Aerodynamics

Aerodynamic redirects here. For other uses, see 1 History

Aerodynamic (disambiguation).
Aerodynamics, from Greek aer (air) + Main article: History of aerodynamics
Modern aerodynamics only dates back to the seventeenth century, but aerodynamic forces have been harnessed by humans for thousands of years in sailboats
and windmills,[1] and images and stories of ight appear
throughout recorded history,[2] such as the Ancient Greek
legend of Icarus and Daedalus.[3] Fundamental concepts
of continuum, drag, and pressure gradients, appear in the
work of Aristotle and Archimedes.[4]
In 1726, Sir Isaac Newton became the rst person to develop a theory of air resistance,[5] making him one of
the rst aerodynamicists. Dutch-Swiss mathematician
Daniel Bernoulli followed in 1738 with Hydrodynamica, in which he described a fundamental relationship between pressure, density, and ow velocity for incompressible ow known today as Bernoullis principle, which provides one method for calculating aerodynamic lift.[6] In
A vortex is created by the passage of an aircraft wing, revealed 1757, Leonhard Euler published the more general Euler
by smoke. Vortices are one of the many phenomena associated equations, which could be applied to both compressible
and incompressible ows. The Euler equations were exwith the study of aerodynamics.
tended to incorporate the eects of viscosity in the rst
half of the 1800s, resulting in the Navier-Stokes equations.[7][8] The Navier-Stokes equations are the most gen(dynamics), is a branch of uid dynamics concerned with eral governing equations of uid ow and are dicult to
studying the motion of air, particularly when it interacts solve.
with a solid object, such as an airplane wing. Aerodynamics is a sub-eld of uid dynamics and gas dynamics, and many aspects of aerodynamics theory are common to these elds. The term aerodynamics is often used
synonymously with gas dynamics, with the dierence being that gas dynamics applies to the study of the motion of all gases, not limited to air. Formal aerodynamics
study in the modern sense began in the eighteenth century, although observations of fundamental concepts such
as aerodynamic drag have been recorded much earlier.
Most of the early eorts in aerodynamics worked towards
achieving heavier-than-air ight, which was rst demonstrated by Wilbur and Orville Wright in 1903. Since then,
the use of aerodynamics through mathematical analysis,
empirical approximations, wind tunnel experimentation,
and computer simulations has formed the scientic basis A replica of the Wright brothers' wind tunnel is on display at the
for ongoing developments in heavier-than-air ight and Virginia Air and Space Center. Wind tunnels were key in the
a number of other technologies. Recent work in aero- development and validation of the laws of aerodynamics.
dynamics has focused on issues related to compressible
ow, turbulence, and boundary layers, and has become In 1799, Sir George Cayley became the rst person to
increasingly computational in nature.
identify the four aerodynamic forces of ight (weight,
1

2
lift, drag, and thrust), as well as the relationships between
them,[9][10] outlining the work towards achieving heavierthan-air ight for the next century. In 1871, Francis Herbert Wenham constructed the rst wind tunnel, allowing precise measurements of aerodynamic forces. Drag
theories were developed by Jean le Rond d'Alembert,[11]
Gustav Kirchho,[12] and Lord Rayleigh.[13] In 1889,
Charles Renard, a French aeronautical engineer, became
the rst person to reasonably predict the power needed
for sustained ight.[14] Otto Lilienthal, the rst person to
become highly successful with glider ights, was also the
rst to propose thin, curved airfoils that would produce
high lift and low drag. Building on these developments
as well as research carried out in their own wind tunnel,
the Wright brothers ew the rst powered airplane on December 17, 1903.

2 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
to understanding how to engineer a vehicle to interact appropriately with the uid ow. Designing aircraft for supersonic and hypersonic conditions, as well as the desire
to improve the aerodynamic eciency of current aircraft
and propulsion systems, continues to fuel new research in
aerodynamics, while work continues to be done on important problems in basic aerodynamic theory related to
ow turbulence and the existence and uniqueness of analytical solutions to the Navier-Stokes equations.

2 Fundamental concepts
Lift

During the time of the rst ights, Frederick W. Lanchester,[15] Martin Wilhelm Kutta, and Nikolai Zhukovsky
Thrust
independently created theories that connected circulation
of a uid ow to lift. Kutta and Zhukovsky went on
to develop a two-dimensional wing theory. Expanding
Weight
upon the work of Lanchester, Ludwig Prandtl is credited
[16]
with developing the mathematics
behind thin-airfoil
and lifting-line theories as well as work with boundary
Forces of ight on an airfoil
layers.
As aircraft speed increased, designers began to encounter
challenges associated with air compressibility at speeds
near or greater than the speed of sound. The dierences
in air ows under these conditions led to problems in aircraft control, increased drag due to shock waves, and
structural dangers due to aeroelastic utter. The ratio
of the ow speed to the speed of sound was named the
Mach number after Ernst Mach, who was one of the rst
to investigate the properties of supersonic ow. William
John Macquorn Rankine and Pierre Henri Hugoniot independently developed the theory for ow properties before and after a shock wave, while Jakob Ackeret led
the initial work on calculating the lift and drag of supersonic airfoils.[17] Theodore von Krmn and Hugh Latimer Dryden introduced the term transonic to describe
ow speeds around Mach 1 where drag increases rapidly.
This rapid increase in drag led aerodynamicists and aviators to disagree on whether supersonic ight was achievable until the sound barrier was broken for the rst time
in 1947 using the Bell X-1 aircraft.
By the time the sound barrier was broken, much of the
subsonic and low supersonic aerodynamics knowledge
had matured. The Cold War fueled an ever evolving
line of high performance aircraft. Computational uid
dynamics began as an eort to solve for ow properties around complex objects and has rapidly grown to
the point where entire aircraft can be designed using
a computer, with wind-tunnel tests followed by ight
tests to conrm the computer predictions. Knowledge
of supersonic and hypersonic aerodynamics has also matured since the 1960s, and the goals of aerodynamicists
have shifted from understanding the behavior of uid ow

Drag

Understanding the motion of air around an object (often called a ow eld) enables the calculation of forces
and moments acting on the object. In many aerodynamics problems, the forces of interest are the fundamental
forces of ight: lift, drag, thrust, and weight. Of these,
lift and drag are aerodynamic forces, i.e. forces due to
air ow over a solid body. Calculation of these quantities
is often founded upon the assumption that the ow eld
behaves as a continuum. Continuum ow elds are characterized by properties such as ow velocity, pressure,
density and temperature, which may be functions of spatial position and time. These properties may be directly
or indirectly measured in aerodynamics experiments, or
calculated from equations for the conservation of mass,
momentum, and energy in air ows. Density, ow velocity, and an additional property, viscosity, are used to
classify ow elds.

2.1 Flow classication

Flow velocity is used to classify ows according to speed
regime. Subsonic ows are ow elds in which air velocity throughout the entire ow is below the local speed of
sound. Transonic ows include both regions of subsonic
ow and regions in which the ow speed is greater than
the speed of sound. Supersonic ows are dened to be
ows in which the ow speed is greater than the speed
of sound everywhere. A fourth classication, hypersonic
ow, refers to ows where the ow speed is much greater
than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists disagree on
the precise denition of hypersonic ow.

3
Compressibility refers to whether or not the ow in a
problem can have a varying density. Subsonic ows are
often assumed to be incompressible, i.e. the density is assumed to be constant. Transonic and supersonic ows are
compressible, and neglecting to account for the changes
in density in these ow elds when performing calculations will yield inaccurate results.
Viscosity is associated with the frictional forces in a ow.
In some ow elds, viscous eects are very small, and solutions may neglect to account for viscous eects. These
approximations are called inviscid ows. Flows for which
viscosity is not neglected are called viscous ows. Finally,
aerodynamic problems may also be classied by the ow
environment. External aerodynamics is the study of ow
around solid objects of various shapes (e.g. around an
airplane wing), while internal aerodynamics is the study
of ow through passages in solid objects (e.g. through a
jet engine).

2.2

Continuum assumption

Unlike liquids and solids, gases are composed of discrete

molecules which occupy only a small fraction of the volume lled by the gas. On a molecular level, ow elds
are made up of many individual collisions between gas
molecules and between gas molecules and solid surfaces.
In most aerodynamics applications, however, this discrete
molecular nature of gases is ignored, and the ow eld is
assumed to behave as a continuum. This assumption allows uid properties such as density and ow velocity to
be dened anywhere within the ow.
Validity of the continuum assumption is dependent on the
density of the gas and the application in question. For
the continuum assumption to be valid, the mean free path
length must be much smaller than the length scale of the
application in question. For example, many aerodynamics applications deal with aircraft ying in atmospheric
conditions, where the mean free path length is on the order of micrometers. In these cases, the length scale of the
aircraft ranges from a few meters to a few tens of meters,
which is much larger than the mean free path length. For
these applications, the continuum assumption holds. The
continuum assumption is less valid for extremely lowdensity ows, such as those encountered by vehicles at
very high altitudes (e.g. 300,000 ft/90 km)[4] or satellites
in Low Earth orbit. In these cases, statistical mechanics
is a more valid method of solving the problem than continuous aerodynamics. The Knudsen number can be used
to guide the choice between statistical mechanics and the
continuous formulation of aerodynamics.

1. Conservation of mass: In uid dynamics, the mathematical formulation of this principle is known as the
mass continuity equation, which requires that mass
is neither created nor destroyed within a ow of interest.
2. Conservation of momentum: In uid dynamics, the
mathematical formulation of this principle can be
considered an application of Newtons Second Law.
Momentum within a ow of interest is only created or destroyed due to the work of external forces,
which may include both surface forces, such as viscous (frictional) forces, and body forces, such as
weight. The momentum conservation principle may
be expressed as either a single vector equation or a
set of three scalar equations, derived from the components of the three-dimensional ow velocity vector. In its most complete form, the momentum conservation equations are known as the Navier-Stokes
equations. The Navier-Stokes equations have no
known analytical solution, and are solved in modern aerodynamics using computational techniques.
Because of the computational cost of solving these
complex equations, simplied expressions of momentum conservation may be appropriate to specic
applications. The Euler equations are a set of momentum conservation equations which neglect viscous forces used widely by modern aerodynamicists
in cases where the eect of viscous forces is expected to be small. Additionally, Bernoullis equation is a solution to the momentum conservation
equation of an inviscid ow, neglecting gravity.
3. Conservation of energy: The energy conservation
equation states that energy is neither created nor destroyed within a ow, and that any addition or subtraction of energy is due either to the uid ow in
and out of the region of interest, heat transfer, or
work.
The ideal gas law or another equation of state is often used
in conjunction with these equations to form a determined
system to solve for the unknown variables.

3 Branches of aerodynamics

Aerodynamic problems are classied by the ow environment or properties of the ow, including ow speed,
compressibility, and viscosity. External aerodynamics is
the study of ow around solid objects of various shapes.
Evaluating the lift and drag on an airplane or the shock
waves that form in front of the nose of a rocket are examples of external aerodynamics. Internal aerodynamics
2.3 Conservation laws
is the study of ow through passages in solid objects. For
Aerodynamic problems are typically solved using uid instance, internal aerodynamics encompasses the study of
dynamics conservation laws as applied to a uid contin- the airow through a jet engine or through an air condiuum. Three conservation principles are used:
tioning pipe.

Aerodynamic problems can also be classied according

to whether the ow speed is below, near or above the
speed of sound. A problem is called subsonic if all
the speeds in the problem are less than the speed of
sound, transonic if speeds both below and above the speed
of sound are present (normally when the characteristic
speed is approximately the speed of sound), supersonic
when the characteristic ow speed is greater than the
speed of sound, and hypersonic when the ow speed is
much greater than the speed of sound. Aerodynamicists
disagree over the precise denition of hypersonic ow;
a rough denition considers ows with Mach numbers
above 5 to be hypersonic.[4]
The inuence of viscosity in the ow dictates a third classication. Some problems may encounter only very small
viscous eects on the solution, in which case viscosity can
be considered to be negligible. The approximations to
these problems are called inviscid ows. Flows for which
viscosity cannot be neglected are called viscous ows.

3.1

Incompressible aerodynamics

Further information: incompressible ow

An incompressible ow is a ow in which density is constant in both time and space. Although all real uids are
compressible, a ow problem is often considered incompressible if the eect of the density changes in the problem on the outputs of interest is small. This is more likely
to be true when the ow speeds are signicantly lower
than the speed of sound. Eects of compressibility are
more signicant at speeds close to or above the speed of
sound. The Mach number is used to evaluate whether
the incompressibility can be assumed or the ow must be
solved as compressible.

BRANCHES OF AERODYNAMICS

air, compressibility eects are usually ignored when the

Mach number in the ow does not exceed 0.3 (about 335
feet (102 m) per second or 228 miles (366 km) per hour at
60 F (16 C)). Above 0.3, the problem should be solved
by using compressible aerodynamics.

3.2 Compressible aerodynamics

Main article: Compressible ow
According to the theory of aerodynamics, a ow is considered to be compressible if its change in density with
respect to pressure is non-zero along a streamline. This
means that - unlike incompressible ow - changes in density must be considered. In general, this is the case where
the Mach number in part or all of the ow exceeds 0.3.
The Mach .3 value is rather arbitrary, but it is used because gas ows with a Mach number below that value
demonstrate changes in density with respect to the change
in pressure of less than 5%. Furthermore, that maximum
5% density change occurs at the stagnation point of an
object immersed in the gas ow and the density changes
around the rest of the object will be signicantly lower.
Transonic, supersonic, and hypersonic ows are all compressible.
3.2.1 Transonic ow
Main article: Transonic

The term Transonic refers to a range of ow velocities

just below and above the local speed of sound (generally taken as Mach 0.81.2). It is dened as the range
of speeds between the critical Mach number, when some
parts of the airow over an aircraft become supersonic,
and a higher speed, typically near Mach 1.2, when all of
the airow is supersonic. Between these speeds, some of
3.1.1 Subsonic ow
the airow is supersonic, while some of the airow is not
Subsonic (or low-speed) aerodynamics studies uid mo- supersonic.
tion in ows which are much lower than the speed of
sound everywhere in the ow. There are several branches
of subsonic ow but one special case arises when the ow 3.2.2 Supersonic ow
is inviscid, incompressible and irrotational. This case is
called potential ow and allows the dierential equations Main article: Supersonic
used to be a simplied version of the governing equations
of uid dynamics, thus making available to the aerody- Supersonic aerodynamic problems are those involving
namicist a range of quick and easy solutions.[18]
ow speeds greater than the speed of sound. Calculating
In solving a subsonic problem, one decision to be made by the lift on the Concorde during cruise can be an example
the aerodynamicist is whether to incorporate the eects of a supersonic aerodynamic problem.
of compressibility. Compressibility is a description of the
amount of change of density in the problem. When the
eects of compressibility on the solution are small, the
aerodynamicist may choose to assume that density is constant. The problem is then an incompressible low-speed
aerodynamics problem. When the density is allowed to
vary, the problem is called a compressible problem. In

Supersonic ow behaves very dierently from subsonic

ow. Fluids react to dierences in pressure; pressure
changes are how a uid is told to respond to its environment. Therefore, since sound is in fact an innitesimal
pressure dierence propagating through a uid, the speed
of sound in that uid can be considered the fastest speed
that information can travel in the ow. This dierence

4.1

Boundary layers

most obviously manifests itself in the case of a uid striking an object. In front of that object, the uid builds up
a stagnation pressure as impact with the object brings the
moving uid to rest. In uid traveling at subsonic speed,
this pressure disturbance can propagate upstream, changing the ow pattern ahead of the object and giving the
impression that the uid knows the object is there and
is avoiding it. However, in a supersonic ow, the pressure
disturbance cannot propagate upstream. Thus, when the
uid nally does strike the object, it is forced to change
its properties -- temperature, density, pressure, and Mach
numberin an extremely violent and irreversible fashion called a shock wave. The presence of shock waves,
along with the compressibility eects of high-ow velocity (see Reynolds number) uids, is the central difference between supersonic and subsonic aerodynamics
problems.

3.2.3

Hypersonic ow

Main article: Hypersonic

In aerodynamics, hypersonic speeds are speeds that are
highly supersonic. In the 1970s, the term generally came
to refer to speeds of Mach 5 (5 times the speed of sound)
and above. The hypersonic regime is a subset of the supersonic regime. Hypersonic ow is characterized by
high temperature ow behind a shock wave, viscous interaction, and chemical dissociation of gas.

Associated terminology

Dierent types ow analysis around an airfoil:

Potential ow theory
Boundary layer ow theory
Turbulent wake analysis

4.1 Boundary layers

Main article: Boundary layer
The concept of a boundary layer is important in many
aerodynamic problems. The viscosity and uid friction
in the air is approximated as being signicant only in
this thin layer. This principle makes aerodynamics much
more tractable mathematically.

4.2 Turbulence
Main article: Turbulence
In aerodynamics, turbulence is characterized by chaotic,
stochastic property changes in the ow. This includes low
momentum diusion, high momentum convection, and
rapid variation of pressure and ow velocity in space and
time. Flow that is not turbulent is called laminar ow.

5 Aerodynamics in other elds

Further information: Automotive aerodynamics
Aerodynamics is important in a number of applications
other than aerospace engineering. It is a signicant factor in any type of vehicle design, including automobiles.
It is important in the prediction of forces and moments
in sailing. It is used in the design of mechanical components such as hard drive heads. Structural engineers
also use aerodynamics, and particularly aeroelasticity, to
calculate wind loads in the design of large buildings and
bridges. Urban aerodynamics seeks to help town planners and designers improve comfort in outdoor spaces,
create urban microclimates and reduce the eects of urban pollution. The eld of environmental aerodynamics
studies the ways atmospheric circulation and ight mechanics aect ecosystems. The aerodynamics of internal passages is important in heating/ventilation, gas piping, and in automotive engines where detailed ow patterns strongly aect the performance of the engine. People who do wind turbine design use aerodynamics. A
few aerodynamic equations are used as part of numerical
weather prediction.

6 See also
Aeronautics
Aerostatics

The incompressible and compressible ow regimes produce many associated phenomena, such as boundary layers and turbulence.

Automotive aerodynamics
Aviation

8 FURTHER READING
Bernoullis principle
Computational uid dynamics
Flows
Hypersonic ows
Supersonic ows
Transonic ows
Fluid dynamics
Insect wing - how bugs y

[11] d'Alembert, J. (1752). Essai d'une nouvelle theorie de la

resistance des uides.
[12] Kirchho, G. (1869).
Zur Theorie freier Flussigkeitsstrahlen. Journal fur die reine und angewandte
Mathematik (70), 289-298.
[13] Rayleigh, Lord (1876). On the Resistance of Fluids. Philosophical Magazine (5)2, 430-441.

List of aerospace engineering topics

[14] Renard, C. (1889). Nouvelles experiences sur la resistance

de l'air. L'Aeronaute (22) 73-81.

List of engineering topics

[15] Lanchester, F. W. (1907). Aerodynamics.

Navier-Stokes equations
Nose cone design
Sound barrier

[10] Cayley, George. On Aerial Navigation Part 1, Part 2,

Part 3 Nicholsons Journal of Natural Philosophy, 18091810. (Via NASA). Raw text. Retrieved: 30 May 2010.

References

[1] Wind Powers Beginnings (1000 B.C. - 1300 A.D.) Illustrated History of Wind Power Development. Telosnet.com.

[16] Prandtl, L. (1919).

Traggeltheorie.
Gttinger
Nachrichten, mathematischphysikalische Klasse, 451477.
[17] Ackeret, J. (1925). Luftkrafte auf Flugel, die mit
der grosserer als Schallgeschwindigkeit bewegt werden.
Zeitschrift fr Flugtechnik und Motorluftschiahrt 16. pp.
7274.
[18] Katz, Joseph (1991). Low-speed aerodynamics: From
wing theory to panel methods. McGraw-Hill series in aeronautical and aerospace engineering. New York: McGrawHill. ISBN 0-07-050446-6. OCLC 21593499.

[2] Berliner, Don (1997). Aviation: Reaching for the Sky. The
Oliver Press, Inc. p. 128. ISBN 1-881508-33-1.
[3] Ovid; Gregory, H. (2001). The Metamorphoses. Signet
Classics. ISBN 0-451-52793-3. OCLC 45393471.

8 Further reading

[4] Anderson, John David (1997). A History of Aerodynamics and its Impact on Flying Machines. New York, NY:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-45435-2.

General aerodynamics

[5] Newton, I. (1726). Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Book II.

[6] Hydrodynamica. Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-10-30.
[7] Navier, C. L. M. H. (1827). Memoire sur les lois du mouvement des uides. Memoires de l'Academie des Sciences
(6), 389-440.
[8] Stokes, G. (1845). On the Theories of the Internal Friction of Fluids in Motion. Transaction of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society (8), 287-305.
[9] U.S Centennial of Flight Commission - Sir George Cayley.. Archived from the original on 20 September 2008.
Retrieved 2008-09-10. Sir George Cayley, born in 1773,
is sometimes called the Father of Aviation. A pioneer in
his eld, he was the rst to identify the four aerodynamic
forces of ight - weight, lift, drag, and thrust and their relationship. He was also the rst to build a successful humancarrying glider. Cayley described many of the concepts
and elements of the modern airplane and was the rst to
understand and explain in engineering terms the concepts
of lift and thrust.

Anderson, John D. (2007). Fundamentals of Aerodynamics (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07125408-0. OCLC 60589123.
Bertin, J. J.; Smith, M. L. (2001). Aerodynamics
for Engineers (4th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13064633-4. OCLC 47297603.
Smith, Hubert C. (1991). Illustrated Guide to Aerodynamics (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-83063901-2. OCLC 24319048.
Craig, Gale (2003). Introduction to Aerodynamics.
Regenerative Press. ISBN 0-9646806-3-7. OCLC
53083897.
Subsonic aerodynamics
Katz, Joseph; Plotkin, Allen (2001). Low-Speed
Aerodynamics (2nd ed.). Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-66552-3. OCLC 43970751.
Transonic aerodynamics

7
Moulden, Trevor H. (1990). Fundamentals of Tran- Aerodynamics related to engineering
sonic Flow. Krieger Publishing Company. ISBN 0- Ground vehicles
89464-441-6. OCLC 20594163.
Cole, Julian D; Cook, L. Pamela (1986). Transonic Aerodynamics. North-Holland. ISBN 0-44487958-7. OCLC 13094084.
Supersonic aerodynamics

Katz, Joseph (1995). Race Car Aerodynamics: Designing for Speed. Bentley Publishers. ISBN 08376-0142-8. OCLC 181644146.
Barnard, R. H. (2001). Road Vehicle Aerodynamic
Design (2nd ed.). Mechaero Publishing. ISBN 09540734-0-1. OCLC 47868546.

Ferri, Antonio (2005). Elements of Aerodynamics

of Supersonic Flows (Phoenix ed.). Dover PublicaFixed-wing aircraft
tions. ISBN 0-486-44280-2. OCLC 58043501.
Shapiro, Ascher H. (1953). The Dynamics and
Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow, Volume 1. Ronald Press. ISBN 978-0-471-06691-0.
OCLC 11404735.

Ashley, Holt; Landahl, Marten (1985). Aerodynamics of Wings and Bodies (2nd ed.). Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-64899-0. OCLC 12021729.

Anderson, John D. (2004). Modern Compressible

Flow. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-124136-1. OCLC
71626491.

Abbott, Ira H.; von Doenho, A. E. (1959). Theory

of Wing Sections: Including a Summary of Airfoil
Data. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-60586-8.
OCLC 171142119.

Liepmann, H. W.; Roshko, A. (2002). Elements of

Gasdynamics. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-48641963-0. OCLC 47838319.

Clancy, L.J. (1975). Aerodynamics. Pitman Publishing Limited. ISBN 0-273-01120-0. OCLC
16420565.

von Mises, Richard (2004). Mathematical Theory of

Compressible Fluid Flow. Dover Publications. ISBN Helicopters
0-486-43941-0. OCLC 56033096.
Leishman, J. Gordon (2006). Principles of Heli Hodge, B. K.; Koenig K. (1995). Compressible
copter Aerodynamics (2nd ed.). Cambridge UniFluid Dynamics with Personal Computer Applicaversity Press. ISBN 0-521-85860-7. OCLC
tions. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-308552-X. OCLC
224565656.
31662199.
Prouty, Raymond W. (2001). Helicopter PerforHypersonic aerodynamics
mance, Stability, and Control. Krieger Publishing
Company Press. ISBN 1-57524-209-5. OCLC
212379050.
Anderson, John D. (2006). Hypersonic and High
Temperature Gas Dynamics (2nd ed.). AIAA. ISBN
Seddon, J.; Newman, Simon (2001). Basic Heli1-56347-780-7. OCLC 68262944.
copter Aerodynamics: An Account of First Principles
in the Fluid Mechanics and Flight Dynamics of the
Hayes, Wallace D.; Probstein, Ronald F. (2004).
Single Rotor Helicopter. AIAA. ISBN 1-56347-510Hypersonic Inviscid Flow. Dover Publications.
3. OCLC 47623950.
ISBN 0-486-43281-5. OCLC 53021584.
History of aerodynamics
Chanute, Octave (1997). Progress in Flying Machines. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-29981-3.
OCLC 37782926.

Missiles
Nielson, Jack N. (1988). Missile Aerodynamics.
AIAA. ISBN 0-9620629-0-1. OCLC 17981448.

von Karman, Theodore (2004). Aerodynamics: Se- Model aircraft

lected Topics in the Light of Their Historical Devel Simons, Martin (1999). Model Aircraft Aerodyopment. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-43485-0.
namics (4th ed.). Trans-Atlantic Publications, Inc.
OCLC 53900531.
ISBN 1-85486-190-5. OCLC 43634314.
Anderson, John D. (1997). A History of Aerodynamics: And Its Impact on Flying Machines. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-45435-2. Related branches of aerodynamics
OCLC 228667184.
Aerothermodynamics

9
Hirschel, Ernst H. (2004). Basics of Aerothermodynamics. Springer. ISBN 3-540-22132-8. OCLC
228383296.
Bertin, John J. (1993). Hypersonic Aerothermodynamics. AIAA. ISBN 1-56347-036-5. OCLC
28422796.

Aeroelasticity
Bisplingho, Raymond L.; Ashley, Holt; Halfman,
Robert L. (1996). Aeroelasticity. Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-69189-6. OCLC 34284560.
Fung, Y. C. (2002). An Introduction to the Theory
of Aeroelasticity (Phoenix ed.). Dover Publications.
ISBN 0-486-49505-1. OCLC 55087733.
Boundary layers
Young, A. D. (1989). Boundary Layers. AIAA.
ISBN 0-930403-57-6. OCLC 19981526.
Rosenhead, L. (1988). Laminar Boundary Layers.
Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-65646-2. OCLC
17619090.
Turbulence
Tennekes, H.; Lumley, J. L. (1972). A First Course
in Turbulence. The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-200198. OCLC 281992.
Pope, Stephen B. (2000). Turbulent Flows. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-59886-9.
OCLC 174790280.

External links
NASA Beginners Guide to Aerodynamics
Smithsonian National Air and Space Museums How
Things Fly website
Aerodynamics for Students
Aerodynamics for Pilots
Aerodynamics and Race Car Tuning
Aerodynamic Related Projects
eFluids Bicycle Aerodynamics
Application of Aerodynamics in Formula One (F1)
Aerodynamics in Car Racing
Aerodynamics of Birds
Aerodynamics and dragony wings

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Aerodynamics Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerodynamics?oldid=724191042 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Ed Poor, Mirwin,

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10.2

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File:Aeroforces.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Aeroforces.svg License: Public domain Contributors:

Own work Original artist: Amada44
File:Airplane_vortex_edit.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Airplane_vortex_edit.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: This image or video was catalogued by Langley Research Center of the United States National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) under Photo ID: EL-1996-00130 AND Alternate ID: L90-5919.
Original artist: NASA Langley Research Center (NASA-LaRC), Edited by Fir0002

File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist:

?

File:Types_of_flow_analysis_in_fluid_mechanics.svg Source:

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Types_of_flow_analysis_in_
fluid_mechanics.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Olivier Cleynen

File:WB_Wind_Tunnel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/WB_Wind_Tunnel.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors:

Photographed by uploader Original artist: The original uploader was Axda0002 at English Wikipedia

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