of the Scrolls, 10 -11
and New Testament, 22
Larson, E., 231, 592
Lash, Major-General, 2
Last Days, Interpretation of Biblical
Texts on the or Catenae, 536
Last Days, Midrash on or Florilegium,

Testaments of the Patriarchs, 56 1-2

Levites, 43, 126, 132
blessing of, 527, 528
rank, 29, 40, 80
replacement for priest, 36
rules for, 99-100
tithes, 216
Torah interpretation, 69
on tribunals, 37
war duties, 8 6 ,17 3 ,17 4 ,1 7 8 ,18 1,18 7
Leviticus, 70, 81, 472
Targum of, 463, 464, 471
Liar, 54, 61, 63, 137, 510, 519
see also Wicked Priest
Light, Prince of, 85
see also Michael, archangel
Lim, Timothy H., 1 9 2 4 3
lion, furious young, 55-6, 62, 502,

525-6

5 455
Lippens, Captain Philippe, 2
liturgy, 77, 250
Benedictions, 3 9 1 - 5
Blessings, 387-90
Confession Ritual, 396
liturgical calendar, 78, 78-9
Liturgical Prayer, 381
Liturgical Work, 399
Order of Divine Office, 376
Purification Rituals, 397-8
see also calendars; prayers
Luke, Gospel of, 53

Last Supper, 84
Latin manuscripts, 11, 16
Law, 67
Books of, 128, 135, 536
Council of the Community and, 29,

3
Essenes and, 47, 75-6, 81
infringements and penalties, 30 -31
interpretation, 69-70, 128
novices and, 33
obedience to, 35, 69, 70
Ordinances or Commentaries on
Biblical Law, 529-31
Prophets and, 70-71
see also Moses, Law of; Rules
Lazar, Rabbi, 73
Leaders Lament, A, 449
Lebanon, 83 andn., 515
Lehman, M. R., 231
Leontopolis Jewish temple, 52, 63
leprosy, 36, 144, 149-50, 227
Levi (destroyer of Shechem), 55
Levi, Patriarch, i6w., 132
Testament of, 15, 59, 342, 557-60

Maccabaean theory, 4
Maccabaean-Hasmonaean era, 18, 52
Maccabaeus, Jonathan, 51, 52, 62, 616
King John?, 18, 56, 340-41
Wicked Prince?, 18, 6 1-2
Maccabaeus, Judas, 51, 64
Maccabaeus, Simon, 18, 51, 52, 6 1-2,
616
Maccabees, Books of, 18, 50, 59, 65
Magness, Jodi, ion., 58n.
Malachi, Commentary on, 518
686

GENERAL INDEX

Manasseh, 55, 56, 62, 64, 507, 520

Manasseh, King of Judah, Prayer of,

3J 9>324
Manual of Discipline see Community
Rule
Mark, Gospel of, 22, 473
marriage, 34, 35, 44, 47-8, 480.
kinship and, 69-70, 133
proof of virginity, 219
see also sexual morality
martyrdom, 88
Masada
capture by Romans, 1 1 ,5 3
manuscripts from, 11, 12, 329,
3 2 9 -3 0 ,3 3 1-3
masbqin (liquids), 33
maskil see Master
Masoretic text, 16
Master (maskit), 29
Exhortation to Sons of Dawn,
2 41-2
precepts for, 1 1 1
rules for, 98, 101, m - 1 9 , 12 1-3
see also Guardian
Mattathias (priest), 51, 64
Matthew, Gospel of, 53, 84, 455
Matthews, K. A., 6n.
Mayer, B., 473
meals see common table; food
mebaqqer, see Guardian

Merkahah (throne-chariot), 329

Messiah(s), 189, 412
blessing of, 387, 389-90
coming of, 23, 71, 86, 138W., 16 1-2 ,

525
horoscope, 370
and the Prophet, 87
Messianic Anthology or Testimonia,

55,8 7,527-8
Messianic Apocalypse, 4 12 -13
Messianic Rule, 26, 159-62, 632
description of meal, 32
towns/camps structure and rules,

3 4 .3 5 .3 6 ,3 7 .4 1
Messianism, 67, 86-7, 532
Methuselah, 480, 48 1-2
Metso, S., 98
Micah, Commentary on, 503
Michael, archangel, 85, 86, 532, 592,
618
Words of, 556
see also Melchizedek, archangel
Michael and the Just, The Song of,

342-3
Midrash on the Book of Moses, 632
Midrash on the Last Days or
Florilegium, 525-6
Milik, JozefTadeusz, i,^an dn ., 5,
7w., 44, 93, 188, 563, 615, 616,
620

M editation, Book of, 3 5 , 40, 4 1 , 1 4 3 ,

and the C o p p er Scroll, 6 2 5 , 6 26

160
Melchizedek, archangel, 85, 391, 570,
618
The Heavenly Prince, 532-4
see also Michael, archangel
Melkiresha\ 85, 391, 532, 570, 572
curses of, 395
see also Belial
Men Who Err, 243
Menahem (Essene prophet), 65
Menelaus, High Priest, 51, 61
menstruation, 235

DJD I, 381, 387,408, 503, 517, 519,

5 5 4 .557 .5 74 .608
DJD III, 6n., 574, 583, 608
D JD VIy464
D JD X III 540
J J S , 230, S 5 3 ,626
The Books of Enoch, 7, 373, 545, 546,

549
Millar, F., 17n.
Miqsat Ma'ase ha-Torah, see M M T
Miriam, Song of, 474, 475-6
Mishnah, 29, 70, 79, 82, 329

687

APPENDIX

MMT (Miqsat Maase ha-Torab), 26,

34, 43,221-2
on dealings with Gentiles, 39
dietary laws, 81
and Essenes and Sadducees, 42*2., 62
MMT A, Sectarian Calendar, 222-3
MMT B, Special Rules, 223-8
MMT C, The Exhortation, 228-9
on purity matters, 40
Moffett, William A., 9 and n.
Moon, Phases of, 345, 373
Morgenstem, M., 480
Moses, 133, 136, 476-7, 479
Apocryphon a, 577
Apocryphon b, 578
Apocryphon c, 579
(or David) Apocryphon, 581
Assumption of, 59
farewell discourse, 68
Law of, 43, 81, 580
kinship and marriage, 70
oath to keep, 32, 104
ritual acts precribed by, 77
transgression of, 30, 31, 81
transmission to rabbis, 70
Midrash on the Book of Moses, 632
preparation to hear God, 83
revelation by angels, 539
Words of, 461, 574-5
Muhammad edh-Dhib, 2
Murabbaat caves, manuscripts from, 12
Mysteries, 408-9

Nehemiah, Book of, 49, 69

New Testament, 1 in.
Dead Sea Scrolls and, 21-3
Greek fragments and, 473
Habakkuk Commentary and, 13
see also Bible
New Wheat, Feast of, 79
Newsom, Carol, 329, 551, 576, 584
Nitzan, Bilhah, 391, 422
Noah, 492
birth, 370, 480, 545, 554
covenant with God, 68
curses son, 492, 495
story of, 478, 480-81, 481-5, 492-3,
496,551-2
The Book of, 554-5
novices, 33-4, 42, 63572.
Numbers, Book of, 21, 472
oaths, see vows and oaths
Obadiah, Psalm of, 319, 320
OCallaghan, Jose, 473
Og, King of Bashan, 581-2
Olyan, S., 590
Onias HI, High Priest, 51
Onias IV, High Priest, 52, 63, 6372.
Ostraca, 634-5
Otot (Signs) Document, 365-9
palaeography, 12-13
Palestine, 18, 50, 52
papyrus, 15
Parable of Warning, 422
Passover, 79
Patriarchs, Testaments of, 561-2
Paul, Saint, 21, 67
Peitholaos, 56, 407
penal code
Community Rule, 30-31, 37,
107-8, no
Damascus Document, 31, 34, 37-9,
40,152-4,156-7
penance, 31, 34, 153

Nabonidus, Prayer of, 22, 461, 615

N ah u m Com m entary, 62, 504-8
historical information in, 18, 55-6,
58, 60
Temple Scroll and, 192
Naphtali, Testament of, 410, 564
Nash papyrus, 3, 15
Naveh, J., 244
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, 54,
58,71,615
688

GENERAL INDEX

Pentateuch, 16, 68, 69, 472

Aprocryphal Pentateuch B, 580
extracts from 4QHalakhah A, 2 3 1-3
Reworked Pentateuch, 461, 474-7
pentecontad calendar, 79
Pentecost (Feast of Weeks), 44, 79,
125, 250, 381
pesharim, see Bible,
commentaries/interpretation
Pfann, S., 241, 632
Pharisees, 15, 52-3, 53, 62, 69, 222
Philo of Alexandria, 3, 46, 48 and n.,
50, 83, 250
Pleafor Deliverance, 307, 3 10 -3 11
Pliny the Elder, 3, 14, 46, 48
Ploeg, J. P. M. van der, 6., 164, 316,

see also hymns

pride, 74-5
Priest-Messiah, 86, 527
priests, 26, 45, 63/1., 126, 132
at Qumran, 28-9, 32
Blessings of, 388-9
Calendars of Priestly Courses,

347-62
disqualification, 148-9
High Priesthood history, 50, 5 1-3
last priests of Jerusalem, 55, 59, 62,
502
rules for, 99, 100
tithes, 36, 145, 15 1-2 , 216, 226
Torah interpretation, 69
in towns/camps, 35-6, 40
war duties, 86, 172-4, 178, 181,
187
wife, 232
Zadokite, 18, 42, 5 1-2 , 6 3 1 5 9
see also Teacher of Righteousness;
Wicked Priest
property
common ownership, 41, 42, 47
lying in matters of, 31, 145
novices and, 33
prophecy, 65
of Balaam, 527, 527-8
Community and, 83, 84-9
of Isaiah, 497
of Joshua, 583
Prophets, 16, 49, 70
Books of, 70 -71, 128
List of False Prophets, 56, 622
the Prophet, 86-7
proselytes, 40, 126
provenance of the Scrolls, 14 -15
Proverbs, Book of, 21
Psalms, 16, 74-5, 536
apocryphal, 11, 16
Apocryphal Psalms (I), 30 7-313
Apocryphal Psalms (II), 3 14 -15
Apocryphal Psalms (III), 316 -18

464
poetry
Lamentations, 327-8
Messianic Apocalypse, 4 12 -13
Poetic Fragments on Jerusalem and
King Jonathan, 56, 340-41
Renewed Earth, 4 11
see also hymns; psalms; Wisdom
literature
Pompey (Roman general), 52, 53, 60
Pontius Pilate, 53
Poppilius Laenas, 59
postulants, 3 2 -4 ,4 2
Potlaos, 56, 407
prayers, 27 , 1 1 0 , 5 7 9

appointed times, 77-8

at time of war, 175-9
Daily Prayers, 384-5
Liturgical Prayer, 381
Prayer Celebrating the Morning
and the Evening, 386
Prayer of Enosh and Enoch,

543-4
Prayer of Nabonidus, 22, 461, 615
Prayers for Festivals, 382-3
Words of the Heavenly Lights,

377- 8
689

APPENDIX

Tohorot Ba-Bb, 238-9

Tohorot (Purities) A, 40, 235-7

Psalms, contd
Commentary on Psalms, 55, 56,

519-23

Qahat, Testament of, 13, 568-9

Qimron, E., 472., 6n., 193, 221, 222,
424, 480, 622
Qumran caves, 20
abandonment of Scrolls, 19
archaeological finds, 44-5
date of occupation, 13, 58 and n.
discovery of Scrolls, 1-2,2
location, xv
see also Khirbet Qumran
Qumran Community, see Community
Qumran writings, see Dead Sea Scrolls

Non-canonical Psalms, 319-26

Poetic Fragments on Jerusalem and
King Jonathan, 56, 340-41
Psalm cli, supernumerary, 11
Psalm cxlvi, 22
Psalms of Joshua orJoshua
Apocryphon (i), 55, 584-6
Psalms Scroll, 6, 16-17, 307
Songs of the Sage, 451-4
see also hymns
Pseudepigrapha, 11, 15, 17, 24, 539,

545

Ptolemies (Greeks of Egypt), 50

Ptolemy Philometor, King, 52
Ptollas, 56
Puech, Emile, 7, 22., 161 n., 249, 316,
473, 608
DJD XXII, 618
DJD XXV, 193, 340-41,412,455,
583
DJD XXXI, 549, 554, 556, 561,
563, 568, 570
DJD XXXVII, 608, 617, 620
punishments, 30-31, 107-8, no, 156-7
death penalty, 37, 38, 139, 141, 218,
504
expulsion, 34, 38, 40, 80-81, 154
imprisonment, 39
for injury, 231-2
penance, 31, 34, 153
purity and purification, 33, 39-40, 81
and the com m on table, 32, 42
exclusion from, 31
Harvesting, 240
MMT on, 223-7
novices and, 33
Purification Ritual A, 397
Purification Ritual B, 398
ritual bathing, 47, 81-2, 141
Temple Scroll on, 206-210
690

Rabin, Chaim, 127

radiocarbon-dating tests, 13
rank, 28, 29, 43, 80, 126
loss of, 31
Rebukes, Register of, 244-5
red heifer, law of, 40, 238-9
Reich, R, ion.
Remonstrances (before Conversion?),
246
Renewal of the Covenant, Feast of, 28,
4, 43-5, 79-81, 129,250
Renewed Earth, The, 411
resurrection, 88-9, 412
Resurrection fragment, 22, 89, 412-13
Righteousness, Time of, 410
Righteousness, Triumph of, 408-9
Righteousness, Ways of, 439-40
rituals, 77
bathing, 32, 47, 81-2, 141
Confession Ritual, 396
Purification Ritual A, 397
Purification Ritual B, 398
Renewal of the Covenant, 79-81
sacred meal, 32, 42, 83-4
Temple worship, 82-3
Roberts, C. H., 7, 473
Robinson, James M., 10 andn., 387

GENERAL INDEX

Rockefeller Museum, 5
Rofe, A., 622
Romans, 53
Jewish rebellion against, 18-19
referred to as Kittim, 59-60, 164-5
torture of Essenes, 66
see also Kittim
Roth, Cecil, 19 and n
Royal Messiah, 86, 370, 527, 554
Rules
The Book of War, 188-90
Community Rule, 97-124
Damascus Document, 127-58
Entry into the Covenant, 125
Four Classes of the Community,
126
Halakhah, 231-4
Harvesting, 240
Masters Exhortation to the Sons of
Dawn, 241-2
Men Who Err, 243
Messianic Rule, 159-6
MMT, 221-9
Register of Rebukes, 244-5
Remonstrances (before
Conversion?), 246
Temple Scroll, 191-220
Tohorot, 235-40
War Scroll, 163-87
The Wicked and the Holy, 230
see also individual rules
Ruth, Book of, 21
Sabbath, 47
Hymns for the Sabbath Day, 379
laws, 38-9, 134, 141-3, 157-8, 231,
234
MMT calendar, 222-3
Songs for the Holocaust of the
Sabbath, 329-39
sacred mushroom, 21 and n
sacrifices, 541
Essenes and, 47, 82, 83

MMT on, 224-5

Temple Scroll on, 193-201,
210-211
Sadducees, 15, 52, 53, 62, 69, 246
and MMT, 42w., 221-2
Sage, Songs of the, 451-4
Sahin, Khalil Iskandar (Kando), 6n.
Salome-Alexandra (Shelamzion),
Queen, 18, 56, 405
Samaria, 503
Samuel Apocryphon, 588-9
Sanders, J. A., 6 and 307, 340
Sanderson, Judith E., 10n.
sapiential works, see Wisdom literature
Satan, see Belial; Melkiresha1
sceptre, 86, 128, 135, 494
Schechter, S., 1 in.
Schiffman, Lawrence H., 231, 408,
592
Schlosser, Robert, gn.
Schuller, Eileen, 249, 306, 319, 565,
581, 582
Schiirer, E., ijn.
Schwartz, D. R., 407
Scoffer, 54, 61, 129, 137
see also Wicked Priest
scribes, 15, 23
scriptorium at Qumran, ion.
Scrolls Symposium 1993, ion.
Second Temple era, 3, 24, 46, 50
sectarian scrolls, 1 1 - 1 2 , 15, 17-18
Seductress, The, 415, 417-18
Seely, D., 444, 449
Seleucids (Syrian Greeks), 50, 51, 56, 60
Sellers, O. R., 13n.
Septuagint (Greek Old Testament),
11,
16, 17,472
Serekh ha-Milkamah, see war, Rule of
sexual abstinence, 83
see also celibacy
sexual morality, 34, 38, 219-20,
225-6,233
see also marriage
691

APPENDIX

Shanks, Hershel, 8, 221

Shelamzion (Queen SalomeAlexandra), 18, 56,405
Sheol, 88
signa, worship of, 60
Signs (Otot) Document, 365-9
Simeon (destroyer of Shechem), 55
Simon (Essene prophet), 65
Sinan, D., 480
sins, 30, 81
confession of, 80, 396
inadvertent, n o, 120
punishment, 30 -31, n o, 120 -21,

145
Skehan, Patrick, 5, 7, iow., 314, 473
skin disease, 36, 149-50
Skotheim, Robert A., 9W.
slander, 30, 31, 38, 108, 145
Smith, M., 593, 603, 612
Sokoloff, M., 374
soldiers, 172
Solomon, King, 307, 316
Some Observances of the Law, see
MMT
son of God, 618
son of man, 17
Songs of the Holocaust of the
Sabbath, 329-39
Songs of the Sage, 4 5 1-4
sons, rebellious, 218
sons of dawn, 29, 241
sons of light, 22, 28, 84-5, 10 1-2
sons of the Pit, 29, 134, 241
Spouter of Lies, 54, 61, 503, 514
see also Wicked Priest
standards
of the Congregation, 168-70
Roman worship of their, 60
Stanton, G., 473
star-god, 128, 135
Starcky, Jean, 5, 7, 370
stave, 13 3 -4
Stegemann, H., 146

Steudel, Annette, 386,423, 579

Stone, M. E., 410, 557, 564
Strange, James F., 634
Strugnell, John, 5, 7, 8, 9, 20n., 93,

3 29 > 5 9 3
D JD X , i n
DJD XIII, 543
D JD XIX, 577, 578, 592
D JD XXXIV, 42 5
RQ, 230, 327, 3 7 1,4 1 7 ,4 19 , 536,
553
Stuckenbruck, L., 546
Sukenik, E. L., in., 2, 3, 4, 163, 249
Syncellus, George, 545
Syriac manuscripts, 11, 16
Syriac psalms, 307, 308-310
tabernacle, 128, 135
Tabernacles, Feast of, 79
taharah, see tohorot
Talmon, Shemaryahu, 2372., 347, 587
Talmud, 70, 73
Tanhumim or Consolations, 535
Tanzer, S., 44 1-2
Targums, 69, 461, 463-4
Targum of Job, 459, 464, 465-70
Targum of Leviticus, 471
taxes, 529
Teacher of Righteousness, 3, 25,
60-61, 512
in Commentary on Micah, 503
dating, 4, 58-9
and hymns, 56-7, 250
identity of, 21, 55, 63-4, 64-5
Jonathan and, 62
and M M T, 221
and prophecy, 71, 84, 87
sent from God, 54, 63W., 69, 129,

521
Wicked Priest and, 18, 54-5, 64, 79
Teicher, Joseph, 21
Temple
buildings, 201-6

GENERAL INDEX

hidden treasure, 625, 626

ofJerusalem, 42, 51, 60
unlawful in Leontopolis, 52, 63
worship, 26, 82-3
during war with Kittim, 84,
166-7
Temple Scroll, xvi, 2, 6, 34, 191-220,
461
on the calendar, 79
on kinship and marriage, 70
legislation in, 81, 504
on purity matters, 33, 40
Ten Commandments, 3
see also Moses, Law of
Testimonia or Messianic Anthology,
55. 87>527- 8
Testimonium Flavianum, 65
Tetragram, 472, 535
Thanksgiving Hymns, xvi, 241,
249-305
Therapeutai (Egyptian ascetics), 46,
48/2., 250
Thiede, C. P., 473
Thiering, Barbara, 21
throne-chariot, 76-7, 329
thunder, 374
Tigchelaar, E. J. C., 464, 532, 546
Time of Righteousness, 410
tithes (dues), 36, 145, 151-2, 216, 226
Tobit, Book of, 11, 17, 595-602
tohorah, see tohorot
toborot (purity), 33
Tohorot Ba (now Entry into the
Covenant), 125
Tohorot Ba-Bb, 238-9
Tohorot Da (now Four Classes of
the Community), 126
Tohorot (Purities) A, 235-7
see also purity and purification
Torah, 16, 68, 70, 81
interpretation, 69
study of, 27, 35
swearing to adhere to, 32

Tov, Emanuel, xiv, 8, 10 and n., 16n.,

2, 474.478

towns (camps)
compared and linked with Qumran,
41-5
structure and rules, 34-41, 143-5
transgressions, see sins
translation notes, 93
treason, 38
treasure, hidden, 625-31
Trebolle, J., 591
trees, giant good, 422
Trever, J., 2 andn.
tribes, 26-7
tribunals, 37
Trimph of Righteousness, 408-9
trumpets, 167-8, 173-4, *83
Tryphon (Syrian general), 52, 62
Two Spirits doctrine, 28, 29, 42, 67,
74, 101-3
Two Ways, The, 443
Ullendorf, Edward, 546
Ulrich, Eugene, xvii, 7, ion., 473
units of the Community, 27, 42-3,

143
VanderKam, J. C., 540, 580
vengeance, 139-40
Vermes, Geza, iw., 4, 8, 15
1 9 7 7 lecture, 7 and n.

articles, 19W., 21 n., n n ., 637*., 118,

188, 341, 412, 540
DJD XXVI, 118, 123, 125, 126
DJD XXXVI, 188
publications, 3n., 15n., 17W., 23-4 and
n., 25n., 46,48W., 371, 540, 615
Vespasian (Roman general), 19
virginity, proof of, 219, 530
vows and oaths, 37-8, 41, 65, 104,
138-41, 211-12
Wacholder, Ben Zion, 9
693

APPENDIX

war, 246
prophecies regarding, 84-5
Temple Scroll laws regarding,
214-15, 217-18
War, Rule of (Book of War), 26, 34,
56,188-90
War Scroll, xvi, 23, 60, 86, 163-5
Cave 1 manuscripts, 163
Cave 4 manuscripts, 163, 164, 166,
180, 185, 186-7
poem in, 186, 342, 342-3
on Temple worship, 26
Warning, A Parable of, 422
Ways of Righteousness, 439-40
Weeks, Feast of (Pentecost), 44, 79,
125,250
Weinfeld, M., 444, 449
well, 133-4
White, S., 193, 474
Wicked and the Holy, 230
Wicked Priest(s), 3, 18, 54, 55, 221,
5*3-*5
Groningen hypothesis and, 19
harassment of Teacher of
Righteousness, 54-5, 57, 64,
79, 522
identity, 21, 61-2
wine, 32
Wisdom, Book of, 88
Wisdom literature
Beatitudes, 455-7
Bless, My Soul, 444-8
Exhortation to Seek Wisdom, 419-21
Fight against Evil Spirits, 450
L e ad e rs Lam ent, 4 4 9

Parable of Warning, 422

Sapiential Didactic Work A, 423
Sapiential Work (i), 424
Sapiential Work (ii), 425-38
Sapiential Work (iii): Ways of
Righteousness, 439-40
Sapiential Work, Instruction-like
Composition, 441-2

Songs of the Sage, 451-4

The Seductress, 417-18
The Two Ways, 443
Wise, Michael, 2iw., 244
witnesses, 38, 140-41, 216-17
Wolters, A., 625, 626
women, 34, 48/z.
childbirth, 81, 150, 158
excavated bones of, 34,45
and food, 232
menstruation, 235
oath of, 37, 139
see also marriage; sexual morality
Woude, A S. van der, 6., 19W., 464,

532
Wright Baker, Professor H., 625
Wright, G. E., 1 n.
Xerxes, King of Persia, 620
Yadin, Yigael, 4w., 6 and 164,
192-3, 244, 480
Yannai, Alexander seeJannaeus,
Alexander
Yardeni, Ada, 307, 340, 341, 622,

<$35

Yavan, 18
see also Greece
Yohanan, 31, 244
Zadok, sons of, 18, 28,42 and w.,
51-2, 103, 132, 159
Teacher of Righteousness and, 63
andn.
Zealot theory, 15, 19
Zealots, 19, 53
hidden treasure, 625-6, 626
Zechariah, 135W.
Zedekiah Apocryphon, 592
Zephaniah, Commentary on, 517
Zion Psalm, 307, 311-12
Zodiacal Calendar with a brontologion,

374-5
694

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