AiDamage

Version 5

AiDamage

Theory
Introduction
In accident investigation collisions between vehicles are modelled using
Newtons equations of motion. These equations coupled with some other
useful results enable us to predict the behaviour of vehicles given some
knowledge of the forces acting on those vehicles. In addition we can
intuitively see that the amount of damage caused in a collision is related to
the relative speeds of the vehicles concerned. All of the computer
programs around, of which AiDamage is but one, use these principles to
derive an estimate of the velocities of the vehicles involved.
The computer program is merely a tool to assist in those calculations. The
maths involved can be a little daunting and the use of the computer
simplifies the work that is done by the accident investigator. Given time,
and knowledge of the formulae that are used, it is possible to perform the
calculations by hand.
The purpose of this manual is to outline the calculations that AiDamage
makes, explain the principles upon which the equations are based and also
explain some of the necessary assumptions that must also be made. This
should allow the reader to understand how AiDamage works which is
essential in interpreting the results that are generated.
These notes are intended as support material for the AiDamage Users
Course. They should be read in conjunction with notes on the measuring
of damaged vehicles.

Conservation of Linear Momentum

The Law of the Conservation of Linear Momentum states that the total
momentum after a collision is equal to the total momentum before the
collision in a closed system. Let us consider for a moment exactly what
this means. It means that provided we can account for all the momentum
put into a system we know that exactly the same momentum will be present
after the collision.
This is a powerful mathematical statement but we do need to be sure that
we have accounted for all the momentum. Circumstances where we
cannot be sure are when objects fragment during the collision, or if external
forces are acting. In reality fragmentation is not a problem if only objects of
low mass such as windscreens fly off. If the vehicle splits into two or more
substantial pieces then we must account for all those substantial pieces.
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An external force acting on the vehicle during impact is potentially a bigger
problem. In the vast majority of real life collisions between vehicles, one or
both of the vehicles are braking at the moment of impact. This braking
imparts an additional force that should be included. The only way to
include these additional braking forces is to take into account the mass of
the Earth as well! This is not really a viable proposition and because the
collision takes place over a very short period of time, typically around 0.1s,
we can ignore the braking forces acting during this time. Care must be
taken with this, as it may not be a reasonable assumption if an extended
period of contact results from the collision.
The derivation of the momentum equation is shown in appendix A and
gives the result,
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2

(A)

This equation can be difficult to use because it contains six variables. In

order to solve it we need to know five variables from which we can work out
the sixth.

Conservation of Energy
A few definitions come in handy before we can discuss this principle. Work
is defined as the product of a force acting on a body to produce a
displacement. Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. Energy can
therefore be thought of as a reservoir of potential work. In SI Units force is
measured in newtons (N) and distance in metres so the units of work and
energy are therefore in newton metres (Nm). This unit of Nm is important
throughout physics and has been given a special name, the joule which is
abbreviated to J.
In collision problems it is often important to consider the energy a body has
by virtue of its motion. This is known as the kinetic energy of a body. The
kinetic energy of a body can be calculated from the equation,
2

KE = m v

(Strictly speaking this is only the expression for linear kinetic energy.
Rotational energy can also be included, but this complicates matters
considerably for our discussion.)
The principle of Conservation of Energy states that energy can neither be
created or destroyed, merely converted from one form to another. So, if we
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equate the kinetic energies of two objects before and after a collision we
obtain the following expression,

1
1
1
1
m 1 u 12 + m 2 u 22 = m 1 v 12 + m 2 v 22 + E 1 + E 2
2
2
2
2

(B)

Where E1 and E2 are the energies converted into a different form for each
of the objects. Note that this accounts for all the energy of the collision,
none is lost, but E1 and E2 represent the energy converted (mainly) into
deformation of the objects and into heat.

Elasticity
In the previous discussion of the conservation of linear momentum, we
found that the final equation contains six variables. This required us to
know five of them if we were to solve the equation. We need a way of
increasing our knowledge of the system. A useful way of increasing this
knowledge is by using the concept of elasticity. A simple way of
considering this is as the amount of spring or bounce in the collision.
Rubber balls have a lot of spring whereas lumps of plasticene do not!
The technical definition of the coefficient of elasticity (e), (or coefficient of
restitution as it is sometimes known), is as follows,

e=

v v
Relative separation velocity
= 2 1
Relative closing velocity
u2 u1

(C)

The minus sign is required to make the result positive. As can be seen
elasticity is a measure of the ratio between the separation velocity and the
closing velocity. The way it is defined means that e will range between
zero and one. The extremes at either end of this scale are useful to
consider. With an elasticity of zero this implies that there is no separation
velocity in other words the two objects have the same post-impact velocity.
With an elasticity of one, the relative separation velocity and initial
velocities are the same.
To see how this can be useful, consider what happens during the moment
of impact between a stationary vehicle and a moving vehicle. The whole
collision can be considered in two phases. The first up to a point when
maximum deformation of the vehicles occurs, and the second after this
point up to the instant when the vehicles separate.
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At the instant when the vehicles begin to interact a force exists between
them. This force acts equally on both vehicles, pushing the stationary
vehicle forward and slowing the moving vehicle. In so doing it also causes
the bodywork of both vehicles to deform.
As the collision progresses, the force continues to act slowing one vehicle
and accelerating the other until maximum deformation of the bodies has
occurred. At the end of this phase, both vehicles must be travelling at a
common velocity.
Depending upon the elasticity of the collision, one of two possibilities
results for the second phase. If the elasticity is zero, in other words a
perfectly inelastic collision, then the vehicles remain together (although not
necessarily for very long) and travel at a common post-impact velocity.
If there is some elasticity, then the bodies of the vehicles spring back
slightly, again creating a force which accelerates the initially stationary
vehicle still faster and slowing the original moving vehicle.
In vehicle collisions the elasticity varies between one, for very low speed
collisions (less than 3mph) and nearly zero for higher speed collisions.
1
(Over 40mph). Smith and Tsongas (1986) produced data which can be
shown in a table to illustrate the elasticity that can be expected in vehicle
collisions. The results of their research are reproduced below.
Table 1: Coefficients of elasticity
Relative Speed
(mph)

7.9 - 10.2
14.3 - 15.3
24.7 - 25.4
28.8 - 30.5
34.1 - 35.7
4.9 - 5.1
29.4 - 29.9
34.5 - 35.5

No. of Tests

Coefficient of Elasticity

Frontal Fixed Barrier Tests

18
0.24
12
0.16
6
0.13
55
0.14
70
0.12
Rear Moving Barrier Tests
6
0.23
31
0.11
39
0.11

Confidence
Limits
(95%)
0 - 0.56
0 - 0.36
0.1 - 0.19
0 - 0.28
0.02 - 0.22
0 - 0.6
0 - 0.21
0 - 0.27

There is a connection between the energy absorbed in a collision and the

closing speed of the two vehicles involved in a collision. From the equation
for kinetic energy (Equation B) and the definition of the coefficient of
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elasticity (Equation C) we can derive such a connection. This is shown in
appendix B as it is rather lengthy. The required result is,

(1 e 2 )(u2 u1 ) 2 m1m2
E1 + E2 =
2(m1 + m2 )

(D)

This represents the amount of energy available to deform the vehicle, as

determined by the coefficient of elasticity. When the coefficient is one, the
total energy available reduces to zero, whereas when the coefficient is
zero, the energy available is at a maximum.
From this equation we can see that if we know the amount of energy, as
given by E1 and E2, and the mass of each of the vehicles, then we can gain
information about the relative closing speeds and hence the change in
velocity for each of the vehicles.

Delta-V
In this section we shall derive some useful results from the momentum
equation. This will allow us to express the change in velocity (Delta-V) of a
vehicle in terms of the elasticity and closing speeds of the vehicles involved
in the collision.
We mentioned Delta-V earlier in the text as a change in velocity for a
vehicle due to a collision. We can give this a more formal definition as,

v = v u
We can also define the relative closing and separation speeds as,

U=
u2 u1
R

(E)

VR= v2 v1

(F)

The definition of elasticity can also be rewritten in terms of UR and VR since,

v v
V
e=
2 1 =
R
u2 u1
UR
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So we can substitute into the momentum equation (A) from equations (E)
and (F) to give,

m1u1 + m2 (U R + u1 ) = m1v1 + m2 (VR + v1 )

(m1 + m2 )u1 + m2U R = (m1 + m2 )v1 + m2VR
m2 (U R VR ) = (m1 + m2 )(v1 u1 )
m2 (1
=
+ e)

(m1 + m2 )
v1
UR

So that finally we have,

v1 =

m2 (1 + e)
UR
(m1 + m2 )

(G)

An expression for v2 can also be found as,

v2 =

m1 (1 + e)
UR
(m1 + m2 )

(H)

Strictly speaking equation (H) is relates to the magnitude or absolute value

of v2 since the actual value is negative.
We can add the two equations (G and H) to give,

v1 + =
v2 U R (1 + e)

(I)

And also find a ratio so that,

v1 m2
=
v2 m1

(J)

Equation (J) is particularly interesting as is shows that the ratio between the
Delta-Vs is inversely proportional to their respective masses and nothing
else. So in a collision between a heavy and a light vehicle, the change in
velocity for the heavy vehicle is smaller than the change in velocity for the
light vehicle. Looking at this a little deeper reveals that for vehicles of
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similar mass, the change in velocity during the collision will be about the
same. This gives a rough guide to checking the results of any calculations.
More useful results now follow if we combine the energy loss equation (D)
and the equations for Delta-V (G and H). Equation (D) can be written in
terms of the square of the closing speeds as,

2(m + m2 )( E1 + E2 )
(u2 u1 ) 2 =1
(1 e 2 )m1m2
So that,

(u2 u1 ) = U R =

2(m1 + m2 )( E1 + E2 )
(1 e 2 )m1m2

But from equation (G) we know that,

v1 =

m2 (1 + e)
UR
(m1 + m2 )

So that we can obtain an expression for v1 as,

v1 =

m 2 (1 + e)
m (1 + e)
UR = 2
(m1 + m 2 )
(m1 + m 2 )

2(m1 + m 2 )( E1 + E 2 )
(1 e 2 )m1 m 2

This can be simplified to give,

v1 =

2m 2 ( E1 + E 2 ) (1 + e)
m1 (m1 + m 2 ) (1 e)

This equation gives us an expression for the change in velocity of a vehicle

knowing; the masses of the vehicles, the total damage caused and the
elasticity. The first two variables are readily determined, as we shall
explain, but the elasticity is not so easy to quantify. We have some idea,
from the work of Smith and Tsongas as outlined earlier. What we can say
however, is that if we assume a totally inelastic collision (in other words e =
0) then the Delta-V calculated will be a minimum. By default, this is the
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assumption that AiDamage makes and in these circumstances the equation
above becomes,

v1 =

2m 2 ( E1 + E 2 )
m1 (m1 + m 2 )

(K)

Similarly we can derive an expression for v2,

v2 =

2m1 ( E1 + E2 )
m2 (m1 + m2 )

(L)

What must be remembered is that Delta-V is a measure of the velocity

change that each vehicle experiences in the collision. It is not a measure
of the difference in velocity between the two vehicles, nor is it a measure of
the actual velocity of a vehicle. Additional data is needed to find the actual
velocities. This is also possible with the enhanced algorithm used in the
Predicted Speeds section of AiDamage.
The closing speed values calculated by AiDamage have been updated so
that the closing speed is now calculated as the sum of the Delta-Vs at the
point of application (usually the damage centroid) as opposed to the vehicle
centre of mass as this give as more accurate reflection of the true closing
speed.
Similarly, the way in which separation velocities of the points of application
are calculated by AiDamage has been rewritten. Previous versions did not
always calculate these values correctly where sideslip was present
Energy and Damage
There are a number of ways in which the damage caused is related to
vehicle speeds, in other words the accident severity. This research has
progressed since the late 1950s and there are numerous papers reporting
various aspects of this relationship.
One measure that has been proposed is the Equivalent Barrier Speed
(EBS). This is the speed that a vehicle would have to strike a solid
immovable block in order to cause the same damage. It is limited to headon impacts and was varied to include other types of solid object impacts
when it is known as the Equivalent Test Speed (ETS). Many tests have
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been performed by various institutions (notably TRL in the UK) whereby
vehicles are crashed into solid objects at various speeds.
Unfortunately vehicle collisions are often with moveable and deformable
objects, such as other vehicles and the EBS and ETS measurements are
2
no longer that useful. Ventre and Provensal (1973) initiated the concept of
Delta-V as a measure of damage severity and this was discussed earlier in
these notes as it is the method used by AiDamage to describe accident
severity.
Delta-V has a number of advantages for the type of collision we are usually
discussing. It is determined by the relative velocities of the vehicles at
impact and by the relative masses of the two vehicles as was shown in the
derivation for equation (J).
An important point to remember is that although Delta-V is independent of
the relative stiffness of the vehicles the damage caused to each vehicle will
be related to their stiffness.
This brings us on to a discussion of how vehicle stiffness affects the
damage caused to a vehicle in a collision. We can imagine a vehicle as
being composed of a number of springs that compress upon impact.
The difference between these springs, and the springs we are more used
to, are that these hypothetical springs do not rebound but remain
compressed. This is equivalent to our earlier assumption of a zero
coefficient of elasticity. It is also the basis for an analysis of impacts which
3
was originally performed by Campbell (1974) .
It obviously takes a certain amount of energy to compress these springs.
From details of the mechanics of a spring we can calculate the magnitude
of energy required to compress a spring by a certain distance (x). The
energy required is dependant upon the stiffness of the spring (k) as given in
the equation below,

E = 12 kx 2
Campbell used this idea to produce a series of diagrams to show the
amount of energy required to compress a vehicle by various amounts.
Being an American he worked on an American car, a Chevrolet, but the
principle remains the same whatever the vehicle. An example of this is
shown below.
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61

61

61

61

88
127

61
88

61

88

88

88

61
88

88

127

127

127

127

165

165

165

127
165

88
127
165

165

165

203
242

203
242

203

203
242

203
242

203

242

203
242

127
165
203
242

61

242

The numbers in the boxes relate to the EBS (as this was how Campbell
originally expressed his data). For a collision involving this vehicle as
shown in the right-hand diagram we simply add up the numbers in the
boxes, including the fractional boxes. We then multiply this figure by the
ratio of the damaged width to the full width then take the square root to find
the EBS. In the example above we have the total damaged boxes as about
800. The fraction of the total width is about 7/8 so the EBS for this collision
is,
800 x

7
8

= 26mph

AiDamage doesnt actually use Campbells Diagrams directly as we have

illustrated. What it does calculate is the energy required to deform each of
the vehicles directly from the spring equations.
One area where this idea may be thought to be unsound is in determining
the relative stiffness of different vehicles. There is actually far less variation
in the stiffness of vehicles than might be first thought. Appendix E shows
generalised stiffness coefficients based on the wheelbase, and these can
be seen to be similar across the range. From the extensive tests of that
have been performed a (very) rough graph of the results can be drawn
(shown on the following page).

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Crush
distance
(mm)

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

75

65

55

45

35

25

15

Speed (km / h)

Note that we have not given any particular results merely the general trend.
For actual data the reader is referred to the list of references. There is a
broad spread of data and the upper and lower lines show the approximate
limits. The centre dashed line indicates a best-fit line.
From the graph we can see that there is a spread of data. So any
computer program, or other calculation should give a result lying within this
range. This real - life data provides a way of calibrating any mathematical
model. The coefficients used by AiDamage were taken from the data used
in the Crash3 program. These are based on the real life data and have
been tested on many occasions and found to give reasonable results.
The actual calculations that AiDamage performs to establish the energy
absorbed are based on the equation for the energy required to crush a
spring,

E = 12 kx 2
The programmers allowed for a certain amount of impact energy which
does not damage the vehicle. They also allocated coefficients for the
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actual stiffness of the hypothetical springs, which when coupled with the
length of the damage (L), gives an expression for the energy,

E = L( AC +

BC 2
+ G)
2
2

Where A and B are crush coefficients specified in the program, G = A / 2B

and C is the crush depth. AiDamage uses the figures it obtains from the
crush equations, together with the mass of the vehicles to calculate Delta-V
using equations (K) and (L) as we found above. A few modifications are
required to cater for all impact configurations of the vehicles before the
results can be used. These are explained below.

Non - Perpendicular Crush

Data entry into the AiDamage program requires a statement as to the
primary force direction. This is the direction from which the user considers
the force which caused the damage was directed. Methods of establishing
to a good level of confidence are discussed in the course. Implicitly
throughout the discussion so far we have assumed that the primary force is
perpendicular to the damaged surface. This is not always the case and the
program makes allowance for this. It can make a significant difference to
the calculated Delta-V. It is important in measuring and is probably the
most difficult aspect of your examination of the vehicle to get right.
We can show the situation if the primary force producing the damage is at
an angle () to the deformed surface in the diagram below:
Primary force

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With this collision the deformation would be measured from the front and, if
a head-on primary force was assumed this would underestimate the DeltaV. Trigonometry allows us to calculate the actual value of the primary force
and thereby the true value for the energy dissipated.
In symbols this becomes,
primary force =

F
Cos

and CTotal = CMeasured

Cos

Where F is the force perpendicular to the crush and Ctotal is the crush that
would have resulted from a perpendicular collision.
Since energy is defined as,
E = Force x distance
we can say,
E = primary force x CTotal

F CMeasured
2
Cos

From a trigonometrical identity we have,

1
2
Cos

= 1 + Tan
2

So finally we have,
EActual = Ecalculated x (1 + Tan )
2

This means that the total energy dissipated in the crush is greater by a
2
factor of (1 + Tan ) than the measured perpendicular crush. This factor
grows very quickly as theta increases, and is limited to a maximum value
by Ai Damage. This maximum value is 2, which is the value when = 45.
This effectively doubles the estimate for the damage energy at this angle.

Offset Impacts
So far we have only considered the situation where the vehicles colliding
do so in such a way that the centres of gravity of each of the vehicles are
aligned. We have not considered the effect of impacts which are not
aligned along a line connecting the two centres of gravity of each vehicle
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(offset impacts). Offset impact are known as non-central impacts in other
texts. The diagrams below illustrate what we mean by aligned and offset
impacts.

Aligned Impacts

Offset Impacts

Offset impacts produce turning moments about the centre of gravity of each
vehicle. In order to understand how AiDamage allows for this we need to
firstly consider the idea of damage centres.
AiDamage determines the location of these points by considering the
damage offset measurement input by the user, and the actual crush
depths. Using the damage centres and the primary force direction, the
distance from the centre of gravity of the force direction can be determined.
This number is given the symbol h in our terminology. It is either positive
or negative, depending upon whether the force tends to produce a
clockwise or anti-clockwise rotation of the vehicle.
We discussed earlier the idea that the vehicles in a collision reach a
common velocity. In offset impacts it is the damage centres that reach a
common velocity, not necessarily the centres of gravity of the vehicles.
If we consider the effect that a force acting at a distance (h) from the centre
of gravity has on the vehicle, as shown below, we can see that it must
introduce a turning motion of the vehicle about the centre of gravity.
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Primary force

y
CoG

This turning motion (moment or torque) about the centre of gravity has a
magnitude equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular distance
from the centre of gravity.
In symbols this is described as,
T = (primary force) x h
One word of warning here. Torque has dimensions of Force x distance
(Nm) which might at first sight be considered to be the same as energy.
However energy is a force which acts through a distance whereas torque is
a force acting at a distance - a subtle distinction!
A torque causes a change in the angular momentum of the object on which
it acts. Angular momentum being another property of objects. In linear
momentum the inertia of an object is defined as its mass. In angular
momentum the mass and the distribution of the mass within the body are
needed to adequately describe the reluctance of a body to rotate. This
reluctance to rotate (or change the rate of rotation) is known as the
moment of inertia and is usually given the symbol (I). Using various
techniques it is possible to calculate the moments of inertia of various
bodies.
AiDamage and other mechanics text books define another quantity, the
radius of gyration. This is a hypothetical hoop of radius k in which all the
mass of the object is assumed to be concentrated in the rim. This concept
is purely a mathematical nicety that simplifies the subsequent calculations.
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It is valid but the value of k that is quoted for a vehicle is not necessarily
related to the actual size of that vehicle.
5

Our explanation follows that described by Ashton and Jennings (1990) .

The moment of inertia (I) for a vehicle (or other object) is defined in terms
of the radius of gyration (k) as,

I = mk 2
Torque is defined as the rate of change of angular momentum which in
symbols is,

=
T F=
.h I
Where w is the angular velocity - a measure of how fast the object is
rotating. The single dot above the w denotes that it is the rate of change of
this value that is being considered. This can be written, in terms of the
radius of gyration as,

=
T F=
.h m k 2
And therefore,

Fh
mk 2

The force involved (F) produces both linear and angular acceleration,

=
F mac = m(a p h )
Where ac is the acceleration of the centre of gravity and ap is the
acceleration of the point at which the force acts - the damage centre. Then
we can substitute for w (dot) to give,

F Fh 2
a=
+
p
m mk 2
ap =

F (k 2 + h 2 )
mk 2

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If we now define a value gamma () as,

k2
k 2 + h2

We can say that,

a=
c

F
= a p
m

This gives us an expression for the acceleration of the centre of gravity

given the acceleration of the damage centre and it is the acceleration of the
damage centre that AiDamage calculates. Gamma doesnt contain any
terms involving time or the distance through which the force acts, so it can
be used a multiplication constant for the Delta-V of the damage centre so
that,
Delta-Vc = Delta-Vp . gamma
The reader might reasonably ask at this stage how much does this affect
the Delta-V of a vehicle. For a head-on impact, not a great deal as the
value of h can only vary by about 0.5m before the collision becomes more
of a sideswipe. With a value of h of 0.5m the average family saloon car
(Cavalier, Sierra size) will yield a value for gamma of around 0.82 - 0.85.
The effect of the gamma factor is to reduce the calculated Delta-V and this
reduces it by around 15 - 18% of the original estimate.
In side impacts the gamma factor can be as small as 0.5 thus reducing the
Delta-V by 50% Which is certainly a significant reduction!
We can now look at what effect that the amendments in the previous
sections have on the Delta-V equations. The gamma value for both
vehicles may not be identical, indeed this is likely to be the case. Our
original equations (K) and (L) found earlier now become,

v1 =

2 1 2 m 2 ( E1 + E 2 )
=
m1 ( 1 m1 + 2 m 2 )

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2 1 ( E1 + E 2 )
m
m1 1 + 1 1
2 m2

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v 2 =

2 1 2 m1 ( E1 + E 2 )
=
m 2 ( 1 m1 + 2 m 2 )

2 2 ( E1 + E 2 )
m
m 2 1 + 2 2
1 m1

(L)

Where E1 and E2 are given by the equation (below remembering that the
angle may not be the same for each vehicle).
EActual = Ecalculated x (1 + Tan )
2

Additional Information from the Scene

If no additional data is supplied to AiDamage then the program will
calculate a Delta-V from the crush damage only. If post-impact information
is available, consisting of speed and direction, then AiDamage will attempt
to calculate the actual pre-impact velocities rather than just the change in
velocity.
AiDamage performs a two dimensional momentum conservation
calculation, if the user supplies post-impact directions of each of the
vehicles, and also the post-impact speeds. If momentum is selected,
either in the data entry wizard, or in the amend data dialog options, then
AiDamage will perform both a damage analysis and momentum
conservation analysis.
The momentum data supplied is displayed on the active edit screen as a
series of vectors in much the same way as UK based users show
momentum calculations. A calculation is performed and not only the preimpact velocities, but also the direction of the principle force are displayed.
This latter aspect is particularly useful in determining primary forces for the
damage collision.
It is always difficult to establish accurately the primary force direction. The
momentum analysis can give additional information as to the primary force
directions for each vehicle. Tests have shown that altering the primary
forces for each vehicle in line with those suggested by the momentum
analysis greatly increases the correlation between the damage and
momentum based results.

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In Conclusion
AiDamage is not the perfect answer to accident investigation problems. It
is a useful additional tool for a competent investigator as it enables damage
to be assessed to produce an indication of the Delta-V due to the impact. It
does not replace momentum exchange calculations, but it will perform
these for the user, given sufficient data.
AiDamage, in common with most programs of this ilk performs a two
dimensional analysis of the accident. It does not allow for the effects of
gradient, or the effects of weight transfer during skidding or rotation. It
cannot account for the vehicle that leaves the ground, or bucks, during the
impact phase, and it cannot deal with the rotation of the vehicles during the
impact itself. This is because the program assumes that the impact occurs
at an instant.
The accuracy and reliability of the program is governed by the skill of the
operator. The biggest source of error is likely to be with the measuring of
the damaged vehicles. Once the user is confident with the data, and data
entry, then the reliability of the results is limited only by the understanding
of the program operation by the user.

References
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

Smith and Tsongas (1986) SAE Paper 860209

Ashton and Jennings (1990) Vehicle Damage and Impact Speed, Unpublished training
document.
Ventre and Provensal (1973) Proposal for methods for analysing collision speeds in real
accidents Proceedings 4th International Technical Conference of Experimental Safety
Vehicles. (pp 549 - 559)
Campbell (1974) Energy basis for collision severity SAE Paper 740565
Ashton and Jennings (1990) Dynamics of Collisions, Unpublished training document

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Appendix A - Derivation of Equation A
The momentum equation can be derived from the definition of acceleration
as the rate of change of velocity, which in symbols is,
a = v - u
t

(1)

We can also write, from Newtons Second Law, that,

F = ma

(2)

If we now substitute for a in equation (1) into equation (1) we get,

F = m (v - u)
t
Which can be written as,
F t = m (v - u)
Now (v - u) is a change in velocity and this occurs so frequently in these
calculations that it has been given a separate symbol v.
Since
momentum is defined as the product of a bodies mass and velocity we can
state that the term F t is equal to a change in momentum. In other words,
F t = m v

(3)

The term F t is also given a separate name - an impulse and from the
equation we can see that it is equal to the change in momentum it
produces.
If we now consider two objects 1 and 2 that interact for a common time, we
get two equations from (3)
F1 t = m1 v1
F2 t = m2 v2

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(4)

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AiDamage
Newtons Third Law asserts that to every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction, so the forces F1 and F2 above must act on something. If
that something is the other object we can say that,
F1 = -F2
This enables us to equate the two equations (4) to obtain,
m1 v1

= - m2 v2

Which can be expanded, using the definition of v, and rearranged to give

the momentum equation,
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2

(A)

Appendix B - Derivation of equation (D)

Considering the kinetic energy equation (B) we have,

1
1
2
m1u12 +
m=
2u2
2
2

1
1
m1v12 + m2 v22 + E1 + E2
2
2

This can be written as,

m1 (u12 - v12 ) + m2 (u22 - v22 ) =+

2( E1 E2 )

m1 (u1 - v1 )(u1 + v1 ) + m2 (u2 - v2 )(u2 + v2 =

)

2( E1 + E2 )

We know from the definitions of Delta-V and e, and from equations (G) and
(H) that,

v1 =

m2 (1 + e)
UR
(m1 + m2 )

Collision Suite

and

- v2 =

m1 (1 + e)
UR
(m1 + m2 )

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AiDamage
Substituting for these equations then gives,
m1m2U R (1 + e)
m m U (1 + e)
(u1 + v1 ) + 1 2 R
(u2 v2 ) = 2( E1 + E2 )
m1 + m2
m1 + m2

Which can be simplified to give,

m1m2U R (1 + e)
(u1 + v1 u2 v2 ) = 2( E1 + E2 )
m1 + m2

Which from the definition of e suitably arranged gives,

m1m2U R (1 + e)
U R (1 e) = 2( E1 + E2 )
m1 + m2

This can be multiplied out to give the required equation (D),

m1m2U R2 (1 e 2 )
= ( E1 + E2 )
2(m1 + m2 )

or,

E1 + E 2 =

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(1 e 2 )(u 1 u 2 ) 2 m1 m 2
2(m1 + m 2 )

(D)

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AiDamage

Analysis of Damaged Vehicles

Required Data
One of the principle requirements of AiDamage is the need for accurate
data entry. Users need to have a thorough understanding of the way in
which crush damage is measured so as to be able to produce sensible
results.
AiDamage requires the following data to be entered in relation to the
damage suffered by the vehicle. Note: this measurement protocol is
different from the CRASH3 measurement protocol. If you wish to use the
CRASH3 measuring protocol, please see page B54 for further details.
1. Force Direction

4. Interval (Measured
along damage profile)
2. Offset

3. Crush Depth

Centre
Line of
Damage
Centre
Line of
Vehicle

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AiDamage
Force Direction
The force direction is defined in two parts. Firstly the primary damage is
entered. There are four options, Front, Rear, Left and Right.
Once entered users can fine tune this by adding the Force Direction. The
angles are input in the following manner.
Front
0

Frontal and Rear Impacts

Front
-90

Front
+90

Rear
-90

Rear
+90
Rear
180

Side Impacts

Left
0

Right
0

Left
-90

Right
90

Left
-180

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Right
180

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AiDamage
Offset Measurement
The offset measurement can be described as the distance between the
centre of the damage profile and the centreline of the side being measured.
Note that unlike other programs it is not the distance between the centre of
mass and the centre of the damaged area.
The word damage profile. It is not necessarily a simple matter of placing a
tape measure from one side of the damage to the other and dividing by
two. See the next section on Damage Profiles for further information.
The offset is entered in centimetres. Whichever side you are facing, an
offset to the left of the centreline is given a negative value and an offset to
the right is given a positive value. See the diagram below.

Negative
Value
Positive
Value
Negative
Value

Negative
Value

Positive
Value

Positive
Value

Negative
value

Offset Damage

Positive
Value

Crush Measurement
It is necessary to measure the Crush Profile at regular intervals. The
maximum number of entries is 100 per vehicle. Measurements are in
centimetres and 0 values are acceptable which allows the whole length of
the damaged side to be measured.
Note that it is the Damage Profile which is measured at regular intervals.
Once the vehicle has been deformed in a collision, there is no reason to
expect the spacing to be regular with respect to a parallel baseline. Indeed
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AiDamage
this is very often the case and by implication means that the points may
have moved laterally. The diagram below shows what is meant by
Damage profile.
The diagram below shows the front vehicle which has suffered an impact
with a narrow pole, the suggested method of measuring such damage. As
is to be expected in such a collision note that the wings of the vehicle have
been pulled around. The original front of the vehicle is shown as a bold
line.

Note that the damage intervals along the baseline are at irregular intervals
whereas the damage intervals along the face of the damage are at regular
intervals. Use of suitably marked masking tape can make the taking of
measurements using this method quite straight forward.
There is an anomaly in the way the damage is represented by the program.
The damage from the previous diagram would be shown on the
corresponding results pages as shown below.

It might be argued that this does not represent a very accurate picture of
the damage which was caused to the vehicle. However it coincides exactly
with the definition stated above for a damage profile and allows the
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AiDamage
program to produce a more representative estimate of the crush energy
and therefore a more realistic Delta-V.
Whilst on the subject of graphical anomalies, it should be noted that a side
effect of using rectangles to model vehicles leads to few anomalies with
graphical representation in general. For example, since the front of a
vehicle is often narrower than the centre this results in shoulders of
apparently undamaged areas surrounding a central damage profile even
where the entire vehicle front is damaged. The results produced are
unaffected. An illustration of this effect is shown below.

Direct and induced damage

There is a potential problem concerning how much damage should be
included in the damage profile. To explain this aspect it is helpful to define
the two terms used, direct and induced damage. The diagram below
illustrates these features in respect of an offset head-on collision such as
might be expected from a collision with a solid barrier.
Induced damaged due to
front of vehicle being pulled
round

Direct contact area

Originally, it was thought that only direct contact damage should be

included. However it is apparent that energy must be absorbed in causing
the induced crush. It is recommended here that both direct and induced
damage are measured, provided that the induced damage is contiguous
with the direct damage. Other areas of damage, remote from the main
contact area, tend to be of a minor nature and can therefore be ignored.

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AiDamage
Side impact problems
Side impacts can usefully be categorised into two groups, those which do
not cause significant bowing and those which do. Bowing is defined as a
vehicle which distorts during the impact so that the ends of the vehicle curl
round towards each other. A similar effect is noticed in end-wise collisions
where the wings fold inwards due to a pole impact. This effect is shown in
the diagram below.

Additional deformation due to

bowing and not crush
Vehicles which are not bowed can be measured in much the same way as
described previously.
A vehicle which is significantly bowed however would result in the
investigator recording higher crush measurements, since the bowing
contributes to the net depth as shown above.
Quite what constitutes significant bowing is of course open to debate.
1
Smith and Tumbas suggest that 4 (10 cm) is significant and more
importantly note that in the field investigators in a trial only correctly
identified bowing in 20% of cases.
Instead of trying to quantify the bowing and making an allowance, an
alternative protocol is proposed below. Its effect is to subtracts the bowing
and generate the true crush sustained by the vehicle. In essence this
method requires the construction of a reference box around both the
damaged vehicle and its undamaged counterpart.
1

Measuring Protocol for Quantifying Vehicle Damage from an Energy Basis Point of View 1988 Tumbas,
Nicholas S. and Smith Russell A. SAE 880072

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AiDamage
Measurements are taken at the same equal spacing along either side of the
vehicle together with the distance measured along the datum lines. It is
important to start the measurements at a readily identifiable point on the
vehicle so that measurements from an undamaged vehicle generate a oneto-one correspondence with the damaged widths.
The method suggested allows the calculation of the width of the vehicle at
various points along the damage profile as shown by the dashed lines in
Figure 11. For clarity only the calculation of the first damaged width (W) is
shown. The same method when applied to all the points allows the true
width of the vehicle to be determined at each point.

By Pythagoras, the width (W) can then be calculated from the equation,

W=

( B D)2 + ( A C E )2

Measurements are also taken at corresponding points on an undamaged

vehicle to generate the undamaged width at those points. The difference
between the two widths must therefore be the crush depth sustained at that
point.

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AiDamage
Variations in stiffness
Side impact testing is generally performed using a vehicle sized barrier into
the middle of the target vehicle. This naturally tends to miss the very stiff
parts of the side of a vehicle such as the wheels and suspension.
Since a considerable proportion of collisions involve an impact over these
areas, then it seems reasonable to be able to quantify the effect. One way
of performing this adjustment would be to vary the stiffness coefficients for
those parts of the crush profile which include the wheels.
Unfortunately there seems an absence of empirical data upon which to
base any increase in the coefficients. Without this information, side
impacts which include a proportion of crush through the wheels will tend to
result in an underestimate of the energy involved in deformation and
consequent underestimate of the Delta-V.
Data for default vehicles
These tables show the default values used by AiDamage in the vehicle
library newdata.lib.
Those familiar with the older Crash3 coefficients should note that the
wheelbase lengths have changed slightly, thus reclassifying several
vehicles. In addition several new categories of vehicle have been added,
vans, trucks, pickups and multi-purpose vehicles.
Barriers are defined as square objects with the dimensions given. These
dimensions can be reassigned to make more realistic graphics.
The weight of barriers, as with all vehicles, can be redefined to allow for
moveable solid objects in collision
You may add vehicles using the vehicle library function within AiDamage to
create vehicles which exactly match actual vehicles. If actual stiffness data
is not available, it is suggested that you use stiffness coefficients based on
the table above and classify vehicles by type and wheelbase.

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AiDamage
Table 1: Passenger cars
Value / Class
Mass
(kg)
Wheelbase
(cm)
Length
(cm)
Width
(cm)
Track
(cm)
Overhang
(cm)
CoG to front
(cm)
Yaw inertia
(kg / m2)
Gyration radius
(cm)
Front
A ( N / cm2 )
B ( N / cm )
Rear
A ( N / cm2 )
B ( N / cm )
Side
A ( N / cm2 )
B ( N / cm )

Collision Suite

Barrier

945

1119

1332

1669

1756

107

205
241

241
258

258
280

280
298

Over 298

100

403

443

484

522

551

100

165

172

177

188

189

100

140

144

149

152

152

100

83

88

105

102

105

180

180

206

222

230

50

1524.19

1949.75

2708.59

3308.73

3310.29

107

127

132

142.6

140.8

137.3

1000

316
49.7

324
45.1

362
48.3

377
46.0

506
78.2

##
##

302
37.5

284
34.1

332
35.7

326
32.4

512
95.2

##
##

155
41.2

175
45.7

170
53.6

240
65.5

240
65.5

##
##

Barrier

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AiDamage
Table 2: Other vehicles
Value / Class

Mass
(kg)
Wheelbase
(cm)
Length
(cm)
Width
(cm)
Track
(cm)
Overhang
(cm)
CoG to front
(cm)
Yaw inertia
(kg / m2)
Gyration radius
(cm)
Front
A ( N / cm2 )
B ( N / cm )
Rear
A ( N / cm2 )
B ( N / cm )
Side
A ( N / cm2 )
B ( N / cm )

Collision Suite

Van

Multi-Purpose

Pickup

Truck

1520

2286

1587

2196

1283

2008

7883

< 293

> 293

< 265

>265

< 290

>290

ALL

454

479

400

487

454

484

582

182

203

168

189

165

197

244

154

175

145

148

139

165

202

89.1

69.6

72.2

70.1

74.4

60.2

74.7

203

221

193

210

195

223

251

2987.7
2

5764.
71

2483.66

4629.8
4

2293.4
5

4867.8
9

12042.
8

140.2

158.8

125.1

145.2

133.7

155.7

123.6

541
93.1

628
106.7

466
75.1

385
47.2

466
75.1

385
47.2

1751
689.7

492
81.7

547
97.8

453
75.1

509
84.8

453
75.1

509
84.8

1751
689.7

168
53.8

240
65.5

180
63.5

137
27.6

180
63.5

137
27.6

1751
689.7

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AiDamage
Original Crash3 Categories (old_data.lib)
Value
/Class
Wheelbase
(cm)
Weight (Kg)
Front
A (N/cm)
B (N/cm2)
Rear
A (N/cm)
B (N/cm2)
Side
A (N/cm)
B (N/cm2)

Barrier

205 238
1000

238 258
1385

258 280
1609

280 298
1926

298 312
2206

100

528.2
32.4

454.4
29.8

556
38.6

623.5
23.3

569.7
25.5

0
0

640.7
26.3

684.1
28.1

718.8
30.1

624.7
8.83

520
48.3

0
0

135.2
25.5

246
46

303.6
39.4

250.5
34.8

309.2
32.5

0
0

107

NOTES:
Barriers are defined as square objects with the dimensions given. These
dimensions can be reassigned to make more realistic graphics.
The weight of barriers, as with all vehicles, can be redefined to allow for
moveable solid objects in collision
You may add vehicles using the vehicle library function within AiDamage to
create vehicles which exactly match actual vehicles. If actual stiffness data
is not available, it is suggested that you use stiffness coefficients based on
the table above and classify vehicles by type and wheelbase.
The default stiffness values can be changed. Both coefficients A and B are
included here for information. Be careful if you change your values.

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AiDamage

Data Entry
Starting the Program
AiDamage can be started from either the Collision Manager, the Start Menu
or from a shortcut which can be created on the desktop.
By default, on loading the program, the Summary Results page of the most
recent collision is automatically displayed.
The AiDamage toolbar is shown below. If you pause the mouse over any
of the buttons, a description of what they do will be displayed. AiDamage
also has context sensitive help. Use the F1 key to call up the appropriate
help topic.
The main AiDamage toolbar
Starts the new collision wizard
Open an existing collision
Save the current collision
Print the current results page
Print Preview
Print all results pages
Amend data

Force a calculation
-1
Switch units between ms , mph, kmh, & fps
Options
Edit Vehicles
Manage library
About
Help

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AiDamage
AiDamage toolbar cont.
Show Summary
Show Damage
Show Impact
Show Momentum
Show Dimensions
Show Crash3

Show Predicted Speeds

Force Balancing
o
Adjust PDOF Clockwise 5
o
Adjust PDOF Clockwise 1
o
Adjust PDOF Anti-Clockwise 5
o
djust PDOF Anti-Clockwise 1

Sidebar
The Existing Collision side bar allows you
to view the contents of a folder or series of
folders. In essence it is a simplified version
of Windows Explorer but only displays
AiDamage files. The starting folder can be
set using the Browse for Root Folder and
Set as Root Folder context menu options.
Any AiDamage files that appear within the
folders can be opened by double clicking
on them. You can also use the context
menu to send individual files to the recycle
bin.

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AiDamage
Tab Bar
A tab bar is provided along the top of the main window to allow quick
access to any open window. It is possible to cycle through the open
windows simply by clicking on the different tabs along the top.

Setting your options

Ai Damage allows you to set up various options. From the View menu
select Options. The following Dialog box will appear.

If you change the location of the vehicle library after initial installation, you
will need to change the target folders in Options.
You also have certain Options with regard to display and printed data. By
default all options will be checked.
The general options screen also allows the colour of each vehicle to be
changes to fit with a specific case or simply for personal preference.
Note: A white vehicle in the program will not show up when printed.

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AiDamage
Data Entry
Selecting New from the File menu or clicking the new document icon on the
toolbar starts the New Collision Wizard. Using this Wizard, it is very easy
to enter details regarding a particular accident. On the first page you are
presented with a number of edit boxes which must be completed.

Enter a suitable title for the collision. You have 255 characters for this field
so a really descriptive title is possible and useful.
Enter the vehicle type for each of the vehicles and change the mass if you
have sufficient data. The vehicle type field is a drop down box which allows
you to choose one of the vehicles in the vehicle library. To edit or add
vehicles see the section on the Vehicle Library.
Two check boxes are shown at the bottom of the screen. By default only
the Damage Calculation box is checked. If you have momentum data, and
want AiDamage to perform a momentum calculation check the momentum
box. It is also possible to perform a momentum calculation only. Just
check the momentum box and uncheck the damage box.
Once all the data is entered click on the Next button to move to the next
page.
The next two pages allow you to enter details about the damage to each of
the vehicles. When you first start these pages they are filled in with blanks
and zeros where appropriate.

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AiDamage

In the outlined box, select the side of the vehicle which contains the
damaged area. Note that the active edit screen reflects any change by
moving the primary force angle. The force direction box also changes to
show the new force direction. You can now edit the force direction box to
show the actual force angle in your collision, or leave it in the default
position. Again the active edit screen shows your choices.
The next box requests the offset. This is the offset of the centre of the
damaged area from the centre of the side of the vehicle you have
measured. This should be measured from the centre of the vehicle, not as
an offset from the centre of mass.
In the crush depth box you enter a series of measurements corresponding
to the crush found from the accident vehicle separated by a space. You
are limited to 100 crush measurements, but this should be plenty for the
vast majority of cases.
Note that AiDamage assumes always that you measure damage from the
LEFT to the RIGHT, whatever side of the vehicle you are measuring. See
the section on Measurement protocols for further details. Remember that
the crush must be measured in centimetres. Zero entries are allowed
which means that the user can measure the whole profile of the front, side
etc. rather than just the damage profile.
You now need to enter the interval between each of the crush
measurements. This is one figure and must therefore be the same for each
of the crush measurements. By default AiDamage enters 10 cm into this
box. You may change this if you wish.

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AiDamage
At this point the active edit box will reflect any data entered so far. The
crush profile is shown as a hatched grey area on the vehicle outline. If you
have made any error in entering the data, it should be easy to see exactly
where!
The last box requests sideslip data. Sideslip is the angle at which the
vehicle is sliding as compared to the direction that the front of the vehicle is
actually pointing. Sideslip has several subtle effects on the final results of
any calculation.
Clicking on the Next button brings up the vehicle two damage page which
needs data entered in exactly the same way as for vehicle one.
Clicking on Next yet again moves to the momentum page.

If you have selected the momentum calculation option on page 1 of the

Wizard, it will be possible to enter data into this page. If not, all the boxes
will be greyed out preventing data entry. If you have selected damage and
momentum on page 1, the impact angle box only is greyed out. A value is
already entered into this box by the program. This value is based on the
force angles entered on pages one and two of the Wizard.
The remainder of this page should be completed with details of the exit
angles and post-impact speeds. All of the angles are measured clockwise
from the original direction of travel of vehicle 1. The diagram below
illustrates this protocol.

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AiDamage
Post impact
direction
-90
Original
direction 90
+180 or
-180

+90

To allow more realistic displays to be produced in the final results, it is

possible to alter the pre-impact direction of travel of vehicle 1. This has no
effect on any calculations that are performed, but means you can rotate the
momentum vector diagram to represent your accident more easily.
Pre Impact
Headings
0

90

270

180
As always in the data entry Wizard, the active edit screen displays the data
as you enter it. A vector diagram, showing the relative alignment of the
entry and exit vectors is shown. Any changes you make will be reflected in
the diagram.
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AiDamage
If you have not chosen the momentum calculation on page 1 of the Wizard,
the momentum diagram is still displayed but has no effect on the damage
calculations.
Once all the data has been entered to your satisfaction, press the Finish
button. If you are not entirely happy with the data, you can always step
back through the various pages using the Back button. If you decide that
you wish to abandon the Wizard, press Cancel and the Wizard will close
without amending or adding any data. Once the Finish button is pressed a
calculation will be performed and a summary of the results displayed
almost instantly.

Results
There are six possible result pages. Three are always available, one
relating to momentum data and two relating to Damage are only available
when you have performed these types of calculation. Once the data entry
wizard is complete, you press Finish and the Summary Sheet is
automatically displayed. The other sheets are available by selected the
appropriate option in the View menu, or by clicking on the relevant icon on
the toolbar. A resume of each sheet is shown below,
Summary
Contains details of any change in velocity, information about the vehicle
types and diagnostic information about the calculation. With experience,
an understanding of the diagnostics is very helpful in analysing the results
and establishing their validity.
Crush Damage Profiles
Shows a scale diagram of the vehicles and shows the damage profile
overlaid onto the vehicle outline together with the primary forces. Text
based information on the crush measurements, moment arm (h) and
vehicle type is also displayed.
Impact Configuration
This shows the two vehicles aligned at the moment of impact and the
change in velocity of each vehicle displayed in a graphical format.
Momentum Analysis
The vector diagram, by momentum is displayed in this sheet together with
the change in velocity of each vehicle displayed in the same graphical
format as used in the impact configuration screen.
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AiDamage
Dimensions
This is a text based sheet containing all the dimensional data used in the
collision, all the crush data and various other items of information.
Predicted Speeds
The functionality originally provided by the program DeltaView has now
been included within AiDamage itself and the algorithm used to calculate
the real speeds from the DeltaV values has been updated.
Selecting this option causes AiDamage to display a page showing the
predicted speeds calculated for the collision.

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AiDamage
The top diagram shows the impact configuration and the paths of the
centres of mass. The lower diagram shows the path of the points of
application of the impulse. Where a common post impact velocity is
chosen (which will be when e = 0.0), the post impact vector for vehicle two
will overwrite that for vehicle one. For example in the diagram below the
lower diagram appears to have one blue post-impact vector for the point of
application. These diagrams can be very useful in determining whether the
configuration you have chosen produces realistic results.
Several options are available using the context menu which may be of
assistance. The coefficient of restitution used can be altered and there is
an option to set the predicted post-impact data as the scene data used in
the momentum calculations.

Context Menus
Clicking with the right mouse button anywhere within the document will
display a menu appropriate to the activity currently being performed. When
running in stand alone mode the menu are as follows with two more options
available on the Predicted Speed options menu:

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AiDamage
To activate any of the options just move the mouse pointer over the desired
option and click the left mouse button. That option will be activated and the
menu will be hidden. In stand alone mode the options allow you to switch
between any of the available views, recalculate the collision, edit the
collision data, change the display units or convert between measurement
protocols.
While running embedded different menus are presented.

For the impact configuration and momentum diagram MiniViews note that
additional choices are available which allow the diagram to be scaled.
These options are also available through the function keys:
F9 increases the scale
F10 decreases the scale
F11 resets the scale back to the default setting
The following functions are also available through the right mouse click
context menu:
Amending Data
Select the Amend option, from the Context Menu, Tools menu or from the
Amend button on the toolbar. This launches a eight page tab box, with the
same active edit window as used in the data entry Wizard.
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This series of tab boxes allow any data used in the collision to be
amended. The first three pages on the bottom row are almost identical to
those used in the data entry Wizard.
If you inadvertently enter the crush data in the reverse order, you have the
facility to reverse the measurements. Use the right mouse button and click
on the area surrounding the data boxes. This displays a menu where one
option is to reverse the crush measurements.
Pages four and five are concerned with the dimensional data of each
vehicle. Various dimensions used by the program, both in the calculations
and subsequent displays, can be adjusted here.
The first page on the top line contains details about the title, type of
calculation and coefficient of restitution. The summary result page shows
the coefficient of restitution as calculated using the momentum data. You
have the option to change the coefficient of restitution used by the damage
part of the program through this page.
The second and third pages along the top line are concerned with editing
advanced properties which allows researchers to enter Energy and EES
quantities when known. The position of the point of application of the
impusle can also be defined.
Once you have completed any amendments press OK and the program
will immediately recalculate the collision based on the new data. If you
have any result sheets open, these will be updated to reflect the new data.
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If you activate the Advanced Properties Page, the screen for setting the
advance properties below will appear when you use the data entry Wizard.

Activate the Advanced properties page from the View Options menu. When
checked, the amend data tab box will have an additional tab marked
Advanced V1 and Advanced V2 to allow amendment to the figures.
Change Pre-impact Speed
A further option through the context menus is to change the pre-impact
speed for each vehicle involved for use in the momentum calculations.
This option can also be found through the predictions tab of the view
options menu.

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Convert Measurements
This function allows the easy conversion between using AiDamage
measurements and Crash3 measurement.
Set as Scene Data
This command can be used to set the predicted
speeds results into the momentum data. The
post-impact speeds and directions are set into
the appropriate fields in the Momentum page
and the collision is recalculated using those
values.
This command is very useful in quickly setting
the momentum data to visualise the effect of
the predicted speed calculations.
By clicking the right mouse button whilst on the
speed predictions page, the option to set the
predicted speeds for use in the momentum
calculations can be selected.

Swap Vehicles
Use this command to interchange vehicles one and two. In other words,
vehicle one becomes vehicle two and vice versa.
Changing the Coefficient of Restitution
By clicking the right mouse button to display the context menu as above,
the option to change e can be selected to bring up the below box for the
simple adjustment of the value for e.

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Force Balancing
Newtons third law states that every action has a reaction equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction. In a collision therefore, if there are no
significant external forces acting, a force applied to one vehicle must be
equal and opposite to the force applied to the other vehicle.
This dialog box allows you to adjust the A and B coefficients used by the
program so the magnitude of the force acting on one vehicle matches that
acting on the other vehicle.

Three possibilities are permitted using this dialog:

1. Increase the lower vehicle coefficients to generate the required
match
2. Decrease the higher vehicle coefficients to generate the required
match
3. Increase the lower vehicle and decrease the higher vehicle
coefficients to generate the required match
The decimal places option governs the number of decimal places
generated in the new A and B coefficients.
You should always check to make sure that the generated coefficients are
reasonable for the type of vehicle under consideration.

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Printing Results
There are two print options available. You may either print each page
individually using the Print option from the File menu, or by clicking on the
Print button. Alternatively you can print all the results pages at once by
selecting the File, Print All menu or by pressing the Print Everything button
on the toolbar. See also OLE for alternative ways of displaying the results.
On some older printers it may take a little while to compile and print the
pages. This is due to the graphics used in the program. You may find that
increasing the printer memory reduces this problem.

The Vehicle Library

Data entry into AiDamage requires vehicle masses and dimensions in order
to calculate the change in velocity. The program uses information stored in
the vehicle library which is supplied with AiDamage.
It is quite
straightforward to add new vehicles to the supplied library, or to amend
existing vehicles other than the default classes including the Barrier class.
Clicking on the Edit Vehicles button loads the vehicle library toolbar which
allows the user to add, delete or amend vehicles in the library.
The vehicle Library dialog box.

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The Vehicle Library Toolbar
Start New Collision
Open
Save Library
Remove Vehicle
Save Changes to Current Vehicle
Add new vehicle based on this one

Import Vehicle
First record
Previous record
Next record
Last record
About
Help

To add a new vehicle into the library, select the Add record option. The
new entry will be based on data currently displayed. This can save time if
you are designing a new vehicle. For example to create a new vehicle
based on a class 2 vehicle, navigate to the class 2 vehicle and then select
add record. A new record will be created based on the existing class 2
data. Amend those dimensions applicable to the new vehicle, give it a
name and save the record.
When naming vehicles remember that the program displays vehicles
alphabetically. If you adopt the convention of naming vehicles by their
make and then their model, all vehicles of the same make will be grouped
together.
AiDamage does not check the vehicle name to determine whether or not it
already exists. It is possible therefore to give a name that already exists. If
this occurs you will find two entries in the vehicle type lists. Make sure you
select the one you want.
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You may add as many vehicles as you want using this method and you can
also delete any unwanted vehicles. Note that the program will not let you
delete or alter the base class vehicles without entering a password. This
password is NOT normally supplied as this facility is primarily designed to
allow the system manufacturers to amend this data.
Finally note that the radius of gyration (k), mass (m) and moment of inertia
(I) are linked together by the equation,

I = mk 2
Any changes you make to the radius of gyration or the moment of inertia
therefore will be reflected by a change in the other value according to this
equation and the current value of the mass.
Managing the vehicle library
Some users have built up quite comprehensive vehicle libraries over the
years. In response to a number of requests, a management screen has
been added. Users can now select vehicles from one library and transfer
them to another.
You can access the manage vehicle library screen from the Record, Import
Vehicles menu within the vehicle library screen.
To add vehicles from another library, (either from a hard or floppy disk), use
the open button to locate the data source. Your target file will automatically
default to the current vehicle library being used by AiDamage.
To transfer vehicles from one library to the other, highlight the vehicles you
wish to add and click the Add button. You can also delete, rename and
view the properties of any highlighted vehicle.

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OLE
AiDamage is fully OLE compliant. This means that you can run the
program in another Windows program. If you use a Windows word

processor such as Microsoft Word to write your reports, you can run
AiDamage from within the word processor and insert the results directly
into the report. Alternatively you can run the program on its own and copy
and paste each individual results page into your report.
If you chose to do this, the results are produced as mini views. As an
example, a Summary Sheet mini view is shown here.
Vauxhall v Alfa
(Damage based)
Total Delta-V:
Longitudinal Delta-V:
Lateral Delta-V:
Angular velocity change:

Veh 1
8.77
-8.64
-1.52
-19.58

Veh 2
9.05
1.57
-8.91
141.97

mph
mph
mph
deg/s

Energy dissapated:
Magnitude of force
Force direction:

14.68
130.43
10.00

10.05
130.42
100.00

kJ
kN
deg

Pre-impact motion
Total speed:
Longitudinal component:
Lateral component:
Sideslip:

25.24
25.24
-0.00
-0.00

0.04
-0.04
0.00
179.98

mph
mph
mph
deg

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When running AiDamage as a standalone program you can copy each
results page into your word processor by using the Copy and Paste
commands. The Windows shortcut for this is Ctrl + C for Copy and Ctrl + V
for Paste. In AiDamage turn to the results page you wish to copy, press
Control and c return to your word processor. Place the cursor where you
require the mini view to be inserted, press Control and v and the mini view
will be pasted into your report. You can now return to AiDamage to copy
the next results page.
Because the program is fully OLE compliant, double clicking on the mini
view in your word processor will allow you to edit the collision or substitute
another view. Note that if you amend data in this manner, only that mini
view will change.
To start an AiDamage run from within your word processor, Select Object
from the Insert menu. Click on Damage Document and then OK. Your
word processor toolbars will change to the AiDamage toolbar.

An example of an AiDamage document opened from within MS Word is

shown below.

Like any other OLE object, you can choose to wrap text around the mini
view or force text to remain above or below it. Remember that where you
insert a mini view and there is insufficient room for it on the page, it will
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insert itself on the following page of the report. Also like any other OLE
object you can grab a corner and enlarge or reduce the size of the view.
To paste more than one mini view simply copy and paste as many
instances as you require. Using the right mouse button, change the view of
each one. An example is shown on the following page.

Astra v Rover 214 (Test Collision)

(Damage based)
Total Delta-V:
Longitudinal Delta-V:
Lateral Delta-V:
Angular velocity change:

Veh 1
40.39
-25.97
30.94
188.92

Veh 2
36.60
-31.69
-18.30
-495.24

mph
mph
mph
deg/s

Energy dissapated:
Magnitude of force
Force direction:

273.81
760.27
-50.00

152.51
472.61
30.00

kJ
kN
deg

Pre-impact motion
Total speed:
Longitudinal component:
Lateral component:
Sideslip:

45.49
44.66
-8.67
-10.98

37.26
36.36
-8.14
-12.62

mph
mph
mph
deg

Astra v Rover 214 (Test Collision)

(Impact attitude)

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Emulating the Crash3 measurement protocol

Setting the program to use the Crash 3 measurement protocol
AiDamage was originally designed for ease of use and this included the
manner in which measurements for crush and offset were taken The
AiDamage measurement protocol always assumes that users measure
crush from left to right and that offset measurements are taken from the
centre line of the panel under inspection. (Front, back, left or right). Left of
the centre line is negative and right positive. This seems rather more
natural for those who read from left to right and has the advantage that
tape measures are always correctly oriented when actually performing the
measurements.
However this is at variance with the standard system of measurement
defined by Crash3. Crash3 assumes a plan view of the vehicle in question
and increasing crush measurements are positive from the rear left hand
corner of the vehicle. Positive and negative offset measurements are
defined similarly but are taken from the centre of mass of the vehicle.
As a result of user feedback, from version 2.5, AiDamage has the ability to
accept crush and offset measurements using either system. The two
systems are of course mutually exclusive and are applied to both vehicles.
The information box on the main screen indicates which measurement
protocol was used for a particular collision.
Switching between systems
To aid conversion between the two systems the Tools menu has a function
to change the measurement system used for a particular collision. This
function is also available using the context sensitive menus which may be
called up using the right mouse button.
Setting the Default system
You can set the default measurement system for new collisions using the
Options dialog.

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Crash3 measurement protocol summary of

measurement system
Required Data CRASH3 mode
One of the principle requirements of AiDamage is the need for accurate
data entry. Users need to have a thorough understanding of the way in
which crush damage is measured so as to be able to produce sensible
results.
When running in CRASH3 mode, AiDamage requires the following data to
be entered in relation to the damage suffered by the vehicle.
1. Force Direction

Measure damage from right to left

2. Offset

4. Interval (Measured
along damage profile)
3. Crush Depth

Measure
damage
from rear
to front

Centre of
Mass of
Vehicle

Centre
Line of
Damage

Measure
damage
from rear
to front

NOTE
Direction of measurements.
When in CRASH3 mode
measurements are made in the
direction shown by the red
arrows on the diagram above.

Measure damage from left to right

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Force Direction CRASH3 mode
The force direction is defined in two parts. Firstly the primary damage is
entered. There are four options, Front, Rear, Left and Right.
Once entered users can fine tune this by adding the Force Direction. The
angles are input in the following manner.
Front
0

Frontal and Rear Impacts

Front
-90

Front
+90

Rear
-90

Rear
+90
Rear
180

Side Impacts

Left
0

Right
0

Left
-90

Right
90

Left
-180

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Offset Measurement CRASH3 mode
The offset measurement can be described as the distance between the
centre of the damage profile and the centre of mass of the vehicle.
It is not necessarily a simple matter of placing a tape measure from one
side of the damage to the other and dividing by two. See the next section
on Damage Profiles for further information.
The offset is entered in centimetres. Positive and negative values must be
entered in accordance with the CRASH3 protocol shown in the diagram
below.

Positive
Value
Negative
Value
Negative
Value

Positive
Value
Positive
Value

Negative
Value

Negative
value

Offset Damage

Positive
Value

Note - because of the difficulty in measuring from the centre of mass, you
can measure from the centre of the wheelbase. Activate this option from
the View Option dialog box.
Crush Measurement CRASH3 mode
It is necessary to measure the Crush Profile at regular intervals. The
maximum number of entries is 100 per vehicle. Measurements are in
centimetres and 0 values are acceptable which allows the whole length of
the damaged side to be measured.
See page B-24 for further information on measuring crush.
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CCIS Vehicle Library
For research purposes, a CCIS vehicle library is provided. This is based
on the original Crash3 library with adjustments for front, rear wheel drive
etc.
To use the CCIS library, click on View Options and change the vehicle
library option to CCIS using the Browse button.
The CRASH3 data page has been revised to reflect the data required by
the CCIS research program.

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