Composites

in Industrial Plants
An Introductory Guide

Preface
The Queensland Governments Fibre Composites Action Plan New Technology
Taking Shape launched in April 2006 sets out over 50 initiatives under six theme
areas, ranging from innovation to skills and training.
The Fibre Composites Action Plan identified the potential for significant benefits
from increased use of composites in target sectors such as mining, minerals
processing and associated infrastructure.
Deborah Wilson Consulting Services (DWCS) and GHD were engaged to undertake
a study to assess this opportunity and develop approaches that make the choice
of composites in mining applications easier, and more relevant to delivering cost
savings and other benefits to industry.
The Queensland Government, through the Department of Employment, Economic
Development and Innovation (DEEDI), funded this study as part of a larger initiative
to help one of the States most promising new industries grow and compete on a
global level.
The aim of the study was to deliver:
case studies on successful use of composites in the mining industry and the
benefits composites deliver
business case information on the use of composites in different applications in
mining, minerals processing and associated infrastructure
information covering availability, technical guides and benefits of using
composites in common applications in the mining industry
improved links between composites suppliers, manufacturers and the mining
industry to better respond to mining industry needs
information kits, presentations and technical seminars on the findings and
applications where composites deliver value to the mining industry
a model for the composites industry to use in profiling valuable applications for
composites in other industries.
This introductory guide addresses a number of these aims. It has been prepared
following a review of relevant technical literature and discussions with the
composites industry.

Disclaimer
This publication was funded by the
Queensland Government (through the
Department of Employment, Economic
Development and Innovation). It is
distributed by the Queensland Government
as an information source only. The State
of Queensland makes no statements,
representations, or warranties about
the accuracy or completeness of, and
you should not rely on, any information
contained in this publication.
Readers should not act or rely upon any
information contained in this publication
without taking appropriate professional
advice relating to their particular
circumstances.
The Queensland Government disclaims all
responsibility and all liability (including
without limitation, liability in negligence)
for all expenses, losses, damages and
costs you might incur as a result of the
information being inaccurate or incomplete
in any way, and for any reason.

Composites

in Industrial Plants

An Introductory Guide

Table of contents

List of abbreviations

1. Introduction____________________________________ 3
2. Overview of materials and products________________ 4
2.1 Qualitative comparison of materials____________ 4
2.2 Benefits of composites_______________________ 5
2.3 Product applications_________________________ 6
2.3.1 Current applications_ _____________________ 6
2.3.2 Future applications_ ______________________ 7
2.3.3 Pipes and ducts__________________________ 7
2.3.4 Tanks and process vessels_________________ 8
2.3.5 Launders________________________________ 9
2.3.6 Joints and fittings_________________________ 9
2.3.7 Coatings and linings_ ____________________ 10
3. Composite product manufacturing________________ 11

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8

Components_______________________________
Fibre reinforcement_________________________
Resins____________________________________
Additives_ ________________________________
Cores_____________________________________
Example of a composite laminate_____________
Manufacturing processes____________________
Manufacturers_____________________________

11
11
13
14
14
15
15
15

4. Australian case stories__________________________ 16

5. Technical performance__________________________ 18
5.1 Design____________________________________
5.2 Standards_________________________________
5.3 Guides_ __________________________________
5.4 Relative performance of materials_ ___________
5.5 Service life________________________________
5.6 Mechanical properties______________________
5.6.1 General________________________________
5.6.2 Strength_ ______________________________
5.6.3 Fatigue_________________________________
5.6.4 Creep__________________________________
5.6.5 Abrasion resistance______________________
5.7 Thermal properties_________________________
5.8 Chemical properties________________________
5.9 Electrical properties________________________
5.10 Performance of composites in fire_____________
5.11 UV resistance______________________________
5.12 Working with composites on site______________
5.13 Inspection and testing_ _____________________

18
18
19
19
20
20
20
20
21
22
22
22
23
26
26
27
28
28

6. Economic comparison___________________________ 30
7. Environmental comparison_ _____________________ 31
8. References____________________________________ 32
9. Australian manufacturers of composite
industrial products_____________________________ 34
10. Australian composites design and
engineering service providers____________________ 41
11. Acknowledgements_____________________________ 43

ACI

American Concrete Institute

AS

Australian Standard

BS

British Standard

CFRP

Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic

CTE

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

FRP

Fibre Reinforced Plastic

GRP

Glass Reinforced Plastic

HDT

Heat Distortion Temperature

ISO

International Standards Organisation

PTFE

Polytetrafluorethylene

PVC

Polyvinyl Chloride

PVDF

Polyvinylidene Fluoride

UV

Ultraviolet (sunlight)

Introduction

A composite is a material made up of two or more components so the beneficial

properties of each component are utilised. In this guide, composite refers to a
material composed of a thermosetting resin and fibre reinforcement. Composites
are also referred to as fibreglass, glass reinforced plastic (GRP), fibre reinforced
plastic (FRP) and carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP). As there are many different
resins, reinforcements and methods of putting the two together, there are a
multitude of materials which can be described as composites.

A composite is a material
made up of two or more
components so the beneficial
properties of each
component are utilised.

Composites offer unique products in many of Queenslands most important

industry sectors, including advanced manufacturing, aerospace, building and
construction, defence, infrastructure, marine, mining and transport. As composites
are light-weight and corrosion-resistant, the materials have the potential to reduce
costs, save time and provide a safer work environment. At a time of fluctuating
steel prices and long delivery times, composites offer a real alternative to reduce
capital and operational costs, and downtime. Composites light-weight nature
provides operational savings for trucks and mobile equipment, and their
corrosion-resistance prevents the hazards of rusting steel structures.
Composites have been used in many Australian industries since the 1940s. For
example, in the minerals processing and chemical industries, the materials are
used in a variety of applications including tanks, pipes, process vessels and floor
grating. In the mining industry, the materials are used in applications including
ducts, truck bodies and rock bolts. It seems the Bronze Age and Iron Age have
passed, and the composites age is now upon us.
The Queensland Government is capitalising on Queenslands strengths as a world
leader in the research, development and commercialisation of fibre composites
technologies through the implementation of its Fibre Composites Action Plan, and
significant investment under the Smart Futures Fund.

Carbon fibre-epoxy drill rod prototype

with embedded strain gauges and carbon
nanotube-epoxy threads
Image courtesy of Teakle Composites

For more information on Queenslands Fibre Composites industry please visit:

www.composites.industry.qld.gov.au
Lucy Cranitch, GHD, produced this guide. It aims to provide an introduction to
composites in the mining, mineral processing and chemical industries, and to
assist in the decision to purchase a composite component. It does not provide
design details of composite components.
For more information on GHD please visit www.ghd.com.au

Overview of materials and products

2.1

Qualitative comparison of materials

The table below provides a quick comparison of materials.

Table 1 Qualitative comparison of materials
Material

Advantages

Disadvantages

Mild steel

High strength

Susceptibility to corrosion

High stiffness

Susceptibility to fatigue

High ductility

High weight
High energy required for production

Stainless steel

Corrosion resistance

High cost

Aluminium

Low weight

Susceptibility to corrosion in strong acids and alkalis

High ductility

High energy required for production

Ease of recycling
Plastic (polyethylene,
polypropylene, polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), etc)

Composite

Corrosion resistance

Susceptibility to creep

Low cost

Low stiffness

Low coefficient of friction

Non-conductive properties can be a disadvantage

Ease of recycling

Limited temperature resistance above 200C

Corrosion resistance

Limited temperature resistance above 250C

Low weight

Sensitivity to impact damage

High strength
Conductivity or non-conductivity
Low coefficient of friction

Wagners Composite Fibre 100 x 100mm

pultruded sections
Image courtesy of
Wagners CFT Manufacturing Pty Ltd

2.2

Benefits of composites

Corrosion resistant
With the selection of correct materials, composites will not deteriorate in acids,
alkalis, solvents and salt water, and can be used from pH 0 to 14. Composites are
therefore used widely in tanks, pipes and process vessels in chemical extraction
of base and precious metals. Plant operating time can therefore be maximised.
Both minerals processing and chemical plants use this durable material for plant
infrastructure, such as gratings and hand rails, where rusting of steel structures
can place the safety of plant personnel at risk. Since composites do not require
painting, there are also reduced maintenance costs.
Durable
Composite materials are durable due to their high strength and high resistance
to fatigue, abrasion and creep. Agitated tanks made from composites have been
found to operate successfully for many years despite the cyclic loads experienced.
In pipelines, resistance to abrasion combined with a low coefficient of friction aids
process flow and reduces downtime. This overall durability of composites reduces
the need for maintenance and repair, which maximises plant running time.
Light in weight
Composites are relatively light in weight compared to steel, iron and concrete.
For example, typical composite pipes are approximately 25 per cent of the weight
of ductile iron and 2 per cent of concrete equivalent pipe mass per metre. The
reduced weight of composite pipes, tanks and process vessels has led to lower
transportation and installation costs for the mining industry, and reduced plant
downtime through enabling installation at sites where access is restricted. Where
electrical guarding and hatches need to be lifted by plant operators, the composite
option at less than 10kg per sheet is certainly preferable to the steel option at
more than 20kg. This also applies to hatches and all components that must be
lifted to ensure the safety of all personnel.

All FRP (handrails, stair treads, landing

and support structure) stair platform
Image courtesy of Exel Composites

Electrically insulating or conductive

For safety reasons, the electrical insulation of process equipment is critical
where high electric currents or voltages are used. Composites that are electrically
insulating are used in high electric currents or voltage environments, such as pot
rooms in aluminium processing and in electrowinning. The radio and magnetic
transparency of composites is useful in a number of applications. In applications
where static charge can build-up, static dissipation and grounding of equipment
is critical to keep plants operating and to prevent fires where flammable solvents
are used. Conductive properties can also be built into the composite equipment for
applications such as solvent extraction.
Thermally insulating
Where high temperature fluids are stored in vessels or pipes, thermal insulation
is critical for safety. The use of composites in these applications can reduce or
eliminate the need for insulation with external temperatures typically being less
than 60C for fluids and liquors up to 100C. Furthermore, being an insulator, the
transfer of heat from composite materials to any body part is very much less than
that from a conductive material such as stainless steel.
Flexible in design and manufacture
Composite materials offer solutions to many manufacturing problems due to the
vast array of resins, reinforcements and unique manufacturing methods used
to produce them. Such flexibility in design and manufacture can result in cost
and time savings. For example, it is relatively simple for composite materials to
create compound curves in metallic materials. Also, while large covers usually
require large support structures, the light weight nature of composites means it is
possible to design covers that are supported on the edge of a vessel without the
requirement for intermediate supports. Composites manufacturing processes,
such as hand lay up, also enable unique designs to be manufactured at relatively
5

The ability of composites

to conform to any shape
and bond with steel
and concrete enables
rehabilitation and retrofit.

low cost. The ability of composites to conform to any shape and bond with steel
and concrete enables rehabilitation and retrofit. For example, composite materials
are well used in the lining of process vessels. Composite materials flexibility in
design and manufacture also means on-site manufacture of very large vessels,
such as filament winding of large tanks, is possible

2.3

Product applications

2.3.1

Current applications

Composites can be used in many applications in the mining and process

industries, including:
Mining
ducts for ventilation, chilling and cooling in underground operations
cuttable rock bolts (used in reinforcement), rib bolts and brackets
mobile and stationery containers for water, diesel and other liquid
storage on site
bore casings and insulation in underground structures
theodolites and legs for survey equipment.
Mineral and chemical processing
tanks for storage of corrosive and non-corrosive materials
process vessels including gas cooler condensers, electrostatic mist
precipitators, leach tanks, reactor tanks, thickeners, electrolytic cells, cell
bearers, mixer settlers, spent tanks, crystallisers, solvent extraction and
electrowinning cells, and pulse columns
mineral sands separation equipment including spirals, cone concentrators
and hydrocyclones
cooling towers
linings for concrete and steel tanks and equipment
claustra walls and panels
Chemical resistant FRP piping system
with coupling for use in highly
corrosive environments
Image courtesy of A.C.Whalan Composites

fans, blades, baffles, agitators, bottom scrapers and mixing tools

pipes, fittings and launders including products for abrasive (e.g. slurry)
and non-abrasive materials
nozzles, flanges, elbows, reducers, branches, tees and joints
ducts for transporting process gases and fume extraction
scrubbers and waste gas towers, quench towers and demisters
dampeners/valves
gratings, ladders, walkways, handrails, steps and platforms
inspection hatches, hoods and covers
structural applications such as support beams, channels and angles
froth crowders for flotation tanks
protective guards on machines
consoles
telescopic handles for sampling and testing
stacks, flues and other large structures
use of composites to repair failed plant components.

Mine site infrastructure

guards, grating, walkways, platforms, kick rails, stairs and ladders
rebar and stay-in-place formwork for concrete
polymer concrete
concrete floor and bund coatings and lining
cable supports, trays and ladders
pumps
power poles including cross-arms
wall and roof sheeting as well as purlins in site buildings
window and door frames
water treatment and supply
trusses

21mm solid FRP rods supplied to customer

as concrete rebar to eliminate any
electrostatic interference with its equipment

manhole covers

Image courtesy of Exel Composites

bridges

railway sleepers
drains and sumps
poles to remove high voltage lines.
Port infrastructure
guards and inspection hatches
gratings, ladders, walkways, handrails, steps and platforms
structural panelling, sheet piling and other applications in marine environments.
2.3.2

Future applications

The advantages of composites described above have led to investigations into

new applications for composites, including:
truck bodies, cabs, panels and engine casings (fully fibreglass cabs have been
used by Leader trucks and Mack trucks since the 1970s)
access ladders, hand rails and steps attached to major mining and
earth moving equipment
wear blocks
long and short conveyors including supports, covers and hoods, guards
and rollers
wash plant pipes and air receivers
port loading infrastructure
gag ducts for fire suppression in underground mines.
2.3.3

Pipes and ducts

From pipes carrying sulphuric acid in leaching of copper bearing ore, to waste
water, composite pipes have widespread use in the chemical and minerals
processing industries in Australia. Key benefits include resistance to corrosion
in chemical environments, increased hydraulic flow and reduced operating costs
through comparatively low friction compared to steel. Conductive composite
pipes are much safer than plastic pipes in solvent extraction plants, and have
been found to be more cost effective and durable than the alternative SAF2507
stainless steel.

In underground mining, composite ducts are used for ventilation as its light weight
nature enables much easier installation and lighter supports than other products.
In the chemical and minerals processing industries, composite ducts are used for
applications like transporting sulphur dioxide in plants manufacturing sulphuric
acid, and in minerals processing plants to extract fumes.
There are a range of standards and guidelines available for the design and
manufacture of composite ducts and pipes. Those most widely used in
Australia include:
AS 3571

Plastics piping systemsGlass-reinforced thermoplastics (GRP) systems based on unsaturated

polyester (UP) resinpressure and non-pressure drainage and sewerage; and pressure and nonpressure water supply

AS 2634 (obsolescent)

Chemical plant equipment made from glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP), based on thermosetting
resins

AS/NZS 2566

Buried flexible pipelines

BS 7159

Code of practice for design and construction of glass-reinforced plastics (GRP) piping systems for
individual plants or sites

BS 6464

Specification for reinforced plastic pipes, fittings and joints for process plants

BS EN ISO 14692

Petroleum and natural gas industriesglass-reinforced plastics (GRP) piping

ISO 10467

Plastics piping systems for pressure and non-pressure drainage and sewerageglass-reinforced
thermosetting plastics (GRP) systems based on unsaturated polyester (UP) resin

ISO 10639

Plastics piping systems for pressure and non-pressure water supplyglass-reinforced

thermosetting plastics (GRP) systems based on unsaturated polyester (UP) resin

ANSI/AWWA C950

Standard for fiberglass pressure pipe

ISO 10639

Plastics piping systems for pressure and non-pressure water supply using GRP systems based on
unsaturated polyester (UP) resin.
Composite pipes can be used at low and high pressures. For example, the API15
HR specification for high pressure fibreglass line pipe covers pipes rated for
3.45MPa to 34.5MPa.
For above ground pipes and ducts, BS 6464 contains information on installation
including supports, guides and anchors. Pipe support spacing is important and the
ratio of the vertical deflection of a pipe to the horizontal span between supports
is often limited to 1:300. For pipe supports, a minimum contact arc of 120 under
the pipe is typical and rubber packers between the support and the pipe can help
reduce point loads.
For buried pipes, AWWA C950 contains information on design whilst AS 2566
and BS 6464 can be used for installation. Information on trench preparation,
backfilling material and installation procedures are given in these standards.
It is possible to make continuous radius bends, including elbows and long radius
bends, as a single unit with no longitudinal joints in composites.
2.3.4

Tanks and process vessels

In the chemical and minerals processing industries, composite tanks and process
vessels have a long history of successful use in chemical environments which
readily corrode steel and attack concrete.

FRP Fuel tanks

Sulphuric and hydrochloric acids are widely used in processing copper, lead, nickel
and zinc. In these manufacturing plants, composites are used to construct leach
tanks, thickeners, electrolytic cells mixer settlers, spent tanks and pulse columns.
In sulphuric acid manufacturing plants, composites are widely used in radial flow
scrubbers, gas cooler condensers and electrostatic mist precipitators.

While the corrosion resistance of composites is a key benefit, the relatively low
cost of composites compared to alternative materials such as stainless steel,
duplex and other alloys has also accelerated their acceptance.
The following standards and guides are applicable to composite tanks and vessels:
AS 2634 (obsolescent)

Chemical plant equipment made from glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP), based on
thermosetting resins

BS 4994 (superseded)

Specification for design and construction of vessels and tanks in reinforced plastics

BS EN 13121

GRP tanks and vessels for use above ground. Design and workmanship

BS EN 13923

Filament-wound FRP pressure vessels. Materials, design, manufacturing and testing

ASME RTP-1

Reinforced thermoset plastic corrosion resistant equipment

ASTM D3299

Standard specification for filament-wound glass-fiber-reinforced thermoset resin

corrosion-resistant tanks.

As well as storage tanks and process vessels, composites can also make internal
components such as baffles and weirs. For example, composite flanges, manways
and other fixtures can be built into the composite tank or vessel.
It is important to reinforce areas of composite tanks and vessels subject to higher
loads. Shells should be reinforced with external circumferential reinforcing ribs
to provide rigidity, particularly where agitators are not independently supported.
Floors should be reinforced where intermediate supports are needed for tank
roofs. Roofs should be reinforced where personnel and/or other equipment need to
be supported.
Information on supports for tanks and process vessels is given in the standards.
It is standard practice to use concrete slabs as supports, however, concrete ring
beams filled with compacted sand finished with a layer of sand and oil mixture can
also be used.
2.3.5

Launders

There is no design standard specifically for composite launders, although BS 6464

contains some applicable information. The stiffness of the launder should be
sufficient to prevent sag, twist, camber or spreading without full length supports or
restraints while the launder is operating. It is advisable to reinforce off-take areas
of launders.
2.3.6

Joints and fittings

The type of joints affects the durability and cost of pipelines. Common methods
of joining composite pipes are butt and strap; rubber ring type and flanged joins.
Restrained joints eliminate the need for and thus cost of thrust blocks etc. Butt
and strap joints used with composite pipes are restrained, have similar chemical
resistance to the parent pipe material and are less susceptible to leaks. However,
in terms of installation butt and strap joints are slow and costly and do not tolerate
misalignment or movement well. Whilst rubber ring type joints are not restrained,
they are quick to install and tolerate some degree of misalignment and movement.
Thus rubber ring type joints are particularly useful for buried pipelines.
There are a number of requirements for durable butt and strap joints. The strength
of the joint must be at least equivalent to that of the parent material. The required
widths of pipe joints are given in the standards, and where accessible, the internal
surface of the joint should be laminated. Since joints are hand laid, their thickness
must be that of a hand laid pipe, even for joints in a filament wound pipe. To
prevent ingress of fluids into the laminate, all cut ends must be sealed with resin.
Tees, branches and other similar joints can be prepared using similar techniques
to those employed for standard composite butt and strap joints.

FRP flange installed at a fertilizer (phosphates)

manufacturing facility in Australia
Image courtesy of Lucy Cranitch, GHD

Flanged joints are also widely used and flanges can be made from composite
materials. The thicknesses of composite flanges depend on the design, but are
generally greater than that of metal flanges. ANSI dimensions are commonly used
for bolt patterns, and composite flanges can be manufactured to be compatible
with most existing flanges made of PVC, steel and ductile iron. It is important
to ensure composite flanges are flat to provide a good seal, so full flat-faced
flanges with steel backing rings are often used. It is important to never mix full
face composite flanges and raised face flanges as this readily results in leaks and
failures. To avoid point loads caused by nuts directly in contact with the composite
flange face, washers should be used under nuts, reliefs can be cut into the face of
the flange and care must be taken with bolt torque. All cut outs for bolt holes must
be sealed with resin to enhance durability. A number of standards are applicable
to flanges.
AS 4087

Metallic flanges for waterworks purposes

AS 2129

Flanges for pipes, valves and fittings

AS 4331.1 (ISO 7005)

Metallic flanges (steel flanges)

2.3.7

Coatings and linings

Composites can be used in conjunction with concrete or steel to provide a

corrosion-resistant lining or coating. This may be in the form of an internal
corrosion protection to steel or concrete tanks, or as a protective layer on concrete
floors or bunds. The following standards and guides are applicable to composite
coatings and linings:
BS 6374-4

Lining of equipment with polymeric materials for the process industries. Part 4: Specification for lining
with cold curing thermosetting resins

ACI 515.1R

Guide to the use of waterproofing, damp-proofing, protection and decorative barrier systems for concrete.
The following steps are typical in applying a bonded composite layer to concrete:
1.

The concrete should be left 28 days to cure prior to application of any coating
or lining.

2.

Surface preparation of the substrate is important. Abrasive grit blasting (high

pressure water or grit blasting) of the surface is required to improve bonding
of the coating or lining.

3.

Remove dust or grit by vacuuming and/or sweeping.

4.

Wash the surface to remove oils, greases and other contaminants.

5.

Dry the substrate.

6.

Test for suitability of the coating or lining. Various tests are required
depending on the substrate, for example pH, moisture and surface pull-off
tests are required for concrete.

7.

Fill voids with a resin-based filler.

8.

Prime.

9.

Apply the basecoat, consisting of resin reinforced with fibre mats or

with fillers.

10. Apply the top coat, and if required spread silica aggregate to provide
slip resistance.
Quality control during the coating or lining process is important. This should
include wet film thickness tests, adhesion tests, coating sensitivity tests and resin
gel time tests. If an additional conductive primer coat is applied, spark testing can
be conducted once the basecoat is applied.

10

Composite product manufacturing

3.1

Components

Composite products consist

of a combination of fibres,
resins, additives, and in
some cases, cores.

Each component contributes to the overall properties, performance and

appearance of the composite product. The precise type of materials and
manufacturing process used are determined by the specific properties required
for the final product. The following principles are essential for the production
of good-quality composite products:
quality of materialsresins, glass fibres, additives and cores
quality of designquantity, orientation and suitability of fibres, suitability and
volume of resins, suitability and volume of additives, and suitability of cores
quality of manufacturingconsistency and control of the manufacturing and
curing processes. Full curing of the product is essential to attain optimum
mechanical properties, prevent heat softening, limit creep and reduce fluid
diffusion
quality of transport and installation practices.
As the composite material itself is made at the same time as the part, quality
assurance and inspection throughout these processes are essential.

3.2

Fibre reinforcement

The role of the reinforcement in a composite part is to carry the applied load.
The factors which affect the contribution of the reinforcement to the composite
properties are:
the type of reinforcement
the form of reinforcement
the quantity of reinforcement (resin-to-reinforcement ratio)

Fibreglass borehole liner

the orientation of the reinforcement.

Image courtesy of Teakle Composites

Type: Many different types of reinforcement are available, including E glass,

ECR glass, C glass, carbon, aramid (Kevlar) and many other less common fibres.
Carbon fibre is used in the mining industry primarily to provide conductivity.
The bulk of the reinforcements are made of glass. E glass is the most widely
used fibre type due to its high strength and relatively low cost. C glass is used
where excellent chemical resistance is required, usually in the form of a tissue
as described in the table below. ECR glass is sometimes used to provide better
resistance to chemicals.
The following table, taken from the Eurocomp Design Code, compares typical glass
fibre properties. Compared to steel, glass fibres have approximately 2.5 times the
strength with only one third of the density, and higher dimensional stability.
Table 2 Comparison of properties of glass fibre types and steel
Property

E glass

C glass

Steel

Specific gravity

2.54

2.50

7.8

Tensile strength (MPa)

3400

3000

1350

Tensile modulus (GPa)

72

69

200

Elongation (%)

4.8

4.8

1032

Coefficient of thermal expansion (106/C)

5.0

7.2

11.5

11

Form: Fibres are available in many forms, as described in the following table.
Table 3 Forms of reinforcement
Reinforcement form

Description

Filament

Individual fibres as initially drawn from the raw materials. Filaments are processed further
before use.

Continuous strand

Filaments gathered in continuous bundle. Continuous strands are processed further

before use.

Milled fibre

Continuous strands hammer-milled into lengths of 0.8 to 3mm. Milled fibres are used as
fillers and additives to control heat distortion and improve surface quality in compounding
and casting.

Chopped strand

Strands chopped to 5 to 60mm lengths.

Roving

Strands bundled together without twist. Rovings are used in various manufacturing processes
including filament winding and pultrusion to give high strength in the direction of the fibres.

Yarn

Twisted strands. Yarns are processed further before use such as in the manufacture of cloths.

Chopped strand mat

Non-woven mat of chopped strands in random orientations. This reinforcement is widely used
to give strength in all directions and good inter-laminar adhesion.

Continuous strand mat

Non-woven mat of continuous strands in random orientations.

Tissue/veil

Fine non-woven mat of continuous filaments that are uniformly distributed over the surface
in random orientations. Tissues have relatively low strength. Their purpose is to support a
resin-rich layer which protects the composite from moisture and chemicals, through preventing
these fluids entering the laminate along the fibres.

Unidirectional fabric

Rovings in one direction held together by a small amount of fibres woven or stitched at 90.
Unidirectional fabrics give strength in one direction.

Woven roving

Rovings woven into a fabric in a particular pattern, usually a plain weave. Woven rovings give
strength in two directions.

Cloth

Fabric made from yarns woven in a particular pattern. Cloths give strength predominantly in
two directions.

Stitched fabric

Layers of fibres held together by stitching. Stitched fabrics give strength predominantly in two
directions and have higher interlaminar strength than cloths.

Multi axial fabrics

Fabric made from yarns or rovings in more than two directions. Multi axial fabrics give strength
in three or more directions.

Needle punched and

combi-mats
Quantity: The manufacturing process has a large effect on the quantity of
reinforcement in composites. Fabrics with closely packed fibres will give a higher
volume fraction of reinforcement than those fabrics with large gaps between fibre
bundles. The weight per unit area of reinforcement varies greatly from as low as
20g/m2 for tissues, to 300 or 450g/m2 for chopped strand mat, to 800g/m2
for woven rovings, and to well over 1600g/m2 for filament wound rovings. As a
general rule, the strength and stiffness of a composite are proportionate to the
quantity of reinforcement present. However, the laminate strength peaks at an
optimum fibre volume of about 70 per cent, above which the strength declines due
to a lack of resin to hold the fibres together.
Orientation: The tensile strength of fibres is greatest in longitudinal direction
rather than width. Fibres must therefore be oriented in the direction of the load,
and orientation can be designed to suit the particular loading requirements of the
Fibreglass cloth composed
in a swirl pattern
12

part. Unidirectional fibres run in one direction only, whereas fabrics have fibres in
predominantly two directions, and chopped strands are oriented in all directions.
The combination of reinforcements results in an anisotropic material, where its
properties vary with direction.

3.3

It is helpful to distinguish
between two broad groups
of polymersthermoplastic
and thermosetting.

Resins

While the fibres are the principal load-carrying members, the surrounding matrix
of resin maintains them in the desired orientation and location. It also allows
the applied load to be transferred between the reinforcing fibres. Another very
important function of the resin is to provide a barrier to the environment, which
protects the composite from the elements, such as water and chemicals.
Resins are also referred to as polymers as they are made up of many (poly)
long-chain molecules (mers). It is helpful to distinguish between two broad groups
of polymersthermoplastic and thermosetting. Thermoplastic polymers melt
when heat is applied. This is because their long chains are not chemically bound
together (i.e. they are not cross-linked). Thermosetting polymers, on the other
hand, do not melt when heated because their long chains are chemically bound
together (i.e. they are cross-linked). The resins used in composites (and those
described here) are all thermosetting polymers.
There are a great variety of resins. The most common groups are polyester, vinyl
ester and epoxy. Whilst fire retardant versions of these resins are available,
phenolic resins are also used in situations where fire retardant properties are
required. Resins are supplied to composite manufacturers in a liquid state, and
during the manufacture of the composite part the resin is cured to form a solid.
This process of curing the resin is a chemical reaction in which the cross-links are
formed between the polymer chains. Before curing, the resin is in a liquid state as
the polymer chains can flow easily. Once the polymer chains are linked together,
the polymer chains can no longer flow and the resin becomes a hard solid.

Spent Electrolyte Tank installed at

Cause Nickel, Kalgoorlie
Image courtesy of Marky Industries Pty Ltd

Polyester and vinyl ester resins supplied to the composite industry are dissolved
in styrene monomer. This reduces the viscosity, so that the resin flows more readily
to allow ease of spreading and ensures full fibre-wetting, complete impregnation
and minimal voids. The styrene monomer is also a key component in the curing
process of polyester and vinyl ester resins, forming the cross-links between the
polymer chains.
Polyester resins provide good strength at a relatively low cost and are used widely
in the marine industry, and in pools, spas, transport, casting, infrastructure and
automotive applications. Various types of polyester resins provide a wide variety
of properties relating to water and chemical resistance, weathering and shrinkage
during curing.
Vinyl ester resins are used primarily where improved water and chemical
resistance, heat resistance or improved flexibility is required. Standard and
high performance vinyl ester resins are widely used in the mining and chemical
industries due to their high resistance to acids, alkalis and solvents.
Epoxy resins have a different structure to polyester and vinyl ester resins. They are
usually sold as a two-pack systemPart A and Part B and these two parts must be
mixed strictly in the ratios given by the supplier. The part A is the resin and the part
B is the hardener and there are a number of different types of each. Epoxy resins
are not dissolved in styrene monomer and do not shrink as much as polyester or
vinyl ester resins when they cure.
Epoxy Resins provide particularly good mechanical strength and adhesion and
have good stiffness, toughness, heat resistance and water resistance. Epoxy resins
tend to be more expensive than polyester resins. Epoxy resins are widely used in
piping and infrastructure.

13

3.4

Additives

The following additives can be incorporated into the resin:

Fillers are powders used to add bulk to the resin, which reduces costs and
enhances the compressive strength of the composite material. Fillers can also
reduce the exotherm (heat build-up) and shrinkage during curing. Fillers may be
added to the resin at up to 50 per cent by weight (for dense fillers) or 35 per cent by
volume. Addition of filler over these amounts should be avoided as it reduces the
flexural and tensile strengths, as well as the chemical resistance of the composite.
Thixotropes are powders added to the resin to allow it to hold up onto a vertical
surface. The addition of thixotropes is required when the resin must not run or
sag when it is applied to steep moulds or to vertical walls (such a lining of a tank).
Thixotropes allow the resin to flow when a shear force is applied (i.e. when resin
is forced through a spray gun), and prevent the resin from flowing when the force
is removed.
Pigments can be incorporated into the resin to produce a specific colour and to
provide UV resistance.
Fibreglass drill rod joint assembly
in Instron testing machine
Image courtesy of Teakle Composites

UV inhibitors and absorbers can be added to the resin to improve its UV resistance.
Flame retardants can be added to the resin to improve its resistance to fire.
Inhibitors are chemicals added to the resin to slow down the curing reaction, so
more time is available to work with the resin during manufacture before it cures.
As resins can cure in storage, inhibitors help to extend the resins storage life.
Promoters and accelerators are chemicals added to the resin to speed up the
curing reaction to enable manufacture in a reasonable timeframe.
While additives improve many properties of composites, they can also impair other
properties at the same time. For example, some fire retardants can reduce the
composites resistance to weathering and chemicals. Additives should therefore
be carefully selected.

3.5

Cores

Some composite parts incorporate core materials, primarily to impart stiffness

without increasing weight. Cores may also be used to increase the impact strength,
fatigue resistance, thermal insulation and sound deadening effect. For a panel, the
flexural stiffness is proportional to its thickness cubed, which means as thickness
increases, stiffness increases dramatically. Cores can be used in specific areas of
a structure where extra stiffness is required (e.g. stiffening ribs) or throughout the
area of a laminate as a sandwich panel.
A sandwich panel consists of a core with reinforcement and resin on either side
(skin). In a sandwich panel, the adhesive layers between the skins and the core
must be able to transfer the loads and therefore be at least as strong as the core
material. Without a good bond, the three components work as separate beams
and the stiffness is lost.
Figure 1 shows a sandwich panel under a bending load. As a result of the bending,
the upper section is placed under compression, the lower section in tension and
the core in shear. Shear strength and stiffness of a core material are important.

Skin
Compression

Shear

Core

Skin

Tension

Figure 1. Bending a sandwich panel

14

3.6

C = Tissue
M = Chopped Strand Mat
W = Woven Roving

Example of a composite laminate

Figure 2 shows the wall of a composite tank or pipe to illustrate the

layers that make up the composite material.
The reinforcement sequence is often given on drawings in the
format below, in order from the internal surface to the outer surface:
C/2M/4(MW)/M/C*
Reinforcements:
C = 40g/m2 C glass or synthetic tissue such as Nexus tissue.
M = 450g/m2 E glass powder bound chopped strand mat.
W = 800g/m2 E glass woven roving.
C* = 40g/m2 C glass or synthetic tissue such as Nexus tissue with
resin containing wax and UV inhibitors or pigment.

3.7

Primary
corrosion
barrier
C

M M

Alternating chopped mat

& woven roving to desired
thickness
W

M M

Vinyl Ester Resin

C
resin/wax
topcoat

Figure 2. An example of the makeup of a composite wall

Manufacturing processes

Formation of a composite product involves combining layers of reinforcement with

resin. A chemical reaction of the resin then converts it from a liquid to a solid to
bind everything together as a whole. This chemical reaction is called curing, and is
activated by catalysts for polyester and vinyl ester resin and a hardener for epoxy
resins. The catalyst or hardener must be added to the resin prior to combining the
resin with the reinforcement. It is important to achieve good cure of resins in a
timely manner. This can be achieved through adjusting the chemicals involved in
curing, including the inhibitors, accelerators and catalyst or hardener, and through
taking account of the temperature during manufacture. There are a number of
different manufacturing processes.
Hand lay up involves the manufacture of a part in a mould. Resin is first applied to
the mould surface, then layers of glass which are wet by the resin and consolidated
with rollers.
Vacuum Infusion Processing (VIP) involves the lay up of dry glass on a mould. A
flexible film (bag) is then laid over the glass and sealed to airtight and then the
resin is pulled through the glass under the force of a vacuum.
Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM) uses two matched moulds a bottom mould and a
top mould. This process therefore produces parts with two finished surfaces.
Filament winding is performed on a machine that winds glass fibres onto a
cylindrical mandrel in a prescribed pattern to form the desired finished shape (e.g.
a pipe). Fibres in the form of continuous rovings are routed through a bath of resin
before reaching the mandrel. After curing, the tube is removed from the mandrel.
Pultrusion is used for the manufacture of products of a constant cross-section.
The glass fibres are pulled through a die (as compared to extrusion where the
material is forced through a die) in a continuous process, injected with resin,
shaped by the die and then cured.

3.8

Manufacturers

Australias composites industry is represented by Composites Australia Inc.

Composites Australia is a membership-based, not-for-profit association dedicated to
increasing the awareness and general usage of composites in Australia. Composites
Australia has access to an extensive database of organisations in the Australian
composites industry including raw material suppliers, manufacturers, designers
and engineers, research and development agencies and training and education
providers. See section 9 of this guide for contact details for a number of Australian
composite product manufacturers, or contact Composites Australia at:
Level 15, 10 Queens Road, Melbourne Victoria 3004
Telephone: + 61 3 9866 5586 or 1300 654 254
Facsimile + 61 3 9866 6434
info@compositesaustralia.com.au
www.compositesaustralia.com.au
15

Australian case stories

The following tables provide examples of where composites have been used
in Australia.
Table 4 Current composite components in Australian mining and minerals
processing plants
End user

Industry

Location

Components

Rio Tinto

Aluminium

Gladstone, QLD

Hoods for fume tanks, pipes, claustra walls in pot rooms

Adelaide Chemical
Company

Copper

Burra, WA

Acid leach tanks (agitated), tank, slurry pipe, grating, gas

cooling tower

Xstrata Copper
Refineries

Copper

Townsville, QLD

Electrolyte pipework, polymer concrete Electrolytic cells,

galvanizing tank, acid storage tank, grating, wall cladding,
roofing

BHP Billiton,
Olympic Dam

Copper,
uranium,
gold, silver

Roxby Downs, SA

Mixer settlers, Jameson cells, pipes in solvent extraction and

electrowinning, bund linings, ducts, electrolytic cells, stack,
tanks, electrostatic mist precipitators

Kanowna Belle Gold

Gold

WA

Roaster stack, fan to stack ducting

Posgold Ltd

Gold

WA

Tanks

Nystar

Lead

Port Pirie, SA

Roof and wall sheeting, cable ladder to support cabling

Heraeus Ltd

Metals

VIC

Fume extraction ducting for precious metals recovery plant

Rennison Mine

Mining

Burraga, NSW

Pump

Centaur Mining
Minproc/Davy
JV Cawse Nickel

Nickel

WA

Settler tank and lids

Kombalda Nickel Smelter

Nickel

WA

Process equipment in the sulphuric acid plant

Kalgoorlie Nickel Smelter

Nickel

Kalgoorlie, WA

Electrostatic mist precipitators, scrubber

BHP Billiton, QNI

Nickel

Yabulu, QLD

Leach tanks, linings in the stage 2 organic running tank and

the cobalt sulphate discharge storage tank, lining of gas
cooler condensers

Sunmetals

Zinc

Townsville, QLD

Cooling towers, grating

Xstrata

Zinc and lead Mt Isa, QLD

Froth crowders for flotation tanks

Nyrstar

Zinc

Leach reactor tanks and wash down tanks, electrolytic

cells, spent tanks, launders, cooling towers, tank covers,
cell bearer, baffles for tank, copper sulphate reactor tanks,
mercury removal towers, foreshore stacks, pipework,
precipitators, concrete tank linings, tanks, agitator blades,
segmented clarifier covers, tank, dampeners, butterfly valve,
gas cooling towers and internals.

16

Hobart, TAS

Table 5 Current composite components in Australian chemical processing plants

End User

Industry

Component

Ferro Corporation

Ammonium and
sulphur products

Sieve tray scrubbing tower

Nufarm Chloralkali Plant

Chloralkali plants

Sodium hypochlorite storage tanks, chlorine headers, chlorine

scrubber, anolyte tank

Incitec Pivot

Sulphuric acid and

fertilizer

Settlers, pipes, radial flow scrubber, 2 gas cooling towers, ducts,

drying tower inlet manifold, 8 electrostatic mist precipitators

Alcoa

General chemical

Tank

Australian Chemical
Company

General chemical

Mist eliminator vessel for copper roaster

NSW Brickworks

General chemical

Freestanding insulated fume stack

Chemplex effluent
treatment plant

General chemical

Pipework

Feld Proctor Gamble

General chemical

Tank

ICI Operations

General chemical

Tank

Koka Chrome Ind. Co Ltd

General chemical

Fume extraction ducting for plating plant

Metalok (S) Pte Ltd

General chemical

Plating line fume exhaust ducting

Pritcorp Sdn Bhd fatty

alcohol plant

General chemical

HCl vapour scrubber, glycerine reactor/settler, acidulated soap

storage surge tank, tank

SCM Milenium Chemicals

General chemical

Titanium dioxide stack, chlorine scrubber

Tiwest

General chemical

Titanium dioxide stack, plant pipework

Toxide Group Services

General chemical

Ducting (fume extraction), stack (steel supported)

Unizon Singapore

General chemical

3600 cfm vertical scrubber

Delta (BHP) EMD Plant

Manganese dioxide

Electrolytic cells, storage tanks for fresh and spent electrolyte

Cold Rolling Sdn Bhd

Steel

Pipe (for pickle line), lining of steel preflux tank, lining of steel acid
pickling tank

Tubemakers

Steel

Acid pickling tank

BHP Pellet Plant

Steel

Waste gas tower, fine scrubber, quench tower, fine scrubber demister,
pre-quench scrubber

Minnehasa

Sulphuric acid

Mercury removal tower.

50m Composite Fibre Conveyor.

Modulus design for easy transport,
assembly and dismantling.
Capacity: 400tone per hour
Belt speed: 2m/s
Conveyor span: 24m
Number of spans: 2
Incline angle: 20degrees
Image courtesy of
Wagners CFT Manufacturing Pty Ltd

17

Technical performance

This section is particularly aimed at people who are relatively unfamiliar with
composites, and for those who would not normally have considered them for
applications. This section aims to raise awareness of the properties of composites
and the factors to be considered in their use.
Properties of composites and their raw materials given in this document are typical
or average figures. It is important to use the actual product data from the suppliers
when designing products with composites.

5.1
Finite element buckling analysis of a large
fibreglass nozzle under external pressure
Image courtesy of Teakle Composites

Design

Composites are less successful when they are used to replace another material
without considering its specific design. For example, composite pipes are less stiff
than metallic pipes, and therefore the supports need to the placed more closely
together when installing composite pipes. Such factors have been considered in
the various design standards for composites.
It is important to engage composite designers and also have 3rd party verification
where appropriate. Specialist designers can be contacted directly or through the
composite manufacturer. Consideration of the various loads must be performed
diligently and by those who have the background and knowledge of the materials
and structures.
Section 10 of this guide contains details for a number of Australian composites
design and engineering service providers.

5.2

Standards

Standards can be accessed at www.sai-global.com and other online stores.

AS 3571

Plastics piping systemsglass-reinforced thermoplastics (GRP) systems based on unsaturated

polyester (UP) resinpressure and non-pressure drainage and sewerage; and pressure and
non-pressure water supply

AS 2634 (obsolescent)

Chemical plant equipment made from glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP), based on thermosetting
resins

AS/NZS 2566

Buried flexible pipelines

AS 2376.2 (superseded)

Plastics building sheetsglass fibre reinforced polyester (GRP)

AS 2424 (superseded)

Plastics building sheetsgeneral installation requirements and design of roofing systems

AS/NZS 4256.3

Plastic roof and wall cladding materialsglass fibre reinforced polyester (GRP)

AS/NZ 2924

High-pressure decorative laminatessheets made from thermosetting resinsclassification and

specifications

AS/NZS 3572

Plasticsglass filament reinforced plastics (GRP)Methods of Test

BS 4994 (superseded)

Specification for design and construction of vessels and tanks in reinforced plastics

BS 6464

Specification for reinforced plastic pipes, fittings and joints for process plants

BS 6374-4

Lining of equipment with polymeric materials for the process industries, Part 4: specification for
lining with cold curing thermosetting resins

BS EN 13121

GRP tanks and vessels for use above ground. Design and workmanship

BS EN ISO 14692

Petroleum and natural gas industriesglass-reinforced plastics (GRP) piping.

18

5.3

Guides

ACI 440.1R-01

Guide for the design and construction of concrete reinforced with FRP bars, Committee 440,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. (May 2001), www.aci-int.org

ACI 515.1R

A guide to the use of waterproofing, damp-proofing, protection and decorative barrier systems
for concrete.
A guide for Flowtite GRP pressure and non-pressure pipe, engineering design guidelines, Iplex
Pipelines Australia, www.iplex.com.au

5.4

Relative performance of materials

Table 6 Composite properties* compared to other materials

* The properties in this table are indicative only

Random
glass
composite

Bidirectional
glass
composite

Unidirectional
glass
composite

Aramid
composite

Carbon
composite

Aluminium

Mild steel

Stainless
steel

Fibre content by
weight (%)

2550

4570

5090

4055

4059

Density (g/cm3)

1.41.9

1.51.9

1.62.2

1.4

1.5

2.62.8

7.8

7.92

Tensile strength
(MPa )

48170

190440

4101730

3452067

4102700

80480

200800

190552

Tensile modulus
(GPa )

618

1225

2162

1980

30180

70

190210

193200

Compressive
strength (MPa)

115170

98280

210480

102172

360

84338

410480

220552

Compressive
modulus (GPa)

69

817

1619

Flexural
strength (MPa)

90340

200450

6901860

301

378

310

413

551

Flexural
modulus (GPa)

517

923

2748

15

28

69

207

193

In-plane shear
strength (MPa)

6296

5583

110140

276

In-plane shear
modulus (GPa)

2.83.0

3.04.0

4.15.2

2630

7580

Tensile
elongation (%)

1.62.1

34.5

2.4

22.6

11.5

2.523

2237

40

0.150.52

0.190.35

0.3 (in fibre 1.7 (in fibre

direction)
direction)

34 (in fibre
direction)

140200

4350

110

1.4 (90 to
fibres)

0.8 (90 to
fibres)
23

1114

1618

Material

Thermal
conductivity
(W/mC)

Coefficient of
linear thermal
expansion
(106/mm/C)

1833

916

9 (in fibre
direction)

4 (in fibre 0.5 (in fibre

direction)
direction)

14 (90 to
fibres)

57 (90 to
fibres)

25 (90 to
fibres)

19

Figure 3. Stress strain curves of various materials

Strain

Yeild and ultimate

strength can be
considered the
same. Design is
to ultimate using
safety factor.

5.5

Strain

Yeild strength
lower than
ultimate. Design
is to yeild using
safety factor.

Stress

C. Non-reinforced plastics

B. Common metals

Stress

Stress

A. Composites

Strain

Non-linear
curves
depending on
polymer.

Service life

It is typical to specify a minimum design life of 20 years of continuous operation for

composite process equipments in the mining industry. In other industries, such as
underground water pipelines, a design life of 100 years is more typical.

5.6

Mechanical properties

5.6.1

General

The mechanical properties of composites depend on a number of factors:

resin-to-glass ratio
orientation of fibres
method of fabrication.
Composites are anisotropic, which means their properties vary with direction. For
the mechanical properties discussed below, it is important to remember the values
will be different in the direction of the fibres to that normal to the fibres. In terms
of strength, composites have the greatest strength in the direction of the fibres. In
the direction normal to the fibres, the resin and the fibre-resin interface determine
the strength, which may be one or two orders of magnitude lower than in the
direction of the fibres. Designers must therefore avoid stress systems that result
in significant loads normal to the fibres.
Detailed design literature and programs are available to estimate the effect
of combinations of fibres in different directions on the overall capacity of the
composite. Calculations of the anisotropic properties of composites require the
application of the theory of anisotropic elasticity or use of simpler means to obtain
reasonable estimates. For this type of work, the reader is referred to the various
standards, guides and software programs available.
5.6.2

Strength

The rule of mixtures is used to calculate the strength of composites. This rule takes
into account the relative fractions of the strength of both the fibres and resin.
Tensile strength
The fibres in composites are the principal contributor to the tensile strength of the
component. The resin has significantly lower strength and acts to bind the fibres
together and transmit the loads between them.

Anti-static cable tray supplied for the

Blacktip Offshore Gas Production Platform
Image courtesy of Exel Composites

20

Compressive strength
The strength of the resin has a much greater influence on the compressive strength
of composites than it does on the tensile strength. This is because the resin must
have sufficient compressive strength to prevent the fibres from undergoing local
buckling or kinking under compression. The resin also helps to prevent failure
through longitudinal splitting. The resistance to buckling under compression can
be improved at the design stage by incorporating edge flanges, double curvature
and troughs.

Shear strength
When subject to shear stress, the load-bearing abilities of the fibres and
matrix, and the extent to which stresses are transferred between them, affects
the stiffness and strength of composites. Most composites contain planes of
weakness between the layers which can result in interlaminar failure in shear.
The property of interlaminar shear strength describes this behaviour.
Composites made from fabrics which have some fibres in the z direction
(through-wall thickness), such as stitched cloths or chopped strand mat, are
more resistant to interlaminar failure than composites made from fabrics
without fibres in the z direction.
Flexural strength
Flexure/bending involves a combination of tensile, compressive and shear forces.
At a simple level, the tensile, compressive and shear properties of the materials
can be used in the design for flexure. However, flexural strength is seldom the
limiting criterion in composites, as stiffness more often dominates the design.
Stiffness
The stiffness of composites is low compared to steel, although carbon fibrereinforced composites are an exception. Since the tensile strength-to-weight ratio
of composites is high and stiffness low compared to steel, stiffness tends to be the
key determinant in structural design with composites.

Flowtite GRP Pipe (Continuous

Filament Wound) installed in South-East
Queenslands western corridor recycled
water pipeline
Image courtesy of Iplex Pipelines Pty Ltd
and Fibrelogic Pipe Systems

The stiffness of composite parts can be increased by:

selecting fibres with a higher elastic modulus (e.g. carbon fibres)
sandwich construction. Since stiffness is a function of thickness, cores can be
incorporated into a composite to provide rigidity, while keeping the weight low
localised increase in thickness, for example, progressive thickening along a
local edge or flanging along the edge of a panel
ribs can be incorporated into the reverse side of the part
compound curves or local corrugations. A folded plate construction can be used
to achieve the required stiffness from the overall geometry of the structure.
For most composites with more than about 50 per cent volume of fibres, the
stiffness in tension is dominated by the fibres, and the resin contribution is
insignificant.
5.6.3

Fatigue

Fatigue is the progressive damage that occurs when a material is subject to cyclic
loading and when the stress values of each cycle are less than the ultimate stress
limit. For example, in the mining and chemical industries, tanks and process
vessels with internal agitators can be subject to constantly imposed stress cycles
and are therefore susceptible to fatigue.
The fatigue behavior of steel tends to involve intermittent propagation of a single
crack, while the material close to the crack is virtually unchanged. In contrast to
this, cyclic loading of composites results in the formation of many micro-sized
cracks. Since the small cracks in composites are spread uniformly in the material
rather than concentrated in a single area, a greater area of material is involved in
resisting fatigue failure. Furthermore, as the formation of each small crack absorbs
energy, composites tend to have good fatigue resistance compared to most metals.
However, as damage accumulates, a critical point is eventually reached at which
the material can no longer sustain the applied load and failure occurs.
To improve the fatigue resistance of composites, resins which are tougher and have
greater resistance to micro-cracking should be used, and the amount of voids and
other defects in the laminate should be minimised. It is also important to ensure
the load normal to the direction of the fibres is minimised.

21