Ground School Day 1

12/29/2015

Types of load
Static: Steady load of some intensity throughout
Dynamic: Varying intensity and direction for
Cyclic:
Stress
Stress is the internal force per unit area inside a structural part as a result
of tension: Tension, Compression, Torsion, Shear, Bending
Wing (Main Plane)Stress - Bending
On ground: Wings droop due to fuel, engine and its own weight. Upper
surface under tension and lower surface under compression.
In flight: Wings bend upwards due to lift forces. Upper surface now under
compression and lower surface under tension.
To mitigate wind bending stress in flight
Wing mounted engines
Fuel Usage: Centre tank then wing tanks (inboard then outboard, if
applicable)
Aileron Up Float: Crude drag inducing device
Pressurization Stress
Hoop (Radial) and Axial stress
Stressing a material may cause it to change its shape or to deform.
This change or deformation is know as STRAIN.
It will go back to its original dimension provided the change is within its
Elastic Limit.

Station numbers
Attachment methods: Riveting, Welding, Adhesive bonding, Bolting,
Pinning
Material Properties
Elasticity
Ability to change its shape reversibly when subjected to certain
loads or forces
Plasticity (or Ductility)
Ability to deform irreverisibly under force or load
Stiffness / Rigidity
Ability to withstand reversible deformation under load
Strength
Resistance to damage
Limit load
Design limit load
Maximum load the airframe or component is designed to experience in
service

Design Ultimate Load

Load which the structure must withstand without collapse
Safety Factor
DUL/DLL
System Design Philosophy
Safe Life
The structure is given a life of hours and/or landings or
pressurization cycles and must be removed from service when
the appropriate criteria are met.
The life is based on fatique assessment and aircraft role. The
fatigue life must be recalculated if a change in aircraft role is
proposed.
Can a long haul airplane be used for short sector flights on a long term
basis? No, have to re assess
Short term solution for shortage of aircraft? Possibly
Fail Safe
Philiosophy anticipates a possible failure with minimum
If one component fails, the adjacent components take up the
load for a limited period of time, usually until the next service
inspection.
Damage tolerant
Does not have specified life
Takes structural weakening into account
Loading spread over larger area
Damage can be detected during the normal inspection cycles
before a failure occurs

Fatigue
The life of an airframe is limited by fatigue which is caused by
load cycles experience during takeoff, landing and pressurization.
Wohler (S/N) Curve leads to fatigue
Use less load, more cycle
The more the applied alternating stress, the lesser the number of
cycles before it leads to fracture
Cockpit windows
Toughened glass with vinyl interlayers with rubber sealing
Cockpit window heating
Conductive film applied to inner surfave of outer glass pane to
provide electrical heating for anti-icing and defogging.
The heating also makes the glass more resistant to foreign object
impact like a bird strike. (malleable)
Window heat failure may result in some penalty
The airplane flight manual may specify a pressurization limit
and/or speed limit below a certain altitude (reduce impact in
case of a bird strike)
o Eg. 250kts below 10k ft
Window heat on and off to desired temperature
Usually only front 4 windows
(window heat photo)
Eye Reference Indicator
Positioning for best outside visibility and panel scan
(PHOTO)

Passengers windows (Photo)

Made of Plastics (Perspex)
Passenger Door
Plug Type (Locking Pins)
Cargo Door
Latch type/Hinge
Pressure Bulkheads
Unpressurised areas: Nose gear Bay, Air Conditioning
Compressor, Main Gear Bay, Tail Cone
Tail Skid / Tail strike might damage and depressurize tail cone
Floor Venting (Blow out panels)
Decompression in the cargo bay leads cabin pressure difference
and cabin floor might collapse, leading to activation of the blow
out bungs
Aluminium Alloy
Duralmin
Aluminium and Copper
Good Strength to Weight ratio
Poor corrosion resistance

Good thermal and electrical conductivity

Poor welding capability

Other metals
Steel
Landing gear
Titanium
Lighter than steel
Strong and high corrosion resistance
Can withstand high temperatures
Used in high temperatures areas like engine compartment for fire
protection
Magnesium alloys
Excellent strength to weight ratio
Poor elastic properties
Not used in primary structures
Composites (in the form of laminate or sandwich aka honey-comb)
Advantages of Composites Structures:
1. Improve resistance to damage
2. Corrosion resistant
3. Reduce overall airplane weight

Disadvantageous
1. Takes time to cure
Typical composite materials
2. Fiberglass
3. Carbon fiber
4. Aramide (Kevlar)
Their composition:
Matrix (Resin or Filler) which are basically binders
Fibres which are reinforcements
Anisotropic
Meaning we can tailor to the direction of the load
Stiffness of composites depends on the panel design like the composition
of the constituents.
Isotropic
Aluminium or steel have the uniform stiffness regardless of the direction
of the load.
Sandwich structure composite
Two thin but stiff skin sheets and a light weight but thick core
The core, normally of low strength material, provides high bending
stiffness with overall low density due to its thickness. It also stabilizes the
covering sheets.

Unsuitable for absorbing concentrated loads.

Fuselage Construction
Three types:
Truss Contruction, normally with fabric skin [Diagonal brace and
Longeron]
Monocoque Constuction
o Skin absorbs all the load
o Cylindrical shape for maximum stiffness
o Formers or Frames are for shaping. It does not support any
load
Semi-Monocoque Construction
o Mondern aircraft construction
Frames or Formers
Longerons (Thicker members)
Stringers (thinner members, running longitudinal)
Skin
Wing Construction Biplane
Uncommon due to high weight and drag
Wing Construction Braced Monoplane
High wing aircraft
Slow speed
External brace structure strut to absorb tension and compression
loads from the wing and to support the wing on ground and in light

Wing construction Cantilever monoplane

1.
2.
3.

4.

Wing construction - Components

Wing spars
a. Main load bearing members of the wing
b. Main spar thickest section of the wing
Ribs (have holes in them to lighten the weight)
Skin
a. Formers that provide the wing with cross sectional shape
b. Have holes to reduce weight
c. Transfer some load from skins to the spar
Stringer

Torsion Box or Box Spar

Spurs built into a box shape with reinforced skin forming the upper and
lower sides of box
Skin

More suited to absorbing stress under tension than under

compression where buckling tend to occur

Stringers
Long thin member that runs the length of the winf under the skin
Absorb some of the bending load
Help stiffen the skin against buckling

Empennage
Consists of Tailplane and Fin
Similar to wing construction
Wing mounted engines vs Tail mounted ones
Tail mounted engines more prone to stall because of the shift in
CG
Wing mounted engines more prone to yaw in case of single sided
engine failure
Probability of Failure Condition and Severity (Insert EASA
chart)
Duplex, Triplex
Hard Time Maintenance (different from Safe Life, in specific to
individual component)
Hard Time maintenance is a primary maintenance process under
which an item must be removed from service at or before a
specified time for inspection or overhaul
Also known as Time Between Overhaul (TBO)
On Condition Maintenance
This is a preventive primary maintenance process which requires
that a component be periodically inspected or checked against
some appropriate physical standard or limit to determine
whether it can continue in service.
If the limit is exceeded, the part has to be replaced
It is not a philosophy of fit and forget or fit until failure.

Pascals Law
Pressure = Force / Area
Force = Pressure x Area
Work Done = Force x Distance
Power = WD / Time
= Force x Distance / Time
= Pressure x Area x Distance / Time
= Pressure x Volume / Time
Mechanical Advantage
The use of a small force to create a larger force elsewhere

Hydraulics Applications
Brakes
Flaps
Landing Gear (Retractable)
Flight Controls
By converting pressure energy into mechanical works (through
actuators)
Why is hydraulics better than Pneumatics
Liquid is imcompressible
Liquid transmits pressue equally

Air can be compressed by 99.75% of its voulume

Air is springy
Ais has time lag
Air leaks are difficult to detect
Air not suitable for heavy loads

No return line needed in pneumatics (advantage)

Light weight and no fire hazard (advantage)

Summary
Hydraulics is used to convert pressure energy into mechanical
Hydraulics Fluid properties
Good lubrication
Low viscosity
Wide operating temperature range
Non corrosive
Stable
Non toxic
High flash point (if)
Types if hydraulic fluids
Mineral
Synthetic

Mineral based (DEF STAN 91-48)

DTD 585 Old Specs)
Red in colour
Flammable particularly when there is a pin-hole leak
Seals: Synthetic rubber (Neoprene)
Synthetic-based (Skydrol)
Purple in colour (Skydrol 500A/B, LD4)
Green (Skydrol 700)
Phosphate ester based
Widely used on BOEING and AIRBUS planes
High flash point
Withstand high temp & pressure
Seals: Butyl rubber or Teflon
No mixing of fluid Types
Different fluid type must never be mixed
Should mixing ever occur, follow procedures set out in Maintenance
Manual immediately
Fluid should be drained, flushed and then replenished.

Active / Passive Hydraulics Systems

Active system: Pump required
Passive System: No pump
Example: Light aircraft braking system
Simple Hydraulic System
1. Reservoir Standpipe / Stackpipe is to prevent total leak, stackpipe
level
2. Pump
3. Filter, out contaminants / sediments
4. Pressure regulator
5. Accumulator, store it as given PSI
6. Check valve / Non return valve, One way valve (NRV)
7. Hand pump ( for ground servicing or manual servicing of cargo doors)
8. Pressure gauge (to prevent over pressure in system)
9. Relief valve
10. Selector valve
11. Actuator (Linear/Rotary)
Screwjacks Driven by hydraulic motors (Rotary)
Hydraulic System Pressure
Low Pressure Systems: Up to 2000 psi
High Pressure Systems: 3000 psi or higher

Reservoir
Provides storage space for system fliud
Provides a reserve to compensate for minor leaks in the system
Allows for variation in fluid volume due to thermal expansion and
actuator operation
Provides space for returning fluid
Purges system of air (prevents cavitation which makes brakes
unresponsive)
May be pressurized or Unpressurized
Pressurized by air from engine bleed (typically 10-30psi)
o To give positive head pressure to pump Inlet
o Prevents cavitation
o Minimise foaming (prevent slushing)
Types of Hydraulic pumps
Low pressure pumps
o SPUR GEAR type
o VANE
High pressure pumps
o Piston Types
Constant Volume
Pump Volume output is fixed
A pressure regulator is required to unload the
pump when system pressure is reached, and
the accumulator maintains the pressure
thereafter
Constant Pressure (Variable Volume)
Pump volume output is variable according to
system requirements to maintain pressure.
Self regulated by output pressure and piston
acting on the swash plate angle

Filter
Located just after the pump
Filter solid particles > 25microns
When pressure builds up to a certain value, a FILTER BYPASS
warning will come on to warn of an impending bypass
On some system, a red button indicator will pop up for engineers
to rectify
Pressure Regulator
Also known as Auto Cut-Out Valve (ACOV) or Unloading Valve
Fitted to Constant Volume pump
ACOV is used in conjunction with the accumulator
Accumulator
Diaphragm for separation to prevent air from dissolving into fluid
Accumulator pressure gauge measures the system pressure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Reduces peak demand on the pump

Smooth out system pressure variations
To store fluid under pressure
Dampen pressure surges
For thermal expansion
Provides emergency pressure when system fails

Check valve / Non return Valve

1. Flow only in one direction

2. Prevents back flow
3. Arrow indicate on the valve to state its flow direction
Handpump
Usually double acting pump
Used in emergency on smaller aircraft and for ground operation
and maintenance on larger aircraft
Pressure Relief Valve
Safety device to protect system from over-pressure (eg. Due to
temp rise)
Relieves only small amount of fluid
Set open at higher than normal system pressure
Selector Valve
To direct fluid to the appropriate side of an actuator
To provide a return path for fluid displaced from the opposite side
of that actuator
Actuators
To convert hydraulic pressure into mechanical motion: linear or
rotary

Landing Gear locks, Steering locks, Landing Nose

Restrictor Valve
Full flow in one direction but limited flow in the other
Usually used in landing gear and flaps. It slows down the
extension of landing gear and retraction of flaps

Hydraulic Fuse
Under normal operation condition, fluid is allowed to pass through
the fuse.
When there is a leak, there will be a pressure drop behind the
piston forcing it to close.
Flight Deck Warning Indicators
Low fluid Quantity
High Temperature
System Pressure Low
Pump Low Pressure Light
Open Centre Selector Valve
Fitted on older light aircraft, services connected in series
Only one service can be operated at a time
When no service is selected, the fluid passes though the centre
of the open centre selector
With a service selected and actuation completed, the selector
automatically returns to open position
What happens if it did not return to open position? Pressure relief
valve will actuate.
Closed / Pressurized System
Unloading valve (PR) maintains pressure at deisng value &
unloads pump by directing fluid back to reservoir
Operating pressure manintained in the line leading to selector
valve by accumulator
Can operate multiple services simultaneously

Fixed Landing Gear

Tricycle
Tail wheel (Tail dragger)
Advantages of a Tricycle configuration
Easier to steer
Less likely to nose over in a cross wind
Better forward vision particularly during taxying
Types of undercarriage Shock absorption
Elastic Bungee
Leaf Spring Cantilever
Oleo-Pneumatic Shock Strut
Oleo-Pneumatic Shock Strut
Air provides shock absorption by acting as a spring
Hydraulic oil acts as dampener - prevents oscillation
Also provides heat absorption & lubrication
Torque link prevents piston from rotating inside cylinder
Retractable Landing Gear
Retracted to reduce drag
Mainly hydraulically operated

Indication system
Warning system
Emergency lowering system

Retractable Landing Gear Indications

Up and locked (No light)
In transit, Disagreement with Gear Lever position, Unlocked
(steady Lights)
Down & Locked position (Green steady lights)
Landing Gear Operating Speeds
Vlo Max speed at which gear can be operated
Vle Max speed at which aircraft can be flown with gear extended
Uplock
Hook feature
Once landing gear is hooked and locked, hydraulic pressure is
not needed
Downlock
Over-centering
Gear tilt
Gear tilts when airborne
Saves space when keeping
On Ground
Oleo Struts Compressed
Aircraft weight On wheels
Gear tilt Not tilted

Inflight
Extended
Not On wheels
Tilted

All these are sensed by Air/Ground sensors, also known as Squate

switches
Gear Down Safety Lock
On the ground, lever held in DN position
o Gear Down Pins
Remove before flight
Nose wheel
Tyre Sections
Crown - Thickest part. Designed for wear and tear
Shoulder - Not designed for wear and tear
Sidewall - Thinnest and weakest section. Avoid doing tight turns
with locked inner main wheel
Bead - To fit against the rim of the wheel. Prevent air leakage
Ply Rating - Index of type strength
Speed rating Max speed on ground in mph
Aquaplaning
Layer of water lifting the tyre from the runway surface reducing
the braking effect
Occurs when tread depth is completely filled with water
Occurs at 9 times the square root of the tyre pressure (psi) =
speed in knots
1 Mpa = 145psi

Greatest stress on the tyre is during the touchdown. It can cause

creeping.
Tight turns induce excessive stress on tyre sidewall (and torque
links)
Tyre
Tube tyre
o Problem with tyre creep, which can cause damage to
inflation valve and cause a blowout. (valve shearing)
o Internal friction between the tube and the tyre, generating
heat
Tubeless tyre
o Lighter
Creeping can be described as
Disc Brake System
Fusible Plug / Thermal plug Release air in event of overinflation during heavy braking
Main Anti-skid Components
Wheel Speed Sensors (transducers) to measure individual wheel
speed
Anti Skid Controller to compute wheel speed information
Compares the individual wheel speed to the aircraft speed
Modulating Servo Valves
Anti-Skid

Operational when gear senses GROUND and speed is 20knots or

more
Works in conjunction with the Auto Brake system. If any antiskid channel is inoperative, the Auto Brake will automatically
disconnect.
An AC generator in wheel hub to sample wheel speed
Releases hydraulic pressure when max allowable deceleration
rate is reached.

Touchdown Protection
Protects against inadvertent brake application at touchdown
Only when gears sense ground and on wheels spin up can brakes be
applied
Locked Wheel Protection
Prevents wheel locking when landing on wet or icy runways
Primary Flight Controls:
Longitudinal (Roll) Axis
Ailerons
Asymmetrical Roll Spoilers
Lateral (Pitch) Axis
Elevators
Normal / Vertical (Yaw) Axis:
Rudder

Secondary Flight Controls are used to:

a. Influence the lift and drag characteristics during the various flight
stages
b. Reduce the pilots control stick and rudder pedal forces by
appropriately timing the aircraft axes (zero force)
Lift Augmenting Devices
High lift devices that provide increased lift at lower speed for
takeoff, approach and landing:
o Trailing Edge Flaps
o Leading Edge device: Flaps and Slats
Drag Inducing Devices (Speed brakes)
Flight spoilers (limited)
Ground Spoilers
Trimming Devices
Trim Tabs
Trimmable Horizontal Stabiliser (THS)
Stabilser Trim Control
The use of 2 switches reduces the possibility of trim runaway
Stabilizer Position Indicator
Speed Brakes / Spoilers
Speed Brakes vs Ground Spoilers

Flap Control
Config Warnings
Takeoff (Intermittent Horn)
o Stab Trim NOT in takeoff range
o Flaps Not in takeoff setting
o Speed Brake lever not in down detent
Landing (Steady Horn)
o Gear NOT down and locked with aircraft in landing
configuration
Adverse Yaw
Prise Aileron
Aileron Rudder Coupling
Flight Control Systems can be classified into:
Mechanical (including Hydro-Mechanical
Fly by wire
Mechanical Control Surface Actuation
Manual (Reversible)
o Control stick load proportional to surface deflection and
speed
Partially Powered (reversible) / Power Assist
o
Fully Powered (Irreversible)

o Artificial Feel unit is connected to the control whell in

parallel with the control surface
o
A hydraulic actuator
o
A servo or control valve
o
An artificial feel unit

Flap and Slats Protection

Assymmetry shut off defective
Load Relief (Load Limiting)
Auto Slats
Spoiler Protection
Blowback at high speeds
Rudder Limiter Systems
Designed to restrict rudder deflection during flight at high speed
RUDDER RATIO CHANGER
o Rudder pedals move through the full range at all speeds
but rudder deflection decreases with increasing airspeed
VARIABLE STOP SYSTEM
o Pedal and rudder deflections are limited as a function of
airspeed via a rudder travel limiter
o Pedal travel and therefore rudder travel, reduces with
increasing airspeed
Fly by wire
a.
b.

Air Supply System

Pneumatic Duct (Manifold)
Crossbleed (Isolation) Valve
Bleed Valve / Isolation Valve (Enginge Bleed Air Control)
Intermediate Pressure / HP Valve (in HP Compresson)
Fan Air Compressor

Engine Source
Bleed (charge) air is trapped from engine IP Compressor stage at
high engine thrust and from HP stage at low engine thrust
(IP and HP stages are in HP Compressor)
Normal Ops Maximum cabin altitude
It is accepted that we can perform our normal functions up to
10000 ft
However, pressurization systems are designed to maintain cabin
altitudes of up to maximum of 8000 ft
Functions of Pressurization Systems
Create a cabin environment as close as possible to sea level
conditions (between SL to 8000ft) regardless of airplane altitude.
Allow aircraft cabin pressure to climb and descend at much slower
rate than the aircraft itself

Maintain a constant mass of air entering the cabin adn vary the
mass of air leaving the cabin
Outflow Valve (aka Flow Control Valve)
To increase cabin pressure, close outflow valve (cabin altitude is
lowered)
To decrease cabin pressure, open outflow valve (cabin altitude is
increased)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Pressurisation System
Pneumatic Source
Outflow Valve/s
Outflow Valve Motor/ Actuators
Pressure Controller
Excessive Differential Pressure Relief Valve
Negative Differential Pressure Relief Valve

Differential Pressure
Differential pressure is the difference between the cabin pressure and
outside ambient pressure
The higher the pressure differential the higher the stress on the fuselage
structure
Keeping the maximum differential pressure to a practical minimum will
reduce this stress
Therefore the structural strength of the aircraft will determine its
maximum Differential Pressure
Typical Maximum Differential Pressure of large modern aircraft is about 89

Modes of Cabin Pressurisation

1. Isobaric Mode (Constant Pressure / Cabin Altitude)
2. Maximum (Constant) Differential Pressure Mode
Warnings
Cabin altitude warning horn will sound when cabin altitude exceeds
10,000 ft
When cabin altitude reaches 14,000ft, passenger oxygen masks will drop
Safety Valve / Pressure Relief Valve
To protect aircraft from structural damage from excessive positive
differential pressure
Safety valve opens when max pressure is exceeded by 0.25psi
Requirement for 2 valve installation
Negative Differential pressure
When ambient pressure> cabin pressure
Fuselage subjected to crushing effect
Aircraft fuselage not designed to take compressive loads
Valve opens when outside pressure exceeds cabin pressure by 0.5 -1.0psi
Dump Valve
A manually operated valve to depressurize the cabin on ground (in older
generation airplanes with pneumatic outflow valves)

In modern planes, the outflow valve opens on landing as the ground . air
sensor or squat switch senses the ground
Ditching Handle
In emergency water landings, shut off all valve openings
Air-conditioning
System must be duplicated
Not less than 1lb/person/ min of air
If one pack is faulty, not less than 0.5lb/ person / min
On ground,
Ground AirCon Cart
Auxiliary Power unit
Typical System
Air Cycle System (Bootstrap
Done by energy conversion & Heat exchange
Air Cycle systems
The Air Cycle Machine (ACM) works on the preinciple of converting
pressure and heat energy into (work)kinetic energy at the turbine
The charge (bleed) air is cooled in the process at the turbine
Airline Operations

Icing Condition exists when:

Temperature is +10 deg Celsius and below (Total Air Temp in
flight and OAT on ground and takeoff), AND
Visible moisture (clouds, rain, snow, sleet, mist and fog) is
present
Ice Detection
Smiths Ice Detector
Rosemount Ice Detector (35kHz), With icing, sensitivity will
decrease
Areas that are protected against icing
Engine Intake (and some Inlet Probes)
Wing Leadig Edges (Slats and Flaps)
Propellers
Water Waste Drain Masts
Pitot Tubes (some Static Ports)
Cockpit Windows
Stall Warning Vanes
Classification
Anti-Icing
o Prevention of ice formation
o Should be operated prior to entering icing conditions
De-Icing
o Removal of ice that has formed

Methods
Mechanical
Thermal
Liquid
Anti-Icing and De-Icing Systems
1. Mechanical
De-icing boots
2. Thermal (Heating)
A.
Bleed Air: Engine and Wing
B.
Electrical: Windscreens, Pitot tubes (and some Static
ports), Propellers
3. Fluid
Propellers, Wing, Windscreens
De-icing boots
Inflatable rubber mats
On wings and some tail surfaces
Inflated alternatively and symmetrically
Operated when ice thickness reaches 1.5cm
Mechanical: De-Icing Boots
1. Inflation Air Source:
Pressure side of vacuum pump
Engine bleed air


2.

High pressure reservoir

Deflation source:
Vacuum pump
Venturi of ejector nozzle

De-Icing Boots Disadvantages

Increase in drag
Higher maintenance cost, possible boot leak
De-Icing Boots
1 cycle takes 34 seconds
Time interval between cycles:
LIGHT: 206 sec
HEAVY: 26 SECS
Thermal (Bleed Air)
Common on large modern aircraft
Ice protection for engines and wings
Air ducted from engine compressor
Small Penalty loss of thrust
Aerofoil Leading Edges
Pitot, waste water exhaust
Front glass shield

Engine intake and pod

Thermal (electrical Systems)
Propellers: LE of blade and root, spinner cone
Heating mat covers 1/3 of blade length from root
Windscreen heaters
Protect against interior fogging
Make windscreen more resistnant to bird strikes
Speed may be limited to 250 knots below 10,000ft if system is
inoperative
Heating elements
for pitot probes, some static ports , angle of attack panes (alpha
probes) and temperature probes.
Front window: Anti-Icing and defogging
Side windows: Defogging only
Temperature regulated between 18 to 35deg
Fluid Systems De-icing Systerms
Fluid de-icing systems melts the ice by lowering its freezing
point
Used for ice removal from propellers
Not suited for large aircraft because of the large quantity of fluid
required

Ground De-Icing
Rain protection
Windshield Wipers
Rain Repellant
o Used in very heavy rain when wipers alone is not effective
o Apply to one window at a time
Not to be used on dry windshield
Permanent rain repelling coating layer on windshield during
manufacture

OXYGEN SYSTEMS
Supplemental Oxygen
Carried in pressurized aircraft in case of emergencies
Safety Precautions
Care must be taken with the use of oxygen systems
1. Control valves must be opened slowly (friction may cause
combustion)
2. Contact with grease or oil must be avoided as it can result in a
chemical reaction leading to a spontaneous fire or explostion
3. Smoking is strictly prohibited
Flight Crew Supplemental Oxygen
Stored in the cargo

Diluter Demand regulator (Flight Deck)

Supply oxygen only on demand
Except when in emergency and test positions
Diluter Demand Regulator
Pax and cabin crew supplemental oxygen
Chemical generator or high pressure gaseous (cylinder tanks)
type
Continuous
Cabin air is mixed with oxygen
o It does not give protection against smoke and fumes
Pax service units (PSUs) opened automatically at 14,000 ft.
Chemical generator type opened electrically by solenoids
Gaseous type opened pneumatically
Chemical Generator Type
Minimum 15min oxygen supply
Once process started, cannot be stopped
Indicator changes colour from orange to black once used
Advantages
Light
Inexpensive
No maintenance
Long shelf Life

Gaseous Type
Self contained
Refillable
Can be regulated and be turned off
First aid Therapeutic Oxygen
First Aid Oxygen (Portable bottles) are meant to provide some pax
who may require additional oxygen after an emergency descent due to
respiratory problems
Or
To deal with pax with medical conditions like respiratory disorders
during normal flight
Additional bottles MUST be carried for pax with known medical
conditions
Flow rate
4 litre flow for first aid use 30 min
2 litre flow for post decompression walk around 60min
Protective Breathing Equipment (PBE)
PBEs must be available to all crew members
Device must be able to protect the eyes, nose and mouth for
15minutes
It can be a portable oxygen bottle with a full face mask
Or a smoke hood
Or cockpit oxygen mask with smoke goggles
Crew portable Oxygen with full face smoke mask (Demand
Type)

PBE Smoke hood

Fire Triangle
3 elements are required to start and support a fire
Fuel
Oxygen
Heat
Detection of smoke & Fire
By Visual
Smoke detectors
Overheat detectors
Smoke Detectors
Belly Cargo and Baggage Compartments
Avionics Compartment
Lavatory
Main Deck Cargo Compartments (Freighter and Combi Aircraft)
Smoke Detector Optical
When smoke is present, the light will be refracted and sensed by the
photo electri cell which will then produce a voltage to bring on the smoke
warning
Smoke Detector Ionization
The air between the 2 plates is ionized by the radioactive source
and made electrically conductive
When smoke is present, the conductivity is decreased and this is
sensed by the control circuit to bring on the smoke warning

Overheat Detectors
Engines
APU
Wheel wells
Toilet Waste Bin
Overheat type detection
Unit type detector
o Bi-metallic material
Continous Loop (Firewire) detector
o Resistive
o Capacitive
Dd
Bi-Metallic Detectors
Two different metals with different expansion rate
There is a short time delay before the warning comes on
This is to prevent a false warning due to vibration
High expansion Rate tube
Low expansion Rate Spring bow
o When heated, the contact point will touch
Resistive

Center electrode, conductive capillary, Filler material, Thermistor

Material has a negative co-efficient of resistance to temperature
(Negative temperature co-efficient)
Resistance decreases when temperature increases
Insulation is broken down and current can now flow between the
centre electrode and the steel capillary, thereby causing the
solenoid switch to close and bring on the wire warning

Capacitive
Filler materials acts as the di-electric
Di-electric used has a positive co-efficient of capacitance with
temperature (positive temperature co-efficeinet _
Capacitance increases with temperature
The charging unit charges the electrode
The measuring unit monitors this charge and compares this with
a reference value
In a fire condition, as the temperature goes up, the capacitance
and therefore the charge increases.
The measuring unit senses this and sends a signal to the fire
warning circuit.
Gas filled Detectors
Titanium Hydride
Crushed capillary Tube can flow as long as there is a gas passage
Continuous Loop (Firewire) System
2 detector loops operating in parallel
With both loops operative, both have to detect a fire before a fire
warning is activated
With a single loop operative, a fault or fire will bring on the fire
warning
Dual loop fire detection

For APU, if systems detects a fire on the ground when both

engines are off, it shuts down the APU automatically and
discharges the extinguishing agent. (It assumes there is no one
in the flight deck and plane is on ground)

Fire warning indication requirements

1. Aural
Bell, klaxon or repetitive chime
2. Visual
Master warning caption
Steady red light for the APU, the appropriate engine or
compartment
3. Test circuit to check for continuity of the loops as well as the warning
systems
Engine Fire Extinguishing Systems
Two shots must be provided
Two bottles per engine or one bottle per engine with provisions
for wither bottle to be discharged into the other engine
Extinguishing Agents Engine and Cargo Compartments
Freon BTM Halon 1301
Very effective flame fighting
When pushed (Normally guarded)
Aural warning is cancelled (if not already cancelled by pressing
the Master Warning)
Squib is armed
Respective generator is deactivated
Fuel, Hydraulics, Air Bleed valves are closed (isolating the
engine)

Squib
Is a small explosive cartridge (electrically operated)
Upon detonation, the piston is forced down to allow the
extinguishing agent to be discharged into the selected engine
Thermal discharge
Discharge due to excessive pressure will result in the amber
discharge light illuminating
At the same time, an overboard discharge disk will be visible on
some aircraft type on the outside when you do your walk around

RIGID FUEL TANK

Used in wings o flight aircraft and in fuselage of some large
aircraft
Not forming part of the the aircraft structure
Incurs a weight penalty
Made of aluminium alloy
Flexible Fuel Tank
Used in military aircraft, high performance light aircraft and
smaller turboprops
Made of reinforced rubber
Attached to the aircraft structure by cords and buttons
Easily punctured
Integral Fuel Tank
Used on large modern aircraft
Made by sealing the insides of the wings

Saves weight

Horizontal Stabilizer configuration on some aircraft

Baffles
Prevents sloshing
Baffles Check Valve
Baffles check valves prevent the movement of fuel outboard
towards the wing tip during manoevres
Vapour locking
As aircraft climbs, the ambient pressure drops. This allows the
fuel to easily change to vapour. It can create a vapour lock in the
fuel pipe which reduce or stop the flow of fuel to the engine.
Fuel Tank Vent
Fuel tanks are vented to allow air to replace the fuel as it is
drawn down to feed the engines.
Most tanks are vented to ambient with a ram scoop to gain some
pressure from the ram effect. This helps to reduce evaporation
and aids fuel transfer.
Feeder Box
Feeder boxes house the booster pumps at the bottom of the fuel
tanks
The booster pumps are submerged primarily to prime the pump
to prevent fuel starvation (cavitation) which may result in vapour
locking and also to keep the pumps cool
Fuel Booster Pumps
Low Pressure Centrifugal Pumps
115V AC Motor Driven

20-50psi
Prevents vapour lock to the EDP

Fuel Tanks
High Level Float Switch
Flt Deck Indication
Fuel Quantity
Fuel Temp
Fuel Flow
Filter
Low level
Fuel low pressure
Transfer Valve Position
LP Valve Position
Fuel Quantity Indication
This floats type with variable resistor is used mainly on light
aircraft to give volumetric indication
It cannot compensate for temperature or SG fluctuations and
maneuvering errors.
The capacitance type measures the mass of the fuel and is used
on most large modern aircraft.
AC Voltage applied to 2 plates separated by a di-electric motor
A number of plates connecting
Bowser=Refuelling truck

Lines of magnetic Force flow from North and South

Types of Magnet
1. Temporary magnet
Made from soft iron
Poor magnetic retentivity
Can be easily magnetised & demagnetized
Permanent magnet
Made from hard iron
Good magnetic retentivity
Cannot be demagnetised easily
Electromagnetism
Right Hand Grasp Rule
If the fingers of the right hand are wrapped around the conductor
with thumb pointing in the direction of the current flow, the fingers will
point in the direction of the magnetic field
If the conductor is formed into a coil, the magnetic field is more
concentrated and has polarity. An electromagnet is formed
The strength of the magnetic field around a coil can be increased
by:

Increasing the current.

Increasing the number of turns in the coil


Inserting a soft iron into a coil will intensify the magnetism.
How to
Friction

create EMF?
Static electricity: No practical use
Pressure: Piezo electricity: Crystal microphone
Heat: Thermo electricity: Thermocouple
Light: Photo electricity: Photo electric cell
Chemical action: Batteries
Magnetism: Electromagnetic Induction: Generators and
Alternators

Electric Induction
Three requirements for electromagnetic induction (EMF
generation):
Magnetic field
Conductor
Relative motion between the two (either can be the rotor
and other the stator)
Strength of EMF induced is dependent on:
Strength of magnetic field
Number and size of conductor windings
Speed at which the conductor cuts across the lines of magnetic
flux

o The faster the speed, the higher the EMF induced.

Fleming Right Hand Rule
RECAP: What elements are required for the EMF generation?
Magnetic field (provided by either a magnet or an electromagnet)
Conductor
Wire
Force
Simple AC Generator
A stationary permanent bar magnet to provide the magnetic field
A rotating conductor for the induced current to flow
Slip Rings to tap the induced voltage
Simple DC Generator
Simple Alternator
A rotating permanent bar magnet to provide the magnetic field
A stationary conductor for the induced current to flow
A rectifier diode to convert AC to DC
** If from DC to AC, is call inverter

Practical Generators
Practical generators are self exciting as soft iron cores has residual
magnetism to provide initial excitation
Voltage Regulation
Why the need for regulation?
Excessive voltage can cause damage to equipment
What happens when engine rpm is increased?
So how to regulate then?
Varying the field strength by varying the field current
Voltage Regulator
Maintains the ooutput voltage of the generaor at a constant value at any
engine speed and electrical load.
By changing the strength of magnetitc field
(varying the current supplied to the field windings)
Left Zero Ammeter / Load master
1. Connected between alternator and busbar
2. If needle deflected right (away from 0) , the generator is supplying
output
3. IF showing 0, the alternator or generator has failed or not supplying
output)
Needle right (+) = charging
Needle left (-) = discharging
Cut out voltage
When Gen volt < Batt volt, the cut-out switch opens (to prevent
battery from discharging into generator)