5 - GSR2014 - Full Report - Low Res PDF

RENEWABLES 2014
GLOBAL STATUS REPORT
2014
REN 21
STEERING
COMMITTEE
INDUSTRY ASSOCIATIONS
INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS
NGOS
Michael Brower
American Council on Renewable Energy
(ACORE)
Bindu Lohani
Asian Development Bank (ADB)
Ibrahim Togola
Mali Folkecenter/ Citizens United for
Renewable Energy and Sustainability
(CURES)
Ernesto Macas Galn

Alliance for Rural Electrification (ARE)
Li Junfeng
Chinese Renewable Energy Industries
Association (CREIA)
David Green
Clean Energy Council (CEC)
Rainer Hinrichs-Rahlwes
European Renewable Energies Federation
(EREF)
Steve Sawyer
Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC)
Piotr Tulej
European Commission (EC)
Robert K. Dixon
Global Environment Facility (GEF)
Paolo Frankl
International Energy Agency (IEA)
Adnan Z. Amin
International Renewable Energy Agency
(IRENA)
Marcel Alers
United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP)
Marietta Sander
International Geothermal Association (IGA)
Mark Radka
United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP)
Richard Taylor
International Hydropower Association
(IHA)
Pradeep Monga
United Nations Industrial Development
Organization (UNIDO)
Heinz Kopetz
World Bioenergy Association (WBA)
Vijay Iyer
World Bank
Stefan Gsnger
World Wind Energy Association (WWEA)
Irene Giner-Reichl
Global Forum on Sustainable Energy
(GFSE)
Sven Teske
Greenpeace International
Emani Kumar
ICLEI Local Governments for
Sustainability, South Asia
Tetsunari Iida
Institute for Sustainable Energy Policies
(ISEP)
Tomas Kaberger
Japan Renewable Energy Foundation
(JREF)
Harry Lehmann
World Council for Renewable Energy
(WCRE)
Athena Ronquillo Ballesteros
World Resources Institute (WRI)
Rafael Senga
World Wildlife Fund (WWF)
MEMBERS AT LARGE
NATIONAL GOVERNMENTS
SCIENCE AND ACADEMIA
Michael Eckhart
Citigroup, Inc.
Mariangela Rebu de Andrade Simes

Brazil
Mohamed El-Ashry
United Nations Foundation
Hans Jrgen Koch

Denmark
Nebojsa Nakicenovic
International Institute for Applied Systems
Analysis (IIASA)
David Hales
Second Nature
Tania Rdiger-Vorwerk / Karsten Sach

Germany
Kirsty Hamilton
Chatham House
Tarun Kapoor
India
Kevin Nassiep
South African National Energy
Development Institute (SANEDI)
Peter Rae
REN Alliance
ivind Johansen
Norway
Rajendra Pachauri
The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI)
Arthouros Zervos
Public Power Corporation
David Prez
Spain
Paul Mubiru
Uganda
Thani Ahmed Al Zeyoudi
United Arab Emirates
David Renn
International Solar Energy Society (ISES)
EXECUTIVE SECRETARY
Christine Lins
REN21
Nick Clements
United Kingdom
DISCLAIMER:
REN21 releases issue papers and reports to emphasise the importance of renewable energy and to generate discussion on issues central
to the promotion of renewable energy. While REN21 papers and reports have benefitted from the considerations and input from the REN21
community, they do not necessarily represent a consensus among network participants on any given point. Although the information given in
this report is the best available to the authors at the time, REN21 and its participants cannot be held liable for its accuracy and correctness.
2
FOREWORD
In June 2004, delegates from 154 countries gathered in
policy trends. Special thanks go to the ever-growing
Bonn, Germany, for the worlds first government-hosted
network of contributors, including authors, researchers,
international conference on renewable energy. Global
and reviewers, who participated in this years process
perceptions of renewables have shifted considerably
and helped make the GSR a truly international and
over the past decade. Continuing technology advances
collaborative effort.
and rapid deployment of many renewable energy
On behalf of the REN21 Secretariat, I would like to thank
technologies
all of those who ensured the successful production of
have
demonstrated
their
immense
potential.
GSR 2014. These people include lead author/research
Today, renewables are seen not only as sources of
director Janet Sawin, the section authors, GSR project
energy, but also as tools to address many other pressing
manager Rana Adib, and the entire team at the REN21
needs, including: improving energy security; reducing
Secretariat, under the leadership of REN21s Executive
the health and environmental impacts associated with
Secretary Christine Lins.
fossil and nuclear energy; mitigating greenhouse gas
The past decade has set the wheels in motion for a
emissions; improving educational opportunities; creating
global transition to renewables, but a concerted and
jobs; reducing poverty; and increasing gender equality.
sustained effort is needed to achieve it. With increasingly
Renewables have entered the mainstream. This is
ambitious targets and innovative policies, renewables
welcome news as we begin the Decade of Sustainable
can continue to surpass expectations and create a
Energy for All (SE4ALL), mobilising towards universal
clean and sustainable energy future. As this years GSR
access to modern energy services, improved rates of
clearly demonstrates, the question is no longer whether
energy efficiency, and expanded use of renewable energy
renewables have a role to play in the provision of energy
sources by 2030. While this years Renewables Global
services, but rather how we can best increase the
Status Report (GSR) clearly documents advancements
current pace to achieve a 100% renewables future with
in the uptake of renewables, it also demonstrates that
full energy access for all.
we need to move faster and more deliberately if we are to

double the share of renewables in the global energy mix
and ensure access to clean and sustainable energy for
all people by 2030.
The past decade has also seen the evolution of REN21
and its community into a robust, dynamic, international
network of renewable energy experts. The collective
work of REN21s contributors, researchers, and authors
has made the GSR the most frequently referenced
Arthouros Zervos
report on renewable energy market, industry, and
Chairman of REN21
R E N E WA B L E S 2 014 G L O B A L S TAT U S R E P O R T
GSR 2014 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Renewable Energy Indicators 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Top Five Countries Table. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
01 GLOBAL OVERVIEW 20
04 POLICY LANDSCAPE
Power Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Policy Targets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Heating and Cooling Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Power Generation Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Transportation Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Heating and Cooling Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Transport Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
30
Green Energy Purchasing and Labelling. . . . . . . . . . . 86
Biomass Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
City and Local Government Policies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Geothermal Power and Heat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Ocean Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
05 DISTRIBUTED RENEWABLE ENERGY

IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Solar PV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Distributed Renewable Energy Technologies. . . . . . . 94
Concentrating Solar Thermal Power (CSP). . . . . . . . . 51
Policy Frameworks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Solar Thermal Heating and Cooling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Markets and Business Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Wind Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
02 MARKET AND INDUSTRY TRENDS
03 INVESTMENT FLOWS
66
Investment by Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Investment by Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Investment by Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Renewable Energy Investment in Perspective. . . . . . 72
Sources of Investment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Early Investment Trends in 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
06 TRACKING THE GLOBAL ENERGY TRANSITION
100
E xpansion Beyond Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
A Decade of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Investment on the Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
The Evolving Policy Landscape. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
A Promising Future for Renewables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Endnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Methodological Notes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
92
Reference Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
74
REPORT CITATION
REN21. 2014. Renewables 2014 Global Status Report
Energy Units and Conversion Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
(Paris: REN21 Secretariat).
List of Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
ISBN 978-3-9815934-2-6
TABLES
SIDEBARS
TABLE 1
Estimated Direct and Indirect Jobs in Renewable

Energy Worldwide, by Industry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
SIDEBAR 1 Renewable Energy Data: Current Status and
TABLE 2
Status of Renewable Technologies:

Characteristics and Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
SIDEBAR 2 Regional Spotlight: Latin America and the Caribbean. . . 24
Challenges of Capacity and Production Data . . . . . . . . . . 23
TABLE 3 Renewable Energy Support Policies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
SIDEBAR 3 Bioenergy and Carbon Accounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
FIGURES
SIDEBAR 5 Sustainability Spotlight: Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Figure 1 Estimated Renewable Energy Share of
SIDEBAR 6 Jobs in Renewable Energy and Related Figures. . . . . . . . 62
Global Final Energy Consumption, 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 2 Average Annual Growth Rates of Biofuels Production
and Renewable Energy Capacity, End-20082013. . . . . 22
Figure 3 Estimated Renewable Energy Share of Global
Electricity Production, End-20082013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
SIDEBAR 4 Heat Pumps and Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
SIDEBAR 7 Innovating Energy Systems: Transformation
of the Electric Utility Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
SIDEBAR 8 The Linkage Between Renewable Energy and

Energy Efficiency: Focus on Sustainable Buildings. . . . . . 84
Figure 4 Renewable Power Capacities in World, EU-27,
SIDEBAR 9 Distributed Renewable Energy: Definition and Scope. . . 94
Figure 5 Biomass Resources and Energy Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
REFERENCE TABLES
BRICS, and Top Six Countries, 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Figure 6 Ethanol, Biodiesel, and HVO Global Production,
20002013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Figure 7 Wood Pellet Global Production, by Country
or Region, 20002013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Figure 8 Geothermal Power Capacity Additions,
Share of Additions by Country, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Figure 9 Geothermal Power Capacity and Additions,
Top 10 Countries and Rest of World, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
TABLE R1 Global Renewable Energy Capacity and

Top Regions/Countries, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
TABLE R3 Wood Pellets Global Trade, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

TABLE R4 Biofuels Global Production, Top 16 Countries
and EU-27, 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Figure 10 Hydropower Global Capacity,
Shares of Top Six Countries, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Figure 11 Hydropower Global Capacity Additions,
Shares of Top Six Countries, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Figure 12 Solar PV Total Global Capacity, 20042013 . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Figure 13 Solar PV Capacity and Additions,
Top 10 Countries, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Figure 14 Solar PV Global Capacity Additions and
Annual Investment, 20042013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Figure 15 Concentrating Solar Thermal Power Global
Capacity, by Country or Region, 20002013 . . . . . . . . . . 51
Figure 16 Solar Water Heating Collectors Global Capacity,
Shares of Top 10 Countries, 2012. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Figure 17 Solar Water Heating Collectors Additions,
Top 10 Countries for Capacity Added, 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Figure 18 Solar Water Heating Collectors Global Capacity,
20002013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Figure 19 Wind Power Total World Capacity, 20002013 . . . . . . . . 59

Figure 20 Wind Power Capacity and Additions,
Top 10 Countries, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Figure 21 Market Shares of Top 10 Wind Turbine
Manufacturers, 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
TABLE R5 Geothermal Power Global Capacity and
Net Additions, Top 6 Countries, 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
TABLE R6 Hydropower Global Capacity and Additions,
Top 6 Countries, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
TABLE R7 Solar PV Global Capacity and Additions,
Top 10 Countries, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
TABLE R8 Concentrating Solar Thermal Power (CSP)
Global Capacity and Additions, 2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
TABLE R9 Solar Water Heating Collectors Global Capacity
and Additions, Top 12 Countries, 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
TABLE R10 Wind Power Global Capacity and Additions,

and Fuels, Developed and Developing Countries,

20042013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Figure 24 Global New Investment in Renewable Power
and Fuels, by Region, 20042013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Figure 25 Global New Investment in Renewable Energy by
Technology, Developed and Developing Countries,

2013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Figure 26 Countries with Renewable Energy Policies,
Early 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Figure 27 Countries with Renewable Energy Policies, 2005. . . . . . . 77
Top 10 Countries, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
TABLE R11 Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment,
20042013. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
TABLE R12 Share of Primary and Final Energy from
Renewables, Existing In 2011/2012 and Targets . . . . . . 116
TABLE R13 Share of Electricity Generation from
Renewables, Existing In 2012 and Targets . . . . . . . . . . . 119
TABLE R14 Share of Heating and Cooling from Modern Renewable
Technologies, Existing In 2012 and Targets. . . . . . . . . . . 121
Figure 22 Jobs in Renewable Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Figure 23 Global New Investment in Renewable Power
Biofuel Production, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
TABLE R2 Renewable Electric Power Global Capacity,
TABLE R15 Other Renewable Energy Targets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

TABLE R16 Cumulative Number of Countries/States/

Provinces Enacting Feed-In Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
TABLE R17 Cumulative Number of Countries/States/

Provinces Enacting RPS/Quota Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
TABLE R18 National and State/Provincial Biofuel Blend
Mandates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
TABLE R19 City and Local Renewable Energy Policies:
Selected Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Figure 28 Number of Countries with Renewable Energy
TABLE R20 Electricity Access by Region and Country. . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Figure 29 Share of Countries with Renewable Energy
Policies by Type, 2010Early 2014. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Policies by Income Group, 2004Early 2014 . . . . . . . . . . 78
Figure 30 Developing and Emerging Countries with
Renewable Energy Policies, 2004, 2009,

and Early 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Figure 31 Share of Population with Electricity Access, and
TABLE R21 Population Relying on Traditional Biomass
for Cooking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
TABLE R22 Programmes Furthering Energy Access:

Selected Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
TABLE R23 Networks Furthering Energy Access:
Selected Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Rate of Electrification versus Population Growth . . . . . . . 97
RENEWABLE ENERGY POLICY

NETWORK FOR THE 21 st CENTURY
REN21 is the global renewable energy policy multi-stakeholder network that
connects a wide range of key actors. REN21s goal is to facilitate knowledge
exchange, policy development and joint action towards a rapid global transition
to renewable energy.
REN21 brings together governments, nongovernmental organisations, research
and academic institutions, international organisations and industry to learn from
one another and build on successes that advance renewable energy. To assist
policy decision making, REN21 provides high quality information, catalyses
discussion and debate and supports the development of thematic networks.
RENEWABLES 2014
2014
Global Status Report: yearly
publication since 2005
REN21
publications:
Regional Reports
www.map.ren21.net
First GSR
published
2004
REN21
events:
Global Futures Report
renewables
2004, Bonn
2005
BIREC,
Bejing
International
Renewable Energy
Conference
Chinese Renewable
Energy Status Report
2006
2007
2008
WIREC,
Washington
International
Renewable Energy
Conference
2009
PROVIDE HIGH-QUALITY INFORMATION TO

DRIVE INFORMED POLICY DECISIONS
Using its multi-stakeholder network, REN21 facilitates the

collection of comprehensive and timely information on renewable
energy. This information reflects diverse viewpoints from both
private and public sector actors, serving to dispel myths about
renewable energy and catalysing policy change.
Renewables Global Status Report (GSR)

First released in 2005, REN21's Renewables Global Status Report
(GSR) has grown to become a truly collaborative effort, drawing
on an international network of over 500 authors, contributors,
and reviewers. Today it is the most frequently referenced report
on renewable energy market, industry, and policy trends.
Thematic Reports
REN21 produces thematic reports which aim to provide in-depth
analysis about a topic and stimulate discussion:
n
Renewables Global Futures Report (GFR)
Local Renewable Energy Policies Status Report
10 Years of Accelerating the Global Energy Transition
Mini-Grid Policy Toolkit
Regional Reports
These reports detail the renewable energy developments of a
particular region; their production also supports regional data
collection processes and informed decision making.
INITIATE DISCUSSION AND DEBATE

TO DRIVE POLITICAL COMMITMENT
International Renewable Energy Conferences (IRECs)

The International Renewable Energy Conference (IREC) is a
high-level political conference series. Dedicated exclusively to
the renewable energy sector, the biennial IREC is hosted by a
national government and convened by REN21. SAIREC 2015 will
be held in South Africa, 47 October 2015.
Renewables Academy
The REN21 Renewables Academy provides an opportunity
for lively exchange among the growing community of REN21
contributors. It offers a venue to brainstorm on future-orientated
policy solutions and allows participants to actively contribute on
issues central to the renewable energy transition.
Thematic workshops, panel discussions and webinars

REN21 convenes and participates in a series of workshops, panel
discussions, and webinars to spread information on renewable
energy globally.
STRENGTHEN AND LEVERAGE REN21S

MULTI-STAKEHOLDER BASE
n Broad
dissemination of activities of the REN21 Secretariat as

well as network members through four editions of the REN21
newsletter.
n In-depth
Renewables Interactive Map

The Renewables Interactive Map is a research tool for tracking the
development of renewable energy worldwide. It complements
the perspectives and findings of the GSR by providing constantly
updated market and policy information and detailed exportable
country profiles.
Indian Renewable
Energy Status
Report
2010
DIREC,
Delhi
International
Renewable Energy
Conference
n Dynamic
interaction with key institutional partners such as

IEA, IRENA, SE4ALL, and UNEP.
Global Status Report

on Local Renewable
Energy Policies
2011
information for members through the REN21
newswire.
2012
MENA Renewable
Energy Status Report
ECOWAS Status Report

on Renewable Energy
& Energy Efficiency
2013
2014
2015
ADIREC,
Abu Dhabi
International
Renewable Energy
Conference
First REN21
Renewables
Academy,
Bonn
SAIREC,
South Africa
International
Renewable Energy
Conference
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was commissioned by REN21 and produced in
collaboration with a global network of research partners.
Financing was provided by the German Federal Ministry for
Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), the German
Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi), and
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the United Arab Emirates. A
large share of the research for this report was conducted on a
voluntary basis.
RESEARCH DIRECTION AND

LEAD AUTHORSHIP
Janet L. Sawin
(Sunna Research and Worldwatch Institute)
Freyr Sverrisson
(Sunna Research)
SECTION AUTHORS
Kanika Chawla (REN21 Secretariat)
Christine Lins (REN21 Secretariat)
Angus McCrone (Bloomberg New Energy Finance)
Evan Musolino (Worldwatch Institute)
Lily Riahi (UNEP)
Janet L. Sawin
(Sunna Research and Worldwatch Institute)
Ralph Sims (Massey University)
Jonathan Skeen (Emergent Energy)
Freyr Sverrisson (Sunna Research)
SPECIAL ADVISOR
Ralph Sims (Massey University)
PROJECT MANAGEMENT AND

GSR COMMUNITY MANAGEMENT
Rana Adib (REN21 Secretariat)
Kanika Chawla (REN21 Secretariat)
RESEARCH AND COMMUNICATION

SUPPORT (REN21 SECRETARIAT)
Martin Hullin
Sarah Leitner
Stefano Mazzaccaro
Hannah Murdock
Laura E. Williamson
The UN Secretary-Generals initiative Sustainable Energy for All
mobilises global action to achieve universal access to modern
energy services, double the global rate of energy efficiency,
and double the share of renewable energy in the global energy
mix by 2030. REN21s Renewables 2014 Global Status Report
contributes to this initiative by demonstrating the role of
renewables in increasing energy access. A section on distributed
renewable energybased on input from local experts primarily
from developing countriesillustrates how renewables are
providing needed energy services and contributing to a better
quality of life through the use of modern cooking, heating/
cooling, and electricity technologies. As the newly launched
Decade for Sustainable Energy for All (20142024) unfolds,
REN21 will work closely with the SE4ALL Initiative towards
achieving its three objectives.
8
Glen Wright
EDITING, DESIGN, AND LAYOUT

Lisa Mastny, editor (Worldwatch Institute)
weeks.de Werbeagentur GmbH, design
PRODUCTION
REN21 Secretariat, Paris, France
LEAD AUTHOR EMERITUS

Eric Martinot (Institute for Sustainable Energy Policy)
LEAD REGIONAL AND COUNTRY RESEARCHERS

ASEAN
Katarzyna Chojnacka, Thachatat Kuvarakul
(ASEAN Centre for Energy, GIZ)
East Asia
Christopher Dent (University of Leeds)
Eastern and Southern Africa
Dennis Kibira (African Solar Designs); Natasha Kloppers,
Jonathan Skeen (Emergent Energy)
ECOWAS
David Koman Achi (AD Solar + AD Education Energie);
Adeola Adebiyi, Nicola Bugatti, Eder Semedo (ECREEE);
Katie Auth, Tristram Thomas (Worldwatch Institute)
Central and Eastern Europe
Ulrike Radosch (Austrian Energy Agency, enerCEE)
Western Europe
Peter Bickel (ZSW); Jan Bruck, Charlotte Cuntz, Tatjana Regh,
Mona Rybicki (Germanwatch)
Latin America and Caribbean
Gonzalo Bravo (Fundacin Bariloche); Sandra Chavez (IRENA);
Milena Gonzalez (Worldwatch Institute); Arnaldo Vieira de
Carvalho (IDB)
Brazil
Suani Coelho, Maria Beatriz Monteiro (CENBIO);
Renata Grisoli (MGM Innova); Camila Ramos (CELA)
Canada
Jose Etcheverry (York University)
Chile
Jose Emiliano Detta (IDB)
China
Frank Haugwitz (Asia Europe Clean Energy (Solar) Advisory)
Colombia
Javier Eduardo Rodrguez (Mining and Energy Planning Unit,
Colombia)
Ecuador
Pablo Carvajal (Ministry of Strategic Sectors, Ecuador)
Fiji
Atul Raturi (University of the South Pacific)
France
Romain Zissler (ISEP)
Ghana
Kwabena Ampadu Otu-Danquah (Ghana Energy Commission)
Honduras
Jose Emiliano Detta (IDB)
India
Shirish Garud (TERI)
Jordan
Samer Zawaydeh (AEE)
Kuwait
Adam Weber (Clean Energy Business Council)
Lithuania
Inga Valuntiene (COWI Lietuva)
Mali
Cheick Ahmed Sanogo (AMADER)
Mauritius
Fabiani Appavou (Ministry of Environment and Sustainable
Development, Mauritius)
Morocco
Philippe Lempp (GIZ)
Nepal
Mukesh Ghimire (AEPC)
Nicaragua
Ll Marandin (Pelican SA)
Norway
Benjamin Sovacool (AU Herning)
Oman
Ali Al-Resheidi (Oman Public Authority for Electricity
and Water)
Philippines
Rafael Senga (WWF)
Portugal
Lara Ferreira (APREN); Lusa Branquinho Silvrio (DGGE)
Senegal
Ibrahima Niane (Ministry for Energy, Senegal)
South Korea
Sanghoon Lee (Korean Society for New and Renewable
Energy); Kwanghee Yeom (KFEM)
Spain
Sofia Martinez (IDAE)
Sweden
Benjamin Sovacool (AU Herning)
Tanzania
Chris Greacen (Palang Thai)
Thailand
Chris Greacen (Palang Thai); Sopitsuda Tongsopit
(Energy Resource Institute)
Togo
Dodji Agbezo (JVE Togo)
Turkey
Mustafa Sezgin (TENVA); Tanay Sidki Uyar (Eurosolar)
Italy
Noemi Magnanini (GSE)

Dane McQueen (MoFA, UAE)
Japan
Tetsunari Iida, Hironao Matsubara (ISEP);
Mika Ohbayashi (JREF)
Uruguay
Pablo Caldeiro Sarli, Gabriela Horta, Alejandra Reyes
(Uruguay Ministry of Industry, Energy & Mining)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS (CONTINUED)
LEAD TOPICAL CONTRIBUTORS
Bioenergy
Patrick Lamers (Mountain View Research);
Eija Alakangas (VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland);
Sribas Bhattacharya (IISWBA); Helena Chum (NREL);
Jaqueline Daniel-Gromke (German Biomass Research Centre);
Matthias Edel (German Energy Agency);
Anselm Eisentraut (IEA); Alessandro Flammini (FAO);
Uwe Fritsche (IINAS); Karin Haara (WBA);
Martin Junginger (Utrecht University); Heinz Kopetz (WBA);
Bharadwaj Kummamuru (WBA); Andrew Lang (WBA);
Benot Lebot (UNDP); Julia Mnch (Fachverband Biogas e.V.);
Agata Przdka (European Biogas Association);
Robert Rapier (Merica International)
Concentrating Solar Thermal Power
Elena Dufour, Luis Crespo Rodrguez (ESTELA);
Fredrick Morse (Morse Associates Inc.)
Distributed Renewable Energy
Bozhil Kondev (GIZ); Ernesto Macas Galn (ARE);
Hari Natarajan (GIZ-IGEN); Yasemin Erboy (UN Foundation);
Akanksha Chaurey (IT power); Debajit Palit (TERI);
Heike Volkmer (GIZ); Arnaldo Vieira de Carvalho (IDB);
Michael Hofmann (MIF); Jiwan Acharya, Fely Arriola (ADB);
Gabriela Azuela, Koffi Ekouevi (World Bank); Frank Haugwitz
(Asia Europe Clean Energy (Solar) Advisory Co. Ltd.);
Gonzalo Bravo (Fundacin Bariloche); Caroline McGregor
(Global Leap, U.S. Department of Energy); Wim van Ness
(SNV Netherlands Development Organisation);
Emmanuel Ackom (GNESD); Joo Arsnio (TESE);
Morgane Bnard (Sunna Design); Paul Bertheau (Reiner
Lemoine Institut); Adam Camenzuli (Karibu Solar);
Hlne Connor (HELIO International); Leslie Cordes (GACC);
Johan de Leeuw (Wind Energy Solutions BV); Johanna
Diecker (GOGLA); Julie Ipe (GACC); Alex Lima (Electrobras);
Chandirekera Makuyana (SNV Netherlands Development
Organisation); Tijana Manitaevi (Strawberry Energy);
Ll Marandin (SE4ALL Nicaragua); Ogbemudia Godfrey
(CREDC); Eromosele Omomhenle; Ewah Otu Eleri (ICEED
Nigeria); Henrique Pacini (UNCTAD); Ruben Stegbauer
(Solar Aid); Dipti Vaghela (International Rivers);
Nancy Wimmer (microSOLAR))
Geothermal Energy
Benjamin Matek (GEA); Philippe Dumas (EGEC); Luis Carlos
Gutirrez-Negrn (Geotermia, Mexican Geothermal Association)
Green Purchasing and Labeling
Jo Bracker (OEKO); Jenny Heeter (NREL);
Jennifer Martin (Center for Resource Solutions)
Heat Pumps/ Heating and Cooling
Thomas Nowak (European Heat Pump Association)
Hydropower/ Ocean Energy
Simon Smith, Richard Taylor (IHA); Christine van Oldeneel,
Pilar Ocn (Hydropower Equipment Association)
10
Jobs
Rabia Ferroukhi, Arslan Khalid, lvaro Lpez-Pea (IRENA);
Michael Renner (Worldwatch Institute)
Policy
Rainer Hinrichs-Rahlwes (BEE, EREF); Maryke van Staden
(ICLEI); Fabiani Appavou (Ministry of Environment and
Sustainable Development, Mauritius); Karolina Daszkiewicz
(IEA)
Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency
Pedro Filipe Paralta Carqueija, Jyoti Prasad Painuly (UNEP Ris
Centre); Thibaud Vota (IPEEC); Curt Garrigan (UNEP)
Renewable Energy Costs
Michael Taylor (IRENA)
Renewable Energy Statistics
Yasmina Abdelilah, Michael Waldron (IEA); Zuzana Dobrotkova;
Olivier Lavagne d'Ortigue (IRENA); Rana Adib, Laura E.
Williamson (REN21 Secretariat)
Solar General
David Renn (ISES)
Solar PV
Gatan Masson (IEA-PVPS, iCARES Consulting);
GTM Research PV Pulse; Denis Lenardic (pvresources)
Solar Thermal Heating and Cooling
Franz Mauthner (AEE INTEC); Brbel Epp (Solrico);
Jan-Olof Dalenbck (Chalmers University of Technology);
IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Programme
System Transformation
Lily Riahi (UNEP); Travis Bradford (Prometheus Institute);
Bianca Barth (BSW); Cynthia Hunt Jhne (SEPA); Scott Sklar
(Stella Group)
Transport
Nicolai Bader, Armin Wagner (GIZ); Heather Allen (TRL)
Wind Power
Shruti Shukla, Steve Sawyer (GWEC); Feng Zhao (Navigant
Research); Stefan Gsnger, Jean-Daniel Pitteloud (WWEA);
Aris Karcanias (FTI Consulting); Shi Pengfei, Liu Minghui
(CWEA)
REVIEWERS AND OTHER CONTRIBUTORS

Sheikh Adil (Institute of Environment and Sustainable
Development); Asad Ali Ahmed (World Bank); Kathleen
Araujo (Harvard Kennedy School of Government); Timothy
Barker (Stimulate Systems); Ausilio Bauen (Imperial College
London); Morgan Bazilian (NREL); Luca Benedetti (GSE);
Farid Bensebaa (NRC); Edgar Blaustein; Pierre Boileau
(IEA); Tom Bradley (Narec Distributed Energy); Emmanuel
Branche (EDF); Christian Breyer (Lappeenranta University of
Technology); Mary Brunisholz (IEA-PVPS); Ines del Campo
Colmenar (CENER); Francoise DEstais (UNEP); Pedro Dias
(ESTIF); Dominique Diouf (Batan HBDO); Jens Drillisch (KFW);
Michael Eckhart (Citigroup Inc.); Martha Ekkert (BMWi);
Daniel Kofi Essien (IRELP); Pancaldi Estella (GSR); Emily Evans
(NREL); Paolo Frankl (IEA); Lew Fulton (UC Davis); Alexander
Gerlach (Q-Cells); Jacopo Giuntoli (Institute for Energy
and Transport); Andreas Hberle (PSE); Niklas Hagelberg
(UNEP); Jacob Ipsen Hansen (UNEP Ris Centre); Andrea
Hilfrich (E-Control); Julien Jacquot (GERES); Uli Jakob (Green
Chiller Verband fr Sorptionsklte e.V.); El Mostafa Jamea
(ERDDS); Franck Jesus (GEF); Manik Jolly (World Bank); Wim
Jonker Klunne (CSIR); Anthony Jude (ADB); Sung Moon Jung
(IPEEC); Jasmeet Khurana (Bridge to India); Ansgar Kiene
(World Future Council); Matthias Kimmel (Duke University);
Johannes Kirsch (ZVEI); Diana Kraft-Schfer (German
Electrical and Electronic Manufacturers Association ZVEI);
Bente Kruckenberg (D.I. Energi); Arun Kumar (IIT Roorkee);
Maryse Labriet (ENERIS); Fanny-Pomme Langue (AEBIOM);
Krzysztof Laskowski (Euroheat & Power); Jonah Letovsky
(Sciences Po); Noam Lior (University of Pennsylvania); Detlef
Loy (Loy Energy Consulting); Birger Madsen; Alessandro
Marangoni (Althesys); Adam Markusfalvi-Toth; Hiremath
Mitavachan (Oldenburg University); Daniel Mugnier (TECSOL
SA); Nurzat Myrsalieva (RCREEE); Kevin Nassiep (SANEDI);
Hans-Christoph Neidlein (PV Magazine); Jan Erik Nielsen
(PlanEnergi, IEA-SHC); Bruce Nordman (LBNL); Ingrid
Nystrm (F3 Centre); Willington Ortiz (Wuppertal Institute);
Binu Parthan (SEA); Cline Payet (EIB); Martin Pehnt (Institute
fr Energie und Umwelforschung Heidelberg GmbH); Tobias
Persson, Mattias Svensson (Swedish Gas Centre); Liming Qiao
(GWEC); Peter Rae; Heather Rosmarin (InterAmerican Clean
Energy Institute); Burkhard Sanner (EGEC); Raphael Santos
(Ministry of Mines and Energy Brazil); Arne Schweinfurth
(GIZ); Reinoud Segers (Statistics Netherlands); Alexandra
Seibt (Wuppertal Institute); Joonkyung Seong (World Bank);
Anoop Singh (Indian Institute of Technology); Virginia Sonntag
OBrien; Ibrahim Soumaila (ECREEE); Djaheezah Subratty
(UNEP); Sven Teske (Greenpeace International); Uwe Trenkner
(Trenkner Consulting); Nico Tyabji (BNEF); Eric Usher (UNEP);
Olola Vieyra (UNEP); Clare Wenner (UK Renewable Energy
Association); Chris Werner (Hanergy); Marcus Wiemann (ARE);
William Wills (EOS Environmental); Johan Agergaard Winberg
(D.I. Energi)
The Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment

report (GTR), formerly Global Trends in Sustainable Energy
Investment, was first published by the Frankfurt School
UNEP Collaborating Centre for Climate & Sustainable Energy
Finance in 2011. This annual report was produced previously
(starting in 2007) under UNEPs Sustainable Energy Finance
Initiative (SEFI). It grew out of efforts to track and publish
comprehensive information about international investments in
renewable energy according to type of economy, technology,
and investment.
The GTR is produced jointly with Bloomberg New Energy Finance
and is the sister publication to the REN21 Renewables Global
Status Report (GSR). The latest edition was released in April 2014
and is available for download at www.fs-unep-centre.org.
11
The Renewables Global Status Report provides a comprehensive and timely overview
of renewable energy market, industry, investment, and policy developments worldwide. It
enables policymakers, industry, investors, and civil society to make INFORMED DECISIONS.
The report covers recent developments, current status, and key trends; by design, it does
not provide analysis or forecast.
The Renewables Global Status Report relies on UP-TO-DATE RENEWABLE ENERGY DATA,
provided by an INTERNATIONAL NETWORK of more than 500 contributors, researchers,
and authors.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In June 2004, delegates from 154 countries converged in Bonn,
Germany, for the worlds first government-hosted international
conference on renewable energy. REN21 emerged from that
process to become the first international organisation to track
renewable energy developments. At that time, there were visible
upwards trends in global renewable energy capacity and output,
investment, policy support, investment, and integration. Yet
even ambitious projections did not anticipate the extraordinary
expansion of renewables that was to unfold over the decade
ahead.
Global perceptions of renewable energy have shifted
considerably since 2004. Over the last 10 years, continuing
technology advances and rapid deployment of many renewable
energy technologies have demonstrated that their potential can
be achieved. Renewables advanced further towards realising
that potential during 2013.
CONTINUED RENEWABLE ENERGY GROWTH

Renewable energy provided an estimated 19% of global final
energy consumption in 2012,i and continued to grow in 2013.
Of this total share in 2012, modern renewables accounted for
approximately 10%, with the remainder (estimated at just over
9%) coming from traditional biomass.ii Heat energy from modern
renewable sources accounted for an estimated 4.2% of total final
energy use; hydropower made up about 3.8%, and an estimated
2% was provided by power from wind, solar, geothermal, and
biomass, as well as by biofuels.
The combined modern and traditional renewable energy share
remained about level with 2011, even as the share of modern
renewables increased. This is because the rapid growth in
modern renewable energy is tempered by both a slow migration
away from traditional biomass and a continued rise in total global
energy demand.
As renewable energy markets and industries mature, they
increasingly face new and different challenges, as well as a wide
range of opportunities. In 2013, renewables faced declining
policy support and uncertainty in many European countries and
the United States. Electric grid-related constraints, opposition
in some countries from electric utilities concerned about rising
competition, and continuing high global subsidies for fossil fuels
were also issues. Overallwith some exceptions in Europe
and the United Statesrenewable energy developments were
positive in 2013.
Markets, manufacturing, and investment expanded further
across the developing world, and it became increasingly evident
that renewables are no longer dependent upon a small handful
of countries. Aided by continuing technological advances, falling
prices, and innovations in financingall driven largely by policy
supportrenewables have become increasingly affordable for
a broader range of consumers worldwide. In a rising number of
countries, renewable energy is considered crucial for meeting
current and future energy needs.
As markets have become more global, renewable energy

industries have responded by increasing their flexibility,
diversifying their products, and developing global supply
chains. Several industries had a difficult year, with consolidation
continuing, particularly for solar energy and wind power. But
the picture brightened by the end of 2013, with many solar
photovoltaics (PV) and wind turbine manufacturers returning to
profitability.
The most significant growth occurred in the power sector, with
global capacity exceeding 1,560 gigawatts (GW), up more
than 8% over 2012. Hydropower rose by 4% to approximately
1,000GW, and other renewables collectively grew nearly 17%
to more than 560 GW. For the first time, the world added more
solar PV than wind power capacity; solar PV and hydropower
were essentially tied, each accounting for about one-third of
new capacity. Solar PV has continued to expand at a rapid rate,
with growth in global capacity averaging almost 55% annually
over the past five years. Wind power has added the most
capacity of all renewable technologies over the same period.
In 2013, renewables accounted for more than 56% of net
additions to global power capacity and represented far higher
shares of capacity added in several countries.
Over the past few years, the levelised costs of electricity
generation from onshore wind and, particularly, solar PV have
fallen sharply. As a result, an increasing number of wind and
solar power projects are being built without public financial
support. Around the world, major industrial and commercial
customers are turning to renewables to reduce their energy
costs while increasing the reliability of their energy supply.
Many set ambitious renewable energy targets, installed and
operated their own renewable power systems, or signed power
purchase agreements to buy directly from renewable energy
project operators, bypassing utilities.
By the end of 2013, China, the United States, Brazil, Canada,
and Germany remained the top countries for total installed
renewable power capacity; the top countries for non-hydro
capacity were again China, the United States, and Germany,
followed by Spain, Italy, and India. Among the worlds top 20
countries for non-hydro capacity, Denmark had a clear lead for
total capacity per capita. Uruguay, Mauritius, and Costa Rica
were among the top countries for investment in new renewable
power and fuels relative to annual GDP.
In the heating and cooling sector, trends included the increasing
use of renewables in combined heat and power plants; the
feeding of renewable heating and cooling into district systems;
hybrid solutions in the building renovation sector; and the
growing use of renewable heat for industrial purposes. Heat
from modern biomass, solar, and geothermal sources accounts
for a small but gradually rising share of final global heat demand,
amounting to an estimated 10%. The use of modern renewable
technologies for heating and cooling is still limited relative to
their vast potential.
i - Note that it is not possible to provide 2013 shares due to a lack of data.
ii - Note that there is debate about the sustainability of traditional biomass, and whether it should be considered renewable, or renewable only if it comes from a
sustainable source.
13
The growth of liquid biofuels has been uneven in recent years,

but their production and use increased in 2013. There is also
growing interest in other renewable options in the transport
sector. The year saw a continued rise in the use of gaseous
biofuels (mainly biomethane) and further development of hybrid
options (e.g., biodiesel-natural gas buses, and electric-diesel
transport). There are limited but increasing initiatives to link
electric transport systems with renewable energy, particularly at
the city and regional levels.
Some highlights of 2013 include:
In the European Union, renewables represented the majority
of new electric generating capacity for the sixth consecutive
year. The 72% share in 2013 is in stark contrast to a decade
earlier, when conventional fossil generation accounted
for 80% of new capacity in the EU-27 plus Norway and
Switzerland.
Even as global investment in solar PV declined nearly 22%
relative to 2012, new capacity installations increased by about
32%.
Chinas new renewable power capacity surpassed new fossil
fuel and nuclear capacity for the first time.
Variable renewables achieved high levels of penetration in
several countries. For example, throughout 2013, wind power
met 33.2% of electricity demand in Denmark and 20.9% in
Spain; in Italy, solar PV met 7.8% of total annual electricity
demand.
Wind power was excluded from one of Brazils national
auctions because it was pricing all other generation sources
out of the market.
Denmark banned the use of fossil fuel-fired boilers in new
buildings as of 2013 and aims for renewables to provide
almost 40% of total heat supply by 2020.
Growing numbers of cities, states, and regions seek to
transition to 100% renewable energy in either individual
sectors or economy-wide. For example, Djibouti, Scotland,
and the small-island state of Tuvalu aim to derive 100% of
their electricity from renewable sources by 2020. Among
those who have already achieved their goals are about 20
million Germans who live in so-called 100% renewable
energy regions.
The impacts of these developments on employment numbers
in the renewable energy sector have varied by country and
technology, but, globally, the number of people working in
renewable industries has continued to rise. An estimated 6.5
million people worldwide work directly or indirectly in the sector.
AN EVOLVING POLICY LANDSCAPE

By early 2014, at least 144 countries had renewable energy
targets and 138 countries had renewable energy support
policies in place, up from the 138 and 127 countries,
respectively, that were reported in GSR 2013. Developing and
emerging economies have led the expansion in recent years and
account for 95 of the countries with support policies, up from 15
in 2005. The rate of adoption remained slow relative to much of
the past decade, due largely to the fact that so many countries
have already enacted policies.
14
In 2013, there was an increasing focus on revisions to existing

policies and targets, including retroactive changes, with some
adjustments made to improve policy effectiveness and efficiency,
and others aimed to curtail costs associated with supporting the
deployment of renewables. At the same time, some countries
expanded support and adopted ambitious new targets.
Policy mechanisms continued to evolve, with some becoming
more differentiated by technology. Feed-in policies in many
countries evolved further towards premium payments in the
power sector, and continued to be adapted for use in the heating
sector. Particularly in Europe, new policies are emerging to
advance or manage the integration of high shares of renewable
electricity into existing power systems, including support for
energy storage, demand-side management, and smart grid
technologies.
As in past years, most renewable energy policies enacted or
revised during 2013 focus on the power sector. A mix of regulatory
policies, fiscal incentives, and public financing mechanisms
continued to be adopted. Feed-in policies and renewable
portfolio standards (RPS) remained the most commonly used
support mechanisms, although their pace of adoption continued
to slow. Public competitive bidding, or tendering, gained further
prominence, with the number of countries turning to public
auctions rising from 9 in 2009 to 55 as of early 2014.
Although the heating and cooling sector lags far behind the
renewable power sector for attention from policymakers, the
adoption of targets and support policies has increased steadily.
As of early 2014, at least 24 countries had adopted renewable
heating (and cooling) targets, and at least 19 countries had
obligations at the national or state/provincial level. Renewable
heating and cooling is also supported through fiscal incentives,
as well as through building codes and other measures at the
national and local levels in several countries.
As of early 2014, at least 63 countries used regulatory policies to
promote the production or consumption of biofuels for transport;
this was up from the 49 reported in GSR 2013. Some existing
blend mandates were strengthened, and the use of fiscal
incentives and public financing expanded. In some countries,
however, support for first-generation biofuels was reduced
due to environmental and social sustainability concerns.
Although most transport-related policies focus on biofuels,
many governments continued to explore other options such as
increasing the number of vehicles fuelled with biomethane and
electricity from renewable sources.
Thousands of cities and towns worldwide have policies, plans,
and targets to advance renewable energy, often far outpacing the
ambitions of national legislation. Policy momentum continued in
2013 as city and local governments acted to reduce emissions,
support and create local industry, relieve grid capacity stress,
and achieve security of supply. To accomplish these goals,
they increasingly made use of their authority to regulate, make
expenditure and procurement decisions, facilitate and ease the
financing of renewable energy projects, and influence advocacy
and information sharing. As cities seek to share and scale up best
practices, highlight their commitments to renewable energy,
and account for their achievements, local governments are
increasingly prioritising systematic measurement and reporting
of climate and energy data.
RENEWABLE ENERGY INDICATORS 2013

START 20041
END 2012
END 2013
billion USD
39.5
249.5
214.4 (249.4)
Renewable power capacity

(total, not including hydro)
GW
85
480
560

(total, including hydro)
GW
800
1,440
1,560
Hydropower capacity (total)3
GW
715
960
1,000
Bio-power capacity
GW
<36
83
88
Bio-power generation
TWh
227
350
405
Geothermal power capacity
GW
8.9
11.5
12
Solar PV capacity (total)
GW
2.6
100
139
Concentrating solar thermal power (total)
GW
0.4
2.5
3.4
Wind power capacity (total)
GW
48
283
318
GWth
98
282
326
Ethanol production (annual)
billion litres
28.5
82.6
87.2
Biodiesel production (annual)
billion litres
2.4
23.6
26.3
Countries with policy targets
48
138
144
Feed-in
Number of states / provinces / countries
34
97
98
RPS / quota policies

11
79
79
Tendering
45
55
Heat obligations / mandates

Number of countries
n/a
19
19
Biofuel obligations / mandates5

Number of countries
10
52
63
INVESTMENT
New investment (annual)
in renewable power and fuels2
POWER
HEAT
Solar hot water capacity (total)4
TRANSPORT
POLICIES
Capacity data are as of the beginning of 2004; other data, such as investment and biofuels production, cover the full year. Numbers are estimates,
based on best available information.
2
Investment data are from Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF) and include all biomass, geothermal, and wind generation projects of more than 1 MW;
all hydro projects of between 1 and 50 MW; all solar power projects, with those less than 1 MW estimated separately and referred to as small-scale projects
or small distributed capacity; all ocean energy projects; and all biofuel projects with an annual production capacity of 1 million litres or more. BNEF estimates that,
including the unreported investments in hydropower projects >50 MW, total new investment in renewable power and fuels was at least USD 249.4 billion in 2013.
3
The GSR 2013 reported a global total of 990 GW of hydropower capacity at the end of 2012; this figure has been revised downward due to better data availability.
Data do not include pumped storage.
4
Solar hot water capacity data include water collectors only; including air collectors, estimated totals are 283.4 GW for 2012 and 330 GW for 2013.
The number for 2013 is a preliminary estimate. Note that past editions of this table have not considered unglazed water collectors.
5
Biofuel mandates include policies at the national or state/provincial level that are listed both under the biofuels obligation/mandate column in Table 3 (Renewable
Energy Support Policies) and in Reference Table R18 (National and State/Provincial Biofuel Blend Mandates). Numbers in the table do not include individual state/
provincial mandates. The 10 countries identified with biofuels mandates in the Start 2004 column were actually in place as of early 2005, the earliest year for
which data are available.
Note: Renewable power capacity (including and not including hydropower) and hydropower capacity data are rounded to nearest 5 GW; other capacity numbers
are rounded to nearest 1 GW except for global investment, numbers <15, and biofuels, which are rounded to one decimal point. Policy data for 2013 include all
countries identified as of early 2014.
1
15
TOP FIVE COUNTRIES

ANNUAL INVESTMENT / NET CAPACITY ADDITIONS / PRODUCTION IN 2013
1
China
United States
Japan
United Kingdom
Germany
Uruguay
Mauritius
Costa Rica
South Africa
Nicaragua
Geothermal power capacity
New Zealand
Turkey
United States
Kenya
Philippines
Hydropower capacity
China
Turkey
Brazil
Vietnam
India
Solar PV capacity
China
Japan
United States
Germany
United Kingdom
CSP capacity
United States
Spain
United Arab
Emirates
India
China
China
Germany
United Kingdom
India
Canada
China
Turkey
India
Brazil
Germany
Biodiesel production
United States
Germany
Brazil
Argentina
France
Fuel ethanol production
United States
Brazil
China
Canada
France
Investment in renewable power

and fuels
Share of GDP 2012 (USD) invested
Wind power capacity

Solar water heating capacity
TOTAL CAPACITY OR GENERATION AS OF END-2013

6
Renewable power (incl. hydro)
China
United States
Brazil
Canada
Germany
Renewable power (not incl. hydro)
China
United States
Germany
Spain / Italy
India

per capita (not incl. hydro)3
Denmark
Germany
Portugal
Spain / Sweden
Austria
Biopower generation
United States
Germany
China
Brazil
India
Geothermal power
United States
Philippines
Indonesia
Mexico
Italy
China
Brazil
United States
Canada
Russia
China
Brazil
Canada
United States
Russia
Spain
United States
United Arab
Emirates
India
Algeria
Solar PV
Germany
China
Italy
Japan
United States
Solar PV capacity per capita
Germany
Italy
Belgium
Greece
Czech Republic
Wind power
China
United States
Germany
Spain
India
Wind power capacity per capita
Denmark
Sweden
Spain
Portugal
Ireland
POWER
Hydropower4
Hydropower generation

Concentrating solar thermal

power (CSP)
HEAT
China
United States
Germany
Turkey
Brazil
Solar water heating

capacity per capita2
Cyprus
Austria
Israel
Barbados
Greece
Geothermal heat5
China
Turkey
Iceland
Japan
Italy
Solar water heating2
Countries considered include only those covered by BNEF; GDP is for 2012 and from the World Bank. The following renewable energy projects are included:
all biomass, geothermal, and wind generation projects of more than 1 MW; all hydropower projects of between 1 and 50 MW; all solar power projects, with
those less than 1 MW estimated separately and referred to as small-scale projects or small distributed capacity; all ocean energy projects; and all biofuel
projects with an annual production capacity of 1 million litres or more.
2
Solar water collector (heating) rankings are for 2012, and are based on capacity of water (glazed and unglazed) collectors only; however, including air collectors
would not affect order. Note that past editions of this table have not considered unglazed water collectors.
3
Per capita renewable power capacity ranking considers only those countries that place among the top 20 worldwide for total installed renewable power
capacity, not including hydropower.
4
Country rankings for hydropower capacity and generation differ because some countries rely on hydropower for baseload supply whereas others use it more to
follow the electric load and match peaks in demand.
5
Not including heat pumps. Rankings are based on a mix of 2010 data and more recent statistics for some countries.
6
Capacity, otherwise noted.
Note: Most rankings are based on absolute amounts of investment, power generation capacity or output, or biofuels production; if done on a per capita, national
GDP, or other basis, the rankings would be quite different for many categories (as seen with per capita rankings for renewable power, solar PV, wind, and solar
water collector capacity).
1
16
INVESTMENT FLOWS
Global new investment in renewable power and fuelsnot
including hydropower projects > 50 megawatts (MW)iwas an
estimated USD 214.4 billion in 2013, down 14% relative to 2012
and 23% lower than the record level in 2011. Including the
unreported investments in hydropower projects larger than
50MW, total new investment in renewable power and fuels was
at least USD 249.4 billion in 2013.
The second consecutive year of decline in investmentafter
several years of growthwas due in part to uncertainty over
incentive policies in Europe and the United States, and to
retroactive reductions in support in some countries. Europes
renewable energy investment was down 44% from 2012. The
year 2013 also saw an end to eight consecutive years of rising
renewable energy investment in developing countries.
Yet the global decline also resulted from sharp reductions
in technology costs. This was particularly true for solar PV,
which saw record levels of new installations in 2013, despite
a 22% decline in dollars invested. Lower costs and efficiency
improvements made it possible to build onshore wind and solar
PV installations in a number of locations around the world in
2013 without subsidy support, particularly in Latin America.
Considering only net investment in new power capacity,
renewables outpaced fossil fuels for the fourth year running.
Further, despite the overall downward trend in global investment,
there were significant exceptions at the country level. The most
notable was Japan, where investment in renewable energy
(excluding research and development) increased by 80%
relative to 2012 levels. Other countries that increased their
investment in 2013 included Canada, Chile, Israel, New Zealand,
the United Kingdom, and Uruguay. Despite the overall decline in
Chinas investment, for the first time ever, China invested more
in renewable energy than did all of Europe combined, and it
invested more in renewable power capacity than in fossil fuels.
Solar power was again the leading sector by far in terms of money
committed during 2013, receiving 53% (USD 113.7 billion) of
total new investment in renewable power and fuels (with 90%
going to solar PV). Wind power followed with USD 80.1 billion.
Asset finance of utility-scale projects declined for the second
consecutive year, but it again made up the vast majority of total
investment in renewable energy, totalling USD 133.4 billion.
Clean energy funds (equities) had a strong year, and clean energy
project bonds set a new record in 2013. North America saw the
emergence of innovative yield-oriented financing vehicles, and
crowd funding moved further into the mainstream in a number
of countries. Institutional investors continued to play an
increasing role, particularly in Europe, with a record volume of
renewable energy investment during the year. Development
banks were again an important source of clean energy
investment, with some banks pledging to curtail funding for
fossil fuels, especially coal power.
DISTRIBUTED RENEWABLE ENERGY

In many parts of the world, the lack of access to modern energy
services continues to impede sustainable development. Recent
assessments suggest that as many as 1.3 billion people still
do not have access to electricity, and more than 2.6 billion
people rely on traditional biomass for cooking and heating.
However, during 2013, people in remote and rural areas of the
world continued to gain access to electricity, modern cooking,
heating and cooling as the installation and use of distributed
renewable energy technologies increased. This expansion was
a direct result of improvements in affordability, inclusion of
distributed energy in national energy policies, greater access to
financing, increased knowledge about local resources, and moreadvanced technologies that can be tailored to meet customers
specific needs.
Furthermore, increased use of mini-grids supported the spread of
renewable energy-powered electrification in un-electrified periurban and rural areas. Recent technical advances that enable the
integration of renewables in mini-grid systems, combined with
information and communication technology (ICT) applications
for power management and end-user services, have allowed for
a rapid growth in the use of renewables-powered mini-grids.
There is a growing awareness that stand-alone cooking and electricity systems based on renewables are often the most cost-effective
options available for providing energy services to households and
businesses in remote areas. As a result, an increasing number
of countries is supporting the development of decentralised
renewable energy-based systems to expand energy access.
With the rising awareness that off-grid, low-income customers
can provide fast-growing markets for goods and services, and
with the emergence of new business and financing models
for serving them, rural energy markets are increasingly being
recognised as offering potential business opportunities. Many
companies have become active across Africa, Asia, and Latin
America, selling household-level renewable energy systems
and devices. Commercial lenders, social venture capitalists,
local and international development entities, governments,
and others are actively engaged in the financing of distributed
renewable energy. In 2013, levels of participation and progress
varied from country to country depending on support policies,
broader legal frameworks, and political stability.
i - Except where noted explicitly, investment data in this section do not include hydropower projects >50 MW because these are not tracked by Bloomberg New
Energy Finance, the source for these statistics.
17
MARKET AND INDUSTRY TRENDS

BIOMASS FOR HEAT, POWER, AND TRANSPORT.
Biomass demand continued to grow steadily in the heat,
power, and transport sectors. Total primary energy consumption
of biomass reached approximately 57 exajoules (EJ) in 2013,
of which almost 60% was traditional biomass, and the
remainder was modern bioenergy (solid, gaseous, and liquid
fuels). Heating accounted for the majority of biomass use, with
modern biomass heat capacity rising about 1% to an estimated
296 gigawatts-thermal (GWth). Global bio-power capacity was up
by an estimated 5 GW to 88 GW. Bio-power generation exceeded
400 Terawatt-hours (TWh) during the year, including power
generated in combined heat and power (CHP) plants. Demand
for modern biomass is driving increased international trade in
solid biofuels, including wood pellets.
HYDROPOWER. Global hydropower generation during

the year was an estimated 3,750 TWh. About 40 GW of
new hydropower capacity was commissioned in 2013, increasing
total global capacity by around 4% to approximately 1,000 GW.
By far the most capacity was installed in China (29 GW), with
significant capacity also added in Turkey, Brazil, Vietnam,
India, and Russia. Growth in the industry has been relatively
steady in recent years, fuelled primarily by Chinas expansion.
Modernisation of ageing hydropower facilities is a growing global
market. Some countries are seeing a trend towards smaller
reservoirs and multi-turbine run-of-river projects. There also
is increasing recognition of the potential for hydropower to
complement other renewable technologies, such as variable
wind and solar power.
Liquid biofuels met about 2.3% of global transport fuel demand.

In 2013, global production rose by 7.7 billion litres to reach
116.6 billion litres. Ethanol production was up 6% after
two years of decline, biodiesel rose 11%, and hydrotreated
vegetable oil (HVO) rose by 16% to 3 million litres. New plants
for making advanced biofuels, produced from non-food biomass
feedstocks, were commissioned in Europe and North America.
However, overall investment in new biofuel plant capacity
continued to decline from its 2007 peak.
GEOTHERMAL POWER AND HEAT. About 530 MW
of new geothermal generating capacity came on line
in 2013. Accounting for replacements, the net increase was
about 455 MW, bringing total global capacity to 12 GW. This net
capacity growth of 4% compares to an average annual growth
rate of 3% for the two previous years (201012). Direct use of
geothermal energyfor thermal baths and swimming pools,
space heating, and agricultural and industrial processes
is estimated to exceed 300 petajoules (PJ) annually, but
growth is not robust. Governments and industry continued
to pursue technological innovation to increase efficient use
of conventional geothermal resources. In parallel, the use
of low-temperature fields for both power and heat continued
to expand, increasing the application of geothermal energy
beyond high-temperature locations.
18
OCEAN ENERGY. Ocean energy capacity, mostly tidal

power generation, was about 530 MW by the end of 2013.
In preparation for anticipated commercial projects, a handful
of pilot installations were deployed during the year for ongoing
tests. Particularly in the United Kingdom and France, there are
indications that significant capacity growth will occur in the near
future, due to concerted industry focus and government support.
Major corporations continued to consolidate their positions in
the ocean energy sector through strategic partnerships and
acquisitions of technology developers.
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS (PV). The solar PV market had

a record year, adding more than 39GW in 2013 for a total
exceeding 139 GW. China saw spectacular growth, accounting for
nearly one-third of global capacity added, followed by Japan and
the United States. Solar PV is starting to play a substantial role in
electricity generation in some countries, particularly in Europe,
while lower prices are opening new markets from Africa and the
Middle East to Asia and Latin America. Interest continued to grow
in corporate- and community-owned systems, while the number
and size of utility-scale systems continued to increase. Although
it was a challenging year for many companies, predominantly
in Europe, the industry began to recover during 2013. Module
prices stabilised, while production costs continued to fall and
solar cell efficiencies increased steadily. Many manufacturers
began expanding production capacity to meet expected further
growth in demand.
SOLAR THERMAL HEATING AND COOLING. Solar

water and air collector capacity exceeded 283 GWth in
2012 and reached an estimated 330 GWth by the end of 2013.
As in past years, China was the main demand driver, accounting
for more than 80% of the global market. Demand in key
European markets continued to slow, but markets expanded in
countries such as Brazil, where solar thermal water heating is
cost competitive. The trend towards deploying large domestic
systems continued, as did growing interest in the use of solar
thermal technologies for district heating, cooling, and industrial
applications. China maintained its lead in the manufacture
of solar thermal collectors. International attention to quality
standards and certification continued, largely in response
to high failure rates associated with cheap tubes from China.
Europe saw accelerated consolidation during the year, with
several large suppliers announcing their exit from the industry.
Industry expectations for market development are the brightest
in India and Greece.
WIND POWER. More than 35 GW of wind power capacity
was added in 2013, for a total above 318 GW. However,
following several record years, the market was down nearly 10GW
compared to 2012, reflecting primarily a steep drop in the U.S.
market. While the European Union remained the top region for
cumulative wind capacity, Asia was nipping at its heels and is
set to take the lead in 2014. New markets continued to emerge
in all regions, and, for the first time, Latin America represented a
significant share of new installations. Offshore wind had a record
year, with 1.6 GW added, almost all of it in the EU. However, the
record level hides delays due to policy uncertainty and project
cancellations or downsizing.
CONCENTRATING SOLAR THERMAL POWER (CSP). Global

CSP capacity was up nearly 0.9 GW (36%) in 2013
to reach 3.4 GW. While the United States and Spain
remained the market leaders, markets continued to shift to
developing countries with high levels of insolation. Beyond
the leading markets, capacity nearly tripled with projects
coming on line in the United Arab Emirates, India, and China.
An increasing range of hybrid CSP applications emerged,
and thermal energy storage continued to gain in importance.
Industry operations expanded further into new markets, and
global growth in the sector remained strong, but revised growth
projections and competition from solar PV in some countries led
a number of companies to close their CSP operations. The trend
towards larger plants to take advantage of economies of scale
was maintained, while improved design and manufacturing
techniques reduced costs.
The wind industry continued to be challenged by downward

pressure on prices, increased competition among turbine
manufacturers, competition with low-cost gas in some markets,
reductions in policy support driven by economic austerity,
and declines in key markets. At the same time, falling capital
costs and technological advances increased capacity factors,
improving the cost-competitiveness of wind-generated electricity relative to fossil fuels. The offshore industry continued to
move farther from shore and into deeper waters, driving new
foundation designs and requiring more-sophisticated vessels.
19
In recognition of their contribution, this years

publication acknowledges the GSR community
through illustrations and text on each
of the separator pages like this one.
01
Renewable energy provided an estimated 19% of global final

energy consumption in 2012i, and continued to grow strongly in
2013.ii 1 Of this total share in 2012, traditional biomassiii, which
currently is used primarily for cooking and heating in remote and
rural areas of developing countries, accounted for about 9%, and
modern renewables increased their share to approximately 10%.
The combined modern and traditional renewable energy share
remained about level with 2011, even as the share of modern
renewables increased.2 This is because the rapid growth in
modern renewable energy is tempered by both a slow migration
away from traditional biomass and a continued rise in total global
energy demand.3
Modern renewable energy is being used increasingly in four
distinct markets: power generation, heating and cooling,
transport fuels, and rural/off-grid energy services. The breakdown
of modern renewables, as a share of total final energy use in
2012, was as follows: hydropower generated an estimated
3.8%; other renewable power sources comprised 1.2%; heat
energy accounted for approximately 4.2%; and transport biofuels
provided about 0.8%.4 (See Figure 1.)
During the years 2009 through 2013, installed capacity as well
as output of most renewable energy technologies grew at rapid
rates, particularly in the power sector.5 (See Figure 2.) Over this
period, solar photovoltaics (PV) experienced the fastest capacity

growth rates of any energy technology, while wind saw the most
power capacity added of any renewable technology. The use of
modern renewables for heating and cooling progressed steadily,
although good data for many heating technologies and fuels are
lacking.6 (See Sidebar 1, page 23.) Biofuels production for use in
the transport sector slowed from 2010 to 2012, despite high oil
prices, but picked up again in 2013.7
As renewable energy industries and markets mature, they
increasingly face new and different challengesas well as a wide
range of opportunities. In Europe, a growing number of countries
has reduced, sometimes retroactively, financial support for
renewables at a rate that exceeds the decline in technology
costs. Such actions have been driven, in part, by the ongoing
economic crisis in some member states, by related electricity
over-capacity, and by rising competition with fossil fuels. Policy
uncertainty has increased the cost of capitalmaking it more
difficult to finance projectsand reduced investment. (See
Policy Landscape section.) During 2013, Europe continued to
see a significant loss of start-up companies (especially solar PV),
resulting in widespread financial losses.8 On a bright note, the
share of renewables in gross final energy consumption in the
European Union (EUiv) reached an estimated 14.1% in 2012, up
from 8.3% in 2004.9
Figure
Renewable
Energy
Share
of Global
FinalFinal
Energy
Consumption,
2012 2012
Figure 1.
1.Estimated
Estimated
Renewable
Energy
Share
of Global
Energy
Consumption,
Source:
See Endnote 4
for this section.
Fossil fuels
78.4%
Modern Renewables
10%
Biomass/
geothermal/
solar heat
Hydropower
3.8%
4.2%
All Renewables
19%
Traditional Biomass
9%
1.2% 0.8%
Wind/solar/ Biofuels
biomass/
geothermal
power
01
01 GLOBAL OVERVIEW
2.6%
Nuclear power
i - Note that it is not possible to provide 2013 shares due to a lack of data.
ii - Endnotes in this report are numbered by section and begin on page 152 (see full version online: http://www.ren21.net/gsr). Endnotes contain source
materials and assumptions used to derive data in the GSR, as well as additional supporting notes.
iii - Traditional biomass refers to solid biomass that is combusted in inefficient, and usually polluting, open fires, stoves, or furnaces to provide heat energy for
cooking, comfort, and small-scale agricultural and industrial processing, typically in rural areas of developing countries. It may or may not be harvested in a
sustainable manner. Traditional biomass currently plays a critical role in meeting rural energy demand in much of the developing world. Modern biomass energy
is defined in this report as energy derived efficiently from solid, liquid, and gaseous biomass fuels for modern applications. (See Glossary for definitions of terms
used in this report.) There is ongoing discussion about the sustainability of traditional biomass, and whether it should be considered renewable, or renewable
only if it comes from a sustainable source. For information about the environmental and health impacts of traditional biomass, see H. Chum et al., Bioenergy,
in Edenhofer et al., eds., IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press,
2011).
iv - The use of European Union, or EU, throughout refers specifically to the EU-28.
21
01 GLOBAL OVERVIEW
Figure
2. 2.
Average
GrowthRates
Rates
of Renewable
Energy
Capacity
and Production,
Biofuels Production,
Figure
AverageAnnual
Annual Growth
of Renewable
Energy
Capacity
and Biofuels
End-2008 End-20082013
2013
%
60
50
Growth Rate in 2013
39
40
Growth Rate End-2008 through 2013
35
30
20
15.7
12.4
11.4
10
Source:
See Endnote 5
for this section.
Geothermal Hydropower
power
Solar PV
CSP
Power
Further, renewables operate on an un-level playing field in

which energy prices do not fully reflect externalities. Global
subsidies for fossil fuels and nuclear power remain high despite
discussions about their phase-out, encouraging inefficient
energy use while also hindering investment in renewables.10
Depending on the calculation method used, estimates for the
global cost of fossil fuel subsidies range from USD 544 billion to
USD 1.9 trillionseveral times higher than those for renewable
energy.11 (See Sidebar 6, GSR 2013.)
Electric grid-related challenges continued in 2013. These include
lack of transmission infrastructure in some locations, delays in
grid connection, and sometimes the curtailment of renewable
generation.12 At high penetration levels, variable renewables can
pose challenges for electricity grid system operators. A growing
number of countries is aiding integration through improvements
in grid management practices, improving system flexibility, and
modifying existing grid infrastructure and technologies.13 (See
Feature, GSR 2013.)
Overall, with some exceptions in Europe and the United
States, renewables saw a number of significant and positive
developments in 2013.14 Wind power moved more firmly into
Africa and Latin America; concentrating solar thermal power
(CSP) shifted its focus further to the Middle East and North
Africa (MENA) region and to South Africa; renewable process
heat fuelled industries from Chile to Europe to India; and solar
PV continued to spread across the globe, with most capacity
on-grid but also significant increases in off-grid markets in
developing countries.
Such developments make it increasingly evident that
renewables are no longer dependent upon a small handful
of countries. Indeed, during 2013, major renewable energy
22
Wind
11
5.7
14
21
3.7
48
3.2
55
5.6
4.2
Solar
heating
Ethanol
Biodiesel
production production
Heating
Transport
companies further shifted their focus away from traditional

markets in Europe and into Africa, Asia, and Latin America, where
strong new markets are emerging in all sectors, both on and off
the grid.15
Renewables have been aided by continuing advances in
technologies, falling prices, and innovations in financing, driven
largely by policy support. These developments are making
renewable energy more economical than new fossil and
nuclear installations under many circumstances, and thus more
affordable for a broader range of consumers in developed and
developing countries.16 In addition, there is increasing awareness of renewable energy technologies and resources, and their
potential to help meet rapidly rising energy demand, while also
creating jobs, accelerating economic development, reducing
local air pollution, improving public health, and reducing carbon
emissions.17
There is also a growing recognition that renewable energy
can expand access to modern energy services in developing
countries, both rapidly and cost effectively.18 As more attention
turns to issues of energy access, as prices decline, and as
new business models emerge, it is becoming apparent that
rural energy markets in developing countries offer significant
business opportunities, and products are being tailored
specifically to meet the needs of these markets.19 (See
Distributed Renewable Energy section.)
Increasingly, renewable energy is considered crucial for
meeting current and future energy needs. In Latin America,
for example, renewables are now seen as a critical energy
source.20 (See Sidebar 2.) To achieve a variety of energy security
and sustainability goals, growing numbers of cities, states, and
regions around the world seek to transition to 100% renewable
SIDEBAR 1. RENEWABLE ENERGY DATA: CURRENT STATUS AND CHALLENGES OF CAPACITY AND PRODUCTION DATA
Reliable, accessible, and timely data on renewable energy
are essential for establishing energy plans, defining baselines
for targets, monitoring progress and effectiveness of policy
measures, and attracting investment. Global data collection
on renewables has improved significantly in recent years with
more-comprehensive and timelier record keeping, increased
accessibility, and better communication among stakeholders.
Significant gains have been made over the past decade as
governments, industries, and other entities have improved data
collection methods. However, there are still large data gaps,
particularly in the decentralised applications of renewable
energy. The task also grows in complexity as the use of renewable
energy increases in scale and expands geographically, making
data more difficult to track. A number of challenges remain.
In many countries, renewable energy data are not collected
systematically and, where data do exist, they vary widely in
quality and completeness. Timing of data releases varies
considerably, and reporting periods differ. The time lag between
developments and availability of data (in many instances two
years or longer) can be a barrier to informed decision making,
given the rapidly evolving renewable energy landscape.
Some challenges are technology or sector specific, due to the
decentralised nature of installations and industry structure.
For example, most traditional biomass is used for heating and
cooking in more than a billion dwellings worldwide, and estimates
of total quantities are uncertain. Modern biomass technologies
have varying rates of fuel-to-energy conversion, and the wide
range of feedstocks, sources, and conversion pathways makes
uniform data collection difficult. Even the energy from traded
biomass is difficult to track because the traded feedstock can
have both energy and non-energy uses.
Many national and international entities do not report data

sources and assumptions underlying their statistics. Some data
are aggregated under the other category, which may or may
not include non-renewable products. Other datasets are not
publicly available. Methodologies and assumptions (including
what is counted and how) can differ markedly among sources,
creating inconsistencies and uncertainty about data robustness.
Formal (government) data may command some premium in
the hierarchy of data, but informal data are also critical for
establishing a more comprehensive view of the global renewable
energy sector. The challenge is to effectively bring together data
from various institutional and individual sources in a consistent,
systematic, and transparent context. Several national, regional,
and international initiatives have been formed to overcome
gaps and improve the quality of renewable energy data, in part
by systematically relying on a broader array of both formal and
informal sources. These include the Global Tracking Framework
under SE4ALL, projects under way at IRENA, regional initiatives
in western Africa and the MENA region, and ongoing work by
REN21 with global and regional status reports.
The collection and processing of renewable energy statistical
information can be seen as burdensome; however, inconsistent
data collection efforts hamper governments capacity to make
informed decisions. Experts agree that systematic and enhanced
reporting is critical for increasing financing, establishing policy
priorities, and improving energy planning over time.
01
Renewable heating (and cooling) data, in general, present a

challenge because of the relatively large number and variety
of technologies involved (e.g., feedstocks, energy conversion
technologies, distribution) and the distributed nature of the
sector. In some countries, there is a misconception that the use
of renewable heating (such as solar thermal collectors for water
heating) is an energy efficiency measure, and thus developments
are not recorded with other renewable energy data. Capacity
and output data on distributed heat, off-grid electricity, and
other decentralised applications frequently go uncollected or
are otherwise fragmented.
Energy output data are challenging to estimate accurately
for a variety of reasons, including variability in local resource
and system conditions. Where renewables are part of hybrid
facilities (such as biomass co-firing, CSP-fossil fuel hybrids),
output is often not broken down by source, resulting in overor underestimation of the renewable component. In addition,
declining efficiencies of existing stock and retirement and
replacement of ageing capacity need to be accounted for, but
these are seldom reported and therefore are often subject to
estimation.
Source: See Endnote 6 for this section.
23
01 GLOBAL OVERVIEW
SIDEBAR 2. REGIONAL SPOTLIGHT: LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN

Increasing interest in renewable energy in the Latin America and
the Caribbean (LAC) region is reflected in ambitious targets and
policy support, which have led to rapidly growing investments in
renewables, beyond the traditional hydropower sector. By early
2014, at least 19 countries in the region had renewable energy
policies, and at least 14 had renewable energy targets, mostly
for electricity generation. (See Table 3 and Reference Tables
R12 to R15.) For example, Uruguay aims to generate 90% of
its electricity from renewable sources by 2015, while Grenada
targets 20% primary energy from renewables by 2020.
Renewable energy already meets a substantial portion of
electricity demand, with hydropower accounting for around
half of the regions total installed power capacity and the vast
majority of its renewable power capacity. Especially in Central
America, the need for a diversified electricity mix to reduce
vulnerability to a changing hydrological profile is driving interest
in other abundant renewable energy resources. In Brazil,
hydropower expansion is expected to become increasingly
constrained by environmental sensitivity and the remoteness of
much of the remaining resource. In the Caribbean, countries are
aggressively pursuing the deployment of renewables to reduce
their heavy reliance on fossil fuels, and thereby increase their
economic and energy security.
Despite having an average electrification rate of almost 95%,
one of the highest among the developing regions, energy access
remains a challenge for the LAC region: an estimated 24 million
people, primarily in rural and remote areas, still lack access
to electricity. Some countries have achieved virtually 100%
electrification, while others have far to go. Renewables can
play an important role in achieving universal access to modern
energy. Solar energy is abundant across the region, which is also
home to nearly one-quarter of the worlds geothermal potential,
and wind resources are world class in Argentina, Brazil, and
Mexico. By one estimate, non-hydro renewable energy has the
technical potential to meet more than 50 times the regions
current electricity demand.
While the regions hydropower sector is relatively mature, the
vast potential of non-hydro renewables is now beginning to be
realised. Wind power has experienced the fastest growth in
recent years, with Brazil and Mexico leading the way. With about
1 gigawatt (GW) of geothermal capacity, Mexico is the worlds
fifth-largest geothermal power producer, followed in the LAC
region by Central America, with a collective 500 MW of capacity.
The solar PV market, while increasingly important in off-grid and
rural areas, has experienced a shift in focus from small domestic
applications to large-scale power plants.
In the heating sector, renewable energy applications for
domestic, commercial, and industrial use are gaining ground.
Solar thermal collectors for water heating are spreading beyond
Brazil, one of the worlds top markets. Chiles mining industry is
actively installing solar thermal systems (parabolic trough and
flat-plate collectors) to meet its heat energy needs in remote
locations. Solar food dryers are used for processing fruits and
coffee in Jamaica, Peru, and Mexico.
24
Over 80% of the LAC population lives in cities, and the region
is urbanising at a rapid pace, with increasing demand for
transportation. To meet this demand while slowing the growth
of fossil fuel consumption, several countries are promoting the
use of biofuels. Biofuels account for 13% of transport fuel in
Brazil, and their role is growing in several other countries. Brazil,
Argentina, and Colombia lead the region for biofuel production.
Several countries have adopted feed-in tariffs, public
competitive bidding (tendering), tax incentives, and quotas to
drive deployment. The use of public competitive bidding has
gained momentum in recent years, with Brazil, El Salvador,
Peru, and Uruguay issuing tenders in 2013 for more than 6.6 GW
of renewable electric capacity. Eight countries had net metering
laws by years end, with pilot projects operating in Costa Rica
and Barbados.
An improved environment for renewables is attracting new
national and international investors. Although Brazil experienced
a decline in new investment in 2013 for the second year running,
others in the region saw significant increases, with Chile, Mexico,
and Uruguay committing over USD 1 billion each.
Manufacturers are seeking growth opportunities in the region.
While the larger economiesBrazil, Argentina, Chile, and
Mexicoare the front-runners, manufacturing of renewable
energy technologies, such as wind turbines, is spreading across
the region.
Differences in electricity market structures and regulations have
constrained efforts to integrate electricity markets regionally
to date, and lack of transmission infrastructure has delayed
the development of some projects. Lack of awareness about
renewable heat technologies and their potential is impeding their
expansion. In addition, the relatively low level of energy demand
in some countriessuch as the Caribbean nationsmakes it
difficult to support local industry and can preclude the potential
to benefit from economies of scale. Despite a number of nearterm challenges, the region is demonstrating unprecedented
growth and presents significant opportunities for expansion.
The Regional Spotlight sidebar appeared for the first time in

GSR 2013 and is now a regular feature of the report, focussing on
developments and trends in a different world region each year.
energy in individual sectors or economy-wide, and many have

already achieved their targets.21
As markets have become more global, industries have responded
by increasing their flexibility and developing global strategies
and supply chains.22 In 2013, manufacturers continued
to diversify products to increase product value, and many
advanced further into project development and ownership. Many
renewable industries saw a rapid increase in worldwide demand
for construction and engineering, consulting, equipment
maintenance, and operations services.23 Several industries
had a difficult year, with consolidation continuing, particularly
in solar energy and wind power. But the picture brightened by
years end, with many solar PV and wind turbine manufacturers
returning to profitability.24
Global investment in renewables declined again in 2013,
largely due to falling system costs and policy uncertainty.25 Still,
renewables outpaced fossil fuels for the fourth year running in
terms of net investment in power capacity additions.26 Further,
2013 was a watershed year for renewable energy financing, with
the development and enactment of new financing structures that
provide access to low-cost money through capital markets.27(See
Investment Flows section.) Projects (particularly wind and
solar PV) changed hands at record rates during the year,
reflecting in part a growing interest in renewable energy asset
investments among pension funds and other institutional
investors that anticipate solid long-term returns.28 Innovative
financing mechanisms, such as crowd funding and risk-guarantee
schemes, continued to expand and spread across China, Europe,
and the United States, and are increasingly targeting off-grid
projects in Africa and Asia.29 A range of actors continued to
actively engage in the financing of distributed renewable energy
projects for isolated regions of the developing world.30
The impacts of all of these developments on employment
numbers in the renewable energy sector have varied by country
and technology, but, globally, the number of people working in
renewable industries has continued to rise. (See Sidebar 6, page
60, and Table 1, page 63.)
POWER SECTOR
The most significant growth occurred in the power sector, with
global capacity exceeding 1,560 GW in 2013, an increase of more
than 8% over 2012.31 Hydropower rose by 4% to approximately
1,000 GWi, while other renewables collectively grew nearly 17%
to an estimated 560 GW.32 Globally, hydropower and solar PV
each accounted for about one-third of renewable power capacity
added in 2013, followed closely by wind power (29%).33For the
first time, more solar PV than wind power capacity was added
worldwide.34 (See Reference Table R1.)
Around the world, policy support and investment in renewable
energy have continued to focus primarily on the electricity
sector. Consequently, renewables have accounted for a growing
share of electric generation capacity added globally each year.35
In 2013, renewables made up more than 56% of net additions
to global power capacity and represented far higher shares of
capacity added in several countries around the world.36 In the
EU, renewables accounted for the majority of new capacity for
the sixth year running.37
By years end, renewables comprised an estimated 26.4% of
the worlds power generating capacity.38 This was enough to
supply an estimated 22.1% of global electricity, with hydropower
providing about 16.4%.39 (See Figure 3.) While renewable
capacity continues to rise at a rapid rate from year to year,
renewable electricitys share of global generation is increasing
more slowly. This is in large part because overall demand keeps
rising rapidly, and also because much of the renewable capacity
being added is variable.
Even so, variable renewables are achieving high levels of
penetration in several countries. For example, throughout
2013, wind power met 33.2% of electricity demand in Denmark
and 20.9% in Spain; in Italy, solar PV met 7.8% of total annual
electricity demand.40 Hydropower, which provides the single
largest share of renewable electricity worldwide, is being used
increasingly to balance systems with high shares of variable
renewables, sometimes with the aid of pumped storage.
Figure
EstimatedRenewable
RenewableEnergy
Energy
Share
of Global
Electricity
Production,
End-2013
Figure3.
3. Estimated
Share
of Global
Electricity
Production,
End-2013
Source:
See Endnote 39
for this section.
Fossil fuels and nuclear
Hydropower
16.4%
Renewable
electricity
22.1%
Wind
2.9%
Bio-power
1.8%
01
77.9 %
Solar PV
0.7%
Geothermal,
CSP and
Ocean
0.4%
Based on renewable generating capacity in operation end-2013. Data do not addBased

up dueon
to renewable
rounding. generating capacity in operation at year-end 2013.
i - The GSR 2013 reported a global total of 990 GW of hydropower capacity at the end of 2012; this figure has been revised downward due to better data availability.
This adjustment also affects the global figure for total renewable power capacity. In addition, global hydropower data and thus total renewable energy statistics
in this report reflect an effort to remove capacity of pure pumped storage from the totals. For more information, see Methodological Notes, page 142.
25
01 GLOBAL OVERVIEW
Figure 4. Renewable Power Capacities in World, EU-28, BRICS, and Top Six Countries, 2013
Figure 4. Renewable Power Capacities*, EU-28, BRICS, and Top Six Countries, 2013
Gigawatts
600
560
CSP and Ocean Power

Gigawatts
500
Geothermal power
118
120
Bio-power
Solar PV
100
400
235
200
Wind power
78
80
300
60
162
100
Source:
See Endnote 49
for this section.
93
40
32
31
Spain
Italy
27
20
0
World
Total
EU-28
BRICS
China
United
States
Germany
India
Not including hydropower
*not including hydropower
(See Hydropower section.) Other non-variable renewables

such as geothermal and bio-power can play a similar role and
provide significant shares of total electricity in some countries.
Geothermal power now accounts for 29% of electricity
generation in Iceland, and more than one-fifth in El Salvador and
Kenya.41
Bio-, geothermal-, and hydropower have long been cost
competitive in areas where good resources are available, and
this is true for a growing number of technologies in an increasing
number of locations.42 The levelised costs of generation from
onshore wind and, particularly, solar PV have fallen sharply
over the past five years, while average global costs from coal
and natural gas generation have increased due to higher
capital costs and feedstock prices.43 As a result, an increasing
number of wind and solar power projects are being built
without public financial support, especially in Latin America,
but also in Africa, the Middle East, and elsewhere.44
In response to these changing economics, distributed
renewables are starting to challenge traditional electric utility
business models, prompting utilities in some countries to
push back and call for reduced policy support for renewable
electricity.45 At the same time, many utilities from Asia to Europe
to North America are investing in wind, solar PV, and other
renewables, in addition to hydropower.46 (See Sidebar 7, page 80.)
capacity were again China, the United States, and Germany,

followed by Spain, Italy, and India.49 (See Figure 4 and Reference
Table R2.)
Among the worlds top 20 countries for non-hydro renewable
power capacity, those with the highest capacity amounts per
inhabitant were all in Europe. Denmark had a clear lead and
was followed by Germany, Portugal, Spain, and Sweden.i 50
Considering investment in new renewable power (and fuels)
relative to annual GDP, top countries included Uruguay,
Mauritius, Costa Rica, South Africa, and Nicaragua.51
While the BRICS ii nations together led for total capacity of
all renewables (thanks primarily to China), accounting for
approximately 38%, the EU still had the most non-hydro
installed capacity of any region at the end of 2013, with about
42% of the global total.52 However, the EUs share of global
renewable power capacity is declining as renewable electricity
markets outside of Europe expand. (See Top Five Countries
Table on page 16 for other rankings.)
By the end of 2013, China, the United States, Brazil, Canada,

and Germany remained the top countries for total installed
renewable electric capacity.47 China was home to about 24% of
the worlds renewable power capacity, including an estimated
260 GW of hydropower.48 The top countries for non-hydro
i - While there are other countries with high per capita amounts of renewable capacity and high shares of renewable electricity, the GSR focusses here on the
top 20 countries for total installed capacity of non-hydro renewables. (See Reference Table R13 for country shares of electricity from renewable sources.)
ii - The combined economies of Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa.
26
Highlights for 2013 include:

Chinas new renewable power capacity surpassed new fossil
and nuclear capacity for the first time.53 All renewables
accounted for more than 20% (>1,000TWh) of Chinas
electricity generation.54In the European Union, renewable
power installations represented 72% of new electric capacity,
up from 70% in 2012.55 This is in stark contrast to a decade
earlier, when conventional fossil generation accounted
for 80% of new capacity in the EU-27 plus Norway and
Switzerland.56
In the United States, the share of renewable generation rose to
nearly 12.9% (12.2% in 2012), despite a drop in hydropower
output and competition from cheap natural gas from shale.57
By contrast, the share of net electricity generation from coal
declined nearly 19% over the period 20082013.58
Spain became the first country to generate more electricity
from wind power (20.9% of total) than from any other source
for the entire year.59
Around the world, households and businesses are opting

increasingly for green offerings from traditional utilities and
new energy providers, voluntarily buying renewable energy
(most commonly electricity) that is produced outside of, or
beyond, regulatory requirements. Germany remains one of the
worlds leaders for voluntary renewable power purchasing. Its
market grew from 0.8 million residential customers in 2006 to
4.9 million in 2012, or 12.5% of all private households in the
country. In 2011, they purchased 15 terawatt-hours (TWh)
of green power, and commercial customers bought a further
10.3TWh.i 69 Other major European green power markets include
Austria, Belgium (Flanders), Finland, Hungary, the Netherlands,
Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom, although the
market share in these countries remains below German levels.70
Green power markets also exist in Australia, Canada, Japan,
South Africa, and the United States.71 More than half of U.S.
electricity customers have the option to purchase green power
directly from their local utility, and 47 of the 50 states (plus the
District of Columbia) have utilities and/or competitive electricity
suppliers that offer a green power option. In 2012, total U.S.
retail green power sales exceeded 48 TWh (about 1.3% of total
U.S. electricity sales).72
Major industrial and commercial customers in Europe, India,
Mexico, and the United States continued to turn to renewables
to reduce their energy costs while increasing the reliability of
their energy supply. Many set ambitious renewable energy
targets in 2013, installed and operated their own renewable
power systems, or signed purchase agreements to buy directly
from renewable energy project operators, bypassing utilities.73
Wind power was excluded from one of Brazils auctions

because it was pricing all other generation sources out of the
market.63 By years end, Brazil had 3.5 MW of commissioned
wind power capacity, and more than 10 GW of additional
capacity was under contract.64
Even as global investment in solar PV declined nearly 22%
relative to 2012, new capacity installations increased by more
than 32%.65
By early 2013, at least 18 countries generated more than
10% of their electricity with non-hydro renewable resources,
up from an estimated 8 countries in 2010. These included
Denmark, El Salvador, Kenya, Lithuania, and Austria.66
The year saw expanded installations of small-scale, distributed

renewable systems for remote locations as well as gridconnected systems where consumers prefer to generate at least
a portion of their electricity on-site.76 Technology advances are
enabling the establishment of micro- and mini-grids that rely
significantly, if not entirely, on renewable energy. Micro-grids
are emerging in developed countries, in particular, where
they are generally connected to an overlying central grid.ii In
developing countries, mini-grids are playing an increasingly
important role in providing electricity access to remote
communities.77 (See Sidebar 8 in GSR 2013.)
01
India added more than 4 GW of renewable capacity for a total

of about 70.5 GW.60 While hydropower represented most of
the total (62%), solar PV and wind accounted for almost 70%
of 2013 renewable additions.61 Yet Indias power capacity is
expanding rapidly, and renewables made up less than 17% of
total additions from all sources during 2013.62
Community-owned and co-operative projects also increased

in numbers in Australia, Japan, and Thailand, as well as in
North America and several countries in Europe.74 Denmark has
a long history of co-operatively owned projects; in Germany,
almost half of renewable power capacity was citizen owned
as of 2013, and about 20 million Germans lived in so-called
100% renewable energy regions.75
Many communities and regions around the world have

targeted, or already successfully transitioned to, 100%
renewable electricity.67 Djibouti, Scotland, and the smallisland state of Tuvalu, for example, aim to derive 100% of their
electricity from renewable sources by 2020.68
i - Note that part of this growth is also due to voluntary decisions of suppliers, generally for marketing purposes, to procure renewable electricity for all of their
residential customers. Customers of such suppliers account for up to 20% of the voluntary green power market in Germany. (See Endnote 69 for this section.)
ii - A micro-grid is a small-scale power grid, with its own power resources, generation, loads, and definable boundaries that can operate independently of, or in
conjunction with, an areas main power grid. It can be intended as back-up power or to bolster main grid power during periods of heavy demand. It is often used
to reduce costs, enhance reliability, and/or as a means of incorporating renewable energy.
27
01 GLOBAL OVERVIEW
HEATING AND COOLING SECTOR

Energy use for the provision of useful heat represents about half
of total world final energy consumption.78 Modern renewables
(excluding traditional biomass) meet a small but gradually rising
share of final global heat demand (about 10%).79 In some markets,
they already contribute substantially. For example, renewables
provide over 60% of final energy for heat in Iceland and Sweden.80
In Brazil, where bio-heat covers a significant portion of industrial
heat demand, the renewable share is about 43%.81 Renewables
meet 20% or more of final energy demand for heat in Austria,
Denmark, Israel, New Zealand, Norway, and Thailand, and
significant shares also in India (11%), Indonesia (7%), and South
Africa (6%).82
Modern biomass, solar thermal, and geothermal energy provide
hot water and space heating for tens of millions of domestic and
commercial buildings around the world. These renewables also
supply heat for industrial processes, agricultural applications,
and cooking, at a range of temperature levels. Modern biomass
accounts for the vast majority (about 90%) of renewable
heating.83 Markets for renewable heating and cooling have
increased rapidly in recent years, particularly for solar thermal
and some bio-energy systems.84 In addition, passive solar
building designs provide a significant amount of space heating
(and light), and their numbers continue to increase, but they are
not included in this report due to lack of data.
Bio-heat capacity is growing steadily, at an estimated 12%
annually.85 During 2013, Central Europe and the United States,
in particular, saw a continuing shift towards the use of biomass
for heating.86 For old and larger buildings, bioenergy systems
such as district heat systems in Scandinavia or pellet stoves in
Austriacan be more cost competitive than heat pumps. For
industrial heating, bioenergy is the primary resource replacing
fossil fuels, often in combined heat and power (CHP) generating
systems.87
Most bio-heat is derived from solid biomass resources, but
biogas is becoming an increasingly important heat source.88
Although Europe remains the leading region for bio-heat
consumption, mainly for space heating, demand is rising
elsewhere, particularly in China.89 The use of biogas as a
cooking fuel continues to rise in a growing number of developing
countries.90
Over the five-year period to end-2013, the capacity of solar
water heaters increased by an average of 14% annually.91
Solar thermal collectors are used worldwide for water (and
increasingly for space) heating in homes, schools, hospitals,
hotels, and government and commercial buildings.92 Their use is
extensive in China, where solar water heaters cost less over their
lifetimes than do natural gas or electric heaters.93 An increasing
number of district heat systems rely on solar thermal technology,
particularly in Central Europe, and interest in solar process
heating and cooling also is growing as technologies mature.94
Geothermal energy is used for space heating (including district
heat networks), domestic hot water supply, direct and indirect
heating of public baths, greenhouses, and process heat for
industry and agriculture.95 Technological advances are making
it possible to extract heat from even relatively low-temperature
geothermal fields for both power and heat generation.96
28
Air-, ground-, and water-source heat pumps also provide

renewable heating and cooling. One of the more significant trends
related to heat pumps is a move towards the use of hybrid systems
that integrate several energy resources (such as solar thermal or
biomass with heat pumps) for the range of heat applications.97
Chinas market for hybrid-heat pump products is double the size
of Europes, with both growing rapidly.98 There is also growing
interest in the use of larger-scale heat pumps for district heating
as well as industrial processes.99 (See Sidebar 4, page 42.)
Use of modern renewable energy technologies for heating and
cooling is still limited compared with their potential. Market growth
in this sector continues to lag behind the power sector, due in part
to a limited awareness of the technologies, fragmentation of the
market, and a relative lack of policy support.100 Further, growth of
renewable energy for heating is constrained, in many countries,
by high upfront investment costs of some technologies and
competition from subsidised fossil fuels. However, where a
carbon charge exists, heat users tend to seek low-carbon
fuels.101 Consumers in Denmark, Japan, and the United Kingdom
can choose green heat via voluntary purchasing programmes,
but options are relatively limited compared to green power
purchasing.102
Despite the relative lack of policies globally in support of
renewable heat, several national and local governments have
enacted supporting policies or set ambitious targets. Denmark
banned the use of fossil fuel-fired boilers in new buildings as of
2013 and aims for renewables to provide almost 40% of total heat
supply by 2020; in early 2014, the U.K. launched its Renewable
Heat Incentive for residential consumers; and across the EU, all
new buildings must be near zero-energy (producing as much
energy as they consume) by 2019.103 Beyond Europe, most heatrelated targets focus on solar thermal energy, although Thailand
has heat targets for bioenergy as well.104 (See Reference Table
R14.)
Trends in the heating and cooling sector include the increasing
use of renewables for CHP; the feeding of renewable heating
and cooling into district systems, particularly in Europe; hybrid
solutions to address the building renovation segment; and the
growing use of renewable heat for industrial purposes, from Chile
to India to the United Arab Emirates.105 At least 20 countries in
Europe use renewables in their district heat systems, with at least
20% of EU-wide district heat generated by renewable sources.106
Heat storage systems for low-temperature applications such as
district heating have been demonstrated and are now available
in some European markets.107
A limited number of countries has begun using district heat
systems to absorb heat generated by renewable electricity
during periods of excess supply. An example is the use of
surplus wind power to heat water, either with heat pumps or
directly using resistance heaters.108 Denmark is increasing the
reliability of its energy supply by combining variable renewable
electricity with CHP and district heating, and has made this
practice a cornerstone of its energy policy.109 In 2013, China
called on high-wind provinces to begin pilot testing of wind-toheat technologies to ease the strain on local grids and reduce
local air pollution.110 There is also a general movement globally
towards electrification in the heat sector.111
TRANSPORT SECTOR
Renewable energy is currently used in the transport sector in the
form of liquid and gaseous biofuelsmainly for light- and heavyduty road vehiclesand in the form of electricity for trains, light
rails, trams, and both two- and four-wheeled electric vehicles
(EVs).
Liquid biofuelsprimarily ethanol and biodiesel (including
FAME and HVO i)account for the largest share of transport
fuels derived from renewable energy sources. They meet about
3% of total road-transport fuel demand, and around 2.3% of
final liquid fuel demand (and a very small but growing portion
of aviation fuels).112 In some countries in Europe, as well as in
Brazil and the United States, they represent considerably higher
shares.113
The growth of liquid biofuels has been mixed in recent years.
Global biofuel production increased again in 2013, after a
temporary lull.114 Concerns about using only environmentally
and socially sustainable supplies are constraining the rate of
growth in some regions. (See Bioenergy section.)
Limited but growing quantities of gaseous biofuels (mainly
biomethane, which is purified biogas) are fuelling cars, buses,
and other vehicles in several EU countries (most notably
Germany and Sweden), and in some communities in China, North
America, and elsewhere.115 By late 2013, there were almost 700
vehicle filling stations in Europe offering compressed biogas
(CBG) blended with natural gas, and nearly 300 stations selling
100% CBG.116 Plans are under way in other regions, including
the Middle East and Asia, to develop facilities for biomethane
production and vehicle fuelling.117
Many of these developments, along with rapid advances in

related technologies, are increasing the role of electricity in
the transport sector and raising the possibility to use vehicle
batteries to store power in support of variable renewables in
future smart-grids.126
01
Electricity is already commonly used to power trains, city

transit systems, and an increasing number of electric vehicles
including cars, buses, cycles, scooters, and motor bikes.118
A growing number of initiatives aim to link these transport systems
with renewable electricity. Several German citiesincluding
Frankfurt and Nurembergrely on renewable electricity to
operate their light-rail and subway services, while the German
state of Saarland was the first to switch its local rail services
to 100% renewable electricity.119 Bogota, Colombia, rolled
out South Americas largest all-electric taxi fleet in 2013 and
announced plans for a police fleet of 100 electric motorcycles.120
Although electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) still

represent a tiny share of overall automobile markets, they are
making a strong entry in several countries, such as Norway,
where as of early 2014, more EVs than conventional vehicles
were sold each month.121 In the United States, more than 8,000
electric charging stations were operating by the end of 2013.122
Many towns with 100% renewable energy goals have adopted
EVs as part of their energy plans.123 Sweden aims for a fossil fuelfree vehicle fleet by 2030, with road vehicles powered primarily
by biofuels or electricity, and the promotion of walking, cycling,
and public transport as a further step towards Swedens vision
for an energy supply system with zero net atmospheric
greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.124 In addition, hybrid
transportation options also are emerging, such as electric-diesel
and biodiesel-natural gas buses.125
i - Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) and hydro-treated vegetable oil (HVO). See Glossary for more information.
29
REN21 draws on an international network

of over 500 renewable energy experts,
who participate collaboratively in the
production of the GSR.
02
BIOMASS ENERGY
there is uncertainty about the use of biomass being truly

carbon neutral within the relevant time frame due to the time
lag between carbon release during combustion and carbon
(re-) sequestration via re-growth of the harvested crops.4 (See
Sidebar 3.)
Biomass consumption continues to increase worldwide for the

provision of heat and electricity. The production of liquid and
gaseous biofuels for transport and stationary applications is
also rising. Approximately 60% of total biomass used for energy
purposes is traditional biomass: fuel wood (some converted to
charcoal), crop residues, and animal dung that are gathered by
hand and usually combusted in open fires or inefficient stoves for
cooking, heat for dwellings, and some lighting.1 (See Section 5
on Distributed Renewable Energy in Developing Countries.) The
remaining biomass is used for modern bioenergy, which is the
focus of this section.2
For modern bioenergy, the many forms of energy carriers

produced from a variety of biomass resourcesincluding
organic wastes, purpose-grown energy crops, and algaecan
provide a range of useful energy services such as lighting,
communication, heating, cooling, and mobility.i The ability of
the solid, liquid, or gaseous biomass resource to act as a store
of chemical energy for future use can be employed to balance
variable electricity generation from wind and solar systems when
integrated into mini-grids or an existing main grid.5
Sustainability and livelihood concerns associated with the use

of biomass continue to be debated, especially where linked with
deforestation, and where land and water used for energy crop
production competes with food and fibre crops.3 In addition,
The bioenergy sector is highly complex due to the variety

of potential feedstocks and technical routes for converting
biomass to energy. Large data gaps often exist in the
Figure
Pathways
Figure 5.
5.Biomass-to-Energy
Biomass Resources
and Energy Pathways
Purposegrown
crops
Forest
Agriculture
and forest
residues
Food and
fibre
processing
residues
Municipal
wastes*
Fuel wood,
crop residues,
dung from harvesting
and scavenging
Source:
See Endnote 6
for this section.
Food
Animal
feeds
Chemical
feedstock
Materials
Global annual
primary biomass
demand
Energy
55.6 EJ
Modern
bioenergy
Industry
Buildings
Losses
02
Heat
Traditional biomass
Losses
sold or
used
on-site
Biofuels
Electricity
Heat
for cooking
and
heating
* Organic solid and liquid wastes

i - See Figure 5 in GSR 2013.
31
SIDEBAR 3. BIOENERGY CARBON ACCOUNTING

There is a continuing debate around the sustainability of
biomass use for energy, particularly with respect to the carbon
footprint. Many research and policy endeavours in recent years
have focussed on quantifying the greenhouse gas emissions
associated with direct and indirect land-use change. To date, the
focus has been almost exclusively on liquid biofuel production
systems. However, the increasing use of solid biomassforest
biomass in particularin modern applications (for example,
wood chips in residential heating or district heating plants, or
co-firing of wood pellets in coal-fired power plants) has recently
shifted the focus of the carbon footprint debate.
There appears to be general agreement among stakeholders
that carbon emitted through the combustion of biomass for
energy production was and will again be sequestered from the
atmosphere, if the quantity of biomass used can be associated
with the regrowth of a crop or forest in a sustainable (biomass)
management system. However, there is concern about the time
lag between carbon release via combustion and carbon (re-)
sequestration via plant growth. A temporal carbon imbalance
is relevant particularly for forest biomass systems that have
relatively long rotation cycles, and generally for bioenergys
potential to effectively reduce greenhouse gas emissions in
the medium-to-long term. Therefore, consensus is emerging
to account for biogenic carbon emissions over time, although
the principles to do so and the respective expectations vary
considerably.
To date, much of the scientific work has focussed on determining
the carbon payback periodthe time frame by when a
bioenergy system has reached its pre-harvest biogenic carbon
levels and is also compensated for associated land-use and
fossil fuel emissions. Results differ depending on the modelling
framework and assumptions regarding affected ecosystems,
conversion technologies, and behavioural economics. Generally,
the use of residues from tree harvesting (tops, branches, and
thinning of small trees) or wood processing (shavings, offcuts,
sawdust) entails shorter carbon payback periods than the use
of large-diameter stemwood, especially from slow-growing
forests or low-productive regions. The use of smaller-diameter,
pulpwood quality logs from fast-growing plantation forests in
highly productive regions, however, can achieve relatively short
carbon payback periods.
assessment of biomass volumes used for energy carriers and

final energy. Further, biomass often relies on widely dispersed,
non-commercial sources, which makes it difficult to formally
track data and trends. National data collection is often carried
out by multiple institutions that are not always well co-ordinated.
As a result, production and demand for biomass and bioenergy
are relatively difficult to measure, even at the local level; hence,
national, regional, and global data are uncertain.6 (See Sidebar 1,
page 23, and Figure 5, page 31; see also Sidebar 2 in GSR 2012.)
32
In addition, there is disagreement around what duration of

carbon payback is acceptable. The two most commonly used
time frames in the literature are 2050, which is relevant for
policy trajectories, and 2100, which is considered relevant for
stabilisation of the atmospheric carbon levels. Timeline selection
influences which bioenergy systemsfor example, type of
feedstock, scale of magnitude, technology choicesshould be
considered.
Another key determining factor for a given bioenergy project
is linked to alternative land-use and energy sources: that is,
what would happen on the land and what energy source would
be employed without the use of biomass? Answers depend on
regional circumstances that vary with market conditions for
wood products, forest management practices, and alternative
energy systems; and perspectives on these conditions may
differ among stakeholders.
Policy options to deal with biogenic carbon emissions include
mechanisms that quantify associated emissions, such as
the integration of forest carbon accounting in a full life-cycle
assessment (LCA), although there is not a scientific consensus
on how to model forest products appropriately. Preventative
policy approaches include requirements for sustainable forest
management that guarantee replanting and sustained carbon
stocks/yields, as well as actively encouraging/discouraging
the use of specific land and biomass types, such as peat soils,
whose drainage releases large amounts of greenhouse gases.
Conversely, promoting afforestation and reforestation of woody
biomass and perennial grass production on marginal and unused
land can create immediate net carbon benefits.i
Current policy options in Europe and North America entail all of
these approaches. In 2013, for example, the U.K. government
provided a draft greenhouse gas calculator (including default
values) to quantify the respective emission reductions of
forest biomass use for energy as part of its Renewable
Obligation Scheme. Also the Dutch government announced the
investigation of a specific carbon debt criterion in 2014.
i - A policy option would, for example, include the compensation or
generation of carbon credits for tree planting, in proportion to the net CO 2
absorption/sequestration.
BIOENERGY MARKETS
In 2013, biomass accounted for about 10% of global primary
energy supplyor an estimated 56.6 EJ.7 The modern
biomass share included approximately 13 EJ to supply heat in
the building and industry sectors; an estimated 5 EJ converted
to produce around 116 billion litres of biofuels (assuming 60%
conversion efficiency of the original biomass), and a similar
amount used to generate an estimated 405 TWh of electricity
(assuming 30% conversion efficiency).8 Useful heat is also often
generated in bioenergy combined heat and power (CHP) plants,
but the total quantities are unknown because much of this is
consumed on-site and not tracked.
The leading markets for biomass energy are diverse and vary
depending on the fuel type. Use of modern biomass is spreading
rapidly, particularly across Asia.9 Biomass is meeting a growing
share of energy demand in many countries and accounts for
a significant portion of total energy in some countries. For
example, end-use shares exceed 25% in Sweden, Finland,
Latvia, and Estonia.10
The EU is the largest regional consumer of wood pellets, burning

over 15 million tonnes in 2013 (up 1 million tonnes annually
since 2010), with the largest share of demand coming from the
residential heat market.23 The use of biomass, including pellets,
for heat production is increasing in North America as well.24 In the
United States, the largest domestic market for the consumption
of wood pellets for heating is located in the northeast.25
Most primary biomass used for energy is in a solid form and

includes charcoal, fuel wood, crop residues (predominantly for
traditional heating and cooking), organic municipal solid waste
(MSW)i, wood pellets, and wood chips (predominantly in modern
and/or larger-scale facilities). Wood pellets and wood chips,
as well as biodiesel and ethanol, all are now commonly traded
internationally in large volumes; in addition, some biomethane
is traded in Europe through gas grids.11 There is also significant
informal trade in solid biomass that takes place regionally and
across national borders.12
Biogas also is being used increasingly for heat production. In

developed countries, it is used primarily in CHP plants, with
relatively small amounts used in heat-only plants. In 2012,
most of the biogas produced in Europe was used on-site or
traded locally. Most was combusted to produce 110 TJ of heat
and 44.5 GWh of electricity.26 The small remainder used by
the transport sector was first upgraded to biomethaneii, with
limited volumes now being traded among EU member states by
injection into the natural gas grid. Considerable effort is under
way to remove trade barriers in order to expand this potential.27
The total energy content of all solid biomass fuels traded (mainly
pellets and wood chips) remains about twice that contained in
the net trade of liquid biofuels.13 Wood pellets account for only
around 12% of global solid biomass demand, yet the volume of
consumption continued to increase rapidly during 2013.14
A number of large-scale plants that run on biogas are also

operating across Asia and Africa, including many for industrial
process heat.28 Biogas is also produced in small, domestic-scale
digesters, mainly in developing countriesincluding China,
India, Nepal, and Rwandaand is combusted directly to provide
heat for cooking.
Solid, liquid, and gaseous biomass fuels can be combusted to

provide higher-temperature heat (200400 C) that is used by
industry, district heating schemes, and agricultural processes, as
well as lower-temperature heat (<100 C) that is used for drying,
heating water for domestic or industrial use, and heating space
in individual buildings. Approximately 3 GWth of new biomass
heat capacity was commissioned in 2013, bringing the global
total capacity to an estimated 296 GWth.15 Biomass is the most
widely used renewable source for heating by far, accounting
for approximately 90% of heat from modern renewables; solid
biomass is the primary fuel source.16
Europe remained the worlds largest consumer of modern bioheat in 2013. The regions use of solid biomass for heat was up
5.4% in 2012 (the latest year for which data are available).17 In
2013, Germany generated almost 116.6 TWh (424 PJ) of heat
from biomass, up from 112.6 TWh (405 PJ) in 2012; 88% of
this was from solid biomass.18 In Sweden, bioenergy (mostly
from woody biomass) accounted for more than half of all space
heating in the housing and commercial sectors, either through
direct use in boilers or indirectly through heat plants and district
heating.19 Wood was also the leading fuel for the district heat
system during 2013 in Finland.20 A large portion of Europes
bio-heat is produced for district heating networks, and sales into
heat networks increased 12.9% in 2012.21
Use of biomass in small appliances has risen as well. By 2013,
Europes total stock of small-scale biomass boilers was about
8 million appliances, with annual sales of around 300,000
units. In addition to other modern appliance designs, around
1.85 million wood-burning stoves, cookers and fireplaces are
sold annually, with a total of some 55 million in operation.22
Bio-power Markets
An estimated 5 GW of bio-power capacity was added for a total
of 88 GW in operation at the end of 2013.29 Bio-power generated
around 405 TWh of the worlds electricity in 2013, assuming an
average capacity factor of over 50%.30 The United States is the
top producer of electricity from biomass, followed by Germany,
China, and Brazil. Other top countries for bio-power include
India, the United Kingdom, Italy, and Sweden.31
The United States added nearly 0.8 GW of bio-power capacity
in 2013 for a total exceeding 15.8 GW at years end.32 Net U.S.
bio-power generation increased 3.9% compared with 2012, to
60 TWh.33 Solid biomass provided two-thirds of the total fuel,
and the remainder came from landfill gas (16%), organic MSW
(12%), and other wastes (6%).34
To the south, Brazil increased its bio-power capacity more
than 10%, from 10.8 GW to 11.4 GW. Electricity generated
from sugarcane bagasse accounted for nearly 7% of national
electricity production, up from 6.7% in 2012, and the black
liquor share rose to over 1.1% (from just under 1%).35
In the EU, capacity additions during the year brought the
region's total to about 34.5 GW.36 Bio-power accounted for 5%
of the regions new power capacity from all sources.37 Electricity
generated from biomass increased 7.9% relative to 2012, to
79TWh.38
02
Bio-heat Markets
Germanys bio-power capacity increased by more than 0.5 GW,

to just over 8 GW by years end.39 Bio-power generation was up
about 7% to 48 TWh, and it accounted for 8% of Germanys total
electricity generation in 2013.40 Sweden continued to generate
around 10% of total electricity from bio-power, with most of it
coming from solid biomass.41
i - Municipal solid waste includes inorganic (e.g., plastics) as well as organic components, of which only the latter are renewable. Only the organic component is
quoted in this report where possible, although data sources do not always separate out the share of green MSW from the remainder.
ii - Biomethane is produced from biogas after removal of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide. It can be injected into the natural gas pipeline and is also used
as a vehicle fuel.
33

Most wood pellets that are traded globally are used for electricity
generation. In the EU, residential heating accounts for the largest
share of pellet demand, but there is a large and growing demand
for imported wood pellets to produce electricity.42 To meet this
growing demand, the EU imported around 6.4 million tonnes in
2013. About 75% of total imports were from North America (an
increase of 55% over 2012), and much of the remainder came
from Russia and Eastern Europe.43 (See Reference Table R3.)
Use of biogas for power generation also is rising rapidly in
Europe. By the end of 2012, more than 13,800 biogas power
plants (up roughly 1,400 over the year), with a total installed
capacity of 7.5 GW, were in operation.44 Germany has seen rapid
growth, particularly during 20092011, and still dominates the
market.45 However, while capacity expansion has continued
since then, Germanys rate of annual increase has slowed in
response to changes in the renewable energy law.46 Sweden also
has growing bio-power shares from gaseous fuels.47
In China, bio-power capacity rose very rapidly for several years, but
growth has slowed recently due to limited availability of suitable
biomass.48 By the end of 2013, bio-power capacity reached
6.2 GW (excluding 2.3 GW of waste-to-energy combustion). Most
of this was direct combustion of agricultural and forestry biomass,
including 1.7GW of bagasse, 1.2GW from gasification of sludge
and biomass, 0.3 GW of large-scale biogas, and other sources.49
India was also one of the top markets in 2013, adding about
0.4GW of bio-power capacity in 2013, mostly by bagasse-based
CHP plants, to reach a total of over 4.4 GW by years end.50
However, Indias capacity additions were around 40% below
those in 2012, and around 10% below the national target.51
Elsewhere in Asia, Japan added 0.1 GW under the new feed-in
tariff, for an estimated 3.4 GW at the end of 2013.52 In Thailand,
electricity from biomass, including biogas, has increased rapidly
over the past decade, and growth is set to continue with new
capacity under construction.53 In 2013, a contract was signed
for construction of a 9.5 MW facility in Samut Sakhon that will
run on coconut wastes (husks, shells, fronds, and leaves), and
the electricity will feed into the public grid under the attractive
biomass FIT.54
Demand for bio-power is also driven by the renovation of old
and idled coal-fired power plants and their conversion to 100%
biomass. Expansion is occurring in the United States and
elsewhere.55 However, concerns about the revised regulatory
and policy framework in the United Kingdom led E.ON to halt its
plans to convert an existing coal plant to bioenergy.56
Conversion of fossil fuel power plants to enable co-firing with
varying shares of solid biomass or biogas/landfill gas is also
increasing demand. By 2013, about 230 existing commercial
coal- and natural gas-fired power and CHP plants had been
converted, mainly in Europe and the United States but also in
Asia, Australia, and elsewhere.57 In Japan, Sumitomo Osaka
Cement, Nippon Paper Industries, and Idemitsu Kosan took
advantage of the national FIT for bio-power to reduce their
dependence on coal by part-substituting wood chips and
other biomass feedstocks.58 Further developments have been
constrained, however, with increasing awareness of practical

handling and operating limitations, such as reduced power
output with higher biomass shares.59
Transport Biofuel Markets

Global biofuel consumption and production increased 7% in
2013, to a total of 116.6 billion litres, following a slight decline
in 2012.60 (See Figure 6). World fuel ethanol volumes were up
around 5% to 87.2 billion litres, and biodiesel production was up
over 11% to 26.3 billion litresi. Hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO)
continued to increase, but from a low base.
North America remained the top region for the production and
consumption of ethanol, followed by Latin America. Once again,
Europe produced and consumed the largest share of biodiesel.
In Asia, production of both ethanol and biodiesel continued to
increase rapidly.61 Thailand, for example, continued its rapid
expansion of biofuels production (both ethanol and biodiesel),
which rose by around 30% in 2013 (after a 28% increase in
2012).62 Its growth is due primarily to the Renewable Energy
Development Plan.63 (See Reference Table R4.)
Global ethanol production was dominated by the United States
and Brazil, which retained their top spots and accounted for 87%
of the global total.64 U.S. ethanol production in 2013, at around
50 billion litres, was similar to 2012 production, and almost
all of this was made from corn feedstock.65 Ethanol displaced
about 10% of U.S. gasoline transport demand during the year.66
In addition, nearly 2.4 billion litres (630 million gallons) was
exported, primarily to Canada (54%) and the Philippines (9%);
the United Arab Emirates, Brazil, Mexico, and Peru were also
leading markets for U.S. ethanol.67 There was also significant
demand for the co-products of ethanol production, including
corn oil and livestock feed.68
Brazil increased its sugarcane ethanol production by 18% (up
4.2 billion litres) in 2013, to reach around 25.5 billion litres.69
Elsewhere in Latin America, Argentina nearly doubled its ethanol
production to almost 0.5 million litres, with the opening of a large
corn ethanol plant. The expansion was driven by Argentinas 5%
ethanol fuel blend mandate.70 Other significant producers of
ethanol included China (2 billion litres) and Canada (1.8 billion
litres).71
The EU has been the largest regional biodiesel producer for
years and, in 2013, it accounted for 10.5 billion litres of fatty acid
methyl ester (FAME) production plus 1.8 billion litres of HVO.72
However, its share of the global total (about 42%) has remained
static in recent years.73
By contrast, U.S. production of both biodiesel FAME and HVO
has risen rapidly over the past few years and accounted for 17%
of the global total in 2013 (up from 14.5% in 2012).74 Production
was up by one-third over the year to approximately 5.1 billion
litres, making the United States again the largest national
producer.75 U.S. output exceeded the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) target under the federal renewable fuels standard
(RFS), which called for inclusion of 4.8 billion litres (1.28 billion
gallons) in diesel fuel markets in 2013.76
i - Biodiesel is FAME (fatty acid methyl esters), with data for HVO (hydrotreated vegetable oil, also known as renewable diesel) shown separately. HVO is a
drop-in biofuel produced from waste oils, fats, and vegetable oils and has different markets than FAME biodiesel, including potential as aviation fuel. HVO
blends more easily with diesel and jet fuel than does FAME, has a lower processing cost, is compatible with existing diesel infrastructure, reduces nitrous oxide
emissions, and has greater feedstock flexibility.
34
The United States was followed by Germany and Brazil, which

both increased their biodiesel production by around 16%
and 5%, respectively, to 3.1 billion litres and 2.9 billion litres.
Argentina was the fourth largest producer, at 2.3 billion litres.77
However, Argentinas production declined almost 10% relative to
2012 as a result of anti-dumping duties placed by the European
Commission on imports of U.S. and Argentine biodiesel.78
Demand for biodiesel in China is driven in part by tax and trade
incentives. China supplemented its small annual domestic
production of under 0.2 billion litres of biodiesel with about 1.9
billion litres of imported fuel.79 These imports took significant
market share away from the states oil refiners; in response, they
boosted exports of petroleum diesel, which led China to levy a
consumption tax on imported biodiesel as of 1 January 2014.80
Certification and sustainability requirements have affected
international biodiesel trade. To take advantage of lower import
duties and feedstock flexibility, for example, EU biodiesel
producers have shifted the focus of their imports from biodiesel
to vegetable oils, used cooking oils, and animal fats.81 In 2013,
the Netherlands saw a strong increase in the import of palm oil
and other certified vegetable oils, much of which was processed
into HVO at facilities located at Dutch sea ports and then
redistributed to other parts of Europe.82 Globally, the production
of HVO increased around 16% in 2013, with most production in
Europe (1.8 billion litres), Singapore (0.9 billion litres), and the
United States (0.3 billion litres).83
Despite the increase in global production of biofuels, several
markets faced challenges in 2013. These challenges included
sustainability concerns, a reduction in transport fuel demand
due to increased vehicle efficiency, and a growing interest in
vehicles that run on electricity and compressed natural gas.84 As
a result, markets were static in several countries.85 In Australia,
for example, biofuels maintained a 0.6% share of the transport
fuel mix in 2013, and the fuels have been slow to gain greater
acceptance, in spite of the recently extended government grant

programmes to encourage production, and a biofuels mandate
in New South Wales.86
The use of biomethane as a transport fuel is increasing as well. In
Sweden, for example, bus fleets in more than a dozen cities rely
entirely on biomethane, local plants produce more than 60% of
the total biomethane used in Swedish natural gas vehicles, and
more filling stations opened in late 2012 and 2013.87 In Norway,
the company Cambi AS liquefies biomethane to provide fuel for
a local bus fleet. 88
BIOENERGY INDUSTRY
The bioenergy industry includes feedstock suppliers
and processors; firms that deliver biomass to end-users;
manufacturers and distributors of specialist biomass harvesting,
handling, and storage equipment; and manufacturers of
appliances and hardware components designed to convert
biomass to useful energy carriers and energy services. Some
parts of the supply chain use technologies that are not exclusive
to biomass (such as forage crop and tree harvesters, trucks, and
steam boilers).
Rising concerns about sustainability, particularly in Europe and
the United States, have led governments to define new guidelines
and regulations for bioenergy. Industries have responded by
adopting a number of initiatives by sector (e.g., for solid biomass
in the EU), for power and heat through the Sustainable Biomass
Partnership); by feedstock (e.g., the Roundtable for Sustainable
Palm Oil); and by fuel (e.g., the Renewable Fuels Association).89
Many bioenergy companies are participating voluntarily in
sustainability certification schemes, using best management
practices (as endorsed by the industry) for feedstock supply
and processing, and absorbing associated costs into their
operations. In several developing countries, the industry is also
facing regulations that focus on the protection of biodiversity
Figure 6. Ethanol, Biodiesel, and HVO Global Production, 20002013

Figure 7. Ethanol, Biodiesel, and HVO Global Production, 20002013
World Total
Billion Litres
120
100
Source:
See Endnote 60
for this section.
116.5 Billion Litres

Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil (HVO)
Biodiesel
Ethanol
02
80
60
40
20
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
35

and impacts on poverty, land tenure, food security, and social
equity.90 In addition, some corporate social responsibility (CSR)
schemes are including social programmes.91
The industry has also responded by producing a number of
co-products from biomass feedstocks, such as chemicals
and animal feeds. This practice, known as bio-refining,
can maximise value and enhance profitability while reducing
greenhouse gas emissions. The U.S. bio-refinery industry has
expanded steadily, and, in 2013, it counted some 211 facilities
that were producing a range of co-products with ethanol; another
165 were expanding or under construction.92 Biorefineries also
exist in many other countries and include the newly opened
Amyris plant in Brazil, which converts sugarcane plant sugars into
a variety of renewable ingredients, including farnesene (used inter
alia in flavourings) and patchouli (used in fragrances), together
with renewable diesel and jet fuel.93
Solid Biomass Industry

During 2013, a large number of companies were actively
engaged in supplying equipment and bioenergy plants that
convert solid biomassmainly wood chips and pelletsto heat
and electricity. Businesses in the United States, Europe, Asia,
and elsewhere were busy constructing new biomass heat and
power plants.94
Particularly in the forest and sugar industries, CHP plants
typically are used for providing process heat on site, with surplus
electricity sold off-site as a source of revenue. Global waste-toenergy plants together with landfill gas plants provided revenue
of around USD 12 billion in 2012, an amount that is projected to
increase by around 30% over the next 34 years.95
Global pellet production reached 23.6 million tonnes in 2013, an
increase of nearly 13% over 2012 volumes.96 (See Figure 7). The
EU accounted for nearly half of global production, followed by
North America (33%).97 Companies in Canada and the United
States were busy building new pellet production facilities to keep

up with European demand; their 2013 shipments were up 50%
over 2012 and almost double those of 2011, reaching a value of
more than USD 650 million.98 The production of torrefied pellets
remained below 200,000 tonnes per year.99
In response to the increase in international trade of solid
biomass, several shipping ports have begun to upgrade their
handling facilities to remain competitive.100 For example, the
Port of Amsterdam had invested around USD 138 million (EUR
100 million) in biomass handling and storage as of early 2014.
The port handled the import of 100,000 tonnes of pellets and
wood chips in 2013, and expects the quantity to rise rapidly.101
Further investment is planned for the construction of dedicated
biomass storage capacity, with importers such as Cargill
(United States) and CWT Europe (Netherlands) watching
developments at several ports before committing their future
business.102 In 2013, Korea Southern Power and other Korean
energy and trading companies, including GS, LG, and Samsung,
were exploring pellet import opportunities with suppliers from
Australia, Canada, Indonesia, Malaysia, the United States,
Thailand, Vietnam, and elsewhere.103
Gaseous Biomass Industry

In 2013, worldwide manufacture and installation of farm and
community-scale biogas plants continued for the treatment of
wet-waste biomass, including that from wastewater treatment
plants. The year also saw a further expansion of efforts to upgrade
biogas, sewage gas, and landfill gas to higher-quality biomethane
for use as a vehicle fuel or for injection into the natural gas grid.
Many food and fibre processing businesses continued to find
innovative ways to produce energy from their own waste materials.
Production of biogas is expanding rapidly in a number of countries,
although the actual volume of biogas produced is not known.104 In
the United Kingdom, the number of plants producing biogas rose
Figure
WoodPellet
PelletGlobal
Global Production,
Production, by
20002013
Figure
7. 6.
Wood
byCountry
CountryororRegion,
Region,
20002013
Source:
See Endnote 60
for this section.
Million Tonnes
World Total
25
23.6 Million Tonnes

Rest of World
20
Rest of Asia
China
Russia
United States and Canada
15
European Union (EU-27)

10
0
2004
36
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
In 2013, there were 210 fuel ethanol plants in 28 U.S. states,

with installed nameplate capacity of more than 56 billion litres
(14.9 billion gallons); of this total, 192 plants were in operation,
representing production capacity of 53 billion litres. As of
early 2014, another seven plants were under construction or
expansion.119 Although the EU continued its anti-subsidy barrier
against U.S. corn ethanol for another year, U.S. producers
retained strong earnings in 2013, thanks mainly to lower corn
prices (in 2012, prices were high due to drought). By early 2014,
however, U.S. producers were concerned about the potential
reduction to federal blending mandates and the possible future
elimination of advanced biofuels incentives.120
The industry was busy in other regions as well, including Latin

America. Brazil had 24 biogas production plants operating in
2013 with capacity totalling 84 MW, and more were planned.111
Companies in Chile and Colombia were producing biogas from
their agricultural waste streams to generate electricity, some of
which is fed into the grid.112
Several companies, including consultant SLR (U.K.), are building
new landfill gas sites in Africa and other regions. However, the gas
potential is often limited by waste composition, and poor control
and management, which render the landfill sites unsuitable for
gas production.113
Thanks to recent technology advancements, companies are able
to produce gaseous fuels through the digestion of dry feedstocks,
using either a hydrolyser via the Schmack pre-treatment process
or a special Bioferm fermentation process.114 Gteborg Energi
(Sweden) completed construction of a 20MW facility that gasifies
forest residues and then converts the synthesis gaseshydrogen
and carbon monoxideinto biomethane.115 This novel approach
aims for a 65% conversion efficiency of solid biomass to
biomethane that is suitable for grid injection. The excess heat
is used in a district heating scheme, resulting in 90% overall
conversion efficiency.116
In Argentina, Promaz S.A. began production at its new 130

million litre capacity facility, the countrys largest ethanol
plant using corn feedstock. The plant, which incorporates a
continuous fermentation process, will provide biofuel to help
meet Argentinas mandated E5 blend.125
The number of biodiesel producers in the United States reached
115 in 2013, with a total capacity of about 8.5 billion litres.
Production margins were reduced after the loss of a federal
tax credit for U.S. biodiesel blenders in 2011, and the industry
continued to struggle in 2013, mainly because the price of
soybeans (which constitute around half of the feedstock) did not
decline as expected.126
In Brazil, in contrast to rise in ethanol prices, the competitive
auction price for biodiesel declined by 12.7% compared with 2012.
The decrease was due to high soybean production levels and strong
global supply of vegetable oils. As a result, 60% of Brazils biodiesel
production capacity remained unused in 2013.127
02
from 54 in 2011 to 112 in 2012, and, in 2013, the first U.K. plant
to inject biomethane into the gas grid entered into operation.105 A
further 200 U.K. sites had received planning consents by early
2014, with growth driven by policies to divert organic waste
from landfill sites in order to meet the EU Directive.106 Elsewhere
in Europe, rapid expansion has also been driven by policy
changes.107 For example, Italy alone saw its number of operational
biogas plants increase from 521 to 1,264 within a year, driven
primarily by a high feed-in tariff and support focussed on smallscale plants.108 The Czech Republic and Slovakia also have seen
significant expansion in the number of plants.109 In the United
States, there were well over 2,200 plants producing biogas.110
In Brazil, the ethanol price paid to producers in Brazil rose

15% from January to December 2013, due to the higher oil
prices and seasonal variations in sugarcane yields and sugar
prices.121 During the year, Brazil had 367 registered sugarcane
ethanol plants in operation, and additional biofuel production
facilities were being planned.122 For example, in late 2013/early
2014, POET (United States) finalised the details of its 50 million
litre per year corn ethanol plant that was to be constructed in
Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil.123 However, the company faced
public concern about the expansion of corn ethanol production
and the possible impacts on commodity prices and the local
environment. The city already had two operating flex-ethanol
plants (using sugar cane and corn as feedstocks).124
Liquid Biofuels Industry

Investment in biofuels production capacity continued to decline
in 2013, down to USD 4.9 billion from the 2007 peak of USD
29.3 billion.117 And despite the increase in production and
consumption, biofuels met only about 2.3% of total transport
fuel demand.118 Yet several new plants opened in 2013, and the
aviation industry demonstrated its continuing interest in the
development and use of advanced biofuels.
37

Elsewhere around the world, several new processing plants
began operation with feedstocks other than corn and sugar
cane. They include Manildra (0.3 billion litres per year), the
only fuel ethanol producer in New South Wales, Australia,
to receive a government subsidy for producing ethanol from
wheat starch. Other feedstocks being used at plants in Australia
include red sorghum (United Petroleum) and molasses (at the
Wilmar Bioethanol plant).128 In sub-Saharan Africa, cassava,
traditionally grown for beer and flour, is growing in popularity
as a biofuel feedstock. For example, Sunbird Bioenergy Africa
partnered with China New Energy to establish a USD 24 million
cassava-based ethanol plant in Nigeria (110 million litre per
year); it is expected to be the first of 10 such plants.129
Advanced biofuels using non-food feedstocks became
commercially available in 2013. In North America, U.S.-based
plants owned by Gevo and KiOR finally produced and sold their
first batches into the market.130 Enerkem commissioned its
38million litre per year biomethanol plant in Edmonton, Alberta,
using MSW as the feedstock.131 By early 2014, cellulosic biofuel
production facilities were under development in 20 U.S. states.132
In Europe, Novozymes and Beta Renewables opened a new
commercial plant in Italy which, as of commissioning in October,
was the worlds largest advanced biofuels facility. The plant will
produce ethanol from wheat straw, rice straw, and arundo donax
(a high-yielding energy crop that is grown on marginal land).133
A commercial-scale plant also has been constructed in China.134
Advanced biofuel demonstration plant developments in 2013
included the Canadian enzyme and biofuels company Iogen
licensing its ligno-cellulosic-to-ethanol technology (piloted for
10 years) to REP (Brazil). REP plans to make 40 million litres of
ethanol per year in a new USD 100 million plant.135 Lanzatech
(New Zealand) uses hydrogen-producing microbes to convert
the carbon monoxide recovered from steel mill waste gases,
chemical plants, and biomass gasification, into drop-in,
hydrocarbon biofuels and chemicals, entering the Chinese
market.136 In addition, Empryo BV, a subsidiary of BTG BV,
began construction of a pyrolysis plant in the Netherlands that
will produce 20 million litres of bio-oil annually; and Clarions
cellulosic demonstration plant in Straubing, Germany, ferments
wheat straw into ethanol that is then blended with conventional
fuel additives by Haltermann (Germany) to produce a novel
drop-in fuel equivalent to E20.137
The aviation industry continued to monitor the increasing uptake
of advanced biofuels, including those produced from algae. The
industrys interest stems from the current high dependence on
petroleum fuels, uncertainty about long-term supplies, and the
lack of other suitable fuel alternatives.138 In 2013, Boeing (United
States) claimed that there was enough biofuel production
capacity already in place to supply around 1% of jet fuel demand
(about 6 billion litres per year) at a competitive cost.139 The
Sinopec group, which runs oil refineries in China, was licensed
to market its own version of No. 1 Aviation Biofuel for use at the
commercial level.140
GEOTHERMAL POWER AND HEAT

GEOTHERMAL MARKETS
Geothermal resources provide energy in the form of electricity and
direct heating and cooling, totalling an estimated 600PJ (167TWh)i
in 2013.1 Geothermal electricity generation is estimated to be a
little less than half of the total final geothermal output, at 76TWh,
with the remaining 91TWh (328PJ) representing direct use.ii
Some geothermal plants produce both electricity and thermal
output for various heat applications.
At least 530 MW of new geothermal power generating capacity
came on line in 2013, bringing total global capacity to 12 GW,
generating an estimated 76 TWh annually.2 Accounting for the
replacement of some existing units, the net increase in total
world capacity was at least 465 MW. This growth in cumulative
capacity of about 4% compares to an average annual growth rate
of 3% for the two previous years (201012).3
Countries that added capacity in 2013 were New Zealand,
Turkey, the United States, Kenya, Mexico, the Philippines,
Germany, Italy, and Australia.4 (See Figure 8.) At the end of
2013, the countries with the largest amounts of geothermal
electric generating capacity were the United States (3.4 GW),
the Philippines (1.9 GW), Indonesia (1.3 GW), Mexico (1.0 GW),
Italy (0.9 GW), New Zealand (0.9 GW), Iceland (0.7 GW), and
Japan (0.5 GW).5 (See Figure 9.)
New Zealand installed 241 MW of new geothermal power
capacity in 2013, for net additions of 196 MW, increasing
total capacity by 30% to 0.9 GW. The Te Mihi plant (159 MW)
came on line in 2013, but problems with well pumps delayed
full commissioning into 2014.6 Te Mihi will eventually replace
parts of the Wairakei station, which was built in 1958, operating
at a higher efficiency level and with a smaller environmental
footprint.7 Currently, the result is a net capacity increase of about
114 MW.8 Late in the year, New Zealand also commissioned the
82 MW Ngatamariki geothermal power station.9 Reportedly
the worlds largest binaryiii installation, Ngatamariki re-injects
all used geothermal fluid back into the underground reservoir
without depleting it, thereby minimising emissions and other
environmental impacts.10
Turkey added at least 112 MW of geothermal generating capacity
in 2013, for a total of at least 275 MW.11 Most notable may be the
installation of a 60 MW triple-flash turbine in the Denizli field.12
Other capacity to come on line in Turkey in 2013 was made up
of smaller binary units.13 Turkey promises to be an important
market in the region in the near future, with over 300 MW of
additional capacity under licence or construction at year's end.14
The United States added 84 MW of geothermal generating
capacity in 2013, for a total of 3.4 GW, representing nearly 29%
of total world operating capacity. One of the larger U.S. plants
to come on line in 2013 was Enel Green Power's 25 MW binary
plant in Fort Cove, Utah.15 Although relatively small in capacity,
i - This total does not include the output of ground-source (geothermal) heat pumps.
ii - The estimated value for direct use output is subject to great uncertainty due to incomplete and conflicting data.
iii - In a binary plant, the geothermal fluid heats and vaporises a separate working fluid, which drives a turbine for power generation. Each fluid cycle is closed,
and the geothermal fluid is re-injected into the heat reservoir. In a conventional thermal power plant, the working fluid is water. Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)
binary geothermal plants use an organic fluid with a lower boiling point than water, allowing effective and efficient extraction of heat for power generation from
relatively low-temperature geothermal fields. The Kalina cycle is another variant for implementing a binary plant. (See for example: Ormat, Binary Geothermal
Power Plant, http://www.ormat.com/solutions/Geothermal_Binary_Plant, and U.S. Department of Energy, Geothermal Technologies Office, Electricity
Generation, http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/powerplants.html.)
38
perhaps the most significant U.S. project completed in 2013 was

the Desert Peak 2 (1.7 MW) in Nevada, the first commercial gridconnected EGS (enhanced or engineered geothermal system)
installation in the United States (see more on EGS below).16 Desert
Peak 2 is located within an existing operational geothermal
field (in-field) and serves to enhance its overall productivity.17
Nevada is also home to the new Don A. Campbell binary plant
(16 MW), notable for cost-effective power generation from a
relatively low-temperature resource, and the first 30 MW phase
of the Patua plant.18 In addition, 12 MW of repowering and
refurbishment took place at two U.S. facilities during 2013.19
the Olkaria III complex. A further 16 MW was added to Olkaria

III in early 2014, bringing the complex to a total of 110 MW.20 As
of early 2014, Kenya had another 280 MW of geothermal power
capacity under construction.21
Mexico completed the second of two 25 MW units of the Los
Humeros II project, replacing 15 MW of existing capacity.22
Ongoing reforms to Mexicos energy laws are expected to spur
growth and involvement of private parties in the countrys
geothermal development.23
Also in 2013, the Philippines began operations at the 20 MW
Maibarara geothermal power plant.24 At years end, the countrys
portfolio of geothermal power plants stood at 1.9 GW, second
only to that of the United States, with another 40 MW expected
Kenya is one of the fastest-growing geothermal power markets

in the world. In 2013, the country added 36 MW of capacity at
GEOTHERMAL POWER
Figure 8. Geothermal Power Capacity Additions, Share of Additions by Country, 2013
Figure 8. Geothermal Power Capacity Additions, Share of Additions by Country, 2013

New Zealand
Kenya
42%
Source:
See Endnote 4
for this section.
8%
Phillippines
5%
Turkey
United States
24%
2%
1%
0.2%
Mexico
Germany
Italy
Other countries
18%
Figure 9. Geothermal Power Capacity and Additions, Top 10 Countries and Rest of World, 2013
Figure 9. Geothermal Power Capacity and Additions, Top 10 Countries and Rest of World, 2013
Megawatts
+ 84
3,500
Source:
See Endnote 5
for this section.
Added in 2013
3,0008. Geothermal Power Capacity Additions,

Figure
Share of Additions by Country, 20132012 total
2,000
New Zealand
42%
02
2,500
Turkey
+ 20
24%
+0
1,500
+ 10
1,000
+1
+ 196
+0
500
+6
+0
+ 112
+ 36
Turkey
Kenya
Additions are net

of repowering and
retirements.
United States
United
Kenya
8%
States
18%
Philippines
Indonesia Mexico
Phillippines
5%
Italy
New
Zealand
Iceland
Japan
Rest of
the World
Additions are net of repowering and retirements.

Other countries
Mexico
2%
39

to come on line in 2014.25 The three new plants in Kenya, Mexico,
and the Philippines are all registered CDM projects under the UN
Clean Development Mechanism, and thus credited for reducing
greenhouse gas emissions.26
Several relatively small plants came on line in Europe during the
year. Southern Germany has been active in development of binary
plants with two 6 MW units completed near Munich in late 2012
and early 2013.27 In addition, Germanys co-generating Sauerlach
binary plant (5 MW / 4 MWth) was inaugurated in January 2014,
delivering heat in addition to electricity.28 In Italy, a 1 MW
binary plant was installed at the volcanic area of Monte Amiata
(Tuscany).29 While Europe still has far more conventional drysteam and flash geothermal capacity than the low-temperature
binary variety, future growth potential for binary plants is very
promising.30
With growing reliance on variable renewable resources, such as
solar PV and wind power, there is also increasing interest in the
potential for geothermal power to provide renewable balancing
power and storage capability. It has been noted that geothermal
power can be designed with the necessary flexibility, especially
in locations where the growing need for balancing resources and
geothermal potential coincide, as in California.31
Geothermal direct use refers to direct thermal extraction for
heating and cooling, exclusive of heat pumps.i 32 (See Sidebar
4, page 42.) The main applications for direct use of geothermal
energy are space heating (including district heat networks),
domestic hot water supply, direct and indirect heating of public
baths and swimming pools, greenhouse heating, industrial
process heat, aquaculture, and agricultural drying.33
Geothermal direct use continued to grow during 2013, with
capacity added in at least a number of European countries. It is
estimated that global direct use was in the range of 280375 PJ
during 2013, with a mean of 328 PJ (91 TWh).34 This wide range
reflects widely varying data for China, which is a significant user
of geothermal for heat purposes.35 The collection of data on
direct use of geothermal energy is lacking.36
Direct use is concentrated among the few countries where good

geothermal resources coincide with heat demand that can
easily be served by the resource, such as Iceland, and where
geothermal heat has served both industry and social traditions,
such as thermal baths in Japan, Turkey, and Italy.37 The countries
with the largest geothermal direct use capacity are China
(3.7GWth in 2010), Turkey (2.7 GWth in 2013), Iceland (2.2GWth
in 2013), Japan (2.1 GWth in 2010), Italy (0.8 GWth in 2012), and
Hungary (0.7 GWth in 2012).38 Together, these countries account
for about half of total global capacity, estimated to be in the
range of 1926 GWth, with a mean of 22.6 GWth.39
China remains the presumptive leader in direct geothermal
energy use, but estimates range from 13 TWh in 2009 to 45 TWh
in 2011, or about 2050% of global output.40 Other top users
of direct geothermal heat are Turkey (estimated 16.4 TWh in
2012)ii, Iceland (7.8 TWh in 2013), Japan (7.2 TWh in 2013), and
Hungary (2.8 TWh in 2012).41
Among notable new thermal plants that opened in 2013 is a
district heating plant (6070 MWth) in Miskolc, Hungary.42 The
project exceeded initial expectations and is considered to be
among the better low-temperature wells in mainland Europe,
producing 7090 litres per second at 100 C.43 In Italy, a 6MWth
district heat system was inaugurated by Enel Green Power in April
to serve municipalities in Tuscany.44 In early 2014, a cogeneration
plant with thermal capacity of 4 MWth (noted above) was
inaugurated in Sauerlach, Germany.45
In Europe, there have been recent efforts to improve accounting
of direct use geothermal energy across all sectors, specifically
balneology (e.g., spas, swimming pools), which may not have
been fully reported before.46 Such examination reveals divergent
profiles for geothermal heat applications. For example, district
heating commands a relatively minor share of geothermal heat
capacity in Hungary (19%), Turkey (30%), and Italy (10%), but
very substantial shares in France (81%), Iceland (80%), and
Germany (77%).47
i -Direct use refers here to deep geothermal resources, irrespective of scale, as distinct from shallow geothermal resource utilisation, specifically ground-source
heat pumps. In addition, the term hydrothermal energy is reserved for energy stored in the form of heat in surface water, as per Article 2(d) of European Council
Directive 2009/28/EC. Heat pumpswhether geo-, hydro, or aerothermalare discussed in Sidebar 4.
ii - Estimate based on 2012 capacity and 2010 capacity factors. Of this total, 11 TWh is associated with bathing and swimming, of which the 2010 data on
capacity utilisation is notably high at 100%. See Endnote 38 for this section.
40
In 2013, the geothermal industry, often with the support of

governments, continued to pursue technological innovation for
expanded resource access and improved economies of extraction.
Objectives include improving the efficiency of conventional
geothermal resources utilisation, as well as advancing technologies that allow expanded use of low-temperature fields for both
power and heat, thereby increasing the application of geothermal
energy beyond high-temperature locations.
Among notable industry advances in 2013 was Australias
first EGS facility, one of only a handful of such projects in the
world. Geodynamics (Australia) Habanero Pilot Plant (1 MW)
in the Cooper Basin of South Australia successfully completed
its initial 160-day trial in 2013, with production and injection
wells extending more than four kilometres into hot granite.48
In Italy, Enel Green Power (Italy) started operation of its 1 MW
binary plant at Monte Amiata, fitted with a first-of-its-kind radial
outflow ORC turbine by Exergy (Italy), which is said to advance
generating efficiency.49 The industry also saw some repowering
and refurbishment of existing facilities. Ormat Industries (United
States) refurbished a 7.5 MW unit in California and repowered a
4 MW plant in Utah.50
The geothermal industry, whether it is in power or heat
generation, is made up of a relatively few firms that work on
the various segments of geothermal project development,
from exploration, drilling, engineering, and design, through
construction and, finally, plant operation. Some of these firms
are vertically integrated, in that they work on most or even all
stages of geothermal project development, while others are
highly specialised.51 For example, Enel, Ormat Industries,
and Chevron (United States) are vertically integrated energy
companies.52 Highly specialised firms include drilling contractors
like Thermasource (United States) and Iceland Drilling (Iceland),
as well as engineering firms with specialised knowledge of the
geothermal projects, such as Mannvit (Iceland), Verkis (Iceland),
and Power Engineers (United States).
Some firms possess particular expertise and proprietary
technology within the industry. These include, for example,
Ormat, which specialises in design, engineering, and construction
of binary (ORC) power plants and their components, such as
the Ngatamariki plant that opened in New Zealand in 2013;
Turboden (Italy), which specialises in binary turbine-generators,
such as the 5.6 MW unit inaugurated in 2013 near Munich,
Germany; and Exergy, which implemented a new turbine design
in Italy, as noted above.53 Other suppliers of turbine-generator
components count the industrial heavyweights that also operate
in the thermal (fossil and nuclear) and hydropower sectors,
such as Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Toshiba, Fuji Electric (all
Japan, commanding about two-thirds of the turbine-generator
market), Alstom (France), Ansaldo Energia (Italy), and Siemens
(Germany).54
coincides with geothermal resources, such as the new Sauerlach

plant in Germany, the development of combined heat and power
is also helping to improve project economics.57
Enhanced geothermal systems are on the forefront of
technological innovation in the industry and represent a very
significant potential. This relatively new technology was pioneered
in the United States, but the worlds first grid-connected EGS plant
to come on line was the 2 MW Soultz facility in France in 2008.58
EGS enhances extraction of heat by fracturing subsurface rock
for greater permeability, allowing production similar to naturally
occurring conventional geothermal fields.59 Unlike conventional
geothermal resources, which are limited to relatively few places
on Earth, the heat bound in deep rock that EGS is designed to tap
into is far more widespread and plentiful, but also more difficult
to harness.
Despite the large potential of EGS, attracting the requisite funds
to advance EGS technologies is reportedly a challenge, largely
because they may still be 1015 years from commercial maturity
and carry significant technological risk.60 Key priorities for the
EGS industry today are continued advances in the technology of
sustainable field enhancement and reduced drilling costs.61 The
industry is learning to control and reduce risks of any adverse
effects associated with EGS development so that the vast
potential of EGS may materialise.62
Project risk is a uniquely significant aspect of geothermal
development in general. A typical geothermal plant may take
57 years from start to finish, with up to five years devoted
to exploration, test drilling, and field development before
construction of the plant itself.63 Project developers face
significant financial risk of high upfront cost and long lead
times, but also the risk of failing to meet required parameters
at each stage of development, from initial exploration to plant
operation.64
To manage this risk, one urgent objective is better and morecomprehensive global geothermal resource assessment.65
Several countries have implemented risk funds, insurance
funds, or loan guarantees to absorb some of the risk, with
renewed enthusiasm for establishing a single fund for the
European Union.66 The U.S. Department of Energy provides
targeted financial support to the geothermal sector, and
Japans Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation provides
liability guarantees but also direct funding and information on
geothermal resources.67 To uncork the bottleneck on behalf of
developing countries, in 2013 the World Bank launched a Global
Geothermal Development Plan to focus the attention of donors
and multilateral development banks on exploratory test drilling
rather than just the production phase of geothermal projects.
The Plan had an initial target funding of USD 500 million.68
02
GEOTHERMAL INDUSTRY
Whether for heat or power generation, the industry continues to

face many technology challenges. Areas that need improvement
include discovery, access, maintenance, and monitoring of the
geothermal resource, whether it is conventional geothermal,
low-temperature, or a candidate for Enhanced Geothermal
Systems (EGS).55 To that end, the industry is applying innovations
that include directional drilling and other lessons from the oil and
gas sectors.56 In those locations where sufficient heat demand
41
SIDEBAR 4. HEAT PUMPS AND RENEWABLE ENERGY

Heat pumps provide heating, cooling, and hot water for
residential, commercial, and industrial applications by drawing
on one of three main sources: the ground, ambient air, or water
bodies such as lakes, rivers, or the sea.i Heat pumps can also be
employed efficiently using waste heat from industrial processes,
sewage water, and buildings. The energy output of heat pumps is
at least partially renewable on a final energy basis.
there is an ongoing shift from ground-source to air-source units

as they improve in efficiency and economy. As new buildings
become more efficient, the economics of ground-source heat
pumps makes the pumps attractive for large and very large
buildings, while growth is limited for single-family homes.
Overall, heat pumps have achieved a relatively stable 15% share
of European heating system installations.
As the term implies, heat pumps transfer heat from one area
(source) to another (sink) using a refrigeration cycle driven by
external energy, either electric or thermal energy. Depending on
the inherent efficiency of the heat pump itself and its external
operating conditions, it is capable of delivering significantly
more energy than is used to drive the heat pump. A typical inputto-output ratio for a modern electrically driven heat pump is 4:1,
meaning that the heat pump delivers four units of final energy for
every one unit of energy it consumes, which is also known as a
coefficient of performance (COP) of 4. That incremental energy
delivered is considered the renewable portion of the heat pump
output.
The most significant trend related to heat pumps is towards the

use of hybrid systems that integrate several energy resources
(such as solar thermal or biomass with heat pumps) for the range
of heat applications. There is also growing interest in the use of
larger-scale heat pumps for district heating as well as industrial
processes. For example, Denmark has been developing the use
of absorption heat pumps for district heating, the latest being
a 12.5 MW plant at Snderborg, commissioned in 2013. In
neighbouring Norway, Star Refrigeration (U.K.) opened a 14 MW
hydrothermal heat pump system in the municipality of Drammen
in early 2014, utilising sea water for district heating.
For a heat pump that operates at a seasonal COP of 4, the

renewable component is at least 75% (3 out of 4 units) on a
final energy basis. However, the renewable share on a primary
energy basis can be much lower.ii The total share of renewable
energy delivered by a heat pump on a primary energy basis
depends not only on the efficiency of the heat pump and its
operating conditions, but also on the composition of the energy
used to drive the heat pump. In addition, for electrically driven
heat pumps, the overall efficiency and renewable component
depends on both the generation efficiency and the primary
energy source of the electricity (renewable, fossil fuel, or
nuclear). When the energy source is 100% renewable, so is the
output of the heat pump.
Data on the global heat pump market, installed capacity, and
output are fragmented and limited in scope. Recent versions of
the GSR have provided estimates of global ground-source heat
pump installations and output, based largely on comprehensive
survey data prepared in 2010. Such surveys have been updated
for Europe in 2013 but updates for other regions are not yet
published. For air- and water-source heat pumps, less is known
about current global capacity and output, again with the
exception of Europe.
In 2009, the European Commission set out to standardise

calculation of heat pump output and to define the renewable
component thereof, noting first that the final energy output
of any heat pump counted in this context would have to
significantly exceed the primary energy consumed. At the
time, the Commission provided a formula for calculating the
renewable component of heat pump output that took into
account both the operating efficiency of the heat pump itself
(seasonal performance factoriii) and the average ratio of primary
energy input to electricity production across the EU. This
serves to standardise assumptions about the renewable energy
contribution of heat pumps in Europe and to ensure that the net
final energy output that is counted under these new rules will
always exceed the primary energy (including primary energy in
electricity generation) used to drive the heat pumps.
In March 2013, the Commission issued remaining rules for
applying its formula, including default values for climate-specific
average equivalent full-load hours of operation and seasonal
performance factors for various heat pumps. The default values
resulted in a minimum COP of 2.5 for electrically driven heat
pumps in 2013, well below the average value of new units.
The European heat pump market saw steady growth until about
2008 but has since shown relative stagnation and actually
contracted overall from 2011 to 2012. Europe saw at least
0.75 million units sold in 2012, with most of the market (86%)
dominated by air-source heat pumps. For use in new buildings,
i - Also called geothermal, aerothermal, and hydrothermal sources. Ground-source heat pump applications generally rely on shallow geothermal energy
(covering depths of up to 400 metres), clearly distinguished from deep geothermal (medium-to-high temperature) resources, mostly for direct use and
geothermal power generation.
ii - A heat pump providing four units of final energy for every one unit of energy input (COP of 4), driven by electricity from a thermal plant at 40% efficiency,
provides about 1.6 units of final energy for every one unit of primary energy consumed (4/(1/0.4) = 1.6).
iii - Seasonal Performance Factor (SPF) refers to the net seasonal coefficient of performance (sCOPnet) for electrically driven heat pumps or the net primary
energy ratio (sPERnet) for thermally driven heat pumps, per Commission Decision of 1 March 2013 (2013/114/EU).
42
HYDROPOWER MARKETS
An estimated 40
GW of new hydropower capacity was
commissioned in 2013, increasing total global capacity by about
4% to approximately 1,000 GW.i 1 Global hydropower generation,
which varies each year with hydrological conditions, was estimated
at 3,750 TWh in 2013.2 The top countries for hydropower capacity
and generation remained China (260GW/905TWh), Brazil
(85.7GW/415TWh), the United States (78.4GW/269TWh),
Canada (76.2GW/388TWh)ii, Russia (46.7GW/174.7TWh), India
(43.7GW/estimated 143TWh), and Norway (29.3GW/ 129TWh),
together accounting for 62% of global installed capacity.3 (See
Figure 10 and Reference Table R6.) An estimated 2 GW of pumped
storage capacity was added in 2013, bringing the global total to
135140 GW.iii 4
The lions share of all new capacity in 2013 was installed by China,
with significant additions by Turkey, Brazil, Vietnam, India, and
Russia.5 (See Figure 11.) China commissioned a record 29GW, for
a total of 260 GW of hydropower capacity at years end. Among
significant milestones for China in 2013 was the start of operations
at the Xiluodu plant in July, with 9.2 GW of capacity generating
electricity by years end. Xiluodu is expected to reach full capacity
(13.86 GW) by mid-2014, when it will rank as the third largest
hydropower plant in the world, behind Chinas Three Gorges and
Brazils Itaipu.6
The 6.4 GW Xiangjiaba plant, also on the Jinsha River, will be
Chinas third largest hydropower plant when completed in 2015.
By mid-2013, four 800 MW turbine-generatorsreported to
be the worlds largest hydroelectric unitshad been installed
at this facility.7 By the countrys own accounts, investment in
Chinas hydropower infrastructure exceeded USD 20 billion
(CNY 124.6 billion) for the year.8 Chinese banks and industry
have also pursued hydropower projects overseas, with a notable
presence in Africa and Southeast Asia.9
flow variability.14 These two plants exemplify a trend in Brazil

away from larger reservoirs and toward run-of-river projects,
driven in part by the objective of reducing land use in sensitive
areas and improving project sustainability.15 The Belo Monte
has also been modified to address sustainability concerns.
To reduce flooded area, its reservoir capacity will be smaller
than originally planned, with a firm year-round capacity of
only 4.5 GW; however, it will retain a peak seasonal capability
of 11.2 GW, second in Brazil only to the 14 GW Itaipu plant.16
Another significant project under way in 2013 was the Teles
Pires project (1,820MW by 2015), which overcame charges of
having neglected obligatory social impact studies.17
Vietnam has developed its hydropower resources at a rapid
pace in recent years. It appears that at least 1.3 GW of capacity
was added in 2013, for a total of 14.2 GW installed.18 However,
following earthquake damage at the Song Tranh 2 dam, as
well as concerns about adverse social impacts associated
with resettlements, local and central governments are taking
a more measured approach to the development of additional
hydropower facilities, calling for evaluations of safety at existing
dams and curtailment of new hydropower development.19
Significant capacity was also added in India and Russia during
2013. India installed 0.8 GW of hydropower capacity in 2013, of
which nearly 0.6 GW was in installations larger than 25 MW.20
In late 2013, the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague
gave a green light to Indias 330 MW Kishenganga plant, having
determined that it would qualify as a run-of-river plant and
thus not violate terms of the 1960 Indus Waters Treaty with
Pakistan.21 Russia may have installed as much as 3.2 GW of
new turbine-generators during the year, but the net increase in
installed capacity amounted to only 0.7 GW, with rehabilitation
of existing facilities presumably accounting for the difference.22
Turkey continues a rapid expansion in its hydropower sector to

meet significant growth in national electricity demand. After
adding about 2 GW in 2012, Turkey brought another 2.9 GW on
line in 2013, for a total of 22.5 GW, placing Turkey among the
top 10 countries for hydropower capacity.10 Turkeys hydropower
capacity generated 59.2 TWh in 2013.11
Africa saw at least two projects completed during the year.

Ghanas second largest hydropower station, the 400 MW Bui
plant, and Gabons 160 MW Grand Poubara plant both became
operational in late 2013.23 These plants were built by Sinohydro
(China) and financed largely by China Exim Bank.24 Meanwhile,
rehabilitation started on the 350 MW Inga 1, which entered
service in the early 1970s.25 There are many ageing facilities in
Africa that operate below original rated power and now require
refurbishment, such as ongoing work on the Kainji and Jebba
plants in Nigeria.26
Brazil added at least 1.53 GW and possibly as much as 2 GW

in 2013, including 264 MW of small-scale hydro (<30 MW)
capacity, for a year-end total of at least 85.7 GW.12 The 334 MW
Simplicio plant, completed mid-year, is considered notable for
its high power output relative to reservoir area.13 In addition,
two run-of-river plants, both part of the Madera River complex,
advanced during 2013. The first of fifty 75 MW turbines at the
Jirau plant (3.75 GW) became operational and, by years end,
the Santo Antonio plant (3.6 GW) had 22 turbines in operation.
Santo Antonio was expanded from 44 to 50 bulb-type turbines
to improve operational flexibility in a river characterised by great
There is growing support for future development in Africa, and

many impending new hydropower sites exist on the continent.
During 2013, Alstom (France) was awarded a contract for eight
375 MW Francis turbines at the Grand Renaissance Dam in
Ethiopia, a project that will total 6 GW and has raised tensions
with downstream Sudan and Egypt over water rights.27 The
World Bank announced funding for the Regional Rusumo Falls
plant (80 MW) under its new Great Lakes Regional Initiative, with
the primary aim of increasing power supply for the people of
Tanzania, Rwanda, and Burundi.28 Also in 2013, a new purchase
agreement between South Africa and Congo prompted an
02
HYDROPOWER
i - The GSR 2013 reported a global total of 990 GW at the end of 2012, but that figure has been revised downward by 30 GW. For additional information, see
Methodological Notes, page 142, and Endnote 1 of this section. Unless otherwise specified, all capacity numbers exclude pure pumped storage capacity if
possible.
ii - Despite slightly lower total capacity, Canadas baseloaded output exceeds the more load-following output in the United States.
iii - Pumped hydro plants are not energy sources but means of energy storage. As such, they involve conversion losses and are powered by renewable or
non-renewable electricity. Pumped storage can play an important role as balancing power, in particular for variable renewable resources. Some conventional
hydropower plants also have pumping capability.
43
HYDROPOWER
Global capacity reaches
Figure 10. Hydropower Global Capacity,

Shares of Top Six Countries, 2013
1,000 GW
Figure 10. Hydropower Global Capacity, Shares of Top Six Countries, 2013
Source:
See Endnote 3
for this section.
Brazil
China
8.6%
26%
United States
7.8%
Canada
7.6%
Russia
4.7%
Rest of the World
41%
India
4.4%
Figure 11. Hydropower

Capacity Capacity
and Additions,
Top Six
forforCapacity
Added,2013
2013
Figure 11. Hydropower
and Additions,
TopCountries
Six Countries
Capacity Added,
Gigawatts
Source:
See Endnote 5
for this section.
300
Added in 2013
+ 29
250
2012 total
Gigawatts
100
+ 1.5
200
80
150
60
+ 0.8
100
40
50
20
+ 0.7
+ 2.9
Additions are net
of repowering and
retirements.
+ 1.3
0
China
Turkey
Brazil
Vietnam
India
Russia
Additions are net of repowering and retirements.
announcement that construction of the Inga 3 project (4.8 GW)

on the Congo River would begin by late 2015.29 This project is
the long-anticipated next step towards what might become the
largest hydropower complex in the world, at about 40 GW.30
Pumped storage capacity expanded during 2013 in China and
Europe. China added 1.2 GW of pure pumped storage capacity
for a total of 21.5 GW.31 In addition, the last phase of Spains La
Muela pumped storage complex was inaugurated, counting 2
GW of capacity at years end.32 La Muela was conceived as part
of a backbone for Spains extensive variable renewable power
capacity.33 It has been argued that further expansion of storage
capacity, which is considered increasingly important as shares
44
of variable wind and solar power rise, will require that markets
place greater monetary value on facilities that provide storage
and ancillary services.34 Variable resources have helped to
moderate peak system loads and thus peak power prices, but
in doing so, they may also have upset the traditional business
model for pumped storage. Subsequently, power markets may
need to evolve to reflect these changing circumstances.35
Looking ahead, plans for future hydro pumped storage projects
in Europe are said to be hampered by onerous market conditions
such as two-way transmission fees (for both generation and
pumping).36 On the other hand, Germany appears to have
addressed such concerns to some extent and has expanded
Any shortage of transmission capacity and interconnection

can constrain both access to hydropower resources and their
potential for balancing variable renewable resources.39 Transborder interconnections conceived primarily to facilitate flow
of hydropower include the Eastern Electricity Highway between
Ethiopia and Kenya, which was launched in 2013 and could
carry up to 2 GW upon completion, planned for 2018.40 The
1,800 kilometre Central American SIEPACi interconnection
was largely completed in 2013, improving transmission
capacity and reliability across the region. Despite its modest
scale (300 MW capacity), it is regarded as an opportunity to
increase implementation of large and small renewable energy
projects, including hydropower.41 In North America, at least two
interconnection projects were under consideration in 2013 to
bring Canadian hydropower to U.S. markets: the controversial
Northern Pass project that would supply 1,200 MW of baseload
power from HydroQuebec (Canada) to New England, and an
agreement to complement a North Dakota wind farm with
250MW of balancing supply from Manitoba Hydro (Canada).42
In 2013, the World Bank Group announced that it remains
committed to environmentally and socially sustainable hydropower
projects of all sizes and types, highlighting hydropowers role
in climate change mitigation, but also its vulnerability to any
climate-related water scarcity.43 Uncertainty regarding the future
impact of climate change on hydropower and other renewable
energy technologiesincluding energy production, policies,
and marketsprompted Norways Statkraft to launch an R&D
programme on the topic.44
HYDROPOWER INDUSTRY
Hydropower capacity additions in the five-year period end-2008
to 2013 were significantly greater than during the previous five
years.45 However, despite a significant jump in new capacity
in 2013, the intake of new orders for some major companies
declined relative to 2012.
For example, Andritz Hydro (Austria) reported that both sales
and new orders were down from very high levels in previous
years, although project activity was deemed satisfactory for
small-scale hydropower.46 New orders were down for Voith Hydro
(Germany) as well. Sales increased by 6% in the 201213 fiscal
year, but the market was below Voiths expectations. However,
the company noted that the market for plant modernisation
is a major driver of new orders in many regions.47 Voith also
announced advances in the area of very large generating units
(such as the 784 MW turbines supplied to the Xiluodu plant in
China), as well as small in-stream and low-head units, such as its
prototype StreamDiver.48
Alstom (France) noted a slowdown in demand for new capacity
but growing demand for rehabilitation of the ageing stock of
existing plants.49 Aiming to strengthen its capacity in China,

Alstom inaugurated its upgraded hydropower industrial site
in Tianjin, which supplied four 800 MW Francis turbines to the
Xiangjiaba plant in 201213.50 Alstom also inaugurated a global
hydropower technology centre in Grenoble, France, for all of its
hydropower R&D.51
Dongfangs (China) production of hydropower turbine-generators
was reported to be 4.2 GW in 2013, up 28.6% from 2012. A
company highlight for the year was installation of a 770MW unit
at the Xiluodu plant. Harbin (also in China) produced 3.2 GW of
hydropower turbine-generators during the year, a decrease of
3.7% relative to 2012.52
The hydropower industry is tackling projects of ever-larger
capacity, and manufacturers are setting new records for
capacity of individual turbines (800 MW per unit). At the same
time, there are indications of a trend towards reduced reservoir
capacity and the development of multi-turbine run-of-river
projects, as seen in Brazil. As part of this trend, the industry
has been developing more-flexible turbines that can adapt to
varying flow rates. The use of multiple in-stream turbines in
place of few large ones requires different technology, materials,
and expertise.53 Another trend is the rise of regional approaches
to system development, including interconnection, and a view
of hydropower as complementing other renewable energy
technologies.54
OCEAN ENERGY
OCEAN ENERGY MARKETS
Ocean energy refers to any energy harnessed from the ocean by
means of ocean waves, tidal range (rise and fall), tidal currents,
ocean (permanent) currents, temperature gradients, and salinity
gradients.1 At the end of 2013, global ocean energy capacity was
about 530 MW, with most of this coming under the category of
tidal power.2
The largest ocean energy facilities in operation are all tidal
projects and are used for electricity generation. They include the
254 MW Sihwa plant in South Korea (completed in 2011), the
240 MW Rance station in France (1966), the 20 MW Annapolis
plant in Nova Scotia, Canada (1984), and the 3.9 MW Jiangxia
plant in China (1980).3 Other projects are smaller, and many
are pre-commercial demonstration projects, with a notable
concentration of tidal and wave energy development installations
(about 11 MW) in the United Kingdom.
Although no commercial capacity additions were identified
for 2013, some large pilot machines were installed at the
European Marine Energy Centre (EMEC) in Orkney, Scotland.
Alstom (France) deployed its 1 MW tidal stream turbine there in
early 2013, which subsequently reached full power operation;
further testing was to continue into 2014.4 Another tidal turbine
deployed at EMEC in 2013 was the 1 MW HyTide unit by Voith
Hydro Ocean Current Technologies (Germany), following testing
of a smaller model in South Korea.5
02
exemptions for pumped storage facilities from grid charges

under certain conditions.37 However, pumped storage has
always had relevance outside the context of variable resources.
For instance, Japans 26 GW of pumped storage capacity (in
addition to 22 GW of conventional hydropower capacity), was
conceived primarily as load-following support to baseload
nuclear power; going forward, it will be used increasingly to
balance variable resources.38
Several large projects were also granted consent in 2013 and

early 2014, with construction expected to begin within the next
i - Sistema de Interconexin Elctrica de los Pases de Amrica Central.
45

few years; most of these developments are planned for U.K.
coastal waters. Scotland awarded approval to MeyGen Ltd.
(U.K.), now fully owned by Atlantis Resources Ltd. (Singapore),
for the 86 MW first phase of what could eventually be a 398 MW
tidal array in the Inner Sound of Pentland Firth. MeyGen plans
to start with a demonstration of six turbines, with construction
commencing in 2014.6 Consent was also granted for a 40 MW
(4050 device) wave farm off the coast of Lewis, Scotland, which
is considered one of the best wave energy locations in Europe.
The deployment of Aquamarine Powers (Scotland) Oyster wave
energy devices will take place in the coming years, alongside
necessary grid interconnection.7
In March 2014, the U.K. government accepted an application
for the proposed 240 MW Swansea Bay Tidal Lagoon, advancing
this concept closer to realisation.8 Construction is planned for the
period 20152018.9 Meanwhile, the proposed Severn Barrage
in Wales (U.K.), which might provide 5% of the U.K.s electricity
demand if built, was dealt a heavy blow when a parliamentary
committee said that the project should not go ahead as
presented because it had not yet demonstrated evidence of
economic, environmental, and technological viability.10
Another potential 240 MW tidal project, proposed for the
Alaska coast (United States), was granted a preliminary permit
extension in early 2014, for the purpose of establishing project
feasibility.11
OCEAN ENERGY INDUSTRY

Ocean energy technologies continued to advance during 2013,
with a wide variety of devices under development. Industry firms
advanced their goals through acquisitions and collaborative
agreements, and governments often lent a hand.
Scotlands EMEC, the worlds leading test facility for wave
and tidal energy converters, continued to share its expertise
globally during 2013. It announced an agreement to help set
up a test facility in Singaporethe latest of several agreements
with parties across North America and Asia.12 In addition,
neighbouring Ireland recently launched its Offshore Renewable
Energy Development Plan, committing funds for test facilities,
R&D, and a feed-in tariff for ocean power.13 (See Policy
Landscape section.)
Alstom started the year by completing the acquisition of Tidal
Generation Limited from Rolls-Royce Holdings plc.14 By an
agreement between Alstom and ScottishPower Renewables
(Scotland), which is owned by Iberdrola (Spain), four of Alstoms
1 MW tidal turbines will be deployed at the planned Sound of
Islay array, beginning in late 2015.15 In late 2013, Voith Hydro
acquired the remaining 20% share of Voith Hydro Ocean Current
Technologies from Innogy Venture Capital.16 As noted above,
both companies launched turbines at EMEC in 2013. Voiths
HyTide turbine has a direct drive (no gears), uses symmetrical
blades for bi-directional operation, and relies on sea water
lubrication, all for simplicity and robustness in the harsh marine
environment.17 Unlike the HyTide, which has a fixed nacelle and
blades, Alstoms turbine has adjustable nacelle position and
blade pitch for maximum energy potential.18
Atlantis Resources Ltd, developer of the AR1000 1 MW tidal
turbine, raised capital in its initial public offering in early 2014 and
received additional funding from the European Commission.19
Atlantis plans to use the funds to advance the MeyGen project,
46
including the AR1500 turbine developed with Lockheed Martin

(United States), and to fund its AR1000 demonstration project
in China. Atlantis acquired all remaining shares in MeyGen Ltd
from GDF Suez (France) and Morgan Stanley (United States) in
October.20
In early 2013, DCNS (France) acquired a majority stake in
OpenHydro (Ireland), which continued to test new versions of
its open-center tidal turbine at EMEC.21 Later in the year, DCNS
announced an agreement with Fortum and AW-Energy (both
Finland) to develop a 1.5 MW wave power demonstration project
in Brittany, France, using AW-Energys WaveRoller device.22 In
September 2013, the French government issued tenders for
pilot tidal projects off the coast of France.23 Both DCNS and GDF
Suez have expressed interest in the projects, the latter possibly
joining forces with Voith and Alstom for their tidal turbines.24
Aquamarine Power continued testing of its second Oyster 800
wave energy device at EMEC, and Pelamis Wave Power (Scotland)
continued to develop its articulating cylindrical wave energy
converter.25 Pelamis tested new scale models in 2013, with the
aim of improving power, reliability, and economics of the device
through changes in configuration, shape, and controls.26 In
partnership with the University of Dundee, Pelamis is investigating
the advantages of utilizing concrete, in place of steel, as the main
construction material for its device, for improved design options
and economics.27 Vattenfall (Sweden) intends to start testing of
the latest Pelamis device at EMEC in 2014.28
Wello Ltd (Finland) redeployed its Penguin wave energy
converter at Orkney in July 2013. The device fully encapsulates
a rotating eccentric mass that is actuated by waves, driving a
generator typically used in wind turbines.29 Seatricity (U.K.),
another relatively new wave technology company, is poised to
develop a 10 MW array of its Oceanus 2a buoy-type device
that pumps seawater onshore for power generationat the
Wave Hub test facility in Cornwall (U.K.).30
Minesto (Sweden) started tests in Ireland of a 1:4 scale
prototype of its Deep Green tidal device, which it describes as
an underwater kite that is designed to work well in low-velocity
currents. Deep Green marries a turbine with a wing and a tether,
capturing tidal energy while looping tangentially to the direction
of the tide. A full-scale device is to be deployed by 2015.31
China announced funding for ocean energy technology in 2013,
including a 200 kW turbine developed by Harbin Engineering
University, as part of a plan to use ocean energy to improve
sustainability of remote islands.32 Other Chinese pilot projects
launched in late 2012 and 2013 included wave energy converters
developed by Guangzhou Institute of Energy Conversion, and a
120 kW wave buoy developed by Shandong University.33
In early 2014, the European Commission launched a two-step
action plan to support ocean energy in Europe.34 The first step
was the launch of the Ocean Energy Forum in April, with the
aim of bringing together a wide range of stakeholders to find
solutions to issues challenging the industry.35
SOLAR PV MARKETS
The global solar PV market had a record year, after a brief
slowdown, installing more capacity than any other renewable
technology except perhaps hydropower. More than 39 GW was
added, bringing total capacity to approximately 139 GW.1 Almost
half of all PV capacity in operation was added in the past two
years, and 98% has been installed since the beginning of 2004.2
(See Figure 12 and Table R7.)
The year saw a major shift geographically as China, Japan, and
the United States became the top three installers, and as Asia
passed Europethe market leader for a decadeto become
the largest regional market.3 Chinas spectacular growth offset
Europes significant market decline, and hid slower-thanexpected development in the United States and other promising
markets.4 Nine countries added more than 1 GW of solar PV to
their grids, and the distribution of new installations continued
to broaden.5 By years end, 5 countries had at least 10 GW of
total capacity, up from 2 countries in 2012, and 17 had at least 1
GW.6 The leaders for solar PV per inhabitant were Germany, Italy,
Belgium, Greece, the Czech Republic, and Australia.7
Asia added 22.7 GW to end 2013 with almost 42 GW of solar PV in
operation.8 China alone accounted for almost one-third of global
installations, adding a record 12.9 GW to nearly triple its capacity
to approximately 20 GW.9 (See Figure 13.) Capacity has been
added so quickly that grid connectivity and curtailment have
become challenges.10 Much of Chinas capacity is concentrated
in sunny western provinces far from load centers and consists
of very large-scale projects, making three state-owned utilities
the worlds largest solar asset owners.11 Yet there is increasing
interest in smaller-scale distributed PV, and the government
aims to shift more focus towards the rooftop market.12
Japan saw a rush to install capacity in response to its national
FIT, adding 6.9 GW in 2013 for a total of 13.6 GW.13 The majority
of Japans capacity is in rooftop installations, and homebuilders
are promoting solar homes to differentiate their products.14 For
the first time, however, the non-residential sector represented
Japans largest market.15 Despite the rise of the large-scale
market, many more projects were approved than built in the
country due to shortages of land, funds, grid access, qualified
engineers and construction companies, and Japanese-brand
equipment.16 Elsewhere in Asia, the most significant growth was
in India (added 1.1 GW), followed by South Korea (0.4 GW) and
Thailand (0.3 GW).17
Beyond Asia, about 16.7 GW was added worldwide, primarily in
the EU (about 10.4 GW) and North America (5.4 GW), led by the
United Statesthe third largest country-level market in 2013.18
U.S. installations were up 41% over 2012 to almost 4.8 GW, for a
total of 12.1 GW.19 Falling prices and innovative financing options
that enable installation with low-to-no upfront payment are
changing the game for U.S. consumers.20 The residential sector
experienced the greatest market growth relative to 2012, while
large ground-mounted projects represented more than 80% of
additions.21 U.S. businesses made large investments in solar
PV to reduce energy costs, and some utility companies signed
long-term contracts, choosing solar PV over other options based

on price alone.22 Utility procurement continued to slow, however,
as many approached their Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS)
targets.23 California installed more than half of the new capacity
and is the first major U.S. residential market to successfully
transition away from state-level incentives.24
Europe continued to operate more solar PV capacity than any
other region, with more than 80 GW total by years end.25 But
the EUs 10.4 GW (11 GW in broader Europe) added was less
than half the 2011 amount, and the regions share of the global
market also fell rapidlyfrom 82% in 2010 to 26% in 2013.26
In most EU markets, demand contracted due to reductions in
policy support and retroactive taxes in some countries, which
have hurt investor confidence.27 (See Policy Landscape section.)
Yet solar PVs share of generation continues to rise, and PV is
increasingly facing barriers such as direct competition with
conventional electricity producers.28
Germany remained the largest EU market, but fell from first
to fourth globally, adding 3.3 GW after three years averaging
around 7.6 GW.29 With a total approaching 36 GW, Germany still
has the most capacity of any country by far.30 About one-third
of the electricity generated from new systems is used on-site, a
trend driven by FIT rates below prices for retail electricity.31 The
United Kingdom (adding at least 1.5 GW) emerged as the regions
strongest market for large-scale projects, with subsidies attracting
institutional investors and developers from across the EU.32 Other
top EU markets included Italy (1.5 GW), Romania (1.1GW), and
Greece (1 GW).33 Italys market was down dramatically relative to
the previous two years, and significant market reductions were
seen in Belgium, Denmark, and France.34
Australia installed its one-millionth rooftop system, up from
around 8,000 in 2007.35 Over 0.8 GW was added in 2013,
as Aussies turned to solar PV to reduce their electricity bills,
bringing the total to nearly 3.3 GW.36 By late 2013, rooftop
systems operated on 14% of Australias residences, and atop
one-quarter of the homes in South Australia.37
In Latin America and the Caribbean, a number of countries had
projects in planning or development by years end.i 38 Markets in
Brazil and Chile have been slower to develop than was expected,
while Mexico has emerged as a regional leader.39 Both Chile and
Mexico brought several large projects on line in 2013 and early
2014.40
Most countries in the Middle East now include solar PV in their
energy plans, driven by rapid increases in energy demand, a desire
to free up more crude oil for export, and high insolation rates.41
During 2013 and early 2014, large plants were commissioned in
several countriesincluding Jordan, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and
the United Arab Emiratesand a number of governments signed
purchase agreements or launched tenders.42 There are also many
promising markets across Africa.43 One of the continents largest
markets to date is South Africa, which has procured substantial
capacity under a government bidding process and connected the
first plant (75MW) to the grid in late 2013.44
02
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS (PV)
By early 2014, at least 53 solar PV plants larger than 50 MW

were operating in at least 13 countries.i 45 The worlds 50 biggest
plants reached cumulative capacity exceeding 5.1 GW by the
end of 2013.46 At least 14 of these facilities came on line in 2013,
i - For information on off-grid, distributed solar PV for providing energy access in Latin America and elsewhere, see Section 5 on Distributed Renewable Energy
in Developing Countries.
47

including plants in Japan and South Africa (Africas largest).47
The largest was a 320 MW PV plant in China, co-located with an
existing 1.28 GW hydropower dam.48 The United States led for
total capacity of facilities bigger than 50 MW, with a cumulative
1.4 GW in operation by years end, followed by Germany, China,
India, and Ukraine.49 Many projects are planned and under
development around the world that range from 50 MW to over
1,000 MW in scale.50
The share of commercial and utility-owned PV continued to
increase in 2013, but the residential sector also saw strong
capacity growth.51 Many utilities are pushing back against the
expansion of distributed PV in several countries, due to concerns
about a shrinking customer base and lost revenue. In Europe,
for example, some utilities are blocking self-consumption by
instituting fees, raising rates on customers with PV systems,
or debating the future of net metering; in several U.S. states,
debates are intensifying over net metering laws; in Australia,
major utilities are acting to slow or halt the advance of solar PV.52
(See Sidebar 7.)
Community-owned PV projects are emerging with a variety
of models in an increasing number of countries, including
Australia, Japan, the United Kingdom, and Thailand, which has a
community solar target under its national FIT.53 U.S. community
solar gardens, which sell power to local utilities in exchange for
monthly credits to investors, continued to spread in 2013, and
some U.S. states have adopted community solar carve-outs in
RPS laws.54
The concentrating PV (CPV) market remains small, but interest
is increasing due greatly to higher efficiency levels in locations
with high direct normal insolation and low moisture.55 CPV
continued its spread to new markets in 2013, with sizable
projects completed in Australia, Italy, and the United States, and
small pilots under way in Chile, Namibia, Portugal, Saudi Arabia,
and elsewhere.56 China commissioned the world largest plant
(50 MW) during 2013.57 By years end, more than 165 MW was
operating in more than 20 countries, led by China and the United
States.58
Solar PV is starting to play a substantial role in electricity
generation in some countries, meeting an estimated 7.8% of
annual electricity demand in Italy, nearly 6% in Greece, 5% in
Germany, and much higher daily peaks in many countries.59 By
years end, the EU had enough solar PV capacity to meet an
estimated 3% of total consumption (up from 0.3% in 2008) and
6% of peak demand; global capacity in operation was enough to
produce at least 160 TWh of electricity per year.60
SOLAR PV INDUSTRY
Following a two-year slump, in which oversupply drove down
module prices and many manufacturers reported negative
gross margins, the solar PV industry began to recover during
2013.61 It was still a challenging year, particularly in Europe,
where shrinking markets left installers, distributors, and others
struggling to stay afloat.62 Consolidation continued among
manufacturers, but, by late in the year, the strongest companies
were selling panels above cost.63 The rebound did not apply
lower down the manufacturing chain, however, particularly
for polysilicon makers.64 Low module prices also continued to
challenge many thin film companies and the concentrating solar
industries, which have struggled to compete.65 International
trade disputes also continued through 2013.66
Module prices stabilised, with crystalline silicon module spot
prices up about 5% during 2013, in response to robust demand
growth in China, Japan, and the United States in the second half of
the year.67 At the same time, module production costs continued
to fall. Low material costs (particularly for polysilicon) combined
with improved manufacturing processes and scale economies
have reduced manufacturing costs, and far faster than targeted
by the industry, with top Chinese producers approaching costs
of USD 0.50/W in 2013.68 Interest has turned to lowering soft
costs to further reduce installed system costs, which have also
declined but not as rapidly as module prices (particularly in
Japan and the United States).69 Although investment in solar PV
(in dollar terms) was down for the year, actual installed capacity
was up significantly, with the difference explained by declining
costs of solar PV systems in recent years.ii 70 (See Figure 14.)
As of 2013, the cost per MWh of rooftop solar was below retail
electricity prices in several countries, including Australia,
Brazil, Denmark, Germany, and Italy.71 By one estimate, solar
PV is deemed to be competitive without subsidies in at least 19
markets (in 15 countries).72 Further, several projects that were
planned or under development by years end were considered to
be competitiveiii with fossil options, without subsidies.73
An estimated 43 GW of crystalline silicon cells and 47 GW
of modules were produced in 2013, up 20% from 2012, and
module production capacity reached an estimated 67.6 GW.74
Thin film production rose nearly 21% in 2013, to 4.9 GW, and its
share of total global PV production stayed flat year-over-year.75
Over the past decade, module production has shifted from the
United States, to Japan, to Europe, and back to Asia, with China
dominating shipments since 2009.76 By 2013, Asia accounted
for 87% of global production (up from 85% in 2012), with China
producing 67% of the world total (almost two-thirds in 2012).77
Europes share continued to fall, to 9% in 2013 (11% in 2012),
and Japans share remained at 5%.78 The U.S. share was 2.6%;
thin film accounted for 39% of U.S. production, up from 36%
in 2012.79 In India, most manufacturing capacity was idle or
operating at low utilisation rates, primarily because it was
uncompetitive due to lack of scale, low-cost financing, and
underdeveloped supply chains.80
i - It is telling of the rapid changes in PV markets that the 2011 edition of the GSR reported on utility-scale projects >200 kW in size, the 2012 edition on projects
>20 MW, and the 2013 edition on projects >30 MW.
ii - Note that data in Figure 14 come from different sources, so they are not perfectly aligned. The investment data reflect the timing of investment decisions, not
the amount of capacity installed. So, for example, some dollars invested during calendar year 2012 may have been for systems installed during 2013.
iii - The source for this information does not define competitive. However, the IEA-PVPS defines possible competitiveness as the situation in which PV
produces electricity more cheaply than other sources could have delivered electricity at the same time, per IEA-PVPS, Trends 2013 in Photovoltaic Applications:
Survey Report of Selected IEA Countries Between 1992 and 2012 (Brussels: 2013), p. 65.
48
25
3.7
5.1
2004
2005
2006
16
0
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
SOLAR PV
Figure 12. Solar PV Total Global Capacity, 20042013
Figure 12. Solar PV Total Global Capacity, 20042013
Gigawatts
Source:
See Endnote 2
for this section.
World Total
139 Gigawatts
150
125
100
100
70
75
50
40
25
0
16
3.7
5.1
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
23
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Figure
PV Capacity
and
Figure 13.13.
SolarSolar
PV Capacity
and Additions,
TopAdditions,
10 Countries,Top
201310 Countries, 2013
Source:
See Endnote 9
for this section.
Gigawatts
40
+ 3.3
Added in 2013
2012 total
30
+ 12.9
20
+ 1.5
+ 6.9
+ 4.8
10
+ 0.2
+ 0.6
+ 1.5
+ 0.8
+ 0.2
United
Kingdom
Australia
Belgium
0
China
2013:
Italy
Japan
-22%
Spain
France
Figure 14. Solar PV Global Capacity Additions and Annual Investment, 20042013
Figure 14. Solar PV Global Capacity Additions and Annual Investment, 20042013
Gigawatts
Billion USD
140
40
SOLAR PV
INVESTMENT
United
States
120
Solar PV Global Capacity Additions (GW)

30
Annual Global Investment in

Solar PV Capacity (billion USD)
20
SOLAR PV
ADDITIONS
+32%
10
Source:
See Endnote 70
for this section.
02
Germany
100
80
60
40
20
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
49

Yingli and Trina Solar (both China) were the leading module
manufacturers in 2013. They were followed by Canadian Solar
(Canada), Jinko Solar, and ReneSola (both China). Sharp Solar
(Japan), First Solar (United States), Hanwha SolarOne (China),
Kyocera (Japan), and JA Solar (China) rounded out the top 10.81
Market consolidation among manufacturers continued in
2013, with merger and acquisition activity reaching record
levels mid-year, and bankruptcies and closures continuing.82
CIGSi manufacturers, in particular, faced significant challenges
due to standardisation and streamlining of crystalline silicon
manufacturing and low silicon prices, with several companies
entering insolvency or exiting the industry.83
Chinas large investment in solar PV manufacturing helped
create the supply-demand imbalance that led to industry
upheaval, and even China has suffered the results.84 Much of
the older, less efficient capacity was shut down in 2013, as the
national government encouraged consolidation and investment
in modern facilities to curb oversupply and to improve quality,
which suffered when corners were cut to reduce costs.85 Chinas
top 10 companies had more than USD 16 billion in debt by
August 2013, and Suntech became the first company ever to
default on publicly traded debt in China.86
Even as some manufacturers idled production capacity or
closed shop, others opened new facilities and began expanding
capacity across the globefrom North and South America
to Europe, Jordan to Turkey, and Kazakhstan to Malaysia.87
Ethiopias first module-manufacturing facility (20 MW) began
operating in early 2013 to supply the domestic market.88 Massive
new builds were planned in China, which is also set to become
a serious thin film player, with Hanergys acquisition of several
companies in 2013.89 Japanese manufacturers increased
domestic production to meet growing domestic demand.90
Innovation and product differentiation have become increasingly
important.91 Successful manufacturers have continued expanding
into project development, operations, and maintenance.92 They
also are building strategic partnerships to advance technologies
and expand markets. For example, First Solar acquired GEs
cadmium telluride portfolio, while both announced a partnership
to advance thin films; SolarCity (United States) teamed up with
American Honda and BMW to make solar PV more affordable
for hybrid and electric vehicle owners; and Hanergy partnered
with retailer IKEA to offer solar PV installation services to U.K.
customers.93 Manufacturers also joined with utilities and fossil
fuel companies to build solar PV plants, while traditional energy
and even non-energy companies, such as toll road operator
Huabei Express (China), moved further into solar development.94
Merger and acquisition activity continued on the development
side. Existing large-scale projects were purchased on a far more
global scale than in past years, due to increasing ease of financing
and growing interest among pure investment firms.95 At least two
German developers filed for insolvency during 2013, while others
expanded their reachJuwi (Germany) opened a subsidiary in
Dubai to serve customers in East Africa and the MENA region.96
SunEdison bought EchoFirst (both United States), which offered
what it claimed was the first combined solar electric and solar
thermal lease for the U.S. residential market.97
New business models and innovative financing options continued

to emerge, with practices such as solar leasing spreading beyond
the United States to Canada, Europe, the Pacific, and elsewhere.98
In late 2013, Toshiba (Japan) entered the solar power business
in Germany, installing PV systems on apartment buildings and
selling electricity to residents directly; systems will be owned
and funded by a group of pension funds.99 By early 2014, Mosaic
(United States), an online platform for solar project investments,
had financed more than USD 5 million by enabling people to
invest small amounts towards specific projects, and SolarCity
(United States) announced plans to offer a bond-like product
for individual investors, backed by cash flows from existing
customers.100 New models also are emerging in Latin America,
including the sale of PV electricity into the wholesale market
(rather than through long-term contracts), with such merchant
plants being built in Chile and Mexico.101
Solar cell efficiencies continued to increase with more records
announced during 2013.102 Perhaps the biggest technology
advance centered on perovskite materials, which experienced
a steep rate of efficiency improvement during 2012 and 2013.
They offer the potential for high-performing yet inexpensive solar
cells, although they have significant challenges to overcome
before coming to market.103
CPV had a mixed year in 2013, with key companies closing plants
and consolidation affecting both module and system suppliers.
At the same time, the industry saw new strategic partnerships
and expansions in manufacturing capacity.104 Soitec (France)
announced plans to consolidate by closing its 40 MW plant in
Freiburg, Germany, but also achieved full production capacity
at its factory in California, and partnered with Alstom (France)
to develop CPV plants in France.105 Solar Junction and Amonix
(both United States) partnered to improve CPV efficiency.106
The industry is showing signs of moving beyond niche markets,
with Soitec building a 44 MW project in South Africa, and
several companies announcing or commissioning production
lines in 2013 to meet growing interest in China.107 New cell and
module conversion efficiency records were set in 2013, and
improvements to mirror and tracker technologies continued.108
Solar inverters are becoming more sophisticated to actively
support grid management, and are considered one of the
fastest developing technologies in power electronics.109 Partly
because of this rapid development, in 2013 ABB (Switzerland)
acquired Power-One (United States), one of the worlds largest
manufacturers of solar power inverters.110 At the same time,
the industry has become increasingly crowded and markets
more fragmented, and the largest incumbents faced challenges
maintaining growth or even surviving in 2013.111 Inverter
manufacturers were under pressure to reduce prices, as the
European market slowed faster than expected and as the focus
of cost-cutting efforts turned increasingly towards balance-ofsystem technologies.112
i - Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells, which are in the thin film category of solar PV.
50
CONCENTRATING SOLAR THERMAL

POWER (CSP)
CSP MARKETS
The concentrating solar thermal power (CSP) market continued
to advance in 2013 after record growth in 2012. Total global
capacity increased by nearly 0.9 GW, up 36%, to more than 3.4
GW.1 (See Figure 15 and Reference Table R8.) The United States
and Spain continued their global market leadership.2 However,
a global shift to areas of high direct normal irradiation (DNI) in
developing-country markets is accelerating.3 Global installed
capacity of CSP has increased nearly 10-fold since 2004; during
the five-year period from the end of 2008 to the end of 2013,
total global capacity grew at an average annual rate approaching
50%.4
Parabolic trough technologies represented all of the facilities
added during the year, as well as the majority of plants under
construction by mid-2013. Towers/central receivers continued
to increase their market share, however, with significant capacity
added in early 2014.5 Fresnel and parabolic dish technologies
remain in an earlier developmental stage.
The United States became the leading market in 2013, adding
375 MW to end the year with almost 0.9 GW in operation, and
just short of 1 GW under construction.6 The new Solana plant
(250 MW) in Arizona is the worlds largest parabolic trough
plant and the first U.S. CSP plant with thermal energy storage
(TES).7 U.S. capacity took another significant leap in early 2014,
when the 377 MW Ivanpah plant started feeding electricity into
the grid.8 Upon its completion, the Ivanpah plant, based on
tower/central receiver technology, was the largest solar thermal
electric facility of any type operating in the world.9
Spain sustained its global leadership in existing CSP capacity,

adding 350 MW in 2013 to increase operating capacity by 18%,
for a total of 2.3 GW at years end.10 Parabolic trough remained
the dominant technology in Spain, making up all of the capacity
that came on line during the year. Due to policy changes in 2012
and early 2013 that placed a moratorium on new construction in
the country, no new plants were under construction by the end
of 2013.11 Thus, the United States is set to maintain its position
as the leading CSP market in 2014.
In other markets, capacity nearly tripled during 2013, to just
under 250 MW.12 Additions included the 100 MW Shams 1 plant
in the United Arab Emirates and a 50 MW plant in Rajasthan, India
(both parabolic trough plants), and the first phase (10 MW) of a
50 MW tower/central receiver plant in Delingha, China.13 Other
countries with existing CSP that did not add capacity in 2013
include Algeria (25 MW), Egypt (20 MW), Morocco (20 MW),
Australia (13 MW), and Thailand (5 MW).14 Several additional
countries had small pilot plants in operation, including France,
Germany, Israel, Italy, South Africa, South Korea, and Turkey.15
During 2013, CSP continued to expand to new markets in Asia,
Latin America, and particularly across Africa and the Middle
East.16 South Africa remained one of the most active markets,
with 100 MW of parabolic trough and 100 MW of power tower
capacity under construction at years end.17 In neighbouring
Namibia, preliminary evaluation of a 50 MW plant with TES
was under way.18 Over USD 600 million was pledged in 2013 to
support Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia in
bringing more than 1 GW of CSP to the regional market.i 19 As of
early 2014, construction was under way in Morocco (160 MW)
and Egypt (100 MW).20
In the Middle East, Kuwait opened bidding procedures for a 50MW
CSP plant with thermal storage, expected to be operational
in 2016.21 Saudi Arabia announced plans to spend USD 109
Figure
15.Concentrating
ConcentratingSolar
Solar
Thermal
Power
Global
Capacity,
by Country
or Region,
20042013
Figure 15.
Thermal
Power
Global
Capacity,
by Country
or Region,
20042013
Megawatts
Source:
See Endnote 1
for this section.
World Total
3,500
3,425 Megawatts
3,000
Rest of World
Spain
United States
2,500
02
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
i - This was pledged by the Climate Investment Funds, which are supported by the African Development Bank, the Asian Development Bank, the European
Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, and the World Bank Group.
51

billion on more than 50 GW of renewable energy by 2032,
25 GW of which will come from CSP.22 In Israel, construction
was scheduled to begin in 2014 on the first phase (121 MW) of a
250MW CSP plant in the Negev Desert.23
CSP INDUSTRY
The industry continued expanding into new markets in 2013.32
Yet while global growth of the sector remained strong, revised
projections, fed by increasing competition from declining
solar PV costs, led a number of companies to close their CSP
operations.33
Elsewhere around the world, Chile advanced towards its first

commercial CSP capacity with the award of a 110 MW tower/
central receiver tender in 2013.24 In India, six of the plants
being developed under the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar
Mission (JNNSM) were held back by technical, procurement
and financing delays, as well as apparent errors in solar
resource assessments.25 Italys markethindered by regulatory
challenges in the pastreceived a boost after the feed-in tariff
introduced in December 2012 attracted licence applications for
over 200 MW of new CSP capacity.26
The top companies in 2013 included Abengoa, Acciona, ACS

Cobra, and Torresol Energy (all Spain); Brightsource and Solar
Reserve (both United States); Schott Solar (Germany); and
AREVA (France). German firm Siemens announced the closure
of its CSP business after losses of USD 1 billion or more since
2011, while Schott Solar closed its 400 MW U.S. plant to focus
on winning projects in the Middle East.34
CSP technologies are being used to support an increasing

number and range of hybrid electricity generation activities and
processes, and are being applied to augment steam production
at coal, gas, and geothermal power plants.27 The 44 MWth Kogan
Creek Solar Boost project under construction in Australia is
expected to start supplementing existing coal-based steam
generation when operations commence in 2015.28
As of early 2013, Abengoa Solar had the worlds largest portfolio

of plants in operation or under construction, and Spanish
companies continued to lead the industry with ownership
interest in almost three-quarters of CSP capacity deployed
around the world.35 However, the dead stop in the Spanish
market pushed Spanish CSP developers further afield in search
of development opportunities.36
In some markets, CSP continues to face challenges related to

strong competition from solar PV technologies and environmental
concerns, with several plants in the United States being delayed,
withdrawn, or converted to solar PV.29 While global growth of CSP
is expected to fall short of past projections, interest in CSP plants
using TES is growing in a number of markets, where it is seen as
a valuable source of renewable dispatchable electric capacity.30
Emerging markets such as Saudi Arabia and Chile have made
TES mandatory for future CSP developments.31
The limitations of synthetic oils and molten salts as heat transfer

media have driven research into a range of alternatives, such
as superheated steam; ternary salts; graphite storage; ceramic
storage; and rocks, pebbles, and slag.37 The growing potential
of TES systems was showcased when the system at Spains
Gemasolar plant enabled uninterrupted power generation for 36
consecutive days.38
A trend towards larger plants continued, as evidenced by the
commencement of operations at the Ivanpah and Solana plants
in the United States and by the scale of many of the plants under
construction in the MENA region. Growing evidence emerged
of the potential cost reductions of larger plants, relating to
their ability to work at higher temperatures and achieve greater
efficiencies.39
CSP costs also continue to be reduced through enhanced design
and improved manufacturing and construction techniques.
SHEC Energy (Canada) claimed significant reductions in
materials cost through the adoption of new production
technologies; the application of lightweight, high-strength
materials and a proprietary structural stiffening technique; and
automated, manufacturing processes to create light and strong
structures.40
Research on hybrid CSP applications, and the augmentation of
steam production at traditional power plants, continued in 2013.
In the United States, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL) and the Idaho National Laboratory launched joint
research on the augmentation of geothermal plants with CSP,
while the U.S. Department of Energy pledged USD 10 million for
integration of CSP at the 500 MW natural gas-fired Cosumnes
Power Plant in Sacramento, California.41
52
SOLAR THERMAL HEATING AND COOLING MARKETS

Solar thermal technologies contribute significantly to hot water
production in many countries, and increasingly to space heating
and cooling as well as industrial processes. In 2012i, the world
added 55.4 GWth (more than 79 million m2) of solar heat capacity,
increasing the cumulative installed capacity of all collector types
in operation by over 14% for a year-end total of 283.4 GWth.ii 1
An estimated 53.7 GWth (almost 97%) of the market was glazed
water systems and the rest was unglazed water systems mainly
for swimming pool heating (3%), as well as unglazed and glazed
air collector systems (<1%).2 Glazed and unglazed water systems
provided an estimated 239.7 TWh (863 PJ) of heat annually.3
The vast majority of solar heat capacity is in China, which accounts
for 86% of the world market and 64% of total capacity in 2012.4
(See Figure 16.) The top countries for capacity added in 2012,
including both glazed and unglazed systemsiii, were China, Turkey,
India, Brazil, and Germany, and the top five for total capacity in
operation remained China, the United States, Germany, Turkey,
and Brazil.iv 5 (See Figure 17 and Reference Table R9.)
Most countries focus on glazed water collectors, with China
primarily using evacuated tube water collectors (ETC), and other
key markets relying mainly on flat plate (FPC). In the United
States, the majority of systems use unglazed water collectors for
pool heating. The only other markets of note for unglazed water
collectors are Australia and Brazil.6
In 2013, an estimated 57.1 GWth (81.6 million m2) of gross
capacity was added worldwide, bringing operating global solar
thermal capacity to about 330 GWth (including 325.9 GWth of
water collectors and an estimated 3.6 GWth of air collectors).7
(See Figure 18.) There was enough capacity by years end to
provide approximately 276.6 TWh (996 PJ) of heat annually.8
China was again the main demand driver in 2013, adding
46.2 GWth (up 3.3% over 2012).9 A significant share (21%) of
the new collectors in China replaced existing capacity, although
the replacement rate was reportedly lower than in past years;
approximately 36.6 GWth of newly installed capacity was additional,
bringing the countrys total to 217 GWth.10 In China, solar water
heaters cost far less over their lifetimes than do electric or gas
water heatersa major factor driving the market.11 Chinas use of
solar thermal on urban apartment buildings is expanding rapidly,
and it includes roof- and faade-integrated systems. The urban
sector represented nearly half of the 2013 market, with growth
driven largely by green building policies and solar mandates.12
The European Union (EU-28) supports a greater diversity of uses
for solar thermal heat technologies than any other market.13 In
2012, Europes total operating capacity was up 7.5% over 2011
to 30.2 GWth, but the annual market declined for the fourth
consecutive year, down 5.8% to 2.3 GWth.14 In 2013, the region
continued to account for a significant share of the capacity
additions made outside of China. However, growth contracted

again in many countries, constrained by lower construction
and renovation rates (due in large part to the economic crisis),
pressure from solar PV and heat pumps (particularly in Austria,
Germany, and France), and the reduction of support policies for
solar heating.15 Germany and Austria, the long-term EU leaders for
total installations, both experienced marked declines. Germany
remained Europes largest installer in 2013, adding 0.7MWth for
a total of 12.3 GWth; but this was down 11% from 2012, following
a 9.4% drop in 2011.16 The Austrian market shrank about 14% in
2013, following declines of nearly 16% in 2012 and 13% in 2011.17
Over a six-year period, Brazils market more than doubled, with
nearly 1 GWth added in 2013 for a total approaching 7 GWth.18
Demand is driven largely by the economic competitiveness of
solar thermal in Brazil and by municipal building regulations and
social housing programmes, such as Minha Casa, Minha Vida
(My House, My Life), that mandate solar water heaters in new
buildings for very poor families.19 Mexico is also starting to play a
role, and there are very small but growing markets in Argentina,
Chile, Costa Rica, and Uruguay.20
India and Japan are the largest Asian markets outside of
China. India added 0.9 GWth during 2013 for a year-end total of
5.2GWth.21 Japans market was stable during 2012 and 2013, at
about 0.1 GWth per year, but cumulative capacity is declining due
to decommissioning of old systems.22 After Thailands five years
of steady growth, driven by the national incentive programme and
rising fuel prices, the market for subsidised systems declined 28%
in 2013.23 The drop is considered to be a direct result of Thailands
new solar PV programme, which drew investment away from solar
heating.24
Turkey, the United States, and Australia continue to be important
markets; as of publication, however, data for 2013 were not
available. In 2012, Turkey added 1.1 GWth to end the year with
10.8 GWth and retain its fourth place ranking for total operating
capacity.25 The market was down relative to a spike in 2011, but is
generally quite stable even without government incentives.26
About 60% of all unglazed water collectors operate in the United
States, where an estimated 30,000 swimming pool systems
are installed annually.27 While the country continues to rank
second for total collector area, with 16.2 GWth at the end of 2012
(14.3GWth of which is unglazed), it placed sixth for additions that
year (0.7 GWth).28 Some U.S. states have set solar thermal carveouts in their renewable portfolio standards (RPS), or allow electric
utilities to meet RPS requirements with solar water heating
systems.29
Australia added an estimated 0.6 GWth during 2012 (71%
unglazed), for a year-end total of 5.1 GWth (59% unglazed).30
A large share of Australian households heats water with solar
thermal systems, with the highest number in New South Wales.
By early 2013, more than 630,000 systems were in operation.31
02
SOLAR THERMAL HEATING AND COOLING
In the Middle East, Israel leads for total capacity (with about 85%
of households using solar water heaters), followed by Jordan
and Lebanon.32 Solar thermal systems are used to heat water in
i - The year 2012 is the most recent one for which firm global data and most country statistics are available.
ii - Data include air collectors. Gross (including replacements) water heating collector capacity additions in 2012 were 55.4 GWth, for a year-end total of 281.7 GWth.
iii - Starting with this edition, the GSR covers both glazed and unglazed water systems throughout. For more details, see Methodological Notes, page 142.
iv -Note that the 2012 data in Figure 18 are total installations of water collectors and include replacement capacity, which accounts for a large share of Chinas
additions. In 2013, for example, about 21% of Chinas additions (9.6 GWth) were to replace existing capacity.
53

Figure 16. SolarFigure
Water
Global
Capacity,
10 Countries,
2012
16.Heating
Solar WaterCollectors
Heating Collectors
Global
Capacity,Shares
Shares of of
TopTop
10 Countries,
2012
Source:
See Endnote 4
for this section.
China
64%
5.8%
4.2%
3.9%
2.1%
1.8%
1.6%
1.2%
1.1%
1.0%
United States
Germany
Turkey
Brazil
Australia
India
Austria
Japan
Israel
Next 9 countries
23%
Rest of the World
13%
Figure 17. SolarFigure

Water
Additions,
TopTop
1010Countries
for
Capacity
Added,
17. Heating
Solar WaterCollector
Heating Collector
Additions,
Countries for
Capacity
Added,
2012 2012
Gigawatts-thermal
Source:
See Endnote 5
for this section.
50
Unglazed collectors
+ 44.7
Gigawatts-thermal
1.2
40
Glazed (evacuated tube collectors)

Glazed (flat plate collectors)
+ 1.1
+ 1.0
1.0
30
+ 0.8
0.8
+ 0.8
+ 0.7
+ 0.6
0.6
20
0.4
10
0.2
+ 0.2
+ 0.2
Italy
Israel
+ 0.2
1.0
0
China
Turkey
India
Brazil
Germany
United
States
Australia
Poland
Figure 18. Solar

Water Heating Collectors Global Capacity, 20002013
Figure 18. Solar Water Heating Collectors Global Capacity, 20002013
World Total
Gigawatts-thermal
Source:
See Endnote 7
for this section.
300
326 Gigawatts-thermal
Glazed collectors
Unglazed collectors
250
World total
200
150
100
50
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
Data are for solar water collectors only (not including air collectors).
54
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
several African countries, including Egypt, Mozambique, Tunisia,

Zimbabwe, and South Africa, the most mature market in subSaharan Africa.33 However, markets in many developing countries
are challenged by a lack of standards, leading to use of inferior
products and poor installations, which have undermined solar
thermals reputation.34
At the end of 2012, Cyprus remained the world leader on a per capita
basis considering all water collectors, with 548 kilowatts-thermal
(kWth) per 1,000 inhabitants, followed by Austria (420kWth), Israel
(385 kWth), Barbados (320 kWth), and Greece (268 kWth).35
Most solar thermal systems are used for domestic water heating,
and they typically meet 4080% of demand.36 There is a trend
towards larger domestic water heating systems for hotels,
schools, multi-family homes, and other large complexes.37 The
use of solar thermal systems for space heating is also gaining
ground, particularly in Central Europe, where 100% solar-heated
buildings have been demonstrated (although typically solar
meets 1530% of space heating demand).38 Combi-systems,
which provide water and space heating, account for about 4% of
the global solar thermal heat market.39 They are most common
in Europe (particularly Austria, Germany, Italy, and Poland)
and represent about 40% of installed systems in Austria and
Germany.40 Solar thermal heating can be combined with various
back-up heat sources, and hybrid systems with heat pumps are
gaining popularity in Europe.41
potential to reduce peak electricity demand, particularly in

countries with significant cooling needs.53
Solar thermal technologies are being used increasingly for
industrial applications, providing heat and steam, refrigeration,
and air conditioning.54 Major industrial applications include food
processing, cooking, and textile manufacturing.55 In 2013, the
worlds largest low-temperature system was inaugurated in Chile,
where it is expected to cover 85% of the heat demand of the Gaby
copper mine.56 Other 2013 projects included dairies in Mexico
and Switzerland, leather tanneries in Kenya and Thailand, and
a chemical manufacturing facility in Germany.57 India leads in
the use of concentrating solar thermal systems with at least 145
systems producing steam, primarily for cooking.58 Rising fuel
prices have driven rapid expansion and, as of early 2014, India
had an estimated nearly 20 MWth for industrial applications.59
In 2013, several countries offered funding specifically for solar
process heat.60
Although interest is growing around the world, district heating
networks, solar air conditioning, and solar process heat for
industrial purposes account for only about 1% of global solar
thermal capacity.61 There also exists a large untapped potential
for new applications such as water treatment and sea water
desalination.62
Domestic hot water and space heating are provided by

conventional flat plate and evacuated tube collectors, which
typically supply heat at temperatures below 60C.42 Advanced
collectors can be used for solar-assisted district heating as
well as industrial and commercial applications with typical
operating temperatures in the 60120 C range; they can also
drive some cooling systems.43 Concentrating systemsincluding
parabolic trough, dish, and Fresnel collectors (smaller than their
CSP relatives and adapted to specific needs)provide heat at
higher temperatures (typically 120250C, and up to 400C) for
industrial processes or to drive double- or triple-stage absorption
chillers.44
The still-modest global solar cooling market grew at an average

annual rate exceeding 40% between 2004 and 2012, and
approximately 1,050 systems of all technology types and sizes
were installed by 2013.50 While most of these systems were in
Europe (81%), use of solar cooling is rising in many regions with
sunny dry climates, including Australia, India, Mediterranean
islands, and the Middle East.51 The availability of small (<20kW)
cooling kits for residential use has increased interest in the
residential sector in Central Europe and elsewhere, and largescale systems are gaining appeal due to their more favourable
economics.52 One of the market drivers for solar cooling is the
SOLAR THERMAL HEATING/COOLING INDUSTRY

China maintained its multi-year lead in the global solar heating
industry, producing an estimated 50.1 GWth (71.6 million m2) of
collectors in 2013.63 Export activities remained negligible (1.8%
in 2012, or USD 300 million) compared to the industrys total
turnover, but they continued to increase.64 The market shares
of Chinese vacuum tubes continued to rise in price-sensitive
export markets including Poland, Turkey, and India.65
02
An increasing number of district heating systems relies on solar

thermal technology, often combined with other heat sources
such as biomass.45 Although the market for such systems
remains relatively small, interest has increased in recent years,
particularly across Europe.46 More than 200 solar thermal
district heating plants operate in about 20 EU countries, with 50
of these in Denmark (where systems are cost competitive), and
over 20 each in Austria, Germany, and Sweden.47 Interest is rising
beyond Europe as well, with large heat systems also operating in
Canada, China, and South Africa.48 At least 17 plants bigger than
700 kWth (1,000 m2) were constructed in 2013, and the worlds
largest plant began operating in Denmark in early 2014.49
By contrast, Europe saw accelerated consolidation during 2013,

with several large suppliers announcing their exit from solar
thermal manufacturing.66 In two cases, management buyouts
prevented abandonment of the collector technology or brand.67
However, a large number of smaller European collector manufacturers no longer considers in-house production to be
economically feasible due to high price pressures and low-cost
imports from outside Europe, especially from China.68 To offset
decreasing domestic demand, many European companies have
focussed on foreign markets through local partnerships and
investments.69
55

South Africas supply chain has been in a consolidation phase,
with the number of commercial entities in the solar water heater
market falling from a high of over 700 in 2011 to about 400 in
2013.70 Brazil had about 150 solar thermal suppliers by mid2013.71 While most focussed on the domestic market, a small
number of companies were exporting to other countries in the
region.72
In 2013, industry expectations for current and future market
development were brightest in India and Greece.73 Manufacturers
in India expanded production capacities and integrated vertically
in response to rapid market growth.74
Production costs of solar thermal heat technologies have
continued to decline. In Europe, for instance, production costs of
standard collectors fell about 23% for every doubling of installed
capacity from 1995 to 2012, or nearly 50% over the period.75
And new technologies continue to emerge. For example, by
early 2014 there were more than 130 hybrid solar thermal-heat
pump systems from more than 80 companies (mostly in Europe)
for combined production of domestic water and space heating.76
About 30 companies in at least 12 countries were making a
variety of photovoltaic thermal (PV-T) hybrid solar collectors that
combine solar PV and thermal water collectors for simultaneous
production of power and heat.77
Attention to quality standards and certification continued in
response to high failure rates associated with cheap tubes
from China, and harmonisation of standards and certification
played an important role in the industrys export strategies.78
In September, the International Standard Committee approved
a global collector test standard, paving the way for a variety of
new collector technologies to receive a Solar Keymark label in
Europe.79 In addition, several countries are working on domestic
standards.80
A growing number of manufacturers around the world specialise
in concentrating collectors for industrial applications.81 Solar
process heat is already competitive in many niche markets
today, but the technology is not widely known.82
The cost of solar cooling kits continues to fall, declining by
4555% (depending on system size) over the period 2007
2012.83 The variety of thermal chillers continued to increase
in 2013, as did their standardisation.84 At least two European
companies released new chillers for small systems down to
5kW, and companies in Europe and Asia introduced cooling kits
that include integrated heat rejection (which removes waste heat
generated by the system).85 Alternative heat rejection systems
are under development to reduce costs and planning time.86
In addition to new chillers, innovative technologies continue to
emerge, particularly for large-scale and industrial systems.87
WIND POWER
WIND POWER MARKETS
More than 35 GW of wind power capacity was added in 2013,
bringing the global total above 318 GW.1 (See Figure 19 and
Reference Table R10.) Following several record years, the
wind power market declined nearly 10 GW compared to 2012,
reflecting primarily a steep drop in the U.S. market.2 The top 10
countries accounted for 85% of year-end global capacity, but
there are dynamic and emerging markets in all regions.3 By the
end of 2013, at least 85 countries had seen commercial wind
activity, while at least 71 had more than 10 MW of reported
capacity by years end, and 24 had more than 1 GW in operation.4
Annual growth rates of cumulative wind power capacity have
averaged 21.4% since the end of 2008, and global capacity has
increased eightfold over the past decade.5
Asia remained the largest market for the sixth consecutive year,
accounting for almost 52% of added capacity, followed by the
EU (about 32%) and North America (less than 8%).6 Non-OECD
countries were responsible for the majority of installations, and,
for the first time, Latin America had a substantial share (more
than 4.5%).7 China led the market, followed distantly by Germany,
the United Kingdom, India, and Canada. Others in the top 10
were the United States, Brazil, Poland, Sweden, and Romania,
and new markets continued to emerge in Africa, Asia, and Latin
America.8 The leading countries for wind power capacity per
inhabitant were Denmark (863 W per person), Sweden (487.6),
Spain (420.5), Portugal (412), and Ireland (381).9
China added an estimated 16.1 GW of new capacity in 2013,
increasing total installed capacity by 21% to 91.4 GW.10 (See
Figure 20.) About 14.1 GW was integrated into the grid, with
approximately 75.5 GW in commercial operation by years
end.11 Difficulties continued in transmitting power from turbines
(particularly in remote northeast areas) to population demand
centres, and about 16 TWh lost due to curtailment.12 However,
new transmission lines and turbine deployment in areas with
better grid access are reducing the number of idled turbines,
and the rate of curtailment dropped from 17% in 2012 to 11%
in 2013.13
Wind generated 140.1 billion kWh in China during 2013, up 40%
over 2012 and exceeding nuclear generation for the second
year running.14 By years end, almost 25% of total capacity was
in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, followed by Hebei
(10%), Gansu (9.1%), and Liaoning (7.3%) provinces, but wind
continued its spread across China10 provinces had more than
3 GW of capacity.15
The European Union remained the top region for cumulative
wind capacity, with 37% of the worlds total, although Asia was
nipping at its heels with more than 36%.16 Wind accounted for
the largest share (32%) of new EU power capacity in 2013; more
than 11 GW of wind capacity was added for a total exceeding
117 GW.17 Europe is experiencing a seaward shift, with the
offshore market up 34%.18 However, the total market in the region
was down 8% relative to 2012, and financing of new projects is
becoming more challenging in response to policy uncertainty
and declining incentives.19
Germany and the United Kingdom accounted for 46% of new
EU installations, a level of concentration not seen since 2007.20
56
Other top EU markets were Poland (0.9 GW), Sweden (0.7GW),

Romania (0.7 GW), and Denmark (0.7 GW).25 France (0.6 GW)
and Italy (0.4 GW) both saw significant market reductions
in 2013.26 Spain remained third in the region for cumulative
capacity, but recent policy changes have brought the market to
a virtual standstill, with the lowest additions (less than 0.2 GW) in
16 years.27 The highest growth rates were seen in Croatia (68%)
and Finland (56.3%), from low bases, and Romania (36.5%) and
Poland (35.8%).28 Slovenia added capacity for the first time.29
India was the fourth largest market in 2013, although demand
contracted by 26%.30 Over 1.7 GW was installed for a total
approaching 20.2 GW.31 A steep devaluation of the rupee against
the U.S. dollar (which increased financing and import costs),
and removal of key support policies in 2012, delayed investment
in wind power.32 However, retroactive reinstatement of the
Generation Based Incentive in late 2013 helped resurrect the
market.33 Elsewhere in the region, Japan saw a slowdown in
deployment, due largely to new regulatory requirements and
delays for grid access, while Thailand and Pakistan both doubled
their capacity.34
Canada installed a record 1.6 GW, a market increase of more than
70%, for a total of 7.8 GW, led by Ontario (2.5 GW) and Quebec
(2.4 GW).35 The United States ended the year with 61.6GW, up
by just over 1 GW.36 This represented a significant drop from the
13.1 GW installed in 2012, when developers rushed to complete
projects before the federal Production Tax Credit (PTC) expired.37
Even so, utilities and corporate purchasers signed a record
number of long-term contracts in response to low power prices,
and more than 12 GW of projects was under construction by
years end.38 Texas led for total capacity (12.4GW), followed by
California (5.8 GW), Iowa (5.2 GW), Illinois (3.6 GW), and Oregon
(3.2 GW).39
Elsewhere, the most significant growth was seen in Latin America.

Brazil installed more than 0.9 GW of capacity (down from 1.1 GW
in 2012) to rank seventh for newly installed wind capacity.40 It
ended the year with almost 3.5 GW of commissioned capacity
nearly three-fourths of the regions totalof which 2.2 GW was
grid-connected and in commercial operation.41 Utility interest
in wind power is increasing because it complements Brazils
reliance on hydropower, and by years end more than 10 GW of
additional capacity was under contract.42 Others in the region to
add wind capacity included Argentina, Chile, and Mexico.43
Australia was again the only country in the Pacific to add wind
capacity (0.7 GW), bringing its total to more than 3.2 GW.44 In
Turkey, where interest in wind power is driven partly by heavy
reliance on Russian gas, 0.6 GW was installed for a total
approaching 3 GW.45 Africa and the Middle East saw little new
operating capacity beyond Morocco (0.2 GW) and Ethiopia,
which completed Africas largest individual wind farm (120 MW),
with the aim of mitigating the impact of dry seasons on national
hydropower output.46 However, other countries in the region
moved ahead with new projects, and several announced longterm plans.47
Offshore wind is still small compared with global onshore
capacity, but it is growing rapidly. A record 1.6 GW was added
to the worlds grids for a total exceeding 7 GW in 14 countries
by years end.48 More than 93% of total capacity was located
off Europe, which added 1,567 MW to the grid for a total of
6,562 MW in 11 countries.49 The United Kingdom has more
than 52% of the worlds offshore capacity. It was the largest
market (adding 733 MW) in 2013, followed in Europe by
Denmark (350MW), Germany (595 MW total, and 240 MW gridconnected), and Belgium (192 MW).50 But the EU record hides
delays due to policy uncertainty, particularly in Germany and the
United Kingdom, and cancellation or downsizing of projects due
to cost and wildlife concerns.51 The remaining offshore capacity
is in China, Japan, and South Korea; China added 39 MW for
almost 430 MW total.52 Two U.S. projects qualified for the PTC
before it expired and are competing to be the first commercial
project operating off U.S. shores.53
Offshore and on, independent power producers and energy
utilities remained the most important clients in the market in
terms of capacity installed. However, there is growing interest
02
Driven largely by anticipated reforms to the Renewable Energy

Sources Act (EEG), Germany remained Europes largest market
and set a new record for installations.21 More than 3.2 GW was
added to the German grid in 2013, including more than 0.2GW
for repowering; by year's end, a total of 34.3 GW was gridconnected (and 34.7 GW total installed).22 Germany generated
53.4 TWh with the wind in 2013.23 The United Kingdom added
1.9 GW to the grid, 39% of which was offshore, for a year-end
total of 10.5 GW.24
57

in other sectors. The number of large corporate purchasers of
wind power and turbines continued to increase during 2013.54
In addition, interest in community-owned wind power projects
is growing in Australia, Canada, Japan, the United States, parts
of Europe, and elsewhere.55 Community and co-operative power
has long represented the mainstream ownership model in
Denmark and Germany.56 Today, shared ownership is expanding
through a variety of means, including innovative financing
mechanisms such as crowd funding.57
The use of individual small-scalei turbines is increasing, with
applications including defence, rural electrification, water
pumping, battery charging, telecommunications, and other
remote uses.58 Off-grid and mini-grid applications prevail in
developing countries.59 Worldwide, at least 806,000 small-scale
turbines were operating at the end of 2012, exceeding 678 MW
(up 18% over 2011).60 While most countries have some smallscale turbines in use, capacity is predominantly in China and
the United States, with an estimated 274 MW and 216 MW,
respectively, by the end of 2012.61 They are followed by the
United Kingdom, which added a record 38 MW in 2012, driven by
a micro-generator FIT, to exceed 100 MW total.62 Other leaders
include Germany, Ukraine, Canada, Italy, Poland, and Spain.63
Repowering of existing wind capacity has also expanded in
recent years. The replacement of old turbines with fewer, larger,
taller, and more efficient and reliable machines is driven by
technology improvements and the desire to increase output
while improving grid compliance and reducing noise and bird
mortality.64 (See Sidebar 5.) Repowering began in Denmark and
Germany, due to a combination of incentives and a large number
of ageing turbines, and has spread to several other countries.65
During 2013, turbines were repowered in Denmark, Finland,
and Japan, and in Germany, which replaced 373 turbines with
combined capacity of 236 MW with 256 turbines totalling
726MW.66 There is also a thriving international market in used
turbines in several developing and emerging economies.67
Wind power is playing a major role in power supply in an increasing
number of countries. In the EU, capacity operating at years end
was enough to cover nearly 8% of electricity consumption in a
normal wind year (up from 7% in 2012), and several EU countries
met higher shares of their demand with wind.68 Wind was the top
power source in Spain (20.9%, up from 16.3%) during 2013, and
met 33.2% of electricity demand in Denmark (up from 30%).69
Four German states had enough wind capacity at years end to
meet over 50% of their electricity needs.70 In the United States,
wind power represented 4.1% of total electricity generation (up
from 3.5% in 2012) and met more than 12% of demand in nine
states (up from 10% in nine states in 2012), with Iowa at over 27%
(up from 25%) and South Dakota at 26% (up from 24%).71 Wind
power accounted for 2.6% of Chinas electricity generation.72
Globally, wind power capacity by the end of 2013 was enough to
meet an estimated 2.9% of total electricity consumption.73
WIND POWER INDUSTRY

Over the past few years, capital costs of wind power have
declined, primarily through competition, while technological
advancesincluding taller towers, longer blades, and smaller
generators in low wind speed areashave increased capacity
factors.74 These developments have lowered the costs of windgenerated electricity, improving its cost competitiveness relative
to fossil fuels. Onshore wind-generated power is now cost
competitive, or nearly so, on a per kWh basis with new coal- or
gas-fired plants, even without compensatory support schemes,
in several markets (including Australia, Brazil, Chile, Mexico,
New Zealand, South Africa, Turkey, much of the EU, and some
locations in India and the United States).75 By one estimate,
global levelised costs per MWh of onshore wind fell about
15% between 2009 and early 2014; offshore wind costs rose,
however, due to increasing depths and distance from shore.76
Despite these largely positive trends, during 2013 the industry

continued to be challenged by downward pressure on prices,
increased competition among turbine manufacturers, competition
with low-cost gas in some markets, reductions in policy support
driven by economic austerity, and declines in key markets.77 In
Europe, market contraction led to industry consolidation, with
manufacturers Bard and Fuhrlnder (both Germany) filing for
insolvency in late 2013, and Vestas (Denmark) cutting its staff by
30%.78 European turbine makers also experienced a decline in
market share within China, where domestic suppliers constituted
over 93% of the market in 2013, up from 28% just six years
earlier.79 The United States experienced factory closures and
layoffs due to a shortage of new turbine orders; by years end,
however, U.S. production capacity had ramped up dramatically,
with wind-related manufacturing in 44 of 50 states.80 In India,
Suzlon, which has struggled for years with massive debt, ceded
its top position for the first time in a decade.81
Grid-related challenges are increasing and range from lack
of transmission infrastructure, to delays in grid connection,
to rerouting of electricity through neighbouring countries, to
curtailment where regulations and current management systems
make it difficult to integrate large amounts of wind and other
i - Small-scale wind systems are generally considered to include turbines that produce enough power for a single home, farm, or small business (keeping in
mind that consumption levels vary considerably across countries). The International Electrotechnical Commission sets a limit at 50 kW, and the World Wind
Energy Association (WWEA) and the American Wind Energy Association currently define small-scale as less than 100 kW, which is the range also used in the
GSR; however, size varies according to needs and/or laws of a country or state/province, and there is no globally recognised definition or size limit. For more
information see, for example, Stefan Gsnger and Jean Pitteloud, Small Wind World Report 2014 (Bonn: WWEA and New Energy Husum, March 2014), Executive
Summary, http://small-wind.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/2014_SWWR_summary_web.pdf.
58
WIND POWER
Figure 19. Wind Power
Total
20002013
Figure 19.
WindWorld
Power Capacity,
Total World Capacity,
20002013
Gigawatts
World Total
350
318 Gigawatts
300
283
Source:
See Endnote 1
for this section.
238
250
198
200
159
150
121
94
100
50
17
24
31
39
2000
2001
2002
2003
74
59
48
INSTALLED
2005
2006
2007
2008
Wind
Power
Capacity
Additions,
FigureFigure
20. Wind20.
Power
Capacity
and Additions,
Topand
10 Countries,
2013Top
2009
13.1%
11.0%
Source:
See Endnote 10
for this section.
+ 16.1
Added in 2013
80
2012 total
+ 1.1
60
40
+3
+ 0.2
20
+ 1.7
+ 1.9
+ 0.4
+ 0.6
+ 1.6
Italy
France
Canada
+ 0.6
0
China
United
States
Germany
Spain
India
United
Kingdom
Source:
See Endnote 87
for this section.
Enercon
(Germany)
9.8%
7.4%
30.5 %
2013
100
Siemens
(Germany)
Others
2012
Gigawatts
Figure 21. Market Shares of Top 10 Wind Turbine Manufacturers, 2013

Goldwind
(China)
2011
10 Countries, 2013
Figure 21. Market Shares of Top 10 Wind Turbine Manufacturers, 2013

Vestas
(Denmark)
2010
GE Wind (U.S.)
6.6%
Next 5
manufacturers
Gamesa (Spain)
5.5%
Suzlon Group (India) 5.3%

United Power (China) 4.0%
Mingyang (China)
3.5%
Nordex (Germany)
3.3%
Based on total sales of ~37.5 GW
Denmark
Additions are net of repowering.
Share of
DENMARK'S
ELECTRICITY
COVERED BY
02
71
countries
have more than
10 MW,
countries
24
have
more
than 1GW
2004
WIND
in 2013:
33.2%
59
SIDEBAR 5. SUSTAINABILITY SPOTLIGHT: WIND ENERGY

A decade of surging growth in the wind energy sector has
changed the electricity mix in many countries and brought
significant environmental benefit. Wind energy displaces fossil
fuel extraction and mining activities that have potentially severe
ecological impacts. Lifecycle carbon dioxide emissions from
wind-generated electricity are around 40 times less per kWh
than those from natural gas power and around 80 times less
than those from coal, reducing the risk and impact of climaterelated threats to humans and ecosystems.
Yet the rise of wind power also has raised concerns about
negative environmental and social impacts. Many are typical
impacts of large-scale infrastructural development and can be
understood and addressed as such. Some are unique to wind
turbines and are driving focussed research aimed at quantifying,
understanding, and mitigating the associated risks. Others
remain subjective or yet unsubstantiated by existing evidence or
ongoing research.
Observed or claimed impacts pertain to visual and aesthetic
obstruction, noise generation, land-use impacts, wildlife
mortality, discord and dispute within communities, and
consumption of raw materials. Offshore wind turbines may
produce specific marine impacts, including noise and vibrational
impacts on marine life, disturbance of the seabed and marine
ecosystems, and impacts on navigational safety and access
to shipping lanes and fisheries. Some have suggested that
infrasound, electromagnetic interference, noise, shadow flicker,
and blade glint from wind turbines may lead to public health
effects, although these claims are currently unsupported by
statistical or medical evidence.
use of more visible turbine shapes and colours, and the use of
tower and turbine shapes that prevent nesting.i
Studies have shown that land-use impacts of turbines are small
in terms of the land surface that is disturbed: typically, less than
0.4 hectares per MW are disturbed permanently, with roughly
1.4 hectares / MW disturbed during construction. Surrounding
land can be used for productive purposes such as public
parkland, agriculture, or highways. Concerns over the availability
of rare earths (used in direct-drive turbines) are being actively
mitigated by the research on alternative materials, stock piling,
and the development of alternative mining reserves.ii
Impacts are also being managed through better planning and
regulation. Wind farms can alter the appearance of landscapes
and horizons substantially; however, these effects can be
mitigated or avoided through effective use of environmental
impact assessments, thorough public engagement during the
development process, and appropriate turbine placement. A
variety of best practice guidelines for public engagement have
been developed by public and private entities, including wind
energy industry associations and organisations. Furthermore,
many countries, including Australia, Ireland, South Africa,
and the United Kingdom, now require impact assessments,
mitigation, or compensation measures.
The "Sustainability Spotlight" sidebar is a regular feature of the

Global Status Report, focussing on sustainability issues regarding
a specific renewable energy technology or related issue.
Some of the impacts of wind turbines are being mitigated through

technological innovation. The development of turbine blades
with thinner trailing edges and more aerodynamic blade tips
has resulted in both higher efficiency and less noise generation.
As such, the noise generation of modern wind turbines is often
inaudible relative to other background noise. In the offshore
sector, various techniques are being applied or developed
to reduce noise impacts on marine life during construction,
including the use of bubble curtains to diminish the sound of
foundation pile driving.
Technical solutions are reducing collisions with birds and bats
as well. These include radar or GPS systems that idle turbine
blades when large flocks or individual birds are detected.
Research is also under way on the use of ultrasonic noise to
deter bats from the vicinity of wind turbines. Idling turbines
during low wind conditions (when bats are more active) has been
shown to significantly reduce bat fatalities. Other areas under
investigation include the use of strike detection systems that
shut down turbines to prevent further collisions with flocks, the
i - Studies on bird and bat collisions indicate that the turbine-related mortality rate of wind turbines is several orders of magnitude lower than other anthropogenic influences, including hunting by domestic and feral cats, collisions and electrocutions caused by power lines, and collisions with houses, buildings, and
vehicles.
ii - Rare earth impacts are addressed in Sidebar 3. Sustainability Spotlight: Rare Earth Minerals and PV Recycling in GSR 2011.
60
variable renewables.82 In addition, there is a shortage of skilled

personnel in new markets that are experiencing rapid growth,
particularly in Africa and Latin America, and in some more
mature markets where significant policy uncertainty makes it
difficult to keep trained staff in the sector.83 (See Sidebar 6 for
more on renewable energy jobs.)
Turbine designs continue to evolve to reduce costs and increase

yield, with trends towards larger machines (higher hub height,
longer blades, greater nameplate capacity), developments
to reduce operations and maintenance costs, and shifts in
technologies and strategies to improve the economics of
wind power in a wider range of wind regimes and operating
conditions.95 Progress in recent years has boosted energy yields,
particularly in low-wind sites.96 In 2013, GE launched services
packages to improve the power output of individual turbines and
wind farms, and introduced a 2.5 MW turbine that incorporates
energy storage capability.97 The share of gearless, or direct-drive,
turbines increased again (from 12% in 2008 to 28% in 2013),
and the move continued towards tailor-made turbine designs for
offshore use.98
The average size of turbines delivered to market in 2013 was
1.9MW, up from 1.8MW in 2012.99 Average turbine sizes were
2.7 MW in Germany, 1.8 MW in the United States, 1.7 MW in
China, and 1.3 MW in India.100 The largest commercially available
turbine (Enercons E-126, up to 7.6 MW), is used in the onshore
sector.101 The average size installed offshore in Europe remained
at about 4 MW.102 New machines in the 58 MW range are being
tested for offshore use in Europe and Asia, while leading Chinese
manufacturers are competing to develop turbines of 10 MW and
larger, spurred on by government grants.103
To deal with challenges and to maintain profitability, turbine

manufacturers are revamping their supply chains with techniques
such as component commonality and just-in-time stocking.88
While many still make most of the critical parts, there is a
trend towards outsourcing and flexible manufacturing.89
Some companies focus increasingly on project operation and
maintenance, which provides steady business even when sales
are down, and can increase value in an increasingly competitive
market.90 Others are joining forces: Mitsubishi (Japan) and
Vestas, and Areva (French nuclear supplier) and Gamesa,
announced joint ventures for offshore turbine development.91
Most are now vertically integrated, with very few companies left
that are purely wind turbine manufacturers.92
Local sourcing is increasing in response to local-content rules
as well as the potential for cheaper finance, shorter lead times,
insulation from exchange rate changes and customs duties, and
reduced costs and logistical issues associated with shipping
of big, heavy turbines and parts.93 To reduce transport costs,
Vestas and shipper SNCF Geodis (France) in Europe, and
Siemens in the United States, have begun moving blades by rail,
although the practice is still in an early phase.94
In addition to bigger turbines, the offshore industry is seeing

larger projects, and moving farther out, into deeper waters.104
To date, deep-water offshore wind has focussed on foundations
adapted from the oil and gas industry, but new designs are under
development around the world.105 In 2013, Japan floated two
2MW machines, with plans to commercialise the technology as
soon as possible, and the United Kingdom launched a leasing
round for floating offshore wind.106 Japan and others aim to drive
down costs and hope offshore wind will revitalise old ports and
related industries.107
New, larger and more-sophisticated vessels are being developed
to deploy turbines in deeper waters and under harsher weather
conditions, with British, Chinese, German, and South Korean
shipbuilders expanding into the industry.108 Larger vessels are
also required to transport longer and larger subsea cables to
higher-capacity, more distant offshore projects.109 These trends
have pushed up prices in recent years.110 As of early 2014, the
levelised cost of offshore wind power was nearly USD 240/MWh
(EUR 172/MWh), but the potential for lowering costs through
reductions in lifecycle financial costs is considered significant.111
The small-scale (<100 kW) wind industry also continued to
mature in 2013, with hundreds of manufacturers worldwide,
expanding dealer networks, and increasing importance of turbine
certification.112 Most manufacturers and service providers are
concentrated in China, North America, and Europe.113 About
three-quarters of the worlds manufacturers produce horizontalaxis machines, with others focussing on vertical or both types;
most vertical-axis models have been developed over the past
57 years.114
02
Most of the worlds turbine manufacturers are in China,

Denmark, Germany, India, Spain, the United States, and
Japan, and components are supplied from many countries.84
An increasing number of manufacturers are in Brazil, with
France and South Korea also emerging as producers of wind
technology.85 The worlds top 10 turbine manufacturers captured
nearly 70% of the market in 2013 (down from 77% in 2012).86
Vestas (Denmark) regained the top spot from GE Wind (United
States), which suffered from the poor U.S. market and fell to
fifth. Goldwind (China) climbed four steps to second, followed
by Enercon and Siemens (both Germany), which switched spots.
Other top manufacturers were Gamesa (Spain), Suzlon Group
(India), United Power and Mingyang (both China), and Nordex
(Germany).87 (See Figure 21.)
See Table 2 on pages 6465 for a summary of the main renewable

energy technologies and their characteristics and costs.115
61
SIDEBAR 6. JOBS IN RENEWABLE ENERGY AND RELATED FIGURES

As the slow recovery in the global economy fails to invigorate
labour markets, the issue of job creation has come to the
forefront of the policymaking debate and strategic choices made
by countries. Globally, an estimated 6.5 million peoplei worked
directly or indirectly in the renewable energy sector, based on
a wide range of studies primarily from the period 2012 to 2013.
(See Table 1 and Figure 22.)
Recent trends in renewable energy prices and investment have
affected job creation across the value chain. Employment is
also shaped by regional shifts, industry realignments, growing
competition, advances in technologies and manufacturing
processes, and the impacts of austerity and policy uncertainty.
For instance, although declining prices of solar PV and wind
equipment are introducing new challenges for suppliers and
affecting manufacturing jobs, they are also driving employment
growth in installation and operations and maintenance.
Employment in solar PV manufacturing has experienced some
turbulence as intensified competition, overcapacities, and
tumbling prices have caused layoffs. But surging demand in
countries such as China and Japan has eased some of the
oversupply concerns, and jobs in the other segments of the value
chain continue to grow, making solar PV the largest employer.
In 2012, the latest year for which data are available, the EU saw
significant employment gains in the wind and bio-power sectors
and large losses in solar PV. Biofuels, biogas, and geothermal
showed small gains, and the heat pump and solar thermal
sectors had small losses. Germany remains the dominant force
in European renewable energy employment.
In the United States, employment in the solar energy sector has
been rising rapidly, mostly in solar PV project development and
installation. In the wind industry, manufacturing capacity has
grown strongly, but the stop-and-go nature of the national support
mechanism triggers periodic fluctuations in employment.
No updated numbers are available for India. A recent study
suggests that employment in wind and grid-connected solar
PV remains at the level of 2009. Solar PV manufacturers have
struggled in the face of cheap panel imports from China.
In 2013, global employment continued to grow, with noteworthy
shifts in the breakdown along the segments of the value chain.
More analysis of renewable energy employment patterns is
required for a thorough understanding of the underlying dynamics.
The next largest employer is the biofuels value chain, with

1.45 million jobs. The United States is the largest producer
while Brazils sugarcane-based ethanol industry is the largest
employer.
Wind employment was affected during 2013 by policy uncertainty,
which led to a significant drop in new U.S. installations and to weak
markets in Europe and India. This was offset by positive impulses
in China and Canada. In offshore wind, Europe accounted for the
bulk of global employment with 58,000 jobs, the U.K. being the
leader.
Discrepancies exist among available sources for solar heating/
cooling, but the most recent estimates suggest some half million
jobs globally. The remaining renewable energy technologies are
less dynamic and employ far fewer people.
Renewable energy employment continues to advance to more and
more countries, but the bulk of employment remains concentrated
in just a few: China, Brazil, the United States, India, Bangladesh,
and some countries in the EU.
China remains the largest employer in the sector, with 60% of
employment concentrated in solar PV and a marked shift towards
jobs in the installation segment of the value chain in 2013. Solar
water heating jobs showed a significant reduction that year,
possibly due to a change in the estimation method.
i - This global number, estimated by IRENA, should not be understood as a direct, year-on-year comparison with the IRENA estimate of 5.7 million jobs in the
GSR 2013, but rather as an ongoing effort to refine the data. Global statistics remain incomplete, methodologies are not harmonised, and the different studies
used are of uneven quality. These numbers are based on a wide range of studies, focused primarily on the years 20122013.
62
JOBS IN RENEWABLE ENERGY

TABLE 1. ESTIMATED DIRECT AND INDIRECT JOBS IN RENEWABLE ENERGY WORLDWIDE, BY INDUSTRY
World
China
Brazil
United
States
India
Bangladesh
European Unionm
Germany
Spain
Rest of EU
Thousand Jobs
782
240
Biofuels
1,453
24
Biogas
264
90
Geothermala
184
Hydropower
(Small)c
156
Solar PV
2,273
Biomassa,b
820f
58
52
44
210
236i
35
26
82
49
0.5
19
17
1.4
82
85
9.2
35
12
1,580e
43
CSP
152h
12
4.7
13
1.5
18
112
100k
56
11
153
28
11
31
143 j
Solar Heating /
Cooling
503
350
30g
Wind Power
834
356
32
51
48
0.1
138
24
166
6,492d
2,640
894
625
391
114
371l
114
760
Total
41
Data source: IRENA

a - Power and heat applications. b - Traditional biomass is not included. c - Employment information for large-scale hydropower is incomplete, and therefore
focuses on small hydro. Although 10 MW is often used as a threshold, definitions are inconsistent across countries. d - The total for World is calculated by
adding the individual totals of the technologies. e - Previous estimates were substantially lower (in the 300,000500,000 range), but installation jobs have
expanded massively. f - About 331,000 jobs in sugar cane and 208,000 in ethanol processing in 2012; also includes 200,000 indirect jobs in equipment
manufacturing, and 81,800 jobs in biodiesel. g - Equipment manufacturing; installation jobs not included. h - Biomass power direct jobs run only to 15,500.
i - Includes 173,667 jobs for ethanol and 62,200 jobs for biodiesel in 2013. j - All solar technologies combined, with solar PV estimated at close to 100,000
jobs. k - Direct jobs only. l - Data for 2013. Includes 8,000 jobs in publicly funded R&D and administration; not broken down by technology. m - All data are
from 2012, except for Germany. The World total and the Rest of EU total are calculated using the EU country data for 2012 (even if 2013 data for a specific
country are available, e.g., Germany).
Note: Data are principally for 20122013, with dates varying by country and technology. Some of the data for India and China are older. Totals may not add up
due to rounding.
Figure
22.22.
Jobs
in Renewable
Energy
Figure
Jobs
in Renewable
Energy
Bioenergy
(Biomass, Biofuels,
Biogas)
Geothermal
02
Hydropower
(Small-scale)i
Solar Energy
(Solar PV, CSP,

Solar Heating/Cooling)
Wind Power
= 40,000 jobs
World Total
6.5 Million Jobs
i - Employment information for large-scale hydropower is incomplete and not included.

i - Employment information for large-scale hydropower is incomplete and not included
63
TABLE 2. STATUS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES: CHARACTERISTICS AND COSTS

TECHNOLOGY
TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS
CAPITAL COSTS
USD / kW
TYPICAL ENERGY COSTS

LCOE U.S. cents / kWh
Bio-power from solid

biomass (including
co-firing and organic
MSW)
Plant size: 1200 MW

Conversion efficiency: 2535%
Capacity factor: 5090%
8004,500
Co-fire: 200800
420
Co-fire: 4.012
Bio-power from
gasification
Plant size: 140 MW

2,0505,500
624
Bio-power from
anaerobic digestion
Plant size: 120 MW

Biogas: 5006,500
Landfill gas: 1,9002,200
Biogas: 619
Landfill gas: 46.5
Geothermal power
Plant size: 1100 MW

Condensing flash: 1,9003800

Binary: 2,2505,500
Condensing flash: 513

Binary: 714
Hydropower:
Grid-based
Plant size: 1 MW18,000+ MW

Plant type: reservoir, run-of-river
Projects >300 MW: 1,0002,250

Projects 20300 MW: 7502,500
Projects <20 MW: 7504,000
Projects >20 MW: 212

Projects <20 MW: 323
Hydropower:
Off-grid/rural
Plant size: 0.11,000 kW

Plant type: run-of-river,
hydrokinetic, diurnal storage
1,1756,000
540
Ocean power:
Tidal range
Plant size: <1 to >250 MW

5,2905,870
2128
Solar PV:
Rooftop
Peak capacity:
35 kW (residential);
100 kW (commercial);
500 kW (industrial)
Capacity factor: 1025% (fixed tilt)
Residential costs: 2,200

(Germany); 3,5007,000 (United
States); 4,260 (Japan); 2,150
(China); 3,380 (Australia);
2,4003,000 (Italy)
Commercial costs: 3,800 (United
States); 2,9003,800 (Japan)
2144 (OECD)
2855 (non-OECD)
1638 (Europe)
Solar PV:
Ground-mounted
utility-scale
Peak capacity: 2.5250 MW

Capacity factor: 1025% (fixed tilt)
(high end is CPV)
1,2001,950 (typical global); as

much as 3,800 including Japan.
Averages: 2,000 (United States);
1,710 (China); 1,450 (Germany);
1,510 (India)
1238 (OECD)
940 (non-OECD)
1434 (Europe)
Concentrating solar
thermal power (CSP)
Types: parabolic trough, tower, dish

Plant size: 50250 MW (trough);
20250 MW (tower);
10100 MW (Fresnel)
Capacity factor:
2040% (no storage);
3575% (with storage)
Trough, no storage:
4,0007,300 (OECD);
3,1004,050 (non-OECD)
Trough, 6 hours storage:
7,1009,800
Tower: 5,600 (United States,
without storage) 9,000 (United
States, with storage)
Trough and Fresnel:

1938 (no storage);
1737 (6 hours storage)
Tower:
12.516.4 (United States;
high end of range is with
storage)
Wind:
Onshore
Turbine size: 1.53.5 MW

9251,470 (China and India)

1,5001,950 (elsewhere)
416 (OECD)
416 (non-OECD)
Wind:
Offshore
Turbine size: 1.57.5 MW

4,5005,500
1523
Wind:
Small-scale
Turbine size: up to 100 kW
Average 6,040 (United States);

1,900 (China)
1520 (United States)
TECHNOLOGY
TYPICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
POWER GENERATION
INSTALLED COSTS OR LCOE

USD / kW or U.S. cents / kWh
DISTRIBUTED RENEWABLE ENERGY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
64
Biogas digester
Digester size: 68 m3
Unit cost: USD 612 / unit (Asia); USD 886 / unit (Africa)
Biomass gasifier
Size: 205,000 kW
LCOE: 812
Solar home system
System size: 20100 W
LCOE: 160200
Household wind
turbine
Turbine size: 0.13 kW
Capital cost: 10,000 / kW (1 kW turbine); 5,000 / kW (5 kW); 2,500 / kW (250 kW)

LCOE: 1535+
Village-scale mini-grid
System size: 101,000 kW
LCOE: 25100
TECHNOLOGY
TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS
CAPITAL COSTS
USD / kW
TYPICAL ENERGY COSTS

LCOE U.S. cents / kWh
HOT WATER / HEATING / COOLING

Biomass heat
plant
Plant size: 0.115 MWth

Capacity factor: ~5090%
4001,500
4.729
Domestic pellet
heater
Plant size: 5100 MWth

3601,400
6.536
Biomass CHP
Plant size: 0.5100 kWth

Capacity factor: ~6080%
for heat and power
6006,000
4.312.6
Geothermal space
heating (buildings)

1,8654,595
1027
Geothermal space
heating (district)

6651,830
5.813
Ground-source
heat pumps
Plant size: 10350 kWth

Load factor: 2530%
5002,250
713
Solar thermal:
Domestic hot
water systems
Collector type: flat-plate, evacuated tube

(thermosiphon and pumped systems)
Plant size: 2.14.2 kWth (single-family);
35 kWth (multi-family)
Efficiency: 100%
Single-family:
1,1002,140 (OECD, new build);
1,3002,200 (OECD, retrofit)
147634 (China)
Multi-family:
9501,850 (OECD, new build);
1,1402,050 (OECD, retrofit)
1.528 (China)
Solar thermal:
Domestic heat
and hot water
systems (combi)
Collector type: same as water only

Plant size:
710 kWth (single-family);
70130 kWth (multi-family);
703,500 kWth (district heating);
>3,500 kWth (district heat with seasonal
storage)
Efficiency: 100%
Single-family: same as water only

Multi-family: same as water only
District heat (Europe): 460780;
with storage: 4701,060
550 (domestic hot water)

District heat: 4 and up
(Denmark)
Solar thermal:
Industrial process
heat
Collector type: flat-plate, evacuated tube,

parabolic trough, linear Fresnel
Plant size: 100 kWth 20 MWth
Temperature range: 50400 C
4701,000 (without storage)
416
Solar thermal:
Cooling
Capacity: 10.5500 kW (absorption

chillers); 8370 kW (adsorption chillers)
Efficiency: 5070%
1,6005,850
n/a
TECHNOLOGY
FEEDSTOCKS
FEEDSTOCK CHARACTERISTICS
ESTIMATED PRODUCTION COSTS

U.S. cents / litre1
Biodiesel
Soy, rapeseed, mustard

seed, palm, jatropha,
waste vegetable oils,
animal fats
Range of feedstocks with different crop

yields per hectare; hence, production costs
vary widely among countries. Co-products
include high-protein meal.
Soybean oil: 5672 (Argentina);

100120 (Global average)
Palm oil: 100130 (Indonesia,
Malaysia, and other)
Rapeseed oil: 105130 (EU)
Ethanol
Sugar cane, sugar beets,

corn, cassava, sorghum,
wheat (and cellulose in
the future)
Range of feedstocks with wide yield and

cost variations. Co-products include
animal feed, heat and power from bagasse
residues. Advanced biofuels are not yet
fully commercial and have higher costs.
Sugar cane: 8293 (Brazil)

Corn (dry mill): 85128 (United States)
02
TRANSPORT FUELS
Litre of diesel of gasoline equivalent
Notes: To the extent possible, costs provided are indicative economic costs, levelised, and exclusive of subsidies or policy incentives. Several components
determine the levelised costs of energy/heat (LCOE/H), including: resource quality, equipment cost and performance, balance of system/project costs (including labour), operations and maintenance costs, fuel costs (biomass), the cost of capital, and productive lifetime of the project. The costs of renewables are site
specific, as many of these components can vary according to location. Costs for solar electricity vary greatly depending on the level of available solar resources.
It is important to note that the rapid growth in installed capacity of some renewable technologies and their associated cost reductions mean that data can
become outdated quickly; solar PV costs, in particular, have changed rapidly in recent years. Costs of off-grid hybrid power systems that employ renewables
depend largely on system size, location, and associated items such as diesel backup and battery storage.
Source: See Endnote 115 for this section for sources and assumptions.
65
Various stakeholder groups share

their insights and experiences to capture
the global status of renewable energy.
03
Global new investment in renewable power and fuels (not

including hydropower projects >50 MW) was USD 214.4 billion in
2013, as estimated by Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF).i
This was down 14% relative to 2012, and 23% lower than the
record level in 2011. (See Figure 23.) Including the unreported
investments in hydropower projects larger than 50 MW, total
new investment in renewable power and fuels was at least USD
249.4 billion in 2013.ii Note that these estimates do not include
investment in renewable heating and cooling technologies.
The second consecutive year of decline in investmentafter
several years of growthwas due in part to uncertainty over
incentive policies in Europe and the United States, and to
retroactive reductions in support in some countries. Europes
investment was down 44% from 2012, and, for the first time
ever, China alone invested more in renewable energy than all of
Europe combined. The year 2013 also saw an interruption to the
eight consecutive years of rising renewable energy investment in
developing countries.
Yet the global decline also resulted from sharp reductions in
technology costs. This was particularly true for solar PV, which
saw record new installations in 2013, despite a 22% decline
in dollars invested. Lower costs and efficiency improvements
made it possible to build onshore wind and solar PV installations
in several locations around the world in 2013 without subsidy
support, particularly in Latin America. Considering only net

investment in new power capacity, renewables outpaced fossil
fuels for the fourth year running.
Further, despite the overall downward trend in world investment,
there were significant exceptions at the country level. The most
notable was Japan, where renewable energy investment (excluding
R&D) increased by 80% relative to 2012. Other countries that
increased their investment in 2013 included Canada, Chile, Israel,
New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and Uruguay.
INVESTMENT BY ECONOMY
Developing and developed countries alike saw reductions in
renewable energy investments in 2013. Developing country
investments fell for the first time since tracking began in 2004.
Their outlays of USD 93 billion were down 14% from the record
investment made in 2012, and just above the 2011 level. This
compares with USD 122 billion in developed countries, the lowest
investment level in the past four years. China accounted for 61%
of developing-country investment in renewables in 2013, up from
55% in 2012.
Most regions of the world experienced reductions in investment
relative to 2012. The exceptions were the Americas, excluding
the United States and Brazil (both of which saw reductions),
Figure 23.
23. Global
in in
Renewable
Power
andand
Fuels,
Developed
and Developing
Countries,
20042013
Figure
GlobalNew
NewInvestment
Investment
Renewable
Power
Fuels,
Developed
and Developing
Countries,
20042013
Billion USD
300
279
World Total
250
Developed Countries
250
World Total
Source: See
Footnotes i and ii
for this section.
214
billion USD
227
Developing Countries
200
168
187
171
146
2004
122
03
93
74
63
58
2005
25
43
49
40
16
50
74
65
107
92
106
103
113
100
100
142
153
150
32
8
03 INVESTMENT FLOWS
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Does not include investment in hydropower > 50 MW

i - This section is derived from Frankfurt SchoolUNEP Collaborating Centre for Climate & Sustainable Energy Finance (FS-UNEP) and Bloomberg New Energy
Finance (BNEF), Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment 2014 (Frankfurt: 2014), the sister publication to the GSR. Data are based on the output of the
Desktop database of BNEF, unless otherwise noted, and reflect the timing of investment decisions. The following renewable energy projects are included:
all biomass, geothermal, and wind generation projects of more than 1 MW; all hydro projects of between 1 and 50 MW; all solar power projects, with those less
than 1 MW estimated separately and referred to as small-scale projects or small distributed capacity; all ocean energy projects; and all biofuel projects with an
annual production capacity of 1 million litres or more. For more information, please refer to the FS-UNEP/BNEF Global Trends report. Where totals do not add
up, the difference is due to rounding.
ii - Investment in large hydropower (>50 MW) is not included in the overall total for investment in renewable energy. BNEF tracks only hydropower projects of
between 1 MW and 50 MW.
67
03 INVESTMENT FLOWS
and Asia-Oceania, excluding China and India, where annual
investment in renewable energy continued its uninterrupted
rise. The Asia-Oceania region saw investment increase 47%
over 2012, to a record high of USD 43.3 billion, due largely to
the solar boom in Japan. (See Figure 24.) Europe and China
continued to be the most significant investors, despite declines
in each region; together they accounted for just short of half
(49%) of the world total, down from a 59% share in 2012. Most
of this decline was seen in Europe, where investment dropped
by 44% in 2013 relative to 2012.
At the national level, the top 10 investors consisted of three
developing countries (all BRICS countries) and seven developed
countries. China was again in the lead, with an investment of
USD 54.2 billion, excluding R&D. It was followed by the United
States (USD 33.9 billion), Japan (USD 28.6 billion), the United
Kingdom (USD 12.1 billion), and Germany (USD 9.9 billion). The
next five were Canada (USD 6.4 billion), India (USD 6 billion),
South Africa (USD 4.9 billion), Australia (USD 4.4 billion), and
Italy (USD 3.6 billion).i
China accounted for USD 56.3 billion (including R&D) of new
investment in renewable energy, down 6% from 2012. Asset
financing increased, but contributions from public markets and
private equity shrank to low levels. Despite the overall decline,
Chinas investment in additional renewable power capacity
surpassed fossil fuel capacity additions in 2013 for the first
time. The vast majority of the countrys investment was for solar
and wind power projects, and China was the top country by far
for spending on utility-scaleii projects, followed distantly by the
United States and the United Kingdom. China also invested
significant sums in hydropower, bringing about 29 GW of new
capacity into operation during the year, of which a large portion
was projects >50 MW.iii 1 (See Hydropower section.)
i - National investment totals do not include government and corporate R&D because such data are not available for all countries. The South Africa number also
does not include small-scale projects. Note, however, that data in Figure 24 do include government and corporate R&D.
ii - Utility-scale in this section refers to wind farms, solar parks, and other renewable power installations of 1 MW or more in size, and to biofuel plants of more
than 1 million litres capacity.
iii - The Chinese government estimates that China invested more than USD 20 billion (CNY 124.6 billion) in hydropower during 2013, including hydropower
facilities of all sizes (this number may also include pumped storage).
Figure 24.
in Renewable
Power
and and
Fuels,
by Region,
20042013
Figure
24.Global
GlobalNew
NewInvestment
Investment
in Renewable
Power
Fuels,
by Region,
20042013
United States
2005
2006
2007
35.8
39.7
23.5
34.7
35.9
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
9.9
2004
United States
8.7
5.5
20
11.7
28.2
40
53.4
Billion USD
33.6
60
2011
2012
2013
3.2
4.9
5.8
6.1
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
12.4
3.3
Billion USD
1.4
(excl. United States & Brazil)

2010
2013
Brazil
2010
2011
2012
3.1
2009
6.8
2008
9.7
2007
7.7
2013
Africa & Middle East
Africa & Middle East
68
2004
2005
2007
2008
2009
2010
12.6
2006
2011
6.1
2013
7.2
2012
8.7
2011
4.2
2010
5.4
2009
Billion USD
6.3
1.4
2008
20
4.4
2.3
2007
9.0
1.6
2006
3.2
0.9
2005
4.3
0.5
2004
10.4
India
Billion USD
0.5
20
2.9
2006
7.8
2005
12.2
2.6
2004
4.6
0.6
Billion USD
11.0
Brazil
20
Americas
2.5
20
11.5
Americas (excl. United States & Brazil)
2012
2013
The United States, which invested USD 35.8 billion (including

R&D), continued to be the largest individual investor among
the developed economies. This was despite a decline in
investment of nearly 10% in 2013, attributed largely to the
impact of low natural gas prices caused by the shale gas boom,
and to uncertainty over the continuation of policy support for
renewables. U.S. venture capital and private equity investment
in renewables fell to just USD 1 billion, the lowest since 2005,
indicative of a loss of confidence among early-stage capital
providers. However, this decline was offset by a big jump in U.S.
public markets investment, from USD 949 million in 2012 to USD
5.3 billion in 2013 (mainly for solar power and biofuels).
projects. This was followed by public markets, where a new

breed of funds that owns and operates wind and solar power
assets raised significant money during the year.
Japan saw a record increase in renewable energy investment,

up 80% from 2012 to USD 28.6 billion, excluding R&D. The
largest part of that commitment was for small-scale solar PV
projects, as investors sought to capitalise on the generous feedin tariff that was introduced in 2012. An increase of 76% in 2013,
to USD 23 billion, made Japan the top country for investments
in small-scale distributed renewables, followed distantly by the
United States and Germany. Japans asset finance in utilityscale projects nearly doubled, to USD 5.6 billion.
Canada has been a steady investor in renewable energy in

recent years and, in 2013, moved into the list of top 10 countries.
Investment increased relative to the period 20072012, with
most of this from asset financeprincipally for large-scale wind
and solar PV projects in Ontario.
The United Kingdom also saw investments rise, by 14%, with the
largest component coming from asset financing of utility-scale
In stark contrast to these increases, Germanys investment

declined again in 2013, landing at less than one-third of its
2010 peak (USD 33.7 billion), and bringing it from third to fifth
position globally for renewable energy investment. The low
investment level in 2013 can be attributed in part to the policy
uncertainty faced by investors ahead of the general election
in September 2013. However, other factors contributed to the
dampened activity levels, including reduced prices of solar PV
and a shortage of good quality, unexploited wind sites on land.
Investment in India in 2013 fell to just under half of the peak total
recorded in 2011 (USD 12.5 billion). Almost all of the decline
was due to a slowdown in asset finance, which was particularly
apparent in the solar power market. However, small-scale
project investment increased in 2013 to a record USD 0.4 billion.
Beyond the top three countries in Asia, Thailand, Hong Kong,
DataData
include
government
and
include
government
andcorporate
corporate R&D
R&D.
Europe
Source:
BNEF
Billion USD
102.4
120
114.8
Europe
(excl. China
& India)
20
48.4
39.1
40
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
03
2004
29.4
Asia and
Oceania
60
19.7
China
61.8
80
75.3
73.4
86.4
100
India
2012
2013
2004
2005
2006
2007
2009
2010
56.3
24.9
25.3
2011
36.7
2010
15.8
12.9
2009
10.1
11.4
2008
5.8
10.9
2007
2.4
9.0
2006
20
37.1
43.3
8.2
2005
20.7
6.8
2004
40
29.5
Billion USD
40
20
51.9
Billion USD
60
Asia and Oceania (excl. China & India)
59.6
China
2008
2011
2012
2013
69
03 INVESTMENT FLOWS
Source:
BNEF
Figure25.
25. Global
in Renewable
Energy
by Technology,
Developed
and Developing
Countries,Countries,
2013
Figure
GlobalNew
NewInvestment
Investment
in Renewable
Energy
by Technology,
Developed
and Developing
2013
Billion USD
Change relative to 2012
Solar Power
36.0
Wind
Biomass &
Waste-toEnergy
2.3
Hydro
< 50 MW
0.5
4.6
Biofuels
3.6
1.3
Geothermal
Power
2.0
0.5
Ocean
Energy
0.1
0
0
20%
1%
44.0
5.7
28%
16%
26%
Developed Countries
Developing Countries
+ 38%
41%
10
20
30
40
and the Philippines dominated investment in renewable energy

in emerging Asia (collectively investing over USD 3 billion).
South Africa led the African continent, although it was down
from USD 5.7 the previous year, recording investment of USD
4.9 billion (excluding R&D and small-scale projects). This was
almost entirely in the form of asset financing for wind and solar
power, including CSP; overall, South Africa was one of the worlds
most active CSP markets in 2013. The second largest investor in
Africa was Kenya (USD 249 million), followed by Mauritius and
Burkina Faso.
The countries holding the ninth- and tenth-place positions in the
investor country list were Australia and Italy. Australia led in the
Pacific, with USD 4.4 billion split roughly evenly between smallscale solar PV and utility-scale asset finance. Italy remained
in the top 10, but it recorded a 75% decline in renewable
energy investment relative to 2012. This was due largely to the
governments cap on the amount of solar PV capacity that is
eligible for feed-in tariffs. Other European countries investing
more than USD 1 billion included Denmark, France, Greece, the
Netherlands, Sweden, and Switzerland.
Brazil continued to lead in Latin America, despite a 54% drop
relative to 2012, which made it the countrys weakest year since
2005, and took it out of the list of top 10 investing countries.
Brazils investment, totalling USD 3.1 billion, was dominated
by asset finance, with the vast majority (USD 2.1 billion) going
towards wind power projects and most of the remainder towards
biofuel plant capacity. Outside of Brazil, the regions USD 6
billion invested in renewable energy was widely distributed, with
Chile up 72% to USD 1.6 billion in 2013, followed by Mexico,
Uruguay, Costa Rica, and Peru.
i - Includes all waste-to-power technologies, but not waste-to-gas.
70
74.8
38.9
50
60
70
80
INVESTMENT BY TECHNOLOGY
Solar power was again the leading sector by far in terms of money
committed during 2013, accounting for USD 113.7 billion, or
53% of total new investment in renewable power and fuels (not
including hydro >50 MW). Wind power followed with USD 80.1
billion, about level with investment in 2012 and accounting for
more than 37% of total investment. The remaining 10% was
made up of biomass and waste-to-energyi power (USD 8 billion),
small-scale hydropower (<50 MW) (USD 5.1 billion), biofuels
(USD 4.9 billion), geothermal power (USD 2.5 billion), and ocean
energy (USD 0.1 billion). Investment declined relative to 2012 in
all renewable technology sectors tracked by BNEF, with the lone
exception being geothermal power, which saw a 38% increase.
(See Figure 25.)
As in 2012, about 90% of all solar power investment went to
solar PV (USD 102.3 billion), with the remaining share going to
CSP. Solar power saw one of the largest declines in 2013, with
investment dollars falling 20% below 2012 levels. Most of the
decline, however, was attributable to reductions in installed
costs of solar PV systems.
Bioenergy accounted for a larger share of total renewables
investment in past years, representing 29% of investment in
2007. By contrast, in 2013 it made up only 6%, with biomass
and waste-to-energy seeing their lowest investment level since
2005, and biofuels the lowest since 2004.
Developing economies continued to represent the majority of
investments made in wind power and small-scale hydropower,
whereas developed countries outweighed them in all other
technologies. This was despite the fact that solar investment
was down 21% in developed economies and up significantly
in China, the second largest solar power investor after Japan.
The top investors in wind power were China, followed distantly

by the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada,
and India. The smaller technologies showed contrasting trends,
with investment in biomass, small-scale hydro, and geothermal
power up in developed economies but down significantly in
developing countries, and biofuels down everywhere.
Detailed statistics are not available for large hydropower projects
over 50 MW in size, although they represent the third most
important sector for renewable energy investment after solar
and wind power. Translating hydropower capacity additions into
asset finance dollars per year is not straightforward because
the average project takes four years to build. However, BNEF
estimates that asset financing for large-scale hydro projects
commissioned in 2013 totalled at least USD 35 billionmore
than a quarter of the USD 133.4 billion value of asset finance
excluding large-scale hydro. Considering hydropower data
provided by the industry and reported elsewhere in this GSR,
investment in hydropower >50MW may have been considerably
higher.2
INVESTMENT BY TYPE
Global research and developmentii declined 2% in 2013, to USD
9.3 billion, a modest reduction given that most green stimulus
programmes expired during the 20112012 period. Nearly every
region held steady or saw growth, with the exception of AsiaOceania (excluding China and India), where R&D investment
fell by 12%. Globally, the private sector invested more than
the public sector for the third consecutive year, although the
difference was marginal, with private investment falling by USD
300 million to USD 4.7 billion, and public investment rising USD
100 million to USD 4.6 billion.
Total R&D spending on solar power declined 2% in 2013, to
USD 4.7 billion, but the sector still received more funding than
did all other technologies combined for the fourth consecutive
year. R&D investment in wind and ocean power declined slightly,
while it was up slightly for bio-power, geothermal, and smallscale hydropower, and stable for biofuels.
Asset finance of utility-scale projects accounted for the vast
majority (62%) of total investment in renewable energy, totalling
USD 133.4 billion. However, it declined (13.5%) for the second
consecutive year, to the lowest level since 2009. The decline is
attributed largely to falling equipment costs, uncertainty over
future energy support policies, and reduced investments by
utilities.
Project funding declined in Brazil, India, Europe, and the United
States, but it increased modestly in other regions. China saw the
largest amount of asset finance investment, accounting for 40%
of the global total, thus consolidating its position as the world
leader in deployment as well as manufacturing.
Wind power (USD 75.4 billion) accounted for more than half
of global asset finance, even though it declined for the third
consecutive year; solar power (USD 44.4 billion) followed, but it
was down for the second year running, with the decline reflecting
lower costs per MW installed.
Public market equity raised by renewable energy companies

and funds was the bright spot in 2013, rising sharply after its
2012 slump and recovering to the average level of the previous
five years. Spurred by renewed interest in clean energy stock
offerings, investment in public markets increased by more
than 200% to USD 11.1 billion. All technologies experienced
growth, with the exception of small hydropower and ocean
energy, which saw declines of 81% and 71%, respectively. Solar
power (up 111%) was far ahead of others, with USD 4.8 billion,
followed by wind (USD 2.6 billion), geothermal power (USD 1.6
billion), and biofuels (USD 1.5 billion). The WilderHill New Energy
03
Small-scale distributed capacity accounted for 28% of total

investment, but it was down 25% to USD 59.9 billion in 2013,
ending a six-year period of uninterrupted growth. This was a
result of continued downward revisions of subsidies in Europe,
as well as reductions in average system costs. Most of the major
markets saw large declines in new investment: China, Germany,
Italy, France, and the United Kingdom all recorded falls of
between 50% and 80%. These were partially offset by a 76%
increase in Japan, to USD 23 billion, driven by a generous solar
feed-in tariff; and an 11% increase in the United States, to nearly
USD 8 billion.
ii - See Sidebar 5 in GSR 2013, Investment Types and Terminology, for an explanation of investment terms used in this section.
71
03 INVESTMENT FLOWS
Global Innovation Index (NEX), which tracked 96 clean energy
companies, rose 53.9%, making 2013 its best year since 2007.
Venture capital and private equity investment (VC/PE) in
renewable energy fell sharply in 2013, down 46% to USD 2.2
billion. This was the third consecutive year of decline, and
investment reached the lowest level since 2005. The decline
reflected the shortage of successful exits by VC/PE-backed
companies in recent years, and by the depleted cash holdings
of many clean energy venture funds. Although the United States
saw VC/PE capital raisings fall from USD 2.8 billion to USD 1
billion, it remained the largest venture capital and private equity
market, with twice the VC/PE investments of Europe.
Solar power was the biggest loser, with venture capital and
private equity investment down more than two-thirds from
its 2012 level, to USD 549 million. This was an indication that
investors remained scarred by the insolvencies resulting from
chronic global overcapacity since 2008. For the first time in a
decade, VC/PE investment in wind exceeded that in solar power.
Wind power was the only technology to see an increase in
2013it rose by 70% to USD 1 billion.
Mergers and acquisition (M&A) activitywhich is not counted
as part of the USD 214.4 billion in new investmentcontinued
the decline that began in 2012, to its lowest volume since 2006.
Total acquisition funding in 2013 stood at USD 53.7 billion, down
11% since 2012, and nearly USD 20 billion below the peak level
reached in 2011. The nominal value of renewable power assets
acquired or refinanced declined by 18% to USD 39.9 billion.
In contrast, the corporate buying and selling of companies
increased by 45% to USD 11.5 billion, reversing the dynamic
seen in 2012. Trade in renewable power projects still accounted
for the largest share of overall activitysome 75% of the total
but this was down from 81% in 2012.
RENEWABLE ENERGY INVESTMENT

IN PERSPECTIVE
In 2013, gross investment in new renewable electric generating
capacity (not including hydro >50 MW) amounted to USD
192 billioni, down from USD 234 billion in 2012 due to lower
technology costs and policy uncertainty.3 This compares with
gross investment in fossil fuel-based capacity of USD 270 billion,
down from USD 309 billion in 2012. By this measure, the gap
between renewable and fossil fuels increased slightly in 2013,
with investment in renewable power capacity down 18% relative
to 2012 and fossil fuels down nearly 13%.
However, much of the investment in fossil fuels went to replacing
existing coal-, oil-, and gas-fired power stations, while only USD
102 billion went to establishing additional fossil fuel capacity.
By contrast, almost all investment in renewable capacity is net,
meaning that it adds to overall generating capacity. Considering
only net investment in 2013, renewable power was ahead for the
fourth consecutive year, with its USD 192 billion taking a wide
lead over fossil fuels estimated USD 102. Taking into account
investment in hydropower projects >50 MW, global investment
in renewable power capacity was well over twice the net
investment in fossil fuel power capacity in 2013.
i - This number is for renewable power asset finance and small-scale projects. It differs from the overall total for renewable energy investment (USD 214.4
billion) provided elsewhere in this section because it excludes biofuels and types of non-capacity investment such as equity raising on public markets, and
development R&D.
72
SOURCES OF INVESTMENT
EARLY INVESTMENT TRENDS IN 2014
Clean energy funds had a strong year in 2013, with an assetweighted average gain of 17.1% compared with the 1.5%
increase in 2012. The best performer saw its share price more
than double, due to its concentration in solar stocks. Much of
the capital raising of 2013 involved project-oriented funds and
took place in Europe.
Hopes for the beginnings of a recovery in renewable energy

investment in 2014 rose with the release of first quarter (Q1)
numbers, which showed a 4% gain compared to the same period
of 2013. Renewable energy investment worldwide in Q1 2014
was USD 44.4 billion. This was lower than the USD 57.3 billion
recorded in the fourth quarter of 2013, but the first quarter
usually sees the lowest activity level of the year, so the more
meaningful comparison was with Q1 2013s USD 42.6 billion.
North America saw the emergence of innovative yield-oriented

financing vehicles, which pass a high share of earnings to
shareholders and provide stable, long-term cash flows. Two
yield companiesi came to the market, raising a total of USD
631 million in 2013 for solar, wind, and hydropower projects.
Crowd funding continued to become a more mainstream means
of raising money in an increasing number of countries. Crowd
funding enables small companies and start-ups to raise capital
from many small investors in exchange for an equity stake,
structured payments, and/or products.
Clean energy project bonds set a new record in 2013, with over
USD 3.2 billion raised through 10 confirmed transactions; solar
power projects dominated the top 10 bonds by size, accounting
for just under half of the total. A consortium of banks, representing
eight of the top 10 corporate bond underwriters, released its
Green Bond Principles in January 2014, establishing voluntary
guidelines on what constitutes a green bond, the potential types
of bond, the issuance process, and the need for companies to
detail their plans for the proceeds.4
Among the highlights of Q1 2014 were small-scale solar power

in Japan and the United States, and renewable power financings
in emerging markets such as Kenya and Indonesia. Globally,
small-scale project investment rose by 42% compared to Q1
2013, reaching USD 21.2 billion, while asset finance of utilityscale projects fell 13% to USD 22.8 billion.
Total U.S. investment was up 32% compared to a very subdued
figure in Q1 2013, at USD 4.8 billion, while China was up 18% at
USD 9.9 billion, and Europe was down 29% at USD 10.9 billion.
The leading region was Asia-Oceania excluding China and India,
with a 27% rise to USD 12.1 billion.
Institutional investors, including pension funds, insurance

companies, and wealth managers, continued to play an
increasing role, particularly in Europe. A record volume of
investment was seen, thanks to the appeal of project yields that
are double those of government bonds, combined with a high
level of predictability. However, the total volume of institutional
finance deployed on projects remained small compared to the
overall institutional asset allocation, due to political, regulatory,
and other hurdles.
03
Development banks were again an important source of clean

energy investment in 2013.ii Germanys KfWthe largest lender
for clean energy projects in 2012reduced its renewable energy
commitments by 41% to USD 6.5 billioniii (EUR 4.7 billion). By
contrast, the European Investment Bank (EIB) raised its lending
to renewables by 98%, to USD 8.8 billion (EUR 6.4 billion),
to set a record high. Also in 2013, several development
banksincluding the World Bank, EIB, and European Bank for
Reconstruction and Developmentcurtailed their funding for
coal-fired power, pledging to support it only if no other fuel is
viable. They were joined by the overseas aid departments of the
United States and several northern European countries.iv
i - A yield company is a corporate entity created specifically to hold high-yielding investments in operating-stage projects.
ii - Note that investment data were not available for most development banks when the UNEP/BNEF Global Trends report was published.
iii - The USD number provided here differs from that in the Global Trends Report (USD 6.2 billion); it was converted to be comparable with other values
throughout the GSR, using the date 31 December 2013 and the OANDA Currency Converter (http://www.oanda.com/currency/converter/). The same is true for
the EIB number.
iv - European countries include Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
73
The annual GSR process serves as

a platform to share and disseminate dispersed
and diverse renewable energy data.
04
Renewable energy technologies continue to receive significant

attention from policymakers around the world. The number
of countries with policies to promote the development and
deployment of these technologies increased yet again in 2013.
Policymakers have turned to renewable energy to achieve a
number of goals. The primary objective is generally to maintain
or expand energy services. Other social, political, and economic
objectives may include reducing health and environmental impacts of energy use, including greenhouse gas emissions, and enhancing energy access and security, as well as secondary benefits
such as improving opportunities for education, job creation, rural
economic development, poverty reduction, and gender equality.
By early 2014, renewable energy support policies were in place
at the national or state/provincial level in 138 countries, up from
the 127 countries reported in GSR 2013.1 (See Table 3 and
Figures 26 and 27.) As in recent years, however, the pace of
policy adoption was again slow in 2013 relative to the early-tomid 2000s; the slowing rate of adoption is due partially to the fact
that so many countries have enacted renewable energy support
policies already. While the early expansion of policies was driven
by developed countries, many of which now have several policy
measures in place, developing and emerging economies have led
the expansion in recent years, accounting for 95 of the countries
with renewable support policies in place by early 2014, up from an
estimated 15 in 2005.i 2 (See Figures 29 and 30.)
In 2013, there was an increasing focus on revisions to existing
policiesincluding retroactive changes. Some adjustments
were made to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of
supporting policies, while others were aimed to curtail further
growth of renewables for a variety of reasons. Particularly in
Europe, decisions were taken in several countries to reduce
support in the electricity sector. At the same time, however,
policies are being further developed and differentiated, moving
towards convergence of features across the different types of
policy mechanisms. For example, technology-specific support
has been introduced into certificate trading and quota systems
that were originally technology-neutral, and feed-in policies
have been moving from fixed minimum payments to premiums
paid on top of a market price.
In many countries, policymakers have continued to adapt
legislation to respond to changing circumstances. Some
countries have adjusted policies in response to rapidly evolving
domestic and international market conditions, including declining
technology costs and perceived unfair trade practices. Others
have revised policies to address continuingly tight national
budgets or shifting public opinion, which in some instances
has blamed renewables for increases in energy prices. Some
countries are also providing guidance by enacting policies to
advance or manage the integration of high shares of renewable
electricity in existing power systems. For the first time, this section
of the report presents a brief overview of these policies.
The section aims to give a picture of new policy developments
at the national, state/provincial, and local levels, and does
not attempt to assess or analyse the effectiveness of specific
policies or policy mechanisms.
POLICY TARGETS
Policy targets for the increased deployment of renewable energy
technologies existed in 144 countries as of early 2014, up from
the 138 countries reported in GSR 2013. (See Reference Tables
R12R15.)
Renewable energy targets take many forms. Although the
majority continue to focus on the electricity sector, targets for
renewable heating and cooling and for transport are becoming
increasingly important tools for policymakers. (See later sections
on Heating and Cooling, and Transportation.) Other forms of
targets include renewable shares of primary and final energy,
as well as capacities of specific renewable technologies or their
energy output. Targets most often focus on a specific future year,
but some are set for a range of years or with no year reported.
In addition, targets for expanding energy access, although not
direct renewable energy targets, are increasingly specifying
the use of renewable sources. (See Section 5 on Distributed
Renewable Energy in Developing Countries.)
At least 12 countries had historical targets aimed at the year
2013. Algeria installed 10 MW of wind in 2013 to meet its
targeted capacity of 10MW, and China met its goal to add 49GW
of renewable capacity in 2013.3 However, eight countries failed
to meet their targets by years end. For example, in early 2014,
India was short of its targeted 4,325 MW of additional renewable
power capacity in fiscal year 201314.ii 4 Both Tonga and Fiji
failed to meet goals for 100% of final energy from renewables;
subsequently, Fiji reduced its targets to 100% of electricity and
23% of final energy from renewable sources by 2030.5 France
fell short of its goal of adding 1,000 MW of solar poweriii; Nepal
failed to meet its goal of 1 MW of installed wind capacity; St.
Lucia failed to meet its target of 5% renewable electricity; South
Africa did not meet its goal to generate 10,000GWh of renewable
electricity in 2013; and South Korea ended the year short of its
goal to add 100 MW of wind power during 2013.6
As of early 2014, data were not yet available to determine
whether several other targets were achieved, including: Algeria
(cumulative 25 MW of solar PV, 25 MW of CSP); Cte dIvoire (3%
of primary energy); Nepal (cumulative 3 MW of solar, 15 MW of
micro hydro); Peru (5% of electricity demand from hydropower
projects smaller than 20 MW each).7
04
04 POLICY LANDSCAPE
i - The estimate of 15 countries in 2005 was based on the best information available to REN21 at the time. According to the income classification of the World
Bank Country and Lending Groups for the fiscal year 2014 (1 July 2013 to 30 June 2014), there were 138 developing and emerging economies, defined as
countries in the low income, lower-middle income, and upper-middle income classifications, out of a total of 188 countries overall (per World Bank).
The income classification by GNI per capita for the fiscal year 2014 is as follows: high income USD 12,616 or more, upper-middle income USD 4,086
to USD 12,615, lower-middle income USD 1,036 to USD 4,085, and low income USD 1,035 or less.
ii - India does not classify hydropower installations larger than 25 MW as renewable energy sources. Therefore, throughout the Policy Landscape section,
national targets and data for India do not include hydro facilities greater than 25 MW. The Indian governments fiscal year runs from 1 April through 31 March.
iii - Throughout the Policy Landscape section, the term solar power refers to solar PV and/or CSP.
75
04 POLICY LANDSCAPE
New policy targets were introduced by at least six countries in
2013. Azerbaijan approved a target for renewables to account
for 9.7% of total primary energy and 20% of electricity by 2020;
Bhutan set a target of 20 MW of renewable power capacity by
2025; and Kazakhstan targeted a 1% share of electricity from
renewables by 2014 and a 3% share by 2020.8 Kenya enacted a
plan to expand total electric capacity by 5,000 MW by 2016, up
from 1,660 MW in late 2013, including 794 MW of hydropower
capacity, 1,887 MW of geothermal, 635 MW of wind, and 423MW
of solar PV.9 Qatar set a goal of generating 2% of its electricity
from renewables by 2020, and Russia targeted roughly 6 GW of
solar, wind, and small-scale hydropower capacity by 2020.10
A number of countries revised existing targets for renewable
power capacity and generation during the year, with most
targets increasing. As of January 2014, China adopted a range of
targets to be met by 2015, including 18 GW of wind and 35GW of
cumulative solar PV capacity (up from the previous 20 GW target),
including 20GW of distributed solar PV.11 China also set a target
to achieve 200 MW of wind installed by 2020.12 India announced
plans to more than double its renewable capacity, from 25 GW
in 2012 to 55 GW by 2017.13 Thailand increased its existing
long-term targets for electricity from solid biomass, agricultural
waste-to-energy, solar, and wind power, and raised its overall
target for renewable shares of final energy consumption to 25%
by 2021.14 In the near term, Thailand plans to add 1 GW of solar
PV by the end of 2014.15 Vanuatu added to its existing goal of
23% renewable electricity by end-2014 by establishing targets
to achieve a 40% share by 2015, and 65% by 2020.16
In Europe, Portugal enacted a number of technology-specific
targets for cumulative electric capacity by 2020, including 769 MW
of bio-power from solid biomass; 59 MW of biogas power; 29 MW
of geothermal power; 400 MW of small-scale hydropower; 6 MW
of wave energy; 670 MW of solar PV; 50 MW of CSP; 5,273 MW
of onshore wind power; and 27 MW of offshore wind power.17 The
United Kingdom set a target to deploy 39 GW of offshore wind
capacity by 2030.18 Germany, however, lowered its offshore wind
targets from 10 GW to 6.5 GW by 2020, and from 25 GW to 15GW
by 2030.19
In the MENA region, Egypt adopted a new five-year plan that
calls for the addition of 700 MW of solar PV and 2,800 MW of CSP
by 2017; Libya increased its existing 2020 target for renewable
electricity from 7% to 20%; and Saudi Arabia set a near-term
goal of 6 GW of solar PV by 2020 as a step towards its existing
2032 goal of 16 GW.20 In Latin America, Chile doubled its existing
target, calling for a 20% renewables share of electricity by 2025,
and Uruguay set a new higher target to generate 90% of its
electricity from renewable sources by 2015.21
On the regional level, the Caribbean Community (CARICOMi)
Secretariat adopted a trans-national target on behalf of its 15
member states, calling for a regional renewable electricity share
of 20% by 2017, 28% by 2022, and 47% by 2027.22 The shares
are to be achieved by country-differentiated targets that were yet
to be defined as of early 2014. The EU and the ECOWAS region
of West Africa also have trans-national targets in place. At the
sub-national level, the U.S. state of California set new standards
requiring the deployment of an additional 600 MW of renewable
capacity beyond the 33% renewable portfolio standard (RPS)
goal to make it possible for small consumers to purchase up
to 100% renewable electricity from their utilities.23 Also in the

United States, Massachusetts raised its 2020 solar PV capacity
target to 1.6 GW after achieving its goal of 250 MW four years
early, and Minnesota set a goal for solar power to generate 10%
of the states electricity by 2030.24
POWER GENERATION POLICIES

Most renewable energy support policies that were enacted
or revised during 2013 focus on the power sector, as in past
years.25 (See Figure 28). Around the world, a mix of regulatory
policies, fiscal incentives, and public financing mechanisms
including feed-in policies, renewable portfolio standards (RPS),
net metering, tax reductions or exemptions, grants, low-interest
loans, and public competitive bidding /tenderingcontinued to
be adopted to promote increased renewable power capacity or
generation. In the majority of cases, countries have adopted a
variety of mechanisms to produce the policy mix best tailored to
their unique domestic circumstances.
As in recent years, the majority of actions relating to feed-in
policies centered on modifications to existing feed-in tariffs
(FITs) and feed-in premiums (FIPs), and only two countries
added such policies in 2013. Kazakhstan enacted a new feed-in
policy, and Ecuador relaunched its FIT scheme (which expired
in 2012) with a revised incentive structure. Ecuadors feed-in
rates for bioenergy and geothermal were unchanged, but tariffs
were amended for wind power (up 28.6%), CSP (down 19.4%),
and tidal energy (down 27.3%), and support for solar PV was
eliminated.26 Ghana established rates for the FIT scheme that
was adopted as part of the Renewable Energy Act of 2011.27
Reductions in feed-in rates continued in several countries.
Many of these reductions were planned previouslyoften
through mechanisms that were built into policy designand
were intended to ensure that financial support remained in line
with changing market conditions. However, several European
countries legislated reductions (or even removals) of support
that were previously unplanned and in many cases enforced
retroactively (i.e., on existing capacity), as noted below.
Germany continued to implement scheduled quarterly reductions
to its FIT for solar PV (in addition to annual reductions for most
other technologies), with solar PV rates falling monthly. (New
rates are set every three months, and reductions depend on
actual installations in the previous quarter.) Further reductions in
support are expected as amendments to the Renewable Energy
Act are pursued, with changes anticipated in 2014.28 The United
Kingdom strengthened several FIT incentives (see below), but
the degression mechanism, which is applied quarterly, resulted
in reduced rates for solar PV systems of up to 50 kW.29 Italy
ceased feed-in support for new solar PV projects when the
i - CARICOM comprises Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Kitts and Nevis,
St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago.
76
POLICY MAPS
Figure 26. Countries with Renewable Energy Policies, Early 2014
Figure 26. Countries with Renewable Energy Policies, Early 2014
Number of Policy
Types Enacted
913
68
35
12
no policy
or no data
Figure
27.
Countrieswith
withRenewable
Renewable
Energy
Policies,
2005
Figure 27
. Countries
Energy
Policies,
2005
Figure 27. Countries with Renewable Energy Policies, 2005
14 4
COUNTRIES
2005
Figure 28. Number of Countries with Renwable Energy Policies, by Type, 2010 Early-2014
HAVE DEFINED
RENEWABLE
ENERGY TARGETS
Number ofEnergy
countries
Figure 28. Number of Countries with Renwable
Policies, by Type, 2010 Early-2014
Number of countries
70
80
60
FIT
Power Policies
70
Tendering
50
RPS/Quota
60
FIT
Power Policies
40
Net
Metering
Tendering
50
30
RPS/Quota
Heating and
40
Heat
Obligation
Net Metering
20
Cooling Policies
30
10
Heating and
Transport
Biofuel
Blend
Heat Obligation
20
Cooling Policies
Policies
Mandate
0
2010
2011
2012
10
Transport
Biofuel
Blend
Figure
does
not
show
allall
policy
types
in in
use.
Figure
does
not
show
policy
types
use. Countries considered when at least one national or sub-national policy is in place.
Policiesconsidered whenMandate
Countries
at least one national
0
or sub-national policy is in place.
2010
2011
2012
04
80
Figure 28. Number of Countries with Renewable
Energy Policies, by Type, 2010Early 2014
2014
2014
Figure does not show all policy types in use. Countries considered when at least one national or sub-national policy is in place.
77
04 POLICY LANDSCAPE
predetermined USD 9.22 billion (EUR 6.7 billion)i maximum
support level was reached, and offered current operators the
option to extend financial support for existing projects for an
additional seven years, but at a reduced rate.30 The Netherlands
revised technology support categories for the existing FIP support
scheme and, separately, suspended support for new solar PV
projects after the budget cap was reached in August 2013.31
China amended its existing solar PV FIT to allow for three

regionally differentiated support schemes with reduced rates for
ground-mounted solar PV projects in solar-rich regions.38 Japan
reduced solar PV FIT rates by 10% in 2013, and by an additional
11% in early 2014.39 As of early 2013, the degression rate for
Malaysias FIT was set to 8% for plants smaller than 24 kW, and
to 20% for larger plants.40
Elsewhere in Europe, new steps were taken to weaken or remove

feed-in policies. The Czech Republic passed legislation to remove
FIT support for all renewable technologies as of January 2014;
Greece enacted FIT cuts to be enforced retroactively as of June
2013, with an additional round of retroactive cuts proposed in
early 2014; and Lithuania reduced FIT rates significantly in early
2013.32 Portugal abolished the FIT system for new projects.33 In
addition, the scheme for existing wind facilities was revised such
that operators can choose to provide an annual contribution
USD 6,9008,000 / MW (EUR 5,0005,800 / MW) over the period
20132020in exchange for an extension of FIT terms from five
to seven years. In late 2013, Portugal also reduced its 2014 rates
for existing small-scale solar PV by an additional 60%.34
A few countries with feed-in policies increased their tariffs and

extended support during 2013. Denmark introduced a higher
FIP tariff for small-scale solar PV and raised the revised wind
tariffs from USD 0.04/kWh (EUR 0.03/kWh) to rates capped at
USD 0.11/kWh (EUR 0.08/kWh).41 France raised FIT rates for
rooftop solar PV systems by 5%, and enacted a 10% FIT bonus
for systems manufactured in Europe. Despite an initial ruling by
the European Court of Justice that Frances wind FIT constituted
unlawful state aid, the European Commission upheld its
legality.42 Ireland introduced FITs to support the development of
30 MW of ocean energy capacity.43 In the U.K., the 5 MW project
capacity cap was doubled in order to extend FIT support to
community projects of up to 10 MW in size.44
Slovakia halved preferential support for renewables, reducing

the cap under its FIT from 10 MW to only 5 MW of grid-connected
capacity; however, the full incentive remains available for wind
power.35 Spain removed support for existing capacity that
qualified for the FIT prior to the moratorium on new projects,
which was set in 2012; the country replaced FIT payments with
market prices backed by a guaranteed pre-tax return of 7.5%.36
Ukraine required that, in order to qualify under the feed-in policy,
projects use technologies with a domestically sourced share of
30% as of January 2013, and 50% as of January 2014.37
In Asia, China adopted a new incentive that provides distributed

solar PV projects with an additional USD 0.07 / kWh (CNY
0.42 / kWh).45 Indonesia expanded its FIT scheme to include
support for solar PV projects that meet a 40% local content
requirement.46 Japan raised FIT rates for offshore wind by 63%.47
Thailand introduced a new FIT category to support distributed
solar generation, with the goal of installing 200 MW of rooftop
solar PV in 2013; extended the contract term for FIT support
from 10 to 25 years; and defined a three-tiered FIT rate system
(based on building size and classification) to support residential
and commercial solar PV installations.48
Figure 29.
29. Share
with
Renewable
Energy
Policies
by Income
Group,
2004
Early-2014 2014
Figure
ShareofofCountries
Countries
with
Renewable
Energy
Policies
by Income
Group,
2004Early
High
income
in %
Uppermiddle
income
Lowermiddle
income
Low
income
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Early 2014
Countries according to annual GNI per capita levels, per World Bank, 2014.
i - All exchange rates in this section and elsewhere in the GSR are as of 31 December 2013, and are calculated using the OANDA currency converter
(http://www.oanda.com/currency/converter/).
78
Figure
30.
Countrieswith
withRenewable
Renewable
Energy
Policies,
2004,
2009,
and Early 2014
Figure
30.Developing
Developingand
and Emerging
Emerging Countries
Energy
Policies,
2004,
2009,
Early 2014
Developing and emerging countries with
policies in place in 2004
policies enacted 20052009
policies enacted 2010early 2014
no policy or no data
A number of feed-in policy changes were made at the subnational level in 2013 and early 2014 in Australia, Canada,
India, and the United States. South Australia amended its FIT to
reduce rates for existing projects and eliminated support for new
projects as of October 2013.52 Over the course of four days in
2013, Western Australia enacted and then reversed a decision to
halve FIT rates for residential solar PV systems, while Australias
Northern Territory cancelled its FIT as of January 2013, with
support now coming from renewable energy credits.53
Nova Scotia, Canada, added FIT rates for tidal arrays to its
existing programme. Ontario revised its FIT in response to an
internal review and to the World Trade Organization (WTO)
ruling on the provinces domestic content requirement: the
requirement was reduced to a local content share of 1928%
(depending on technology) in mid-2013, and then removed
entirely in December.54 While Ontario maintained existing rates
for wind power, it increased rates for hydropower, bioenergy,
and biogas, and reduced them for solar PV (down as much as
39%) and landfill gas (down 31%).55 For all renewable energy
projects larger than 500 kW, Ontario replaced FIT support with a
competitive bidding scheme.56
In India, the Gujarat Electricity Regulatory Commission retained
its FIT despite the state governments pressure to reduce rates.57
In the United States, no new FITs were added for the second
consecutive year (although legislation was introduced to establish

a statewide FIT in Maine), keeping the number of states with FITs
at five. Rhode Island amended its existing FIT to require that smallscale (50 kW to 1.5 MW, depending on the technology) distributed
generation projects submit competitive bids to determine the rate
of financial support, as is required for large-scale projects.58
RPS laws or quotas mandating the use of specific shares or
quantities of renewable power are in place in 25 countries at
the national level and 54 states/provinces in the United States,
Canada, and India. No new countries, states, or provinces
adopted RPS laws in 2013, but several states and provinces
enacted revisions.
In the United States, although the number of states with RPS
policies remained at 29 by years end, RPS policies came under
increasing political pressure during 2013.59 There were efforts
to weaken or eliminate existing laws in many states, and reviews
were undertaken in 16 states.60 In response to these reviews,
several states introduced changes that were both positive and
negative for renewables. California revised its regulations to allow
its Public Utilities Commission to raise the RPS requirement
without legislation, but as of early 2014, the RPS goal remained
at 33%.61 Minnesota revised its RPS policy to include a 1.5% solar
PV requirement for utilities.62 Colorado doubled its renewable
requirement for co-operative utilities and created a distributed
renewable generation requirement, although the revised
legislation also expanded the list of eligible technologies to include
coal-mine methane, synthetic gas, and fuel cells.63
04
Elsewhere, Algeria extended FIT support for solar and wind power
technologies by introducing a two-tiered payment structure
offering fixed-rate tariffs for 5 years and an adjusted rate for the
following 15 years; South Africa introduced new time-of-day
differentiated tariffs to spur the development of CSP.49 Uganda
revised its existing FIT programme to offer additional incentives,
access to long-term commercial financing, and security to
project developers, and also reinstated solar PV as a qualifying
technology for 2014.50 In Turkey, applications opened for solar
PV and CSP (600 MW) for the first time under the FIT scheme
that was enacted in 2011.51
The Energy Act adopted in the U.K. in 2013 established a

number of new provisions, including the 2017 phaseout of the
Renewables Obligation for new participants.64 Tamil Nadu, India,
overturned its requirement for solar power to meet 36% of
industrial electricity demand.65
New net metering policies were adopted in 5 countries at the
national level in 2013, bringing the total to 43 countries. In Europe,
Greece enacted a net metering programme for small-scale solar
79
04 POLICY LANDSCAPE
SIDEBAR 7. INNOVATING ENERGY SYSTEMS: TRANSFORMATION OF THE ELECTRIC UTILITY INDUSTRY

The rise of a variety of disruptive energy technologies (new
products or markets that replace existing ones, such as
distributed solar PV and wind power) as well as of demand-side
efficiency measures is challenging the traditional business
model of electric utilities in many liberalised electricity markets.
Shifting and disappearing power loads and changing relative
costs of various generating technologies undermine the
economic viability of some existing generating assets, which
may become stranded in a changing market.
Competition from new technologies can be disruptive in any
industry and is not problematic in itself. Distributed generation,
for example, can help reduce the load on the transmission and
distribution network during peak demand periods, minimizing
both the investment needed in these systems and the potential
for outages (in turn reducing associated costs to the distribution
utility). Moreover, many utilities faced challenges even before
the rapid growth of wind and solar power, due to overinvestment
in fossil generating capacity, declining natural gas prices in some
countries, sluggish electricity demand growth, and a further
slowdown in demand caused by the financial crisis. Europes top
20 utilities, for example, have lost more than half of their value
since their peak in 2008. Solar and wind power have simply
added to the disruption.
Rising shares of wind and solar power have reduced electricity
prices and the number of kilowatt-hours needed from thermal
generation, particularly at times of peak mid-day demand (in
the case of PV) when many utilities profit the most from higher
market prices. Some wholesale markets have seen significant
reductions in power prices (even negative pricing) during
periods of high generation and low demand, which has squeezed
out of the merit order (relatively) clean and flexible natural gas as
well as coal/lignite. In response, many large utilities in Australia,
Europe, the United States, and elsewhere are pushing back
against renewables, claiming that they are increasing electricity
costs and arguing for an end to policy support for renewable
power.
80
The dramatic decline in solar PV module prices, in particular,

has furthered a shift from conventional electricity modelswith
a one-way flow of electricity (supply-demand model)towards
a bidirectional model in which power consumers can also
become producers. By 2013, more than 3 million EU households
produced their own electricity using solar PV, and, by early 2014,
16% of Germanys businesses were electricity self-sufficient, up
50% from a year earlier.
The rapid loss of revenue from ratepayers raises questions
such as who will pay for the system reliability and reserve power
that utilities have always provided? Who will invest in needed
infrastructure improvements? And what share of ancillary
services can renewable energy provide? Some say that a new
utility business model is needed, and many utilities agree. A
recent global survey of utility executives showed expectations of
the need to change business models to survive, with the highest
anticipation of transformation in Asia. German utility giant EnBW
went so far as to declare that its conventional business model
could no longer work.
Some utilities are responding by increasing their investment
in renewables. Whereas a decade ago, utilities in Europe
accounted for less than 10% of investment in large-scale
renewable energy projects, they now make up more than half of
the pipeline of future projects. Coal India has begun developing
solar PV projects across India. Other utilities are shifting away
from traditional centralised power generation and moving into
downstream activities, or joining forces with renewable energy
interests. Some utilities in the United States are creating new
business models to profit from solar power: for example, Duke
Energy and Edison International have invested in a firm that is
financing solar projects, and PSE&G of New Jersey is making
loans to solar PV customers.
Increasingly, stakeholders contend that the business of meeting
energy needs is moving away from a volume-based supply
model, underpinned by asset ownership, to a service-based
PV and small-scale wind plants; Latvia enacted a net metering

policy that entered into force on 1 January 2014; and Ukraine
launched a net metering programme that requires utilities,
as of 1 January 2014, to connect residential solar PV systems
to the grid within five days of project completion and the filing
of an interconnection request.66 In Central America, Honduras
approved net metering for systems smaller than 250 kW.67
Additionally, the Philippines adopted new interconnection
standards, bringing into effect the net metering policy that was
legally established in 2008.68
At the state level, there were a number of developments in

2013 and early 2014, with four Indian statesAndhra Pradesh,
Kerala, Gujarat, and Uttarakhandall starting net metering
programmes for rooftop solar PV systems.70 Uttarakhand
introduced net metering for rooftop solar PV at a rate of USD
0.15/kWh (INR 9.20/kWh) for installations of 300W100kW
with battery backup, and up to 500
kW systems without
batteries; total installations are limited to 5 MW.71 Tamil Nadu set
a cap on its existing net metering scheme for solar PV systems,
limiting it to 90% of a consumers electricity consumption.72
Only two countries revised net metering policies at the national

level in 2013: Denmark restricted the availability of payments for
self-generation by moving from yearly to hourly net metering and
setting an eligibility cap of 20 MW worth of solar PV systems, and
the Netherlands removed its 5,000 kW incentive cap, thereby
increasing the amount of electricity generation that is eligible to
receive support under its net metering scheme.69
In the United States, net metering policies remained in 43 states,

Washington, D.C., and 4 territories. While no new policies were
added in 2013, four states revised existing laws. California
extended net metering (it was scheduled to be suspended in
2014), provided clarity on how to calculate the 5% capacity cap,
and laid the foundation for the development of a new uncapped
net metering scheme.73 New York tripled its solar PV capacity
Innovation in the private sector will require an effective enabling

policy framework. In many countries, discussions are under
way about regulatory reforms needed to support this transition.
This begs the questions: What future functions should utilities
provide? Which mechanism can appropriately compensate
companies for performing those functions? Energy market
design reforms include incentivising ancillary services through
mechanisms like capacity payments and flexibility premiums,
and establishing the right price signals to address misalignments
between incentives to distributed electricity system customers,
and the cost and value to the electricity system (e.g., network
benefit payments, network tariffs that reflect the transmission
and distribution costs, and network service charges).
The United Kingdom, for example, has introduced a common
pricing methodology for electricity networks, whereby
decentralised electricity generators are offered a positive
network tariff (credit) for feeding power into local networks. The
U.S. state of California is experimenting with on-bill financing
of high-value energy efficiency and on-site renewable energy.
Electric utility customers select pre-qualified technologies and
service providers, while the utility loses power sales but still
profits by lending its money.
Countries with an energy-only power market, such as Germany,

plan increasingly to implement capacity markets that address
the need for system balancing. To integrate higher shares of
variable renewables into electricity markets, more dispatchable
capacity is also needed. Yet traditional peaking plants are being
used lessand thereby becoming less profitableas shares of
renewable energy increase. New market designs are needed to
incentivise this reserve capacity or increase flexible generation.
Power markets should be designed to provide the proper
economic incentive for a least-cost and efficient mix of peaking,
cycling, and baseload generating units in a system that
accommodates ever-growing shares of variable renewables.
New market designs will need to balance the choice between
currently available solutions to system balancing (such as
increasing peaking capacity) and developing alternatives, such
as increasing the flexibility of new gas plants, installing diverse
types of energy storage at various scales, and pursuing demandside response options mediated by smart-grid solutions.
The Innovating Energy Systems sidebar is a regular
feature of the Global Status Report that focuses on advances
in energy systems related to renewable energy integration and
system transformation.
i - This would entail reforming the process of retailing decentralised

electricity/competitive and liberalised markets, particularly for retail
power; enacting enabling regulations for self-generation; and adopting
incentives such as time-of-use tariffs, dynamic pricing, peak pricing,
and the delivery of new energy services.
cap, thereby opening the programme to more consumers; and

Vermont raised the net metering cap from 4% of peak demand
to 15%.74 In several other states, net metering faced significant
utility opposition. In Arizona, net metering was retained, but with
a monthly fee of USD 0.70/kW to be applied for all new solar PV
systems.75
tender in 2013; Ecuador held its first auction for solar PV; Peru
allocated USD 3.6 billion for tendering of renewable energy
projects designated to come on line by 2016; and Uruguay
launched multiple solar power tenders throughout the year.78
In Central America, El Salvador announced tendering for the
allocation of 100 MW of wind and solar PV plants.79
Public competitive bidding, or tendering, continues to gain

prominence, with the number of countries turning to public
auctions increasing from 9 in 2009 to 55 by early 2014.76 Central
and South American countries continue to be global leaders in
renewable energy tenders. Brazil, which has held tenders for
wind power for several years, included solar power projects for
the first time in November, with 2.7 GW of solar power qualifying
for the A-3 auction, although no contracts were awarded in that
auction. Overall, Brazils auctions awarded 4.7 GW of new wind
capacity, 122 MW of solar PV, 700 MW of small hydropower,
and 162 MW of bio-power during 2013.77 Chile held its first CSP
In Europe, France launched a USD 275 million (EUR 200 million)

tender for the construction of 80 MW of pilot ocean energy
capacity, as well as a tender of USD 4.8 billion (EUR 3.5 billion)
for 1,000 MW of offshore wind capacity.80 Also in 2013, Italy held
its second wind auction to support the development of 400 MW
of new capacity; and Norway awarded USD 3.3 billion worth of
onshore wind projects as part of a plan to triple its wind power
capacity to over 2 GW by 2020.81 Russia launched its first tenders
for renewable energy, selecting 39 projects that totalled 504MW
of new capacity, including 399 MW of solar PV projects.82 In
addition, a USD 2.6 billion (RUB 85 billion) programme was
04
model that builds on existing customer relationships, finds

new ways to meet peoples needs, and captures the values
associated with renewable energy and distributed generation.
Instead of earning revenue for the energy consumed (USD
per MWh), revenues would be based on the energy services
provided, demand charges, and/or capacity-based pricing (USD
per MW).i In Germany, both RWE and EnBW plan to adopt a
business model that accommodates distributed self-generation,
with EnBW planning to divest up to 80% of its generation and
trading business by 2020. However, capacity-based pricing
can also undermine energy efficiency efforts and discourage
investments in renewables, leading some to argue in favour of
a hybrid model.
81
04 POLICY LANDSCAPE
approved to allocate 1.2 GW of solar PV projects through public
tenders by 2020.83 The United Kingdom announced plans to
hold joint auctions for wind and solar power capacity for the first
time in 2014.84
In Africa, Egypt launched a tender for the construction of the
nations first solar PV plant of 200 MW, and South Africa set
dates for its third round of CSP tenders.85 Kuwait held auctions to
award licences for the construction of 50 MW of CSP capacity.86
10% on revenue from solar PV installations larger than 30 kW;

and Greece enacted a 10% tax on revenue from renewable
power generation, to be enforced retroactively.97 Taxes on selfconsumption are being enacted or considered as well. On top
of existing grid access restrictions and fees, Spain introduced
a tax on the self-consumption of solar PV, while Germany has
proposed a similar levy on electricity generated from rooftop
systems larger than 10 kW.98
In India, Phase 2 of the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission

was launched with a call for bids to award 750 MW of gridconnected solar PV contracts across the country, although the
tender was delayed twice as of early 2014.87 At the sub-national
level, the state of Karnataka opened bidding for 130 MW of solar
power capacity, while Punjab awarded contracts to 29 solar
power developers for a cumulative capacity of 250 MW.88
Other types of auctions also took place to advance the deployment
of renewable energy. The United States awarded the nations
first licence for offshore wind development, and subsequently
held two additional auctions for offshore licences.89
Countries continued to support the renewable energy sector
through a mix of fiscal incentives and public financing aimed
at helping to overcome the various cost barriers that challenge
renewable energy deployment, including high upfront costs
for renewables, continued high subsidies for fossil and nuclear
energy, and failure to internalise environmental and social costs
of energy production and use. A number of incentives were
revised or introduced in 2013 and early 2014. For example, India
reintroduced the Generation Based Incentive (GBI) scheme
that had expired in April 2012, with payments of USD 0.01/kWh
(50 paise/kWh), and applied it retroactively to include projects
that were commissioned during the period of lapse.90 China
introduced a 50% value-added tax (VAT) rebate for solar power
plant operators as well as tax incentives to spur the development
of hydropower, and Iran established a fund to support renewable
electricity projects.91
In Europe, Denmark launched a new grant scheme that provided
USD 46.1 million (DKK 250 million) in 2013, and allocated USD
92.3 million (DKK 500 million) annually from 2014 to 2020, to
promote the deployment of renewable energy technologies (as
well as district heating, co-generation, and energy efficiency)
in energy-intensive industries.92 Irelands Offshore Renewable
Energy Development Plan provided a combined USD 61.9million
(EUR 45 million) for testing facilities, and R&D for ocean
energy.93 The U.K. increased the level of support for offshore
wind producers under its green certificate scheme to 0.26 USD/
kWh (0.155 GBP/kWh), although contract terms were reduced
from 20 to 15 years.94 In the United States, the state of New York
pledged USD 1 billion in new funding to solar PV projects.95
Reductions to fiscal incentives also were seen during 2013. For
example, France removed an 11% investment tax credit for solar
PV equipment (the credit remained for solar water heaters); and
the U.S. Production Tax Credit, which was extended in January
2013, expired at years end for new renewable energy projects
in the United States (but the credit still applies to projects that
began construction in 2013).96
During 2013 and early 2014, taxes and fees on renewable energy
continued to be introduced retroactively in some European
countries that previously supported renewable technologies.
Bulgaria enacted a 20% tax on revenues from solar PV and wind
installations; the Czech Republic placed an open-ended tax of
82
A number of new policies are being enacted around the

world in an effort to adapt to rapidly changing challenges
that are emerging with higher shares of variable renewable
electricity. Policies to advance system integration continue to
gain prominence. These include promotion of energy storage,
demand-side management (DMS), and regulations that aid in
the integration of renewables into national grid networks and
energy markets. New market mechanisms continued to be
introduced and refined in 2013.99 (See Sidebar 7.)
Singapore raised its cap on the total power provided by variable
resources from 350 MW to 600 MW during periods of peak
demand in 2013.100 China introduced a mandate requiring
grid companies to purchase all solar electricity generated
within their coverage areas.101 India allocated USD 6.9 billion
(INR 430 billion) to a grid modernisation programthe Green
Energy Corridorto enable the integration of renewable energy
sources.102
Policies to promote energy storage gained prominence at the
national and sub-national levels in 2013 and early 2014. Japan
introduced subsidies to cover two-thirds of the capital costs
of lithium ion batteries installed with solar PV systems.103 In
Canada, the provisions of Ontarios Long-Term Energy Plan were
amended to include 50 MW of energy storage in the provinces
competitive procurement process.104 Puerto Ricos energy
regulator revised its existing minimum technical requirements to
mandate the incorporation of energy storage in new renewable
energy projects, and the U.S. state of California introduced a
mandate on investor-owned utilities to begin buying 200 MW
of energy storage capacity by 2014, with a statewide goal to
acquire 1.3 GW of storage capacity by 2020.105 In addition,
Massachusetts introduced requirements on utilities to develop
plans to introduce smart meters and increase investments in
smart-grid technology over the next decade.106
To reduce what is often one of the largest hurdles faced by
renewable energy project developers, some countries also
revised their permitting processes. In 2013, Chile passed

regulations to fast-track the process for renewable energy
permitting from 700 to 150 days.107 France revised a number
of wind permitting procedures; while Turkey revised electricity
licensing procedures.108 In the United States, two separate
pieces of legislation were adopted to streamline the permitting
process for renewables, including refining regulatory oversight
procedures and raising from 5 MW to 10 MW the maximum
capacity for small-scale hydropower plant classification.109
In addition, the U.S. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
(FERC) approved guidelines to allow for a fast-track interconnection process for certain renewable systems up to 5MW
in size, eliminating the need for them to undergo extensive
interconnection studies.110
In an effort to balance utility concerns over idle generation
capacity and inadequate transmission infrastructure, Gujarat,
India, enacted new regulations restricting independent grid
accessguaranteed in the Electricity Act of 2003 to consumers
with a demand greater than or equal to 1 MWby removing
the ability of state distribution companies to enter into private
power purchase agreements (PPAs) with out-of-state energy
providers.111
HEATING AND COOLING POLICIES

Globally, heating and cooling account for almost half of total global
energy demand.112 Modern biomass, direct geothermal, and
solar thermal technologies together represent a major portion
of the energy produced with non-hydro renewables, and offer
vast potential for meeting the worlds residential, commercial,
and industrial heating and cooling needs. As a result, countries
continued to enact targets, policies, and incentives for the
promotion of renewable heating and cooling technologies during
2013. However, this sector still lags far behind the renewable
power sector for attention from policymakers.
Revisions to existing regulatory policies for heating and cooling

were made by the Netherlands, which introduced technologydifferentiated FIP tariffs to support the generation of heat from
biogas, solid biomass, deep-geothermal, and solar thermal; and
by the United Kingdom, which introduced a tariff degression
mechanism to its feed-in policy for renewable heat, and began
reducing rates as of mid-2013.117
Several countries, mostly in Europe, provide fiscal incentives,
including grants and investment subsidies, to promote
investment in renewable heating and cooling technologies.
Austria doubled its subsidies for solar thermal systems to
USD192/kWth (EUR140/kWth) to cover up to 30% of the
costs of installation.118 Cyprus reinstated a solar heating and
cooling support programme, following its expiration in 2012, to
provide investment subsidies in the form of grants of up to USD
4,129/kWth (3,000 EUR/kWth).119 The Czech Republic launched
its New Green Savings programme to provide grants for up to
40% of the cost of installing a solar thermal system.120 Germany
extended incentives to a host of renewable and efficient heating
and cooling technologiesincluding solar thermal cooling,
industrial waste heat, cogeneration, and district heatingto
cover 25% of the investment costs for systems ranging from
5 kW to 500 kWth.121 Italys Conto Termico incentive scheme
came into force in early 2013 to provide capital incentives to
renewable heat technologies, including biomass boilers, solar
thermal systems, and also heat pumps.122 At the regional level,
Wallonia, Belgium, introduced grants to cover 3035% of the
costs of installing renewable heating systems in buildings.123
As in 2012, policy adoption was relatively slow in the heat

sector, but a few countries and states enacted new standards
for renewable heat in 2013 and early 2014. Albania mandated
the use of renewable heat technologies in new buildings,
requiring that certain building types be constructed with a
minimum share (to be defined by May 2014) of solar thermal
heat. In addition, solar thermal systems and components were
exempted from customs duties and VAT.114 Half a world away,
the Australian standards body introduced the worlds first solar
cooling standard in late 2013 to establish product performance
benchmarks.115 Indias Energy Conservation Building Code
was extended to two additional states in 2013, so that it now
mandates standards for renewable energy and energy efficiency
in 8 of the 28 Indian states.116 (See Sidebar 8.)
Elsewhere, Australia provided national grants to municipal

governments for the installation of solar and heat pump systems
for water heating; India introduced a two-year rebate program
to support solar hot water and solar process heat installations;
Puerto Rico established a program to fully fund the replacement
of conventional water heaters with solar thermal for low-income
families; and Thailand extended subsidies for solar water heaters
(SWH) to 2021, and set out a plan for a gradual degression from
the current 25% subsidy.124
04
The 28 EU Member States have introduced targets for specific

shares of renewable heating and cooling. In addition, several
countries in Africa, Europe, and the Middle East target the use
of solar water heating.i 113 Overall, renewable heating and cooling
targets exist in at least 41 countries worldwide (see Reference
Table R14), and at least 19 countries have heat obligations/
mandates in place at the national or state/provincial level to
promote the use of renewable heat technologies.
Additional forms of financial support, such as public investment,

were introduced or revised during the year. South Africa
i - The 28 EU Member States all have targets for renewable heating and cooling in their National Renewable Energy Action Plans. Additional countries include
Bhutan, China, India, Jordan, Kenya, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Mozambique, Sierra Leone, Swaziland, Thailand, and Uganda.
83
04 POLICY LANDSCAPE
SIDEBAR 8. THE LINKAGE BETWEEN RENEWABLE ENERGY AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY:

FOCUS ON SUSTAINABLE BUILDINGS
The critical interplay between renewable energy and energy
efficiency in achieving sustainable and inclusive growth has
been widely recognised in recent years.i It was an impetus for
the United Nations Secretary Generals Sustainable Energy for
All (SE4ALL) initiativeii, which resulted in important voluntary
commitments from businesses, investors, and national
governments during 2013 to advance renewables and energy
efficiency.
High energy prices and global fossil fuel subsidiesestimated
to be at least USD 544 billion in 2012have reinforced the need
for energy efficiency improvements and renewable energy, and
have highlighted the potential for adding value by focussing on
both areas. Energy efficiency can be considered the primary
fuel laying the foundation for a low-carbon energy future. When
employed in concert, energy efficiency and renewables offer
significant economic benefits and a wide range of co-benefits,
including climate change mitigation, health improvements,
energy access, and job creation.
To address these challenges, more governments around the

world are focussing on the building sector. China, for example,
published new policy measures in 2013 to encourage the
adoption of green building practices. Two additional Indian
states adopted the Energy Conservation Building Code,
which integrates renewable energy and energy efficiency and
mandates the use of solar water heating in specific building
types. In Australia, around 100 local governing authorities
received grants under the Local Government Energy Efficiency
Program to install energy efficient solar and heat-pump systems
for water heating in their buildings and community facilities.
Annual relative global primary energy intensityiii is trending

downwards again, after a sudden increase during 2009 and
2010. The developments in 201112 provide some optimism
that energy demand can be further decoupled from GDP growth.
Several agency initiatives and programmes were started during

2013. For example, the Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency
Partnership (REEEP) and the Global Buildings Performance
Network (GBPN) launched the 1 Billion m2 of Positive Energy
Buildings intervention, which aims to promote transformational
change in the building sector by shifting the concept of buildings
as energy consumers to energy producers that can meet their
own energy needs. In addition, the International Partnership for
Energy Efficiency Cooperation (IPEEC) conducted a survey on
building rating tools in order to identify how they can help reduce
energy consumption and associated greenhouse gas emissions.
Assuming the full implementation of policies and measures

already enacted to advance energy savings, as well as those
currently under discussion, it is estimated that primary energy
demand in 2035 could be 7% lower than under a business-asusual scenario. The majority of these savings would come from
efficiency gains in end-uses; industry would account for 37% of
these efficiency-related savings, followed by transport (31%) and
buildings (26%). Savings would still fall short of the full economic
potential available in 2035, however, and it is expected that the
greatest unrealised potential would be in the buildings sector.
Also in 2013, various national green building councils continued

to promote the adoption of voluntary green building rating
systems. For example, the U.S. Green Building Council launched
a new, more rigorous version of the LEED rating system, which
is used internationally. Bottom-up demand for green buildings
expanded as well. By years end, the Australian Green Star had
been awarded to over 650 projects, and more than 50% of these
were certified in the past three years. In South Africa, the green
building movement has gained ground rapidly, with 36 buildings
receiving a Green Star SA rating by mid-2013.
Considering that a buildings lifetime is 50 years or more,

optimising efficiency and use of renewables as early as possible
is critical for maximising potential energy savings while avoiding
further lock-in to inefficient building stock. Integrating efficiency
and renewables into the design stage is particularly relevant for
emerging economies, where rates of urbanisation and building
construction are high; in India, for example, about 70% of the
building stock expected by 2030 has yet to be constructed.
Developed countries face a different challenge in that most of
the energy efficiency potential lies in retrofitting of the existing
building stock.
This sidebar on renewable energy and energy efficiency linkages

is a regular feature of the Global Status Report.
i - For more on the interplay between energy efficiency and renewable energy, see Feature section in GSR 2012.
ii - The SE4ALL initiative targets, by 2030, universal access to modern energy services, a doubling of the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix,
and a doubling of the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency. By early 2014, more than 80 governments from developing countries from all regions had
joined the initiative. See http://www.se4all.org/our-vision/our-objectives/.
iii - Primary energy intensity is commonly used as a proxy for energy efficiency, even though it fails to cover the multi-dimensionality of the latter.
84
announced a plan to provide fully subsidised SWH to low-income

households, and aims to award contracts through competitive
tendering for the manufacturing of 650,000 individual SWH
by 2015.125 However, simultaneously, South Africa delayed
the provision of incentives and postponed from 2014 to 2015
its target to install 1 million SWH.126 The U.K. allocated USD
8.24 million (GBP 5 million) to the installation of renewable
heating technologies such as biomass boilers as well as heat
pumps in public housing; and the Flanders region of Belgium
allocated USD 9.2million (EUR 6.7 million) to promote renewable
heat production, waste heat recovery, and the construction of
district heat networks.127
At least two countries adopted or revised low-interest loans to
support renewable heat. Spain approved a USD 172million (EUR
125 million) programme to offer zero-interest loans for energy
efficiency retrofits of existing buildings, which also include the
incorporation of solar thermal.128 Tunisia extended to 2016
its existing preferential low-interest loans for SWH, and began
providing a 30% investment credit for solar thermal process heat
systems.129
Although support in the sector is generally increasing, there were
a few instances of policy expirations and downwards revisions. A
law expiration in Chile at the end of 2013 led to the removal of tax
rebates for solar thermal systems, and Indias Ministry of New
and Renewable Energy reduced grant support for SWH.130
TRANSPORT POLICIES
Most policies to increase the use of renewable energy in the
transport sector focus on support for the production, promotion,
or use of biofuels. During 2013, such policies continued to be
enacted or revised by a number of countries that are using a mix of
fiscal incentives and regulations. Common policies include biofuel
production subsidies, biofuel blend mandates, and tax incentives.
As of early 2014, blend mandates existed in 33 countries, with
31 national mandates and 26 additional mandates at the state/
provincial level. (See Reference Table R18.)
New blend mandates were introduced in 2013 by Ukraine, which
established an initial E5 mandate (5% ethanol blended with
gasoline) scheduled to increase to E7 by 2017; Ecuador, which
enacted a B5 mandate (5% biodiesel blended with diesel fuel)
with plans for a future (undated) increase to B10; and Panama,
whose current E5 mandate is set to be increased to E7 in 2015
and E10 in 2016.131
impacts of cultivating energy crops on food production, land use,

biodiversity, and water. Net lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions
from biofuels are also under review.
In the United States, the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) was
reduced for the first time since it was enacted in 2005, with a
decrease in the mandated blending level from a minimum of 54
billion litres (14.4 billion gallons) of corn ethanol to 49 billion litres
(13 billion gallons).136 At the state level, Florida repealed its E10
blend mandate, and Maine adopted legislation to ban ethanol
blends in the state.137 Similar discussions are under way in the
European Parliament, where critics have questioned the use of
first-generation biofuels to meet the EU target of 10% renewable
energyincluding biofuels, electricity, and hydrogenin total
transport energy by 2020.138
The use of fiscal incentives and public financing for the biofuels
industry continued to expand during 2013. Brazil offered tax
credits and provided low-interest loans for ethanol producers
at an estimated cost of USD 480 million (BRL 970 million).139
Poland initiated a USD 3.3 million (EUR 2.4 million) tender to
support the production of renewable fuels, and the United States
provided USD 16.5 million in grants to advance the development
of algae-based biofuels.140 In a blow to biodiesel, China instituted
tax and trade duties on imported biodiesel in an effort to support
domestic petroleum diesel refineries.141
Many countries continue to explore additional options for
integrating more renewable energy into the transport sector,
such as increasing the number of vehicles fuelled with
biomethane, renewable hydrogen, or electricity from renewable
sources. Electric vehicles (EVs) continue to receive policy
support from a number of countries, although this is seldom
linked directly to renewable electricity. Examples of support
schemes enacted in 2013 include China providing a subsidy of
USD 9,813 (CNY 60,000) for the purchase of an EV; Germany
pledging USD 247.8 million (EUR 180 million) for electromobility demonstration projects; India introducing plans to
produce 56million EVs by 2020 as part of its National Electric
Mobility Mission Plan 2020; Romania enacting a subsidy
programme to provide vouchers worth USD 3,697 (RON 12,000)
for the purchase of an EV; South Africa adopting incentives for
manufacturers to promote a domestic EV industry and, by early
2013, considering the provision of tax incentives for consumers
purchasing EVs; and the U.K. providing funding to expand the
EV charging network under its Plugged-in Places scheme.142
04
Many existing blend mandates were strengthened in 2013. India

raised its ethanol blend mandate from E5 to E10 at the end of
2013; Malaysia began extending the B5 blend mandate to more
regions with the aim of enacting it nationwide by July 2014; and
the Philippines began implementing the E10 mandate, delayed
since 2011.132 In South America, Argentina increased its blend
mandate from B7 to B10, and Brazil increased the national
ethanol blend level from E20 to E25, and began studying a
possible increase in its biofuel blend from B5 to B7.133 In Africa,
Zimbabwe raised its existing blend mandate twice, initially from
the existing E5 mandate to E10 in early 2013, and subsequently
from E10 to E15; it also set a goal of introducing E20 by early
2014.134 South Africa set a date of October 2015 to begin
implementing the E2 and B5 blend mandates first established
in 2007.135
At the same time, biofuel support policies in Europe and the
United States continued to be challenged by concerns about the
85
04 POLICY LANDSCAPE
GREEN ENERGY PURCHASING AND LABELLING

New government policies to support green purchasing and
labelling continue to advance only slowly. Green energy
labelling provides consumers with the opportunity to purchase
green electricity as well as green gas, heat, and transport
fuels, by evaluating the generation source of available energy
supply options. Green power labels are employed in a number
of countries and are mostly voluntary, but some governments
mandate their use. In 2013, Austria enacted mandates to ensure
that suppliers label the energy that they provide.143
In addition to voluntary sales of green energy by energy
providers to private individuals and businesses, a number of
governments require that utilities and/or electricity suppliers
offer green power products. Further, governments themselves
have committed to purchasing renewable energy to meet their
own energy needs. While this is particularly common at the
local government level (see the following sub-section on City
and Local Government Policies), there are examples at the
national level. In 2013, Thailand established a USD 121 million
(THB 4 billion) fund to encourage state agencies to deploy solar
PV systems on their buildings.144 In the United States, a 2013
Executive Order requires the federal government to source
20% of its electricity from renewable technologies by 2020.145
CITY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT POLICIES

Thousands of cities and towns have active policies, plans,
and targets to advance renewable energy. Policy momentum
continued in 2013 as city and local governments acted to reduce
emissions, support and create local industry, reduce energy
demand through efficiency improvements, relieve grid capacity
stress, achieve security of supply and independence from the
national grid, and become more resilient to climate change. Local
governments made increasing use of their authority to regulate;
make expenditure and procurement decisions; facilitate and
ease the financing of renewable energy projects; and influence
advocacy and information sharing. (See Reference Table R19.)
Increased co-ordination among local, state, and national
governments is opening the door for municipalities to further
accelerate the uptake of renewable energy and stimulate rapid
market transformation.146
Local government actions often complement, and in many
cases go beyond, state and national policies. By the end of
2013, 36 Indian cities had finalised solar city master plans in
response to the National Solar Cities Programme, which will
support a total of 60 cities development as green cities.147 In
Denmark, to help meet parallel national targets, Copenhagen
is working towards the goal of 100% renewable power, heating,
and cooling by 2035, and 100% renewable energy in all sectors
by 2050, while Frederikshavn aims for 100% renewable energy
by 2015.148 Several U.S. cities including Greensburg (Kansas),
Austin (Texas), and San Francisco (California) have implemented
sector-specific 100% renewable energy targets and policies that
go beyond state and national targets.149
In turn, national governments often observe sub-national level
actions and consider using successful programmes as blueprints
for national policies.150 China, for example, is experimenting with
carbon trading mechanisms on the local level before potentially
launching a nationwide scheme: five cities and two provinces
are testing cap-and-trade mechanisms to reduce pollution
86
and stimulate investment in low-carbon energy.151 Local and/

or community-owned energy projects have supported a rapid
increase of renewable capacity in Europe, by mobilising private
investment and tackling the NIMBY (Not in My Back Yard)
opposition by turning it into YIMFY (Yes in My Front Yard).152 In
turn, many national and sub-national authorities across Europe
are advancing incentives for community energy projects to reach
their targets. Scotland, for example, set a target of 500 MW for
community- and locally owned renewable capacity in 2013, and
the U.K. launched a fund to support urban community energy
projects.153
As cities have become increasingly important for achieving
national goals, their participation in the design and development
of vertically integrated state and national policies has grown.
In this way, cities are exploring how to tap into new climate
financing mechanisms for emerging economies and developing
countries, such as Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions
(NAMAs).154 In South Africa, cities are engaging with the national
government to help achieve the national greenhouse gas
emissions reduction target of 34% by 2020 through the use of
renewables in buildings.155 Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
(APEC) has advanced its Low Carbon Model Town project using
Yujiapu (China), Samui Island (Thailand), and Da Nang (Vietnam)
as the first three case studies.156 In 2013, eight model cities
in Brazil, India, South Africa, and Indonesiabegan formulating
low-emissions development strategies, which includes the use
of renewables, using a common methodology developed by
ICLEI for local governments.157
Local governments around the world continue to establish new
climate and energy plans and targets, and to revise existing
ones. In 2013, Sydney, Australia, set the goal to achieve 100%
renewable energy for power, heating, and cooling by 2030, and
Yamanashi, Japan, targeted local generation of 100% renewable
electricity by 2050. They joined over 41 cities that have already
achieved 100% renewable energy in at least one sector or aim
to do so over the next few decades.158 London, U.K., began
developing a plan in 2013 to assess the citys energy delivery
infrastructure, including the improvements required to enable
the feed in of surplus renewable electricity to the grid.159 By years
end, cities from across Europe had submitted 734 Sustainable
Energy Action Plans under the EU Covenant of Mayors, bringing
to 3,333 the number of European local governments with action
plans, all aiming to reduce emissions by at least 2040% by
2020 through the use of energy efficiency and renewables.160
In the United States, more than 50 local governments
including Washington (D.C.), Des Moines (Iowa), and Santa
Barbara County (California)released a plan to enhance
communities resilience to climate change through steps
that include increasing use of renewable energy and energy
efficiency in buildings and other infrastructure.161 Also in 2013,
Asheville, North Carolina, voted unanimously to phase out the
use of coal-fired power and to move to renewable energy.162
Municipally controlled or -owned utilities allow local governments
and citizens to play a greater role in planning and deploying
renewable energy, and enable local governments to directly
advance targets, incentives, and policies that encourage private
or community investment in renewables. In 2013, Hamburg,
Germany, held a public referendum that determined that
the city council should re-acquire a controlling stake in the
local electric power grid, with the aim of deploying affordable
process.173 In India, Gandhinagar initiated a 5 MW rooftop solar

PV programme based on a state FIT, and, as of early 2014,
Bhavnagar, Mehsana, Rajkot, Surat, and Vadodara were awaiting
approval for tenders totalling 25 MW each of rooftop solar PV.174
Port Elizabeth became the first municipality in South Africa to
adopt net metering for local small-scale renewable systems.175
U.S. cities with already-established locally owned utilities

continued to adopt or revise feed-in tariffs to reach existing
renewable electricity targets and complement state-level
renewable portfolio standards. As part of its strategy to move
away from coal-fired power, Los Angeles is deploying 350 MW
of solar power capacity through a combination of a FIT and a
request for proposals that was launched in 2013.166 Palo Alto,
California, reduced its FIT programme size, but raised its tariff
for solar PV by more than 15%, and implemented a plan to supply
carbon-neutral electricity for all customers starting in 2013.167
Fort Collins, Colorado, launched a solar FIT for commercial
customers.168
Japanese cities have started to set up community-owned
electric utilities through public-private partnerships to advance
renewables. In 2012, Shizuoka created a local electric utility that
launched renewable community power projects in 2013 through
a micro-citizens fund of around USD 200,000 (JPY 20 million)
with 204 community investors. Similarly, Odawara created a
local utility that became operational in 2013, and Fukushima
launched a fund in early 2014 to support local renewable
electricity projects.169
Several cities without municipal utilities work with state and
national governments to advance regulatory frameworks
to enable the procurement of bulk purchases of renewable
electricity by local residents and businesses through the
existing transmission and distribution system. Sydney, Australia,
released 15 recommendations for regulatory reform to enable
the sharing of excess renewable energy (both electricity and
thermal energy) amongst city buildings.170 In the United States,
six states had legislated Community Choice Aggregationi (CCA)
policies by late 2013.171 Chicago adopted CCA in late 2012, and
by 2013 it had aggregated nearly 1 million energy customers
for its no nuclear/no coal contract, reducing its expected CO2
emissions by 16% that year.172 At least four other U.S. cities
switched to CCA in 2013, and more than 30 cities initiated the
In the building sector, local governments and communities

continued to set low or zero-energy or -carbon emission
targets, reform building codes, and revise permitting and landuse policies to incorporate renewable energy requirements.
Shanghai, China, is piloting green energy policies and business
models for near-zero emission buildings as part of its low-carbon
development plan.180 In Jakarta, Indonesia, a new green building
code became mandatory in early 2013.181 Bhubaneswar,
India, amended its planning and building standards, making it
compulsory for large buildings to install rooftop solar PV.182 The
city also joined Bangalore, Pune, and Hyderabad in adopting the
national rating system for green buildings in urban regulations.183
In the United States during 2013, Lancaster and Sebastopol in
California passed zoning ordinances requiring at least 11.5kW
of solar PV to be installed on all new buildings on lots above a
specified minimum size.184 Under the European Commission's
POLIS research programme, six European cities have developed
guidelines for maximising the potential of solar energy in urban
buildings.184
04
renewable energy and avoiding high network charges.163 At least

190 German communities have bought back their local grids
since 2005.164 In the United States, Boulder, Colorado, formed
a municipal utility to reduce electric rates while increasing the
share of renewables, thereby joining more than 1,000 U.S.
communities with municipally owned utilities that collectively
serve 50 million U.S. customers.165
Other cities are leading by example, setting targets to power

their municipal operations or deploying renewable installations
on their own buildings. In 2013, Guntur and Sriperumpudur in
India installed renewable energy systems to help meet their
targets to reduce fossil fuel consumption, and Aurangabad
established targets to do the same.176 In the United States,
Kansas City, Missouri, signed a deal to install solar PV panels
on 80 city buildings for their own use; Yolo County, California,
generated 13.5 million kWh (152% of its electricity demand)
using on-site solar PV; and Austin, Texas, achieved its ownuse target, purchasing renewable energy credits to power city
facilities with 100% renewable electricity.177 Sydney is installing
the largest building-mounted solar PV system (1.25 MW) in
Australia on municipal buildings, a step that is expected to
reduce annual carbon emissions by up to 2,250 tonnes; and the
town of Palmerston North in New Zealand began constructing
a 100 kW solar PV system, the largest in the country, on its
administration building to generate 10% of its power demand.178
Ameland in the Netherlands launched a local smart grid that
relies on micro-CHP fuel cells; the fuel cells, which began to
come on line in late 2013, can be modulated to meet peak loads
and balance variable wind and solar generation.179
To reduce upfront investment costs of renewable energy

systems, many cities are facilitating property owners access to
low-cost, long-term financing and/or using city billing systems.
Cape Town, South Africa, launched a residential solar water
heater (SWH) programme through which accredited suppliers
can partner with financial institutions to offer loans to residents
for newly installed systems.186 Ontario became the third
Canadian jurisdiction, after Yukon and Nova Scotia, to authorise
using a local improvement charge (LIC) financing tool whereby
cities offer low-interest financing to property owners for energy
i - CCAs allow a city or a consortium of towns and cities to aggregate the electricity loads of residents, businesses, and municipal facilities and to negotiate
electric supply contracts on their behalf.
87
04 POLICY LANDSCAPE
efficiency upgrades or renewable energy installations, and loans
are repaid through additional charges on property tax bills.187
Toronto, Ontario, approved a pilot programme in 2013 to install
renewable systems in 1,000 single-family homes and 10 multiresidential buildings, and to finance them through LIC.188 Several
U.S. states have adopted the Property Assessed Clean Energy
(PACE) programme, with Texas being the newest member, and
many cities around the country were participating as of 2013.i 189
Several cities around the world continued to launch programmes
in 2013 to move from electricity to solar energy for water heating
in buildings. Santa Fe, Argentina, mandated SWH systems
in all municipal childcare centres, resulting in installations
at 34 refurbished nurseries in 2013.190 Cape Town, South
Africa, made SWHs more available to mid- to high-income
households through monthly repayment rates that are below
the cost of electricity saved through the installation. By the
end of 2013, this programme had avoided 100,000 GWh of
electricity consumption. Cape Town targets the installation of
60,000150,000 high-pressure SWH systems over a five-year
period.191To help achieve its CO2 reduction targets, Halifax,
Canada, launched a programme to provide up to 1,000 turnkey SWH systems per year.192 In India, spurred on by state
incentives, at least 90 cities in 8 states had amended their
building by-laws to mandate SWH as of 2013.193
As local governments transform their buildings, they also seek
to use renewable energy for space and industrial heating and/
or cooling purposes. District heating and cooling are becoming
best practice for the integration of renewable energy in cities.
Many cities are advancing local district heating and cooling with
renewables in heat-only or combined heat and power (CHP)
configurations. In 2013, Sydney launched a plan to achieve
its 100% renewable energy target (for electricity, heating, and
cooling) with solar and wind power accounting for 30%; for the
remainder, the city will use co- and tri-generationii gas engines
at the building or city-block level (as is the case in Gssing,
Austria; Gothenburg, Sweden; and most Danish cities), to be
fuelled initially by natural gas but then progressively by syngas
and biogas from biomass.194
An increasing number of cities is transitioning towards more
sustainable transport systems by promoting the use of electric
or plug-in vehicles powered by renewable energy, or by using
biofuels in public transport systems. In 2013, Indianapolis, in the
U.S. state of Indiana, mandated that all new vehicles purchased
for its municipal fleets be EV or plug-in hybrids, and New York
City required the use of at least B5 in all 6,000 diesel-fuelled
city vehicles.195 Bogota, Colombia, implemented a pilot project
consisting of 50 EV taxis and introduced hybrid buses as part of
its mass transportation system (200 units planned for 2014).196
So Paulo launched Brazils first battery-electric bus, and Lublin,
Poland, launched solar-powered buses in 2013.197 Kapiti, New
Zealand, began operating the first electric rubbish collection
truck in the southern hemisphere; Johannesburg, South Africa,
announced plans to purchase some 175 new buses to be fuelled
by biogas and biodiesel; and London, U.K., announced plans to
fuel city buses with biodiesel processed from used cooking oil.198
Cities are also adopting regulations and legislation to advance

the infrastructure that will be needed to support electricpowered transport systems. For example, Palo Alto, California,
revised its building codes in 2013 to require that all new homes
be pre-wired for EV charging, and New York City amended its
zoning and building code to mandate that all new public parking
spaces be wired for EVs.199
As cities seek to share and scale up best practices, highlight
their commitments to renewable energy, and account for their
achievements, local governments are increasingly prioritising
systematic measurement and reporting of climate and energy
data. By the end of 2013, the carbonn Cities Climate Registry
(cCCR) had 836 registered energy and climate commitments
in 414 cities in over 45 countries, amounting to 4,208 reported
mitigation and adaption actions (double the 2012 number).200
As of early 2014, ICLEI, C40, the World Resources Institute,
and the Joint Work Programme of the Cities Alliance among the
World Bank Group, UN-HABITAT, and UNEP worked together
to pilot the Global Protocol for Community-scale Greenhouse
Gas Emissions (GPC) in 35 global cities.201 C40 announced a
new partnership with Siemens to help cities measure, plan,
and mitigate their greenhouse gas emissions, and C40 and the
Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP) announced a joint programme
to increase the number of cities that report annually on climate
actions and to standardise emissions accounting, enabling cities
to track their progress and identify effective climate and energy
actions.202
The year 2013 also saw the consolidation and strengthening
of city participation in the formal international climate
negotiations. The first-ever Cities Day was held during the
high-level segment in the UNFCCC 19th Conference of Parties
(COP19), bringing national ministers and city mayors together to
strengthen multi-level governance on climate change.203
i - Similar to LIC, PACE financing allows property owners to borrow money from a local government to pay for renewable energy systems and/or energy efficiency
improvements. The amount borrowed is typically repaid via a special assessment on property taxes, or another locally collected tax or bill, such as a utility bill.
ii - Tri-generation (or combined cooling, heat, and power, CCHP) adds an extra service to CHP, whereby the thermal energy is converted to chilled water for
air conditioning and/or refrigeration, which further displaces electricity used for these services. Cooling can be delivered via central thermal chiller stations
combined with district cooling pipes, or via hot water pipes to decentralised thermal chillers in individual buildings.
88
TABLE 3. RENEWABLE ENERGY SUPPORT POLICIES
Public investment,
loans, or grants
Capital subsidy
or rebate
Energy production
payment
Biofuels obligation /
mandate
Heat obligation /
mandate
Tendering
Tradable REC
Electric utility quota

obligation / RPS
R*
Net metering
Feed-in tariff /
premium payment
Investment or
production tax
credits
Reductions in sales,
energy, CO2, VAT,
or other taxes
FISCAL INCENTIVES
AND PUBLIC FINANCING
REGULATORY POLICIES
Renewable energy
targets
COUNTRY
HIGH INCOME COUNTRIES
R*
R
R
R
R
R*
R
R
R*
R*
R*
R
R
04
Andorra
Australia
Austria
Barbados
Belgium
Canada
Chile
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Japan
Kuwait
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Netherlands
New Zealand
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Russia
Singapore
Slovakia
Slovenia
South Korea
Spain1
Sweden
Switzerland
Trinidad and Tobago
United Kingdom
United States
Uruguay
existing national, existing sub-national, new, R revised, 5 removed/expired, * sub-national
Spain removed FIT support for new projects in 2012. Incentives for projects that had previously qualified for FIT support continue to be revised.
89
04 POLICY LANDSCAPE
TABLE 3. RENEWABLE ENERGY SUPPORT POLICIES (continued)
Energy production
payment
Public investment,
loans, or grants
Investment or
production tax
credits
energy, CO2, VAT,
or other taxes
mandate
Tradable REC
Heat obligation /
mandate
Net metering
Tendering
Electric utility quota

obligation / RPS
Feed-in tariff /
premium payment
Capital subsidy
or rebate
FISCAL INCENTIVES
REGULATORY POLICIES
Renewable energy
targets
COUNTRY
UPPER-MIDDLE INCOME COUNTRIES

Albania
Algeria
Angola
Argentina
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
Belarus
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Botswana
Brazil
Bulgaria
China
Colombia
Costa Rica
Dominican Republic
Ecuador2
Fiji
Grenada
Hungary
Iran
Jamaica
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Lebanon
Libya
Macedonia
Malaysia
Maldives
Marshall Islands
Mauritius
Mexico
Palau
Panama
Peru
Romania
Serbia
South Africa
St. Lucia
Thailand
Tunisia
Turkey
R
R
existing national, existing sub-national, new, R revised, 5 removed/expired, * sub-national
Ecuadors FIT that expired in 2012 was re-launched in 2013.
The area of the Palestinian Territories is included in the World Bank country classification as West Bank and Gaza.
They have been placed in the table using the 2009 Occupied Palestinian Territory GNI per capita provided by the United Nations (USD 1,483).
Note: Countries are organised according to annual GNI per capita levels as follows: high is USD 12,616 or more, upper-middle is USD 4,086 to USD 12,615,
lower-middle is USD 1,036 to USD 4,085, and low is USD 1,035 or less. Per capita income levels and group classifications from World Bank, 2014.
Only enacted policies are included in the table; however, for some policies shown, implementing regulations may not yet be developed or effective, leading
to lack of implementation or impacts. Policies known to be discontinued in 2013 are marked with an X; historic discontinuations have been omitted from the
table.. Many feed-in policies are limited in scope of technology. In cases where a national and sub-national policy exist within the same policy category, the
national policy is displayed.
90
TABLE 3. RENEWABLE ENERGY SUPPORT POLICIES (continued)
Public investment,
loans, or grants
Energy production
payment
Investment or
production tax
credits
energy, CO2, VAT,
or other taxes
mandate
Heat obligation /
mandate
Tendering
Tradable REC
Net metering
Electric utility
quota obligation /
RPS
Feed-in tariff /
premium payment
Capital subsidy
or rebate
FISCAL INCENTIVES
REGULATORY POLICIES
Renewable energy
targets
COUNTRY
LOWER-MIDDLE INCOME COUNTRIES

Armenia
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Cte dIvoire
Egypt
El Salvador
Federated States of Micronesia
Ghana
Guatemala
Guyana
Honduras
India
Indonesia
Lesotho
Moldova
Mongolia
Morocco
Nicaragua
Nigeria
Pakistan
Palestinian Territories 3
Paraguay
Philippines
Senegal
Sri Lanka
Syria
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Vanuatu
Vietnam
R
R
LOW INCOME COUNTRIES
04
Bangladesh
Benin
Burkina Faso
Ethiopia
Gambia
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Haiti
Kenya
Kyrgyzstan
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mozambique
Nepal
Niger
Rwanda
Sudan
Tajikistan
Tanzania
Togo
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
91
REN21 global renewable energy data

are based on input and statistics received
for 177 countries.
05
Access to modern energy services is indispensable to sustainable

development. Yet as many as 1.3 billion people lack access to
electricity and more than 2.6 billion rely on traditional biomass
for cooking and heating.1 (See Reference Tables R20 and R21.)
Further, an estimated 200300 million peoplei use coal in
traditional cookstoves to meet their cooking and heating needs.2
Between 2011 and 2013, the total number of people globally
without electricity access remained essentially unchanged even
as some countries made great leaps forward.ii Latin America
and developing Asiaiii advanced, while other regions fell further
behind. In India, the number of people without access rose by
17 million to 306 million, and Africa is now home to half of the
worlds population without electricity.3 (See Figure 31, page 97.)
In many rural areas of developing countries, connections to
central electric grids are economically prohibitive and may take
decades to materialise, if at all. Moreover, grid connectivity
does not address the need for access to sustainable heating
and cooking options. Renewable energy systems offer an
unprecedented opportunity to accelerate the transition to
modern energy services in remote and rural areas, by increasing
access to sustainable cooking and heating devices; affordable
lighting, communications, and refrigeration; improved public
health; and energy for processing and other productive
activities. These objectives can be achieved by establishing
and strengthening institutional, financial, legal, and regulatory
support mechanisms for renewable energy deployment. In
turn, these mechanisms can help by improving access to
financing, developing the necessary infrastructure, and building
awareness about renewable energy and the challenges posed
by a lack of access to sustainable sources of energy.4
This section focuses on the wide array of viable and costcompetitive options that can provide reliable and sustainable
energy services to displace traditional biomass, carbon-based
fuels, and fossil fuel grid-based electricity. Technologies available
include: renewables-based, isolated, small-scale electricity
generation systems and mini-gridsfor battery charging,
communications, and water pumpingas well as renewable
energy systems for space and water heating, cooling, and
clean cooking solutionsiv that replace open fires and inefficient
stoves. A variety of innovative, modular, sustainable, and locally
relevant renewable energy-based solutions are available to meet
the energy needs of individuals and communities, while also
increasing energy security, lowering fuel-related costs (including
fossil fuel subsidies), up-skilling the labour force, and easing the
burden of collecting fuelwood.
Developing countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America are

acknowledging the wide array of economic, environmental,
and health benefits that accrue from the inclusion of renewable
energy in their energy access programmes. These include
reductions in air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions,
the formation of new industries, and the creation of jobs.5 To
realise these benefits, many countries are moving away from
traditional fossil fuel-based systems and adopting decentralised
renewable-based systems to expand energy access.6
In recent years, the mini-grid sector has become one of the

most dynamic and fastest growing distributed renewable energy
sectors.7 An estimated 36% of all additional capacity added by
2030 is expected to come from mini-grid systems, and another
20% from stand-alone off-grid systems. As such, they are expected
to play a major role in enabling countries to meet the objectives
set by the United Nations Secretary Generals Sustainable Energy
for All (SE4ALL) initiative.8
One of the aims of the SE4ALL initiative is to help achieve the goal
of universal access to modern energy services by 2030. SE4ALL
has brought energy access issues to the political forefront,
while highlighting the potential for renewable energy combined
with energy efficiency improvements. More than 80 developing
countries had joined the initiative by early 2014, encompassing
about one-half of the target population; however, neither China
nor India was on board, and donor countries and agencies were
yet to make sizable financial commitments.9 Although progress
has been significant in the last few years, there is still a long way
to go to reach the goal of clean energy access for all.
Distributed renewable energy markets in developing countries
vary greatly among countries and regions in their levels
of electrification, access to clean cookstoves, as well as
financing models and supporting policies. Markets are shaped
by various actors at multiple levels of operation, including:
international and regional development agencies, which support
05

i - Predominantly in China, Uruguay, North Korea, and several countries in Eastern Europe.
ii - In Latin America, the absolute number of people without electricity access declined from 31 million to 24 million over this period, while the population
without electricity in developing Asia declined by 60 million, per IEA, World Energy Outlook 2011 (Paris: IEA/OECD, 2011) and IEA, World Energy Outlook 2013
(Paris: IEA/OECD, 2013).
iii - Developing Asia is defined by the IEA to include Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Chinese Taipei, DPR Korea, East Timor, India,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, PDR Laos, Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, and Other Asia.
iv - As defined by the International Finance Corporation, this includes all solar portable lanterns, hand crank, and pedal power technology.
93
SIDEBAR 9. DISTRIBUTED RENEWABLE ENERGY:

DEFINITION AND SCOPE
In this edition of the GSR, the former Rural Renewable
Energy section has been renamed Distributed Renewable
Energy in Developing Countries to describe more
accurately its scope of energy-related developments in
developing countries that are of a distributed nature.
Energy systems are considered to be distributed if (1) the
systems of production are relatively small and dispersed
(such as small-scale solar PV on rooftops), rather than
relatively large and centralised; (2) generation and
distribution occur independently from a centralised
network; or (3) both. For the purpose of this section,
distributed energy meets both conditions. It provides
energy services for electrification, cooking, heating, and
cooling that are generated and distributed independent
of any centralised system, in urban and rural areas of the
developing world.
Electricity systems fall into three main categories: large
centralised grid systems, mini-grids, and isolated systems.
All three may have distributed components, but only
the latter two are entirely distributed in nature. Most
people around the world, and particularly in developed
countries, are serviced by the electric grid, which is a
large-scale integrated generation, transmission, and
distribution network. Mini-grids vary in size and usually
service a cluster of households and businesses through an
independent distribution network, and most commonly in
remote areas. Isolated systems are employed in individual
homes or businesses, with all energy being consumed at
the site of generation.
Distributed electricity systems serve a variety of
objectives. In developed countries, distributed generating
assets are often used to reinforce power systems, thereby
increasing reliability. In developing countries, where
centralised grid systems fail to reach millions of people in
rural and remote locations, distributed systems are crucial
to providing access to electricity. Mini-grids offer a viable
solution in densely populated areas where, despite the
small per-household level of demand, the large number
of households and businesses provide a load sufficient
enough to justify the cost of mini-grid development.
Isolated home electricity systems are often the most
viable options for those rural households whose demand
is currently limited to a few hundred watts, primarily for
lighting and phone charging.
and fund large programmes that often cover several countries,

particularly in Africa and Asia; country-level programmes,
generally planned and implemented by national governments;
and community-level businesses and practitioners who work
with households directly and may represent the most innovative
operational level of the distributed renewable energy market.
The large diversity and number of actors in the field, the
decentralised nature of production and consumption of energy, as
well as the lack of co-ordination, make data collection and impact
assessment challenging, resulting in the absence of consolidated,
reliable data. However, data are available for many individual
programmes and countries. This section seeks to provide a
picture of the current status of distributed renewable energy
markets in rural and urban areas in developing countries, and
to present an overview of the major networks and programmes
that were operational in 2013 in the field of distributed renewable
energy. (See Reference Tables R22 and R23.)

TECHNOLOGIES
People in rural and remote regions are acquiring improved
access to energy in three ways: (1) at the household level, using
isolated devices and systems for power generation, heating, and
cooking; (2) through community-level mini-grid systems; and (3)
through grid-based electrification, where the grid is extended
beyond urban areas.10 This section focuses on the first two
(distributed) means of improving energy access. (See Sidebar 9.)
The installation and use of distributed renewable energy
technologies in remote and rural areas for electricity, cooking,
heating and cooling increased during 2013. This expansion
was a direct result of improved affordability, greater access to
financing, greater knowledge about local resources, and moreadvanced technologies that can be tailored to meet customers
specific needs.
The dramatic price reductions of the past few years have
rendered solar PV more affordable, even for very small-scale
applications. The popularity of solar lanterns, solar-pico PV
systems (SPS) (110 W capacity), and slightly larger solar home
systems (SHS) (10200 W), continued to rise in 2013. SPS
can be easily self-installed and are now commonly available
for providing basic services such as lighting, communications,
and battery or mobile phone charging. The availability of enduser appliances that can be powered by SHS continues to
expand, raising interest in these systems in rural areas. One of
the most successful SHS programmes has been carried out in
Bangladesh, where more than 2 million systems were installed
as of May 2013.11
Small-scale wind turbines (up to 50 kW) have experienced
performance improvements due to the emergence of advanced
materials and wireless technologies in recent years. During
2013, small-scale wind turbines were being used predominantly
for battery charging, telecommunications, irrigation, and water
pumping, where the variable nature of their generation can be
managed easily.12
One of the most successful programmes promoting the
deployment of small-scale, decentralised wind turbines is in Inner
Mongolia, China. In this area around 130,000 systems, each 200
1,000 W, were in operation as of early 2013, providing electricity
to more than 500,000 people. The programmes success has
94
Micro- and pico-hydro stations as small as 1 kW are common in

many countries, providing local communities with affordable
electricity.14 Typically, such hydro systems operate reliably for
at least 20 years and require minimal maintenance (other than
keeping the intake screen free of debris). Nepal had more than
2,500 micro- and pico-hydro systems installed by the end of
2012, with a total capacity of 20 MW.15 In addition, several 1 kW
systems have been installed in southern India, mostly by private
parties and without government support.16
To fuel engine-powered generators in a rising number of countries,
vegetable oils from coconut, jatropha, and other sources are
being used to displace diesel. In Thailand, biodiesel for electricity
generation is being produced on a small scale from used cooking
oil.17 In India, Vietnam, and elsewhere, biogas produced from dry
wood, weeds, and rice husks is used increasingly to fuel engines,
driving generator sets to supply electricity to mini-grids.18
Mini-grids are becoming increasingly prevalent around the world.19
Their technical evolution in the last few years, including the use of
modular technology to integrate renewables, has led to a scaling
up of renewables powered mini-grids. In addition, advances
in information and communication technology applications
for power management and end-user services are improving
metering and billing, load management, and remote diagnostics.20
As part of Indias programme to increase access to electricity, over
80 villages had operating mini-grids using gasifiers and locally
available biomass residues (including mustard stems, corn cobs,
and grasses procured from local farmers) by mid-2013.21
The rural heating and cooling sector has progressed due to
advances in technology, as well as to the increasing popularity
of programmes educating rural populations about the benefits
of using modern biomass and solar thermal systems for clean
cooking, and water and space heating.22 The Africa Clean
Cooking Energy Solutions Initiative was established to promote
enterprise-based large-scale dissemination and adoption of
clean cooking solutions in sub-Saharan Africa. The phased
implementation of this programme began in 2013 in consultation
with over 130 stakeholders from 26 African countries.23 To
date, however, there have been very few successful cases of
international, large-scale deployment of improved cookstoves.24
Clean cookstove designs are tremendously diverse, and new
ones are still emerging. Some models use alternative clean
fuels, whereas other advanced stove designs rely on traditional
biomass but increase the efficiency of the combustion process,
thereby reducing the amount of fuel consumed to provide the
same amount of heat. Biomass cookstove designs that can
achieve high levels of performance include forced air and gasifier
stoves, which lower emissions significantly and reduce fuel use
by 4060% relative to an open fire.25 Such efficient biomass
cookstoves are being sold for as little as USD 525 each.26
These advanced cookstoves rely primarily on the use of
traditional biomass from forest fuelwood, crop residues, and
animal dung. A wide variety of other fuels are also being used for
household cooking purposes (although at a far smaller scale).
These include ethanol, biogas, wood pellets, and solar energy,
as well as non-renewable fuels such as coal, kerosene, and
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).27
Simple anaerobic digester technology can produce clean
biogas fuel for cooking from animal manure, crop residues,
and other organic waste feedstocks. These biogas systems

perform better in warmer climates, but they can function under
a variety of conditions, and their numbers continue to increase.
Biogas is best suited for the estimated 155 million households
and commercial farms where sufficient animal manure (and
human waste) can be collected on a daily basis.28 Widespread
acceptance and dissemination of biogas technologies have yet
to materialise in many countries, due mainly to the high capital
cost, which makes even small-scale units unaffordable for poor
households.29
However, domestic-scale biogas installations have surged
in some countries in recent years, driven by a number of
international programmes.30 In 2013, China added 1.8 million
units to bring the total to more than 43.5 million, thereby
remaining the leader in the use of small-scale biogas plants.31
India constructed about 125,000 units during 2012, bringing
the total to nearly 4.7 million by early 2013.32 By the middle of
2013, Nepal had more than 290,500 biogas plants in use, due at
least in part to a multi-year government consumer subsidy, and
Kenya had more than 9,000 units in place.33
Under suitable circumstances, solar thermal cookers can save

time, work, money, and the need for combustible fuels. A large
number of solar cookers have been deployed in Nepal, especially
in refugee camps and small villages in the Himalayas.34 However,
solar cookers, once considered a popular choice, are now on a
waning trend.35 The cookers are unfamiliar to those accustomed
to preparing food over an open flame, often after the heat of the
day has passed, so adaptation to these stoves requires training
and follow-up.36
05
been attributed to the stability of the institutional frameworks over

the last two decades.13
The same is true for other cooking technologies. The transition

of advanced cookstoves from the laboratory to households is
not an easy task. Awareness-raising, targeted product trials,
demonstrations, and feasible financing mechanisms are often all
required to encourage people to move away from their traditional
cooking methods. Improved cookstoves that are designed
to operate similarly to traditional stoves have been accepted
culturally by many developing country households. However,
they continue to face severe market challenges in communities
with relatively easy access to traditional biomass fuels.37 In
cold climates, cookstoves are also often used to provide space
heating, which can influence the choice of stove design and fuel.
95
POLICY FRAMEWORKS
Across the developing world, there is an increasing realisation
that expanding electricity access cannot be achieved through
grid extension alone. There is also a growing recognition that
national policies, regulations, and targets play a pivotal role in
determining the investment and financing models that become
prevalent in distributed renewable energy markets.38 As a result,
more and more countries are integrating off-grid energy solutions
into broader rural development policies and frameworks.39
Increasingly, governments are moving away from top-down
approaches and towards frameworks that are broad-based,
support local private sector participation in the development
and management of energy systems, and provide environments
conducive to new investment.
Thus far, most policy frameworks developed for improving

energy access have emphasised electrification, with only
limited focus on clean cooking, heating, and cooling. Policies
that promote renewable energy and address barriers to their
use have played a critical role in accelerating deployment and
attracting investment to this sector. Programmes also continue
to advance as institutional, legal, and regulatory frameworks
evolve.40 For example, in response to favourable government
policy combined with rising consumer demand, Bangladesh
has been installing more than 1,000 SHS a day. Similarly, subSaharan Africa saw the number of manufacturers selling picopowered lighting systems increase fourfold between 2008 and
the end of 2012.41
Brazil, China, India, and South Africa have taken the lead in
developing large-scale, off-grid renewable energy programmes
that are making significant inroads into addressing the dual
challenges of energy access and sustainability.42 An important
success factor for renewable energy initiatives in these countries
has been their inclusion in broader long-term rural electrification
programmes that are supported politically and backed by
substantial and sustained public resource allocations.
For example, Brazils Light for All programme, completed in late
2013, was a decade-long effort to provide renewable electricity
to 15 million people in rural areas. The initiative included an
85% capital subsidy for mini-grids with a focus on renewable
energy, allowances for the use of prepaid metering, and the
inclusion of rural co-operatives as implementing agencies.43 It
96
was conceptualised and co-ordinated at the ministerial level and

implemented through rural electricity co-operatives, with nearly
75% of funding coming from the federal government and the
remainder from state governments and executor agents.44
In China, 36 million people acquired access to electricity
through off-grid sources between 1998 and 2012. As part of
China's 12th National Five-Year Plan, numerous Chinese local
power utilities are expected to install individual off-grid PV power
plants by the end of 2014 to ensure the establishment of a longterm operation and maintenance management system for these
PV plants before the end of 2015.45
Fiscal incentivessuch as loans, grants, and tax reductions
have been used successfully by many countries in their off-grid
renewable electricity programmes to address the barrier of
high upfront costs. While approaches vary by country, the most
common practice is to provide subsidies to encourage operators
to adopt renewable energy technologies when developing
electrification schemes in remote communities.46 Bangladesh,
for example, provides grants that cover up to one-third of the
capital costs of renewable energy systems along with longterm, low-interest loans with five-year grace periods.47 Mali
and Senegal established rural electrification funds to provide
financing for renewable energy concessions, with investment
subsidies of up to 80% of the upfront capital costs.48 Thailand
provides investment grants of 1030% for biogas and solar
water heating projects, including off-grid village-based projects
in remote areas.49 In several Brazilian states and a number
of other developing countries, distributed renewable energy
markets benefit from tax exemptions.50
Long-term and stable policy frameworks are important to
encourage the development of mini-grids, as are regimes
in which tariffs allow an attractive return on investment.51 A
number of countries now support the development of mini-grids
with public financing, usually in the form of capital subsidies.
Subsidies can encourage private developers to enter markets in
which tariffs alone are not commercially sustaining, consumers
cannot support the revenues required, or low population density
increases the costs of constructing distribution networks.52
Countries with subsidies for mini-grids include Mali, which offers
subsidies of up to 80% of investment costs, India (up to 90%),
and Afghanistan (90%).53 An increasing number of isolated
communities with mini-grids and stand-alone systems relies on
renewable energy resources rather than imported diesel fuel.54
However, not all countries support the development of miniutilities and mini-grids, and in some countries mini-grids are
subject to onerous regulations or tariffs that do not reflect actual
costs.55
To finance incentives and programmes that support distributed
renewable energy, developing countries rely on a blend of public
and private sector resources. The most notable public-private
partnership projectsbased on the volume of SHS and number
of solar kits deliveredare in Argentina, Bangladesh, China,
India, Indonesia, Mongolia, and Vietnam.56 They are carried out
jointly by national governments and major donor bodies, and
focus on replacing kerosene lanterns and diesel generators with
portable, sustainable, and affordable alternatives.57 Thailand
has a particularly progressive strategy in that renewable energy
deployment is financed partly through taxes on fossil fuel-based
energy consumption, helping to internalise some of the social
and environmental costs of fossil fuels and to level the playing
field for renewable energy.58
Formal targets remain a fundamental building block of initiatives

seeking to expand energy access using renewable energy.
Countries with electrification targets include Bangladesh,
Botswana, China, Ethiopia, Ghana, Malawi, the Marshall Islands,
Nepal, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, and Zambia. (See
Reference Table R20.)
Several countries set new targets for electrification and clean
cooking in 2013. For example, China announced plans to
provide electricity to the remaining 2.7 million people without
access by the end of 2015. Approximately 1.5 million of these
people will be supplied with electricity through grid extension,
and the others through local solar PV power stations.59 Ghana
was the first country to join the SE4ALL initiative, with a goal to
achieve 100% access by 2020 (10 years ahead of the SE4ALL
target). Currently, 35% of Ghanas population (more than 6.2
million people) still lacks access to electricity.60 In 2013, Fiji also
set a target of 100% access to clean cooking fuels and stoves (up
from the current 82%) by 2015.61
However, deployment of small-scale subsidised projects has
contributed only marginally to increasing energy accessdue
primarily to high transaction costs, a lack of long-term strategy,
and a focus on meeting only basic energy needs.62 Thus, it is now
widely accepted that electrification programmes should involve
a package of dedicated activities for promoting productive uses
of electricity if the goal is to significantly increase the incomes
of target populations.63 Further, the active participation of
local residents and capacity building of local and national
organisations and agencies is now recognised as being crucial
for the successful implementation of decentralised energy
solutions.64
To this end, several countries are actively engaging local
people in energy planning and decision making, promoting
energy literacy, and investing in capacity building of local and
national organisations and agencies.65 Nepal, for example,

has emphasized community mobilisation, sustainable rural
energy development, and advancement of institutional and
human resources, with efforts to increase public awareness and
develop human capacity through micro-hydro-related training
and workshops.66
Although the majority of policies enacted to date have focussed
on electrification, many developing countries have also adopted
programmes focussed on improving cooking and heating
systems as part of their efforts to achieve 100% energy access.
In Latin America and the Caribbean, where several countries
have achieved or are close to full electricity access, emphasis is
turning to the cooking and heating sector.67
Honduras, for example, includes the dissemination of clean cookstoves in its national Scaling up Renewable Energy programme,
which aims to transform the clean cookstove market by enabling
Figure31.
31. Share
with
Electricity
Access,
and Rate
Electrification
v. Population
Growth
Figure
ShareofofPopulation
Population
with
Electricity
Access,
and of
Rate
of Electrification
versus
Population Growth
%
8
+ 8.2
Growth in total population

Growth in population electrified
+ 6.8
Source: See
Endnotes 1 and 3
for this section.
Population electrified by 2013

6
5
+ 4.3
+ 3.5
+ 2.3
05
+ 3.0
+ 2.6
+ 1.5
Africa
43%
Developing Asia
83%
Latin America
95%
Middle East
91%
97

the development of new business models and strengthening
private sector capacity.68 The programme focusses on improving
cookstove design and quality, including component durability
and performance; developing a combination of standards and
rigorous monitoring and supervision; and achieving affordability
through a mix of direct incentives, micro-loans, and payments
for environmental services.69
India has also supported the dissemination of clean cookstoves,
and revisited its programme in 2013. India's National Programme
on Improved Cookstoves had some success at the state level,
but it faced challenges nationally due to lack of consumer
awareness, a dearth of sustainable financing sources, and issues
related to stove quality and upkeep.70 The focus was changed
from disbursement of cookstoves to a broader programme
aimed at delivering health benefits through clean biomass
combustion with quality control and monitoring efforts. Use of
traditional biomass, charcoal, and coal-fuelled cookstoves can
result in severe adverse health and environmental impacts from
black carbon and other particulate emissions. These emissions
cause as many as 4 million premature deaths globally every
year. Further, use of traditional biomass can accelerate rates of
land degradation and deforestation.71 Hence, the new initiative
has been well received even at the national level.72Markets and
Business Models
Historically, energy access programmes were developed and
implemented by national and local governments, international
development agencies, and non-governmental organisations. In
the last decade, the provision of energy services to rural markets
has evolved from a centralised, public sector-led approach to
one more focussed on public-private partnerships and private
ventures in which renewable energy plays a key role.
With the increasing awareness that off-grid, low-income
customers represent fast-growing markets for goods and
servicesas in the mobile phone marketand with the
emergence of new business and financing models for serving
them, rural energy markets are increasingly being recognised
as potential business opportunities.73 Further, there is a growing
awareness that isolated cooking and electricity systems,
particularly those based on renewables, are often the most
cost-effective options available for providing energy services to
households and businesses in remote areas. This is increasingly
the case as technologies continue to improve and costs decline.
As a result, a growing number of partiesranging from
international businesses to small- and medium-scale businesses
and initiativeshave established themselves in the distributed
renewable energy market.74 Many companies are now active
across Africa, Asia, and Latin America, selling household-level
energy systems and devices, with several already serving tens
to hundreds of thousands of customers.75 Commercial lenders
and banks, social venture capitalists, local development banks,
philanthropists, governments, and international development
agencies are all actively engaged in the financing of distributed
renewable energy. However, participation varies from country
to country depending on political stability, support policies,
broader legal frameworks, and other factors.
Innovative multi-stakeholder business models continue to
emerge for providing customised and financially sustainable
services based on renewable energy across the spectrum of rural
energy needs. Characteristics of these business models include
public-private partnerships, pay-as-you-go micro-payment
98
options, one-stop-shops, leasing, franchise, and service

models.
The public-private partnership model first gained popularity in
the 1990s, when public and private partners collaborated in
the implementation and financing of energy access projects.
All movable assets were owned by the private sector, while fixed
assets, such as power plants and distribution lines, were publicly
owned. The plant was managed by the village committee and
designed based on customer needs, with customers being
allotted energy blocks according to their energy demand
requirements and capacity to pay. This model is being replicated
in the Philippines, Nepal, and other Asian countries.76
Pay-as-you-go (PAYG) micro-payment schemes have become
one of the most popular business models. They are especially
effective for solar technologies such as solar-powered charger
kits because price levels and schedules are set to match
customers variable cash flows and their energy consumption
patterns.77 Under such schemes, customers typically pay a
small upfront fee for a solar charger kit, a portable system that
includes a 25 W solar PV panel, and a control unit that can
be used for powering LED lights and charging devices such as
mobile phones. They then pay for the energy they need, either
in advance or on a regular basis, depending on consumption.
Pre-existing distribution systems for mobile phones increase
the efficiency of PAYG schemes because customers can make
payments in small increments by phone as they do for mobile
usage. Usually, solar kits are paid off after about 18 months, at
which time customers own the kits and receive the subsequent
electricity for free.78
An increasing number of households in sub-Saharan Africa
are accessing energy through the PAYG system, paying about
half of what it would cost them to get the same services with
kerosene.79 Such schemes were also used in India during 2013
to provide off-grid and decentralised solar power. However, some
challenges still need to be addressed. For example, companies
face severe cash flow constraints when consumers default on
payments because the market currently lacks debt-servicing
instruments.80
One-stop-shop models are also expanding in use. Under this
model, a single organisation both sells the renewable energy
home systems and provides loans to pay for them. This is
common in Bangladesh, where one organisation sells SHS with

a 15% down-payment, provides customers with three-year loans
at 6%, after-sale services, and long-term product warranties.
It also provides technical training across rural Bangladesh and
trains entrepreneurs, particularly women, to become owners of
their own renewable energy businesses.81
Under leasing arrangements, the customer leases the energy
system for extended periods of time, or leases it for a fixed period
before eventually owning it and so is spared the high upfront
costs. In Honduras and the Dominican Republic, companies
provide SHS services via either direct lease or lease-to-own
arrangements.82
In franchise models, local entrepreneurs in rural areas are
trained to run micro-enterprises. A variation of this model is used
for the Lighting a Billion Lives campaign in India, which is helping
to set up solar businesses that rent out charged solar lanterns on
a daily basis in poorly electrified villages.83
renewable-based mini-utilities can have high maintenance

requirements.85 Monthly charges can represent significant
expenditures for households, but they are attractive in many
locations where people are already paying similar amounts for
kerosene and appliance-charging services.86
Business models used in the cooking and heating markets also
vary. Often, cookstove companies are indigenous enterprises
that employ members of the local community to manufacture
clean stoves that are adapted to local conditions and norms.87
Increasingly, international players that provide high-quality
but generally more expensive products are becoming engaged
in the sector. They often work with public sector partners to
help market the stoves and to educate consumers about their
benefits.88
Mini-utilitiessmall, decentralised businesses that run minigridsare also found increasingly in poor rural areas across the
developing world. They vary significantly in size, rely on a range
of generation technologies, and often provide enough power for
productive uses such as water pumping, milling, and grinding,
in addition to meeting basic household needs. Many such
companies use renewables in mini-grid systems to keep costs
down and make them more stable relative to diesel, although
Throughout the developing world, technological advancements

and falling prices are enabling renewables to spread rapidly to
new markets in rural and remote areas.92 Renewable energy
technologies, combined with business models adapted to
specific countries or regions, have proven to be reliable and
affordable methods for achieving access to modern energy
services, advancing quality of life, and improving human and
environmental health.
05
Rural customers can be difficult to reach, particularly in regions

where roads are poor or non-existent, or during rainy seasons.
Establishing rural supply chains and after-sales service through
franchise and other business models, with technicians and
engineers living and working near their customers, helps to
develop trust in a product and supplier while also ensuring that
systems keep operating and that needed repairs are carried out
quickly.84
Crowdfundingi is also starting to play a role in providing energy

access. It is a potentially significant source of financing for
the distributed off-grid market, which relies on small-scale
investments typically of a few thousand dollars per system.89
To date, many mainstream investors have tended to avoid
small levels of funding since they carry high transaction costs.
Crowdfunding allows individual private investors to make
payments to local partners via an online platform; over time, the
partner makes repayments to the funder who, in turn, repays
investors.90 A recent example is a portal that raised more than
USD 15,000 to fund solar kits for lighting and mobile phone
charging systems for 19,000 households in Uganda.91
i - Crowdfunding is the mechanism by which small companies and start-ups raise capital from many small investors, in return for an equity stake, structured
payments, products, or a combination thereof.
99
The GSR drives informed decisions

by providing timely and reliable
renewable energy data.
06
06 TRACKING THE GLOBAL

ENERGY TRANSITION
A DECADE OF UNPRECEDENTED MOMENTUM FOR RENEWABLES
Christine Lins (Executive Secretary of REN21)

Hannah Murdock (REN21 Secretariat)
The evolution of renewable energy over the past decade has
surpassed all expectations. Global installed capacity and
production from all renewable technologies have increased
substantially, and supporting policies have continued to spread
to more countries in all regions of the world.
REN21 was the first international organisation to begin tracking
renewable energy development after its founding in 2004, and it
has continued to provide the most comprehensive global outlook on
the state of renewables each year. The REN21 Renewables Global
Status Report (GSR) has become increasingly comprehensive
during the past decade as the landscape of renewable energy
has become ever-more complex. While the first GSR was written
by a single person with input from a small network of experts,
today it draws on an international network of over 500 people, who
participate collaboratively in its production.
Hydropower continues to claim the largest share of renewable

electric capacity and generation worldwide.3 In 2004,
hydropower dwarfed all other renewable electricity technologies,
but today non-hydro renewables generate large and growing
shares of electricity in an increasing number of countries. While
hydropower leads globally in terms of electricity generation,
biomass accounts for the largest portion of renewable energy
production. The share of traditional biomass in global primary
energy has held steady or declined in the past decade, while
modern biomass has gained ground.4
REN21s 10th anniversary this year provides the opportunity

to reflect on the remarkable advances of renewable energy
technologies over the past decade and to consider their promise
for the future.
Developments in the early 2000s showed upwards trends in global

renewable energy investment, capacity, and integration across
all sectors. Yet most mainstream projections did not predict the
extraordinary expansion of renewables that was to unfold over the
decade ahead. Scenarios from the renewable energy industry, the
International Energy Agency, the World Bank, Greenpeace, and
others all projected levels of renewable energy for the year 2020
that were already well exceeded by 2010.1
Several factors set the foundation for this rapid growth. Energy
crises beginning in the 1970s, and economic downturns
following each global oil shock, underscored the role of energy
in national and economic security. At the same time, a handful
of pioneering countriessuch as Germany, Denmark, Spain,
and the United Statescreated critical early markets for
renewables, which drove early technological advances and
economies of scale, setting the stage and helping to fuel the
past decade of explosive market expansion. Growing emphasis
on mitigating climate change and adapting to its impacts has
further contributed to the momentum.
Renewable energys contribution to the global heat, power, and
transport sectors has increased steadily; growth in renewables
share of total energy use has been moderated by increases
in both population and world energy demand, most notably
in developing and emerging economies.2 Renewable energy
markets and technology developments have accelerated
quickly, even compared to other rapidly developing technologies
such as mobile phones.
Wind capacity has grown by a factor of more than eight since

the beginning of 2004. Dynamic wind power markets are now
located throughout the world rather than just in a few countries
in Europe and the United States, as they were back in 2004. By
the end of 2013, 24 countries had more than 1,000 MW of wind
capacity, including emerging economies such as China, India,
and Brazil, which have experienced rapid growth.5 The average
size of installed wind turbines has doubled over the past 10
years, and technological improvements have reduced the costs
of wind-generated electricity significantly, making wind power
competitive with new fossil fuels in many markets today.6
06
EXPANSION BEYOND EXPECTATIONS
Solar PV has been the fastest growing energy technology by

far, with global capacity experiencing an extraordinary 53-fold
increase between the beginning of 2004 and the end of 2013.7
The last decade has seen a spectacular decline in solar PV costs
due to technology advances, the increasing scale of industrial
production, and improved efficiency of solar PV cells and modules.
With a learning rate of 1822% for each doubling of installed
capacity, solar PV module prices have dropped dramatically over
the past two decades; prices fell 60% during 20112012 alone.8
In the solar PV industry, the most striking development has been
seen in China, which now dominates global module production.
Also, China has risen from near-zero levels 10 years ago to become
the worlds largest market in 2013.9
101
06 FEATURE: TRACKING THE GLOBAL ENERGY TRANSITION

During the same period, concentrating solar thermal power
(CSP) capacity increased nearly 10-fold.10 Investment has
moved beyond the traditional markets of Spain and the United
States, with increasing development in South Africa, the Middle
East and North Africa (MENA) region, Asia, and Latin America.
Declining costs have played a significant role in the expansion

of renewable energy deployment in recent years. Now, several
renewable energy technologies are cost competitive with
conventional generation technologies, even before considering
environmental and other externalities.15
The use of geothermal energy for the generation of electricity

and heat has seen steady expansion. Furthermore, ocean
technologies for electricity generation have evolved significantly
throughout the last 10 years.
As a result, companies have begun to realise that making the

switch to renewable energy in conjunction with energy efficiency
measures can reduce their energy costs while helping them
to tackle sustainability concerns. An increasing number of
companies, large and small, are either purchasing renewable
electricity from utilities and other providers, or installing and
operating renewable energy capacity at their own facilities.
Furthermore, recent years have seen the rise of self-generation
at the household level, as well as the spread of cooperative and
community-owned renewable energy projects.
Although the last decade has seen tremendous advances in the

electricity sector, the renewable heating and cooling sector has
lagged behind. This is despite the marked significant growth
over the past decade in the use of geothermal, solar thermal,
and biomass heating technologies for water and space heating,
process heat, and cooling.11 Given that the share of heating
and cooling in final energy demand is much higher than that of
electricity, fostering growth of renewable energy in this sector is
of particular importance.
In the transport sector, the use of renewable energy in the form
of biofuels grew at a rapid pace for much of the decade ending
with 2013. Biodiesel production increased 15-fold, while ethanol
production grew nearly fourfold (from much higher levels).12 Over
the past decade, gaseous biofuels have seen small but growing
markets in the transport sector, and initiatives to link renewable
energy with electric transport also have emerged.13
A DECADE OF CHANGE
Global perceptions of renewable energy have shifted
considerably since 2004, when people widely acknowledged
the potential of renewable energy, but large-scale deployment
still had to be demonstrated. Over the last 10 years, continuing
technology advances and rapid deployment of many renewable
energy technologies, particularly in the electricity sector, have
demonstrated that their potential can be achieved.
Today, renewable energy technologies are not only viewed as
tools for improving energy security and mitigating and adapting
to climate change, but are also increasingly being recognised
as investments that can provide direct and indirect economic
advantages by reducing dependence on imported fuels, improving
local air quality and safety, advancing energy access and security,
propelling economic development, and creating jobs.14
Extraordinary growth in renewable energy markets and their

global spread have led to a significant rise in the number of
manufacturers, the scale of manufacturing, and the number
of jobs in installation and servicing of renewable energy
technologies, as well as expansion into new markets. This is
particularly true for the solar PV and wind power industries,
which have experienced industry consolidation simultaneously.
Ten years ago, most deployment and manufacturing of renewable
energy occurred in Europe, the United States, and Japan. Since
then, markets, manufacturing, and investment have shifted to
other regions. China has become the world leader in renewables
manufacturing and installed capacity, having increased
investment in the sector nearly every year for the past decade.16
Increasing amounts of money are now flowing to developing and
emerging countries across Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the
Middle East, in response to the rapid growth in energy demand
and growing interest in renewables in these regions.
Foreign direct investment in renewable energy and the
mobilisation of private capital in emerging economies has also
contributed to the past decade of growth across technologies
and regions. Nonetheless, many of the countries that led global
markets in 2004 continue to do so. These paved the way for
technology advances and market expansion through early
investment in technology and policy design.
As renewables have spread across the globe, they have seen
growing use in remote and rural areas of the developing world.
Renewable electricity in rural areas has continued to become
more affordable and diversified in both application and size as
technology has advanced, prices have decreased, knowledge
of local renewable resources has improved, and new business
and financing models have emerged.17 Parallel advances in
electronics, management systems, mobile phones, and other
technologies have also reduced the costs of renewable energy
systems and services while extending their reach.
Over the past decade, the share of people who lack access to
modern energy services has fallen by nearly 10 percentage
points (down from almost 25%), even as the global population
has expanded significantly.18 Renewables have played a role
in this advancement. However, advances are not spread
evenly geographically, leaving large areas of Africa still without
access to modern energy services. Renewables are uniquely
positioned to provide energy access in a sustainable manner,
more rapidly and generally at lower cost than their alternatives.
The UN Secretary Generals Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL)
102
initiative, launched in 2012, aims to further boost international

development in the fields of energy access, renewable energy
deployment, and energy efficiency. While some countries had
already established targets for 100% energy access, SE4ALL
has encouraged many more countries to commit to this goal.19
The last decade has also brought a series of institutional
changes. REN21the Renewable Energy Policy Network for the
21st Centurywas created as an outcome of the Renewables
2004 conference in Bonn, Germany. REN21 was established as
the multi-stakeholder coalition of the willing, bringing together
key actors from both the private and public sector to facilitate a
rapid global transition to renewable energy. Five years later, the
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) was founded
and, by early 2014, it already counted 130 member countries,
demonstrating the interest of most countries around the world
in advancing renewable energy. Throughout the decade, the
International Energy Agency has scaled up its analytical work on
renewable energy, and all of these organisations work together
closely to raise the profile of renewable energy.
INVESTMENT ON THE RISE

Reflecting these developments, global investment in renewable
power capacity and fuels increased more than fivefold over
the period 20042013.20 In terms of net additions to electric
generating capacity, global annual investments in renewable
energy have exceeded those for fossil fuels since 2009.21 Total
global investment (both public and private) in R&D for renewable
energy technologies has nearly doubled over the past decade.22
THE EVOLVING POLICY LANDSCAPE

The global policy landscape has largely driven the expansion
of renewable energy technologies by attracting investment
and creating markets that brought about economies of scale
and supported technology advances. This in turn, led to
decreasing costs, which ultimately fuel sustained growth. A
handful of countriesparticularly Germany, Denmark and
Spainled the way and created innovative policies that drove
much of the change witnessed over the past decade. Today,
Germanys commitment to the Energiewendethe transition
to a sustainable economy based on renewable energy and
energy efficiencyas well as Denmarks commitment to 100%
renewable energy by 2050, are inspiring many other countries
around the globe to aim high for the coming decades.
Since 2004, the number of countries promoting renewable
energy with direct policy support has tripled, from 45 to 137,
and an ever-increasing number of developing and emerging
countries is setting renewable energy targets and enacting
support policies.28 Policy targets have become increasingly
ambitious, while their focus has expanded to include heating,
cooling, and transport, in addition to electricity.
Commercial banks were just starting to enter the renewable

energy sector in 2004, at a time when the majority of financiers
and other investors considered most renewable technologies to
be unproven and too risky. Today commercial banks are joined
by pension funds, insurance companies, major corporations
(including several outside of the energy industry), and others
looking for stable, long-term returns.
Now that renewables are becoming economically competitive
and investors are increasingly recognising their value, a key to
further development will be the design of effective financing
tools to overcome initial investment costs. Several financial
innovations have been developed since 2004. Recently,
investment firms introduced tools such as Sustainable Yield
Bonds in the United States, Green Bonds in France and the
United States, and the Renewable Financing Company Bonds
in the United Kingdom.27 Further innovations, ranging from
crowd funding to new ownership models (such as leasing), are
making it possible for individuals and communities to invest in
renewable energy.
In parallel, policy mechanisms have continued to evolve, including

the use of policy instruments differentiated by technology, the
evolution of feed-in policies towards premium payments, as well
as the spreading of policy frameworks to promote renewable
energy use for heating and cooling. Globally, renewable energy
targets together with feed-in tariffs have had the biggest impact
on renewable energy market introduction. Feed-in policies now
exist on every continent, with Jordan, Nigeria, Rwanda, Uganda,
the Palestinian Territories, Kazakhstan, and Ecuador being among
the most recent countries to enact them.29
06
Investment in utility-scale electricity projects (asset finance) has

played the largest role in the growth of the renewable energy
sector, with a 33% compound annual growth rate from 2004
to 2011, although investment in this area has fallen slightly in
recent years. Investment in small-scale distributed generating
capacity has seen significant growth since 2004, decreasing
only slightly since record levels were reached in 2011.24 Declines
have resulted from policy uncertainty in several countries, but
have also reflected a steep decline in system prices for solar PV.25
While public market investment in renewables has fluctuated
over the past decade, it has maintained multibillion-dollar levels
since taking off in 2005.26
In many countries, particularly in Europe, variable renewables

have achieved high shares of penetration in the electricity sector
very rapidly. Existing power systems were not designed to cope
with such a situation. In response, policy mechanisms that focus
on market design are emerging to address needs relating to
balancing and increased system flexibility, as well as financial
compensation for these services. Policies are also starting to
address the need for expanded and improved grid infrastructure,
and increasingly they include new tools and technologies to
support renewables, such as energy storage and smart grids.
103
06 FEATURE: TRACKING THE GLOBAL ENERGY TRANSITION
A PROMISING FUTURE FOR RENEWABLES

In contrast to 2004, the use of renewable energy technologies
to provide electricity, heating and cooling, and transportation is
now widely spread across the globe, and recent trends suggest
sustained growth worldwide. A decade ago, renewables had a
strong appeal to those who were interested in moving away from
conventional fuels for environmental reasons. Today, renewables
have demonstrated that, in addition to their environmental
benefits, they are also economic drivers, creating jobs, helping
to diversify revenue streams, and stimulating new technological
developments.
While Europe has been the centre of most such changes to

date, countries in other regions are moving quickly in this
direction as their shares of renewable energy increase. Policies
that encourage local value creation (such as capacity building)
also have begun to emerge in many countries. Recently, as
renewable energy shares continue to rise, regulations that
focus on mandatory grid connection and priority dispatch are
becoming increasingly important.
The past decade has witnessed profound change on the local
level as well. Ten years ago, the majority of local governments
did not consider the potential role for renewables in their energy
supply. Over the past decade, many of them have become
leaders in the advancement of renewable energyparticularly
in combination with energy efficiency improvementsregularly
exceeding efforts taken by state, provincial, and national
governments. Hundreds of local governments worldwide have
set renewable energy targets and enacted fiscal incentives or
other policies to foster the deployment of renewables, driven
by the desire to create local jobs, reduce energy costs, address
pollution issues, and advance their sustainability goals.30
International organisations dedicated to supporting sustainability
measures in local governments, such as the Covenant of Mayors
and ICLEILocal Governments for Sustainability, have seen their
memberships skyrocket and their influence spread around the
globe.
Around the world, governments at the community, city, regional,
island, and even country levels have begun to forge their own
transition pathways towards a 100% renewable energy future.
They are debunking myths about renewables and proving
that 100% renewable energyin close conjunction with
energy efficiency and conservationis technically feasible,
economically advantageous, and socially desirable.31
While the picture in much of the world has grown increasingly
bright, some countriesparticularly in Europehave reduced
renewable energy support, sometimes retroactively, in the past
few years. This is the case especially where electricity demand
has declined in response to economic slowdown, and where an
overcapacity of conventional power exists. To date, however,
the European Union is on track to meet its member-agreed
binding target to increase the share of renewables in final energy
consumption to 20% by 2020.32 Reportedly, three EU Member
States (Bulgaria, Estonia, and Sweden) already reached their
2020 targets in 2012.33 Discussions about setting 2030 EU
climate and energy targets are ongoing.
104
The share of renewables in global electricity generation

continues to increase while the share of nuclear power has been
declining over the past decade.34 The idea of achieving very high
shares of non-hydro renewable energy was quite radical 10 years
ago, yet today it is considered feasible by many experts. Several
local, regional, and national governments around the world have
committed to 100% renewable energy in one or more sectors
within the coming decades.
Nonetheless, the renewable energy sector still faces numerous
challenges. Enormous subsidies for fossil fuels and nuclear
power persist, and they continue to vastly outweigh financial
incentives for renewables. Many countries are directing
increasing resources towards the exploration and extraction
of unconventional fossil resources, while most governments
remain reluctant to internalise the external costs associated with
the extraction and use of fossil fuels.
Further advances and investment in renewable energy, as
well as improvements in energy efficiency, must continue if
the increase in global temperature is to be limited to 2C. For
this to happen, stable and predictable policy frameworks are
key. Integrated policy approaches that incorporate energy
efficiencyconsidered as the low-hanging fruit on the path
to sustainabilitywill further facilitate the global transition to
renewable energy.
The past decade has set the wheels in motion for this transition,
but a concerted and sustained effort will be required to fully
achieve it. With increasingly ambitious targets, innovative
policies, and technological advances, renewables can continue
to surpass expectations and foster a cleaner energy future.
TABLE R1. GLOBAL RENEWABLE ENERGY CAPACITY AND BIOFUEL PRODUCTION, 2013
ADDED DURING 2013
EXISTING AT END-2013
88
Geothermal power
0.5
12
Hydropower
40
1,000
Ocean power
~0
0.5
Solar PV
39
139
Concentrating solar thermal power (CSP)
0.9
3.4
Wind power
35
318
296
Geothermal heating1
1.3
23
Solar collectors for water heating2
44
326
Ethanol production
4.6
87
Biodiesel production
2.7
26
Hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO)
0.4
POWER GENERATION (GW)

Bio-power
HEATING / HOT WATER (GWth)

Modern bio-heat
TRANSPORT FUELS (billion litres/year)
Estimates for 2013 do not include ground-source heat pumps in the geothermal direct use total. See Methodological Notes on page 142.
Solar collector capacity is for glazed and unglazed water systems only (not including air collectors, which account for another estimated 3.6 GWth total at
end-2013). Additions are net; gross additions were estimated at 57 GWth. Note that past editions of this table have not considered unglazed water collectors.
Note: Numbers are rounded to nearest GW/GWth /billion litres, except for numbers <5, which are rounded to nearest decimal point; where totals do not add up,
the difference is due to rounding. Rounding is to account for uncertainties and inconsistencies in available data. For more precise data, see Reference Tables
R2R10, Market and Industry Trends section and related endnotes.
105
REFERENCE TABLES
TABLE R2. RENEWABLE ELECTRIC POWER GLOBAL CAPACITY, TOP REGIONS/COUNTRIES, 2013
World
TECHNOLOGY
EU-28
BRICS
China
United
States
Germany
GW
Spain
Italy
India
GW
Bio-power
88
35
24
6.2
15.8
8.1
4.4
Geothermal power
12
0.1
~0
3.4
~0
0.9
Hydropower
1,000
124
437
260
78
5.6
17.1
18.3
44
Ocean power
0.5
0.2
~0
~0
~0
~0
Solar PV
139
80
21
19.9
12.1
36
5.6
17.6
2.2
Concentrating solar
thermal power (CSP)
3.4
2.3
0.1
~0
0.9
~0
2.3
~0
0.1
Wind power
318
117
115
91
61
34
23
8.6
20
Total renewable
power capacity
(including hydropower)
1,560
360
599
378
172
84
49
49
71
Total renewable
power capacity
(not including hydropower)
560
235
162
118
93
78
32
31
27
Per capita capacity

(Watts / inhabitant,
not including hydropower)
80
470
50
90
300
960
690
510
20
Note: Global total reflects additional countries not shown. Table shows the top six countries by total renewable power capacity, not including hydropower;
if hydro were included, countries and rankings would differ somewhat. Numbers are based on best data available at time of production. To account for uncertainties and inconsistencies in available data, numbers are rounded to the nearest 1 GW, with the exception of the following: global data for total renewable
power capacity with and without hydropower are rounded to nearest 10 GW, totals below 20 GW are rounded to the nearest decimal point, and per capita
numbers are rounded to the nearest 10 W. Where totals do not add up, the difference is due to rounding. Capacity amounts of <50 MW (including pilot projects)
are designated by ~0. For more precise data, see Global Overview and Market and Industry Trends sections and related endnotes. Numbers should not be
compared with prior versions of this table to obtain year-by-year increases, as some adjustments are due to improved or adjusted data rather than to actual
capacity changes. Hydropower totals, and therefore the total world renewable capacity (and totals for some countries), do not include pure pumped storage
capacity. Also note that the GSR 2013 reported a global total of 990 GW of hydropower capacity at the end of 2012; this figure has been revised downward,
affecting also the global total for all renewables. Bio-power data reflect an effort to include only the organic component that is not incinerated.
For more information see Methodological Notes on page 142.
106
TABLE R3. WOOD PELLETS GLOBAL TRADE, 2013

EXPORTER
IMPORTER
VOLUME
kilotonnes
Australia
EU-27
31
Belarus
EU-27
134
EU-27
187
Canada
EU-27
2,093
Canada
Japan
50
Canada
South Korea
50
Canada
United States
30
Croatia
EU-27
165
Egypt
EU-27
16
EU-27
Switzerland
39
EU-27
Norway
18
Norway
EU-27
60
Russia
EU-27
642
Serbia
EU-27
55
Southeast Asia1
Japan
100
Southeast Asia1
South Korea
100
Ukraine
EU-27
159
United States
EU-27
2,828
Other
EU-27
19
Primarily China, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam.
107
REFERENCE TABLES
TABLE R4. BIOFUELS GLOBAL PRODUCTION, TOP 16 COUNTRIES AND EU-27, 2013
COUNTRY
FUEL
ETHANOL
BIODIESEL
HVO
TOTAL
COMPARISON WITH
TOTAL VOLUMES
PRODUCED IN 2012
billion litres
United States
50.3
4.8
55.4
+1.2
Brazil
25.5
2.9
0.3
28.4
+4.1
Germany
0.8
3.1
3.9
+0.2
France
1.0
2.0
3.0
+0.1
Argentina
0.5
2.3
2.7
-0.3
The Netherlands
0.3
0.4
2.5
no change
China
2.0
0.2
2.2
-0.1
Indonesia
0.0
2.0
2.0
+0.2
Thailand
1.0
1.1
2.0
+0.5
Canada
1.8
0.2
0.93
0.2
0.9
Singapore
Poland
1.7
0.9
2.0
+0.1
1.8
+0.9
1.2
+0.3
Colombia
0.4
0.6
0.9
no change
Belgium
0.4
0.4
0.8
no change
Spain
0.4
0.3
0.7
-0.2
Australia
0.3
0.4
0.6
no change
EU-27
4.5
10.5
1.8
16.8
1.3
World
87.2
26.3
3.0
116.6
7.7
Note: All figures are rounded to the nearest 0.1 billion litres; comparison column notes no change if difference is less than 0.05 billion litres.
Ethanol numbers are for fuel ethanol only. Table ranking is by total volumes of biofuel produced in 2013 (from preliminary data), and not by energy content.
Where numbers do not add up, it is due to rounding.
108
TABLE R5. GEOTHERMAL POWER GLOBAL CAPACITY AND ADDITIONS, TOP 6 COUNTRIES, 2013
NET ADDED 2013
TOTAL END-2013
MW
GW
United States
84
3.4
Philippines
20
1.9
Indonesia
1.3
Mexico
10
1.0
Italy
0.9
196
0.9
TOP COUNTRIES BY TOTAL CAPACITY
New Zealand
TOP COUNTRIES BY NET ADDITIONS
New Zealand
196
0.9
Turkey
112
0.3
United States
84
3.4
Kenya
36
0.2
Philippines
20
1.9
Mexico
10
1.0
465
12
World Total
109
REFERENCE TABLES
TABLE R6. HYDROPOWER GLOBAL CAPACITY AND ADDITIONS, TOP 6 COUNTRIES, 2013
NET ADDED 2013
Total End-2013
GW
GW
China
28.7
260
Brazil
1.5
86
TOP COUNTRIES BY TOTAL CAPACITY
United States
0.2
78
Canada
0.5
76
Russia
0.7
47
India
0.8
44
China
28.7
260
TOP COUNTRIES BY NET ADDITIONS
Turkey
2.9
22
Brazil
1.5
86
Vietnam
1.3
14
India
0.8
44
Russia
0.7
47
World Total
40
1,000
Note: Capacity additions are rounded to the nearest 0.1 GW and totals are rounded to the nearest 1.0 GW. Data reflect a variety of sources, some of which
differ quite significantly, reflecting variations in accounting and methodology. For more information and statistics, see Hydropower text and related endnotes in
Markets and Industry Trends section and Methodological Notes on page 142.
110
TABLE R7. SOLAR PV GLOBAL CAPACITY AND ADDITIONS, TOP 10 COUNTRIES, 2013
COUNTRY
TOTAL END-2012
ADDED 2013
TOTAL END-2013
GW
Germany
China
32.6
3.3
35.9
7.0
12.9
19.9
Italy
16.4
1.5
17.6
Japan
6.6
6.9
13.6
United States
7.2
4.8
12.1
Spain
5.4
0.2
5.6
France
4.0
0.6
4.6
United Kingdom
1.8
1.5
3.3
Australia
2.4
0.8
3.3
Belgium
2.7
0.2
3.0
Rest of World
13.8
6.5
20.2
World Total
100
39
139
Note: Countries are ordered according to total operating capacity at the end of 2013. Top countries for capacity added in 2013 were China, Japan, United
States, Germany, United Kingdom, Italy, India (added 1.1 GW for total of 2.3 GW), Romania (added 1.1 GW for total of 1.2 GW), Greece (added 1 GW for total
of 2.6 GW), and Australia. The top 10 countries for total year-end 2012 capacity were Germany, Italy, United States, China, Japan, Spain, France, Belgium,
Australia, and the Czech Republic (see GSR 2013, Reference Table R5). Country and Rest of World data are rounded to the nearest 0.1 GW; World totals are
rounded to nearest 1 GW. Rounding is to account for uncertainties and inconsistencies in available data; where totals do not add up, the difference is due to
rounding. Data for Japan and Spain are converted from data reported in direct current (DC). Data reflect a variety of sources, some of which differ quite significantly, reflecting variations in accounting or methodology. For more information, see Solar PV text and related endnotes in Market and Industry Trends section.
111
REFERENCE TABLES
TABLE R8. CONCENTRATING SOLAR THERMAL POWER (CSP) GLOBAL CAPACITY AND ADDITIONS, 2013
COUNTRY
TOTAL END-2012
ADDED 2013
TOTAL END-2013
1,950
350
2,300
507
375
882
100
100
India
50
50
MW
Spain
United States
Algeria
25
25
Egypt
20
20
Morocco
20
20
Australia
12
12
China
10
10
Thailand
2,540
885
3,425
World Total
Note: Table includes countries with operating commercial CSP capacity at end-2013. Several additional countries had small pilot plants in operation by years
end, including France (at least 0.75 MW), Germany (1.5 MW), Israel (6 MW), Italy (5 MW), and South Korea (0.2 MW). GSR 2013 also included 10 MW in Chile;
this was removed because capacity is actually for process heat. National data are rounded to nearest MW, and world totals are rounded to nearest 5 MW.
Rounding is to account for uncertainties and inconsistencies in available data; where totals do not add up, the difference is due to rounding.
112
TABLE R9. SOLAR WATER HEATING COLLECTORS GLOBAL CAPACITY AND ADDITIONS, TOP 12 COUNTRIES, 2012
ADDED 2012
TOTAL 2012
GWth
COUNTRY
GWth
Glazed
Unglazed
Total
Glazed
Unglazed
Total
China
44.7
44.7
180.4
180.4
United States
0.2
0.5
0.7
1.9
14.3
16.2
Germany
0.8
0.8
11.4
0.4
11.8
Turkey
1.1
1.1
10.8
10.8
Brazil
0.4
0.4
0.8
4.2
1.6
5.8
Australia
0.2
0.5
0.6
2.1
3.0
5.1
India
1.0
1.0
4.5
4.5
Austria
0.1
~0
0.1
3.1
0.4
3.4
Japan
0.1
0.1
3.1
3.1
Israel
0.2
~0
0.2
2.9
~0
2.9
Greece
0.2
0.2
2.9
2.9
Italy
0.2
0.2
2.4
~0
2.4
Rest of World
4.3
0.3
4.6
28.2
4.0
32.1
World Total
54
1.7
55
258
24
282
Note: Countries are ordered according to total installed capacity. Data are for glazed and unglazed water collectors; air collectors add almost 1.7 GWth to the
year-end world total. Additions represent gross capacity added; total numbers include allowances for retirements. Country and rest of world data are rounded to
nearest 0.1 GWth; world totals are rounded to nearest 1 GWth, with the exception of added unglazed capacity. Where totals do not add up, the difference is due to
rounding. Small amounts, on the order of a few MWth, are designated by ~0. By accepted convention, 1 million square metres = 0.7 GWth. The year 2012 is the
most recent one for which firm global data and most country statistics are available. It is estimated, however, that 330 GWth of solar thermal capacity (including
325.9 GWth of water collectors and 3.6 GWth of air collectors) was in operation worldwide by the end of 2013. For 2013 details and source information, see Solar
Thermal Heating and Cooling text and related endnotes in Market and Industry Trends section.
113
REFERENCE TABLES
TABLE R10. WIND POWER GLOBAL CAPACITY AND ADDITIONS, TOP 10 COUNTRIES, 2013
COUNTRY
TOTAL END-2012
ADDED 2013
TOTAL END-2013
60.8 / 75.3
14.1 / 16.1
75.5 / 91.4
60.0
1.1
61.1
GW
China1
United States
Germany
31.3
3.2 / 3.6
34.3 / 34.7
Spain
22.8
0.2
23
India
18.4
1.7
20.2
United Kingdom
8.6
1.9
10.5
Italy
8.1
0.4
8.6
France
7.6
0.6
8.3
Canada
6.2
1.6
7.8
Denmark
4.2
0.7
4.8
Rest of World
41
48
283
35
318
World Total
For China, left-hand data are the amounts officially classified as connected to the grid and operational by years end; right-hand data are total installed
capacity. The world totals include the higher figures for China.
For Germany, left-hand data are grid-connected at years end, and right-hand data are total installed capacity. Note that about 355 MW of capacity that was
added offshore during the year was not connected to the grid by years end; 236 MW of added capacity was for repowering.
Note: Countries are ordered according to total installed capacity at the end of 2013. Top countries for capacity added in 2013 were China, Germany, the United
Kingdom, India, Canada, the United States, Brazil, Poland, Sweden, and Romania. The top 10 countries for total year-end 2012 capacity were the same with
the exception of the 10th spot, which was held by Portugal. Country data are rounded to nearest 0.1 GW; Rest of World and World data are rounded to nearest GW.
Rounding is to account for uncertainties and inconsistencies in available data; where totals do not add up, the difference is due to rounding or repowering/
removal of existing projects. Data reflect a variety of sources, some of which differ quite significantly, reflecting variations in accounting or methodology.
For more information, see Wind Power text and related endnotes in Market and Industry Trends section.
114
TABLE R11. GLOBAL TRENDS IN RENEWABLE ENERGY INVESTMENT, 20042013

2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Billion USD
NEW INVESTMENT BY STAGE
Technology Research
Government R&D
1.9
2.1
2.3
2.7
2.8
5.1
4.6
4.6
4.5
4.6
Corporate R&D
3.2
2.9
3.1
3.5
4.0
4.1
4.2
5.1
5.0
4.7
0.4
0.6
1.2
2.2
3.3
1.6
2.5
2.5
2.4
0.8
Private Equity Expansion Capital
0.3
1.0
3.0
3.6
6.7
2.9
3.1
2.6
1.7
1.4
Public Markets
0.3
3.7
9.0
22.2
11.5
13.0
11.4
10.7
3.7
11.1
Asset Finance
24.8
44.1
72.3
100.9
124.3
109.8
144.2
180.3
154.2
133.4
(re-invested equity)
0.0
(0.1)
(0.7)
(3.0)
(3.6)
(1.7)
(5.8)
(3.7)
(1.8)
(1.5)
Small Distributed Capacity
8.6
10.3
9.5
14.1
22.3
33.6
62.5
77.2
80.0
59.9
39.5
64.5
99.6
145.9
171.2
168.4
226.7
279.4
249.5
214.4
8.9
26.2
35.7
58.5
59.3
64.2
58.4
73.4
60.3
53.7
48.3
90.8
135.3
204.3
230.6
232.7
285.2
352.8
309.9
268.2
Development / Commercialisation
Venture Capital
Manufacturing
Projects
Total New Investment

Merger & Acquisition Transactions
Total Investment
NEW INVESTMENT BY TECHNOLOGY

Solar power
12.1
16.3
21.7
38.7
59.5
62.9
100.3
157.8
142.9
113.7
Wind power
14.5
25.1
32.1
56.6
69.3
73.0
94.8
85.9
80.9
80.1
Biomass and waste-to-energy
6.2
8.0
10.6
13.2
14.1
13.6
14.2
15.5
11.1
8.0
Hydropower <50 MW
1.7
4.9
5.4
5.5
7.2
5.4
4.8
6.8
6.0
5.1
Biofuels
3.7
9.2
27.6
29.3
19.2
10.4
8.9
9.4
6.6
4.9
Geothermal power
1.3
1.0
1.4
1.9
1.8
2.7
3.5
3.7
1.8
2.5
Ocean energy
0.0
0.1
0.9
0.7
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.1
Total New Investment
39.5
64.5
99.6
145.9
171.2
168.4
226.7
279.4
249.5
214.4
Note: Data are based on the output of the Desktop database of Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF), unless otherwise noted, and reflect the timing of
investment decisions. The following renewable energy projects are included: all biomass, geothermal, and wind generation projects of more than 1 MW;
all hydro projects of between 1 and 50 MW; all solar power projects, with those less than 1 MW estimated separately and referred to as small distributed
capacity; all ocean energy projects; and all biofuel projects with an annual production capacity of 1 million litres or more. Where totals do not add up,
this is due to rounding. For more information about the categories in this table, see Sidebar 5 in GSR 2013.
115
REFERENCE TABLES
TABLE R12. SHARE OF PRIMARY AND FINAL ENERGY FROM RENEWABLES, EXISTING IN 2011/2012 AND TARGETS
COUNTRY
PRIMARY ENERGY
Share (2011/2012)1
FINAL ENERGY
Target
EU-28
Share (2012)1
14%
Albania
k 18% by 2020
k 40% by 2030
62%
Argentina
38.9%
Austria2
k 45% by 2020
Azerbaijan
k 9.7% by 2020
Barbados
k 10% by 2012
k 20% by 2016
Belgium
k 13% by 2020
Belize
63%
k 40% by 2020
Botswana
k 1% by 2016
Brazil
42%
Bulgaria
k 16% by 2020
Burundi
k 2.1% by 2020
Canada
11%
Chile
8.1%
China
9.2% (2013)
Colombia
Cte d'Ivoire
7.1%
k 9.5% by 2015
12%
k 3% by 2013
k 5% by 2015
Croatia
k 20% by 2020
Cyprus
k 13% by 2020
Czech Republic2
k 13.5% by 2020
Democratic Republic of the Congo
96%
Denmark
k 35% by 2020
k 100% by 2050
Dominican Republic
5.2%
Ecuador
66%
Egypt
k 14% by 2020
El Salvador
54%
Estonia
k 25% by 2020
Fiji
k 23% by 2030
Finland
k 25% by 2015
k 38% by 2020
k 40% by 2025
France
7.9% (2011)
Gabon
12% (2013)
Greece2
Grenada
Guatemala
k 23% by 2020
k 80% by 2020
Germany2
116
k 20 % by 2020
k 38% by 2020
Algeria
Angola
Target
k 18% by 2020
k 30% by 2030
k 45% by 2040
k 60% by 2050
k 20% by 2020
k 20% by 2020
60%
k 80% by 2026
TABLE R12. SHARE OF PRIMARY AND FINAL ENERGY FROM RENEWABLES, EXISTING IN 2011 / 2012 AND TARGETS

(continued)
COUNTRY
PRIMARY ENERGY
Share (2011 / 2012)1
FINAL ENERGY
Target
Share (2012)1
Guyana
8.7%
Honduras
44%
Hungary2
Target
k 14.65% by 2020
India
5.5%
Indonesia
k 25% by 2025
Ireland
k 16% by 2020
Israel
k 50% by 2020
Italy
k 17% by 2020
Jamaica
5.1%
Japan
7.1%
k 10% by 2020
Jordan
0.1%
k 7% by 2015
k 10% by 2020
k 15% by 2020
k 20% by 2030
Kosovo
k 25% by 2020
Laos
k 30% by 2025
Latvia
k 40% by 2020
Lebanon
k 12% by 2020
Libya
k 10% by 2020
Lithuania
k 20% by 2025
k 23% by 2020
Luxembourg
k 11% by 2020
Macedonia
k 28% by 2020
Madagascar
k 54% by 2020
Malawi
k 7% by 2020
Mali
k 15% by 2020
Malta
k 10% by 2020
Mauritania
Mauritius
k 15% by 2015
k 20% by 2020
15%
k 35% by 2025
Moldova
k 20% by 2020
Mongolia
k 2025% by 2020
k 17% by 2020
Montenegro
k 33% by 2020
Netherlands2
k 16% by 2020
New Zealand
39% (2013)
31% (2013)
Nicaragua
Niger
52%
k 10% by 2020
Norway
Palau
k 67.5% by 2020
k 20% by 2020
Palestinian Territories
k 25% by 2020
Panama
61%
Peru
Poland
48%
k 12% by 2020
Portugal
k 15% by 2020
25%
Romania
Samoa
Senegal
k 31% by 2020
k 24% by 2020
k 20% by 2030
0.6%
117
REFERENCE TABLES
TABLE R12. SHARE OF PRIMARY AND FINAL ENERGY FROM RENEWABLES, EXISTING IN 2011/2012 AND TARGETS

(continued)
COUNTRY
PRIMARY ENERGY
Share (2011/2012)1
FINAL ENERGY
Target
Share (2012)1
Target
Serbia
k 27% by 2020
Slovakia
k 14% by 2020
Slovenia
k 25% by 2020
South Korea
3.2%
k 4.3% by 2015
k 6.1% by 2020
k 11% by 2030
Spain2
14%
St. Lucia
Suriname
Sweden
k 20.8% by 2020
k 20% by 2020
50%
48% (2011)
k 50% by 2020
Thailand
18%
k 25% by 2021
Togo
3.4%
Switzerland
k 24% by 2020
Tonga
Turkey
k 100% by 2013
3%
k 30% by 2023
Ukraine
k 11% by 2020
United Kingdom
k 15% by 2020
United States
Uruguay
9.3%
k 50% by 2015
Venezuela
Vietnam
53%
k 5% by 2020
k 8% by 2025
k 11% by 2050
National share is for 2011/2012 unless otherwise noted.
Final energy targets for all EU-28 countries are set under EU Directive 2009/28/EC. The governments of Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Spain, and Sweden have set higher targets, which are shown here. The government of the Netherlands has reduced its more ambitious target to the
level set in the EU Directive.
Note: Actual percentages are rounded to the nearest whole decimal for numbers over 10% except where associated targets are expressed differently.
Some countries shown have other types of targets (see Tables R13, R14, and R15).
118
TABLE R13. SHARE OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION FROM RENEWABLES, EXISTING IN 2012 AND TARGETS
COUNTRY
SHARE
(2012)1
EU-27
23.8%
Algeria
0.8%
Antigua and Barbuda
0%
Argentina2
TARGET
COUNTRY
SHARE
(2012)1
TARGET
Hungary
7.8%
k 11% by 2020
Indonesia
12%
k 26% by 2025
Iraq
8.6%
k 2% by 2030
k 5% by 2015
k 10% by 2020
k 15% by 2030
Ireland
20%
k 42.5% by 2020
Israel
0.4%
k 5% by 2014
k 10% by 2020
k 8% by 2016
Italy
31%
k 26% by 2020
k 5% by 2017
k 40% by 2030
Australia
9.6%
k 20% by 2020
Jamaica
4.7%
k 15% by 2020
Austria
75%
k 70.6% by 2020
Kazakhstan
15%
k 1% by 2014
k 3% by 2020
Azerbaijan
Bahamas, The
Bangladesh
k 20% by 2020
0%
k 15% by 2020
k 30% by 2030
Kiribati
3.8%
k 5% by 2015
k 10% by 2020
Latvia
Barbados
Belgium
k 29% by 2029
14%
Belize
k 20.9% by 2020
k 50% (no date)
Bulgaria
12%
k 20.6% by 2020
Cape Verde
21%
k 50% by 2020
Chile3
38%
Cook Islands
k 20% by 2025
k 50% by 2015
k 100% by 2020
Costa Rica
92%
k 100% by 2021
Croatia
48%
k 39% by 2020
Cyprus
4.9%
k 16% by 2020
Czech Republic
10%
k 14.3% by 2020
Denmark4
48%
k 50% by 2020
k 100% by 2050
Djibouti
k 100% by 2020
Dominica
14%
k 100% (no date)
Dominican Republic
14%
k 25% by 2025
Egypt
9.2%
k 20% by 2020
Eritrea
k 50% (no date)
Estonia
12%
k 18% by 2015
Fiji
67%
k 100% by 2030
Finland
40%
k 33% by 2020
France
16%
k 27% by 2020
Gabon
40%
k 70% by 2020
Germany
25%
(2013)
k 4045% by 2025
k 5560% by 2035
k 65% by 2040
k 80% by 2050
k 10% (no date)
Kuwait
k 15% by 2030
64%
Lebanon
k 60% by 2020
k 12% by 2020
Liberia
k 30% by 2021
Libya
0%
k 20% by 2020
Lithuania
23%
k 21% by 2020
Luxembourg
36%
k 11.8% by 2020
Madagascar
Malaysia
0%
k 75% by 2020
non-hydro
49% total
5%
k 5% by 2015
k 9% by 2020
k 11% by 2030
k 15% by 2050
Mali5
57%
k 10% by 2015
k 25% by 2033
Malta
0.8%
k 3.8% by 2020
Maldives
k 16% by 2017
Marshall Islands
k 20% by 2020
Mauritius
21%
k 35% by 2025
Mexico
15%
k 35% by 2026
Mongolia
Netherlands
k 2025% by 2020
12%
k 37% by 2020
New Zealand
72%
k 90% by 2025
Nicaragua
43%
k 74% by 2018
k 90% by 2020
16.4%
k 10% by 2020
Nigeria6
Niue
k 100% by 2020
0.4%
k 10% by 2020
Philippines
29%
k 40% by 2020
Poland
11%
k 19.3% by 2020
Ghana2
0%
k 10% by 2020
Portugal
48%
k 45% by 2020
Greece
16%
k 40% by 2020
Qatar
Guatemala
64%
k 80% by 2027
Guyana
Honduras
44%
k 2% by 2020
k 20% by 2030
k 90% (no date)
Romania
25%
k 43% by 2020
k 60% by 2022
k 80% by 2038
Russia
16%
k 2.5% by 2015
k 4.5% by 2020
119
REFERENCE TABLES
TABLE R13. SHARE OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION

FROM RENEWABLES, EXISTING IN 2012

AND TARGETS (continued)
SHARE
(2012)1
SHARE
(2012)1
COUNTRY
SHARE
(2012)1
Albania
100%
South Korea
3.7%
Belarus
0.5%
Switzerland
60%
Bosnia and
Herzegovina
30%
Taiwan
5.3%
k 50% by 2015
TARGET
COUNTRY
k 15% by 2021
Seychelles
k 5% by 2020
k 15% by 2030
Solomon Islands
COUNTRY
Senegal
10%
Slovakia
20%
k 24% by 2020
Brazil
85%
Slovenia
29%
k 39.3% by 2020
Canada
53%
South Africa
2.6%
k 9% by 2030
Cambodia
2.4%
Cameroon
74%
China
21%
Colombia
81%
Cte d'Ivoire
23%
Cuba
3.7%
Spain
7.9%
k 38.1% by 2020
non-hydro
30% total
Sri Lanka
28%
k 10% by 2016
k 20% by 2020
St. Kitts and Nevis
0.4%
k 20% by 2015
St. Lucia
St. Vincent and the

Grenadines
k 5% by 2013
k 15% by 2015
k 30% by 2020
17%
k 30% by 2015
k 60% by 2020
Sudan
47%
k 10% by 2016
Sweden
58%
k 62.9% by 2020
Thailand8
7.6%
k 10% by 2021
Timor-Leste
k 50% by 2020
Tokelau
k 100% (no date)
Tonga
k 50% by 2015
Tunisia
Turkey
1.2%
k 16% by 2016
k 40% by 2030
3%
k 30% by 2023
non-hydro
27% total
Tuvalu
k 100% by 2020
Uganda
79%
k 61% by 2017
United Kingdom
Scotland
12%
k 50% by 2015
k 100% by 2020
Ukraine
8%
k 20% by 2030
Uruguay
60%
k 90% by 2015
Vanuatu
k 23% by 2014
k 40% by 2015
k 65% by 2020
Vietnam
k 5% by 2020
Yemen
k 15% by 2025
1
National share is for 2012 unless otherwise noted. 2 National target(s)
exclude(s) large hydropower. 3 Chiles target excludes hydropower plants
over 40 MW. 4 Denmark set a target of 50% electricity consumption
supplied by wind power by 2020 in March 2012. 5 Malis target excludes
large hydropower. 6 Nigerias target excludes hydropower plants over
30 MW. 7 Russias targets exclude hydropower plants over 25 MW. 8
Thailand does not classify hydropower installations larger than 6 MW as
renewable energy sources, so large-scale hydro >6 MW is excluded from
national shares and targets. 9 India does not classify hydropower installations
larger than 25 MW as renewable energy sources, so large-scale hydro
>25 MW is excluded from national shares and targets.
120
TABLE R13 ANNEX. COUNTRIES WITHOUT TARGETS

FOR SHARES OF ELECTRICITY
PRODUCTION
Ecuador
55%
El Salvador
62%
Ethiopia
93%
Grenada
1%
Iceland
100%
India9
14%
Iran
5%
Japan
13%
Jordan
0.4%
Kenya
73%
Lesotho
100%
Macedonia
17%
Moldova
Tanzania
4.9%
Togo
8.5%
United States
13%
Uzbekistan
21%
Venezuela
64%
Zambia
96%
2%
(2011)
Montenegro
52%
Morocco
8.9%
Mozambique
90%
Norway
98%
Papua
New Guinea
38%
Peru
55%
Serbia
27%
Note: Unless otherwise noted, all targets and corresponding shares

represent all renewables including hydropower. Actual percentages are
rounded to the nearest whole decimal for numbers over 10% except where
associated targets are expressed differently. A number of state/provincial
and local jurisdictions have additional targets not listed here. The United
States and Canada have de facto state and provincial-level targets through
existing RPS policies, but no national targets (see Tables R17 and R19).
Some countries shown have other types of targets (see Tables R12, R14,
and R15). See Policy Landscape section (Section 4) and Reference Table
R19 for more information about sub-national targets. Existing shares are
indicative and may need adjusting if more accurate national statistical data
are published. Sources for reported data often do not specify the accounting
method used, therefore shares of electricity are likely to include a mixture
of different accounting methods and thus are not directly comparable or
consistent across countries. Where shares sourced from Observ'ER differed
from those provided to REN21 by country contributors, the latter were given
preference.
TABLE R14. SHARE OF HEATING AND COOLING FROM MODERN RENEWABLE TECHNOLOGIES,

EXISTING IN 2012 AND TARGETS
TARGET
COUNTRY
Austria
Austria 32.6% renewables in total

heating and cooling supply by 2020
Libya
Solar water heating: 80 MWth by

2015; 250 MWth by 2020
Belgium
11.9% renewables in total heating

and cooling supply by 2020
Lithuania
39% renewables in total heating

Bhutan
Solar heating and cooling:

3 MW equivalent by 2025
Luxembourg
Bulgaria

and cooling
8.5% renewables in gross final

consumption in heating and cooling
in 2020
Malta

Morocco
Solar water heating: 280 MWth

(400,000 m2) by 2012; 1.2 GWth
(1.7 million m2) by 2020
COUNTRY
Brazil
SHARE
9.1%
(2012)
SHARE
TARGET
China
Solar water heating: 280 GWth

(400 million m2) by 2015
Croatia

and cooling
Mozambique
Cyprus

and cooling
Solar water and space heating:

100,000 systems installed in rural
areas (no date)
Netherlands
Czech
Republic

and cooling

Poland
Denmark


Portugal
Estonia

Finland

Romania

Sierra
Leone
1% penetration of solar water

heaters in hotels, guest houses,
and restaurants by 2015;
2% by 2020; and 5% by 2030
1% penetration of solar water
heaters in the residential sector by
2030
Slovakia

Slovenia

France
16.5%

Germany
9.3%

Greece

Hungary

India
Solar water heating 5.6 GWth (8

million m2) of new capacity to be
added between 2012 and 2017
Ireland

Italy
Heating and cooling: 17.1%

renewables in total supply by 2020
Bioenergy: 5,670 ktoe for heating
and cooling by 2020
Geothermal: 300 ktoe for heating
and cooling by 2020
1,586 ktoe by 2020
Jordan
Solar water heating:

30% of households by 2020
(up from 13% in 2010)
Kenya
Solar water heating: 60% of annual

demand for buildings using over
100 litres of hot water per day
Latvia

Lebanon
Solar water heating: 133 MWth

(190,000 m2) newly installed
capacity during 20092014
Spain
33%
7.6%
(2012)
30.6% renewables in total heat

supply by 2020

Bioenergy: 4,653 ktoe by 2020
Geothermal: 9.5 ktoe by 2020
Heat pumps: 50.8 ktoe by 2020
644 ktoe by 2020
Swaziland
Solar water heating: Installed in

20% of all public buildings by 2014
Sweden

Thailand
Bioenergy: 8,200 ktoe by 2022

Biogas: 1,000 ktoe by 2022
Organic MSW: 35 ktoe by 2022
Solar water heating: 300,000
systems in operation and 100 ktoe
by 2022
Uganda
Solar water heaters: 4.2 MWth

(6,000 m2) by 2012; 21 MWth
(30,000 m2) by 2017
United
Kingdom

Note: Because heating and cooling targets are not standardised across countries, the table presents a variety of targets for the purpose of general comparison.
121
REFERENCE TABLES
TABLE R15. OTHER RENEWABLE ENERGY TARGETS

COUNTRY
SECTOR / TECHNOLOGY
SHARE
EU-28
Transport
All EU-28 countries are required to meet 10% of transport final energy
demand by 2020
Algeria
Solar PV
25 MW by 2013; 241 MW by 2015; 946 MW by 2020; 2.8 GW by 2030
CSP
25 MW by 2013; 325 MW by 2015; 1,500 MW by 2020; 7,200 MW by 2030
Wind
10 MW by 2013; 50 MW by 2015; 270 MW by 2020; 2,000 MW by 2030
Electricity
3 GW by 2016
Argentina
Geothermal power
30 MW by 2016
Australia
State of South
Australia
Electricity
33% of generation by 2020
State of Tasmania
Electricity
Austria
Bio-power from solid

biomass and biogas
200 MW added 20102020
Hydropower
1,000 MW added 20102020
Solar PV
1,200 MW added 20102020
Wind
2,000 MW added 20102020
Transport
11.4% of transport final energy demand by 2020
Bio-power from solid biomass
2 MW by 2014
Bio-power from biogas
4 MW by 2014
Biogas digesters
150,000 plants by 2016
Solar PV
500 MW by 2015
Bangladesh
Solar PV (off-grid and rural)
2.5 million units by 2015
Belgium
Transport
State of Wallonia
Final energy
20% share from renewables by 2020
Electricity
8 TWh / year by 2020
Benin
Electricity (off-grid and rural)
50% of rural electricity by 2025
Bhutan
Electricity
20 MW by 2025
5 MW by 2025
Solar PV
5 MW by 2025
Wind
5 MW by 2025
Bio-power
19.3 GW by 2021
Hydropower (small-scale)
7.8 GW by 2021
Wind
15.6 GW by 2021
Hydropower
80 MW capacity commissioned by 2011; three 174 MW plants by 201718
Solar PV
80 MW solar PV park operational by 2014
Transport
Canada
Province of
New Brunswick
Electricity
Increase renewable share 10% by 2016 ; 40% of generation by 2020
Province of
Nova Scotia
Electricity
25% of generation by 2015; 40% by 2020
Prince Edward Island
Wind
30 MW increase by 2030 (base year 2011)
Province of Ontario
Electricity
10.7 GW by 2022
Hydropower
1.5 GW by 2025
Solar PV
40 MW by 2025
Wind
5 GW by 2025
Brazil
Bulgaria
122
TARGET
TABLE R15. OTHER RENEWABLE ENERGY TARGETS (continued)

COUNTRY
SECTOR / TECHNOLOGY
SHARE
TARGET
China
Bio-power
13 GW by 2015
Hydropower
290 GW by 2015
Solar PV
10 GW added in 2014; 35 GW by 2015 (including 20 GW distributed generation)
CSP
1 GW by 2015; 3 GW by 2020
Wind
100 GW grid-connected by 2015; 200 GW by 2020
Electricity (grid-connected)
3.5% of generation by 2015; 6.5% by 2020
Colombia
Electricity (off-grid)
20% of generation by 2015; 30% by 2020
Croatia
Transport
10% of transport final energy demand by 2020
Cyprus
Transport
Czech Republic
Transport
Denmark
Wind
50% share in electricity by 2020
Transport
Djibouti
Solar PV
30% of rural electrification by 2017
Egypt
Solar PV
700 MW by 2017
CSP
2.8 GW by 2017
Wind
12% of electricity generation and 7,200 MW by 2020
Eritrea
Wind
50% of electricity generation (no date)
Estonia
Transport
Ethiopia
Bio-power from bagasse
103.5 MW (no date)
Geothermal power
75 MW by 2015; 450 MW by 2018; 1 GW by 2030
Hydropower
10.6 GW (>90% large-scale) by 2015; 22 GW by 2030
Wind
770 MW by 2014
Bio-power
13.2 GW by 2020
Hydropower
14.6 GW by 2020
Wind
884 MW by 2020
Transport
Ocean power and offshore

wind
6 GW by 2020
Wind
25 GW by 2020
Transport
Wind
6.5 GW offshore by 2020; 15 GW offshore by 2030
Transport
Solar PV
2.2 GW by 2030
Transport
Solar power
6% of electricity by 2025
Wind
2% of electricity by 2025
Guinea-Bissau
Solar PV
2% of primary energy by 2015
Hungary
Transport
India1
Electricity
4.3 GW added in 2014
Electricity
30 GW added 20122017
Bio-power
2.7 GW added 20122017
2.1 GW added 20122017
Solar PV and CSP
10 GW added 20122017; 20 GW grid-connected added 20102022; 2 GW

off-grid added 20102020; 20 million solar lighting systems added 20102022
Wind
15 GW added 20122017
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Guinea
123
REFERENCE TABLES

COUNTRY
SECTOR / TECHNOLOGY
SHARE
TARGET
Indonesia
Hydropower, solar PV, wind
1.4% share in primary energy (combined) by 2025
Biofuels
10.2% share of primary energy by 2025
Geothermal power
12.6 GW electricity by 2025
Hydropower
2 GW by 2025, including 0.43 GW micro-hydropower
Pumped storage
Iraq
3 GW by 2025
Solar PV
156.8 MW by 2025
Wind
0.1 GW by 2025
Solar PV
240 MW by 2016
CSP
80 MW by 2016
Wind
80 MW by 2016
Ireland
Transport
Italy
Bio-power
19,780 GWh / year generation from 3.8 GW capacity by 2020
Geothermal power
6,750 GWh / year generation from 920 MW capacity by 2020
Hydropower
42,000 GWh / year generation from 17.8 GW capacity by 2020
Solar PV
23 GW by 2017
Wind (onshore)
18,000 GWh / year generation and 12 GW capacity by 2020
Wind (offshore)
2,000 GWh / year generation and 680 MW capacity by 2020
Transport
10.1% transport final energy demand (2,899 ktoe) from biofuels by 2020
Bio-power
3.3 GW by 2020; 6 GW by 2030
Geothermal power
0.53 GW by 2020; 3.88 GW by 2030
Hydropower
49 GW by 2020
Ocean power
(wave and tidal)
1.5 GW by 2030
Solar PV
28 GW by 2020
Wind
5 GW by 2020; 8.03 GW offshore by 2030
Electricity
1 GW capacity by 2018
Solar PV
300 MW by 2020
CSP
300 MW by 2020
Wind
1 GW by 2020
Kazakhstan
Electricity
1.04 GW by 2020
Kenya
Geothermal power
1,887 MW by 2016; 5,000 MW by 2030
Hydropower
794 MW by 2016
Solar PV
423 MW by 2016
Wind
635 MW by 2016
Solar PV
3.5 GW by 2030
CSP
1.1 GW by 2030
Japan
Jordan
Kuwait
Wind
3.1 GW by 2030
Latvia
Transport
Lebanon
1525 MW by 2015
Hydropower
40 MW by 2015
Wind
60100 MW by 2015
Electricity
260 MW by 2030
Electricity (off-grid and rural)
35% of rural electrification by 2020
Liberia
Biofuels
5% of total transport fuel by 2015
Libya
Solar PV
129 MW by 2015
CSP
125 MW by 2020; 375 MW by 2025
Wind
260 MW by 2015; 600 MW by 2020; 1,000 MW by 2025
Transport
Lesotho
Lithuania
124

COUNTRY
SECTOR / TECHNOLOGY
SHARE
TARGET
Luxembourg
Transport
Malawi
Hydropower
346.5 MW by 2014
Malaysia
Electricity
2.1 GW (excluding large-scale hydropower), 11.2 TWh / year, or 10% of

national supply (no date given); 6% of total capacity by 2015; 11% by
2020; 14% by 2030; 36% by 2050
Malta
Transport
Micronesia
Electricity
10% in urban centers and 50% in rural areas by 2020
Morocco
Electricity
42% of total capacity
Hydropower
2 GW by 2020
Solar PV and CSP
2 GW by 2020
Wind
2 GW by 2020
Bio-digesters for biogas
1,000 systems installed (no date)
Hydropower, solar PV, wind
2 GW each (no date)
Solar PV
82,000 solar home systems installed (no date)
Wind turbines for water pumping
3,000 stations installed (no date)
Renewable-energy based
productive systems
5,000 installed (no date)
Hydropower (micro)
15 MW by 2013
Solar PV
3 MW by 2013
Mozambique
Nepal
Wind
1 MW by 2013
Netherlands
Transport
5% of transport final energy demand by 2013; 10% by 2020
Nigeria
Bio-power
50 MW 2015; 400 MW by 2025
600 MW by 2015; 2,000 MW by 2025
Solar PV (large-scale, >1 MW)
75 MW by 2015; 500 MW by 2025
Wind
20 MW by 2015; 40 MW by 2025
CSP
1 MW by 2015; 5 MW by 2025
Electricity
30 TWh / year generation by 2016
Electricity
26.4 TWh common electricity certificate market with Sweden by 2020
Bio-power
21 MW by 2020
Solar PV
45 MW by 2020
CSP
20 MW by 2020
Wind
44 MW by 2020
Electricity
Triple the 2010 renewable power capacity by 2030
Bio-power
277 MW added 20102030
Geothermal power
1.5 GW added 20102030
Hydropower
5,398 MW added 20102030
Ocean power
75 MW added 20102030
Solar PV
284 MW added 20102030
Wind
2.3 GW added 20102030
Wind (offshore)
1 GW by 2020
Transport
Electricity
15.8 GW by 2020
769 MW by 2020
59 MW by 2020
Geothermal power
29 MW by 2020
400 MW by 2020
Norway
Palestinian
Territories
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
125
REFERENCE TABLES

COUNTRY
SECTOR / TECHNOLOGY
SHARE
TARGET
Portugal (continued)
Ocean power (wave)
6 MW by 2020
Solar PV
670 MW by 2020
CSP
50 MW by 2020
Wind
5.3 GW onshore by 2020; 27 MW offshore by 2020
Transport
Solar PV
1.8 GW by 2014
Qatar
Transport
Romania
Transport
Russia
Hydropower (small-scale),
solar PV, wind
6 GW combined by 2020
Rwanda
Biogas power
300 MW by 2017
Geothermal power
310 MW by 2017
Hydropower
340 MW by 2017
42 MW by 2015
Electricity (off-grid)
5 MW by 2017
Samoa
Final Energy
Increase by 20% the current share of total energy supply by 2030
Saudi Arabia
Electricity
24 GW by 2020; 54 GW by 2032
Solar PV and CSP
6 GW solar PV by 2020; 16 GW by 2032;

41 GW by 2032 (25 GW CSP and 16 GW PV)
Geothermal, waste-to-energy3,
wind
13 GW combined by 2032
Solar PV
150 MW by 2017
Serbia
Wind
1.4 GW (no date)
Slovakia
Transport
Slovenia
Transport
South Africa
Electricity
17.8 GW by 2030
South Korea
Electricity
(all generation targets are annual)

13,016 GWh (2.9% total generation) by 2015;
21,977 GWh (4.7%) by 2020;
39,517 GWh (7.7%) by 2030
2,628 GWh by 2030
161 GWh by 2030
Bio-power from landfill gas
1,340 GWh by 2030
Geothermal power
2,046 GWh by 2030
Hydropower (large-scale)
3,860 GWh by 2030
1,926 GWh by 2030
Ocean power
6,159 GWh by 2030
Solar PV
2,046 GWh by 2030
CSP
1,971 GWh by 2030
Wind
100 MW by 2013; 900 MW by 2016; 1.5 GW by 2019;

16,619 GWh / year by 2030
Spain
126
Final energy
Bioenergy from solid biomass,
biogas, and organic MSW
0.1% by 2020
Geothermal energy, ocean

power, and heat pumps
5.8% by 2020
Hydropower
2.9% by 2020

COUNTRY
SECTOR / TECHNOLOGY
SHARE
TARGET
Spain (continued)
Solar PV
3% by 2020
Wind
6.3% by 2020
Electricity
1.4 GW by 2020
Bio-power from organic MSW
200 MW by 2020
400 MW by 2020
Geothermal power
50 MW by 2020
Hydropower
13.9 GW by 2020
Pumped storage
8.8 GW by 2020
Ocean power
100 MW by 2020
Solar PV
7.30 GW by 2020
CSP
4.8 GW by 2020
Wind (onshore)
35 GW by 2020
Wind (offshore)
750 MW by 2020
Transport
Biodiesel
Ethanol/bio-ETBE
7% of transport final energy by 2012 and 2013; 2,313 ktoe by 2020
Electricity in transport
4.7 GWh / year by 2020 (501 ktoe from renewable sources by 2020)
Electricity
Transport
20% of transport final energy demand from biofuels by 2020
80 MW by 2031
150 MW by 2031
Hydropower
54 MW by 2031
Solar PV
350 MW by 2031
CSP
50 MW by 2031
Wind
320 MW by 2031
Electricity
25 TWh more renewable electricity annually by 2020 (base year 2002)
Electricity
26.4 TWh common electricity certificate market with Norway by 2020
Transport
Vehicle fleet that is independent from fossil fuels by 2030
Electricity
12 TWh / year by 2035; 24.2 TWh by 2050
Hydropower
43 TWh / year by 2035
Bio-power
140 MW by 2020; 260 MW by 2025; 400 MW by 2030
Solar PV
45 MW by 2015; 380 MW by 2020; 1.1 GW by 2025; 1.8 GW by 2030
CSP
50 MW by 2025
Wind
150 MW by 2015; 1 GW by 2020; 1.5 GW by 2025; 2 GW by 2030
Taiwan
Solar PV
130 MW in 2013
Tajikistan
100 MW by 2020
Thailand
Transport
Sri Lanka
Sudan
Sweden
Switzerland
Syria
Ethanol
9 million litres / day by 2022
Biodiesel
Advanced biofuels
Electricity
4.8 GW by 2021
600 MW by 2021
400 MW by 2021
127
REFERENCE TABLES

COUNTRY
SECTOR / TECHNOLOGY
SHARE
TARGET
Thailand (continued)
Geothermal power
1 MW by 2021
Hydropower
6.1 GW by 2021
Ocean power (wave and tidal)
2 MW by 2021
Solar PV
3 GW by 2021; 1 GW added in 2014
Wind
1.8 GW by 2021
Trinidad and Tobago
Electricity
5% of peak demand (or 60 MW) by 2020
Tunisia
Electricity
1 GW (16%) by 2016; 4.6 GW (40%) by 2030
300 MW by 2030
Solar PV
1.9 GW by 2030
CSP
300 MW by 2030
Wind
1.5 GW by 2030
Turkey
Wind
Uganda
20 GW by 2023
3
15 MW by 2012; 30 MW by 2017
Geothermal power
25 MW by 2012; 45 MW by 2017
Hydropower (large-scale)
830 MW by 2012; 1,200 MW by 2017
Hydropower (mini- and

micro-scale)
50 MW by 2012; 85 MW by 2017
Solar PV (solar home systems)
400 kW by 2012; 700 kW by 2017
Biofuels
720 million litres / year by 2012; 2,200 million litres / year by 2017

Abu Dhabi
Electricity
7% of capacity by 2020
Dubai
Electricity
5% of capacity and 1 GW by 2030
United Kingdom
Wind
39 GW offshore by 2030
Transport
5% of transport final energy demand by 2014; 10.3% by 2020
Bio-power
200 MW by 2015
Wind
1 GW by 2015
Bio-power
50 MW by 2020
Hydropower
19.2 GW by 2020
Wind
1 GW by 2020
Biofuels
1% of transport petroleum energy demand by 2015; 5% by 2025
Bio-power
6 MW by 2025
Geothermal power
200 MW by 2025
Solar PV
4 MW by 2025
CSP
100 MW by 2025
Wind
400 MW by 2025
Transport
Uruguay
Vietnam
Yemen
Zimbabwe
India does not classify hydropower installations larger than 25 MW as renewable energy sources. Therefore, national targets and data for India do not include
hydropower facilities >25 MW.
Pumped hydro plants are not energy sources but a means of energy storage. As such, they involve conversion losses and are powered by renewable or nonrenewable electricity. Pumped storage is included here because it can play an important role as balancing power, in particular for variable renewable resources.
It is not always possible to determine whether municipal solid waste (MSW) data include non-organic waste (plastics, metal, etc.) or only the organic biomass
share. Uganda utilises predominantly organic waste.
Note: All capacity targets are for cumulative capacity unless otherwise noted. Targets are rounded to the nearest tenth decimal. Renewable energy targets are
not standardised across countries; therefore, the table presents a variety of targets for the purpose of general comparison. Countries on this list may also have
primary/final energy, electricity, or heating/cooling targets (see Tables R12, R13, and R14). Table R15 lists transport energy targets; biofuel blend mandates can
be found in Table R18: National and State/Provincial Biofuel Blend Mandates. It is not always possible to determine whether transportation targets are limited to
road transportation. Additionally, targets may cover only the use of biofuels or a wider array of renewable transport options (i.e., renewable electricity with electric
vehicles, hydrogen).
128
TABLE R16. CUMULATIVE NUMBER OF COUNTRIES / STATES / PROVINCES ENACTING FEED-IN POLICIES
1
YEAR
CUMULATIVE #
COUNTRIES / STATES / PROVINCES ADDED THAT YEAR
1978
United States2
1990
Germany
1991
Switzerland
1992
Italy
1993
Denmark; India
1994
Luxembourg; Spain; Greece
1997
10
Sri Lanka
1998
11
Sweden
1999
14
Portugal; Norway; Slovenia
2000
14
2001
17
Armenia; France; Latvia
2002
23
Algeria; Austria; Brazil; Czech Republic; Indonesia; Lithuania
2003
29
Cyprus; Estonia; Hungary; South Korea; Slovak Republic; Maharashtra (India)
2004
34
Israel; Nicaragua; Prince Edward Island (Canada); Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh (India)
2005
41
Karnataka, Uttaranchal, and Uttar Pradesh (India); China; Turkey; Ecuador; Ireland
2006
46
Ontario (Canada); Kerala (India); Argentina; Pakistan; Thailand
2007
56
South Australia (Australia); Albania; Bulgaria; Croatia; Dominican Republic; Finland; Macedonia;
Moldova; Mongolia
2008
70
Queensland (Australia); California (USA); Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan,

Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal (India); Iran; Kenya; Philippines; Tanzania; Ukraine
2009
80
Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, and Victoria (Australia); Hawaii, Oregon,
and Vermont (USA); Japan; Serbia; South Africa; Taiwan
2010
85
Bosnia and Herzegovina; Malaysia; Mauritius; Malta; United Kingdom
2011
92
Rhode Island (USA); Nova Scotia (Canada); Ghana; Montenegro; Netherlands; Syria; Vietnam
2012
97
Jordan; Nigeria; Palestinian Territories; Rwanda; Uganda
2013
98
Kazakhstan
98
Total existing3
Cumulative number refers to number of jurisdictions that had enacted feed-in policies as of the given year.
The U.S. PURPA policy (1978) is an early version of the feed-in tariff, which has since evolved.
Total existing excludes seven countries that are known to have subsequently discontinued policies (Brazil, Czech Republic, Mauritius, Spain, South Africa,
South Korea, and the United States) and adds seven countries that are believed to have feed-in tariffs but with an unknown year of enactment (Honduras,
Maldives, Peru, Panama, Senegal, Tajikistan, and Uruguay).
129
REFERENCE TABLES
TABLE R17. CUMULATIVE NUMBER OF COUNTRIES / STATES / PROVINCES ENACTING RPS/QUOTA POLICIES
1
YEAR
CUMULATIVE #
COUNTRIES / STATES / PROVINCES ADDED THAT YEAR
1983
Iowa (USA)
1994
Minnesota (USA)
1996
Arizona (USA)
1997
Maine, Massachusetts, and Nevada (USA)
1998
Connecticut, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin (USA)
1999
12
New Jersey and Texas (USA); Italy
2000
13
New Mexico (USA)
2001
15
Flanders (Belgium); Australia
2002
18
California (USA); Wallonia (Belgium); United Kingdom
2003
21
Japan; Sweden; Maharashtra (India)
2004
34
Colorado, Hawaii, Maryland, New York, and Rhode Island (USA); Nova Scotia, Ontario, and Prince
Edward Island (Canada); Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, and Orissa (India); Poland
2005
38
District of Columbia, Delaware, and Montana (USA); Gujarat (India)
2006
39
Washington State (USA)
2007
45
China; Illinois, New Hampshire, North Carolina, and Oregon (USA); Northern Mariana Islands (USA)
2008
52
Michigan, Missouri, and Ohio (USA); Chile; India; Philippines; Romania
2009
53
Kansas (USA)
2010
56
British Columbia (Canada); South Korea; Puerto Rico (USA)
2011
58
Albania; Israel
2012
59
Norway
2013
59
[None identified]
79
Total existing2
Cumulative number refers to number of jurisdictions that had enacted RPS/Quota policies as of the given year. Jurisdictions are listed under year of first
policy enactment. Many policies shown have been revised or renewed in subsequent years, and some policies shown may have been repealed or lapsed.
Total existing adds 20 jurisdictions believed to have RPS/Quota policies but whose year of enactment is not known (Ghana, Indonesia, Kyrgyzstan, Lithuania,
Malaysia, Palau, Portugal, Senegal, South Africa, Sri Lanka, United Arab Emirates, and the Indian states of Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Kerala, Punjab, Rajasthan,
Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal). In the United States, there are 10 additional states and territories with policy goals that are not
legally binding RPS policies (Guam, Indiana, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, U.S. Virgin Islands, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, and West Virginia). Three
additional Canadian provinces also have non-binding policy goals (Alberta, Manitoba, and Quebec). The Italian RPS is being phased out according to new
directives from the government, but it was still in place as of early 2013.
130
TABLE R18. NATIONAL AND STATE / PROVINCIAL BIOFUEL BLEND MANDATES

COUNTRY
MANDATE
Angola
E10
Argentina
E5 and B10
Australia
E4 and B2 in New South Wales; E5 in Queensland
Belgium
E4 and B4
Brazil
E20 and B5
Canada
National: E5 and B2
Provincial: E5 and B4 in British Columbia; E5 and B2 in Alberta; E7.5 and B2 in Saskatchewan;
E8.5 and B2 in Manitoba; E5 in Ontario
China
E10 in nine provinces
Colombia
E8
Costa Rica
E7 and B20
Ecuador
B5
Ethiopia
E5
Guatemala
E5
India
E10
Indonesia
B2.5 and E3
Jamaica
E10
Malawi
E10
Malaysia
B5
Mozambique
E10 in 20122015; E15 in 20162020; E20 from 2021
Panama
E5; E7 by April 2015; E10 by April 2016
Paraguay
E24 and B1
Peru
B2 and E7.8
Philippines
E10 and B5
South Africa
E2 and E5 as of October 2015
South Korea
B2.5
Sudan
E5
Thailand
E5 and B5
Turkey
E2
Ukraine
E5; E7 by 2017
United States
National: The Renewable Fuels Standard 2 (RFS2) requires 136 billion litres (36 billion gallons)
of renewable fuel to be blended annually with transport fuel by 2022. The RFS for 2013 was reduced to
49.21 billion litres (13 billion gallons).
State: E10 in Missouri and Montana; E10 in Hawaii; E2 and B2 in Louisiana; B4 by 2012, and B5 by 2013
(all by July 1 of the given year) in Massachusetts; E10 and B5, B10 by 2013, and E20 by 2015 in Minnesota;
B5 after 1 July 2012 in New Mexico; E10 and B5 in Oregon; B2 one year after in-state production of biodiesel
reaches 40 million gallons, B5 one year after 100 million gallons, B10 one year after 200 million gallons, and
B20 one year after 400 million gallons in Pennsylvania; E2 and B2, increasing to B5 180 days after in-state
feedstock and oil-seed crushing capacity can meet 3% requirement in Washington.
Uruguay
B5; E5 by 2015
Vietnam
E5
Zambia
E15 and B5; E20 in 2014
Zimbabwe
E5, to be raised to E10 and E15
Note: The Philippines B2 mandate is set to be raised to B5 following approval from the National Biofuels Board. Mexico has a pilot E2 mandate in the city of
Guadalajara. The Dominican Republic has targets of B2 and E15 for 2015 but has no current blending mandate. Chile has targets of E5 and B5 but has no
current blending mandate. Fiji approved voluntary B5 and E10 blending in 2011 with a mandate expected. The Kenyan city of Kisumu has an E10 mandate.
Nigeria has a target of E10 but has no current blending mandate.
Table R18 lists only biofuel blend mandates; additional transport and biofuel targets can be found in Table R15: Other Renewable Energy Targets.
131
REFERENCE TABLES
TABLE R19. CITY AND LOCAL RENEWABLE ENERGY POLICIES: SELECTED EXAMPLES
TARGETS FOR RENEWABLE SHARE OF ENERGY1, ALL CONSUMERS
Boulder, Colorado, USA
30% of total energy by 2020
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Cape Town, South Africa
Fukushima Prefecture, Japan
Hamburg, Germany
20% of total energy by 2020; 100% by 2050
Howrah, India
Nagano Prefecture, Japan
Paris, France
Skellefte, Sweden
Net exporter of biomass, hydro, or wind energy by 2020
Vxj, Sweden
TARGETS FOR RENEWABLE SHARE OF ELECTRICITY, ALL CONSUMERS

Adelaide, Australia
15% by 2014
Amsterdam, Netherlands
25% by 2025; 50% by 2040
Aspen, Colorado, USA
100% by 2015
Austin, Texas, USA
35% by 2020
Cape Town, South Africa
15% by 2020
Lancaster, California, USA
100% by 2020
Malm, Sweden
100% by 2020
Munich, Germany
100% by 2025
Nagano Prefecture, Japan
10% by 2020 ; 20% by 2030; 30% by 2050
San Francisco, California, USA
100% by 2020
San Jose, California, USA
100% by 2022
Skellefte, Sweden
100% by 2020
Taipei City, Taiwan
12% by 2020
Ulm, Germany
100% by 2025
Wellington, New Zealand
7890% by 2020
TARGETS FOR RENEWABLE ELECTRIC CAPACITY OR GENERATION

Adelaide, Australia
2 MW of solar PV on residential and commercial buildings by 2020
Eskilstuna, Sweden
48 GWh of wind, 9.5 GWh of solar by 2020
Los Angeles, California, USA
1.3 GW of solar PV by 2020
San Francisco, California, USA
100% of peak demand (950 MW) by 2020
TARGETS FOR GOVERNMENT OWN-USE PURCHASES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY
132
Cockburn, Australia
20% of own-use energy in city buildings by 2020
Ghent, Belgium
50% of own-use energy by 2020
Hepburn Shire, Australia
100% of own-use energy in public buildings; 8% of electricity for public lighting
Kristianstad, Sweden
Malm, Sweden
Portland, Oregon, USA
100% of own-use electricity by 2030
Sydney, Australia
100% of own-use electricity in buildings; 20% for street lamps
Targets for Hamburg, and Vxj include transport energy; targets for Fukushima Prefecture, Howrah, and Nagano Prefecture do not include transport energy,
while other targets do not specify.
Howrahs target includes 5% reduction of projected energy consumption by energy efficiency measures.
TABLE R19. CITY AND LOCAL RENEWABLE ENERGY POLICIES: SELECTED EXAMPLES (continued)
HEAT-RELATED MANDATES
Amsterdam, Netherlands
District heating for at least 200,000 houses by 2040 (using biogas, woody biomass, and waste heat)
Chandigarh, India
Mandatory use of solar water heating (SWH) in industries, hotels, hospitals, prisons, canteens,
housing complexes, and government and residential buildings as of 2013
Loures, Portugal
Solar thermal systems mandated as of 2013 in all sports facilities and schools that have good sun
exposure
Munich, Germany
80% reduction of heat demand by 2058 (base 2009) through passive solar design
(includes heat, process heat, and water heating)
Nantes, France
Extend the district heating system to source heat from biomass boilers for half of city inhabitants
by 2017
FOSSIL FUEL REDUCTION TARGETS, ALL CONSUMERS

Gteborg, Sweden
100% of total energy fossil fuel-free by 2050
Madrid, Spain
20% reduction in fossil fuel use by 2020 (base 2004)
Seoul, South Korea
30% reduction in fossil fuel and nuclear energy use by 2030 (base 1990)
Vxj, Sweden
100% of total energy fossil fuel-free by 2030
Vijayawada, India
10% reduction in fossil fuel use by 2018 (base 2008)
CO 2 EMISSIONS REDUCTION TARGETS, ALL CONSUMERS

Aarhus, Denmark
Carbon-neutral by 2030
Bottrop, Germany
50% reduction by 2020 (base 2010)
Chicago, Illinois, USA
Copenhagen, Denmark
20% reduction by 2015 (base 2005); carbon-neutral by 2025
Dallas, Texas, USA
Hamburg, Germany
40% reduction by 2020, 80% by 2050 (base 1990)
Malm, Sweden
Zero net emissions by 2020
New York, New York, USA
Oslo, Norway
50% reduction by 2030 (base 1991); carbon-neutral by 2050
Seattle, Washington, USA
Stockholm, Sweden
Reduce emissions to 3 tons of CO2-eq per capita by 2015 (baseline 5.5 tons per capita in 1990)
Tokyo, Japan
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
30% reduction by 2020; 80% by 2050 (base 1990)
133
REFERENCE TABLES
TABLE R19. CITY AND LOCAL RENEWABLE ENERGY POLICIES: SELECTED EXAMPLES (continued)
URBAN PLANNING
Glasgow, Scotland, U.K.
Sustainable Glasglow aims for a 30% reduction in CO2 by 2020 (baseline 2006) and breaks down
emission reduction targets as follows: CHP/ district heating 9%; biomass 2%; biogas and waste 6%;
other renewable energy 3%; transport 3%; fuel switching 3%; and energy management systems
6%. The plan requires all new buildings to source their heating from the district heating system or
propose a lower-carbon alternative; 76 GWh of annual wind generation; and fiscal incentives for
low-carbon transport such as biogas-powered vehicles or EVs.
Hong Kong, China
Hong Kong's strategy to become China's "greenest region" includes limiting the contribution of coal
to <10% of the electricity generation mix by 2020; phasing out existing coal plants by 202030;
investing in construction/operation of district cooling infrastructure using seawater; meeting the
power demand of 100,000 households using biogas from landfills and sewage water treatment by
2020; installing SWH on all government buildings and swimming pools; installing wind turbines
to meet 12% of total electricity demand by 2020; achieving E10 and B10 by 2020; and raising
awareness by demonstrating solar PV arrays on government buildings, developing a website to
provide information on renewable energy technologies suitable for local use, and providing news/
events, educational resources, and information on suppliers of renewable energy equipment.
Malm, Sweden
Climate Neutral by 2020 outlines a plan to transform the energy mix to mainly solar, wind, hydro,
and biogas. The city also targets a 20% decrease in per capita energy consumption by 2020
(baseline: average annual use during 200105). Key strategies include expansion of district heating
and cooling; development of 100% renewable energy districts; replacement of older vehicles with a
100% green fleet; and deployment of EV infrastructure.
Seoul, South Korea
By 2030, the city targets 20% of total energy from renewables; 20% reduction in energy
consumption; 40% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (base 1990); and 1 million new green
jobs by promoting 10 major green technologies suitable for the city, including solar PV, waste-heat
recovery, and green buildings. To foster a domestic market, Seoul is providing seed funding, capital
loans, and trust guarantees to small and medium-sized businesses; a USD 100 million investment
(USD 20,000 per technology/year) in R&D by 2030; and support for overseas marketing.
Sydney, Australia
The Decentralised Energy Master Plan 2030 outlines how the city can reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and take a holistic approach to planning. The vision targets a 70% reduction in emissions
(base 2006) and a 100% renewable share of electricity, heating, and cooling by 2030.
The planned technology mix is 30% solar and wind power plus 70% tri-generation of power and
thermal energy from waste recovery. Tri-generation using 360 MW electricity biogas plants will
power 15 low-carbon zones by 2030; a decentralised generation and distribution network will
be developed to deliver power/heat/cooling using natural gas and biogas; and 11 energy-plus
buildings will be constructed in central park.
Vancouver,
British Columbia,
Canada
Greenest City 2020, an action plan to achieve goals of zero carbon, zero waste, and healthy
ecosystems by 2020, consists of 10 smaller plans, each with a long-term goal and 2020 targets.
These include a requirement for all new buildings to be carbon-neutral from 2020 onwards;
financial incentives for the installation of SWH; EV charging stations in buildings; a district energy
strategy; and a target to double the number of green jobs by 2020 (base 2010).
Yokohama, Japan
The Yokohama Energy Vision targets greenhouse gas emissions reductions of more than 30%
per person by 2020, and more than 80% by 2050 (base 1990), through green buildings and the
use of: EVs; power from solar PV, wind, solid biomass, and biogas; and SWH. It includes mid-term
targets of 1,300 EVs in operation; 4,000 smart meters installed; 4,400 solar PV systems deployed;
subsidies for SWH installations and EV purchases; provision of low-interest loans for renewables
and energy efficiency; and a pilot demonstration Yokohama Smart City Project.
134
TABLE R20. ELECTRICITY ACCESS BY REGION AND COUNTRY

PEOPLE WITHOUT
ACCESS TO ELECTRICITY
TARGET
Share (%) of population

with access (2011)1
Million (2011)1
Share (%)
All Developing Countries
77.0
1,257
Africa
43.0
600
North Africa
99.0
Sub-Saharan Africa
31.8
599
Developing Asia
REGION/COUNTRY
ELECTRIFICATION RATE
83.0
615
Southeast Asia
77.6
134
Latin America
95.0
24
Middle East
91.0
19
Afghanistan
16.0
23.8
Algeria
99.3
0.2
Angola
38.0
12.0
Argentina
97.0
1.1
Bahrain
99.0
0.0
60
61
Bangladesh
Barbados
98.0
Belize
96.2
Benin
28.0
7.0
Bolivia
87.0
1.3
Botswana
55.0
1.1
Brazil
99.0
1.4
Brunei
99.7
0.0
Burkina Faso
13.0
14.0
Cambodia
34.0
Cameroon
54.0
9.0
Cape Verde
87.0
64.0
Chile
99.5
0.0
k 100% by 2021
China
99.8
3.0
Colombia
97.0
1.2
Costa Rica
99.2
0.0
Cte dIvoire
59.0
Cuba
98.0
0.3
Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea
26.0
18.0
9.0
62.0
96.0
0.4
Dominican Republic
Ecuador
96.0
0.7
Egypt
>99.0
0.3
El Salvador
92.0
0.5
Eritrea
32.0
4.0
Ethiopia
23.0
65.0
Federated States of Micronesia3
4.0 (rural)
k 80% by 2016
k 100% by 2015
k 75% by 2015
Gabon
60.0
1.0
Ghana
72.0
7.0
Grenada
82.0
Guatemala
82.0
k 100% by 2020
2.7
135
REFERENCE TABLES
TABLE R20. ELECTRICITY ACCESS BY REGION AND COUNTRY (continued)

PEOPLE WITHOUT
TARGET

with access (2011)1
Million (2011)1
Share (%)
Guinea
15.0
Guinea-Bissau
15.0
REGION/COUNTRY
Guyana
82.0
Haiti
28.0
7.3
Honduras
83.0
1.3
India
75.3
306.0
Indonesia
73.0
66.0
Iran
98.0
1.3
Iraq
98.0
0.7
Israel
99.7
0.0
Jamaica
93.0
0.2
Jordan
99.0
0.0
Kenya
19.0
34.0
Kuwait
100
0.0
Laos
78.0
Lebanon
100
0.0
Lesotho
19.0
2.0
Liberia
15.0
Libya
99.0
0.0
Madagascar
14.0
18.0
Malawi
7.0
14.0
Malaysia
100
0.0
Mali
18.0
13
Marshall Islands
100 (urban)
Mauritius
99.0
Mexico
97.6
Mongolia
88.0
0.0
Morocco
97.0
1.0
Mozambique
20.0
19.0
Myanmar
13.0
43.5
Namibia
60.0
1.0
Nepal
76.0
7.0
Nicaragua
78%
1.3
Niger
8.0
14.0
Nigeria
52.0
84.0
Oman
98
0.1
69.0
56.0
Pakistan
136
0.0
k 95% rural by 2015
k 30% by 2030
99.4
Panama
88.0
0.4
Paraguay
98.0
0.1
Peru
90.0
3.0
Philippines
70.0
28.0
Qatar
100.0
0.0
Saudi Arabia
99.0
0.3
Senegal
42.0
7.3
k 16% by 2012
TABLE R20. ELECTRICITY ACCESS BY REGION AND COUNTRY (continued)

PEOPLE WITHOUT
TARGET

with access (2011)1
Million (2011)1
Share (%)
Sierra Leone
15.0
Singapore
100
0.0
South Africa
85.0
8.0
South Sudan
1.0
REGION/COUNTRY
Sri Lanka
k 100% by 2014
85.0
3.0
25.0
Sudan
29.0
Suriname
90.0
Syria
93.0
1.5
Tanzania
15.0
39.0
Thailand
99
22.0
0.9
Togo
27.0
5.0
Trinidad and Tobago
99.0
0.0
Tunisia
99.5
0.1
Uganda
15.0
30.0
100
0.0
Uruguay
99.0
0.0
Timor Leste
k 100% by 2019
Venezuela
99.9
0.1
Vietnam
96.0
4.0
Yemen
40.0
14.9
Zambia
22.0
11.0
Zimbabwe
37.0
8.0
k 51% (rural)
k 90% (urban)
k 66% (national) by 2030
Note: Rates and targets are national unless otherwise specified. For other targets that relate to off-grid and rural electrification, see Reference Table R15.
All data are for 2011 with the exception of China, Ghana, and South Africa, which reflect 2013 data.
Developing Asia is divided as follows: China and East Asia includes Brunei, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, the Philippines,
Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Timor Leste, Vietnam, and other Asian countries; South Asia includes Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal,
Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
For the Federated States of Micronesia, rural electrification rate is defined by electrification of all islands outside of the four that host the state capital
(which is considered urban).
The Palestinian Territories rate is defined by number of villages connected to the national electricity grid.
137
REFERENCE TABLES
TABLE R21. POPULATION RELYING ON TRADITIONAL BIOMASS FOR COOKING

REGIONS AND SELECTED COUNTRIES
Share in 2011 (%)
Africa
696
67%
Nigeria
122
75%
Ethiopia
77
93%
62
94%
Tanzania
41
94%
South Africa
13%
Kenya
33
83%
Other Sub-Saharan Africa
335
74%
1%
1,869
51%
India
818
66%
China
446
33%
North Africa
Developing Asia1
Bangladesh
143
88%
Indonesia
103
42%
Pakistan
112
63%
Myanmar
48
9%
Rest of Developing Asia
648
36%
Latin America
68
15%
Brazil
12
6%
Middle East
4%
All Developing Countries
2,642
49.4%
World2
2,642
38.1%
Developing Asia is divided as follows: China and East Asia includes Brunei, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, the Philippines,
Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Timor Leste, Vietnam, and other Asian countries; South Asia includes Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal,
Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.
Includes countries in the OECD and Eastern Europe/Eurasia.
138
POPULATION
Millions
TABLE R22. PROGRAMMES FURTHERING ENERGY ACCESS: SELECTED EXAMPLES

NAME
BRIEF DESCRIPTION
ACP-EU Energy Facility
A co-financing instrument that works to increase access to sustainable and affordable

energy services in impoverished rural and peri-urban areas of African, Caribbean and
Pacific (ACP) countries by involving local authorities and communities.
Africa-EU Renewable Energy

Cooperation Programme (RECP)
A programme that contributes to the African EU Energy Partnerships political targets of

increasing renewable energy use and bringing modern access to at least an additional
100 million people by 2020. It provides policy advice, private sector co-operation, project
preparation support activities, and capacity development.
African Renewable Energy Fund

(AREF)
A private equity fund that invests in small to medium-sized renewable energy projects in
sub-Saharan Africa, excluding South Africa. It aims to assist governments in meeting their
renewable energy and carbon emission targets, while creating jobs. AfDB and SE4ALL are
co-sponsors and anchor investors.
Asian Development Bank Energy

for All Initiative
An initiative that strengthens ADBs investments on energy access. From 2008 to 2013,
ADBs USD 4.8 billion investment benefitted more than 15.6 million households (78 million
people).
Capital Access for Renewable

Energy Enterprises Programme
(CARE2)
A USD 7 million programme that aims to expand renewable energy markets in Kenya,
Tanzania, Uganda, and Rwanda through interventions designed to increase the supply of
capital to businesses and the effective deployment of capital. CARE2 is supported by the
Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency.
CleanStart
A programme developed by UNCDF and UNDP to help poor households and microentrepreneurs access micro-financing for low-cost clean energy. It aims to help lift at least
2.5 million people out of energy poverty by 2017, in ways that can be replicated and scaled
up by others.
Energising Development (EnDev)
An initiative of Australia, Germany, the Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland, and the United
Kingdom that co-operates with 24 countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America to provide
sustainable access to modern energy services to at least 15 million people by the end of
2018. By mid-2013, EnDev reached 11 million people.
Energy, Ecodevelopment and

Resilience in Africa (EERA)
A project that supports energy decision makers in assessing national energy policy
frameworks and identifying how energy policies can support climate resilience and
sustainable energy objectives in Benin, Mali, and Togo.
EU-Africa Infrastructure Trust Fund

(ITF)
A fund that combines grants from the European Commission and EU Member States with
loans from eligible financial institutions to support regional infrastructure projects. Areas
of focus include energy, transport, water and sanitation, as well as ICT [I would spell this
out] and regional or national SE4ALL projects. By end-2013, 92 grants had been approved
(worth a total of USD 680 million) to support 69 infrastructure projects, including 37 energy
projects (19 of which are renewable energy projects).
GIZ HERA Poverty-orientated

Basic Energy Services
A programme that promotes access to renewable energy and its sustainable and efficient
use. With its support, 2.5 million efficient stoves have been successfully produced and sold
in the last six years.
Global Alliance
for Clean Cookstoves
A public-private partnership that works to save lives, improve livelihoods, empower women,
and protect the environment by creating a thriving global market for clean and efficient
household cooking solutions. Its goal is for 100 million households to be using clean cook
stoves and fuels by 2020.
Global Energy Efficiency

and Renewable Energy Fund
(GEEREF)
A sustainable development tool sponsored by the EU, Germany, and Norway, advised by the
European Investment Bank Group, to mobilise public and private capital to support small
and medium-sized renewable energy and energy efficiency projects.
Global LEAP Awards for Outstanding

Off-Grid Products
An international competition to identify the worlds best low-voltage direct-current off-grid

appliances, with the first round (to be awarded in May 2014) aiming to identify energy
efficient, high quality, off-grid LED appliances for room lighting and flat-panel colour
televisions.
Global Lighting and Energy Access

Partnership (Global LEAP)
An initiative of the Clean Energy Ministerial whose members include more than 10
governments and development partners. It provides support for quality assurance
frameworks and programmes that encourage market transformation towards superefficient technologies for off-grid use.
139
REFERENCE TABLES
TABLE R22. PROGRAMMES FURTHERING ENERGY ACCESS: SELECTED EXAMPLES (continued)
140
NAME
BRIEF DESCRIPTION
IDEAS Energy Innovation Contest
An initiative that supports the implementation of innovative projects in the areas of

renewable energy, energy efficiency, and energy access in Latin America and the
Caribbean by promoting innovative energy solutions that can be replicated and scaled up in
the region.
IRENA Abu Dhabi Fund for

Development (ADFD)
A fund that supports renewable energy projects that: offer innovative and replicable
approaches to broaden energy access; address several socioeconomic issues identified in
the Millennium Development Goals and SE4ALL objectives; and address energy security
issues.
Latin America and Caribbean

(LAC SE4ALL)
A programme under way in 26 LAC countries to prepare a supporting platform for the LAC
SE4ALL Initiative, financed by the Inter-American Development bank. It is integrated and
co-ordinated with the UN global SE4ALL initiative.
Lighting Africa
An IFC and World Bank programme that seeks to accelerate the development of sustainable
markets for affordable, modern off-grid lighting solutions for low-income households and
micro-enterprises across Africa. As of early 2014, Lighting Africa had provided access to
clean, safe lighting for more than 7.7 million people.
Lighting Asia
A programme to provide modern off-grid lighting to the 400 million people in rural India who
live off the grid, with the goal of reaching at least 2 million people by the end of 2015.
Power Africa
A U.S. government initiative to address access to electricity in sub-Saharan Africa with a

commitment of more than USD 7 billion in financial support and loan guarantees. It aims to
bridge the gap between Africas power shortage and its economic potential.
Scaling Up Renewable Energy

in Low Income Countries (SREP)
This Strategic Climate Fund (SCF) programme was established to expand renewable energy
markets and scale up renewables deployment in the worlds poorest countries. Piloting in
Ethiopia, Honduras, Kenya, Liberia, Maldives, Mali, Nepal, and Tanzania.
SNV Netherlands Development

Organisation Biogas Practice
Through a multi-actor sector development approach, SNV supports the preparation and
implementation of national biogas programmes throughout the world. In co-operation with
its partners, SNV had installed 579,000 biogas plants in 18 developing countries in Asia,
Africa, and Latin America by end-2013 (with 74,000 in 2013 alone).
Sustainable Energy
Fund for Africa (SEFA)
A fund administered by the African Development Bank, anchored by a Danish government

commitment of USD 57 million, to support small- and medium-scale clean energy and
energy efficiency projects in Africa through grants for technical assistance and capacity
building, investment capital, and guidance.
Sustainable Energy for All Initiative

(SE4ALL)
A global initiative of UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon with three objectives for 2030:
achieving universal access to electricity and clean cooking solutions; doubling the share of
the worlds energy supplied by renewable sources; and doubling the rate of improvement in
energy efficiency.
TABLE R23. NETWORKS FURTHERING ENERGY ACCESS: SELECTED EXAMPLES

NAME
BRIEF DESCRIPTION
African Bioenergy Development

Platform
A platform launched by UNCTAD to assist interested African countries to develop their

bioenergy potentials for advancing human and economic development through interactive,
multi-stakeholder analytical exercises.
African Renewable Energy Alliance

(AREA)
A global multi-stakeholder platform to exchange information and consult about policies,

technologies, and financial mechanisms for the accelerated uptake of renewable energy in
Africa.
Clean Energy for Africa

(CLENA)
A Youth Volunteers for the Environment project with a five-year action plan (20122016)
to promote sustainable energy and alleviate energy poverty in Africa.
CTI Private Financing Advisory

Network
A network that identifies promising clean energy projects at an early stage and provides
mentoring for development of a business plan, investment pitch, and growth strategy, etc.
ENERGIA International
An international network focused on gender issues, womens empowerment, and

sustainable energy that by early 2014 included 22 organisations working in Africa and Asia.
Global 100% RE
The first global campaign to advocate for 100% renewable energy; its aims to prove that
this goal is urgent and achievable in developed as well as developing countries.
HEDON Household Energy Network
A network aimed at empowering practitioners to unlock barriers to household energy

access by addressing knowledge gaps, facilitating partnerships, and fostering information
sharing.
RedBioLAC
A multinational network of institutions involved in research and dissemination of anaerobic

bio-digestion, and the treatment and management of organic waste in Latin America and
the Caribbean.
UN Foundation Energy Access

Practitioner Network
A network with more than 1,600 members from over 190 countries that supports
market-led decentralised energy activities towards achieving universal energy access by
2030. It serves as a network of networks to help develop a global approach for scaling
towards universal energy access.
141
ENDNOTES 01 GLOBAL OVERVIEW

1
142
Estimated shares are from the following sources: total 2012 final
energy demand (estimated at 8,265 Mtoe) based on 8,098 Mtoe
for 2011 from International Energy Agency (IEA), World Energy
Statistics (Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD)/IEA, 2013) and escalated by the 2.06%
increase in global primary energy demand from 2011 to 2012,
derived from BP, Statistical Review of World Energy 2013 (London:
2013), http://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/pdf/statistical-review/
statistical_review_of_world_energy_2013.pdf. Traditional biomass
use in 2012 of 31.3 EJ based on the same value for 2011 from IEA,
Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2013 (Paris: OECD/
IEA, 2013), p. 217. Elsewhere, traditional biomass use in 2011
was estimated at 744 Mtoe (31.15 EJ), and expected to decline by
2020, from IEA, World Energy Outlook (Paris: OECD/IEA, 2013), pp.
200201. In 2011, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) indicated a higher range for traditional biomass of 3743
EJ, and a proportionately lower figure for modern biomass use,
per O. Edenhofer et al., eds., IPCC Special Report on Renewable
Energy Resources and Climate Change Mitigation (Cambridge,
U.K. and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), Table 2.1,
http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report. Bio-heat energy values for 2012
(industrial, residential, commercial, and other uses, including
heat from heat plants) based on 315 Mtoe (12.8 EJ) for 2011 and
projected 3.1% annual growth for bioenergy use for heat to 2018,
from IEA, Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2013,
op. cit. this note, p. 223. Bio-power generation was estimated at
32 Mtoe (373 TWh), from idem, p. 172. Wind power generation of
50 Mtoe (582 TWh) based on global capacity of 283.2 GW from
Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC), Global Wind Report Annual
Market Update 2013 (Brussels: April 2014), http://www.gwec.net/
wp-content/uploads/2014/04/GWEC-Global-Wind-Report_9April-2014.pdf, and a capacity factor (CF) of 23.44%, calculated
from 2012 global capacity and output as reported by Navigant
Research, World Market Update 2013: International Wind Energy
Development. Forecast 2014-2018 (Copenhagen: March 2014).
Solar PV generation was estimated at 9.9 Mtoe (116 TWh), based on
99.7 GW capacity from European Photovoltaic Industry Association
(EPIA), Market Report 2013 (Brussels: March 2014), http://www.
epia.org/uploads/tx_epiapublications/Market_Report_2013_02.
pdf, and average CF of 13.24%, based on 2013 capacity of 139 GW
from Gatan Masson, IEA-Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme
(IEA-PVPS), and iCARES Consulting, personal communication
with REN21, February-May 2014; and EPIA, Global Market Outlook
for Photovoltaics 2014-2018 (Brussels: forthcoming 2014); 2013
generation of 160 TWh from IEA-PVPS, PVPS Report Snapshot
of Global PV 19922013: Preliminary Trends Information from
the IEA PVPS Programme (Brussels: March 2014), http://www.
iea-pvps.org/fileadmin/dam/public/report/statistics/PVPS_
report_-_A_Snapshot_of_Global_PV_-_1992-2013_-_final_3.
pdf. CSP was 0.5 Mtoe (6 TWh), based on 2.54 GW capacity from
REN21, Renewables 2013 Global Status Report (Paris: REN21
Secretariat, 2013), and CF of 25.9% based on preliminary 2013
capacity and generation from IEA, Medium-Term Renewable Energy
Market Report 2014 (Paris: OECD/IEA, forthcoming 2014). Ocean
power was 0.1 Mtoe (1.1 TWh), based on 530 MW capacity and
CF of 23.3% based on 2013 capacity and generation from idem.
Geothermal electricity generation was 6.2 Mtoe (72 TWh), from IEA,
Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2013, op. cit. this
note. Hydropower was 318 Mtoe (3,700 TWh), from International
Hydropower Association (IHA), personal communication with
REN21, May 2014. Solar thermal heating/cooling of 20.6 Mtoe
(0.86 EJ) from Franz Mauthner, AEE Institute for Sustainable
Technologies, Gleisdorf, Austria, personal communication with
REN21, March-May 2014, and from Franz Mauthner and Werner
Weiss, Solar Heat Worldwide: Markets and Contribution to the Energy
Supply 2012 (Gleisdorf, Austria: IEA Solar Heating and Cooling
Programme (SHC), forthcoming 2014). Note that the estimate
does not consider air collectors. Geothermal heat was estimated
at 7.8 Mtoe (0.33 EJ), derived from the average of two estimated
values. The first (376 PJ) was derived from global annual direct use
in 2011 of 335 PJ, from IEA, World Energy Statistics, op. cit. this
note, and escalated at the observed two-year average growth rate
(20092011) to 2012 and 2013; the second (281 TJ) was derived
from global direct use in 2009 of 223 PJ, from John W. Lund, Derek
H. Freeston, and Tonya L. Boyd, Direct Utilization of Geothermal
Energy 2010 Worldwide Review, Proceedings World Geothermal
Congress 2010 (Bali, Indonesia: 2529 April 2010), which was
escalated first at the annual growth rate from IEA data (World
Energy Statistics, op. cit. this note) to 2011 and then by the twoyear average growth rate (20092011) to 2012 and 2013, as above.
For liquid biofuels, ethanol use was estimated at 43.8 Mtoe (1.83
EJ) and biodiesel use at 19.4 Mtoe (0.81 EJ), based on 82.6 billion
litres and 23.6 billion litres, respectively, from F.O. Licht, Fuel
Ethanol: World Production, by Country (1000 cubic metres), 2014,
and F.O. Licht, Biodiesel: World Production, by Country (1000 t),
2014, used with permission from F.O. Licht / Licht Interactive Data;
average conversion factors from Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Bioenergy Conversion Factors, https://bioenergy.ornl.gov/papers/
misc/energy_conv.html. Nuclear power generation was assumed to
contribute 213 Mtoe (2,477 TWh) of final energy, from BP, op. cit.
this note.
2
Ibid.
IEA, World Energy Outlook 2013, op. cit. note 1, p. 200.
Data and Figure 1 based on sources in Endnote 1.
Figure 2 based on the following sources (see also relevant sections

and endnotes for more details regarding 2013 data and sources):
Solar PV based on 15,795 MW in operation at the end of 2008,
and 99,690 MW at the end of 2012, from EPIA, Market Report
2013, op. cit. note 1, and more than 139 GW at the end of 2013.
CSP based on 485 MW in operation at the end of 2008, from Fred
Morse, Abengoa Solar, personal communication with REN21, 4
May 2012, and from Red Elctrica de Espaa (REE), Potencia
Instalada Peninsular (MW), updated 29 April 2013, https://www.
ree.es/ingles/sistema_electrico/series_estadisticas.asp; on about
2,540 MW at the end of 2012, from REN21, op. cit. note 1, from Luis
Crespo, European Solar Thermal Electricity Association (ESTELA),
personal communication with REN21, February 2014, from Fred
Morse, Morse Associates, Inc., personal communication with
REN21, February 2014, from CSP World Map, CSP World, http://
www.csp-world.com/cspworldmap, and from CSP Today Global
Tracker, CSP Today, http://social.csptoday.com/tracker/projects;
and on 3,425 MW at the end of 2013. Wind power based on 120.6
GW at the end of 2008 and 283 GW at the end of 2012, from GWEC,
op. cit. note 1, and on 318 GW at the end of 2013. Hydropower
based on an estimated 833 MW (not including pumped storage)
in operation at the end of 2008 based on data from U.S. Energy
Information Administration (EIA), Table: Hydroelectricity Installed
Capacity (Million kilowatts), www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/
iedindex3.cfm, viewed 11 May 2014, and adjusted downward by 20
GW to account for difference between 2011 data from EIA and from
IEA, Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2013, op. cit.
note 1, and on 960 GW at the end of 2012, from IHA, Hydropower
Database (unpublished), personal communication with REN21,
February-March 2014, and on 1,000 GW at the end of 2013.
Geothermal based on 10.3 GW in operation at the end of 2008, and
about 11.5 GW at the end of 2012, from U.S. Geothermal Energy
Agency (GEA), unpublished database, provided by Benjamin
Matek, GEA, personal communication with REN21, March 2014,
and 12 GW at the end of 2013. Solar water heaters based on 169.1
GWth capacity (not including air collectors) in operation at the end
of 2008, 281.6 GWth at the end of 2012, and an estimated 326 GWth
at the end of 2013, from Mauthner, op. cit. note 1, and on Mauthner
and Weiss, op. cit. note 1. Biofuels based on 15.6 billion litres of
biodiesel and 66 billion litres of fuel ethanol produced in 2008,
23.6 billion litres of biodiesel and 82.6 billion litres of fuel ethanol in
2012, and 26.3 billion litres of biodiesel and 87.2 billion litres of fuel
ethanol in 2013, all from F.O. Licht, Fuel Ethanol: World Production,
by Country (1000 cubic metres), 2013, and F.O. Licht, Biodiesel:
World Production, by Country (1000 T), 2013, from Helena Chum,
U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), personal
communication with REN21, May 2013 and March 2014, with
permission from F.O. Licht/ Licht Interactive Data.
Sidebar 1 from the following sources: observations of GSR

report authors; International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA),
Statistical Issues: Bioenergy and Distributed Renewable Energy
(Abu Dhabi: 2013), http://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/
Publications/Statistical%20issues_bioenergy_and_distributed%20
renewable%20_energy.pdf; United Nations Sustainable Energy
for All (SE4ALL), Global Tracking Framework (Washington, DC:
2013), http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/energy/publication/
Global-Tracking-Framework-Report. The Global Tracking
Framework provides a system for regular reporting over the years
leading to 2030, to monitor advances towards SE4ALL targets.
Currently, the tracking framework draws from available global
databases, but over the medium term, the framework aims to
improve existing databases. At the regional level, initiatives include
those by the ECOWAS Observatory for Renewable Energy and
Energy Efficiency, http://www.ecowrex.org/, and the RCREEE
Arab Future Energy Index, http://www.rcreee.org/projects/
arab-future-energy-index%E2%84%A2-afex.
IEA, World Energy Outlook 2013, op. cit. note 1, p. 199. Also see
Bioenergy section of this report.
Sven Teske, Greenpeace International, personal communication

with REN21, 13 January 2014.
Eurostat, Renewable Energy in the EU28 Share of Renewables in

Energy Consumption Up to 14% in 2012, press release (Brussels:
10 March 2014), http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/
ITY_PUBLIC/8-10032014-AP/EN/8-10032014-AP-EN.PDF.
10 Energy subsidies cause inefficient energy use and hinder

investment, from World Economic Forum, The Global Energy
Architecture Performance Index Report 2014 (Geneva: December
2013), p. 22, http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_EN_NEA_
Report_2014.pdf, and from International Monetary Fund (IMF),
Reforming Energy Subsidies Summary Note, 2013, http://www.
imf.org/external/np/fad/subsidies/pdf/note.pdf.
11 Estimate of USD 544 billion to fossil fuels and USD 101 billion
to renewables in 2012, from IEA, World Energy Outlook 2013
Factsheet, http://www.iea.org/media/files/WEO2013_factsheets.
pdf, viewed 23 March 2014; according to the IMF, subsidies are
USD 1.9 trillion if considering total post-tax subsidies, per IMF, op.
cit. note 10.
12 In Latin America, for example, wind power projects are being
delayed due to lack of grid infrastructure, per Gonzalo Bravo,
Fundacin Bariloche, personal communication with REN21, 14
January 2014; grid connection is a problem in Brazil, per Energia
Elica: A Culpa da Chesf, Dirio do Nordeste, 25 February 2014,
http://www.portalabeeolica.org.br/index.php/noticias/1612energia-elica-a-culpa-da-chesf.html (using Google Translate);
in Colombia, the cost of transmission lines required to move wind
power from the areas with greatest potential (in La Guajira) is a main
barrier for wind power development, as is variability of the wind
resource, per Javier Eduardo Rodriguez, UPME Colombian Mining
and Energy Planning Unit, personal communication with REN21, 15
April 2014; grid-connection remains a major challenge for offshore
wind, particularly off Germanys coast, where 43% of the turbines
installed in 2013 (or nearly 395 MW) lacked grid connection by
years end, per B. Neddermann, German Offshore Market Growing
Despite Problems with Grid Connection, DEWI Magazin, February
2014, p. 55, http://www.dewi.de/dewi/fileadmin/pdf/publications/
Magazin_44/09.pdf; curtailment and inability to integrate in several
countries, including China and India, from Shruti Shukla, GWEC,
personal communication with REN21, 19 March 2014.
13 Masson, op. cit. note 1; PV Grid, Initial Project Report, July 2013,
http://www.pvgrid.eu/fileadmin/PV_GRID_INITIAL_REPORT_
version2.1_July_2013.pdf; PV Grid, Prioritisation of Technical
Solutions Available for the Integration of PV into the Distribution Grid,
26 June 2013, http://www.pvgrid.eu/fileadmin/130626_PVGRID_
D3_1_Final.pdf; IEA, World Energy Outlook 2013, op. cit. note 1,
p. 213; C. Mitchell et al., Policy, Financing and Implementation,
Chapter 11 in Edenhofer et al., eds., op. cit. note 1, p. 925; R. Sims
et al., Integration of Renewable Energy into Present and Future
Energy Systems, Chapter 8 in idem.
14 Paolo Frankl, IEA, personal communication with REN21, 6 March
2014.
15 See, for example, Stephen Jewkes, Enel Green Power Looks to
Africa, Latin America for Growth, Reuters, 7 November 2013,
http://planetark.org/wen/70282. See also all other sections of this
report.
16 Frankfurt SchoolUnited Nations Environment Programme
Collaborating Centre for Climate & Sustainable Energy Finance
(FS-UNEP Centre) and Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF),
Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment 2014 (Frankfurt:
2014); James Montgomery, Third-Party Residential Solar Surging
in California; Nearly a Billion-Dollar Business, Renewable Energy
World, 15 February 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/
rea/news/article/2013/02/third-party-residential-solar-surging-incalifornia-nearly-a-billion-dollar-business; Scott Sklar, Stella Group,
personal communication with REN21, 20 February 2013; Rainer
Hinrichs-Rahlwes, German Renewable Energies Federation (BEE),
personal communication with REN21, 2 May 2014.
17 SE4ALL, http://www.se4all.org/, viewed April 2014; IEA, World
Energy Outlook 2013, op. cit. note 1, p. 197; Mitchell et al., op. cit.
note 13, pp. 87880.
18 See, for example, Mitchell et al., op. cit. note 13, p. 879;
accelerating economic development in rural and remote areas is
emerging as a major driver for renewables in developing countries,
from Shirish Garud, The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI),
personal communication with REN21, 15 April 2014; job creation
potential is becoming increasingly important in justifying public
investments in renewable energy, per David A. Quansah, The
Energy Center, Knust, Ghana, personal communication with

REN21, 15 April 2014.
19 Business opportunities from International Finance Corporation
(IFC), From Gap to Opportunity: Business Models for Scaling Up
Energy Access (Washington, DC: 2012), http://www1.ifc.org/
wps/wcm/connect/b7ce4c804b5d10c58d90cfbbd578891b/
ExecutiveSummary.pdf?MOD=AJPERES; new business models for
all types of technologies from M. Wiemann, Alliance for Renewable
Energy, personal communication with REN21, 16 April 2014.
20 Frankl, op. cit. note 14; Bravo, op. cit. note 12. Sidebar 2 from
the following sources: 90% Renewable Electricity by 2015
Is Uruguays Goal, Clean Technica, 1 January 2013, http://
cleantechnica.com/2013/01/08/90-renewable-electricityby-2015-is-uruguays-goal/; Grenada from IRENA, Renewable
Readiness Assessment Grenada (Abu Dhabi: 2012), https://www.
irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/Grenada_RRA.
pdf, and from REN21 database; regional renewable energy
shares from Multilateral Investment Fund (MIF), Climatescope
2013 (Washington, DC: 2013), http://www.iadb.org/intal/
intalcdi/PE/2013/13205en.pdf; hydrological vulnerability
from Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), Rethinking
Our Energy Future (Washington, DC: June 2013), http://
www.iadb.org/en/publications/publication-detail,7101.
html?dctype=All&dclanguage=en&id=69434; IEA, World Energy
Outlook 2013, op. cit. note 1; reducing fossil fuel reliance from
Caribbean Community and Common Market, Energy Policy
(Georgetown, Guyana: March 2013), www.caricom.org/jsp/
community_organs/energy_programme/CARICOM_energy_
policy_march_2013.pdf; electrification rates (average global
electrification rate is 82%) from IEA, World Energy Outlook 2013,
op. cit. note 1; solar and geothermal potential based on technically
feasible potential, per Monique Hoogwijk and Wina Graus, Global
Potential of Renewable Energy Sources (London: ECOFYS, March
2008), http://www.ecofys.com/files/files/report_global_potential_
of_renewable_energy_sources_a_literature_assessment.pdf;
wind resources from IDB, op. cit. this note; non-hydro renewable
potential assumes current electricity consumption of 1.3 petawatthour (PWh) (1 trillion kWh) and a regional non-hydro technical
potential of over 80 PWh, per idem; geothermal capacity from
idem; solar PV market from EPIA, Global Market Outlook for
Photovoltaics until 2016 (Brussels: 2012), http://large.stanford.edu/
B7E2C175-E70B-491E-B969-D77E62985EFE/FinalDownload/
DownloadId-A574F187CAFD51815145012048BC7166/
B7E2C175-E70B-491E-B969-D77E62985EFE/courses/2012/
ph240/vidaurre1/docs/masson.pdf; solar thermal collectors from
Franz Mauthner and Werner Weiss, Solar Heat Worldwide (Paris:
IEA, 2013), http://www.iea-shc.org/solar-heat-worldwide; Chile
from Abengoa Solar, Industrial installation of concentrating
solar power in Chile, http://www.abengoasolar.com/web/en/
nuestras_plantas/plantas_para_terceros/chile/index.html;
Jamaica from Annabel Homer, Agricultural drying Jamaica uses
innovative solar alternative and renewable energy technologies,
21 August 2013, http://www.gvepinternational.org/en/business/
news/agricultural-drying-jamaica-uses-innovative-solar-alternativeand-renewable-energy-tec; Peru from Andina Inauguran 40
secadores solares para la poscosecha de caf en Satipo, Junn,
1 November 2013, http://www.andina.com.pe/espanol/noticiainauguran-40-secadores-solares-para-poscosecha-cafe-satipojunin-480812.aspx; Mexico from Adrin Vidal Santo et al., Diseo
y construccin de un secador solar porttil, Congreso Internacional
de Investigacion, vol. 4, no. 2 (2012), http://www.uv.mx/personal/
avidal/files/2013/06/Secador-Solar.pdf; urbanisation from IDB
Emerging and Sustainable Cities Initiative, What Do We Do?
http://www.iadb.org/en/topics/emerging-and-sustainable-cities/
responding-to-urban-development-challenges-in-emergingcities,6690.html, viewed February 2014; biofuel promotion from
IDB, Low Carbon Technologies Can Transform Latin Americas
Bus Fleets (Washington, DC: 25 April 2013), http://idbdocs.iadb.
org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum=37907926; Brazils
biofuel share from Energy and Mines Ministry, Empresa de
Pesquisa Energetica, Brazil Energy Balance 2013 (Brasilia: 2013),
https://ben.epe.gov.br/downloads/S%C3%ADntese%20do%20
Relat%C3%B3rio%20Final_2013_Web.pdf; regional biofuel
leaders from MIF, op. cit. this note; renewable support measures
from Bravo, op. cit. note 12; El Salvador issued tenders for 100
MW of wind and solar power, per BNEF, El Salvador Solicits
Bids for 100 Megawatts of Wind, Solar Power, 2 October 2013,
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-10-02/el-salvadorsolicits-bids-for-100-megawatts-of-wind-solar-power.html; Peru
issued tenders for 240 MW of hydropower, per Per adjudica 19
proyectos generacin hidroelctrica con recursos renovables,
01
143

LaInformacion, 13 December 2013, http://noticias.lainformacion.
com/economia-negocios-y-finanzas/energia-alternativa/peruadjudica-19-proyectos-generacion-hidroelectrica-con-recursosrenovables_TbZsx0zWtSrd5zlkVxfGo6/; Brazil issued tenders for
6.124 GW of renewables, from Auction A-3 has 868 MW of wind per
BNEF, Wind Farms Dominating Brazil Power Auction Set for Record
Year, 18 November 2013, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/201311-18/wind-farms-dominating-brazil-power-auction-set-for-recordyear.html; has 4.7 GW of wind during the year per BNEF, Brazil
Energy Auction Sells 2.3 Gigawatts of Wind-Power Projects, 13
December 2013, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-12-13/
brazil-energy-auction-sells-2-3-gigawatts-of-wind-power-projects.
html; has 123 MW of solar power from Brazilian state approves
123MW of solar developments in energy auction, PV tech, January
2014, http://www.pv-tech.org/news/brazil_gains_122mw_of_
solar_developments_after_state_energy_auction; has 481.2
MW small-scale hydro and 808 MW biomass, per Brazil Energy
Research Office EPE from Beatriz Monteiro, communication with
Sandra Chavez, IRENA, 20 February 2014; Uruguay has 200 MW
of solar power, per Alejandro Diego Rosell, One of the lowest solar
rates in the world? PV Magazine, December 2013, http://www.
pv-magazine.com/archive/articles/beitrag/one-of-the-lowest-solarrates-in-the-world-_100013587/#axzz2rt4Y3PqY; Barbados, Brazil,
Chile, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Mexico, and
Uruguay all have promoted net metering, per MIF, op. cit. this note;
improved investment environment from Bravo, op. cit. note 12;
investment commitments from BNEF, Clean Energy Investment
Falls for Second Year, press release (London: 15 February 2014),
http://about.bnef.com/press-releases/clean-energy-investmentfalls-for-second-year/; spread of manufacturing from MIF, op. cit.
this note; factors behind development delays from Bravo, op. cit.
note 12; challenges of low demand from Caribbean Community and
Common Market, op. cit. this note.
21 Anna Leidreiter, World Future Council, personal communication
with REN21, 10 April 2014. See also European Commission, Siena
Starts the New Year as Europes First Carbon Free City, 22 January
2014, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/europeangreencapital/
siena-starts-new-year-carbon-free/.
22 See Market and Industry Trends section.
23 U.S. International Trade Commission, Renewable Energy and
Related Services: Recent Developments (Washington, DC: August
2013), Executive Summary, http://www.usitc.gov/publications/332/
pub4421.pdf.
24 Back toward profitability from FS-UNEP Centre and BNEF, op. cit.
note 16, p. 16, and from Alessandro Marangoni, Mario Iannotti,
and Sofia Khametova, The Strategies of the 50 Leading Companies
in the Global Renewable Energy Industry, Edition II (Milan: Althesys
Strategic Consultants, 2014), Summary, http://www.althesys.com/
wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Althesys-IREX-International-2014-.
pdf.
25 FS-UNEP Centre and BNEF, op. cit. note 16.
26 Global investment in fossil fuel power capacity was USD 270 billion;
however, most of this was to replace previously existing capacity,
and investment in additional fossil power capacity was an estimated
USD 102 billion. This compares with USD 192 billion for renewables
not including hydro plants larger than 50 MW, and at least USD 227
billion if all hydro is included, from ibid., pp. 3032.
27 Ibid., p. 13; financing from Michael Eckhart, CitiGroup, Inc.,
personal communication with REN21, 13 January 2014.
28 Louise Downing, Record Renewable Energy Transfers Illustrate
Investors Appetites, Utilities Pain, Bloomberg, 7 November 2013,
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/11/
record-renewable-energy-transfers-illustrate-investors-appetitesutilities-pain; for interest among institutional investors, see also
Vera Eckert, Green energy in Europe vies now with conventional
energy: Allianz, Reuters, 26 April 2013, http://planetark.org/
wen/68514; other new investors include insurance and reinsurance
firms (e.g., Allianz, Munich Re), which are pouring billions of Euros
into renewable energy projects, from Green Makeover Will Be
Struggle for Germanys RWE, Reuters, 1 November 2013, http://
planetark.org/wen/70238; Kelvin Ross, London Array Wind Farm
the Highlight of Exceptional Year for Masdar, Renewable Energy
World, 24 January 2014, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/
rea/news/article/2014/01/london-array-wind-farm-the-highlightof-exceptional-year-for-masdar; Sally Bakewell, Citi Sees Capital
Markets Reviving Renewables as Banks Bow Out, Bloomberg, 27
January 2014, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/
article/2014/01/citi-sees-capital-markets-reviving-renewablesas-banks-bow-out; Tildy Bayar, Trend Spotting in Renewables
144
Investment, Renewable Energy World, May-June 2013, p. 53.

29 Use of crowd funding in China from Eric Ng, Solar Farm Taps
Crowd Funding for 10 m Yuan Project, South China Morning Post,
20 February 2014, http://www.scmp.com/business/commodities/
article/1431397/solar-farm-taps-crowd-funding-10m-yuan-project;
Africa and Asia from Felicity Carus, Crowdfunding Aims to Prove
that Solar Power in a Bankable Sector, The Guardian, 20 December
2013, http://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/
crowdfunding-solar-power-bankable-sector; risk-guarantee
schemes from Franck Jesus, Global Environment Facility (GEF),
personal communication with REN21, 16 April 2014. See also
FS-UNEP Centre and BNEF, op. cit. note 16.
30 See Distributed Renewable Energy in Developing Countries section.
31 See Reference Table R1 and related endnote for details and
references.
32 Ibid.
33 Based on total additions of approximately 120 GW, with an
estimated 40 GW from hydropower, more than 39 GW from solar
PV, and more than 35 GW from wind. For details and references
see Reference Table R1, Market and Industry Trends section, and
related endnotes.
34 Based on estimates ranging from at least 36.9 GW to most likely
3940 GW of solar PV added during 2013 from Masson, op. cit. note
1, from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1, from EPIA, Global Market Outlook
for Photovoltaics 2014-2018, op. cit. note 1, and from FSUNEP
Centre and BNEF, op. cit. note 16; from estimates of 35.336.1
GW of wind power capacity added during 2013 from GWEC, op. cit.
note 1, from World Wind Energy Association (WWEA), World Wind
Energy Report 2013 (Bonn: 2014), and from Navigant Research,
op. cit. note 1, Executive Summary; from data on global solar PV
capacity additions back to 1990, from Paul Maycock, PV News,
various years, and from EPIA, Market Report 2013, op. cit. note 1;
and from data on net global wind capacity additions back to 1981
from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, and from Janet L. Sawin, The Role
of Government in the Development and Diffusion of Renewable
Energy Technologies: Wind Power in the United States, California,
Denmark and Germany, 1970-2000, Doctoral Dissertation,
Fletcher School, Tufts University, September 2001.
35 Growing share based on data from REN21, Renewables Global
Status Report, previous editions, and from EIA and BNEF data,
provided in FSUNEP Centre and BNEF, op. cit. note 16, p. 31.
36 Figure of 56% based on a total of approximately 120 GW of
renewable capacity added, as noted in this report; on 4 GW of
nuclear power capacity added and 5.4 GW of capacity permanently
shutdown, for a net reduction of 1.4 GW, from International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA) PRIS Database, http://www.iaea.org/pris/,
viewed 11 May 2014; net increase in fossil generating capacity of an
estimated 95 GW, from FSUNEP Centre and BNEF, op. cit. note
16, p. 30. Based on these data, total global net capacity additions in
2013 were estimated to be about 213.6 GW, putting the renewable
share at just over 56%. Higher shares in several countries based on
the following: IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1; New Zealand from Ralph
Sims, Massey University, New Zealand, personal communication
with REN21, 30 March 2014; countries in Europe based on the
fact that 72% of newly installed EU capacity was renewable,
from European Wind Energy Association (EWEA), Wind in Power:
2013 European Statistics (Brussels: February 2014), p. 7, http://
www.ewea.org/fileadmin/files/library/publications/statistics/
EWEA_Annual_Statistics_2013.pdf; France decommissioned fossil
capacity and adding no nuclear power capacity, therefore adding
only renewables, per Romain Zissler, Institute for Sustainable
Energy Policies (ISEP), personal communication with REN21, 15
April 2014; nearly all capacity added in Italy was renewable, from
Alessandro Marangoni, Althesys Strategic Consultants, personal
communication with REN21, 16 April 2014.
37 EWEA, op. cit. note 36, p. 7.
38 Renewable share of total global electric generating capacity is
based on renewable total of 1,560 GW and on total global electric
capacity in the range of 5,898.3 GW. Estimated total world capacity
for end-2013 is based on 2011 total of 5,456 GW, from IEA, World
Energy Outlook 2013, op. cit. note 1, p. 574; on about 116 GW of
renewable power capacity added in 2012, from REN21, op. cit.
note 1, and adjusted data for 2012; on 109 GW net additions of
fossil fuel-fired capacity in 2012, from FSUNEP Centre and BNEF,
2013); on a net increase in nuclear power capacity of 3.7 GW in
2012, from IAEA, cited in Nuclear Power Capacity Grew Again in
2012: IAEA, Agence France Presse, 5 March 2013; and on a net
39 Estimates based on the following sources: Total global electricity

generation in 2013 is estimated at 22,921 TWh, based on 22,504
TWh in 2012 from BP, op. cit. note 1, and an estimated 1.85%
growth in global electricity generation for 2013. The growth rate is
based on the weighted average actual change in total generation
for the following countries (which together account for twothirds of global generation in 2012): United States (+0.26% net
generation), EU-28 (-4.73% gross generation), Russia (-0.85%),
India (+4.70%), China (+7.50%), and Brazil (+2.58%). Sources for
2011 and 2012 electricity generation are: EIA, Monthly Energy
Review, April 2014, Table 7.2a (Electricity Net Generation);
European Commission, Eurostat database, http://epp.eurostat.
ec.europa.eu; System Operator of the Unified Power System of
Russia, http://www.so-ups.ru; Government of India, Ministry of
Power, Central Electricity Authority (CEA), Monthly Generation
Report, http://www.cea.nic.in/monthly_gen.html; China Electricity
Council (CEC), CEC Released the Countrys Electricity Supply
and Demand Analysis and Forecasting 2014 Annual Report,
25 February 2014, http://www.cec.org.cn/guihuayutongji/
gongxufenxi/dianligongxufenxi/2014-02-25/117272.html (using
Google Translate); National Operator of the Electrical System of
Brazil (ONS), http://www.ons.org.br/historico/geracao_energia.
aspx. Hydropower generation in 2013 is estimated at 3,775 TWh,
based on input from IHA, op. cit. note 1, from IEA, Medium-Term
Renewable Energy Market Report 2014, op. cit. note 1;,and from
a projection based on 2012 hydropower output of 3,673 TWh
from BP, op. cit. note 1, as well as observed weighted average
year-on-year change in output (+2.8%) for top producing countries
(China, Brazil, Canada, the United States, EU-27, Russia, India,
and Norway), which together accounted for over 70% of global
hydropower output: United States (-2.6% in annual output), Canada
(+3.0%), EU-27 (+12.2% for January through September), Norway
(-8.1%), Brazil (-6.0%), Russia (+12.7%), India (+13.2%) for facilities
larger than 25 MW), and China (+4.7%). The combined hydropower
output of these countries was up by about 2.8% relative to 2012.
Hydropower generation by country: United States from EIA, op. cit.
this note; Canada from Statistics Canada, http://www5.statcan.
gc.ca; EU-27 from European Commission, op. cit. this note; Norway
from Statistics Norway, http://www.ssb.no; Brazil from ONS, op. cit.
this note; System Operator of the Unified Power System of Russia,
op. cit. this note; Government of India, op. cit. this note; CEC, op.
cit. this note. Non-hydro renewable generation of 1,311 TWh was
based on 2013 year-end generating capacities shown in Reference
Table R1 and representative capacity factors in Endnote 1, or other
specific estimates as detailed by technology in Section 2. Figure 3
based on sources in this endnote.
40 Denmark met 33.2% of electricity demand with wind power,
based on 11.1 billion kWh of wind power generation in 2013 and
33.5 billion kWh of total electricity consumption, from Carsten
Vittrup, 2013 Was a Record-Setting Year for Danish Wind Power,
Energinet.DK, 15 January 2014, http://www.energinet.dk/EN/
El/Nyheder/Sider/2013-var-et-rekordaar-for-dansk-vindkraft.
aspx; Spain from REE, per Asociacin Empresarial Elica (AEE),
Spain Was in 2013 the First Country Where Wind Energy Was
the First Source of Electricity for an Entire Year, press release
(Madrid: 15 January 2014), http://www.aeeolica.org/en/new/
spain-was-in-2013-the-first-country-where-wind-energy-was-thefirst-source-of-electricity-for-an-entire-year/; Italy from IEA-PVPS,
op. cit. note 1. Other countries meeting large shares included
Australia; wind met 38% of South Australias power demand and
8% of national demand during August 2013, from Clean Energy
Council, August Windy Enough to Light Up 155,000 Homes, 4
September 2013, http://www.cleanenergycouncil.org.au/mediacentre/media-releases/september-2013/130904-windy-august.
html; Portugal occasionally reaches 90% of electricity from wind
power, from Steve Sawyer, GWEC, personal communication with
REN21, 14 April 2014; Michael Goggin, US Wind Energy Output
Breaks Records, Renewable Energy World, 4 April 2014, http://
www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2014/04/
us-wind-energy-output-breaks-records; RenewableUK, Record
Breaking Month for Wind Energy, press release (London: 2 January
2014), http://www.renewableuk.com/en/news/press-releases.
cfm/2014-01-02-record-breaking-month-for-wind-energy; Note
that renewable energy provided 70% of Portugals electricity
supply for the first quarter of 2013; hydropower and wind power
were the largest contributors, with hydro providing 37% and wind
27%, from Peter Bronski, Is a High Renewables Future Really
Possible? Part 2, RMI Outlet, 23 May 2013, http://blog.rmi.org/
blog_05_23_2013_is_a_high_renewables_energy_really_
possible_part_two.
41 Orkutlur 2013, Orkustofnun (Energy Statistics in Iceland 2013)
(Reykjavik: April 2014), http://www.os.is/gogn/os-onnur-rit/
orkutolur_2013-islenska.pdf; BP, Renewables in this Review,
http://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/about-bp/energyeconomics/statistical-review-of-world-energy-2013/review-byenergy-type/renewable-energy/renewables-in-this-review.html,
viewed 11 May 2014.
42 IEA, Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2013, op.
cit. note 1, Executive Summary, p. 5; Jason Channell, Timothy
Lam, and Shahriar Pourreza, Shale & Renewables: A Symbiotic
Relationship (London: Citi Research, September 2012); BNEF,
Australia LCOE Update: Wind Cheaper than Coal and Gas, Asia &
Oceania Clean Energy Research Note, 31 January 2013; Sourabh
Sen, Assessing Risk and Cost in India: Solars Trajectory Compared
to Coal, Renewable Energy World, 17 April 2013, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/04/risk-andcost-solars-trajectory-compared-to-coal; Sarasin, Working Towards
a Cleaner and Smarter Power Supply: Prospects for Renewables
in the Energy Revolution (Basel, Switzerland: December 2012),
p. 9; Bridge to India, India Solar Compass, April 2013, p. 26;
IRENA, Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2012: An Overview
(Abu Dhabi: January 2013), http://costing.irena.org/media/2769/
Overview_Renewable-Power-Generation-Costs-in-2012.pdf; IEA,
Tracking Clean Energy Progress 2013 (Paris: OECD/IEA, 2013),
http://www.iea.org/publications/tcep_web.pdf. Note that offshore
wind levelised costs increased between the second quarter of 2009
and the first quarter of 2013, as project developers moved farther
from shore and into deeper waters, and some CSP and geothermal
power technologies also saw cost increases during this period, from
FSUNEP Centre and BNEF, op. cit. note 38. Other renewables
are becoming cost competitive in several west African countries,
including Burkina Faso, Liberia, and The Gambia, per Quansah, op.
cit. note 18.
43 FS-UNEP Centre and BNEF, op. cit. note 16, pp. 3637. According
to BNEF, conventional generation sources general saw per MWh
costs increase over the period from early 2009 to early 2014, with
the exception of gas-fired generation in the United States, and
capital costs for coal- and gas-fired and nuclear power plants has
generally increased as well, reflecting materials and labour costs.
44 Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East without any subsidy
support from ibid., pp. 3637, 4143; many renewables are
already competitive relative to new fossil fuel plants, and wind and
solar PV have reached or are approaching competitiveness without
generation-based incentives in a number of markets, per IEA,
Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2013, op. cit. note
1, p. 5; Steve Sawyer, GWEC, personal communication with REN21,
15 January 2014.
45 Ernesto Macas Galn, Alliance for Rural Electrification (ARE),
personal communication with REN21, 15 January 2014; Sven
Teske, Greenpeace International, personal communication with
REN21, 13 January 2014; Clint Wilder, 2014: The Maturation of
Clean Tech, Renewable Energy World, 13 January 2014, http://
www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2014/01/2014the-maturation-of-clean-tech; Giles Parkinson, Australian
utilities erect barricades in bid to halt solar storm, Renew
Economy, 23 October 2013, http://reneweconomy.com.au/2013/
australian-utilities-erect-barricades-in-bid-to-halt-solarstorm-91715; Europe from Rainer Hinrichs-Rahlwes, BEE, personal
communication with REN21, 12 January 2014; Marc Gunther,
With Rooftop Solar on Rise, U.S. Utilities Are Striking Back, Yale
Environment360, 3 September 2013, http://e360.yale.edu/feature/
with_rooftop_solar_on_rise_us_utilities_are_striking_back/2687/.
01
total of 213.6 GW of global power capacity added from all sources in

2013 (see Endnote 36 for details).
46 See, for example, Mark Osborne, Hareon Solar Teaming with

Shanghai Electric Power on 800 MW of PV Projects, PV tech, 13
March 2014, http://www.pv-tech.org/news/hareon_solar_teaming_
with_shanghai_electric_power_on_800mw_of_pv_projects; How
to lose half a trillion euros, The Economist, October 2013, http://
www.economist.com/news/briefing/21587782-europes-electricityproviders-face-existential-threat-how-lose-half-trillion-euros;
Gunther, op. cit. note 45; Ron Pernick, Clint Wilder, and James
Belcher, Clean Energy Trends 2014, March 2014, p. 10, http://
cleanedge.com/reports/Clean-Energy-Trends-2014.
47 Rankings were determined by gathering data for the worlds top
countries for hydropower, wind, solar PV, CSP, biomass, and
geothermal power capacity. China based on 260 GW hydropower
(not including pure pumped storage capacity) from CEC, op. cit.
note 39; 91,412 MW installed by the end of 2013, from Chinese
Wind Energy Association (CWEA), provided by Shi Pengfei,
145

CWEA, personal communication with REN21, 14 March 2014,
and from GWEC, op. cit. note 1; almost 20 GW of solar PV based
on data from China National Energy Administration, provided
by Masson, op. cit. note 1, from EPIA, Global Market Outlook for
Photovoltaics 2014-2018, op. cit. note 1, and from Masson, op.
cit. note 1; 6.2 GW of bio-power (excluding 2.3 GW of incineration)
from China National Renewable Energy Centre, CNREC 2013
Activities within China National Renewable Energy Centre
(Beijing: March 2014); 26.6 MW geothermal from GEA, op. cit.
note 5, and from CNREC, op. cit. this note; 10 MW of CSP from
Geng Dan, Review and Outlook on China Renewable Energy,
presentation for REvision2014: Global Energy Turnarounds
and Japans Path, Tokyo, 25 February 2014, http://jref.or.jp/en/
images/pdf/20140225/Geng_Dan_REvision2014_Session1_2.
pdf; also from Luis Crespo, ESTELA, personal communication
with REN21, February 2014; and small amounts of ocean energy
capacity. United States based on 78.4 GW hydropower from
2012 capacity from EIA, Electric Power Annual, Table 4.3 Existing
Capacity by Energy Source, http://www.eia.gov/electricity/annual/
html/epa_04_03.html; projected net additions in 2013 of 201
MW from idem, Table 4.5 Planned Generating Capacity Changes
by Energy Source, 2013-2017, http://www.eia.gov/electricity/
annual/html/epa_04_05.html; 61,110 MW of wind from American
Wind Energy Association (AWEA), U.S. Capacity & Generation,
in U.S. Wind Industry Annual Market Report 2013 (Washington,
DC: 10 April 2014), http://www.awea.org/AnnualMarketReport.
aspx?ItemNumber=6305&RDtoken=35392&userID=; 12.1 GW
of solar PV from GTM Research and U.S. Solar Energy Industries
Association (SEIA), U.S. Solar Market Insight Report: 2013 Year-in
Review (Washington, DC: 2014), Executive Summary, http://
www.seia.org/research-resources/solar-market-insight-report2013-year-review; 15.8 GW bio-power from U.S. Federal Energy
Regulatory Commission (FERC), Office of Energy Projects Energy
Infrastructure Update for December 2013, https://www.ferc.gov/
legal/staff-reports/2013/dec-energy-infrastructure.pdf; 3,442
MW of geothermal power from GEA, op. cit. this note; 882 MW of
CSP from Morse, op. cit. note 5; CSP World Map, op. cit. note 5;
CSP Today Global Tracker, op. cit. note 5; SEIA, Solar Energy
Facts: 2013 Year in Review, 5 March 2014, http://www.seia.
org/sites/default/files/YIR%202013%20SMI%20Fact%20Sheet.
pdf; SEIA, Major Solar Projects in the United States: Operating,
Under Construction, or Under Development, 6 March 2014,
http://www.seia.org/sites/default/files/resources/Major%20
Solar%20Projects%20List%203.6.14.pdf; NextEra dedicates
250 MW Genesis CSP Plant, Solar Server, 25 April 2014, http://
www.solarserver.com/solar-magazine/solar-news/current/2014/
kw17/nextera-dedicates-250-mw-genesis-csp-plant.html;
Abengoa Solar, Mojave Solar Project, http://www.abengoasolar.
com/web/en/nuestras_plantas/plantas_en_construccion/
estados_unidos/; NextEra dedicates 250 MW Genesis CSP plant,
SolarServer, http://www.solarserver.com/solar-magazine/solarnews/current/2014/kw17/nextera-dedicates-250-mw-genesiscsp-plant.html; U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory
(NREL), Concentrating Solar Power Projects: Solana Generating
Station, 17 March 2014, http://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/
project_detail.cfm/projectID=23. Brazil based on 85.7 GW of
hydropower from National Agency for Electrical Energy (ANEEL),
Fiscalizao dos servios de gerao, February 2013, http://
www.aneel.gov.br/area.cfm?idArea=37; 80 MW of solar PV from
20131106_PVcapacity_2009-2012, unpublished database
provided by Christopher Werner, Hanergy, personal communication
with REN21, 15 October 2013; 11,423 MW of bio-power from
ANEEL, 2013, provided by Maria Beatriz Monteiro, CENBIO,
personal communication with REN21, 16 April 2014; 3,456 MW of
wind from GWEC, op. cit. note 5; Francine Martins Pisni, Associao
Brasileira de Energia Elica (ABEElica), communication with
REN21 via Suani Coelho, CENBIO, 29 April 2014. Canada based on
76.2 GW of hydropower from the following: Canadian Hydropower
Association, communication with REN21, February 2014, and
Hydropower Equipment Association (HEA) data based on its
members aggregated input, personal communication with REN21,
April 2014; also on 7,803 MW wind from Canadian Wind Energy
Association (CanWEA), Installed Capacity, http://canwea.ca/
wind-energy/installed-capacity/, viewed 11 April 2014, and GWEC,
op. cit. note 1; 1,284 MW solar PV from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1;
2.5 GW of bio-power from Canadian Industrial Energy End-Use
Data and Analysis Centre, Simon Fraser University, provided by
Farid Bensebaa, National Resource Council Canada, personal
communication with REN21, 12 May 2014; 20 MW of ocean from
IEA Implementing Agreement on Ocean Energy Systems (IEA-OES),
Ocean Energy in the World, http://www.ocean-energy-systems.
org/ocean_energy_in_the_world/, and from IEA-OES, Annual
146
Report 2012 (Lisbon: 2012), Table 6.1, http://www.ocean-energysystems.org/oes_reports/annual_reports/. Germany based on 5.6
GW of hydropower, 35.9 GW of solar PV, 34.7 GW total installed wind
capacity, and 8.1 GW of bio-power from Arbeitsgruppe Erneuerbare
Energien-Statistik (AGEE-Stat), Erneuerbare Energien im Jahr 2013
(Berlin: Bundesministerium fr Wirtschaft und Energie (BMWi),
2014), http://www.bmwi.de/BMWi/Redaktion/PDF/A/agee-statbericht-ee-2013,property=pdf,bereich=bmwi2012,sprache=de,rw
b=true.pdf; 28.5 MW geothermal power from GEA, op. cit. this note.
48 China share based on data and references provided elsewhere in
this section; 260 GW of hydropower from CEC, CEC Publishes the
Demand/Supply Analysis and Forecast of China Power Industry
2014, 19 March 2014, http://english.cec.org.cn/No.105.1534.htm.
49 China, United States, and Germany from Endnote 47, all references.
Spain based on 17.1 GW of hydropower from REE, op. cit. note
5, updated March 2014; 22,959 GW of wind from GWEC, op. cit.
note 1; 5,566 MW solar PV from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1; 981
MW bio-power, and 2,300 MW CSP from REE, op. cit. note 5,
updated March 2014. Italy based on 18.2 GW hydropower from
Gestore Servizi Energetici (GSE), Impianti a fonti rinnovaili in
Italia: Prima stima 2012, 28 February 2013, and no additions
identified for 2013; 4 GW of bio-power is preliminary data from
GSE, provided by Noemi Magnanini, GSE, personal communication
with REN21, 16 May 2014; 8,551 MW of wind from EWEA, op.
cit. note 36; 17,600 MW of solar PV from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note
1; 900 MW of geothermal power from GEA, op. cit. note 5; and
5 MW (demonstration) of CSP from Crespo, op. cit. note 5. India
based on 43.7 GW of hydropower from CEA, Installed capacity
as of 31 December 2013, http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/monthly/
inst_capacity/dec13.pdf, and idem, List of H.E. Stations in the
Country with Station Capacity Above 25 MW, http://www.cea.
nic.in/reports/hydro/list_he__stations.pdf; capacity additions in
2013 (>25 MW) of 554 MW from CEA, Executive Summary of the
Power Sector (monthly), http://www.cea.nic.in/exesum_cood.
html; installed capacity in 2013 (<25 MW) of 3,763.15 MW from
Government of India, Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
(MNRE), Physical Progress (Achievements), http://www.mnre.
gov.in/mission-and-vision-2/achievements/, viewed 18 January
2014; capacity additions in 2013 (<25 MW) of 267 MW based on
difference of year-end 2013 figure (above) and year-end 2012
figure (3,496.15 MW) from MNRE, Annual Report 2012-2013
(New Delhi: undated), Table 3.7, http://www.mnre.gov.in/missionand-vision-2/publications/annual-report-2; 20,150 MW of wind
from GWEC, op. cit. note 1; 2,319 MW of solar PV from IEA-PVPS,
op. cit. note 1; about 4.4 GW of bio-power from MNRE, Physical
Progress (Achievements), op. cit. this note. Figure 4 based on
sources in this note and on the following sources for EU-28 and
BRICS: EU-28 based on 123.5 GW hydropower in 2012 (although
this includes some mixed pumped storage plants for Austria), from
International Journal on Hydropower & Dams (IJHD), Hydropower
& Dams World Atlas 2013 (Wallington, Surrey, U.K.: 2013), and
from hydropower data provided in previous notes for Germany, Italy
and Spain; 117,289 MW of wind from EWEA, op. cit. note 36; 80
GW of solar PV from EPIA, Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics
2014-2018, op. cit. note 1; and from Masson, op. cit. note 1;
34.5 GW of bio-power from the following: AGEE-Stat, op. cit. note
47; Luca Benedetti, Energy Studies and Statistics, GSE, Rome,
personal communication with REN21, 16 May 2014; REE, op. cit.
note 5, updated March 2014; Directorate General for Energy and
Geology (DGEG), provided by Lara Ferreira, Portuguese Renewable
Energy Association, personal communication with REN21, May
2014; U.K. Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC),
Statistics, Energy Trends Section 6: Renewables, Department of
Energy and Climate Change, March 2014 (updated 10 April 2014),
p. 6, https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/
attachment_data/file/295356/6_Renewables.pdf; Rseau de
Transport d'lectricit, (RTE), Bilan lectrique 2013 (Paris: 2014),
p. 21; http://www.rte-france.com/uploads/Mediatheque_docs/
vie_systeme/annuelles/Bilan_electrique/bilan_electrique_2013.
PDF; Government Offices of Sweden, Swedens second progress
report on the development of renewable energy pursuant
to Article 22 of Directive 2009/28/EC, 23 December 2013,
http://ec.europa.eu/energy/renewables/reports/2013_en.htm;
E-Control Austria, Entwicklung der anerkannten sonstigen
kostromanlagen (exclusive Kleinwasskraft) von 20022013,
http://www.e-control.at/portal/page/portal/medienbibliothek/
oeko-energie/dokumente/pdfs/Entwicklung%20anerkannter%20
%C3%96kostromanlagen%202002-2013_Tabelle_Stand%20
Mai%202014.pdf, updated May 2014; preliminary data from IEA,
Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2013, op. cit. note
1; 960 MW of geothermal from GEA, op. cit. note 5; 2,300 MW of
50 Based on data and sources in previous endnotes in this section for

Germany and Spain, population data for 2012 from World Bank,
World development indicators Population (total), 2014, http://
data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL, viewed 7 March 2014.
Sources also include the following: Denmark based on 9 MW of
hydropower from IJHD, op. cit. note 49; 4,772 MW of wind power
from EWEA, op. cit. note 36; 532 MW of solar PV from IEA-PVPS,
op. cit. note 1; 1.6 GW of bio-power is a projection from 2013 from
IEA, Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2013, op. cit.
note 1, p. 75, based on 1.4 GW in 2012 from idem. Portugal based
on 5 GW of hydropower from IJHD, op. cit. note 49; 4,724 MW of
wind power from EWEA, op. cit. note 36; 284 MW of solar PV from
IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1; 2,591 MW of bio-power from DGEG, op.
cit. note 49. Sweden based on 16.2 GW of hydropower from IJHD,
op. cit. note 49; 4,470 MW of wind power from EWEA, op. cit. note
36; 43 MW of solar PV from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1; about 4.3 GW
of bio-power based on 4,055 MW in 2012, up from 3,401 MW in
2011, from Government Offices of Sweden, op. cit. note 49, and on
additions in 2013 including: 180 MW (CHP) from Biomass Power
Plants in Sweden, Power plants around the world, based on data
from Platts UDI World Electric Power Plants Data Base, updated 27
April 2014, http://www.industcards.com/biomass-sweden.htm, and
a CHP plant (20 MW electric/60 MW heat), from Fortum, "Fortum
inaugurates new waste-to-energy combined heat and power plant
in Sweden," press release (Stockholm: 29 November 2013), http://
www.fortum.com/en/mediaroom/pages/fortum-inaugurates-newwaste-to-energy-combined-heat-and-power-plant-in-sweden.aspx
51 Based on investment data in FS-UNEP Centre and BNEF, op. cit.
note 16, and on 2012 gross domestic product (GDP) in current U.S.
dollars, from World Bank, World development indicators - GDP
(current US$), updated April 2014, http://data.worldbank.org/
indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD.
52 Based on data and sources in previous endnotes in this section, and
global data including the following: 1,000 GW of hydropower from
IHA, op. cit. note 1; from preliminary estimates in IEA, MediumTerm Renewable Energy Market Report 2014, op. cit. note 1; and
from HEA, op. cit. note 47; 318 GW of wind from GWEC, op. cit.
note 1, from WWEA, op. cit note 34, and from Navigant Research,
op. cit. note 1, Executive Summary; 139 GW of solar PV from
IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1, from Masson, op. cit. note 1; 88 GW of
bio-power based on based on 83 GW of capacity at end-2012 (see
GSR 2013), preliminary data from IEA, Medium-Term Renewable
Energy Market Report 2014, op. cit. note 1, and national level data
from the following: FERC, op. cit. note 47; AGEE-Stat, op. cit. note
47; CNREC, op. cit. note 47; ANEEL, op. cit. note 47; IEA, MediumTerm Renewable Energy Market Report 2013, op. cit. note 1; REE,
op. cit. note 5, updated March 2014; MNRE, Physical Progress
(Achievements), op. cit. note 49; DGEG, op. cit. note 48; DECC ,
op. cit. note 49, p. 6; ISEP, Renewables Japan Status Report 2014
(Tokyo: March 2014) (in Japanese), data provided by Hironao
Matsubara, ISEP, personal communication with REN21, 23 April
2014; Benedetti, op. cit. note 49; Government Offices of Sweden,
op. cit. note 49; 12 GW of geothermal from GEA, op. cit. note 5;
3.4 GW of CSP from REN21, op. cit. note 1; Crespo, op. cit. note 5;
Fred Morse, Morse Associates, Inc., personal communication with
REN21, February and May 2014; CSP World Map, op. cit. note 5;
CSP Today Global Tracker, op. cit. note 5; NREL, Concentrating
Solar Power Projects, http://www.nrel.gov/csp/solarpaces/;
SEIA, Solar Energy Facts: 2013 Year in Review, op. cit. note
47; SEIA, Major Solar Projects in the United States: Operating,
Under Construction, or Under Development, op. cit. note 47;
NextEra dedicates 250 MW Genesis CSP Plant, op. cit. note 47;
Abengoa Solar, Mojave Solar Project, op. cit. note 47; and 0.5
GW of ocean energy from OES, Annual Report 2012 (Lisbon: 2012),
Table 6.1, http://www.ocean-energy-systems.org/oes_reports/
annual_reports/2012_annual_report/; OES, Annual Report 2013
(Lisbon: 2013), Table 6.2, http://www.ocean-energy-systems.org/
documents/82577_oes_annual_report_2013.pdf/; IEA, op. cit.
note 5, p. 179, and other sources provided in Ocean Energy section.
53 CEC, op. cit. note 39; FS-UNEP Centre and BNEF, op. cit. note 16,
p. 25.
54 More than 20% from Geng Dan, op. cit. note 47. Note that electricity
generation from wind power was up 36.3% and from solar PV up
143% over 2012, from CEC, op. cit. note 39.
56 Union of the Electricity IndustryEURELECTRIC, Utilities:
Powerhouses of Innovation (Brussels: 2013), p. 14, http://www.
eurelectric.org/media/79178/utilties_powerhouse_of_innovation_
full_report_final-2013-104-0001-01-e.pdf. In 2013, total fossil
power capacity declined by 11 GW due to decommissioning,
whereas total renewable capacity increased by more than 24 GW,
based on 35,181 MW of gross power capacity additions, 21,834
MW of capacity decommissioned (of which 10,146 MW was natural
gas; 7,723 MW was coal; 2,792 MW was fuel oil; and the remainder
a combination of biomass, wind power, hydropower, and waste),
and an estimated 25,450 MW of renewable capacity from EWEA,
op. cit. note 36, p. 6.
57 Hydropower output was down 2.6% over the year; non-hydro
renewables represented just under half of total renewable
output, from EIA, Monthly Energy Review, March 2014, Table 7.2a
Electricity Net Generation: Total (All Sectors), p. 95, http://www.
eia.gov/totalenergy/data/monthly/previous.cfm.
58 Coals share was down 18.9% based on all electricity generation
in the United States, including the electric power sector and other
sectors, from ibid.
59 Sofia Martinez, Instituto para la Diversificacin y Ahorro de la
Energa (IDAE), Spain, personal communication with REN21, 7 April
2014. Wind generated 20.9% versus nuclears 20.8%, according to
advance report of the system operator REE, op. cit. note 40.
60 Capacity added based on nearly 0.4 GW of bio-power capacity
from MNRE, Physical Progress (Achievements), op. cit. note 49;
554 MW of large-scale hydropower (>25 MW) from CEA, Executive
Summary of the Power Sector (monthly), at www.cea.nic.in/
exesum_cood.html; 267 MW of small-scale hydropower based on
difference of year-end 2013 figure (above) and year-end 2012 figure
(3,496.15 MW) from MNRE, Annual Report 2012-2013, op. cit. note
49, Table 3.7; 1,115 MW of solar PV from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note
1; 50 MW of CSP from Jenny Muirhead, MENA Shows Patience
Towards Delay in CSP Projects, Weekly Intelligence Brief: July
15July 22, CSP Today, 22 July 2013, http://social.csptoday.com/
markets/weekly-intelligence-brief-july-15-%E2%80%93-july-22;
1,729 MW of wind from GWEC, op. cit. note 1. Total capacity based
on about 4.4 GW of bio-power from MNRE, Physical Progress
(Achievements), op. cit. note 49; total large-scale hydro capacity
of 39,893.4 MW from CEA, installed capacity as of 31 December
2013, http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/monthly/inst_capacity/dec13.
pdf, and http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/hydro/list_he__stations.pdf;
small hydropower facilities capacity of 3,763.15 MW from MNRE,
Annual Report 2012-2013, op. cit. note 49; 2,200 MW of solar PV
from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1; 50 MW of CSP from Muirhead, op.
cit. this note; and 20,150 MW of wind from GWEC, op. cit. note 1.
01
CSP from REE, op. cit. note 5, updated March 2014; 241 MW of
ocean energy from IEA-OES, Annual Report 2011 (Lisbon: OES
Secretary, 2011), Table 6.1, p. 122. In addition to references for
Brazil, India, and China, BRICS from the following: Russia based
on 46.7 GW of hydropower from System Operator of the Unified
Energy System of Russia, Report on the Unified Energy System in
2013 (Moscow: undated), http://www.so-ups.ru/fileadmin/files/
company/reports/disclosure/2014/ups_rep2013.pdf; 15 MW wind
from EWEA, op. cit. note 36; 1.5 GW bio-power from IEA, MediumTerm Renewable Energy Market Report 2013, op. cit. note 1; 97 GW
geothermal power from GEA, op. cit. note 5; and a small amount
of ocean energy capacity. South Africa based on about 680 MW of
hydropower (not including pumped storage), from Hydro4Africa,
African Hydropower DatabaseSouth Africa, http://hydro4africa.
net/HP_database/country.php?country=South%20Africa, viewed
9 May 2014; 102 MW of wind from WWEA, op. cit. note 34; 30 MW
solar PV from EScience Associates, Urban-Econ Development
Economists, and from Chris Ahlfeldt, The Localisation Potential of
Photovoltaics (PV) and a Strategy to Support Large Scale Roll-Out in
South Africa, prepared for the South African Department of Trade
and Industry, March 2013, p. x, http://www.sapvia.co.za; 25 MW
bio-power based on IEA, Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market
Report 2013, op. cit. note 1.
61 Based on data in previous endnote.

62 Ibid., and total electric generating capacity added during 2013 of
22,977.9 MW, from CEA, provided by Shirish Garud, TERI, personal
63 Sawyer, op. cit. note 40.
64 Figure of 4.7 GW from Sawyer, op. cit. note 40, 14 April 2014;
year-end commissioned capacity from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p.
24; grid-connected from ANEEL, cited in Capacidade instalada
para energia elica cresce 20% no Brasil, Jornal da Energia, 1 April
2014, http://www.portalabeeolica.org.br/index.php/noticias/1739capacidade-instalada-para-energia-elica-cresce-20-no-brasil.
html (using Google Translate).
65 Decline in investment from in FS-UNEP Centre and BNEF, op.
cit. note 16; increase in capacity added in 2013 relative to 2012
from Masson, op. cit. note 1, and EPIA, Global Market Outlook for
147

Photovoltaics 2014-2018, op. cit. note 1.
66 Fifteen countries and 8 in 2010 from BP, Renewable Power, http://
www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/about-bp/energy-economics/
statistical-review-of-world-energy-2013/review-by-energy-type/
renewable-energy/renewable-power-.html, viewed 11 May 2014;
three additional based on information from BP, Renewables in
this Review, http://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/about-bp/
energy-economics/statistical-review-of-world-energy-2013/reviewby-energy-type/renewable-energy/renewables-in-this-review.html,
viewed 11 May 2014. The countries are Austria, Belgium, Denmark,
El Salvador, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Republic of Ireland, Italy,
Kenya, Lithuania, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and the
United Kingdom, from idem, and based on BP, Statistical Review of
World Energy 2013 Workbook, data from Electricity Generation,
and Other Renewables TWh, http://www.bp.com/en/global/
corporate/about-bp/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-worldenergy-2013.html.
67 Leidreiter, op. cit. note 21; 100ee-Regionen, http://100ee.deenet.
org/, viewed 27 April 2014; Institut dezentrale Energietechnologien
(IdE) GmbH, 100 RE Regions in Germany, Europe and the
World (Kassel: IdE, January 2014), http://100ee.deenet.org/
fileadmin/redaktion/100ee/Downloads/broschuere/GoodPractice_Broschuere_Inhalt_Web.pdf. Also, see Energy Agency
of Upper Austria, The Upper Austrian Energy Strategy Energy
Future 2030, April 2013, http://www.esv.or.at/english/energyin-upper-austria/; Spanish Island to be Fully Powered by Wind,
Water, Earthtechling.com, 28 April 2014, http://earthtechling.
com/2014/04/spanish-island-to-be-fully-powered-by-wind-water/.
See also Reference Tables R12R15 for targets.
68 Djibouti from DjiboutiVers une croissance verte, La Nation
ler Quotidien Djiboutien, 5 May 2014, http://www.lanationdj.com/
djibouti-vers-croissance-verte/#; Scotland and Tuvalu from GWEC,
69 Jo Bracker, Oeko-Institut e.V. - Institute for Applied Ecology,
personal communication with REN21, 17 and 22 April 2014.
70 Ibid; and Hungary, based on domestic hydropower, from M.
Prantner, Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment, and Energy,
personal communication with REN21, 10 April 2014.
71 Australia from GreenPower, viewed 1 May 2013, http://www.
greenpower.gov.au; South Africa from How to Buy Green Electricity
Certificate (GECs), http://www.capetown.gov.za/en/electricity/
GreenElectricity/Pages/Howtopurchasegreenelectricitycertificates.
aspx, viewed 15 February 2013; Canada from, for example, Bullfrog
Power, http://www.bullfrogpower.com/index.cfm; Japan from
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and
the Pacific (ESCAP), Low Carbon Green Growth Roadmap for
Asia and the Pacific. Case Study: Stimulating Consumer Interest
in Businesses That Go GreenJapans Green Power Certificate
Scheme, 2012, http://www.unescap.org.
72 The capacity equivalent of this demand is about 17 GW, from J.
Heeter and T. Nicholas, Status and Trends in the U.S. Voluntary
Green Power Market (2012 Data) (Golden, CO: NREL, October
2013), p. v, http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy14osti/60210.pdf. Note that
total green power market sales in the United States rose 36% from
2010 to 2012. The vast majority comes from wind power, from idem.
73 Ambitious targets from Chris Meehan, US Companies Use of
Solar Increases 40% Over 2012, Renewable Energy World, 23
October 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
blog/post/2013/10/companies-use-of-solar-in-u-s-increases40-over-2012; for companies installing and operating their own
systems see, for example, Googles Still a Big Fan of Renewable
Energy, Renewable Energy World, 18 October 2013, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/10/googlesstill-a-big-fan-of-renewable-energy?cmpid=SolarNL-SaturdayOctober19-2013; Apple Owns Biggest Private Solar Power
System in US, Fox News, 22 March 2013, http://www.foxnews.
com/tech/2013/03/22/apple-owns-biggest-private-solar-powersystem-in-us/; corporate long-term power purchase agreements,
from James Montgomery, Microsoft vs. Apple Still Making
Headlinesin Renewable Energy, Renewable Energy World, 5
November 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
news/article/2013/11/microsoft-vs-apple-still-making-headlinesin-renewable-energy; Rahul Sachitanand, Big business groups to
push renewable energy space by raising capacity, Economic Times
(India), 13 February 2013, http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.
com/2013-02-14/news/37100144_1_renewable-energy-kiranenergy-k-subramanya; Stefan Nicola, BMW Taps Wind to Guard
Profits in Merkels Nuclear Switch, Renewable Energy World, 19
February 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/
148
article/2013/02/bmw-taps-wind-to-guard-profits-in-merkelsnuclear-switch; Christopher Martin, US Auto Factory Chooses

Wind Energy for On-Site Power Generation, Bloomberg, 10
January 2014, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/
article/2014/01/u-s-auto-factory-chooses-wind-energy-for-on-sitepower-generation; Meg Cichon, IKEA Enters US Wind Market with
Largest Renewables Investment to Date, Renewable Energy World,
10 April 2014, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/
article/2014/04/ikea-sticks-with-renewables-commitment-makeslargest-investment-to-date; Nathan Paluck, Mexicos New Opened
Energy Market Attracts Renewables, Renewable Energy World,
8 May 2014, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/
article/2014/05/mexicos-newly-opened-energy-market-attractsrenewables?cmpid=WNL-Friday-May9-2014
74 Australias First Community-Owned Wind Farm in Daylesford,
Castlemaine Independent, 18 October 2013, http://www.
castlemaineindependent.org/2013/10/australias-communityowned-wind-farm-daylesford/; Australian Community Solar Project
Begins Operation, PV News, January 2013, p. 11; The Greens,
Unleashing Community-Owned Energy, http://greens.org.au/
community-energy, viewed 3 March 2014. In Japan, communityowned power has been important since 2011, and this trend is
accelerating, per Tetsu Iida, ISEP, personal communication with
REN21, 14 January 2014. Thailand from IEA-PVPS, Trends in
Photovoltaic Applications: Survey Report of Selected IEA Countries
Between 1992 and 2012 (Brussels: 2013). North America from,
for example, CAW Owned and Operated Wind Turbine Begins
Operation in Port Elgin, Ontario, 25 March 2013, http://www.
caw.ca/en/12003.htm; as of July 2013, the capacity of existing
community solar projects in the United States exceeded 14 MW,
with an additional 13 MW of projects under development, from
Heeter and Nicholas, op. cit. note 72. Europe based on information
available at Communitypower.eu, viewed 20 March 2014; more
than 80,000 people in Germany hold shares in collectively run
electricity and heat systems; in Denmark, more than 100 wind
energy co-operatives have combined ownership of three-fourths
of Denmarks turbines, from Anna Leidreiter, The Last Word:
Local Development Through Community-led Renewable Energy,
Renewable Energy World, MarchApril 2013, pp. 5455; Andrew
Williams, Sharing Renewable Energy: Solar Power Co-operatives
in the UK, Renewable Energy World, 8 August 2013, http://
sharing-renewable-energy-solar-power-co-operatives-in-the-uk.
75 In Denmark, more than 100 wind energy co-operatives have
combined ownership of three-fourths of Denmarks turbines,
from Leidreiter, op. cit. note 74; Craig Morris, Citizens Own
Half of German Renewable Energy, 29 October 2013, http://
energytransition.de/2013/10/citizens-own-half-of-germanrenewables/?pk_campaign=nl8. See also Agentur fur Erneuerbare
Energien, Energiegenossenschaften in Deutschland,
http://www.unendlich-viel-energie.de/mediathek/grafiken/
energiegenossenschaften-in-deutschland, viewed 9 May 2014;
and Christoph Burger and Jens Weinmann, Bioenergy in China:
Can China Learn from Germanys Experience? 10 March 2014,
http://knowledge.ckgsb.edu.cn/2014/03/10/technology/bioenergyin-china/; 20 million Germans from Leidreiter, op. cit. note 21;
100ee-Regionen, http://100ee.deenet.org/, viewed 27 April 2014;
Institut dezentrale Energietechnologien (IdE), GmbH, 100 RE
Regions in Germany, Europe and the World (Kassel: IdE, January
2014), http://100ee.deenet.org/fileadmin/redaktion/100ee/
Downloads/broschuere/Good-Practice_Broschuere_Inhalt_Web.
pdf; Legambiente presenta Comuni Rinnovabili 2014. Sono
700mila gli impianti da fonti pulite distribuiti nel 100% dei Comuni,
Legambiente.it, 7 May 2014, http://www.legambiente.it/contenuti/
comunicati/legambiente-presenta-comuni-rinnovabili-2014-sono700mila-gli-impianti-da-fonti (using Google Translate).
76 See, for example, A.C. Orrell et al., 2012 Market Report on Wind
Technologies in Distributed Applications (Richland, WA: Pacific
Northwest Laboratory, August 2013), http://www1.eere.energy.gov/
wind/pdfs/2012_distributed_wind_technologies_market_report.
pdf, and Market and Industry Trends section of this report.
77 See, for example, Microgrid Resources Coalition Launched at
IDEA Campus Energy Conference, PR Web, 18 February 2014,
http://www.prweb.com/releases/2014/02/prweb11594223.htm;
Darrell Delamaide, Dawn of Microgrids, EnergyBiz Magazine,
September/October 2013, http://www.energybiz.com/magazine/
article/325109/dawn-microgrids; Justin Gerdes, How Microgrids
are Bolstering the Nations Power Infrastructure, Smithsonian, 15
November 2013, http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/
how-microgrids-are-bolstering-the-nations-power-infrastructure-
78 IEA, World Energy Outlook 2013, op. cit. note 1, p. 207.

79 Small but gradually rising share from IEA, Medium-Term Renewable
Energy Market Report 2013, op. cit. note 1; modern renewables
met 8% of global demand for heat in 2011, per IEA, World Energy
Outlook 2013, op. cit. note 1, p. 207; the portion of modern
renewable energy in total final heat demand is currently above
10%, per idem, p. 199.
80 IEA, Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2013, op. cit.
note 1, pp. 21718.
81 Ibid.
82 Ibid.
83 IEA-Renewable Energy Technology Deployment (IEA-RETD),
Renewables for Heating and Cooling Untapped Potential (Paris:
OECD/Paris, 2007); about 90% based on 12.8 EJ of heat from
modern biomass out of a total 13.8 EJ in 2010, from IEA, MediumTerm Renewable Energy Market Report 2013, op. cit. note 1, p. 217,
and considering rapid growth of solar thermal heating in recent
years, from an estimated 0.7 EJ in 2010, from idem, to 1.01 EJ in
2013, from Mauthner, op. cit. note 1, and on Mauthner and Weiss,
op. cit. note 1.
84 See relevant sections and endnotes in Market and Industry Trends
for more details and sources.
85 Based on data from IEA, World Energy Outlook 2011 (Paris: OECD/
IEA, 2011), and IEA, World Energy Outlook 2013, op. cit. note 1. See
also Bioenergy section in Market and Industry Trends.
86 Heinz Kopetz, World Bioenergy Association, personal
communication with REN21, 13 January 2014.
87 Ibid.
note 1, pp. 22224; European Biogas Association, Six National
Biomethane Registries Are Developing the Foundation for Crossborder Biomethane Trade in Europe, press release (Brussels: 25
November 2013), http://european-biogas.eu/wp-content/uploads/
files/2013/11/2013.11.25_ggg_press-release_biomethaneregistries.pdf; particularly in Germany, biogas is being blended with
natural gas, from D. Loy, Loy Energy Consulting, Germany, personal
communication with REN21, 15 April 2014. See also Bioenergy
section of this report.
89 IEA, World Energy Outlook 2013, op. cit. note 1, Chapter 6.
note 1. See, also, Bioenergy and Distributed Renewable Energy
sections in this report.
91 Based on data from Mauthner, op. cit. note 1, and on Mauthner and
Weiss, op. cit. note 1.
92 Ibid.
93 Solar heaters cost an estimated 3.5 times less than electric
water heaters and 2.6 less than gas heaters over the system
lifetime, according to Chinese Solar Thermal Industry Federation,
cited in Brbel Epp, Solar Thermal Competition Heats Up in
China, Renewable Energy World, 10 September 2012, http://
solar-thermal-competition-heats-up-in-china.
94 Solar District Heating, Intelligent Energy Europe Programme of
the European Union, Solar District Heating, viewed 6 March
2014, http://www.solar-district-heating.eu/SDH.aspx; Jan-Olof
Dalenbck, An Emerging Option: Solar District Heating and
Cooling, Euro Heat & Power, Vol. 10, No. (2013), pp. 2629;
Jan-Olof Dalenbck, Chalmers University of Technology and Solar
District Heating (SDH), personal communication with REN21, 12
April 2014; Solar Heat for Industrial ProcessesSHIP Database,
IEA-SHC Task 49/IV, http://ship-plants.info/projects, viewed 10 April
2014; Eva Augsten, The world of solar process heat, Sun & Wind
Energy, March 2014, pp. 3645; Uli Jacob, Green Chiller, Status
and Perspective of Solar Cooling in Europe, Australian Solar
Cooling 2013 Conference, Sydney, Australia, April 2013.
95 See, for example, Lund, Freeston, and Boyd, op. cit. note 1.
96 See, for example, Bundesverband Geothermie, The Altheim
Rankine Cycle Turbogenerator, www.geothermie.de/wissenswelt/
archiv/englisch/the-altheim-rankine-cycle-turbogenerator.html;
also see Geothermal Power and Heat section of this report.
97 Burkhard Sanner et al., Strategic Research and Innovation
Agenda for Renewable Heating & Cooling (Luxemburg: European
Commission, European Technology Platform on Renewable Heating
and Cooling (ETP-RHC), 2013), p. 30, http://www.rhc-platform.org/

fileadmin/user_upload/members/Downloads/RHC_SRA_epo_
final_lowres.pdf. For hybrid systems, see, for example, Stephanie
Banse, Thailand: Government Continues Subsidy Programme
in 2013, Solar Thermal World, 15 February 2013, http://
solarthermalworld.org/content/thailand-government-continuessubsidy-programme-2013; and Solar + Heat Pump Systems, Solar
Update (IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Programme), January 2013.
98 Thomas Nowak, European Heat Pump Association (EHPA),
99 Ibid.
100 Less attention from policymakers and the heat market is more
fragmented and diverse than the electricity market, for example,
Frankl, op. cit. note 14.
101 Economic feasibility of delivering renewable heat at competitive
prices (relative to relevant alternatives) is limited due to the unfair
competition from fossil energy and high upfront investment cost,
from Sanner et al., op. cit. note 97; also from Nowak, op. cit. note
98.
102 Dong Energy, Green Heat to the Greater Copenhagen Area,
press release (Fredericia, Denmark: 8 April 2013), http://www.
dongenergy.com/EN/Investor/releases/Pages/omx%20feed%20
list%20details.aspx?omxid=678722; UN ESCAP, Low Carbon
Green Growth Roadmap for Asia and the Pacific, op. cit. note
71; U.K. from Dave Elliott, Green Energy Retailing, Environmental
Research Web, 28 April 2012, http://environmentalresearchweb.
org/blog/2012/04/; Bullfrog Power in Canada provides green
natural gas to the nations natural gas pipeline for household and
other purposes, from Bullfrog Power, Green Natural Gas: Simple.
Affordable. Climate Friendly, http://www.bullfrogpower.com/
greenenergy/greennaturalgas.cfm.
103 Danish Ministry of Climate, Energy and Building, Danish Energy
Agreement, 22 March 2012, http://www.kebmin.dk/sites/kebmin.
dk/files/climate-energy-and-building-policy/denmark/energyagreements/FAKTA%20UK%201.pdf; Denmark targets from Danish
Energy Agency, Danish Climate and Energy Policy, http://www.
ens.dk/en/policy/danish-climate-energy-policy, viewed 12 May
2014, and Danish Ministry of Climate, Energy and Building, Energy
Policy Report 2013, Ministry Report to the Danish Parliament,
24 April 2013, http://www.ens.dk/sites/ens.dk/files/policy/
danish-climate-energy-policy/dkenergypolicyreport2013_final.
pdf; U.K. Government, Policy: Increasing the Use of Low-Carbon
TechnologiesRenewable Heat Incentive (RHI), updated 9 April
2014, https://www.gov.uk/government/policies/increasing-the-useof-low-carbon-technologies/supporting-pages/renewable-heatincentive-rhi; European Parliament, All New Buildings to Be Zero
Energy from 2019, 31 March 2009, http://www.europarl.europa.
eu/sides/getDoc.do?language=en&type=IM-PRESS&reference=20
090330IPR52892.
104 Data from REN21 database compiled from all available policy
references plus submissions from report contributors. For online
updates, see the Renewables Interactive Map at http://www.
ren21.net. See also Reference Table R14.
105 District systems from Jan-Olof Dalenbck and Sven Werner,
CIT Energy Management AB, Market for Solar District Heating,
supported by Intelligent Energy Europe (Gothenburg, Sweden:
September 2011, revised July 2012), http://solarthermalworld.
org/sites/gstec/files/story/2013-05-21/sw_solar_markets.pdf;
Jan-Olof Dalenbck, An Emerging Option: Solar District Heating
and Cooling, Euro Heat & Power, vol. 10, no. III (2013), pp. 2629;
April 2014; Miklos Antics, Ruggero Bertani, and Burkhard Sanner,
Summary of EGC 2013 Country Update Reports on Geothermal
Energy in Europe, presented at European Geothermal Congress,
Pisa, Italy, 37 June 2013; building renovation from Nowak, op.
cit. note 98; industrial processes from Mauthner, op. cit. note 1;
Jacob, op. cit. note 94; Solar Heat for Industrial ProcessesSHIP
Database, IEA-SHC Task 49/IV, http://ship-plants.info/projects,
viewed 10 April 2014. See also Bioenergy and Geothermal sections
of this report.
01
180947705/?all. See also section on Distributed Renewable Energy

in Developing Countries.
106 Euroheat & Power, District Heating and Cooling Country-by-Country

2013 Survey (Brussels: 2013). European countries include Austria,
Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland,
France, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland,
Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, and Switzerland, from idem.
Italy, for example, has 317 municipalities with district heating
plants that use renewable energy sources, including biomass and
geothermal, from Legambiente presenta Comuni Rinnovabili
149

2014, op. cit. note 75.
107 Sanner et al., op. cit. note 97, p. 32.
108 Balancing variable renewables from Rachana Raizada,
Renewables and District Heating: Eastern Europe Keeps in
Warm, Renewable Energy World, 13 September 2012, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2012/09/renewablesand-district-heating; see also Peter Kelly-Detwiler, Denmark:
1,000 Megawatts of Offshore Wind, And No Signs of Slowing Down,
Forbes, 26 March 2013.
109 Increasing reliability from Anna Leidreiter, Diane Moss, and
Markus Groth, From Vision to Action: A Workshop Report on 100%
Renewable Energies in European Regions (Hamburg: World Future
Council, Nordic Folkecenter, and Climate Service Center at the
Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, March 2013), p. 12, http://www.
worldfuturecouncil.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Climate_and_
Energy/From_Vision_to_Action_Policy_Recommendations_
for_100__RE_in_European_Regions.pdf; cornerstone of energy
policy from Nowak, op. cit. note 98.
110 Chinas National Energy Administration issued a notice to relevant
authorities in the provinces of Jilin, Hebei, Shanxi, Heilongjiang,
Liaoning, and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region and Xinjiang
Uyghur Autonomous Region to start pilot tests, from Wu Hanxuan,
Intervention Necessary to Spread Wind Power Usage, Global
Times, 7 August 2013, http://www.globaltimes.cn/content/802300.
shtml#.UiCT3yzD9aQ.
111 Sims et al., op. cit. note 13.
112 Estimate of 3% from IEA, World Energy Outlook 2013, op. cit. note 1,
p. 24; 2.3% from IEA, Tracking Clean Energy Progress, op. cit. note
42, p. 90.
113 Some countries have much higher shares, including Brazil (20.1%),
the United States (4.4%), and the EU (4.2%), all as of 2010, from
IEA, Tracking Clean Energy Progress, op. cit. note 42, p. 90.
114 F.O. Licht, Fuel Ethanol: World Production, by Country (1000 cubic
metres), 2014, and F.O. Licht, Biodiesel: World Production, by
Country (1000 t), 2014, used with permission from F.O. Licht /
Licht Interactive Data, provided by Helena Chum, U.S. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), personal communication
with REN21, 4 March, 2014.
115 See, for example, Arla Brings Milk Minus Emissions to UK,
ngvglobal.com, 19 February 2014, http://www.ngvglobal.com/
arla-brings-milk-minus-emissions-to-uk-0219#more-30327; Oslo
Buses to be Fueled by Liquefied Biomethane, ngvglobal.com,
12 February 2014, http://www.ngvglobal.com/oslo-buses-to-befueled-by-liquefied-biomethane-0212#more-30213; Berlins
Household Waste Fuels Refuse Fleet, ngvglobal.com, 18 January
2014, http://www.ngvglobal.com/berlins-household-waste-fuelsrefuse-fleet-0118#more-29935; Bus Depot Largest Biomethane
Refueller in Gothenburg, ngvglobal.com, 28 September 2013,
http://www.ngvglobal.com/bus-depot-largest-biomethanerefueller-in-gothenburg-0928#more-28659; Switzerland from
Dunja Hoffmann, Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), personal communication with REN21,
29 April 2011; After Completion of the Province to Start the Car
Biogas Project Nissan Car 30,000 cubic meters of biogas, Hainan
Shenzhou New Energy Construction & Development Co., Ltd, 14
October 2013, http://www.hainanbiogas.com/page.php?xuh=37
(using Google Translate); The Morale of the Shortage Hainans
First Car Started to Crack in Sight Biogas Plant, Hainan Shenzhou
New Energy Construction & Development Co., Ltd, 14 October
2013, http://www.hainanbiogas.com/page.php?xuh=32 (using
Google Translate).
116 Vehicle stations from European Biomethane Filling Station
Mapping Begins with Finland, ngvglobal.com, 30 November 2013,
http://www.ngvglobal.com/european-biomethane-filling-stationmapping-begins-with-finland-1130#more-29417. In Germany, for
example, as overall road vehicle sales declined, sales of natural
gas vehicles rose almost 40% (to 4,300 vehicles) in the first half
of 2013, relative to the same period in 2012 (3,100 vehicles), from
Germanys NGV Population Grows at Record Pace, ngvglobal.
com, 23 July 2013, http://www.ngvglobal.com/germanysngv-population-grows-at-record-pace-0723#more-27863.
See also Biomethane Fuel Gains Ground in Germany,
ngvglobal.com, 31 March 2013, http://www.ngvglobal.com/
biomethane-fuel-gains-ground-in-germany-0331#more-26326.
117 For example, Distiller Methane to Power Vehicles in Philippines,
ngvglobal.com, 2 December 2013, http://www.ngvglobal.
com/distiller-methane-to-power-vehicles-in-philippines1202#more-29433; Waste Management Builds New Biomethane
150
Facility for Fleet Refueling, ngvglobal.com, 18 October 2013,

http://www.ngvglobal.com/waste-management-builds-newbiomethane-facility-for-fleet-refueling-1018#more-28867; ENOC
and Dubai Sign MoU to Convert Flared Biogas to Biomethane
Fuels, ngvglobal.com, 12 February 2013, http://www.ngvglobal.
com/enoc-and-dubai-sign-mou-to-convert-flared-biogas-tobiomethane-fuel-0212; California Energy Commission Funds
Biomethane and CNG Fuel Projects, ngvglobal.com, 13 February
2013, http://www.ngvglobal.com/california-energy-commissionfunds-biomethane-and-cng-fuel-projects-0213; Valtra Plans
Biomethane Dual-Fuel Tractor Production in 2013, ngvglobal.
com, 15 September 2012, http://www.ngvglobal.com/valtra-plansbiomethane-dual-fuel-tractor-production-in-2013-0915.
118 See, for example, Dave Hurst, Are E-Bicycle Sales Reducing Car
Sales in Europe? Forbes, 8 May 2013, http://www.forbes.com/
sites/pikeresearch/2013/05/08/are-e-bicycle-sales-reducingcar-sales-in-europe/; IEA, Clean Energy Ministerial, Electric
Vehicles Initiative, Global EV Outlook: Understanding the Electric
Vehicle Landscape to 2020 (Paris: OECD/IEA, April 2013), http://
cleanenergyministerial.org/Portals/2/pdfs/EVI_GEO_2013_
FINAL_150dpi.pdf.
119 GIZ, prepared on behalf of Federal Ministry for Economic
Cooperation and Development, Renewables in Rail Transport:
Approaches and Examples, compiled by Nicolai Bader, GIZ, April
2014.
120 BYD, Bogot Launches the Largest All-electric Taxi Fleet in
South America, press release (Bogot: 3 September 2013),
http://www.byd.com/news/news-172.html; Nino Marchetti,
Colombian Police Turn to Electric Motorcycles, EarthTechling.
com, 1 July 2013, http://earthtechling.com/2013/07/
colombian-police-turn-to-electric-motorcycles/.
121 In Norway, about 1,200 EVs are sold monthly, from S. Morlin-Yron,
Norway - electric vehicles lead the car market, The Ecologist, 4
February 2014, http://www.theecologist.org/News/news_round_
up/2266537/norway_electric_vehicles_lead_the_car_market.
html.
122 U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy, Alternative Fuels Data Center, updated 30 December
2013, http://www.afdc.energy.gov/locator/stations/. More than 20%
of these are in California.
123 Leidreiter, op. cit. note 21. For example, Dardesheim, Germany,
produces more energy than it needs for power, heating, cooling,
and mobility, and has started to integrate electric vehicles into its
energy plan, from Leidreiter, Moss, and Groth, op. cit. note 109, p.
35.
124 Vehicle is defined as passenger cars, lorries, and other road
vehicles, and fossil-fuel-independent vehicle fleet as road
transport system whose vehicles are driven primarily by biofuels
or electricity, from Swedish Government, A Cohesive Swedish
Climate and Energy Policy, Govt. Bill 2008/09:162, cited in
Fossilfrihet pvg, Del 1 (Stockholm: 2013), Report no. SOU 2013:
84, http://www.regeringen.se/content/1/c6/23/07/39/1591b3dd.
pdf. Executive Summary in English is available at http://www.sou.
gov.se/content/1/c6/21/33/36/aa2e5cb3.pdf.
125 Heather Allen, Transport Research Laboratory, United Kingdom,
126 Sawyer, op. cit. note 44; Samuel Shen and Kazunori Takada,
Chinese Cities Open Up Green Car Markets as Government
Battles Pollution, Reuters, 21 March 2014, http://planetark.
org/wen/71258. F. Tuffner and M. Kintner-Meyer, Using Electric
Vehicles to Meet Balancing Requirements Associated with Wind
Power (Richland, WA: Pacific Northwest Laboratory, 2011),
prepared for U.S. Department of Energy, http://energyenvironment.
pnnl.gov/pdf/PNNL-20501_Renewables_Integration_Report_
Final_7_8_2011.pdf; Innovative EV Charging System Includes
Solar Power, Battery Energy Storage, Smart Grid News, 31
January 2013, http://www.smartgridnews.com/artman/publish/
End_Use_Electric_Transportation/Innovative-EV-charging-systemincludes-solar-power-battery-storage-5477.html; Phil Carson, The
Business of V2G: Technology and Business Case Go Hand in Hand,
Intelligent Utility Magazine, September/October 2012, http://www.
intelligentutility.com/magazine/article/284831/business-v2g; J.A.
Peas Lopes et al., Smart Charging Strategies for Electric Vehicles:
Enhancing Grid Performance and Maximizing the Use of Variable
Renewable Energy Resources, EVS24 International Battery, Hybrid
and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Symposium, Stavanger, Norway,
13-16 May 2009, http://www.altomelbilen.dk/presentationer/
Smart%20Grid%20Strategies.pdf.
ENDNOTES 02 MARKET AND INDUSTRY TRENDS BIOENERGY
BIOMASS ENERGY
International Energy Agency (IEA), World Energy Outlook 2013
(Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD)/IEA, 2013), p. 200 states that traditional biomass
accounted for 57% of total primary energy use from biomass in
2011. The data are very uncertain and other estimates put the
share of traditional biomass consumption closer to two-thirds
of total primary energy use from all biomass. For example, the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) noted that
roughly 60% share of total biomass was deemed traditional but
in addition there is biomass use estimated to amount to 20
to 40% not reported in official primary energy databases, such
as dung, unaccounted production of charcoal, illegal logging,
fuelwood gathering, and agricultural residue use; see Summary
for Policymakers, in O. Edenhofer et al., eds., IPCC Special Report
on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation
(Cambridge, U.K. and New York: Cambridge University Press,
2011), p. 9, http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report/IPCC_SRREN_Full_
Report.pdf. This would imply that total world primary energy use
is higher than reported by the IEA and others. The GSR assumes
here that the traditional biomass share has remained relatively
unchanged over the past 23 years.
The distinction between traditional and modern biomass can

be somewhat blurred, with some biomass being combusted
on domestic open fires in developed-country dwellings on
the one hand and modern large- to medium-scale biogas and
bioenergy plants being installed in developing countries. There is
a long-term ambition to create incentives for users of traditional,
non-sustainable biomass in low-efficiency cookstoves (with health
impacts from the smoke emissions) to use sustainably produced
biomass in more efficient appliances in order to reduce losses;
see Figure 5, GSR 2013, p. 27. Health issues arise from both
traditional and modern use of biomass from particulates and black
carbon that are formed during incomplete combustion of biomass
and released as smoke, leading to poor health and some 4
million premature deaths each year as well as to greenhouse
gas emissions. The climate benefits of reducing emissions of
black carbon, a short-lived climate pollutant, are becoming
better understood; see, for example, World Bank, Integration of
Short-lived Climate Pollutants in World Bank Activities: A report
prepared at the request of the G8 (Washington, DC: June 1013),
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2013/06/18119798/
integration-short-lived-climate-pollutants-world-bank-activitiesreport-prepared-request-g8.
Bioenergy Annex of Chapter 11, Agriculture, Forests and Other

Land Use Change, in IPCC, Working Group III, Fifth Assessment
Report: Climate Change Mitigation (Cambridge, U.K. and New
York: Cambridge University Press, April 2014),https://www.ipcc.
ch/report/ar5/wg3/. Also note that short-rotation energy crops
grown on agricultural land specifically for energy purposes
currently provide about 34% of the total biomass resource
consumed annually, as outlined in H. Chum et al., Bioenergy,
Chapter 2 in Edenhofer et al., op. cit. note 1.
Sidebar 3 from the following sources: for research and policy
endeavours, see, for example: J. Fargione et al., Land Clearing
and the Biofuel Carbon Debt, Science, vol. 319, no. 5867 (2008),
pp. 123538, J. Melillo et al., Indirect Emissions from Biofuels:
How Important? Science, vol. 326, no. 5958 (2009), pp. 1397
99, and G. Berndes et al., Bioenergy and Land Use Change
State of the Art, Energy and Environment, vol. 2, no. 3 (2013), pp.
282303; concern about time lag from idem; consensus around
biogenic emissions from Pinchot Institute for Conservation, The
Transatlantic Trade in Wood for Energy: A Dialogue on Sustainability
Standards and Greenhouse Gas Emissions (Savannah, GA: 2013),
http://cif-seek.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Trade-in-Woodfor-Energy_Savannah-Workshop-Summary_Final.pdf; carbon
payback analysis from S.R. Mitchell, M.E. Harmon, and K.E.B.
OConnell, Carbon Debt and Carbon Sequestration Parity in
Forest Bioenergy Production, GCB Bioenergy, vol. 4, no. 6 (2012),
pp. 81827; review of carbon payback times, including the use of
residues, from P. Lamers and M. Junginger, The Debt Is in the
Detail: A Synthesis of Recent Temporal Forest Carbon Analyses on
Woody Biomass for Energy, Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining,
vol. 7, no. 4 (2013), pp. 37385, and from A. Agostini, J. Giuntoli,
and A. Boulamanti, Carbon Accounting of Forest Bioenergy (Ispra,
Italy: European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Institute for
Energy and Transport, 2013), http://iet.jrc.ec.europa.eu/bf-ca/
sites/bf-ca/files/files/documents/eur25354en_online-final.pdf;
Fraunhofer Institute, Biobattery matching energy delivery

with demand through storage, BE Sustainable, 14 January 2014,
http://www.besustainablemagazine.com/cms2/biobatterymatching-energy-delivery-with-demand-through-storage/; R.
Sims et al., Integration of Renewable Energy into Present and
Future Energy Systems, Chapter 8 in Edenhofer et al., op. cit.
note 1.
E.J. Ackom et al., Modern bioenergy from agricultural and

forestry residues in Cameroon: Potential, challenges and the way
forward, Energy Policy, vol. 63 (2013), pp. 101113. The issues
of bioenergy data are discussed in International Renewable
Energy Agency (IRENA), Statistical issues: bioenergy and
distributed renewable energy (Abu Dhabi: 2013), http://www.
irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/Statistical%20
issues_bioenergy_and_distributed%20renewable%20_energy.
pdf. To overcome these data limitations, as of 2013 IRENA is
developing an improved methodology of data collection, the World
Bioenergy Association is working to improve bioenergy-related
data collection, and the United Nations Economic Commission
for Europe (ECE) plans to undertake surveys of households
and businesses. Montenegro is one such country undertaking
household and business level surveys, from Statistical Office
Montenegro, Wood fuel consumption in 2011 in Montenegro
New energy balances for wood fuels, updated February 2013,
http://www.monstat.org/userfiles/file/publikacije/2013/22.2/
DRVNA%20GORIVA-ENGLESKI-ZA%20SAJT%20I%20STAMPU-.
pdf. Figure5 based on data from IEA, op. cit. note 1, and IEA,
Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2013 (OECD/IEA:
2013).
Calculation based on the following: 744 Mtoe of primary energy

for traditional biomass in 2011, which accounted for 57% of total
bioenergy (implying total bioenergy consumption of approximately
1,300 Mtoe), from IEA, op. cit. note 1, Table 6.1, p. 200; average
annual growth rate of primary bioenergy consumption of around
2% over the period 20062011, according to data from IEA, World
Energy Outlook, various editions (20082013); and a growth
rate of 1.8% in 2011 based on 1,277 Mtoe consumption in 2010
and 1,300 Mtoe consumption in 2011, from idem. It is assumed
that the 1.8% growth continued during 2012 and 2013, bringing
the estimated supply for 2013 to 1,352 Mtoe (56.6 EJ). Note
that traditional biomass demand is now fairly static as improved
efficiency stoves and solar PV home systems are being deployed
more widely to reduce the demand for biomass for cooking and
heating. See, for example, David Appleyard, Burn it up is
biomass about to go bang? Renewable Energy World, January/
February 2014, pp. 4145.
It was assumed that the shares of global biomass use in 2012, as

presented in Figure 5, Biomass-to energy pathways on p. 27
of the GSR 2013, remained similar for 2013 data. Other sources
include: EurObservER, The State of Renewable Energies in
Europe: Edition 2012 (Brussels: 2012); F.O. Licht, Fuel Ethanol:
World Production, by Country (1000 cubic metres), 2014, and
F.O. Licht, Biodiesel: World Production, by Country (1000 t),
2014, used with permission from F.O. Licht / Licht Interactive
Data. Modern biomass is converted into a range of energy carriers
02
carbon payback from plantation pulpwood from G-J. Jonker, M.

Junginger, and A. Faaij, Carbon Payback Period and Carbon
Offset Parity Point of Wood Pellet Production in the Southeastern
USA, GCB Bioenergy, early view, DOI: 10.1111/gcbb.12056
(2014); commonly used time frames from B. Dehue, Implications
of a Carbon Debt on Bioenergy's Potential to Mitigate Climate
Change, Biofuels, Bioproducts & Biorefining, vol. 7, no. 3 (2012),
pp. 22834, and from B. Holtsmark, Harvesting in Boreal
Forests and the Biofuel Carbon Debt, Climatic Change, vol. 112,
no. 2 (2012), pp. 41528; carbon cycling integration in LCA
from T. Helin et al., Approaches for Inclusion of Forest Carbon
Cycle in Life Cycle Assessment A Review, GCB Bioenergy,
vol. 5, no. 5 (2012), pp. 47586; in addition to aforementioned
carbon studies, a modelling exercise that includes afforestation
and reforestation from G. Zanchi, N. Pena, and N. Bird, Is
Woody Bioenergy Carbon Neutral? A Comparative Assessment
of Emissions from Consumption of Woody Bioenergy and Fossil
Fuel, GCB Bioenergy, vol. 4, no. 6 (2012), pp. 76172; U.K. draft
calculator from Department of Energy & Climate Change (DECC),
Government Response to the Consultation on Proposals to Enhance
the Sustainability Criteria for the Use of Biomass Feedstocks
under the Renewables Obligation (RO) (London: 2013), www.
gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/231102/RO_Biomass_Sustainability_consultation_-_
Government_Response_22_August_2013.pdf.
151

(solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels as well as electricity and heat),
which are then consumed by end-users to provide useful energy
services. Available datasets used to compile each component of
Figure 5 had uncertainties in the region of +10% or more. Biomass
CHP is included where possible under both electricity and heat
categories. Losses that occur during a conversion process from
the various primary biomass feedstocks to obtain useful heat,
electricity, or liquid and gaseous biofuels vary with the process
used. Figure of 116 billion litres from F.O. Licht, op. cit. this note,
both sources. According to the IEA, primary biomass for power
generation rose ~25% from 109 Mtoe in 2010 (IEA, World Energy
Outlook, 2012, Annex A: World: New Policies Scenario, p. 552)
to 136 Mtoe in 2011 (IEA, op. cit. note 1, Annex A: World: New
Policies Scenario, p. 572). Global electricity generation from
bioenergy increased from 331 TWh in 2010 (IEA, World Energy
Outlook, 2012, Table 7.2, p. 216) to 424 TWh in 2011 (IEA, op.
cit. note 1), and installed capacity rose 28% to reach 93 GW (IEA,
op. cit. note 1, Annex A: World: New Policies Scenario, p. 574).
For 2013, bio-power data are limited, preliminary, and uncertain,
but based on country reports provided to REN21 for GSR 2014,
it is assumed that the very high growth rate in global bio-power
generation in 2011 shown by IEA data had not continued during
2012 and 2013 and reached 405 TWh by end-2013; 12.8 EJ final
energy from modern bio-heat in 2011 (per IEA, Medium-Term
Renewable Energy Market Report 2013, op. cit. note 6, p. 215)
gives around 13 EJ in 2013, assuming 2.4% annual growth. The
60% efficiency level is conservative and was broadly estimated
across all biofuel conversion processes from a range of biomass
feedstocks; for example, conversion of ligno-cellulose to ethanol
is typically around 35% efficient (per IEA, From 1st to 2nd
generation biofuel technologies An overview of current industry
and RD&D activities (Paris: November 2008), http://www.iea.org/
publications/freepublications/publication/2nd_Biofuel_Gen.pdf),
whereas 1 tonne of vegetable oil will produce around 1 tonne of
biodiesel through the transesterification process (per University of
Strathclyde Engineering Energy Systems Research Unit, Biofuels
and Transport What is Biodiesel, http://www.esru.strath.
ac.uk/EandE/Web_sites/02-03/biofuels/what_biodiesel.htm,
viewed 15 May 2014; preliminary estimates from IEA, MediumTerm Renewable Energy Market Report 2014 (Paris: OECD/IEA,
forthcoming 2014). Conversion efficiencies vary with biomass
feedstock, moisture content, plant scale, and conversion process
(combustion, gasification, anaerobic digestion/combustion).
Electrical energy of 30% of the primary energy contained in
the biomass is assumed to be a rough estimate of conversion
efficiency across all options.
9
Ibid.; EurObservER, op. cit. note 8; A.J. Mathias and P.K.

Balasankari, Trends in Biomass: Opportunities for Global
Equipment Suppliers in Asia, Renewable Energy World, 5
August 2010, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/
article/2010/08/trends-in-biomass-opportunities-for-globalequipment-suppliers-in-asia; IEA, Medium-Term Renewable
Energy Market Report 2013, op. cit. note 6; F.O. Licht, op. cit. note
8, both sources.
10 European Biomass Association (AEBIOM), European Biomass

Association Annual Report 2013 (Brussels: January 2013), http://
www.aebiom.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/2013-AEBIOMAnnual-Report1.pdf. Note that the European share of bioenergy
was 6.5% of total end-use consumption, per IEA, op. cit. note 1.
11 For wood chip trade data, see P. Lamers et al., Global Wood
Chip Trade for Energy (Paris: IEA Bioenergy Task 40, 2012).
Wood chips and other biomass products are also traded for
non-energy purposes, and these volumes need to be separated.
See, for example: Robert Flynn, RISI Viewpoint: Vietnam no
shortage of wood for the Asian woodchip markets! RISI Wood
Biomass Markets, 28 March 2014, http://www.woodbiomass.
com/woodbiomass/news/Asia-Pacific/wood_products/RISIVIEWPOINT-Vietnamu2014no-shortage-of-wood-for-the-Asianwoodchip-markets.html; RISI Wood Biomass Markets, China
drives demand for raw material to produce Bleached Hardwood
Kraft Pulp (BHKP), press release (Boston: 7 May 2014), http://
www.woodbiomass.com/woodbiomass/news/East-Europe/WoodPellets/China-woodchip-biomass-pulpwood.html; Robert Flynn,
RISI Viewpoint: Indias demand for log imports set to double over
the next 10 years, RISI Wood Biomass Markets, 7 February 2013,
http://www.woodbiomass.com/woodbiomass/news/Middle-East/
wood_products/RISI-VIEWPOINT-Indias-demand-for-log-importsset-to-double-over-the-next-10-years.html.
12 Informal trade from Patrick Lamers, Mountain View Research,
152
13 Based on 300 PJ of solid biomass fuels (excluding charcoal)

traded in 2010, from P. Lamers et al., Developments in
international solid biofuel trade - an analysis of volumes, policies,
and market factors, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,
vol. 16, no. 5 (2012), pp. 317699, and on 120130 PJ of net
trade in fuel ethanol and biodiesel in 2009, from P. Lamers et al.,
International bioenergy trade a review of past developments
in the liquid biofuels market, Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, vol. 15, no. 6 (2011), pp. 265576.
14 Based on 1,323 Mtoe of total primary bioenergy in 2013 (IEA,
op. cit. note 1, stated that 1,300 Mtoe (54.7 EJ) of biomass was
consumed globally in 2011, giving a growth rate of 1.8% from
1,277 Mtoe in 2010). The IEA World Energy Outlook (20082013
editions) shows that global primary biomass demand grew at an
annual rate of around 2% during 20062011. Assuming that 1.8%
annual growth rate continued, the estimated supply for 2013 is
1,323 Mtoe (56.6 EJ)).The 23.6 million tonnes of pellets produced
in 2013 had an assumed energy content of 16 GJ/tonne. Note that
pellet data are available, whereas data for the other solid biomass
sources are very limited and therefore are not discussed to the
same degree.
15 Calculation based on the following: 297 GWth of bioenergy heat
plant capacity installed as of 2008, from Chum et al., op. cit.
note 2; 270 GWth in 2009 from International Institute for Applied
Systems Analysis (IIASA), Global Energy Assessment Toward
a Sustainable Future, Options Magazine (2012), pp. 1621,
http://www.iiasa.ac.at/web/home/resources/mediacenter/
FeatureArticles/Sustainable.en.html; annual growth of 1% is
assumed in the absence of better data. Note that accurate heat
data, including from bioenergy, are difficult to obtain as most
capacity installations and output are not metered. Even if plant
capacities are known, there is often no knowledge of whether a
1MWth plant, for example, is used for 80 hours or 8,000 hours per
year.
16 Share of 90% based on 2011 estimates of 13.9 EJ of global
final energy use of renewable heat, of which 12.8 EJ came from
modern biomass, from IEA, Medium-Term Renewable Energy
Market Report, op. cit. note 6, p. 215.
17 EurobservER, Solid Biomass Barometer (Paris: December 2013),
http://www.energies-renouvelables.org/observ-er/stat_baro/
observ/baro219_en.pdf. In IEA, op. cit. note 1, all forms of
biomass provided 7.3% of European primary energy in 2011,
compared with 7.1% in 2010.
18 Based on 102,530 GWh of heat from solid biomass, 500 GWh from
liquid biomass, and 13,530 GWh from gaseous biomass in 2013,
and a total of 112,667 in 2012, from Arbeitsgruppe Erneuerbare
(Berlin: Bundesministerium fr Wirtschaft und Energie (BMWi),
2014, pp. 7, 15.
19 Svebio, Bioenergy for heating Bioheat, http://www.svebio.se/
english/heating, viewed 15 May 2014.
20 RISI Wood Biomass Markets, Wood was leading fuel for Finlands
district heating efforts in 2013, press release (Helsinki: 21
January 2014), http://www.woodbiomass.com/woodbiomass/
news/East-Europe/Wood-Energy/Wood-fuel-Finland-district-heat.
html.
21 EurobservER Barometer: +5,4% energy from solid biomass in
Europe in 2012, op. cit. note 17. In IEA, op. cit. note 1, all forms
of biomass provided 7.3% of European primary energy in 2011,
compared with 7.1% in 2010.
22 B. Sanner, Strategic research and innovation agenda for
renewable heating & cooling, (Luxembourg: March 2013), p. 30,
http://www.rhc-platform.org/fileadmin/user_upload/members/
Downloads/RHC_SRA_epo_final_lowres.pdf.
23 Lamers, op. cit. note 12.
24 See, for example, Canadian Biomass, P.E.I. Continues
Commitment to Biomass Heating, Canadian Biomass Magazine,
17 April 2014, http://www.canadianbiomassmagazine.ca/content/
view/4530/96; RISI Wood Biomass Markets, National Renewable
Energy Laboratory (NREL) in Colorado Recognized by BTEC
for its Wood-fired Heating System, 19 July 2013, http://www.
woodbiomass.com/woodbiomass/news/North-America/WoodEnergy/National-Renewable-Energy-Laboratory-NREL-ColoradoBTEC-wood-fired-heating-system.html.
25 RISI Wood Biomass Markets, Rentech buys New England
Wood Pellet, 1 May 2014, http://www.woodbiomass.com/
woodbiomass/news/North-America/Wood-Pellets/Rentech-buysNew-England-Wood-Pellet.html.
27 EBA, Six national biomethane registries are developing the

foundation for cross-border biomethane trade in Europe, press
release (Brussels: 25 November 2013), http://european-biogas.
eu/2013/11/25/six-national-biomethane-registries-developingfoundation-cross-border-biomethane-trade-europe/; The EU
supports upgrading of biogas to biomethane, per Green Gas Grids
Web site, http://www.greengasgrids.eu/, viewed 16 May 2014.
28 See, for example, Asia Biogas Group, Asia Biogas Overview,
updated 2013, http://www.eepindonesia.org/annfor2013/
files/4.%20Desmond%20G._Asia%20Biogas%20Group.pdf; GE
and Clarke Energy, GE, Clarke Energy supply Jenbacher engines
to Africa biogas plant, Biomass Magazine, 19 June 2013, http://
biomassmagazine.com/articles/9098/ge-clarke-energy-supplyjenbacher-engines-to-africa-biogas-plant.
29 Based on 83 GW of capacity at end-2012 (see GSR 2013);
preliminary data from IEA, Medium-Term Renewable Energy
Market Report 2014, op. cit. note 6; national-level data from the
following: U.S. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC),
Office of Energy Projects, Energy Infrastructure Update for
December 2013, https://www.ferc.gov/legal/staff-reports/2013/
dec-energy-infrastructure.pdf; AGEE-Stat, op. cit. note 18; China
National Renewable Energy Centre, CNREC 2013 Activities
within China National Renewable Energy Centre (Beijing:
March 2014); Brazilian electricity regulatory agency (ANEEL),
2013, provided by Maria Beatriz Monteiro, CENBIO, personal
communication with REN21, 16 April 2014; IEA, Medium-Term
Renewable Energy Market Report 2013, op. cit. note 6; Red
Elctrica de Espaa (REE), Potencia instalada Peninsular
(MW), as of 31 December 2013, http://www.ree.es; , and REE,
Demand for Electrical Energy Falls 2.1%, 20 December 2013,
http://www.ree.es/en/press-office/press-release/20131220demand-electrical-energy-falls-21; Government of India, Ministry
of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Physical Progress
(Achievements), 31 December 2013, http://www.mnre.gov.
in/mission-and-vision-2/achievements/, viewed January 2014;
Directorate General for Energy and Geology (DGEG), provided
by Lara Ferreira, Portuguese Renewable Energy Association,
personal communication with REN21, May 2014; U.K. DECC,
Statistics, Energy Trends Section 6: Renewables (London: 10 April
2014), p. 6, https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/
uploads/attachment_data/file/295356/6_Renewables.pdf;
Institute for Sustainable Energy Policies (ISEP), Renewables Japan
Status Report 2014 (Tokyo: March 2014) (in Japanese), data
provided by Hironao Matsubara, ISEP, personal communication
with REN21, 23 April 2014; based on data for 20082012 from
ibid.; assumption that average annual growth during the period
continued, and capacity factor achieved during 2012 applied in
2013, and on preliminary estimate for bio-power output in Italy
during 2013 from IEA, Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market
Report 2014, op. cit. note 8; Government Offices of Sweden,
Sweden's second progress report on the development of
renewable energy pursuant to Article 22 of Directive 2009/28/
EC, 23 December 2013, http://ec.europa.eu/energy/renewables/
reports/2013_en.htm.
30 Preliminary estimates from IEA, Medium-Term Renewable Energy
Market Report 2014, op. cit. note 8.
31 Based on preliminary data from ibid.
32 Based on a recorded 794 MW added for a total of 15.8 GW, from
FERC, op. cit. note 29.
33 Total power from wood and waste from biogenic sources, across
all sectors, was 59.894 TWh, from U.S. Energy Information
Administration (EIA), Monthly Energy Review (Washington, DC:
April 2014), p. 95, http://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/monthly/
pdf/mer.pdf.
34 EIA, Electric power monthly with statistics to December 2013
(Washington, DC: 2014), Tables 1.18.B, 2.5.A, 2.6.A, 2.11.A, and
2.12.A, http://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/pdf/epm.pdf.
35 An estimated 10,807 MW was in operation at the end of 2012, and
this increased to 11,423 MW during 2013; sugarcane bagasse
increased its share of national generation from 6.7% to 6.85%,
and black liquor from 0.98% to 1.12%, from ANEEL 2012 and
2013, data provided by Suani T. Coelho, CENBIO, personal
36 Data based on the following sources: preliminary data from
IEA, Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2014, op.

cit. note 6; AGEE-Stat, op. cit. note 18; Luca Benedetti, Energy
Studies and Statistics, Gestore dei Servizi Energetici - GSE S.p.A.,
Rome, personal communication with REN21, 16 May 2014; REE,
op. cit. note 29; DGEG, op. cit. note 29; DECC, op. cit. note 29,
p. 6; Rseau de Transport d'lectricit (RTE), Bilan lectrique
2013 (Paris: 2014), p. 21, http://www.rte-france.com/uploads/
Mediatheque_docs/vie_systeme/annuelles/Bilan_electrique/
bilan_electrique_2013.PDF; Government Offices of Sweden, op.
cit. note 29; E-Control Austria, Entwicklung der anerkannten
sonstigen kostromanlagen (exclusive Kleinwasskraft) von
20022013, updated May 2014, http://www.e-control.at/portal/
page/portal/medienbibliothek/oeko-energie/dokumente/pdfs/
Entwicklung%20anerkannter%20%C3%96kostromanlagen%20
2002-2013_Tabelle_Stand%20Mai%202014.pdf.
37 Ibid.
38 Ibid.
39 AGEE-Stat, op. cit. note 18, p. 14.
40 Ibid.
41 Swedish Energy Agency (SEA), Sweden's second progress report
on the development of renewable energy pursuant to Article 22 of
Directive 2009/28/EC (Stockholm: 2013); SEA, Production and
use of biogas 2012, (Eskilstuna: 2013); MSW plants generated
approximately 1.66 TWh of electricity and 21.3 PJ of useful heat,
landfill gas plants 11 GWh and 0.34 PJ, sewage gas plants 18
GWh and 2.11 PJ, and other biogas plants 12 GWh and 2.1 PJ.
RISI Wood Biomass Markets, Biomass provides about one-third
of Swedens power, press release (Stockholm: 22 March 2013),
http://www.woodbiomass.com/woodbiomass/news/East-Europe/
Wood-Pellets/Biomass-Sweden-power-bioenergy.html. However,
preliminary data from the IEA (Medium-Term Renewable Energy
Market Report 2014, op. cit. note 8) give 14.4 TWh from bioenergy
in 2013, which is around 10% of total generation.
43 Most of the remainder came from Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and
Balkan Peninsula countries. The United States exported 2.828
million tonnes of pellets to Europe in 2013, and Canada exported
2.093 million tonnes (see Reference Table R3) compared with
1.956 and 1.221 million tonnes, respectively, in 2012 (see
Reference Table R3, GSR 2013); data from P. Lamers, Mountain
View Research, Denver, CO, personal communication with REN
21, 9 January 2014. Pellet trading routes have changed little in the
past two years; see Reference Table R4 and GSR 2012, p. 34.
44 EBA, op. cit. note 26. Details of many European biogas plants
linked with biomethane injection can be found at Biogas
Partners, a project developed by the German Energy Agency
(DENA), per DENA, Biomethane Injection Projects in Germany,
http://www.biogaspartner.de/en/project-map/list-of-projectsin-germany.html, viewed 15 May 2014. For example, Schmack
Biogas has built a 22,000 m3 digester designed to handle
silage feedstock produced from hop residues collected from
174 farms in the region after harvesting the flowers for beer
making. The project is a joint venture between the energy
company E.ON and the local hop producer HGV, with the biogas
being scrubbed and then injected into the natural gas grid.
Biogas 2.0 Innovative plant design, BE Sustainable, January
2014, p. 21, http://issuu.com/besustainablemagazine/docs/
be-sustainable-january_2014-single.
45 German Biogas Association (Fachverband Biogas e.V.),
Branchenzahlen Prognose 2013/2014 (Freising, Germany:
November 2013), http://www.biogas.org/edcom/webfvb.
nsf/id/DE_Branchenzahlen/$file/13-11-11_Biogas%20
Branchenzahlen_2013-2014.pdf.
02
26 European Biogas Association (EBA), December 2013, based on

contributions from the national biogas associations, provided by
Agata Przdka, Technical Advisor, EBA, personal communication
with REN21, 7 March 2014.
46 A. Sherrard, Growth top priority, Bioenergy International,

vol. 70, no. 1 (2014), p. 31, http://www.exakta.se/x-online/
bioenergi/2014/1401/#/30/.
47 SEA, Swedens second progress report , op. cit. note 41.
48 Economic Net Energy, Biomass Power Industry or Out of the
Quagmire, Bio on News, 4 December 2013,
http://www.bioon.com/bioindustry/bioenergy/587619.shtml
(using Google Translate).
49 RISI Wood Biomass Markets, China Ramping up Biomass Power
Production Capacity, 2 April 2014, http://www.woodbiomass.
com/woodbiomass/news/Asia-Pacific/Wood-Energy/Chinabiomass-power.html; data from CNREC, op. cit. note 29.
50 MNRE, op. cit. note 29. See also Akshay-Urja, MNRE bi-monthly
magazine, September-December 2013, http://mnre.gov.in/
153

file-manager/akshay-urja/september-december-2013/EN/index.
htm.
51 Ibid., both sources.
52 This estimate does not include co-firing and is based on data from
METI, in ISEP, op. cit. note 29.
53 Joost Siteur, Rapid Deployment of Industrial Biogas in Thailand:
Factors of Success (Washington, DC: July 2012), http://www.
iipnetwork.org/IIP-10.%20BiogasCaseStudy.pdf.
54 DP Cleantech signs contract to build coconut-to-energy
power plant in Thailand, Bioenergy Insight, January-February
2014, p. 6, http://issuu.com/horseshoemedialtd/docs/
bioenergy_jan-feb_2014.
55 In the United States, for example, operations began at a 60
MW facility in Black River, NY, that was converted to use forest
residues and waste biomass as fuel, per Eldon Doody, Second
chances, Bioenergy Insight, January-February 2014, p. 68, http://
issuu.com/horseshoemedialtd/docs/bioenergy_jan-feb_2014;
56 Kelvin Ross, E.ON pulls plug on 150 MW biomass plant
in UK, Power Engineering, 22 October 2013, http://www.
powerengineeringint.com/articles/2013/10/eon-pulls-plug-on150-mw-biomass-plant-in-uk.html.
57 IRENA, Biomass Co-firing: Technology Brief (Abu Dhabi:
January 2013), http://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/
Publications/IRENA-ETSAP%20Tech%20Brief%20E21%20
Biomass%20Co-firing.pdf; landfill gas accounts for about twothirds of total power generation from bio-gases; Kolby Hoagland,
Why Cofiring Biomass with Coal Is Hotter Than Ever, Biomass
Magazine, 8 November 2013, http://biomassmagazine.com/
articles/9653/why-cofiring-biomass-with-coal-is-hotter-thanever; A. Mourant, Ready to explode, Renewable Energy Focus,
January/February 2014, p. 20; RISI Wood Biomass Markets,
Vojany Power Plant in Slovakia Replaces 20% of Coal with
Wood Chips, 24 May 2013, http://www.woodbiomass.com/
woodbiomass/news/East-Europe/Wood-Energy/Vojany-Slovakiacoal-wood-chips.html.
58 CMTs Biomass Pellets Trade & Power Taps into Growing Biomass
Demand in North Asia, Biomass Pellets Trade & Power Web site,
http://www.cmtevents.com/aboutevent.aspx?ev=130929, viewed
May 2014.
59 For example, in Spain, the co-firing of various blends of olive husks
and grapeseed meal in a 335 MW coal-fired integrated gasification
combined-cycle plant owned by Elcogas showed that the syngas
composition was not affected when co-firing biomass levels below
4% of total fuel energy. Total CO2 emissions were reduced as the
share of biomass fuel was increased, but, as might be expected,
the power output declined noticeably when higher biomass
shares were fed into the gasifier due to the biomass with lower
energy density than coal taking up more of the limited available
space. Gasified biomass halves IGCC carbon emissions,
Bioenergy Insight, January-February 2014, p. 11, http://issuu.com/
horseshoemedialtd/docs/bioenergy_jan-feb_2014.
60 Global production and Figure 6 based on data from F.O. Licht,
op. cit. note 8, both sources. Ethanol data converted from cubic
metres to litres; biodiesel reported in 1,000 tonnes and converted
to volume using a density value for biodiesel of 1,136 litres/tonne
based on U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL),
Biodiesel Handling and Use Guide, Fourth Edition (Golden, CO:
January 2009). Full trade statistics for biofuels in 2013 were not
available at the time of writing, but monthly data were available
from F.O. Licht. See Hannu Aatola et al., Hydrotreated Vegetable
Oil (HVO) as a Renewable Diesel Fuel: Trade-off Between NOx,
Particulate Emission, and Fuel Consumption of a Heavy Duty
Engine, European Biofuels Technology Platform, 2008, http://
www.biofuelstp.eu/downloads/SAE_Study_Hydrotreated_
Vegetable_Oil_HVO_as_a_Renewable_Diesel_Fuel.pdf.
61 Ibid.
62 Ibid.
63 For details of Thailands Ministry of Energy Alternative Energy
Development Plan for 2008-2022, which includes biofuels, see
Ministry of Energy of Thailand, Thailands Renewable Energy
and its Energy Future: Opportunities & Challenges (Bangkok:
16 September 2009), http://nstda.or.th/pub/2012/20120523renewable-energy-strategy-2008-2022.pdf.
64 Based on 50.3 billion litres in the United States, 25.5 billion litres
in Brazil, and a global total of 87.2 billion litres, from F.O. Licht, op.
cit. note 8, both sources, and from Helena Chum, NREL, personal
communication with REN21, May 2013 and March 2014.
154
65 Data from ibid., all sources.

66 Renewable Fuels Association (RFA), Pocket Guide to Ethanol
2014 (Washington, DC: January 2014), http://www.ethanolrfa.
org/pages/rfa-pocket-guide-to-ethanol.
67 Based on 630 million gallons, from ibid., p. 12. Note that the
United States also imported fuel ethanol (425 million gallons, or
1.6 billion litres, in 2013), mostly from Brazil, from idem.
68 NACS, The Association for Convenience & Fuel Retailing,
Ethanol industry enjoying resurgence, 25 February 2014, http://
www.nacsonline.com/News/Daily/Pages/ND0225145.aspx#.
UxSDgvl5Np9.
69 Reference Table R4 shows updated production volumes for
2012 and estimates of volumes produced in 2013 for the top
15 countries based on F.O. Licht 2014 data (see Endnote 4 in
Reference Table section). The increase in Brazilian ethanol
production could have been due to the continuing low sugar
commodity price. Data from F.O. Licht, Fuel Ethanol: World
Production, by Country (1000 cubic metres), 2013, and F.O.
Licht, Biodiesel: World Production, by Country (1000 T), 2013,
used with permission from F.O. Licht / Licht Interactive Data. Brazil
plant data from Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock, and Supply
Brazil, Relao de instituties cadastradas no departamento
de cana-de-acar e agroenergia (Brasilia: 20 December 2013),
http://www.agricultura.gov.br/arq_editor/file/Desenvolvimento_
Sustentavel/Agroenergia/Orientacoes_Tecnicas/Usinas%20e%20
Destilarias%20Cadastradas/Rela%C3%A7%C3%A3o%20de%20
cadastradas%2020-12-2013.pdf.
70 Ken Joseph, Argentine Biofuels Annual (Washington,
DC: 28 June 2013), http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20
GAIN%20Publications/Biofuels%20Annual_Buenos%20
Aires_Argentina_6-28-2013.pdf; Vogelbusch, Argentinas largest
ethanol plant begins operation, Ethanol Producer, 30 October
2013, http://ethanolproducer.com/articles/10403/argentinaslargest-ethanol-plant-begins-operations; Data from F.O. Licht, op.
cit. note 69, both sources.
71 F.O. Licht, op. cit. note 69, both sources. But the U.S. Department
of Agricultures (USDA) Global Agricultural Information Network
reported that Chinas 2013 biodiesel production was estimated to
increase in 2013 by 5% to 966 million litres, per Ryan Scott and
Jiang Junyang, China Peoples Republic of, Biofuels Annual
(Washington, DC: USDA Foreign Agriculture Service, 9 September
2013), http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/
Biofuels%20Annual_Beijing_China%20-%20Peoples%20
Republic%20of_9-9-2013.pdf.
72 Based on data from F.O. Licht, op. cit. note 8, both sources.
73 Ibid.
74 Ethanol and biodiesel production and comparison with 2012
based on data from ibid. See Reference Table R4.
75 EIA, Monthly Biodiesel Production Report (Washington, DC: 30
January 2014), Table 4, http://www.eia.gov/biofuels/biodiesel/
production/table4.pdf; F.O. Licht, Biodiesel: World Production, by
Country (1000 t), op. cit. note 8.
76 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), EPA Finalizes 2013
Biomass-Based Diesel Volume (Washington, DC: September
2012).
77 Based on data from F.O. Licht, op. cit. note 8, both sources.
78 Based on data from ibid. and F.O. Licht, op. cit. note
69; duties amount to around USD 330 per tonne (EUR
240/tonne) in 2013, per Argentina to export 39% less
biodiesel due to European tariff, Global BioBusiness,
March 2014, http://www.globalbiobusiness.com/nav.
asp?l=36&cmd=view&wr=20208&articleid=184.
79 Jude Hua and Jessica Jaganathan, Update 1-China levies
consumption tax on biodiesel, kerosene imports, Reuters, 2
January 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/01/02/
china-fuel-tax-idUSL3N0KC0MM20140102.
80 The consumption tax is approximately USD 0.13/litre (0.8 yuan/
litre), per ibid.
82 Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation,
Sustainable biomass and bioenergy in the Netherlands: Report
2013 (Utrecht: November 2013), http://english.rvo.nl/sites/
default/files/2013/12/Sustainable%20biomass%20and%20
bioenergy%20in%20the%20Netherlands%20-%20Report%20
2013.pdf; No S-Y, Application of hydrotreated vegetable oil
from triglyceride based biomass to CI engines a review, Fuel,
83 F.O. Licht, Biodiesel: World Production, by Country (1000 t),

op. cit. note 8. HVO is produced primarily by Neste under the
trademark NExBTL with production capacity in Finland (380
kilotonnes/year), Rotterdam (800 kt/yr ), and Singapore (800
kt/yr) from feedstocks including animal wastes and vegetable
oils, and also by Preem in Sweden using forest-based tall oil as
feedstock.
84 Navigant Research, Biofuels for transportation markets, 10
February 2014, http://www.navigantresearch.com/research/
biofuels-for-transportation-markets.
85 Ibid.
86 F.O. Licht, op. cit. note 8, both sources; APAC Biofuel Consultants,
Australian biofuels 2013-14; policy and growth (Adelaide,
Australia: October 2013), http://www.eccoaustralia.com/media/
files/4484.pdf.
87 Natural and Biogas Vehicle Association, Sweden, 10
September 2012, http://www.ngvaeurope.eu/sweden;
BiMe-Trucks, Infrastructure for Liquid Methane Fillling
Stations,http://www.bimetrucks.com/toppmeny/
fillingstations.4.4e71cfb112f54fdc91b80002369.html, viewed
May 2014.
88 Wrtsil to produce biofuel for buses in Oslo, Renewable Energy
Focus, 20 February 2014, http://www.renewableenergyfocus.
com/view/37027/w-rtsil-to-produce-biofuel-for-buses-in-norway/.
89 Sustainable Biomass Partnership Web site, http://www.
sustainablebiomasspartnership.org; Roundtable on Sustainable
Palm Oil Web site, http://www.rspo.org; RFA Web site, http://www.
ethanolrfa.org.
90 See discussion in IPCC, op. cit. note 3.
91 See, for example, Royal Dutch Airlines, Sustainable Biofuels
Road to sustainable aviation fuels, http://www.klm.com/
csr/en/climate/footprint/biofuels/index.html, viewed 15 May
2014; African Biofuel and Emission Reduction (East Africa) Ltd,
Corporate Social Responsibility, http://africabiofuel.com/
Corporate_Social_Responsibility.aspx, viewed 15 May 2014;
and Sunbird Bioenergy, Sustainability Goals, http://www.
sunbirdbioenergy.com/Sunbird_Bioenergy_Sustainability_
Principles.html, viewed 15 May 2014.
92 As of early 2014, most of the bio-refinery plants produce biofuels
with animal feed as a co-product, and not a wide range of multiproducts. RFA, Biorefinery Locations, updated 22 March 2014,
http://www.ethanolrfa.org/bio-refinery-locations/. A map showing
U.S. plant locations at March 2014 is available at U.S. Department
of Energy, Integrated Biorefineries, updated 11 April 2014,
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/bioenergy/integrated_biorefineries.
html.
93 Amyris, Amyris refinery successfully restarts industrial
production in Brazil, 15 April 2014, http://www.amyris.com/
News/381/Amyris-Biorefinery-Successfully-Restarts-IndustrialProduction-in-Brazil. For biorefinery plants in other countries, see
IEA Bioenergy Task 42 Web site, http://www.iea-bioenergy.task42biorefineries.com/en/ieabiorefinery.htm. See also BP, Largest UK
Bio-Refinery Is Officially Opened in Hull, press release (London:
8 July 2013), http://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/press/
press-releases/the-uk-s-largest-bio-refinery-is-officially-openedin-hull0.html.
94 Hu Honoa Bioenergy in Hawaii upgraded a 1972 bagasse-fed
CHP plant to a 21.5 MW power plant fed by locally grown
feedstocks (such as short-rotation eucalyptus) with a power
purchase agreement in place with the Hawaii Electric Light
Company; see PPA approved for Hawaii biomass power
plant, Bioenergy Insight, January-February 2014, http://issuu.
com/horseshoemedialtd/docs/bioenergy_jan-feb_2014).
In Wisconsin, the WE Energies, 50 MWe cogeneration plant,
based on a Metso circulating fluidised bed boiler and GE steam
turbine generator, began operations in November after four
years of development. Approximately 500,000 tonnes/year of
bark, waste wood, and sawdust will produce steam to supply
Domtar Corporations century-old paper mill on demand; see
Wisconsin cogeneration plant now operational, Biomass
Magazine, 30 December 2013, http://biomassmagazine.com/
articles/9827/wisconsin-cogeneration-plant-now-operational/.
Leidos Holdings, an engineering company, acquired the Plainfield
37.5 MW power plant in Virginia in October 2013 from previous
owner Enova Energy after it failed to complete construction of the

USD 225 million facility. It has now been completed and, using
demolition timber for fuel, a 15-year power purchase agreement
has been negotiated with Connecticut Light and Power; see
Plainfield biomass plant substantially complete and operational,
Bioenergy Insight, January-February 2014, http://issuu.com/
horseshoemedialtd/docs/bioenergy_jan-feb_2014. In the small
town of Covington, TN, (population ~ 9,000), a PHG Energy
downdraft gasifier fed with sewage sludge and wood waste and
linked with a GE 125 kW organic Rankine cycle generator came
on line in September 2013 after only six months of construction;
see Trash to cash for Covington, Bioenergy International,
vol. 70, no. 1 (2014), p. 15, http://www.exakta.se/x-online/
bioenergi/2014/1401/#/16/.
95 Mourant, op. cit. note 57, p. 20.
96 Preliminary 2012 data in GSR 2013, Figure 6, p. 28, have since
been lowered to 21.0 million tonnes due to unexpected plant
closures including a Norwegian plant of 450,000 tonnes capacity.
Preliminary data for 2013, also used for Reference Table R3,
from the following: P. Lamers et al., Woody biomass trade for
energy, in M. Junginger, C.S. Goh, and A. Faaij eds., International
Bioenergy Trade: History, status & outlook on securing sustainable
bioenergy supply, demand and markets (Berlin: Springer, 2013),
pp. 4164; AEBIOM, European Bioenergy Outlook Statistical
Report (Brussels: 2013); Hawkins Wright, The Outlook for
Wood Pellet Demand, presented at The U.S. Industrial Pellet
Associations 3rd Annual Exporting Pellets Conference, Miami,
FL, 28 October 2013; C.S. Goh et al., Wood pellet market and
trade: a global perspective, Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining,
vol. 7 (2013), pp. 2442; P. Lamers et al., Developments in
international solid biofuel Trade, op. cit. note 13.
97 Data and Figure 7 from ibid.
98 Canadian Biomass, North American Pellet Export Growth
Continues, Canadian Biomass Magazine, 23 April 2014, http://
www.canadianbiomassmagazine.ca/content/view/4533/96/.
99 AEBIOM, International Biomass Torrefaction Council, http://
www.aebiom.org/?p=6442, viewed May 2014; below 200,000
tonnes from M. Wild, Principal, Wild and Partners, LLC, Vienna,
personal communication with REN21, spring 2014. Torrefaction
is a thermal pre-treatment process in air applicable to all solid
biomass to give pellets with lower volatiles and higher heat values
than wood pellets. Hydrothermal carbonisation uses water as the
medium to produce bio-coal pellets as processed by SunCoal
and AVA-CO2; see SunCoal Industries, https://www.facebook.
com/SunCoalIndustries, viewed May 2014, and AVA-CO2,
pioneer of hydrothermal carbonisation (HTC), is today putting
the first industrial-size HTC plant in the world into operation in
Karlsruhe, Germany, Business Wire, 26 October 2010, http://
www.businesswire.com/news/home/20101026006679/en/AVACO2-Introduces-Industrial-Size-Hydrothermal-CarbonisationHTC-Plant.
100 Biomass Pellets Trade & Power, CMTs Biomass Pellets Trade &
Power Taps into Growing Biomass Demand in North Asia, http://
www.cmtevents.com/aboutevent.aspx?ev=130929, viewed 15
May 2014; Keeley Downey, Looking to the future, Bioenergy
Insight, January-February 2014, p. 55, http://issuu.com/
101 Ibid.
102 Ibid.
103 Proceedings of the 4th Biomass Pellets Trade and Power
Conference, op. cit. note 58.
104 Biogas production rates continually vary with temperature and
feedstock, so measuring the plant capacity, the electricity
generated, and/or the useful heat produced are the common
indicators used. However, the biogas industry can now benefit
from development of a new Siemens continuous automatic
monitoring technology, per Andrea Hoferichter, Maximum
Methane, Pictures of the Future, Spring 2011, http://www.
siemens.com/innovation/apps/pof_microsite/_pof-spring-2011/_
html_en/biogas-plants.html.
02
vol. 15 (2014), pp. 8896; sustainability impacts depend on

the feedstock and the production process used, per European
Biofuels Technology Platform, Biodiesel in Europe, 7 April 2014,
http://www.biofuelstp.eu/biodiesel.html#hvo.
105 David Collins, DEFRA AD Strategy Annual Report

2012/2013, 23 July 2013, http://www.biogas.org.uk/news/
defra-ad-strategy-annual-report-2012-13.
106 These sites offer the potential to produce sufficient biogas to
generate 1 TWh per year of electricity, per Philip Simpson, More
uses for food wastes, Bioenergy Insight, January/February 2014,
p. 37, http://issuu.com/horseshoemedialtd/docs/bioenergy_janfeb_2014. See also DEFRA, Landfill Directive,, http://archive.
155

defra.gov.uk/environment/waste/strategy/legislation/landfill/
documents/landfilldir.pdf, viewed 15 May 2014.
107 Based on information from EBA, op. cit. note 27.
108 Ibid. The Italian feed-in tariff was revised to focus support
on small-scale plants that use organic residues as their main
feedstock and that incorporate nitrogen recovery.
109 Ibid.; Sherrard, op. cit. note 46.
110 Based on data for 2010 or 2011 from Patrick Serfass, American
Biogas Council, State of the U.S. Biogas Industry, presentation,
http://americanbiogascouncil.org/pdf/ABC-StateoftheIndBiocyclePolicyPres.pdf, and from American Biogas Council,
Operational Biogas Systems in the U.S., http://www.
americanbiogascouncil.org/biogas_maps.asp, viewed 10 May
2014.
111 ANEEL, Combustvel Biomassa, http://www.aneel.gov.
br/aplicacoes/capacidadebrasil/CombustivelPorClasse.
cfm?Classe=Biomassa, viewed 15 May 2014.
112 See, for example, Biogas Plants to Convert Residues from
Farmed Pigs, The Pig Site, 13 November 2013, http://www.
thepigsite.com/swinenews/34878/biogas-plants-to-convertresidues-from-farmed-pigs, and Waste not, want not, Bioenergy
Insight, January-February 2014, p. 74, http://issuu.com/
113 Ibid.
114 This technology was recently employed in the 2,300 m3 digester
on the University of Wisconsin campus, which is fuelled by high
dry matter gardening and food wastes. The biogas produced
powers a CHP unit that provides 8% of the campus power
demand. M. Cocchi, Biogas-2, BE Sustainable, January
2014, p. 21, http://issuu.com/besustainablemagazine/docs/
be-sustainable-january_2014-single.
115 Gobigas meets the growing need for biogas; see
http://gobigas.goteborgenergi.se/En/About_us, viewed May 2014.
116 Ibid.
117 Frankfurt SchoolUNEP Collaborating Centre for Climate &
Sustainable Energy Finance and Bloomberg New Energy Finance,
2014).
118 IEA, Tracking Clean Energy Progress, Annual Report to Clean
Energy Ministerial (Paris: 2013).
128 Since all three plants are currently under-utilised, an assessment

is questioning whether the cost for support under the Australian
governments Ethanol Production Grants Programme remains
justified. See Bureau of Resources and Energy Economics
Australia, An assessment of key costs and benefits associated
with the Ethanol Production Grants program (Canberra:
February 2014), http://www.bree.gov.au/sites/default/files/files//
publications/other/asssessment-ethanol-production-grantsprogram.pdf.
129 K. Ugolik, China New Energy to Build Cassava Biorefinery
in Nigeria, 29 October 2013, http://www.law360.com/
articles/484248/china-new-energy-to-buildcassava-biorefinery-in-nigeria.
130 Biofuel Companies Reach Important Milestones: Gevo (GEVO)
and KiOR (KIOR Start First Commercial Plants, Solazyme
(SZYM) Set to Begin Operations in First Major Plant in the
Fourth Quarter, Wall Street Transcript, 22 August 2013, http://
finance.yahoo.com/news/biofuel-companies-reach-importantmilestones-151900486.html. Advanced biofuel production
capacity in North America increased from 1.8 billion litres in
2012 to around 4 billion litres in 2013, from Environmental
Entrepreneurs (E2), cited in Erin Voegele, Report: 160
Commercial Advanced Biofuel Plants Under Development,
Ethanol Producer Magazine, 4 September 2013, http://
ethanolproducer.com/articles/10206/report-160-commercialadvanced-biofuel-plants-under-development; this follows on from
Neste Oils renewable diesel entry into the U.S. market in 2012,
from Neste Oil Sold its First Batch of NExBTL Renewable Diesel
to the US Market, Marketwired, 26 April 2012, http://www.syscon.com/node/2263874. See also Bryan Walsh, Next-Generation
Biofuels Are Inching Towards Reality, Gallon by Gallon, TIME,
11 October 2013, http://nation.time.com/2013/10/11/nextgeneration-biofuels-are-inching-towards-reality-gallon-by-gallon/.
131 Keeley Downey, Making waves, Bioenergy Insight, JanuaryFebruary 2014, pp. 7677, http://issuu.com/horseshoemedialtd/
docs/bioenergy_jan-feb_2014.
132 RFA, op. cit. note 66.
119 RFA, Falling Walls & Rising Tides 2014 Ethanol Industry
Outlook (Washington, DC: 2014), http://ethanolrfa.org/page/-/
rfa-association-site/Resource%20Center/2014%20RFA%20
Outlook%20Presentation.pdf?nocdn=1.
133 Novozymes, Commercial-Scale Cellulosic Ethanol Refinery

Opens in Italy, Ethanol Producer, 9 October 2013,
http://ethanolproducer.com/articles/10332/
commercial-scale-cellulosic-ethanol-refinery-opens-in-italy.
120 A U.S. EPA proposal under consideration would reduce mandates

on biofuel production and blending under the Renewables Fuel
Standard 2 and remove incentives for the uptake of advanced
biofuels, per NACS, op. cit. note 68. The National Biodiesel
Board (NBB) sought extension of tax incentives in March 2014,
per NBB, Advanced biofuel trade groups ask for extension
of tax incentives, Biodiesel Magazine, 24 March 2014, http://
biodieselmagazine.com/articles/33863/advanced-biofuel-tradegroups-ask-for-extension-of-tax-incentives.
134 AgroChart, China. Biofuels Annual. Sep 2013 , 8 November

2013, http://www.agrochart.com/en/news/news/081113/
china-biofuels-annual-sep-2013/.
121 Brazilian Sugarcane Industry Association (UNICA), Producer

prices report, http://www.unicadata.com.br/preco-ao-produtor.
php?idMn=42&tipoHistorico=7, viewed January 2014.
122 Reference Table R4 shows updated production volumes for
2012 and estimates of volumes produced in 2013 for the top
15 countries based on F.O. Licht 2014 data; see Endnote 4 in
Reference Tables section. The increase in Brazilian ethanol
production could have been due to the continuing low sugar
commodity price. Data from F.O. Licht, op. cit. note 69, both
sources. Brazil plant data from Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock,
and Supply, op. cit. note 69.
123 POET to build corn ethanol plant in Brazil, Global BioBusiness,
11 February 2014, http://www.globalbiobusiness.com/nav.
124 Animal feed industry in Brazil concerned with increasing corn
use for ethanol, Global BioBusiness, 3 March 2014,
http://www.globalbiobusiness.com/nav.
125 Largest plant in Argentina commissioned, Bioenergy
International, vol. 70, no. 1 (2014), p. 25, http://www.exakta.
se/x-online/bioenergi/2014/1401/#/24/.
126 R. Wagner, Biodiesel margins down but not out, Seeking
Alpha, 14 January 2014, http://seekingalpha.com/
156
article/1945231-biodiesel-margins-down-but-not-out.
127 Brazilian Association of Vegetable Oil Industries (ABIOVE), Preo
mdio do biodiesel recua 12,7% em 2013, Segundo Abiove (So
Paolo: 4 November 2013), http://www.abiove.org.br/site/_FILES/
Portugues/04112013-184803-agencia_estado_4_nov_2013.pdf.
135 Iogen signs biomass contract in Brazil after a decade of waiting,

Bioenergy Insight, January-February 2014, p. 8, http://issuu.com/
136 Concorde Blue and Lanzatech sign agreement for renewable
fuels, Bioenergy Insight, January-February 2014, p. 25, http://
issuu.com/horseshoemedialtd/docs/bioenergy_jan-feb_2014.
137 Empyro BV breaks ground of its biomass to liquid pyrolysis
plant, BE Sustainable, 11 February 2014, http://www.
besustainablemagazine.com/cms2/empyro-bv-breaks-groundof-its-biomass-to-liquid-pyrolysis-plant/. Approximately 6,000
tonnes of wood chips is the feedstock, with electricity also being
generated for use on site and excess steam sold. MercedesBenz will run fleet tests with Clariants Sunliquid 20 cellulosic
ethanol, BE Sustainable, 30 January 2014, http://www.
besustainablemagazine.com/cms2/mercedes-benz-will-run-testfleets-with-clariants-sunliquid-20-cellulosic-ethanol/.
138 Chapter 8: Transport, in IPCC, op. cit. note 3.
139 Boeing sees a great future in what is called green diesel, Global
BioBusiness, 19 January 2014, http://www.globalbiobusiness.
com/nav.asp?l=36&cmd=view&wr=20208&articleid=126.
140 The biofuel based on palm oil and used cooking oil feedstocks
presently costs around 23 times more to produce than jet
fuel, due in part to the high cost of cooking oil collection. Chris
Luo, Aviation biofuel project could kill two birds with one
stone - if Sinopec brings cost down, South China Morning Post,
13 February 2014, http://www.scmp.com/news/china-insider/
article/1427123/aviation-authority-gives-go-ahead-commercialuse-sinopec-biofuel.
GEOTHERMAL POWER AND HEAT
Based on electricity generation of 76 TWh (273 PJ) and heat

output of 91 TWh (328 PJ). Electricity estimate based on global
capacity of 12 GW and average capacity factor of 72%, which
is based on 2012 global capacity of 11.4 GW and 2012 global
generation of 72 TWh, from International Energy Agency (IEA),
Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2013 (Paris:
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD)/IEA, 2013), p. 173. Heat estimate derived from the
average of two estimated values. The first (376 PJ) was derived
from global annual direct use in 2011 of 335 PJ, from IEA,World
Energy Statistics, (Paris: OECD/IEA, 2013), and escalated at the
observed two-year average growth rate (20092011) to 2012
and 2013; the second (281 TJ) was derived from global direct
use in 2009 of 223 PJ, from John W. Lund, Derek H. Freeston,
and Tonya L. Boyd, Direct Utilization of Geothermal Energy 2010
Worldwide Review, Proceedings World Geothermal Congress
2010, Bali, Indonesia: 2529 April 2010, which was escalated
first at the annual growth rate from IEA data (World Energy
Statistics, op. cit. this note) to 2011 and then by the two-year
average growth rate (20092011) to 2012 and 2013, as above.
The average of these two values is the estimated global direct use
of 328 PJ (91 TWh). Capacity estimate derived from the average
of two estimated values. The first (25.8 GWth) was derived from
global annual direct use in 20092011, from IEA,World Energy
Statistics, op. cit. this note, and capacity factor of about 46%
for 2009, calculated from Lund, Freeston, and Boyd, op. cit. this
note, and escalated at the observed two-year average growth
rate (20092011) to 2012 and 2013; the second (19.3 GWth) was
derived from global capacity of 15,346 MWth in 2009, from Lund,
Freeston, and Boyd, op. cit. this note, which was escalated first at
the annual growth rate from IEA data (World Energy Statistics,
op. cit. this note) to 2011 and then by the two-year average
growth rate (20092011) to 2012 and 2013, as above. The
average of these two values is the estimated global heat capacity
at 22.6 GWth, with estimated increase of 1.3GWth during 2013.
The divergence between the two sources for geothermal heat
output, and the need to extrapolate over 24 years, makes these
estimates of output and capacity subject to great uncertainty. The
difference between the two datasets is due largely to different heat
output data for China, diverging by a factor of three (difference of
about 100 PJ). The IEA reports direct use in China being 150.7 PJ
(41.9 TWh) in 2010, while Lund, Freeston, and Boyd report direct
use in China in 2009 being 46.3PJ (12.9TWh).
Total global installed capacity in 2013 of 12 GW is based on
inventory of existing capacity and installed capacity in 2013, from
Geothermal Energy Association (GEA), per Benjamin Matek, GEA,
personal communication with REN21, March 2014; and from
additional sources for capacity additions by country provided
throughout this section. The total difference between newly
installed capacity and net additions (net of replacements) in 2013
is estimated to be 65 MW. Capacity additions for Turkey in 2013,
according to latest government sources (149 MW), are higher than
those represented here (112 MW), per Energy Market Regulatory
Authority of the Turkish Republic, provided by Mustafa Sezgin,
Secretary General and Member of the Board, Turkish Energy
Foundation (TENVA), personal communication with REN21, May
2014. Estimated annual generation is based on global capacity
of 12 GW and average capacity factor of 72%, which is based on
2012 global capacity of 11.4 GW and 2012 global generation of
72TWh, from IEA, Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report
2013, op. cit. note 1, p. 173.
Capacity values from current Inventory of existing capacity and

additions from GEA, op. cit. note 2.
Figure 8 and country installed capacity in 2013 based on

ibid. and from additional sources for capacity additions by country
provided throughout this section.
Figure 9 and country installed capacity in 2013 based on

ibid.
Contact Energy, Continued performance improvement, press

release (Wellington, New Zealand: 18 February 2014), http://www.
contactenergy.co.nz/web/pdf/financial/cen-hy14-media-release.
pdf.
Robert Peltier, Contact Energy Ltd.s Te Mihi Power Station

Harnesses Sustainable Geothermal Energy, Power Magazine, 1
Contact Energy, The Te Mihi Project, http://www.contactenergy.

co.nz/web/ourprojects/temihi.
Mighty River Power, PM opens showcase Geothermal plant:

boost for MRP, benefits for NZ, press release (Auckland, New
Zealand: 3 October 2013), http://www.mightyriver.co.nz/PDFs/
PDFs/New-Geothermal-plant-boosts-MRP-and-benefits-NZ.aspx.
10 Ormat, Ormat Successfully Completed The Ngatamariki

Geothermal Plant, press release (Reno, NV: 3 September
2013), http://www.ormat.com/news/latest-items/
ormat-successfully-completed-ngatamariki-geothermal-plant.
11 Inventory of existing capacity and installed capacity in 2013
from GEA, op. cit. note 2. Higher value for capacity addition of
149 MW and a total capacity of 311 MW from Energy Market
Regulatory Authority of the Turkish Republic, op. cit. note
1. Additional information from the following: Phillip Dumas,
European Geothermal Energy Council, personal communication
with REN21, February 2014; zgr alan Kuyumcu, Middle
East Geothermal Potential, presentation at the Geothermal
Resources Council Annual Meeting 2013, Las Vegas, NV, 29
September2 October 2013, http://www.geothermal.org; Mahmut
Parlaktuna et al., Geothermal Country Update report of Turkey
(2012-2013),prepared for the European Geothermal Congress
2013, Pisa, Italy, 37 June 2013, http://www.geothermal-energy.
org/pdf/IGAstandard/EGC/2013/EGC2013_CUR-32.pdf.
12 Fuji Electric, Introduction to Fuji Electrics Recent Experiences
in Geothermal Power Plant Business, presentation, October
2013, http://www.jica.go.jp/information/seminar/2013/
ku57pq00001ktre1-att/20131101_01_06.pdf; Zorlus geothermal
power plant opened, Hurriyet Daily News, 30 September 2013,
http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/zorlus-geothermal-powerplant-opened.aspx?pageID=238&nID=55378&NewsCatID=345.
13 MB Holding [Menderes Geothermal Elektrik retim (MEGE)],
Dora-3 Produces, Turkey Wins, 17 September 2013, http://
www.mb.com.tr/en/basinda-mb-holding; Kuyumcu, op.
cit. note 11; BM Holding, Gmky GEPP Project, http://
www.bmholding.com.tr/group_companies/geothermal.
asp?show=gumuskoy_gepp_project&menu=power_generation.
14 Dumas, op. cit. note 11; Parlaktuna et al., op. cit. note 11.
15 Enel Green Power, Enel Green Power: The Cove Fort Geothermal
Power Plant Starts Operations in Utah, press release (Rome
and Boston: 27 November 2013), http://www.enelgreenpower.
com/en-GB/ena/events_news/press_releases/release.
aspx?iddoc=1661220.
16 U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Nevada Deploys First U.S.
Commercial, Grid-Connected Enhanced Geothermal System, 12
April 2013, http://energy.gov/articles/nevada-deploys-first-uscommercial-grid-connected-enhanced-geothermal-system.
17 In-field and near-field EGS are located within or near existing
conventional geothermal installations, while greenfield projects
would be located on previously undeveloped sites, per GEA, 2013
Geothermal Power: International Market Overview (Washington,
DC: September 2013).
18 Ormat, Ormat Completes the Don A. Campbell Geothermal Power
Plant with Full 16 Megawatt (net) Output, press release (Reno,
NV: 6 January 2014), http://www.ormat.com/news/latest-items/
ormat-completes-don-campbell-geothermal-power-plant-full-16megawatt-net-output; Alexander Richter, Gradient Resources
starts operation of Patua plant in Nevada, Think Geoenergy,
15 January 2014, http://thinkgeoenergy.com/archives/17677;
Gradient Resources Web site, www.gradient.com.
02
August 2013, http://www.powermag.com/contact-energy-ltd-s-temihi-power-station-harnesses-sustainable-geothermal-energy/.
19 Ormat, Ormat Becomes Sole Owner of the Mammoth Complex in

Mammoth Lakes, California, press release (Reno, NV: 2 August
2010), http://www.ormat.com/news/acquisitions/ormat-becomessole-owner-mammoth-complex-mammoth-lakes-california;
Ormat, Ormat Reaches Commercial Operation of the Newly
Refurbished Mammoth G1 Power Plant, press release (Reno,
NV: 23 January 2014), http://www.ormat.com/news/latest-items/
ormat-reaches-commercial-operation-newly-refurbishedmammoth-g1-power-plant.
20 Ormat, Ormat Technologies Commences Operation of 36 MW
Geothermal Power Plant In Kenya, press release (Reno, NV: 2
May 2013), http://www.ormat.com/news/latest-items/ormattechnologies-commences-operation-36-mw-geothermal-powerplant-kenya; Ormat Olkaria III Geothermal Complex in Kenya
Reaches 110 MW with Commercial Operation of Plant 3, press
release (Reno, NV: 4 February 2014), http://www.ormat.com/
157
ENDNOTES 02 MARKET AND INDUSTRY TRENDS GEOTHERMAL POWER AND HEAT

news/latest-items/olkaria-iii-geothermal-complex-kenya-reaches110-mw-commercial-operation-plant-3.
21 GEA, op. cit. note 17; global inventory of geothermal power plants
from GEA, op. cit. note 2.
22 Alstom, Los Humeros II, Units 9 & 10, http://www.alstom.
com/Global/Power/Resources/Documents/Brochures/loshumeros-II-mexico-geothermal-power-plant-datasheet.pdf;
Alstom, Alstom to build Los Humeros III geothermal project
in Mexico, 19 December 2013, http://www.alstom.com/presscentre/2013/11/alstom-to-build-los-humeros-iii-geothermalproject-in-mexico/; United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC), Project 8861: Los Humeros II Phase
A+B Geothermal Project, http://cdm.unfccc.int/Projects/DB/
DNV-CUK1355831407.2/view.
23 Luis Gutierrez-Negrin, Mexican Geothermal Association, personal
communication with REN21, April 2014.
24 Maibarara Geothermal Inc., 20 MW Maibarara Geothermal
Power Project Starts Commercial Operations, 9 February 2014,
http://maibarara.com.ph/news/20-mw-maibarara-geothermalpower-project-starts-commercial-operations; Maibarara
Geothermal Inc., Maibarara Geothermal Power Project Gets CDM
Approval, 15 May 2013, http://maibarara.com.ph/uncategorized/
maibarara-geothermal-power-project-gets-cdm-approval.
25 Manuel S. Ogena and Ariel Fronda, Philippines Department of
Energy, Prolonged Geothermal Generation and Opportunity
in the Philippines, presentation at the Geothermal Resources
Council Annual Meeting 2013, Las Vegas, NV, 30 September
2013, http://www.geothermal.org.
26 Jrgen Fenhann, United Nations Environment Programme Ris
Center, CDM project pipeline, 1 April 2014, http://cdmpipeline.
org/publications/CDMPipeline.xlsx.
27 The plants are in the localities of Kirchstochach and Drrnhaar
at the outskirts of Munich. Turboden, References: 277, http://
www.turboden.eu/en/references/references.php; Sddeutsche
Geothermie-Projekte Gesellschaft, Projekte, http://www.
sgg-bayern.de/pro_1.shtml; capacity rating from Bundesverband
Geothermie,Tiefe Geothermieprojekte in Deutschland, http://
www.geothermie.de/fileadmin/useruploads/aktuelles/projekte/
tiefe/deutschland/Projektliste_Tiefe_Geothermie_alphabetisch.
pdf; new installed capacity of 19 MW in 2013, from Arbeitsgruppe
Erneuerbare Energien-Statistik (AGEE-Stat), Erneuerbare Energien
im Jahr 2013 (Berlin: Bundesministerium fr Wirtschaft und
Energie (BMWi), Berlin, 2014), p. 3 and Table 5, http://www.bmwi.
de/BMWi/Redaktion/PDF/A/agee-stat-bericht-ee-2013.
28 Stadtwerke Mnchen, Geothermie-Heizkraftwerk Sauerlach
geht offiziell in Betrieb, press release (Munich: 30 January 2014),
http://www.swm.de/dms/swm/pressemitteilungen/2014/01/
versorgung20140130/Pressemitteilung%20vom%2030.01.2.014.
pdf; SWM Geothermie-Kraftwerk in Sauerlach erffnet,
Muenchen.de, 31 January 2014, http://www.muenchen.de/
themen/aktuell/swm-geothermie-kraftwerk.html.
29 Exergy, Exergy Brings Geothermal Energy into the Future for Enel
Green Power, translated by Exergy from article in La Stampa,
10 June 2013, http://www.exergy-orc.com/newspressred/2013/
exergy-brings-geothermal-energy-into-the-future-for-enel-greenpower; Exergy, Radial Outflow Turbine, http://exergy-orc.com/
radial-outflow-turbine.
30 Dumas, op. cit. note 11.
31 Benjamin Matek and Karl Gawell, Report on the State of
Geothermal Energy in California (Washington, DC: GEA, February
2014).
32
32 Sidebar 4 from the following sources: Miklos Antics, Ruggero
Bertani, and Burkhard Sanner, Summary of EGC 2013 Country
Update Reports on Geothermal Energy in Europe, presented at
European Geothermal Congress, Pisa, Italy, 37 June 2013; use
of waste heat from Burkhard Sanner et al., Strategic Research
and Innovation Agenda for Renewable Heating and Cooling
(Luxembourg: European Commission, European Technology
Platform Renewable Heating and Cooling, March 2013),
Figure 17, http://www.rhc-platform.org/fileadmin/user_upload/
members/Downloads/RHC_SRA_epo_final_lowres.pdf; heat
pump efficiency from idem; overall energy efficiency dependence
on efficiency of electricity consumption from idem, Section 3.5;
2010 survey data from Lund, Freeston, and Boyd, op. cit. note
1; 2013 update from Antics, Bertani, and Sanner, op. cit. this
note; European market figures from Thomas Nowak, European
Heat Pump Association, personal communication with REN21,
April 2014, and from EurObservER, Heat Pumps Barometer
158
(Paris: October 2013); 2012 sales from Nowak, op. cit. this note.
EurObservER, which may have greater geographic coverage,
indicates significantly larger market size, at 1.65 million units,
but similar overall market decline from 2011 to 2012; Heinz
Kopetz, World Bioenergy Association, personal communication
with REN21, 13 February 2014; attractive for large buildings
from Nowak, op. cit. this note, January 2014; 15% share from
Nowak, op. cit. this note, April 2014; use of hybrid systems
from Sanner et al., op. cit. this note, p. 30. For hybrid systems,
see, for example, Stephanie Banse, Thailand: Government
Continues Subsidy Programme in 2013, Solar Thermal World, 15
February 2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/thailandgovernment-continues-subsidy-programme-2013, and Solar +
Heat Pump Systems, Solar Update (IEA Solar Heating and Cooling
Programme), January 2013; interest in larger-scale pumps from
Nowak, op. cit. this note, 16 April 2014; Denmark from Sren Berg
Lorenzen, Danish Geothermal District Heating, Deep Geothermal
projects in Jutland, presentation at the FURGY Congress
2014, Husum, Denmark, 21 March 2014, http://www.furgy.eu/
fileadmin/downloads/veranstaltungen/FURGY_Kongress_2014/
Pres._Lorenzen.pdf; Norway from Star Refrigeration, Worlds
Largest Zero Carbon 90C District Heat Pump Opens Its Doors
25th Feb, http://www.star-ref.co.uk/star/worlds-largest.html;
EU standardisation from Directive 2009/28/EC of the European
Parliament and the Council of 23 April 2009, (Article 5(4)),
Official Journal of the European Union, 5 June 2009; Commission
Decision of 1 March 2013 (2013/114/EU), Official Journal of the
European Union, 6 March 2013. According to the Commission
Rules, the renewable share of heat pump energy output would be:
[ERES = Qusable * (1-1/SPF)], Where Qusable is the usable heat delivered
and defined as the product of equivalent full-load hours of
operation and the capacity of the heat pump; and where the SPF
of any electrically driven heat pump considered shall always be
greater than [1.15 * 1/], where is the ratio of gross production of
electricity to primary energy used in electricity generation across
the EU. With the EU power system efficiency () established at
45.5% in March 2013, the minimum SPF for electrically driven
heat pumps (sCOPnet) was thereby set at the value of 2.5 to qualify
as being considered renewable energy under the Directive.
33 See, for example, Lund, Freeston, and Boyd, op. cit. note 1.
34 See sources in Endnote 1.
35 Ibid.
37 See, for example, Lund, Freeston, and Boyd, op. cit. note 1, and
Antics, Bertani, and Sanner, op. cit. note 32.
38 Country data from the following sources: China: capacity of
3,688 MW from Lund, Freeston, and Boyd, op. cit. note 1; output
of 156.2 PJ in 2010 and 162 PJ in 2011 from IEA, World Energy
Statistics for 2011 (Paris: OECD/IEA, 2013); output of 46.3 PJ in
2010, excluding heat pumps, from Lund, Freeston, and Boyd, op.
cit. note 1; Turkey: capacity of 2,667 MWt across three categories
of space heating, greenhouses, and baths, from Parlaktuna et al.,
op. cit. note 11; geothermal direct use output of 16.3 TWh based
on 2012 capacity for each use category (per idem) and 2010
capacity factors for each category, as implied by reported 2010
capacity and output values (per Lund, Freeston, and Boyd, op.
cit. note 1); according to capacity and output figures for 2010 (per
Lund, Freeston, and Boyd, op. cit. note 1), Turkish direct use for
bathing and swimming in 2010 suggests a 100% capacity factor
of associated thermal capacity, which is much higher than the
average across other countries in the same source. Alternatively,
the capacity value may be understated; additional sources include
Antics, Bertani, and Sanner, op. cit. note 32, and Dumas, op. cit.
note 11; Iceland: capacity of 2,155 MW from Antics, Bertani, and
Sanner, op. cit. note 32; 7.8 TWh based on direct use being 60%
of total final energy use for heat and power of 46.7 PJ, or 28 PJ,
from Orkutlur 2013, Orkustofnun (Energy Statistics in Iceland
2013) (Reykjavik: April 2014), http://www.os.is/gogn/os-onnurrit/orkutolur_2013-islenska.pdf; Conversely, another source
suggests 8.2 TWh for 2012 (Antics, Bertani, and Sanner, op. cit.
note 32); Japan: capacity of 2,086 MW from Lund, Freeston,
and Boyd, op. cit. note 1; output of 7.2 TWh from Institute for
Sustainable Energy Policies (ISEP), Renewables Japan Status
Report 2014 (Toyko: 2014), http://www.isep.or.jp/jsr2014, via
Hironao Matsubara, ISEP, personal communication with REN21,
April 2014; Hungary: capacity of 695 MW and output of 2.8 TWh
from Antics, Bertani, and Sanner, op. cit. note 32; Italy: capacity
of 779 MW and output of 2.4 TWh from idem.
39 See sources in Endnote 1.
40 The IEA (World Energy Statistics, op. cit. note 1) reports direct
use in China being 162 PJ (45 TWh) in 2011 and global direct use
being 335 PJ (93 TWh), while Lund, Freeston, and Boyd (op. cit.
note 1) report direct use in China in 2009 being 46.3 PJ (12.9
TWh) and global use 223 PJ (62 TWh).
59 DOE, How an Enhanced Geothermal System Works, http://

www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/egs_animation.html.
41 See all sources in Endnote 38.
60 Adam H. Goldstein and Ralph Braccio, 2013 Market Trends

Report, prepared by Booz Allen Hamilton (Washington, DC:
DOE, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE),
Geothermal Technologies Office, January 2014), p. vi.
42 PannErgy, Projekt bemutatsa, http://pannergy.com/

projektek/#miskolc.
61 Ibid., p. 39; Philippe Dumas, European Geothermal Energy

Council, personal communication with REN21, May 2014.
43 Mannvit, Geothermal Energy Development in Hungary, http://

www.mannvit.com/GeothermalEnergy/ProjectExampleinfo/
geothermal-energy-development-in-hungary.
62 The hydro-shearing used to enhance permeability of the rock

is different from shale gas fracturing in that it uses only water at
lower pressure and no chemicals, but instances of small fractureinduced seismic activity have still raised public concern. Burkhard
Sanner, President, European Geothermal Energy Council,
personal communication with REN21, 14 January 2013.
44 Enel, Monteverdi M.Mo (PI): Inaugurato LImpianto di

Teleriscaldamento. Collaborazione Tra Comune, Regione
ed Enel Green Power, 4 April 2013, http://www.enel.it/it-IT/
media_investor/comunicati/comunicati_regione/toscana/release.
aspx?iddoc=1658368.
45 Stadtwerke Mnchen, op. cit. note 28; SWM GeothermieKraftwerk in Sauerlach erffnet, op. cit. note 28.
46 Antics, Bertani, and Sanner, op. cit. note 32.
47 Ibid.
48 Geodynamics, Completion of 1 MWe Habanero Pilot Plant
demonstration, press release (Milton, Australia: 8 October 2013),
http://www.geodynamics.com.au/getattachment/75e9468a0e17-4e2f-8501-839968abd7e0/Completion-of-1-MWeHabanero-Pilot-Plant-demonstra.aspx; Geodynamics,
Innamincka (EGS) Project, http://www.geodynamics.com.au/
Our-Projects/Innamincka-Deeps.aspx.
49 The turbine is referred to as radial outflow turbine and is said
to excel at several operational parameters, including generating
efficiency. Exergy, Exergy Brings Geothermal Energy into the
Future for Enel Green Power, op. cit. note 29; Exergy, Radial
Outflow Turbine, op. cit. note 29.
50 Ormat, Ormat Reaches Commercial Operation of the Newly
Refurbished Mammoth G1 Power Plant, op. cit. note 19.
63 Gehringer and Loksha, op. cit. note 51, Figure 2.1, p. 52.
64 Ibid.
66 S. Fraser et al., European Geothermal Risk Insurance Fund EGRIF,
June 2013, http://www.geoelec.eu/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/
D-3.2-GEOELEC-report-on-risk-insurance.pdf.
67 Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC),
Geothermal, http://www.jogmec.go.jp/english/geothermal/;
DOE, EERE, Geothermal Technologies Office, Financial
Opportunities, http://www1.eere.energy.gov/geothermal/
current_opportunities.html.
68 World Bank, Full Steam Ahead: World Bank Seeks Global Push
for Geothermal Energy Revolution, 6 March 2013, http://www.
worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2013/03/06/full-steam-aheadworld-bank-seeks-global-push-for-geothermal-energy-revolution;
Pierre Audinet, World Bank ESMAP, Global Geothermal
Development Plan, presentation for Knowledge Exchange
Forum, Paris, 2728 November 2013, http://www.esmap.org/
sites/esmap.org/files/ESMAP_Paris_Geothermal_Energy_KEF_
Optimized.pdf.
51 See for example, Magnus Gehringer and Victor Loksha, World

Bank Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP),
Geothermal Handbook: Planning and Financing Power Generation
(Washington, DC: June 2012), Figure 1.11, p. 28.
52 Chevron, Geothermal Harnessing Renewable Energy for
Power Generation, http://www.chevron.com/deliveringenergy/
geothermal; Ormat, Company Profile, http://www.ormat.com/
company-profile; Enel Green Power, Geothermal Energy, http://
www.enelgreenpower.com/en-GB/doc/plants/geotermia.pdf.
53 Ormat, op. cit. note 52; Ormat, Ormat Successfully Completed
the Ngatamariki Geothermal Plant, press release (Reno, NV:
3 September 2013), http://www.ormat.com/news/latest-items/
ormat-successfully-completed-ngatamariki-geothermal-plant;
Turboden, Company, http://www.turboden.eu/en/about/aboutcompany.php; Turboden, op. cit. note 27; Exergy, Exergy Brings
Geothermal Energy into the Future for Enel Green Power, op. cit.
note 29.
02
54 Japan based on data compiled by Bloomberg New Energy

Finance, provided by Dumas, op. cit. note 11; see, for example,
Gehringer and Loksha, op. cit. note 51, Figure 1.11, p. 28;
Siemens, Steam Turbines for Geothermal Power Plants, http://
www.energy.siemens.com/hq/pool/hq/power-generation/steamturbines/downloads/Geothermal_Steam_Turbines.pdf; Ansaldo
Energia, Ansaldo Energia, http://ansaldoenergia.it/easyNews/
NewsLeggi.asp?NewsID=1.
55 Doug Hollett, Geothermal Technologies Office, DOE, Hot Rock
and Hard Places, presentation for the Geothermal Resources
Council Annual Meeting 2013, Reno, NV, 30 September 2013,
http://www.geothermal.org.
56 Ibid.; DOE, Geothermal Technologies Program Coproduction
Factsheet (Washington, DC: February 2012), http://www1.eere.
energy.gov/geothermal/pdfs/gtp_coproduction_factsheet.pdf.
57 Another example of this is the 1 MWe/12.4 MWth ORC plant in
Altheim, Austria, which supplies the town of 5,000 people with
district heat but engages power generation during peak load
periods for additional revenue and improved plant economics.
Bundesverband Geothermie, The Altheim Rankine Cycle
Turbogenerator, http://www.geothermie.de/wissenswelt/archiv/
englisch/the-altheim-rankine-cycle-turbogenerator.html.
58 Gothermie Perspectives, Central EGS Soultz-sous-Forts,
Alsace, 16 January 2014, http://www.geothermie-perspectives.
fr/article/centrale-egs-soultz-forets-alsace.
159
ENDNOTES 02 MARKET AND INDUSTRY TRENDS HYDROPOWER
HYDROPOWER
1
160
Last years GSR reported a total of 990 GW, but that figure
has been revised downward by 30 GW based on input from
the International Hydropower Association (IHA) Hydropower
Database, personal communication with REN21, March 2014;
from preliminary estimates in International Energy Agency (IEA),
Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2014 (Paris:
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD)/IEA, forthcoming 2014); and from Hydropower Equipment
Association (HEA) Database, based on its members aggregated
input, personal communication with REN21, April 2014.
Based on input from IHA, personal communication with REN21,

April 2014; from IEA, op. cit. note 1; and from a projection based
on 2012 hydropower output of 3,673 TWh from BP, Statistical
Review of World Energy 2013 (London: June 2013), as well as
observed average year-on-year change in output (+2.8%) for top
producing countries (China, Brazil, Canada, the United States, the
European Union-27, Russia, India, and Norway), which together
accounted for over 70% of global hydropower output.
Country data from the following sources: China: China Electricity

Council (CEC), summary of electricity supply and demand from
CECs 2014 Annual Report, http://www.cec.org.cn/guihuayutongji/
gongxufenxi/dianligongxufenxi/2014-02-25/117272.html; Shi
Pengfei, China Wind Energy Association, personal communication
with REN21, 12 March 2014; Brazil: 1,533 MW (264 MW small
hydro and 1,264 MW large hydro) added in 2013, per National
Agency for Electrical Energy (ANEEL), Fiscalizao dos servios
de gerao, February 2013, http://www.aneel.gov.br/area.
cfm?idArea=37; large hydro capacity is listed as 81.093 GW at
end-2013 and small hydro at 4.656 GW, for a total of 85,749 MW;
generation from National Electrical System Operator of Brazil
(ONS), Gerao de Energia, http://www.ons.org.br/historico/
geracao_energia.aspx; United States: 2012 capacity from U.S.
Energy Information Administration (EIA), Electric Power Annual,
Table 4.3 Existing Capacity by Energy Source, http://www.eia.
gov/electricity/annual/html/epa_04_03.html; projected net
additions in 2013 of 201 MW from idem, Table 4.5 Planned
Generating Capacity Changes by Energy Source, 2013-2017,
http://www.eia.gov/electricity/annual/html/epa_04_05.html;
generation from EIA, Electric Power Monthly, February 2014, Table
1.1, http://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly; Canada: Canadian
Hydropower Association, communication with REN21, February
2014; HEA Database, op. cit. note 1; generation from Statistics
Canada, Table 127-0002 Electric Power Generation, by class
of electricity producer, http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/cansim;
Russia: capacity and generation from System Operator of the
Unified Energy System of Russia, Report on the Unified Energy
System in 2013 (Moscow: undated), http://www.so-ups.ru/
fileadmin/files/company/reports/disclosure/2014/ups_rep2013.
pdf; India: installed capacity in 2013 (units larger than 25 MW)
of 39,893.4 MW from Government of India, Ministry of Power,
Central Electricity Authority (CEA), Installed capacity as of
31 December 2013, http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/monthly/
inst_capacity/dec13.pdf, and idem, List of H.E. Stations in the
Country with Station Capacity Above 25 MW, http://www.cea.
nic.in/reports/hydro/list_he__stations.pdf; capacity additions in
2013 (>25 MW) of 554 MW from CEA, Executive Summary of the
Power Sector (monthly), http://www.cea.nic.in/exesum_cood.
html; installed capacity in 2013 (<25 MW) of 3,763.15 MW from
2014; capacity additions in 2013 (<25 MW) of 267 MW based on
difference of year-end 2013 figure (above) and year-end 2012
(New Delhi: undated), Table 3.7, http://www.mnre.gov.in/missionand-vision-2/publications/annual-report-2; generation for plants
larger than 25 MW from CEA, Executive Summary of the Power
Sector (monthly), op. cit. this note, and output from hydropower
plants smaller than 25 MW estimated, based on capacity from
MNRE, Annual Report 2012-2013, op. cit. this note and on average
capacity factor for large hydropower facilities in India; Norway:
capacity of 29.3 GW from Seming Skau, Senior Engineer, Section
for Resources, Energy Department, Norwegian Water Resources
and Energy Directorate, via IHA Hydropower Database, personal
communication with REN21, February 2014; generation from
Statistics Norway, http://www.ssb.no/en. Figure 10 based on
capacity and generation sources provided in this note.
Sources indicate total global pumped storage capacity in the

range of 135140 GW. In addition to government sources noted
elsewhere, global and national capacity values based on input
from IHA Hydropower Database, op. cit. note 2; from IEA, op. cit.
note 1; and from HEA Database, op. cit. note 1.
China, Brazil, India, and Russia from relevant sources in Endnote

3. Other countries from the following sources: Turkey: capacity
was 19,609.4 MW at the end of 2012 and 22,493.6 MW by
31 January 2014, from Dr. ztrk Selvitop, Ministry of Energy
and Natural Resources, Republic of Turkey, Hydropower in
Turkish Energy Sector, presentation, Ankara, 4 March 2014,
http://suyonetimi.ormansu.gov.tr/Libraries/su/Hydropower_in_
Turkish_Energy_Sector.sflb.ashx. See also Turkish Electricity
Transmission Company, capacity projections, http://www.teias.
gov.tr/YayinRapor/APK/projeksiyon/KapasiteProjeksiyonu2013.
docx; Vietnam: late 2013 capacity from Do Duc Quan, director,
Hydropower Department, General Department of Energy,
Policies on Sustainable Hydropower Development in Vietnam,
presentation, Second Mekong River Commission Summit and
International Conference, Ho Chi Minh City, 25 April 2014,
http://www.mrcsummit.org/presentations/track2/1.2-d-policyfor-sustainable-dev-ofhydro-QuanDoDuc.pdf; 2012 year-end
capacity of 12.95 GW from National Electricity Center of
Vietnam, http://www.nldc.evn.vn/News/7/661/Bao-cao-tong-ketnam-2012.aspx. Figure 11 based on capacity sources provided in
this endnote and in Endnote 3.
China Three Gorges Corporation, The Twelfth Generating Unit

was Installed in the Xiluodu Hydropower Station with the Total
Installed Capacity Reaching 9240 MW, http://www.ctgpc.com/
news/news1.php?NewsId=80194; Chinas 13.86-GW Xiluodu
hydropower plant begins commercial operation, Hydro World,
17 July 2013, http://www.hydroworld.com/articles/2013/07/
china-s-13-86-gw-xiluodu-hydrpower-plant-begins-commercialoperation.html.
Alstom, Alstom commissions worlds most powerful hydroelectric

units at Xiangjiaba hydro power plant, in China, press release
(Levallois-Perret Cedex: 21 July 2013), http://www.alstom.com/
press-centre/2013/7/alstom-commissions-worlds-most-powerfulhydroelectric-units-at-xiangjiaba-hydro-power-plant-in-china/.
China Electricity Council, Planning and Statistics Department,

2013 National Electricity Industry Statistics, 26 January
2014, http://www.cec.org.cn/guihuayutongji/tongjxinxi/
yuedushuju/2014-01-26/116224.html (using Google Translate).
This figure may include investment in pumped storage.
Recent examples include China Exim financing the expansion by

Sinohydro of Zimbabwes Kariba plant, Sinohydro and Chinese
National Electric Engineering contract for Nigerias Zungeru
station, and Dongfang recently delivering the Allai Khwar project
in Pakistan with more projects pending. China lends Zimbabwe
$319 million for Kariba hydropower upgrade, Times Live, 11
November 2013, http://www.timeslive.co.za/africa/2013/11/11/
china-lends-zimbabwe-319-million-for-kariba-hydropowerupgrade; Sinohydro Corp and CNEEC commence construction
on 700MW hydro plant, Power Insider, 29 May 2013, http://
www.pimagazine-asia.com/news/other-news/sinohydro-corpand-cneec-commence-construction-on-700mw-hydro-plant;
Sino Hydro and ZPC sign on for Kariba hydroelectric power
project upgrade, Hydro World, 27 December 2012, http://
www.hydroworld.com/articles/2012/12/sino-hydro-and-zpcsign-on-for-kariba-hydroelectric-power-project-upgrade.html;
Chinese company hands over Allai Khwar power project to
WAPDA, Pak Tribune, 8 October 2013, http://paktribune.com/
business/news/Chinese-company-hands-over-Allai-Khwarpower-project-to-WAPDA-11655.html; Fourth Tarbela Extension
Hydropower Project: Wapda, Sinohydro ink agreement, Business
Reporter, 10 September 2013, http://www.brecorder.com/
fuel-a-energy/193/1229536.
10 Capacity was 19,609.4 MW at the end of 2012 and 22,493.6

MW by 31 January 2014, from Selvitop, op. cit. note 5; installed
capacity in 2012 was 19,609.4 MW, from Turkish Electricity
Transmission Company, op. cit. note 5, Table 12.
11 Ibid.
12 The lower added-capacity figure of 1.53 GW and total capacity
from ANEEL, Fiscalizao dos servios de gerao, updated
February 2014, http://www.aneel.gov.br/arquivos/zip/Resumo_
Geral_das_Usinas_fev_2014.zip. The larger added-capacity
figure of 2 GW, which may account for additional turbinegenerators that were installed in 2014 but not fully commissioned
or grid-connected, from HEA Database, op. cit. note 1. The HEA
13 Reservoir filling begins at Brazils Simplicio hydroelectric

complex, Hydro World, 26 February 2013, http://www.
hydroworld.com/articles/2013/02/reservoir-filling-begins-atbrazil-s-simplicio-hydroelectric-com.html; Simplicio plant
notable for its single drop of 115 m, PINI Web, 10 July 2013,
http://piniweb.pini.com.br/construcao/infra-estrutura/obra-dausina-de-simplicio-se-destaca-por-queda-unica-292341-1.aspx
(in Portuguese).
14 First Hydro Turbine at 3,750-MW Jirau now in operation,
Hydro World, 11 September 2013, http://www.hydroworld.com/
articles/2013/09/first-hydro-turbine-at-3-750-mw-jirau-now-inoperation.html; Interview: Eduardo de Melo Pinto, CEO, Santo
Antonio Energia, Brazil, Energyboardroom.com, 21 December
2013, http://www.energyboardroom.com/interviews/intervieweduardo-de-melo-pinto-ceo-santo-antonio-energia-brazil.
15 Richard Taylor, IHA, personal communication with REN21, 15
January 2014. Both are registered Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM) projects and credited for significant carbon dioxide
reductions beginning in 2013, per United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change, CDM, Project Search, http://
cdm.unfccc.int/Projects/projsearch.html.
16 Taylor, op. cit. note 15; Simon Smith, IHA, personal
communication with REN21, 12 March 2014.
17 Work OK to resume at Brazils 1.8-GW Teles Pires, court
rules, Hydro World, 1 October 2013, http://www.hydroworld.
com/articles/2013/09/work-ok-to-resume-at-brazil-s-1-8gw-teles-pires-court-rules.html; other notable projects under
way include: Colder (300 MW by 2015), and Ferreira Gomes
(252 MW by 2015), which saw its first of three Kaplan turbines
installed in early 2014. ANEEL, Construction schedule for large
hydropower facilities as of February 2014, http://www.aneel.gov.
br/arquivos/pdf/Cronograma_de_Eventos_UHE_fev_2014.pdf;
Voith Installs First Turbine Unit at Ferreira Gomes Hydropower
Project, Hydro World, 16 January 2014, http://www.hydroworld.
com/articles/2014/01/voith-installs-first-turbine-unit-at-ferreiragomes-hydropower-project.html.
18 Late 2013 capacity of 14.24 GW and 2012 capacity of 11.67
GW (increase of 2.57 GW) from Do Duc Quan, op. cit. note 5;
Hydropower potential almost fully tapped: National Assembly,
Vietnamnet, 5 November 2013, http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/
government/88389/hydropower-potential-almost-fully-tapped-national-assembly.html; addition of 1.3 GW based on 2012
year-end capacity of 12.95 GW from National Electricity Center of
Vietnam, op. cit. note 5.
19 Vietnamese prime minister calls for improvements to country's
dam safety evaluations, Hydro World, 17 January 2013, http://
www.hydroworld.com/articles/2013/01/vietnamese-primeminister-calls-for-improvements-to-countrys-dam.html; Vietnam
halts 18 hydropower plant projects, Than Nien News, 8 July
2013, http://www.thanhniennews.com/society/vietnam-halts-18hydropower-plant-projects-1930.html.
20 Installed (>25 MW) capacity of 39,893.4 MW in 2013 from CEA,
List of H.E. Stations in the Country with Station Capacity Above
25 MW, op. cit. note 3; 2013 capacity additions (>25 MW) of
554 MW from CEA, Executive Summary of the Power Sector
(monthly), op. cit. note 3; 2013 capacity of small hydropower
facilities of 3,763.15 MW from MNRE, Physical Progress
(Achievements), op. cit. note 3; 2013 capacity additions (<25
MW) of 267 MW based on difference of year-end 2013 figure
(above) and year-end 2012 figure (3,496.15 MW) from MNRE,
Annual Report 20132013, op. cit. note 3, Table 3.7.
21 Permanent Court of Arbitration, Court of Arbitration Renders Its
Final Award in the First Arbitration under the Indus Waters Treaty
1960, press release (The Hague: 21 December 2013), http://
www.pca-cpa.org/showpage.asp?pag_id=1392.
22 Net capacity additions based on increased year-end figures from
System Operator of the Unified Energy System of Russia, op.
cit. note 3; see also relevant sources in note 3; gross capacity
installations of 3.2 GW from HEA Database, op. cit. note 1.
23 Bui Power Authority, President John Dramani Mahama
commissions Bui Generating Station adds 400MW to Ghanas
installed capacity, http://www.buipowerauthority.com/
node/154; Gabon's 160-MW Grand Poubara hydroelectric
plant enters full operation, Hydro World, 5 September
2013, http://www.hydroworld.com/articles/2013/09/
gabon-s-160-mw-grand-poubara-enters-full-operation.html.
24 Sinohydro, Business Portfolio, http://eng.sinohydro.com/index.
php?m=content&c=index&a=lists&catid=42.
25 Voith Hydro, Voith Modernizes Generators and Turbines at Inga I
Hydropower Station in the Democratic Republic of Congo, press
release (Heidenheim, Germany: 4 June 2013), http://voith.com/
en/pm_newrev-2013-05-28_inga-i_en.pdf; International Water
Power and Dam Construction, Andritz works on Inga 2 rehab,
19 March 2012, http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/
newsandritz-works-on-inga-2-rehab.
26 Alex Abutu, Nigeria: Kainji, Jebba Dams To Be Rehabilitated,
Daily Trust, 31 January 2013, http://allafrica.com/
stories/201301310431.html.
27 Alstom, Alstom to supply hydroelectric equipment for
the Grand Renaissance dam in Ethiopia, press release
(Levallois-Perret Cedex: 7 January 2013), http://www.alstom.
com/press-centre/2013/1/alstom-to-supply-hydroelectricequipment-for-the-grand-renaissance-dam-in-ethiopia;
The Grand Renaissance Hydroelectric Project, Ethiopia,
Power Technology, www.power-technology.com/projects/
the-grand-renaissance-hydroelectric-project.
28 World Bank, World Bank Approves Rusumo Falls Hydropower
Plant, press release (Washington, DC: 6 August 2013), http://
www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2013/08/06/
world-bank-approves-rusumo-falls-hydropower-plant.
29 Congo to commence construction of 40,000MW Inga hydro
project, renewable-technology.com, 20 May 2013, http://www.
renewable-technology.com/news/newscongo-to-commenceconstruction-of-40000mw-inga-hydro-project.
30 Sonal Patel, Headway for Congos Long-Delayed 40-GW Inga
Hydro Project, Power Magazine, 1 December 2013,
http://www.powermag.com/headway-for-congos-long-delayed40-gw-inga-hydro-project/.
31 Installed capacity for 2013 was 28.73 GW and pumped storage
addition was 1.2 GW, from CEC, op. cit. note 3.
32 Iberdrola, HRH The Prince of Asturias and Iberdrola Chairman
Dedicate Cortes-La Muela Pumped-Storage Scheme in Valencia
(Spain), press release (Bilbao, Spain: 14 October 2013),
http://www.iberdrola.es/press-room/press-releases/nationalinternational/2013/detail/press-release/131014_NP_01_LaMuela.
html.
33 Fernando Pern Montero and Juan J. Prez, Wind-Hydro
Integration: Pumped Storage to Support Wind, Hydro World, 1
June 2009, http://www.hydroworld.com/articles/print/volume-17/
issue-3/Articles/wind-hydro-integration-pumped-storage-tosupport-wind.html.
34 European Commission, Directorate-General for Energy, The
future role and challenges of Energy Storage, DG ENER Working
Paper, undated, http://ec.europa.eu/energy/infrastructure/doc/
energy-storage/2013/energy_storage.pdf.
35 Voith Hydro, Annual Report 2013 (Heidenheim, Germany:
undated), p. 79; Ray Smith, German Sun Beats Swiss Water,
Inter Press Service, 28 August 2013, http://www.ipsnews.
net/2013/08/german-sun-beats-swiss-water/.
36 Eurelectric, Europe Needs Hydro Pumped Storage: Five
Recommendations (Brussels: May 2012), http://www.eurelectric.
org/media/27210/eurelectric_5_recomm-pumped_storagefinal_draft_clean-for_upload-2012-160-0002-01-e.pdf.
37 Bundestag Approves 3rd Amendment of German Energy Act
Offshore Liability, Shutdown Restrictions for Conventional Power
Plants, and More, German Energy Blog, 30 November 2012,
http://www.germanenergyblog.de/?p=11581; stoRE, Current
situation in Germany, http://www.store-project.eu/en_GB/
current-situation-in-the-target-countries-germany.
02
database indicates that 90 GW of capacity was installed in Brazil

by the end of 2014, which is about 4 GW more than government
figures cited here.
38 Hironao Matsubara, Institute for Sustainable Energy Policies,

Tokyo, personal communication with REN21, April 2014.
39 European Commission, op. cit. note 34.
40 African Development Bank launches $1.26bn Kenya-Ethiopia
transmission line, Power Technology, 8 May 2013, http://www.
power-technology.com/news/newsafrican-development-banklaunches-126bn-kenya-ethiopia-transmission-line-project;
World Bank, The Eastern Electricity Highway Project under
the First Phase of the Eastern Africa Power Integration
Program, http://www.worldbank.org/projects/P126579/
regional-eastern-africa-power-pool-project-apl1?lang=en.
41 Jay Zarnikau et al., Will the SIEPAC Transmission Project Lead
161
ENDNOTES 02 MARKET AND INDUSTRY TRENDS HYDROPOWER

to a Vibrant Electricity Market in Central America? IAEE Energy
Forum (International Association for Energy Economics), Fourth
Quarter 2013, http://www.iaee.org/en/publications/newsletterdl.
aspx?id=211.
42 Michael Harris, Northern Exposure: Canadian Hydro in the
Spotlight, Hydro Review, December 2013.
43 World Bank, Toward a Sustainable Energy Future for All: Directions
for the World Bank Groups Energy Sector (Washington, DC:
9 July 2013), http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/
en/2013/07/18016002/toward-sustainable-energy-future-alldirections-world-bank-group%C2%92s-energy-sector.
44 International Water Power and Dam Construction, Statkraft
starts new R&D programme on climate change, 21
November 2013, http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/news/
newsstatkraft-starts-new-rd-programme-on-climate-change.
OCEAN ENERGY
1
Ocean Energy Systems (OES), also known as the Ocean Energy

Systems Implementing Agreement, is an inter-governmental
collaboration among countries that operates under a framework
established by the International Energy Agency (IEA) in Paris,
at http://www.ocean-energy-systems.org/ocean_energy/. The
definition of ocean energy used in this report does not include
offshore wind power or marine biomass energy.
Global installed capacity based on OES, Annual Report 2012

(Lisbon: 2012), Table 6.1, http://www.ocean-energy-systems.org/
oes_reports/annual_reports/2012_annual_report/; OES, Annual
Report 2013 (Lisbon: 2013), Table 6.2, http://www.ocean-energysystems.org/documents/82577_oes_annual_report_2013.
pdf/; IEA, Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2013
(Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD)/IEA, 2013), p. 179; and sources for 2013 capacity
installations as noted elsewhere in this section.
Capacity values from OES, Ocean Energy in the World, http://

www.ocean-energy-systems.org/ocean_energy_in_the_world/;
OES, Annual Report 2012, op. cit. note 1; lectricit de France
(EDF), Usine marmotrice de La Rance, http://energie.edf.com/
hydraulique/energies-marines/carte-des-implantations-marines/
usine-maremotrice-de-la-rance/presentation-51516.html.
Alstom, Alstoms tidal turbine reaches 1MW in offshore

conditions, press release (Levallois-Perret, France: 31
July 2013), http://www.alstom.com/press-centre/2013/7/
alstoms-tidal-turbine-reaches-1mw-in-offshore-conditions.
Voith Hydro Ocean Current Technologies is a joint venture of Voith

Hydro and RWE Innogy. Voith, Tidal Current Power Stations,
http://voith.com/en/products-services/hydro-power/oceanenergies/tidal-current-power-stations--591.html; SAL Heavy Lift
GmbH, MV Lone installed Tidal Turbine, September 2013, http://
sal-heavylift.com/news-press/latest-news.
MeyGen Ltd, MeyGen secures consent for 86MW tidal energy

project, 16 September 2013, http://www.meygen.com/
the-project/meygen-news
Aquamarine Power, Aquamarine Power secures full consent for

40MW Lewis wave energy farm, press release (Edinburgh: 22
May 2013), http://www.aquamarinepower.com/news/aquamarinepower-secures-full-consent-for-40mw-lewis-wave-energy-farm.
U.K. Planning Inspectorate, Swansea Tidal Lagoon

application accepted for examination, press release (Bristol,
U.K.: 7 March 2014), http://www.gov.uk/government/news/
swansea-tidal-lagoon-application-accepted-for-examination.
Tidal Lagoon Swansea Bay, Timeline, http://www.

tidallagoonswanseabay.com/timeline.aspx, viewed April 2014.
45 Taylor, op. cit. note 15.

46 Andritz, Annual Report 2013 (Graz, Austria: 2013), p. 5.
47 Voith Hydro, op. cit. note 35, p. 79.
48 Ibid., p. 82.
49 Alstom, Annual Results Fiscal Year 2012/13 (Levallois-Perret
Cedex: 7 May 2013), http://www.alstom.com/Global/Group/
Resources/Documents/Investors%20document/Financial%20
results/2012-2013/Annual%20results/analyst%20presen%20
FY%20may%2013_final-%20screen.pdf.
50 Alstom, Alstom inaugurates its largest hydropower industrial
site in Tianjin, China, press release (Levallois-Perret Cedex: 11
October 2013), http://www.alstom.com/press-centre/2013/9/
alstom-inaugurates-its-largest-hydropower-industrial-site-intianjin-china/.
51 Alstom, Alstom inaugurates its new global hydropower
technology centre in Grenoble, press release (Levallois-Perret
Cedex: 1 February 2013), http://www.alstom.com/presscentre/2013/2/alstom-inaugurates-its-new-global-hydropowertechnology-centre-in-grenoble.
52 Harbin Electric Company Limited, Interim Report 2013
(Harbin, China: August 2013).
53 Taylor, op. cit. note 15.
54 Ibid.
10 Severn Barrage: Environment and economy benefits unproven,

BBC News, 10 June 2013, http://www.bbc.com/news/
uk-wales-politics-22812911.
11 K. Steiner-Dicks, FERC approves Turnagain Arm permit,
Tidal Today, 26 February 2014, http://social.tidaltoday.com/
environmental-permitting/ferc-approves-turnagain-arm-permit.
12 European Marine Energy Centre (EMEC), EMEC to support
development of marine energy test site in Singapore, press
release (Orkney, Scotland: 7 November 2013), http://www.emec.
org.uk/press-release-emec-to-support-development-of-marineenergy-test-site-in-singapore/.
13 OES, Irelands 1 Million Square Kilometers of Potential Ocean
Energy, press release (Lisbon: February 2014), http://www.
ocean-energy-systems.org/documents/70749_press_release_
february_2014.pdf. The plan commits USD 35.8 million (EUR 26
million) for the period 20132016 to develop test facilities, as
well as USD 26.2 million (EUR 19 million) for R&D, and a FIT tariff
of USD 358/MWh (EUR 260/MWh) for the first 30 MW of ocean
energy capacity.
14 Alstom, Alstom completes the acquisition of Tidal Generation
Limited (TGL) from Rolls-Royce plc, press release (LevalloisPerret, France: 30 January 2013), http://www.alstom.com/
press-centre/2013/1/alstom-completes-the-acquisition-of-tidalgeneration-limited-tgl-from-rolls-royce-plc.
15 Alstom, Memorandum of Understanding signed between
Alstom and Scottish Power Renewables for tidal power devices,
press release (Levallois-Perret, France: 17 September 2013),
http://www.alstom.com/press-centre/2013/9/memorandumof-understanding-signed-between-alstom-and-scottish-powerrenewables-for-tidal-power-devices.
162
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS (PV)

1
Figures of at least 39 GW and 139 GW based on the following:

at least 36.9GW was added for a total of more than 136 GW
from International Energy Agency-Photovoltaic Power Systems
Programme (IEA-PVPS), PVPS Report Snapshot of Global PV
19922013: Preliminary Trends Information from the IEA PVPS
Programme (Brussels: March 2014), http://www.iea-pvps.org/
fileadmin/dam/public/report/statistics/PVPS_report_-_A_
Snapshot_of_Global_PV_-_1992-2013_-_final_3.pdf; 3940
GW installed for a total of 138140 GW, from Gatan Masson,
IEA PVPS, and iCARES Consulting, personal communication with
REN21, FebruaryMay 2014; preliminary estimates of around
38.5 GW added for a total of 138139 GW (calculated using low
early estimate for China), from European Photovoltaic Industry
Association (EPIA), Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics
2014-2018 (Brussels: forthcoming June 2014); some 39 GW
added from Frankfurt SchoolUNEP Collaborating Centre for
Climate & Sustainable Energy Finance (FS-UNEP) and Bloomberg
New Energy Finance (BNEF), Global Trends in Renewable Energy
Investment 2014 (Frankfurt: 2014).
22 DCNS, Fortum, DCNS, AW-Energy and Bretagne Region

cooperate on wave power demonstration project in France,
press release (Paris: 19 September 2013), http://en.dcnsgroup.
com/2013/09/19/fortum-dcns-et-aw-energy-soutenus-parla-region-bretagne-unissent-leurs-forces-dans-un-projet-dedeveloppement-de-l%e2%80%99energie-des-vagues-en-france/.
Based on 2013 year-end capacity, 2.6 GW was in operation at the

beginning of 2004 and 70.2 GW at the end of 2011, from EPIA,
Market Report 2013 (Brussels: March 2014), http://www.epia.
org/uploads/tx_epiapublications/Market_Report_2013_02.pdf;
Figure 12 from idem, p. 4; from EPIA, op. cit. note 1; and from
Masson, op. cit. note 1.
23 UPDATE 1-Hollande mobilises French industry for tidal energy

push, Reuters, 30 September 2013, http://www.reuters.com
/article/2013/09/30/france-marine-energyidUSL6N0HQ2DT20130930.
EPIA, op. cit. note 2, p. 4.
Ibid.; other promising markets included South Africa and Chile,

from Masson, op. cit. note 1.
25 Aquamarine Power, Aquamarine Power secures full consent for

40MW Lewis wave energy farm, press release (Edinburgh: 22
May 2013), http://www.aquamarinepower.com/news/aquamarinepower-secures-full-consent-for-40mw-lewis-wave-energy-farm.
The nine countries in 2013 were China, Germany, Greece, India,

Italy, Japan, Romania, the United Kingdom, and the United States,
from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1; this was up from seven countries
in 2012, including Australia, China, France, Germany, Italy, Japan,
and the United States, from IEA-PVPS, Trends 2013 in Photovoltaic
Applications: Survey Report of Selected IEA Countries Between
1992 and 2012 (Brussels: 2013), http://iea-pvps.org/fileadmin/
dam/public/report/statistics/FINAL_TRENDS_v1.02.pdf.
IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1.
26 Pelamis Wave Power, ETI project boosts power capture of

Pelamis wave device, 23 September 2013,
http://www.pelamiswave.com/news/news/145/
ETI-project-boosts-power-capture-of-Pelamis-wave-device.
Germany had 436 Watts per inhabitant, Italy 294 W, Belgium

268W, Greece 229 W, the Czech Republic 206.8 W, and Australia
144 W, per EPIA, op. cit. note 1.
Ibid., and from China National Energy Administration, provided by

Masson, op. cit. note 1.
China added 12.92 GW of solar PV capacity in 2013 per China

National Energy Administration, provided by Masson, op. cit.
note 1. This brings the year-end total to 19.9 GW based on 7
GW in place at end-2012, from Masson, op. cit. note 1. Other
estimates include: China added 11,300 MW to the grid in 2013,
from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1, and from China Electricity Council
(CEC), 2014 National Power Sector Report, viewed 2 March 2014,
and provided by Frank Haugwitz, Asia Europe Clean Energy (Solar)
Advisory Co. Ltd. (AECEA), personal communication with REN21,
March 2014. Data of 11.3 GW are unverifiable and likely cover
only grid-connected capacity that was commissioned in 2013,
per Masson, op. cit. note 1. For year-end total, other estimates
include: about 18 GW total based on data from CEC, op. cit. this
note; an estimated 18.1 GW from EPIA, op. cit. note 2, p. 4, and
18.3 GW from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1. Note that the CEC seems
to be omitting data below a certain kW level, which implies that
they underestimate the total added and cumulative capacity,
from Haugwitz, op. cit. this note. Figure 13 from data and sources
provided throughout this section.
17 Voith, Electricity from ocean energies, http://voith.com/en/

insights/energy-transition-22419.html.
18 Alstom, op. cit. note 4.
19 Atlantis Resources, First Day of Dealings and Admission to
Trading on AIM, 20 February 2014, http://atlantisresourcesltd.
com/medianews/news/288-first-day-of-dealings-and-admissionto-trading-on-aim.html.
20 Atlantis Resources, Atlantis Resources Secures 7.7 Million
from European Commission, 20 February 2014, http://
atlantisresourcesltd.com/medianews/news/287-atlantisresources-secures-7-7-million-from-european-commision.html.
21 OpenHydro, DCNS takes control of OpenHydro, press release
(Paris: 14 March 2013), http://www.openhydro.com/news/
OpenHydroPR-140313.pdf; EMEC, Open Hydro, http://www.
emec.org.uk/about-us/our-tidal-clients/open-hydro/.
24 Andrew Williams, GDF Suez: Tapping into 80% of French tidal

power potential, Tidal Today, 6 November 2013, http://social.
tidaltoday.com/technology-engineering/gdf-suez-tapping-80french-tidal-power-potential; DCNS, Tidal Energy From Marine
currents to electrical current, http://en.dcnsgroup.com/energy/
marine-renewable-energy/marine-turbine/.
27 Pelamis Wave Power, Knowledge Transfer Partnership

with the University of Dundee, 12 July 2013,
http://www.pelamiswave.com/news/news/139/
Knowledge-Transfer-Partnership-with-the-University-of-Dundee.
28 EMEC, Vattenfall, http://www.emec.org.uk/about-us/
wave-clients/vattenfall/.
29 Wello Ltd, Wellos Wave Energy Converter Producing Clean
Energy, 10 September 2013, http://www.wello.eu/news.php.
30 Wave Hub, Seatricity secures berth at Wave Hub,
10 December 2013, http://www.wavehub.co.uk/news/
seatricity-secures-berth-at-wave-hub/.
31 Minesto, Minestos step-change marine power plant now
producing electricity in Northern Ireland proving viability for
huge ocean current power market, press release (Gothenburg,
Germany: 12 November 2013), http://minesto.com/Resources/
minesto-pm-in-operation-engfinal.pdf; Minesto, Deep Green
Technology, http://minesto.com/deepgreentechnology/index.
html.
32 OES, China Turns to the Ocean in a New Quest for Power,
press release (Lisbon: May 2013), http://
www.ocean-energy-systems.org/news/
china_turns_to_the_ocean_in_a_new_quest_for_power/.
33 Ibid.
34 European Commission, Commission sets out an action
plan to support the development of blue energy, press
release (Brussels: 20 January 2014), http://europa.eu/rapid/
press-release_IP-14-36_en.htm.
35 European Commission, Maritime Affairs, Ocean energy forum
workshop Brussels, 4 April 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/
maritimeaffairs/policy/ocean_energy/forum/workshop-brussels/
index_en.htm.
02
16 Innogy Venture Capital, Innogy Venture Capital sells its stake in

Voith Hydro Ocean Current Technologies, press release (Essen,
Germany: 29 November 2013), http://www.innogy-ventures.com/
web/cms/mediablob/en/2260764/data/477104/2/innogy-venturecapital-gmbh/Innogy-Venture-Capital-sells-its-stake-in-VoithHydro-Ocean-Current-Technologies.pdf.
10 Frank Haugwitz, Chinas Continuing Grid Curtailment Requires

NEA to Strengthen its Supervision, Briefing PaperChina Solar PV
Development (Beijing: AECEA, January 2014). Curtailment arose
as an issue as early as 2012, per IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 5, p. 21.
11 Very large projects from Chinese Renewable Energy Industries
Association (CREIA), In 2013 the Worlds Leading Solar
PV Installed Da Qidi Countries, January 2014, http://www.
creia.net/news/headline/1529.html (using Google Translate);
utilities are China Power Investment, China Three Gorges,
and China Huadian, per James Montgomery, Chinas Dragon
Awakens, Renewable Energy World, 27 January 2014, http://
asia-report-the-solar-dragon-awakens; provinces are Gansu
(with 24% of all 2013 installations), Xinjiang (18%), and Qinghai
163
ENDNOTES 02 MARKET AND INDUSTRY TRENDS SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS

(17%), per BNEF, Chinas 12GW Solar Market Outstripped
All Expectations in 2013, press release (Beijing and Zurich:
23 January 2014), http://about.bnef.com/press-releases/
chinas-12gw-solar-market-outstripped-all-expectations-in-2013/.
12 Smaller-scale and distributed from CREIA, op. cit. note 11, and
from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 5, p. 21; shift to rooftop from Giles
Parkinson, China Switches Solar PV Focus from Utility-Scale to
Rooftop Market, Renew Economy, 10 December 2013, http://
reneweconomy.com.au/2013/china-switches-solar-pv-focusfrom-utility-scale-to-rooftop-market-36069; Frank Haugwitz, Will
China Exceed 10 GW of New Solar PV Installations in 2014? Briefing
Paper-China Solar PV Development (Beijing: AECEA, November
2013).
13 Japan added 6,900 MW for a total of 13,643 MW (recalculated
from data reported in DC (direct current)), from IEA-PVPS, op. cit.
note 1; 6,900 MW added also from EPIA, op. cit. note 2. p. 4. Note
that Japan reports official figures in AC (alternating current), and
these are converted to DC (direct current). Solar PV installation
under Japans FIT, from January through December 2013, was
reported to be 6,028 MW, from Ministry of Energy, Economy
and Industry Japan, Agency of Natural Resource and Energy,
Renewable Energy Installation Under FIT (as of the end of Dec
2013) MW (Tokyo: 20 March 2014), modified and translated by
Japan Renewable Energy Foundation.
14 At the end of August 2013, rooftop installations accounted for 89%
of Japans market by capacity, per Finlay Colville, Recharged
Japan Solar PV Industry its 10 GW of Installed Capacity, Solar
Buzz, 11 September 2013, http://www.solarbuzz.com/resources/
articles-and-presentations/recharged-japan-solar-pv-industryhits-10-gw-of-installed-capacity; PV homes accounted for about
30% of Japans total residential PV market in 2012, per Junko
Movellan, New Solar Homes: Japanese Homebuilders Helping
the Fight for Energy Independence, Renewable Energy World,
29 July 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/
article/2013/07/new-solar-homes-japanese-homebuildershelping-the-fight-for-energy-independence; Sekisui House Ltd.,
Japans largest builder of single-family homes, says more than
80% of the homes it builds have solar power, per Peter Landers
and Mayumi Negishi, In Post-Tsunami Japan, Homeowners Pull
Away from Grid, Wall Street Journal, 17 September 2013, http://
online.wsj.com/article/SB100014241278873238382045790012
90288855268.html#articleTabs%3Dvideo.
15 Junko Movellan, Recovery Report: Japan PV Manufacturers
Find Their Domestic Sweet Spot, Renewable Energy World, 12
June 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/
article/2013/06/recovery-report-japan-pv-manufacturers-findtheir-domestic-sweet-spot.
16 Herman K. Trabish, Japans Solar Market Surge Blows Away
Earlier Forecasts, Green Tech Media, 7 November 2013,
http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/Japans-SolarMarket-Surge-Blows-Away-Earlier-Forecasts; Elisa Wood,
Japan: Solars Real Deal? Nations Large-scale Solar Market Is
BoomingBut Is It Sustainable? Large Scale Solar, supplement
to Renewable Energy World, MayJune 2013, pp. 57; Japanese
brand equipment from James Topham and Aaron Sheldrick,
Japans Solar Dream Shatters as Projects Fail, Reuters, 19
November 2013, http://planetark.org/wen/70431. A study by the
Japanese Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry determined
that almost 800 approved solar PV projects had failed to obtain
necessary equipment and land to begin construction, per METI
Investigations Find 784 Projects Stalled, PV News, March 2014,
p. 3.
17 EPIA, op. cit. note 2. p. 4; IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1; India added
1,115 MW for a total of 2,319 MW, South Korea added 442 MW
for a total of 1,467 MW, and Thailand added 317 MW for a total
of 704MW, per idem. India added 1,041.8 MW for a total of
2,323.38MW at the end of 2013, per Akshay Urja, Bi-monthly
magazine published by Ministry of New and Renewable Energy,
Government of India, November-December 2012 and SeptemberDecember 2013, provided by Shirish Garud, The Energy and
Resources Institute (TERI), personal communication with REN21,
December 2013.
18 EPIA, op. cit. note 1. North America includes the United States
and Canada. Canada added 444 MW for a total of 1,210 MW at
end 2013, from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1.
19 GTM Research and U.S. Solar Energy Industries Association
(SEIA), U.S. Solar Market Insight Report: 2013 Year-in Review
(Washington, DC: 2014), Executive Summary, http://www.seia.org/
research-resources/solar-market-insight-report-2013-year-review.
164
The United States added 4,751 MW in 2013 for a total of 12.1 GW,
from idem, and added 4,750 MW for a total of 12,020MW, from
20 Innovative financing options include third-party ownership,
pay-as-you-go solar leasing, home equity loans, and mortgages,
per James Montgomery, US Joins 10-GW Solar PV Club, Prepares
for Liftoff, Renewable Energy World, 10 July 2013, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/07/us-joins10-gw-solar-pv-club-prepares-for-liftoff; impacts of third-party
leasing and pay-as-you-go from Davide Savenije and Bill Opalka,
Four Solar Trends to Watch in 2014, Utility Dive, 17 January
2014, http://www.utilitydive.com/news/four-solar-trends-towatch-in-2014/; home equity loans and mortgages from U.S.
Solar Market Surpasses 10 GW Mark, PV News, February 2014,
p. 8; changing the game for all consumers, from small-scale
homeowner level to commercial and industrial level, from Shawn
W. Kravetz, Esplanade Capital, quoted in Jamie Smith Hopkins,
Solar Projects More Mainstream As Costs Fall, Baltimore Sun,
20 October 2013, http://www.baltimoresun.com/business/bs-bzbusinesses-going-solar-20131020,0,955547.story; Christine
Beadle, Mid-Size Solar PV Installations Accounting for Over
60% of US Project Pipeline, Solar Buzz, 24 May 2013, http://
www.solarbuzz.com/resources/blog/2013/05/mid-size-solarpv-installations-accounting-for-over-60-of-us-project-pipeline.
See also Andreas Karelas, Fostering Community Power: A New
Pay It Forward Model for Solar, Renewable Energy World, 12
March 2014, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/blog/
post/2014/03/a-new-way-to-foster-community-power-a-first-ofits-kind-pay-it-forward-model-for-solar.
21 The total market was up 41%, with the residential sector up 60%,
non-residential sector up 37%, and utility sector up 58%, per
GTM Research and SEIA, op. cit. note 19. Large ground-mounted
systems from NPD Solarbuzz, North America PV Markets
Quarterly, December 2013, cited in Record 2013 Solar PV
Installations Promotes U.S. to Strongest Market Outside AsiaPacific, According to NDP Solarbuzz, Solar Buzz, 8 January 2014,
http://www.solarbuzz.com/news/recent-findings/record-2013solar-pv-installations-promotes-us-strongest-market-outsideasia-pa.
22 Businesses from SEIA and the Vote Solar Initiative, Solar Means
Business 2013: Top U.S. Commercial Solar Users (Washington,
DC: 2013). Colorado utility Xcel Energy in October chose largescale solar PV and wind over other options based on price alone
(without considering RPS or carbon costs), from Dave Levitan,
For Utility-Scale Solar Industry, Key Questions About the Future,
YaleEnvironment360, 21 November 2013, http://e360.yale.
edu/feature/for_utility-scale_solar_industry_key_questions_
about_the_future/2713/, and from David Eves, CEO of Public
Service Company of Colorado, an Xcel subsidiary, cited in Cathy
Proctor, Xcel Energy Hopes to Triple Colorado Solar, Add Wind
Power, Denver Business Journal, 9 September 2013, http://www.
bizjournals.com/denver/blog/earth_to_power/2013/09/xcelenergy-proposes-to-triple-solar.html?page=all.
23 Ethan Howland, Large Utility-Scale Solar Development Slows to a
Crawl, Utility Dive, 14 January 2014, http://www.utilitydive.com/
news/large-utility-scale-solar-development-slows-to-a-crawl/;
Levitan, op. cit. note 22.
24 California added 2,621 MW of the total 4,751 MW installed during
2013, from GTM Research and SEIA, op. cit. note 19; successfully
transition from US Solar Market on the Path to Mainstream with
4.8 GW Installed in 2013, PV News, April 2014, p. 8.
25 The EU had more than 80 GW and wider Europe had 81.5 GW by
the end of 2013, from EPIA, op. cit. note 1.
26 Capacities added in 2013 from EPIA, op. cit. note 1; shares of
global market based on IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1 and additional
data for China from Masson, op. cit. note 1. Note that Europe
added 22.4 GW in 2011 and 17.6 GW in 2012, from EPIA, op. cit.
note 2, p. 2, and added 22 GW in 2011 and 17 GW in 2012, from
27 EPIA, op. cit. note 2, p. 2. For more regarding taxes on solar PV,
see Ben Willis, Bulgarian President Steps in Over Solar Levy
Dispute, PV-tech, 14 January 2014, http://www.pv-tech.org/
news/bulgarian_president_steps_in_over_solar_levy_dispute;
Cristiano DellOste and Michela Finizio, Fotovoltaico sul tetto?
Per il Fisco vale come una stanza in pi e va accatastato,
ilsole24ore.com, 18 February 2014, http://www.ilsole24ore.
com/art/tecnologie/2014-02-17/fotovoltaico-tetto-il-fisco-valecome-stanza-piu-e-va-accatastato-175132.shtml (using Google
Translate); Sophie Vorrath, Czech Follows Spain in Deciding
28 Tim Murphy, Addressing PV Grid-Access Barriers Across

Europe, NPD Solarbuzz, 7 February 2013, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/02/
addressing-pv-grid-access-barriers-across-europe.
29 Figure of 3,305 MW added from Arbeitsgruppe Erneuerbare
(Berlin: Bundesministerium fr Wirtschaft und Energie, 2014),
p. 2, http://www.bmwi.de/BMWi/Redaktion/PDF/A/agee-statbericht-ee-2013,property=pdf,bereich=bmwi2012,sprache=de,
rwb=true.pdf; 3,304 MW added for a total of 35,500 MW, and 7.6
GW for three years from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1.
30 The year-end total was 35,948 from AGEE-Stat, op. cit. note 29, p.
2; and 35,500 MW, from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1.
31 BSW-Solar survey, cited in Ben Willis, Survey Reveals Shift
to PV Self-Consumption in Germany, PV-tech, 26 July 2013,
http://www.pv-tech.org/news/survey_reveals_shift_to_pv_
self_consumption_in_germany. Self-generation introduces
new complexities for solar PV installers, who must determine
appropriate system size. These complexities also result in higher
costs for system owners, per Masson, op. cit. note 1.
32 More than 1.5 GW from EPIA, op. cit. note 1; 1,000 MW added
for a total of 2,900 MW, from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1; regions
strongest from Marc Rosa, Englands Clouds Part for Solar
as Panels Carpet Fields, Bloomberg, 14 January 2014, http://
englands-clouds-part-for-solar-as-panels-carpet-fields. The
market for smaller systems was also healthy, driven by the FIT for
systems under 50 kW capacity, and more than 500,000 rooftop
systems were operating in the country by years end, per More
than 500,000 Rooftop PV Systems Installed in the UK, PV News,
February 2014, p. 3.
33 Italy added 1,461 MW for a total of 17,600 MW, Romania added
1,100 MW for a total of 1,150 MW, and Greece added 1,041 MW
for a total of 2,579 MW, all from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1, and
from EPIA, op. cit. note 2, p. 4.
34 Italy added 1,461 MW in 2013, down from 9.3 GW in 2011, 3.6 GW
in 2012; Belgium added 215 MW, down from 600 MW, for a total
of 2,983 MW; Denmark added 153 MW, down from 300 MW in
2012, for a total of 532 MW; and France added 613 MW in 2013
for a total of 4,632 MW, all from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1. Italys
"Quinto Conto Energia" (grant for PV) ended on July 2013, but a
50% tax credit for small-scale rooftop systems is ongoing. The
tax credit is expected support the growth of small residential PV
plants, per Alessandro Marangoni, Althesys Strategic Consultants,
35 Tim Flannery and Veena Sahajwalla, The Critical Decade:
Australias FutureSolar Energy (Climate Commission Secretariat,
2013), http://apo.org.au/files/Resource/climatecommission_
australias-future-solar-energy_2013.pdf; Clean Energy Council,
Rooftop Solar Powers Past New Milestone, press release
(Melbourne: 5 December 2013).
36 An estimated 848 MW was added for a total of 3,255 MW
at years end, from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1; to reduce
electricity bills from Jonathan Gifford, Australia Hits 3 GW
Installed Capacity Milestone, PV Magazine, 4 December
2013, http://www.pv-magazine.com/news/details/beitrag/
australia-hits-3-gw-installed-capacity-milestone_100013649.
37 Penn Energy, Australia Reaches 3 GW Solar Renewable Energy
Milestone, 9 December 2013, http://www.pennenergy.com/
articles/pennenergy/2013/12/australia-reaches-solar-powercapacity-milestone-of-3-gw.html.
38 Promising markets in the region include Chile, the Dominican
Republic, Ecuador, French Guyana, Guadeloupe, Guatemala,
Martinique, Mexico, Peru, and Uruguay. In Peru, a double
20 MW plant was inaugurated in early 2013, per IEA-PVPS,
op. cit. note 5, p. 20; Ecuador from Maria Gabriela da Rocha,
BNEF, cited in Marc Roca, Mexican Sun Lures Cash to Solar
as Panel Prices Plunge, Bloomberg, 4 October 2013, http://
mexican-sun-lures-cash-to-solar-as-panel-prices-plunge;
Guatemala began construction of Central Americas largest
solar park (50 MW), due to be completed August 2014, per

Gustavo E. Mndez, Pioneered Solar Guatemala in Central
America, Agencia Guatemalteca de Noticias, 14 February
2013, http://www.agn.com.gt/index.php/world/business/
item/2629-guatemala-pionera-en-energ%C3%ADa-solaren-centroamrica (using Google Translate); Sky Solar and
Tecnova Renovables to Build 8 MW Solar Park in Western
Uruguay, Photon.info, 14 November 2013, http://www.photon.
info/photon_news_detail_en.photon?id=82287; Edgar Meza,
Uruguay Receives 11 Bids for PV Projects Totaling 27 MW,
PV Magazine, 28 October 2013, http://www.pv-magazine.com/
news/details/beitrag/uruguay-receives-11-bids-for-pv-projectstotaling-27-mw_100013250/z; Blanca Diaz and Edgar Meza, Net
Metering in Dominican Republic Shows Results, PV Magazine,
4 July 2013, http://www.pv-magazine.com/news/details/
beitrag/net-metering-in-dominican-republic-shows-results_100011922/#axzz2z8EuzWQa. For more on Latin America, see
Vince Font, Solar in 2014 Finally Gets Some Respect, Renewable
Energy World, JanuaryFebruary 2014, p. 24.
39 Slower than expected from EPIA, op. cit. note 2, p. 5; Chile
has seen several project announcements, but little capacity
added as of 2013, from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 5, p. 19. Hurdles
to deployment in Chile include transmission constraints and
permitting and siting delays. By September 2013, Chile had
a pipeline backlog greater than 3 GW of solar PV capacity,
but only 70 MW was under development, and only 3.5 MW of
grid-connected capacity was operating, per James Montgomery,
Latin America Report: Chiles Road to Solar Grid Parity,
Renewable Energy World, 11 September 2013, http://www.
latin-america-report-chiles-road-to-solar-grid-parity; Peter
Carvill, Mexican President Inaugurates One of Latin Americas
Largest Solar Farms, PV Magazine, 3 April 2014, http://
www.pv-magazine.com/news/details/beitrag/mexicanpresident-inaugurates-one-of-latin-americas-largest-solarfarms_100014731/; Christian Roselund, Land of the Sun: Solar
PV in Latin America, Solar Server, 18 March 2014, http://www.
solarserver.com/solar-magazine/solar-report/solar-report/land-ofthe-sun-solar-pv-in-latin-america.html.
40 Martifer Solar, Martifer Solar and Gauss Energa Inaugurate
Aura Solar, Latin Americas Largest Connected PV Plant, press
release (Oliveira de Frades, Portugal: 26 March 2014), http://
www.martifersolar.com/fr/PressReleases01_14.php; Blanca
Diaz-Lopez, Chile Reaches 150 MW of Installed Solar with
Further 225 MW Under Construction, PV Magazine, 20 March
2014, http://www.pv-magazine.com/news/details/beitrag/chilereaches-150-mw-of-installed-solar-with-further-225-mw-underconstruction_100014563/; Roselund, op. cit. note 39. In Mexico,
large-scale solar PV projects are not subsidised but development
is driven by good solar resources, falling solar PV costs, and
foreign developers and manufacturers in search of new markets,
per Maria Gabriela da Rocha, BNEF, cited in Roca, op. cit. note
38. Mexico added 45 MW in 2013 for a total of 100 MW, from
41 Included in energy plans from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 5, p. 37;
interest increasing from Heba Hashem, Whats in Store for
the MENAs PV Market? PV Insider, 4 February 2014, http://
news.pv-insider.com/photovoltaics/what%E2%80%99sstore-mena%E2%80%99s-pv-market; Scott Burger, Turkey
Solar Market Outlook, 2013-2017, PV News, February
2013, p. 1; Matt Carr, Photovoltaic Opportunities in Saudi
Arabia Growing, Renewable Energy World, 5 February 2013,
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/companies/
first-conferences/news/article/2013/02/photovoltaicopportunities-in-saudi-arabia-growing; Vesela Todorova,
Dubais First Solar Plant on Schedule, The National, 4 July
2013, http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/environment/
dubais-first-solar-power-plant-on-schedule.
02
to Tax Output from Solar Power, reneweconomy.com.au, 18

September 2013, http://reneweconomy.com.au/2013/czechfollows-spain-in-deciding-to-tax-output-from-solar-power-49694;
John Parnell, Spanish Solar Cuts Force IKEA to Hand PV Plant
Back to the Bank, PV-tech, 6 February 2014, http://www.pv-tech.
org/news/spanish_solar_cuts_force_ikea_to_hand_pv_plant_
back_to_the_bank.
42 Jordan, Kuwait, and United Arab Emirates (UAE) from David Renn,
International Solar Energy Society (ISES), personal communication
with REN21, 10 April 2014; a 13 MW plant was commissioned in
Dubai, UAE in late 2013, making it the largest PV installation in
the region at the time, and Dubai put out a tender for another 100
MW, per D. McQueen, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, UAE, personal
communication with REN21, 14 April 2014; First Solar Secures
20-Year PPA for Solar Project in Jordan, Solar Novus, 20 March
2014, http://www.solarnovus.com/first-solar-secures-20-year-ppafor-solar-project-in-jordan_N7577.html; SMA Solar Technology AG,
Parking Lot Saudi Aramco, http://www.sma.de/fileadmin/content/
global/Products/Documents/Referenzanlagen/EN_ARAMCO.pdf,
165

viewed 19 March 2014; Dagmar Buth-Parvaresh, Saudi Arabia:
The Largest PV Module-Covered Parking Lot in the World, Sunny:
The SMA Corporate Blog, 6 September 2013, http://en.sma-sunny.
com/2013/09/06/saudi-arabia-the-largest-pv-module-coveredparking-lot-in-the-world/.
43 Markets include Angola, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Ghana, Senegal,
and Zimbabwe, from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 5, p. 38; Egypt from
Steve Sawyer, Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC), personal
communication with REN21, 18 September 2013.
44 W. Jonker Klunne, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research,
Pretoria, South Africa, personal communication with REN21,
12 April 2014; Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer
Procurement programme also from South Africas Renewable
Energy Programme Announces Successful Bidders for Round
Three, Energyblog, 14 November 2013, http://www.energy.org.
za/news/14-the-energy-blog/78-reippp-window-three; South
Africas First Solar Plant Goes Online, SouthAfrica.info, 14
November 2013, http://www.southafrica.info/business/investing/
solar-141113.htm; Terence Creamer, Two N Cape Solar Farms to
Be Inaugurated in May as Operations Begin, Engineeringnews.
co.za, 17 April 2014, http://www.engineeringnews.co.za/article/
two-n-cape-solar-farms-to-be-inaugurated-in-may-as-operationsbegin-2014-04-17.
45 At least 13 countries and 49 plants based on the following
sources: Denis Lenardic, Large-scale Photovoltaic Power
Plants Ranking 1-50, updated 22 February 2014, http://www.
pvresources.com/PVPowerPlants/Top50.aspx; at least another
four plants based on idem, updated 15 March 2014, 143 MW
Catalina Solar Project in California, from Catalina Solar Reaches
Commercial Operation, PV News, October 2013, p. 6; EDF
Renewable Energy, Project Detail: Catalina Project, http://www.
edf-re.com/projects/detail/catalina_solar_project/, viewed 13
March 2014; 320 MW solar PV plant co-located with an existing
1.28 GW hydropower dam in Qinghai Province, Northwestern
China, per CPI Completes Massive Hybrid Solar PV/Hydro Plant
in Western China, Solar Server, 12 December 2013, http://www.
solarserver.com/solar-magazine/solar-news/current/2013/kw50/
cpi-completes-massive-hybrid-solar-pvhydro-plant-in-westernchina.html; 200 MW Chinese PV plant in Gonghe Industrial Park,
from China Power Investment Corporation (CPIC), 200 MW
Gonghe PV Station of Huanghe Company Synchronized, press
release (Beijing: 16 December 2013), http://eng.cpicorp.com.
cn/e_corporateNews/201312/t20131218_227495.htm; 100
MW Chinese plant in Chengde, from CPIC, 100 MW Chengde PV
Station Put into Operation, press release, 13 December 2013,
http://eng.cpicorp.com.cn/NewsCenter/CorporateNews/201401/
t20140114_228662.htm. The countries are Bulgaria, Canada,
China, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, South Africa, Spain,
Thailand, Ukraine, and the United States, per Lenardic, op. cit.
this note, updated 15 March 2014. Note that reportedly a 100 MW
solar PV plant was completed and commissioned by SunEdison
(United States) in Chile during January 2014, per Chile Reports
that the 100 MW Amanecer Solar PV Plant is Online, Solar Server,
21 February 2014, http://www.solarserver.com/solar-magazine/
solar-news/current/2014/kw08/chile-reports-that-the-100-mwamanecer-solar-pv-plant-is-online.html.
46 Based on data from Lenardic, op. cit. note 45, updated 15 March
2014.
47 Estimate of at least 14 in 2013 includes extensions of existing
PV power projects as well as single stages completed in 2013,
and based on data from Lenardic, op. cit. note 45, updated 15
March 2014; Japan plant is 70 MW Kagoshima Nanatsujima
Mega Solar Power Plant, per Kyocera, KYOCERA Starts
Operation of 70 MW Solar Power Plant, the Largest in Japan,
press release (Tokyo: 5 November 2013), http://global.kyocera.
com/news/2013/1101_nnms.html; South Africa plant is 75
MW Kalkbult plant, per Scatec Solar, Inauguration of the 75
MW PV Plant Kalkbult, press release (Oslo: 11 December
2013), http://www.scatecsolar.com/page_3_1.php?cms_
beg=0&pg=&kat1=&kat2=&kat3=&cmsshowfull=2_0_1001&
dummy=0#cmsjumpto1. Note that tied for second largest at years
end was the California Valley Solar Ranch, which expanded to its
final capacity of 250 MW in operation in late 2013 (the first 22 MW
began delivering power in October 2012), per CVSR Reaches Full
Commercial Operation, PV News, December 2013, pp. 67.
48 CPI Completes Massive Hybrid Solar PV/Hydro Plant in Western
China, Solar Server, 12 December 2013, http://www.solarserver.
com/solar-magazine/solar-news/archive-2013/2013/kw50/cpicompletes-massive-hybrid-solar-pvhydro-plant-in-western-china.
html.
166
49 United States and other leaders based on data from Lenardic, op.
cit. note 45, updated 22 February 2014 and 15 March 2014. Note
that the United States had more than 1,430 MW of capacity in
plants larger than 50 MW, followed by Germany (more than 1,200
MW), China (11,200 MW), India (almost 330 MW), and Ukraine
(more than 310 MW), per idem, updated 22 February and 15
March 2014.
50 For example: the Sterling Project (1,200 MW) and McCoy Solar
Energy Center (750 MW) in California were in early development
stages in California by late 2013, per SEIA, cited in Levitan, op. cit.
note 22; the first 57 MW of the planned 579 MW Solar Star project
was connected to the U.S. grid in late 2013 or early 2014, with
full construction due to be completed by end-2015, from Scott
DiSavino, Giant California Solar Star Power Plant Enters Service,
Reuters, 13 January 2014, http://planetark.org/wen/70837,
and from First Phase of Solar Star Connected to the Grid, PV
News, February 2014, p. 6; the 96 MW Jasper Solar Project,
financed in part by Google, is under way in South Africa, and two
projects of over 100 MW received approval in Chile in 2013, per J.
Matthew Roney, Solar Power: World Solar power topped 100,000
Megawatts in 2012 (Washington, DC: Earth Policy Institute,
31 July 2013), http://www.earth-policy.org/indicators/C47/
solar_power_2013; in Australia, construction began in early 2014
on a 102 MW plant, per Construction Begins on 102 MW Nyngan
Plant, Australias Largest Solar PV Plant, Solar Plaza, 28 January
2014, http://www.solarplaza.com/news/construction-begins-on102mw-nyngan-plant-australi; construction of the largest solar
project (64 MW) in the Caribbean region began in the Dominican
Republic in late 2013, per Caribbeans Largest Solar Plant Under
Construction, PV News, October 2013, p. 7; in China, there
were announcements of plans to construct several projects of 1
GW or larger, from Shunfeng Photovoltaic International Limited,
Announcement: Cooperation Agreements, September 2013,
http://www.hkexnews.hk/listedco/listconews/SEHK/2013/0901/
LTN20130901053.pdf, and from Louise Downing, Trina to
Build 1-Gigawatt Solar Farm in Western China, Bloomberg, 30
December 2013, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-12-30/
trina-to-build-1-gigawatt-solar-project-in-western-china.html.
51 Paula Mints, And the Future of Residential Solar Is Up for
Grabs, Renewable Energy World, 14 March 2014, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2014/03/and-thefuture-of-residential-solar-isup-for-grabs. The commericial- and
utility-owned share of the on-grid global market has been larger
than the residential share since 2006, per idem.
52 Mints, op. cit. note 51. Self-consumption is expected to reach
competitiveness later than net metering for solar PV, but
many countries are considering policies (payment for grid
costs, taxes, etc.) that would make self-consumption less
competitive, therefore slowing markets, per Masson, op. cit.
note 1; in Italy there is a strong debate about net metering, from
Marangoni, op. cit. note 34; debate over net metering in the
United States from, for example, Mark Chediak, Christopher
Martin, and Ken Wells, Utilities Feeling Rooftop Solar Heat
Start Fighting Back, Bloomberg, 31 December 2013, http://
utilities-feeling-rooftop-solar-heat-start-fighting-back, and from
Marc Gunther, With Rooftop Solar on the Rise, U.S. Utilities are
Striking Back, YaleEnvironment360, 3 September 2013, http://
e360.yale.edu/feature/with_rooftop_solar_on_rise_us_utilities_
are_striking_back/2687/; James Montgomery, More Insights
into Solar and Utilities: Large-Scale Integration, Self-Ownership,
and Net Metering, Renewable Energy World, 5 June 2013, http://
more-insights-into-solar-and-utilities-large-scale-integration-selfownership-and-net-metering; Giles Parkinson, Australian Utilities
Erect Barricades in Bid to Halt Solar Storm, Reneweconomy.
com.au, 23 October 2013, http://reneweconomy.com.au/2013/
australian-utilities-erect-barricades-in-bid-to-halt-solarstorm-91715.
53 Australian Community Solar Project Begins Operation, PV News,
January 2013, p. 11; Japan from Hironao Matsubara, ISEP, Tokyo,
personal communication with REN21, 16 April 2014; United
Kingdom from Andrew Williams, Sharing Renewable Energy:
Solar Power Co-operatives in the UK, Renewable Energy World,
8 August 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
news/article/2013/08/sharing-renewable-energy-solar-power-cooperatives-in-the-uk; Thailand from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 5, p.
25.
54 Bryan Lewis, Solar Gardens: Clean Energy Within Reach of
Low-Income Families, Climate Progress, 28 August 2013,
55 Alasdair Cameron, Tracking the Market: focus on the

concentrating photovoltaic sector, Renewable Energy World,
JulyAugust 2011, pp. 7175; locations from Travis Bradford,
Prometheus Institute, personal communication with REN21, 21
March 2012.
56 A 1.5 MW CPV plant began feeding power into Victoria, Australias
grid in mid-2013, per Australia Completes its Largest CPV Power
Station, CPV Intelligence Brief, 1325 June 2013, http://news.
pv-insider.com/users/ksdicks; Jason Deign, Italy: Worth a Second
Look for CPV, PV Insider, 7 January 2013, http://news.pv-insider.
com/concentrated-pv/italy-worth-second-look-cpv; Californias
largest CPV plant (1.5 MW) was completed, per Soitec Completes
Californias Largest CPV Plant, PV News, August 2013, p. 7;
Chile from Soitec, Minera El Tesoro Mining Group and Soitec
Establish CPV Solar-Energy Pilot Plant for Mining Operation in
Chile, press release (Bernin, France and Santiago, Chile: 27
May 2013), http://www.soitec.com/en/news/press-releases/
minera-el-tesoro-mining-group-and-soitec-establish-cpv-solarenergy-pilot-plant-for-mining-operation-in-chile-1304/; Namibia
from Soitec, Soitec Connects Solar-Power Demonstration Plant
in Namibia, press release (Bernin, France: 10 June 2013), http://
www.soitec.com/en/news/press-releases/soitec-connectssolar-power-demonstration-plant-in-namibia-1317/; Portugal
from Soitec, Soitec Announces Financing and Construction
Start of Solar Power Plant in Portugal, press release (Bernin,
France: 2 December 2013), http://www.soitec.com/en/news/
press-releases/soitec-announces-financing-and-constructionstart-of-solar-power-plant-in-portugal-1391/; Saudi Arabia from
Soitec, Khaled Juffali Company and Soitec Announce Saudi
Aramco Chooses Soitecs Solar-Energy Technology, press release
(Jeddah, Saudi Arabia and Bernin, France: 12 June 2013, http://
www.soitec.com/en/news/press-releases/khaled-juffali-companyand-soitec-announce-saudi-aramco-chooses-soitec-s-solarenergy-technology-1320/. See also Signs of Progress for CPV, But
Momentum Needs to be Sustained, PV Insider, 17 September
2013, http://news.pv-insider.com/users/ritesh-gupta.
57 Suncore Photovoltaic Technology Co., Ltd., 50 MW CPV Power
Plant in Golmud, Qinghai, China, 2013, http://www.suncorepv.
com/index.php?m=content&c=index&a=lists&catid=107;
Research and Markets: Global Concentrated Photovoltaic
Cumulative Installations to Achieve More than 1 Gigawatt
Capacity, by 2020, Business Wire, 25 March 2014, http://www.
businesswire.com/news/home/20140325005716/en/ResearchMarkets-Global-Concentrated-Photovoltaic-CumulativeInstallations.
58 Based on mid-2012 data from PV Insider, CPV World Map 2012,
June Update, prepared for CPV USA 2012, 4th Concentrated
Photovoltaic Summit USA, San Jose, CA, October 2012, http://
www.pv-insider.com/cpv/documents/CPVWorldMap2012.PDF;
and on capacity added in 2013. The United States added 10 MW
of CPV in 2013 for a total of at least 48 MW in operation, based
on data (including only projects 1 MW and larger) from SEIA,
Major Solar Projects in the United States, Operating, Under
Construction, or Under Development, updated 6 March 2014,
http://www.seia.org/sites/default/files/resources/Major%20
Solar%20Projects%20List%203.6.14.pdf; China added 60 MW
for a year-end 2013 total of 70 MW, per Haugwitz, op. cit. note
9. Nearly 154 MW was in operation by early 2014 according
to GlobalData, cited in James Montgomery, CPV Update:
SunPower Ramps Up in China, Soitec Achieves South Africa
Milestone, Renewable Energy World, 28 March 2014, http://
cpv-update-sunpower-ramps-up-in-china-soitec-achieves-southafrica-milestone?cmpid=SolarNL-Saturday-March29-2014; 357.9
MW was in operation in 2014, per Research and Markets, op.
cit. note 57.
59 Italy and Greece (about 5.8%), from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1;
Germany from AGEE-Stat, op. cit. note 29, p. 2. Examples of daily
peaks include: in the U.S. state of California, for example, solar
power (both solar PV and concentrating solar thermal) met 18% of
the states 22,700 MW demand on 8 March 2014, per California
Electric Grid Sets Solar Generation Record, Reuters, 10 March
2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/03/10/utilitiescalifornia-solar-idUSL2N0M724F20140310; Thomas Gerke,
Sunday, Solar SundayGermanys July 7 Solar Power Record
In-Depth, Clean Technica, 12 July 2013, http://cleantechnica.
com/2013/07/12/sunday-solar-sunday-germany-solar-powerrecord-in-depth/; Ian Clover, Solar Power Saves the Day During
Australias Record Heatwave, PV Magazine, 17 January 2014,
http://www.pv-magazine.com/news/details/beitrag/solar-powersaves-the-day-during-australias-record-heatwave_100013970/.
60 Figure of 3% of total consumption and 6% of peak demand, from
EPIA, op. cit. note 2, p. 5, and from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1;
0.3% in 2008 from Gatan Masson, Editorial: 2013, A Qualified
Record-year for Photovoltaics, EPIA, March 2014, http://www.
epia.org/news/news/?page=1#news-278. At least 160 TWh is
based on capacity in operation at the end of 2013, from IEA-PVPS,
op. cit. note 1; this is up from an estimated 110 TWh with capacity
installed at the end of 2012, from EPIA, op. cit. note 1, pp. 13, 44.
At least 15 countries had enough PV to produce at least 1% of their
electricity demand by years end, from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 1.
61 Ehren Goossens, Solar Rebound Beating Dot-Com Recovery
as Demand Surges, Bloomberg, 31 October 2013, http://www.
bloomberg.com/news/2013-10-31/solar-rebound-beating-dotcom-recovery-as-demand-surges.html.
62 Paula Mints, Object Lesson: Europes Solar Energy Market,
object-lesson-europes-solar-energy-market.
63 Goossens, Solar Rebound Beating , op. cit. note 61.
64 BNEF, US Unlocks USD 15BN Financing Door for Alternative
Vehicles, Energy: Week in Review, 27 August2 September 2013.
65 Paula Mints, The Aggressive Solar Pricing U-Turn That Was
Impossible to Make, Renewable Energy World, 14 October
2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/
article/2013/10/the-aggressive-solar-pricing-u-turn-that-wasimpossible-to-make; Masson, op. cit. note 1.
66 See, for example: Doug Young, New Litigation Trips Up
Suntech, Trina, Yingli, Youngs China Business Blog, 14
October 2013, http://www.youngchinabiz.com/en/newlitigation-trips-up-suntech-trina-yingli/; James Montgomery,
Update: EU-China Solar Trade War Entering Endgame?
Renewable Energy World, 9 May 2013, http://www.
eu-china-solar-trade-war-entering-endgame?cmpid=WNLFriday-May10-2013; Xiaolu Wang and Marlies Huijbers, Is
a Chinese Sun Powering Western Solar Energy Economies?
Renewable Energy World, 28 February 2014, http://www.
is-a-chinese-sun-powering-western-solar-energy-economies.
67 Module prices and robust demand from GTM Research, PV
Pulse, April 2014. Module prices stabilised per Masson, op. cit.
note 1. Note that module prices fell 70% in two years, from PV
Technology and Cost Outlook, 2013-2017, PV News, August
2013, p. 16.
68 Rapid learning and low materials costs from Paula Mints, The
Return of the Badly Rhyming 12 Days of Solar Christmas,
Renewable Energy World, 24 December 2013, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/12/the-returnof-the-badly-rhyming-12-days-of-solar-christmas; manufacturing
cost reductions and improved manufacturing processes from
Giles Parkinson, SunPower Continues to Drive Down the Cost
Curve, Green Tech Media, 21 February 2014, http://www.
greentechmedia.com/articles/read/SunPower-Continues-ToDrive-Down-the-Cost-Curve; faster than targeted and Chinese
producers from PV Technology and Cost Outlook, 2013-2017,
PV News, August 2013, p. 16. However, the rate of decline in cost
per watt for traditional module manufacturers has slowed, per
Deutsche Bank Markets Research, 2014 Outlook: Let the Second
Gold Rush Begin, Industry Update, 6 January 2014, p. 25.
02
http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2013/08/28/2546291/
community-solar-income/; David Shaffer, First Community
Solar Projects Getting Launched, Star Tribune, 19 July 2013,
http://www.startribune.com/business/216093571.html; Chris
Meehan, Clean Energy Collective Digs into Solar Gardens
in Massachusetts, Renewable Energy World, 16 January
2014, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/blog/
post/2014/01/clean-energy-collective-digs-into-solar-gardens-inmassachusetts; Christine Beadle, Mid-Size Solar PV Installations
Accounting for Over 60% of US Project Pipeline, Solar Buzz, 24
May 2013, http://www.solarbuzz.com/resources/blog/2013/05/
mid-size-solar-pv-installations-accounting-for-over-60-of-usproject-pipeline. Carve-outs for solar gardens from Lewis, op. cit.
this note, and from Shaffer, op. cit. this note.
69 Masson, op. cit. note 1. In the United States, the price of rooftop
systems 10 kW or smaller fell 37%, but over 80% of the cost
reduction was attributable to falling module costs, per Galen
Barbose et al., Tracking the Sun VI, An Historical Summary of the
167

Installed Price of Photovoltaics in the United States from 1998 to
2012 (Berkeley, CA: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, July
2013), pp. 1415, http://emp.lbl.gov/sites/all/files/lbnl-6350e.pdf.
70 FSUNEP Centre and BNEF, op. cit. note 1. Figure 14 sources:
global capacity added during 20042012 from EPIA, op. cit. note
2, and preliminary estimates for capacity added during 2013 from
Masson, op. cit. note 1; investment data from BNEF, provided by
Angus McCrone, BNEF, personal communication with REN21, 26
March 2014.
71 FSUNEP Centre and BNEF, op. cit. note 1, p. 43. Levelised costs
of generation for crystalline silicon PV systems fell 53% between
2009 and early 2014, per idem, p. 36.
72 Deutsche Bank Markets Research, op. cit. note 68, p. 2. Markets
include several countries in Latin America, Europe, Asia, and
some U.S. states, per idem, pp. 2, 4, 17. In Germany and Italy, the
retail price of electricity for some consumer segments is higher
than solar PV generation costs, from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 5,
p. 73. Note that soft costs vary greatly according to system size,
customer type, location, and other factors, per idem, p. 63.
73 During 2013, for example, SunPower (United States) announced
an agreement between Total (France) and Etrion Partners
(Switzerland) to build a 70 MW project in Chile that initially will sell
all electricity on the spot market and will be the worlds largest
unsubsidised solar PV project, from Sanjay Shrestha, Lazard
Capital, 26 September 2013, cited in PV News, November 2013,
p. 2, and from Javier Vergara and Raul Sandoval, Renewable
Year-end Focus: Chile, Renewable Energy World, 25 December
article/2013/12/renewable-year-end-focus-chile; Conergy
(Germany) installed projects in Spain that were generating at
grid-competitive rates, without subsidies, starting in late 2012,
and reaching 1 GW by mid-2013, and developed business models
for competitive markets in Australia, South Africa and the United
States (not carried out due to subsequent insolvency), per
Chris Meehan, Conergy Installing Solar at Cost of Conventional
Electricity in Spain, Clean Energy Authority, 5 June 2013, http://
www.cleanenergyauthority.com/solar-energy-news/conergyinstalling-solar-at-grid-in-spain-060513; FSUNEP Centre and
BNEF, op. cit. note 1, Chapter 3.
74 GTM Research, op. cit. note 67. Note that there are a number
of differing estimates for module production and production
capacity. Information is highly sensitive and no one knows exactly
what the amounts are, per Masson, op. cit. note 1.
75 GTM Research, op. cit. note 67.
76 Paula Mints, Reality Check: The Changing World of PV
Manufacturing, Renewable Energy World, 5 October 2011, http://
reality-check-the-changing-world-of-pv-manufacturing; Paula
Mints, The Solar Pricing Struggle, Renewable Energy World, 28
article/2013/08/the-solar-pricing-struggle.
77 GTM Research, op. cit. note 67. Chinas share was up slightly
from almost two-thirds in 2012, from GTM Research Competitive
Intelligence Tracker, April 2013.
79 Ibid.
80 Bridge to India, The Real Problem Facing Domestic Manufacturing Is the Lack of Scale, India Solar Weekly Market Update, 6
September 2013; World Bank, Transforming Indias Future With
Solar Power, 12 December 2013, http://www.worldbank.org/en/
news/feature/2013/12/12/transforming-indias-future-with-solarpower; Finlay Colville, Indian Solar Cell Capacity at Five-year
Low, Ciol.com, 6 September 2013, http://www.ciol.com/ciol/
features/195014/indian-solar-cell-capacity-low.
81 GTM Research, op. cit. note 67. Other rankings of suppliers differ
according to what is counted and when. The top five module
suppliers were Yingli, Trina Solar, Sharp (Japan), which stepped
up three, Canadian Solar (Canada), down two steps, and Jinko
(China), up from eighth to fifth, per GlobalData, Sun Continues
to Shine on Yingli Green Energy as It Retains First Position
in GlobalDatas Top Five Crystalline Module Manufacturers,
2013, press release, 25 March 2014, http://energy.globaldata.
com/media-center/press-releases/power-and-resources/
sun-continues-to-shine-on-yingli-green-energy-as-it-retainsfirst-position-in-globaldatas-top-five-crystalline-modulemanufacturers-2013; the top 10 cell and thin film manufacturers
in 2013, by shipment, were Yingli, Trina Solar, JA Solar, Canadian
Solar, First Solar, Hareon, Motech, NeoSolar, Jinko Solar, and
168
Sunpower, per Paula Mints, April Fools, Magical Thinking, and

PV Manufacturer Shipment Announcements, Renewable Energy
World, 7 April 2014, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/
rea/news/article/2014/04/april-fools-magical-thinking-and-pvmanufacturer-shipment-announcements.
82 Record levels from Mercom Capital Group, cited in James
Montgomery, Solar VC Funding: The Fear Is Gone for
Investors, Renewable Energy World, 9 October 2013, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/10/solar-vcfunding-the-fear-is-gone-for-investors; mergers and acquisitions
also from Althesys Strategic Consultants, The Strategies of the
50 Leading Companies in the Global Renewable Energy Industry,
II Edition (Milan: 2014), Summary, http://www.althesys.com/
wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Althesys-IREX-International-2014-.
pdf. Examples of mergers and acquisitions, bankruptcies,
and restructuring include: JinkoSolar (China) acquired the
manufacturing assets of Topoint (China), per John Parnell,
China Cuts Cord on Struggling Solar Manufacturers, PV-tech,
2 January 2014, http://www.pv-tech.org/news/china_cuts_the_
cord_on_struggling_solar_manufacturers; Aleo Solar (Germany)
announced its withdrawal from the U.S. market and expected loss
for 2013, and its parent company, Bosch (Germany) announced
plans to exit the crystalline PV sector, from Aleo to Shut Down
US Operations, PV News, October 2013, p. 4, and from Max Hall,
More Grim News for Aleo Solar, PV Magazine, 10 January 2014,
http://www.pv-magazine.com/news/details/beitrag/more-grimnews-for-aleo-solar_100013907/; SolarWorld AG (Germany) took
over much of Bosch Solar Energy (Germany), per SolarWorld
Acquires Bosch Solar Assets, PV News, January 2014, p. 4;
private equity firm Kawa Capital Management Inc. (USA) took
over Conergy AG (Germany) after it filed for bankruptcy, from
Nicholas Brautlecht, U.S. Investor Kawa to Buy Insolvent German
Solar Company Conergy, Bloomberg, 24 July 2013, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/07/u-sinvestor-kawa-to-buy-insolvent-german-solar-company-conergy;
panel manufacturer Helios USA stopped operations, per Meg
Cichon, US Solar Manufacturing Woes: Helios Shutters Plant,
1SolTech Slapped with State Lawsuit, Renewable Energy World,
24 September 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/
rea/news/article/2013/09/us-solar-manufacturing-woes-heliosshutters-plant-1soltech-slapped-with-state-lawsuit; Siliken
(Spain) from Mercom Capital Group, Siliken Files for Insolvency,
Market Intelligence Report Solar, 4 February 2013; Alicante
(IATSO, Spain) from Mercom Capital Group, Spanish Module
Producer Iatso Files for Insolvency, Market Intelligence Report
Solar, 25 February 2013; First Solar (USA) restructured its global
operations and announced plans for layoffs in the United States,
from First Solar to Lay Off 150 Employees in North America,
Power Engineering, 7 May 2013, http://www.power-eng.com/
articles/2013/05/first-solar-to-lay-off-150-north-americanemployees.html; Honda (Japan) announced plans to withdraw
from the production and sale of PV products as of spring 2014, per
Honda to Discontinue Operations of PV Subsidiary, PV News,
December 2013, p. 4; Sharp (Japan) announced in early 2014
that it would stop manufacturing panels in the United States and
previously announced plans to close manufacturing facility in
Wales, per Sharp Says to End Solar Panel Production in U.S. by
end-March, Reuters, 22 January 2014, http://www.reuters.com/
article/2014/01/23/us-sharp-solar-idUSBREA0M05I20140123.
83 For example, Nanosolar (United States) closed in July, and the
German arm relaunched in November, per Andy Colthorpe,
Nanosolar Germany Relaunched as Smartenergy Renewables
Deutschland, PV-tech, 15 November 2013, http://www.
pv-tech.org/news/nanosolar_germany_relaunched_as_
smartenergy_renewables_deutschland; SoloPower (United
States) suspended operations in Oregon and laid off workers and
sold equipment at its San Jose, California, facility, all from James
Montgomery, CIGS Solar PV Roundup: Fundings, Expansions,
and Cutbacks, Renewable Energy World, 12 July 2013, http://
cigs-solar-pv-roundup-fundings-expansions-and-cutbacks;
Solarion (Germany) entered insolvency proceedings in early
2013 and exited in mid-year, from Solarion Exits Bankruptcy,
Thin Film Intelligence Brief, 26 June 9 July 2013, http://news.
pv-insider.com/thin-film-pv/thin-film-intelligence-brief-26-june%E2%80%93-9-july-2013; CIGS startup NuvoSun (United States)
was purchased by Dow Chemical, per Dow Purchases CIGS
Startup NuvoSun, PV News, April 2013, p. 7.
84 During the height of the boom, some 400 companies were
involved in PV panel production; by late 2013, China had an
estimated 150, per Doug Young, China Boosts Solar with New
85 Capacity shut down from Doug Young, China Solar Heats Up

with Trina, Renesola Mega Deals, Youngs China Business Blog,
31 December 2013, http://www.youngchinabiz.com/en/chinasolar-heats-up-with-trina-renesola-mega-deals/; government
encouraging from John Parnell, JinkoSolar adds 500 MW of
Cell and Wafer Capacity with Topoint Acquisition, PV-tech,
10 January 2014, http://www.pv-tech.org/news/jinkosolar_
adds_500mw_of_cell_and_wafer_capacity_with_topoint_
acquisition; curb oversupply and improve quality from John
Parnell, China Cuts Cord on Struggling Solar Manufacturers,
PV-tech, 2 January 2014, http://www.pv-tech.org/news/
china_cuts_the_cord_on_struggling_solar_manufacturers.
The Chinese government ordered that no new construction be
based on current technologies, per Doug Young, China Boosts
Solar with New Construction Ban, Youngs China Business Blog,
23 September 2013, http://www.youngchinabiz.com/en/chinaboosts-solar-with-new-construction-ban/; quality issues from, for
example: Jennifer Runyon, Solar PV Module Quality Concerns
Still Exist for Developing World, Renewable Energy World, 8
October 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/
article/2013/10/solar-pv-module-quality-concerns-still-existfor-developing-word; Dupont: PV Module Quality Is Improving
but More Must Be Done, Renewable Energy World, 9 August
2013, video/interview with Conrad Burke, Dupont, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/video/view/dupont-pv-modulequality-is-improving-but-more-must-be-done; Solar Champion
Paula Mints on Solar Manufacturing Quality, Renewable Energy
World, 12 July 2013, video/interview with Paula Mints, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/video/view/solar-championpaula-mints-on-solar-manufacturing-quality; Todd Woody, Solar
Industry Anxious Over Defective Panels, New York Times, 28 May
2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/29/business/energyenvironment/solar-powers-dark-side.html.
86 Debt is according to Chinese Ministry of Industry and Information
Technology, 15 August 2013, cited in Feifei Shen, Massive
China Solar Debts, Deadlines Rattling Investors, Bloomberg, 3
September 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
news/article/2013/09/china-solar-defaults-shock-holders-as-8-4billion-due; Suntech First Chinese Company to Enter Insolvency,
PV News, April 2013, p. 7; Fiona Harvey, Suntechs Troubles
Cast a Shadow Over the Green Tech Industry, The Guardian, 20
March 2013, http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/
mar/20/suntech-troubles-shadow-green-tech-industry. Suntech
also announced the closure of its U.S. factory in Arizona in
early 2013, per Chinese Solar Power Firm Defaults on Debts,
The Guardian, 19 March 2013, http://www.theguardian.com/
world/2013/mar/19/suntech-china-solar-power-default. LDK
has also faced challenges, per Justina Lee, Survival of the
Fittest in Chinas Renewable Energy Market, Bloomberg, 25
February 2014, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
news/article/2014/02/survival-of-the-fittest-in-chinas-renewableenergy-market?cmpid=SolarNL-Tuesday-February25-2014; see
also Doug Young, LDK Melts Down, Solar Default Signs Grow,
YoungChinaBiz.com, 2 April 2014, http://www.youngchinabiz.
com/en/ldk-melts-down-solar-default-signs-grow/.
87 Production ramped up in general from James Montgomery,
New Crop of Reports Indicate Solar Outlook is Brightening,
Renewable Energy World, 12 November 2013, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/11/new-cropof-outlooks-see-solar-outlook-brightening, and from Masson, op.
cit. note 1; Argentina from El Primer Panel Solar Hecho en San
Juan Estar para Junio de 2015, Tiempo de San Juan, 3 October
2013, http://www.tiempodesanjuan.com/notas/2013/10/3/
primer-panel-solar-hecho-juan-estara-para-junio-2015-40810.
asp (using Google Translate); Brazil from Roselund, op. cit.
note 39; Canadian Solar formed a partnership with Samsung
Renewable Energy to make modules for Samsungs Ontario solar
projects, per Samsung to Open New Facility in Canada, PV
Intelligence Brief, 26 June9 July 2013, http://news.pv-insider.
com; Wafer Factory Opens in Massachusetts, PV News, March
2013, p. 10; Europe from European Firms Ramp Up Module
Production, PV News, May 2013, p. 5; Calyxo (Germany) CdTe
thin film manufacturer opened a new fully automated production
line of 60 MW in Germany, per Katherine Steiner Dicks, Calyxo
Starts Up New Production Line, Thin Film Intelligence Brief,
27 November10 December 2013, http://news.pv-insider.
com/thin-film-pv/thin-film-intelligence-brief-27-november%E2%80%93-10-december-2013; Canadian Solar, Samsung

and Canadian Solar Open Solar Manufacturing Facility in London,
press release (London and Ontario: 6 March 2014), http://
investors.canadiansolar.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=196781&p=irolnewsArticle&ID=1906933&highlight=; Samer A. Zawaydeh,
Association of Energy Engineers, Jordan Energy Chapter, personal
communication with REN21, 13 April 2014; Turkish Investment
Support and Promotion Agency, Turkeys Largest PV Module
Manufacturing Plant Commissioned, 24 May 2013, http://
www.invest.gov.tr/en-US/infocenter/news/Pages/240513-csunturkey-solar-module-plant-opened.aspx; Astana Solar opened
a new wafer and module manufacturing plant in Kazakhstan,
per Kazakhstan PV Manufacturing Industry Poised for Growth,
PV News, February 2013, p. 5; Panasonic Begins Full-Scale
Production in Malaysia, PV News, October 2013, p. 3; Hanwha
Q-Cells Expands Malaysia Cell Production, PV News, February
2014, p. 4.
88 First PV Module Factory Opens in Ethiopia, PV News, March
2013, p. 10.
89 Doug Young, China Solar Heats Up with Trina, Renesola Mega
Deals, Youngs China Business Blog, 31 December 2013, http://
www.youngchinabiz.com/en/china-solar-heats-up-with-trinarenesola-mega-deals/; Charlie Zhu, Chinas Solar Industry
Rebounds, But Will Boom-Bust Cycle Repeat? Reuters, 24
January 2014, http://planetark.org/wen/70925; Hanergy acquired
MiaSol (United States), Silibro (Germany), and Global Solar
Energy (United States), from James Montgomery, CIGS Solar
PV Roundup: Fundings, Expansions, and Cutbacks, Renewable
Energy World, 12 July 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.
com/rea/news/article/2013/07/cigs-solar-pv-roundup-fundingsexpansions-and-cutbacks, and from Hanergy Makes Third
CIGS Acquisition, PV News, September 2013, p. 5; Mark
Osborne, Hanergy Solar to Start Building 3 GW CIGS Thinfilm Manufacturing Complex in China, PV-tech, 27 January
2014, http://www.pv-tech.org/news/hanergy_solar_to_start_
building_3gw_cigs_thin_film_manufacturing_complex_in.
90 Japans manufacturers are increasing capacity and the
technology mix is shifting away from poly-crystalline toward
high-efficiency mono-crystalline silicon modules, which can
maximise production on residential rooftops, and thin films, from
Junko Movellan, Recovery Report: Japan PV Manufacturers
Find Their Domestic Sweet Spot, Renewable Energy World, 12
article/2013/06/recovery-report-japan-pv-manufacturers-findtheir-domestic-sweet-spot.
91 Innovation and product differentiation from IEA-PVPS, op. cit.
note 5, p. 55. One example is the PV Heater, which uses PV
electricity directly to heat water in a storage tank. This system can
increase a households level of self-consumption, and the system
is not connected to the grid, so that output is not taxable. See, for
example, REFUsol, Photovoltaic Inverter Product Line, p. 28,
http://europe.refusol.com/fileadmin/user_upload/pdf/brochures/
Produktprogramm_REFUsol_EN.pdf; and Nigel Morris, Game
Changer for PV and SHW? 19 June 2013, http://solarbusiness.
com.au/game-changer-for-pv-and-shw/.
92 Jeremy Bowden, PV Policy and Markets Impact of US Tariffs
on LCOE, Renewable Energy World, NovemberDecember
2012, p. 7; Cedric Brehaut and M.J. Shiao, Megawatt-Scale PV
Operations and Maintenance, PV News, January 2014, pp. 910;
EurObservER, Photovolatic Barometer (Paris: April 2013), p. 65,
http://www.energies-renouvelables.org/observ-er/stat_baro/
observ/baro-jdp9.pdf. Examples of diversification and strategic
partnerships include: several Chinese manufacturers moved
into project development, spurred by government incentives and
continued low prices, per Charlie Zhu, Chinas Ailing Solar Panel
Makers See the Light, On a Farm, Reuters, 8 November 2013,
http://planetark.org/wen/70300; panel manufacturer Kyocera
(Japan) has become a solar PV project developer in Japan and
announced plans in 2013 to develop plants for institutional clients
in the United States, per Morgan Lee, Kyocera to Develop Solar
Projects in U.S., utsandiego.com, 10 September 2013, http://
www.utsandiego.com/news/2013/sep/10/kyocera-develops-solarfarms/; Hanwha Q Cells USA Began offering a one-stop solutions
for bankable commercial rooftop systems, per Hanwha Q
Cells Expands Commercial Rooftop Solar Services, PV News,
December 2013, p. 6; in Japan, manufacturers Kyocera, Sharp,
and Solar Frontier began expanding into project development and
becoming independent power producers, per Movellan, op. cit.
note 90.
02
Construction Ban, Youngs China Business Blog, 23 September

2013, http://www.youngchinabiz.com/en/china-boosts-solar-withnew-construction-ban/; at one point there were approximately
650 module manufacturers in China, and it is believed that
300400 remain, per Haugwitz, op. cit. note 9.
169

93 First Solar Announces Partnership with GE, c-Si Production, PV
News, September 2013, p. 3; SolarCity Brings Solar to Honda
Customers, PV News, April 2013, p. 8; BMWs Solar Partnership
Helps Give EV Industry a Jolt, Greenbiz.com, 2 December
2013, http://www.greenbiz.com/blog/2013/12/02/bmw-solarpartnership-e-series-solarcity; IKEA to Offer Solar Installations
in the UK, PV News, November 2013, p. 6. Other examples:
SunPower (United States) partnered with U.S. home builders
including KB Home, Richmond American Homes, Lennar, and
Pulte, to construct solar homesfrom Chris Meehan, Solar
Likely on 20% of New Homes in California in 2013, Renewable
Energy World, 17 June 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.
com/rea/blog/post/2013/06/solar-likely-on-20-of-new-homes-incalifornia-in-2013; Solarcentury, Momentous Energy Form JV in
Africa, PV News, September 2013, p. 5.
94 For example, Yingli Green Energy (China) formed a joint venture
with Datong Coal Mine Group, Chinas third largest state-owned
coal mining company, to develop and build solar PV plants, per
Andy Colthorpe, Yingli forms JV with Chinese state-owned coal
mining company, PV-tech, 2 January 2014, http://www.pv-tech.
org/news/yingli_green_forms_jv_with_chinese_state_owned_
coal_mining_company; Yingli also entered into an investment
agreement with China Rich Energy Corporation (a subsidiary of
China National Nuclear Corporation) to develop and construct
distributed solar projects across China, per Yingli Forms JV
in China, Signs Distribution Agreement in Japan, PV News,
February 2014, p. 4; while traditional Chinese energy investors,
such as China Power Investment Corp., are racing to develop
large projects in western China, so are non-energy companies like
Huabei Express (toll road operator) and Jiangsu Kuangda Auto
Textile Group, per Charlie Zhu, Chinas Solar Industry Rebounds,
But Will Boom-Bust Cycle Repeat? Reuters, 24 January 2014,
http://planetark.org/wen/70925; in India, Coal India Limited and
Neyveli Lignite Corporation, both large mining companies, and
Oil India Limited are also moving into solar, from Sumit Moitra,
Coal India Gets into Solar Power, DNA India, 27 May 2013, http://
www.dnaindia.com/money/report-coal-india-gets-into-solarpower-1839903, and from Bridge to India, Our Market View,
India Solar Weekly Market Update, 24 May 2013; Google partnered
with Silver Ridge Power (formerly AES Solar) in the 265.7 MW
Mount Signal Solar project in California, per Google Invests in
Mount Signal Solar, PV News, November 2013, p. 7.
95 Mergers and acquisitions included, for example, Mitsubishi
Corp (Japan) acquired stakes in solar plants in France, per
Chisaki Watanabe, Mitsubishi Buys Stakes in France from
Energies Nouvelles, Bloomberg, 19 August 2013, http://
mitsubishi-buys-solar-stakes-in-france-from-energies-nouvelles;
in the United States, Real Goods (United States) expanded
through the purchase of other installers, Mercury Solar Systems
and Syndicated Solar, from Real Goods Solar Expands with
Multiple Acquisitions, PV News, September 2013, p. 5; SolarCity
(United States) acquired at least two companies, from SolarCity
Acquires Paramount Solar, PV News, September 2013, p. 5, and
from SolarCity Acquires Zep Solar for $158 Million, PV News,
November 2013, p. 4; project purchases from Mercom Capital
Group, cited in Montgomery, op. cit. note 82.
96 S.A.G Solarstrom and Gehrlicher filed for insolvency, from S.A.G.
Solarstrom Files for Insolvency, PV News, January 2014, p. 5;
and from Gehrlicher Files for Insolvency, Blames EU Tariffs, PV
News, August 2013, p. 5; Gehrlichers U.S. division, Gehrlicher
Solar America Corporation was acquired by the U.S. division
of M+W Group (Germany), per Edgar Meza, M+W Americas
Acquires Gerlicher Solar America, PV Magazine, 22 August 2013,
http://www.pv-magazine.com/news/details/beitrag/mw-americasacquires-gehrlicher-solar-america-_100012474/; Juwi Opens
Subsidiary in Dubai, PV News, November 2013, p. 5.
97 SunEdison Buys Khosla-Funded EchoFirst, PV News, September
2013, p. 5.
98 Ucilia Wang, SunPower to Launch Solar Leases Overseas,
Renewable Energy World, 16 May 2013, http://www.
sunpower; Deutsche Bank Markets Research, op. cit. note
68, p. 19; SunPower Introduces Residential Solar Loan in
Australia, SolarWorld Launches Financing Plan in Hawaii, and
HelioPower Buys Financial Solutions Company Greenzu, all
from PV News, October 2013, pp. 56; SunPower, Canadian
Solar Announce Loan Programs, PV News, November 2013,
p. 5; James Montgomery, Why the Moneys Flowing into US
Residential Solar Markets, Renewable Energy World, 18 October
170
article/2013/10/why-the-moneys-flowing-into-us-residentialsolar-models; Upsolar to Offer Solar Leasing France, PV News,
January 2014, pp. 56; in Fiji, a private company Sunergise has
introduced SunLease scheme in which they provide the capital
costs for PV installations to commercial entities and charge a
fixed rate for electricity produced, from Atul Raturi, University of
the South Pacific, personal communication with REN21, 13 April
2014, and from http://www.sunergisegroup.com/.
99 Toshiba will install systems in apartments and operate and
manage them, selling power at below rate charged by utilities,
per Toshiba to Launch Innovative Photovoltaic Power Business
for Apartment Buildings in Germany, press release (Tokyo: 4
December 2013), http://www.toshiba.co.jp/about/press/2013_12/
pr0401.htm; Toshiba steigt in deutschen Photovoltaikmarkt
ein, Photovoltaik.eu, 12 April 2013, http://www.photovoltaik.
eu/Toshiba-steigt-in-deutschen-Photovoltaikmarktein,QUlEPTU2NTI4OCZNSUQ9MzAwMjE.html.
100 Martin LaMonica, Solar Crowdfunding Trend Is Heating
Up, Green Biz, 17 January 2014, http://www.greenbiz.com/
blog/2014/01/17/new-product-solarcity-crowdsourcing; Davide
Savenije and Bill Opalka, Four Solar Trends to Watch in 2014,
Utility Dive, 17 January 2014, http://www.utilitydive.com/news/
four-solar-trends-to-watch-in-2014/. For other examples of
innovative financing developments, see Mosaic Awarded $1
Million, Plans International Expansion, and Conergy Launches
Commercial Financing Program, both in PV News, February
2014, p. 5.
101 Roselund, op. cit. note 39.
102 U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Best
Research-Cell Efficiencies, http://www.nrel.gov/ncpv/images/
efficiency_chart.jpg.
103 For more on perovskite-based solar cells see, for example,
Mitch Jacoby, Tapping Solar Power with Perovskites: Low
cost and impressive performance thrust new solar-cell
technology into spotlight, Chemical and Engineering News, 24
February 2014, pp. 1016, http://cen.acs.org/articles/92/i8/
Tapping-Solar-Power-Perovskites.html; Kevin Bullis, A New
Solar Material Shows Its Potential, MIT Technology Review,
10 November 2013, http://www.technologyreview.com/
news/521491/a-new-solar-material-shows-its-potential/; Gary
Hodes, Perovskite-Based Solar Cells, Science, October 2013,
pp. 31718, http://www.sciencemag.org/content/342/6156/317.
summary; Robert Coontz, Sciences Top 10 Breakthroughs of
2013, Science, 19 December 2013, http://news.sciencemag.
org/2013/12/sciences-top-10-breakthroughs-2013; Bernie
Bulkin, Perovskites: The Future of Solar Power? The Guardian, 7
March 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/sustainable-business/
perovskites-future-solar-power.
104 SolFocus (United States) failed to find a buyer and shut down
in late 2013, from SolFocus Ceases Trading, CPV Intelligence
Brief, 5-17 September 2013, http://news.pv-insider.com/users/
ksdicks, and from James Montgomery, CPV Outlook: Demand
Doubling, Costs Halved by 2017, Renewable Energy World, 12
December 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
news/article/2013/12/cpv-outlook-demand-doubling-costshalved-by-2017; Amonix closed its plant in Las Vegas, Nevada,
Zenith Solar (Israel) was acquired by Suncore (China), and
consolidation and new partnerships all from Signs of Progress
for CPV, But Momentum Needs to be Sustained, PV Insider, 17
September 2013, http://news.pv-insider.com/users/ritesh-gupta.
105 Meg Cichon, Soitec to Shutter German CPV Manufacturing,
Regroup at its San Diego Facility, Renewable Energy World, 2
article/2013/08/soitec-to-shutter-germany-cpv-manufacturingregroup-its-san-diego-facility; Soitec, Soitec Completes Its First
Solar Power Plant in California with Modules from its New San
Diego Manufacturing Facility, press release (San Francisco:
10 July 2013), http://www.soitec.com/en/news/press-releases/
soitec-completes-its-first-solar-power-plant-in-california-withmodules-from-its-new-san-diego-manufacturing-facility-1341/;
Alsom and Soitec Create CPV Alliance, PV News, September
2013, p. 6.
106 Solar Junction Partners with Amonix to Improve CPV Efficiency,
PV News, April 2013, p. 6.
107 Beyond niche and South Africa from Signs of Progress for CPV,
but Momentum Needs to Be Sustained, PV Insider, 17 September
2013, http://news.pv-insider.com/users/ritesh-gupta; China from
Frank Haugwitz, CPV DevelopmentsMore Production Capacities
108 New CPV Record Set, and Semprius Hits 35.5% Record, both
from CPV Intelligence Brief, 18 September1 October 2013, http://
news.pv-insider.com/users/ksdicks; Sharp Sets CPV Cell Record
of 44.4%, CPV Intelligence Brief, 1325 June 2013, http://news.
pv-insider.com/users/ksdicks; Montgomery, op. cit. note 104.
CONCENTRATING SOLAR THERMAL POWER (CSP)

1
Global CSP capacity and capacity additions, and Figure 15,

derived from the following sources: REN21, Renewables 2013
Global Status Report (Paris: REN21 Secretariat, June 2013),
http://www.ren21.net/Portals/0/documents/Resources/
GSR/2013/GSR2013_lowres.pdf; Luis Crespo, European
Solar Thermal Electricity Association (ESTELA), personal
communication with REN21, February 2014; Fred Morse,
Morse Associates, Inc., personal communication with REN21,
FebruaryMay 2014; 2014; CSP World Map, CSP World, http://
www.csp-world.com/cspworldmap; CSP Today Global Tracker,
CSP Today, http://social.csptoday.com/tracker/projects; U.S.
Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA), Solar Energy Facts:
2013 Year in Review, 5 March 2014, http://www.seia.org/sites/
default/files/YIR%202013%20SMI%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf; SEIA,
Major Solar Projects in the United States: Operating, Under
Construction, or Under Development, 6 March 2014, http://
www.seia.org/sites/default/files/resources/Major%20Solar%20
Projects%20List%203.6.14.pdf; NextEra dedicates 250 MW
Genesis CSP Plant, Solar Server, 25 April 2014, http://www.
solarserver.com/solar-magazine/solar-news/current/2014/kw17/
nextera-dedicates-250-mw-genesis-csp-plant.html; Abengoa
Solar, Mojave Solar Project, http://www.abengoasolar.com/web/
en/nuestras_plantas/plantas_en_construccion/estados_unidos/.
To the extent possible, the GSR uses net capacity CSP data. The
net capacity is the peak generating capacity of the plant after
subtracting internal power requirements from gross capacity (i.e.,
the peak generating capacity of its turbine unit).
Crespo, op. cit. note 1.
Heba Hashem, Emerging CSP markets: More than meets the

eye, CSP Today, 22 November 2013, http://social.csptoday.com/
markets/emerging-csp-markets-more-meets-eye.
Global CSP growth rates derived from the following: REN21, op.
cit. note 1; Crespo, op. cit. note 1; Morse, op. cit. note 1; CSP
World Map, op. cit. note 1; CSP Today Global Tracker, op. cit.
note 1.
U.S. capacity added during 2013 includes the 250 MW Solana

plant and the 125 MW first phase of the 250 MW Genesis plant,
which was commissioned in late 2013. All capacities reported
are net. Added capacities, from Fred Morse, Morse Associates,
Inc., personal communication with REN21, April 2014; Bureau
of Land Management, U.S. Department of the Interior, Genesis
Solar Power Project (CACA 48880), 7 March 2012, http://www.
blm.gov/ca/st/en/fo/palmsprings/Solar_Projects/Genesis_
Ford_Dry_Lake.html; NextEra dedicates 250 MW Genesis CSP
plant, SolarServer, http://www.solarserver.com/solar-magazine/
solar-news/current/2014/kw17/nextera-dedicates-250-mwgenesis-csp-plant.html; U.S. National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL), Concentrating Solar Power Projects: Solana
Generating Station, 17 March 2014, http://www.nrel.gov/csp/
solarpaces/project_detail.cfm/projectID=23; capacity under
construction from idem; James Montgomery, Go-Time for Solar
CSP: Ivanpah, Crescent Dunes Switch On, Renewable Energy
World, 12 February 2014, http://www.renewableenergyworld.
com/rea/news/article/2014/02/go-time-for-solar-csp-ivanpah-;
NextEra dedicates 250 MW Genesis CSP Plant, op. cit.
note 1; Abengoa Solar, op. cit. note 1; HeliosCSP, Ivanpah:
Worlds Biggest Concentrated Solar Power Tower Project Goes
On-Line, 19 February 2013, http://www.helioscsp.com/noticia.
php?id_not=2332.
Abengoa Solar, Solana, the largest parabolic trough plant in the

world, http://www.abengoasolar.com/web/en/nuestras_plantas/
plantas_en_operacion/estados_unidos/; Abengoas Solana
Begins Commercial Operation and Marks Major CSP Milestone,
Solar International, 10 October 2013, http://www.solarinternational.net/article/78480-Abengoa-acirc-s-Solana-beginscommercial-operation-and-marks-major-CSP-milestone.php.
HeliosCSP, op. cit. note 6.
Jason Kastrenakes, This is what the worlds largest solar plant

looks like when its catching rays, The Verge, 13 February
2013, http://www.theverge.com/2014/2/13/5408686/
ivanpah-solar-plant-begins-commercial-operation.
109 More sophisticated from IEA-PVPS, op. cit. note 5, p. 56; fastest
developing from ABB, ABB Complete Acquisition of Power-One,
press release (Zurich: 25 July 2013), http://www.abb.com/cawp/
seitp202/bf86c5972758ad3ec1257bb300773351.aspx.
110 ABB, op. cit. note 109; second largest from Power-One, Why
Choose Power-One Renewable Energy Solutions? http://www.
power-one.com/renewable-energy, viewed 20 April 2014; Silke
Koltrowitz, ABB Bets on Solar Power with $1 Billion Takeover,
Reuters, 22 April 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article
/2013/04/22/us-abb-power-one-idUSBRE93L04U20130422.
111 James Montgomery, Solar PV Inverter Market Shakeout
Continues with ABB and Power-One Deal, Renewable Energy
World, 22 April 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/
rea/news/article/2013/04/solar-pv-inverter-market-shakeoutcontinues-with-abb-and-power-one-deal; SMA (Germany)
acquired a majority stake in Jiangsu Zeversolar New Energy
(China), per SMA Acquires Majority Stake in Zeversolar, PV
News, April 2013, p. 7; but, in late 2013, it announced plans
to downsize in response to changing market conditions, from
SMA to Complete Downsizing in 2014, PV News, November
2013, p. 4, and from Christoph Steitz, Update 2-Solar Crisis
Drags Germanys SMA into Loss, Reuters, 8 August 2013,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/08/08/smasolar-resultsidUSL6N0G90BC20130808; Satcon Technology Corp. (United
States) announced plans to liquidate, per Satcon Unable to Find
Buyer, Moves to Liquidate, PV News, April 2013, p. 6.
112 James Montgomery, Price Pressures Squeeze Solar Inverter
Shipment Outlook, Renewable Energy World, 16 October 2013,
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/10/
price-pressures-squeeze-solar-inverter-shipment-outlook.
02
and More Projects Coming Online, Briefing PaperChina Solar PV

Development (Beijing: AECEA, July 2013).
10 Crespo, op. cit. note 1.

11 EurObservER, Solar Thermal and Concentrated Solar Power
Barometer (Paris: May 2013), http://www.energies-renouvelables.
org/observ-er/stat_baro/observ/baro215.pdf.
171
ENDNOTES 02 MARKET AND INDUSTRY TRENDS CSP

13 United Arab Emirates from EurObservER, op. cit. note 11; India
from Jenny Muirhead, MENA Shows Patience Towards Delay
in CSP Projects, Weekly Intelligence Brief: July 15July 22, CSP
Today, 22 July 2013, http://social.csptoday.com/markets/weeklyintelligence-brief-july-15-%E2%80%93-july-22; China from
33 Deign, Consolidations effect on CSPs supply chain, op. cit. note

30.

15 CSP World Map, op. cit. note 1; CSP Today Global Tracker, op.
cit. note 1.
16 Hashem, op. cit. note 3.
18 Rochelle Gayle, Namibia evaluating concentrated solar power
potential in feasibility study, CSP Today, 3 February 2014, http://
social.csptoday.com/emerging-markets/namibia-evaluatingconcentrated-solar-power-potential-feasibility-study.
19 More than 1GW of CSP Headed for MENA, Renewable Energy
World, 5 July 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
news/article/2013/07/more-than-1-gw-of-csp-headed-for-mena.
20 Morocco from Crespo, op. cit. note 1; Egypt from Kom Ombo CSP
Project, CSP World, http://www.csp-world.com/cspworldmap/
kom-ombo-csp-project.
21 Jenny Muirhead, CSP makes a grand entry into Kuwait, CSP
Today, 1 July 2013, http://social.csptoday.com/emerging-markets/
csp-makes-grand-entry-kuwait.
22 Bill Scanlon, Saudi Arabia Looks to NREL for Solar Monitoring
Expertise, Renewable Energy World, 22 April 2013, http://
saudi-arabia-looks-to-nrel-for-solar-monitoring-expertise.
35 Abengoa portfolio from EurObservER, op. cit. note 11; leadership

of Spanish companies from HeliosCSP, Current Status of CSP
in the World, 21 June 2013, http://www.helioscsp.com/noticia.
php?id_not=1853.
36 Bayar, op. cit. note 34.
37 Range of alternatives, and graphite, ceramic, rock pebble, and
slag storage from Deign, Tracking new directions in CSP thermal
energy storage, op. cit. note 30; superheated steam, as at the
PS-10 and PS-20 plants in Spain, and the Khi Solar One facility
currently under construction in South Africa, from Jason Deign,
Baring the secrets of Khi Solar One, CSP Today, 13 September
2013, http://social.csptoday.com/markets/baring-secrets-khisolar-one; ternary salts from Crespo, op. cit. note 1.
38 The Andalusian solar plant Gemasolar as the stage of Gran
Turismo 6 PlayStation video game, Energy News, 17 December
2013, http://www.energynews.es/english/the-andalusian-solarplant-gemasolar-as-the-stage-of-gran-turismo-6-playstationvideo-game/.
26 Regulatory hindrances in Italy from HeliosCSP, Go-ahead needed

for Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) in Italy for the domestic
industry to be competitive on foreign markets, 3 April 2014,
http://www.helioscsp.com/noticia.php?id_not=2417; introduction
of feed-in tariff from EurObservER, op. cit. note 11.
39 HeliosCSP, op. cit. note 6; Jenny Muirhead, Weekly Intelligence

Brief: October 714, CSP Today, 14 October 2014, http://social.
csptoday.com/markets/weekly-intelligence-brief-october-7-14;
EurObservER, op. cit. note 11; Alison Ebbage, Large-scale
plants: the future for CSP? CSP Today, 31 January 2014, http://
social.csptoday.com/technology/large-scale-plants-future-csp;
growing evidence of potential cost reductions derived from an
analysis conducted by CSP Today, which showed that the EUR/
Watt capital expenditure of a 50 MW plant is around 25% higher
than that of a 200 MW plant, as a result of economies of scale in
the development of the plant. Similar work by the International
Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) and the International Energy
Agency (IEA) determined that the specific cost of parabolic
trough plant with thermal storage decreases by approximately
12% if the plant size is increased from 50 MW to 100 MW,
and by 20% if size is increased from 50 MW to 200 MW; see
Groupe Reaction, Making cents of CSP economies of scale,
CSP Today, 22 July 2013, http://social.csptoday.com/markets/
making-cents-csp-economies-scale.
27 Coal hybrid application from NREL, First Hybrid CSP-Coal Power

Plant Is Fired Up in Colorado, 23 July 2010, http://www.nrel.gov/
solar/news/2010/870.html; geothermal hybrid application from
Jenny Muirhead, CSP-Geothermal Hybrid Plant Projects Spring
to Life, CSP Today, 22 July 2013, http://social.csptoday.com/
technology/csp-geothermal-hybrid-plant-projects-spring-life;
natural gas hybrid application from New hybrid CSP-natural gas
plant announced in Sacramento, US, CSP World, 31 October
2013, http://www.csp-world.com/news/20131031/001242/
new-hybrid-csp-natural-gas-plant-announced-sacramento-us.
40 Other cost-reduction interventions under investigation include

standardisation of central receivers on power towers; increased
aperture size on linear Fresnel plants; use of supercritical
turbines; and application of new tracking mechanisms for
heliostats using hydraulics, from Crespo, op. cit. note 1.
Researchers in Spain are developing engineering tools to enable
the thermo-economic design and optimisation of CSP plants, and
the reduction of TES costs; see Jenny Muirhead, New initiatives
to reduce the cost of CSP, CSP Today, 11 October 2013, http://
social.csptoday.com/technology/new-initiatives-reduce-cost-csp.
28 CS Energy, Kogan Creek Solar Boost Project. The largest project

of its kind in the world, http://kogansolarboost.com.au/about/.
41 Research on geothermal augmentation from Dan Wendt,

Hybrid Geothermal-Solar (Washington, DC: U.S. Department
of Energy (DOE), 22 April 2013), http://www1.eere.energy.gov/
geothermal/pdfs/hybrid_geo_solar_peer2013.pdf; integration
of CSP and natural gas from DOE, Sacramento Utility to Launch
Concentrating Solar Power-Natural Gas Project, press release
(Washington, DC: 31 October 2013), http://www.energy.gov/
articles/sacramento-utility-launch-concentrating-solar-powernatural-gas-project.
23 SustainableBusiness, Israel Gets Its First Big Solar Project:

5th Largest in the World, 31 October 2013, http://www.
sustainablebusiness.com/index.cfm/go/news.display/id/25325;
Ashalim CSP plant 2, CSP World, http://www.csp-world.com/
cspworldmap/ashalim-csp-plant-2, viewed 24 April 2014.
25 CleanBiz Asia, Indias plans for worlds largest CSP need honest
soul-searching, 22 August 2013, http://www.cleanbiz.asia/news/
indias-plans-worlds-largest-csp-need-honest-soul-searching;
CleanBiz Asia, India continues solar thermal push despite
lackluster success, 29 May 2013, http://www.cleanbiz.asia/news/
india-continues-solar-thermal-push-despite-lackluster-success.
29 Examples include a CSP project that was rejected in California,

from John Parnel, California rejects another Brightsource
CSP project, PV Tech, 17 December 2013, http://www.
pv-tech.org/news/california_rejects_another_brightsource_
csp_project, and another project in California that was
abandoned, from James Montgomery, K Road Gives Up
on Calico Solar Project, Renewable Energy World, 1 July
article/2013/07/k-road-gives-up-on-calico-solar-project.
30 Global growth expectations from Jason Deign, Consolidations
effect on CSPs supply chain, CSP Today, 2 August 2013, http://
social.csptoday.com/markets/consolidation%E2%80%99s-effectcsp%E2%80%99s-supply-chain; interest in TES from Jason
Deign, Tracking new directions in CSP thermal energy storage,
CSP Today, 26 July 2013, http://social.csptoday.com/technology/
tracking-new-directions-csp-thermal-energy-storage.
31 Deign, Tracking new directions in CSP thermal energy storage,
op. cit. note 30.
172
34 Siemens from Beatriz Gonzalez, Siemens to Shut its CSP

Business, Weekly Intelligence Brief: June 1724, CSP
Today, 24 June 2013, http://social.csptoday.com/markets/
weekly-intelligence-brief-june-17-24; Schott Solar from
Tildy Bayar, European CSP, Solar Water Heating Face
Difficulties, Renewable Energy World, 11 June 2013, http://
european-csp-solar-thermal-face-difficulties-after-spains-fall.
Total additions and capacity based on Franz Mauthner, AEE

Institute for Sustainable Technologies (AEE-INTEC), Gleisdorf,
Austria, personal communication with REN21, March-May 2014,
and on Franz Mauthner and Werner Weiss, Solar Heat Worldwide:
Markets and Contribution to the Energy Supply 2012 (Gleisdorf,
Austria: International Energy Agency (IEA) Solar Heating and
Cooling Programme (SHC), forthcoming May 2014). The Mauthner
and Weiss report covers 58 countries and is assumed to represent
95% of the global market. Data provided were 52.7 GWth added
(75.3 million m2) for a total of 269 GWth, which were adjusted
upwards to 100% for the GSR to reach 55.4 GWth added (79.2
million m2) and 283.4GWth total. Note that collector area (and
respective capacity) in operation were estimated by Mauthner and
Weiss based on official country reports regarding the lifetime basis
used; where such reports were not available, a 25-year lifetime
was assumed except in the case of China, where the Chinese
Solar Thermal Industry Federation (CSTIF) considers lifetime
to be below 10 years. Also, note that in 2004 the represented
associations from Austria, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands,
Sweden, and the United States, as well as the European Solar
Thermal Industry Federation (ESTIF) and the IEA-SHC agreed to
use a factor of 0.7 kWth /m2 to derive the nominal capacity from the
area of installed collectors; this conversion rate is also used in the
GSR.
Glazed water collectors accounted for a 96.8% share of the global
market in 2012 (unglazed water systems accounted for about
3.0% of the global market in 2012, and glazed and unglazed
air systems for less than 0.2%), and global capacity of glazed
collectors added in 2012 was 51 GWth, per Mauthner, op. cit.
note 1, and Mauthner and Weiss, op. cit. note 1. The 51 GWth was
adjusted upwards by REN21 from an estimated 95% of the global
market to 100%, to reach 53.7 GWth.
Preliminary estimate from Mauthner, op. cit. note 1. Note that the
estimate does not consider air collectors.
Mauthner and Weiss, op. cit. note 1. Figure 16 based on data

from Mauthner and Weiss, op. cit. note 1, and from Mauthner, op.
cit. note 1. Global total was adjusted upwards by REN21 from an
estimated 95% of the global market to 100%, and this is reflected
in shares data.
Mauthner and Weiss, op. cit. note 1. Figure 17 from idem and
from Mauthner, op. cit. note 1.
Mauthner, op. cit. note 1.
Ibid.; Mauthner and Weiss, op. cit. note 1. Estimates for 2013 are
based on available data from Austria, China, Germany, Japan,
Mexico, Portugal, Spain, and the United States; data for remaining
countries were estimated by Mauthner and Weiss according to
their trends for the previous two years; these estimates assume
100% of the global market. Figure 18 based on data from
Mauthner and Weiss, op. cit. note 1, and from Mauthner, op. cit.
note 1. Data were adjusted upwards by REN21 from an estimated
95% of the global market to 100%.
Ibid.
Based on installations of an estimated 66 million m2, from Hu

Runquing, CSTIF, data provided by Mauthner, op. cit. note 1.
10 An estimated 21% of newly installed capacity replaced existing

collectors, and net additions were 52.3 million m2; the estimated
cumulative capacity at end-2013 was based on 310 million m2, per
Runquing, op. cit. note 9.
11 Solar heaters cost an estimated 3.5 times less than electric water
heaters and 2.6 less than gas heaters over the system lifetime,
from CSTIF, cited in Brbel Epp, Solar Thermal Competition
Heats Up in China, Renewable Energy World, 10 September
article/2012/09/solar-thermal-competition-heats-up-in-china,
and from Brbel Epp, Solar Thermal Shake-Out: Competition
Heats Up in the Chinese Market, Renewable Energy World, July
August 2012, pp. 4749; annual market growth has increased
fairly steadily year-by-year, up from 4,480 MWth in 2000, per
Franz Mauthner and Werner Weiss, Solar Heat Worldwide: Markets
and Contribution to the Energy Supply 2011 (Gleisdorf, Austria:
IEA-SHC, May 2013), http://www.iea-shc.org/data/sites/1/
publications/Solar-Heat-Worldwide-2013.pdf.
12 Epp, op. cit. note 11.
13 European Commission, European Technology Platform Renewable
Heating & Cooling, Common Vision for the Renewable Heating &
Cooling Sector in Europe (Brussels: European Union, 2011), ftp://
ftp.cordis.europa.eu/pub/etp/docs/rhc-vision_en.pdf.
14 Mauthner, op. cit. note 1.
15 Contraction has occurred since the peak in 2008, per
EurObservER, Solar Thermal and Concentrated Solar Power
Barometer (Brussels: 2013), http://www.energies-renouvelables.
org/observ-er/stat_baro/observ/baro215.pdf; lower construction
rates and pressure from idem; pressure particularly in Germany,
according to Harald Drck, University of Stuttgart, cited in
Brbel Epp and Jan Gesthuizen, Germany: A Standstill Is Not
the Answer, a System Solution Is, Solar Thermal World, 26 May
2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/germany-standstillnot-answer-system-solution; France from Brbel Epp, personal
communication with REN21, 26 March 2014; see also Robin
Welling, ESTIF, interview with Brbel Epp, It is a groundbreaking
fact that solar thermal is the only technology to be enabled to
obtain the A+++ label, Solar Thermal World, 4 December 2013,
http://solarthermalworld.org/content/it-groundbreaking-factsolar-thermal-only-technology-be-enabled-obtain-label; solar
PV had greater appeal for investors in Austria, and reduction
of support policies, from Pedro Dias, ESTIF, Brussels, personal
communication with REN21, 4 May 2013.
16 Based on 1.02 million m2 of added collector area during 2013 for a
total of 17.5 million m2 installed in Germany by years end, with all
data from Bundesverband Solarwirtschaft e.V., Statistiche Zahlen
der deutschen Solarwrmebranche (Solarthermie), March 2014,
http://www.solarwirtschaft.de/fileadmin/media/pdf/2014_03_
BSW_Solar_Faktenblatt_Solarwaerme.pdf; decline in 2011 from
ESTIF, Trends and Market Statistics 2012 (Brussels: June 2013),
p. 5, http://www.estif.org/fileadmin/estif/content/market_data/
downloads/Solar_Thermal_M%20arkets%202012.pdf.
17 Figure of 14% market decline in 2013, -15.9% in 2012, -12.8%
in 2011, and -21.7% in 2010, from AEE-INTEC, provided by
Mauthner, op. cit. note 1.
18 More than doubled based on 671,156 m2 in 2008, from
Solar Heating Department (DASOL), Brazilian Association
of Refrigeration, Air Conditioning, Ventilation and Heating
(ABRAVA), cited in Filipa Cardoso, Brazil: Residential Demand
Drives Market, Solar Thermal World, 24 July 2013, http://
solarthermalworld.org/content/brazil-residential-demand-drivesmarket; 2013 additions and year-end total based on 1,378,800m2
of newly installed glazed and unglazed collector area and 9.8
million m2 of accumulated area, from DASOL, ABRAVA, 2014, and
provided by Renata Grisoli, MGM Innova, personal communication
with REN21, 29 March 2014. Note that additions were up from
1,151.300 m2 in 2012, and 1,029.600 m2 in 2011, from idem.
19 Drivers also include a growing awareness of sustainability
issues, and are all from Cardoso, op. cit. note 18. Solar thermal
is competitive in Brazil due to good solar resources/weather
conditions and high electricity pricessystems can pay off in two
years. See also Alejandro Diego Rosell, Brazil: Rising Electricity
Prices Put Spotlight on Solar Thermal, Solar Thermal World,
http://solarthermalworld.org/content/brazil-rising-electricityprices-put-spotlight-solar-thermal. Note that Minha Casa, Minha
Vida has resulted in installation of only 260,000 systems since
2009.
20 Mexico added an estimated 200 MWth (285,000 m2) in 2013,
although down from 210 MWth (300,000 m2) in 2012 due mainly
to a crisis in the construction sector, from Daniel Garca, Mexican
renewable energy industry association FAMERAC, cited in
Alejandro Diego Rosell, Mexico: ANES to Provide National Solar
Market Statistics, Solar Thermal World, 24 February 2014, http://
solarthermalworld.org/content/mexico-anes-provide-nationalsolar-market-statistics, and from Alejandro Diego Rosell, Mexico:
Fight for New Incentives, Solar Thermal World, 13 September
2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/mexico-fight-newincentives; Argentina from Eva Augsten, Argentina: Solar Water
Heaters for Rural Schools, Solar Thermal World, 29 October
2011, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/argentina-solarwater-heaters-rural-schools, and from Eva Augsten, Argentina:
ASADES Network for Solar Energy, Solar Thermal World, 6 April
2012, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/argentina-asadesnetwork-solar-energy; Chile has seen great success from a tax
rebate scheme, approved in 2009, with 20,000 systems installed
under the programme as of mid-2013, but uncertainty about
its extension beyond the end of 2013 caused much uncertainty
in Chiles industry, per Alejandro Diego Rosell, Chile: So Far
No Government Compromise on Extending Tax Credits, Solar
02
173
ENDNOTES 02 MARKET AND INDUSTRY TRENDS SOLAR THERMAL HEATING AND COOLING
Thermal World, 8 July 2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/
chile-so-far-no-government-compromise-extending-tax-credits;
most of Chiles systems have been installed in new social housing
projects, per Alejandro Diego Rosell, Chile: New Government
to Extend Tax Credits, Solar Thermal World, 23 January 2014,
http://solarthermalworld.org/content/chile-new-governmentextend-tax-credits; Eva Augsten, Chile: Mining Sector May Be
Solar Thermals Future, Solar Thermal World, 24 January 2013,
http://solarthermalworld.org/content/chile-mining-sector-maybe-solar-thermals-future; Costa Rica has an annual market
volume estimated at 5,0006,000 m2 of glazed collectors, of
which 30% are vacuum tubes with most imported from China,
based on estimate by Stefan Frey, Swissol, cited in Brbel Epp,
Costa Rica: Small Market but Prestigious Large-Scale Projects,
Solar Thermal World, 23 July 2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/
content/costa-rica-small-market-prestigious-large-scale-projects;
Uruguay has seen slow growth despite government incentives
due to the lack of a financing culture and inability of most people
to afford high upfront costs, plus low-quality imported systems
have made people wary of investing in them, per Alejandro Diego
Rosell, Uruguay: Growing at Its Own Pace, Solar Thermal
World, 15 July 2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/
uruguay-growing-its-own-pace.
21 Based on 1.3 million m2 added (6.17 million m2 at end-2012) for
a total of 7.47 million m2 in operation on 31 December 2013, from
2014. Indias market picked up in Maharashtra and Karnataka,
but not in other states despite subsidies, per V. Rishi Kumar,
Implementation of Solar Projects Likely to Gather Paces, Says
MNRE Secretary, Hindu Business Line, 7 November 2013,
http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/
implementation-of-solar-projects-likely-to-gather-pace-saysmnre-secretary/article5325617.ece. Note that India added
1.1GWth for a total of 5.6 GWth, according to data from Malaviya
Solar Energy Consultancy, provided by Mauthner, op. cit. note 1.
22 Japan added approximately 140 MWth in 2012 and about the same
in 2013. Additions and total capacity data estimated by Institute
for Sustainable Energy Policies (ISEP) based on data from Solar
System Development Association, cited in ISEP, Renewables
Japan Status Report 2014 (Toyko: 2014) (in Japanese) and
with REN21, 23 April 2014.
23 Steady growth and drivers from Yongyuth Sawatdisawanee,
Thailands Department of Alternative Energy Development and
Efficiency, Ministry of Energy, interview by Stephanie Banse,
Thailand: Many Enterprises Have Become Interested in the
Technology, Solar Thermal World, 6 March 2013, http://
solarthermalworld.org/content/thailand-many-enterprises-havebecome-interested-technology; Thailand added 8,000 m2 of
subsidised systems in 2013, down from 11,155 m2 in 2012, from
Kulwaree Buranasajjawaraporn, Thai Department of Alternative
Energy Development and Efficiency (DEDE), presentation at
Thai-Germany Technology Conference, Bangkok, October
2013, cited in Stephanie Banse, Thailand: Ministry of Energy
Extends Incentive Programme until 2021, Solar Thermal World,
2 February 2014, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/thailandministry-energy-extends-incentive-programme-until-2021.
24 Buranasajjawaraporn, cited in Banse, op. cit. note 23.
25 Mauthner and Weiss, op. cit. note 1.
26 The market was down about 10% (to 1,624,298 m2) in 2012
relative to 2011 (1,805,675 m2), but the 2011 market was
considered unusually high, and demand moves up and down from
year to year, based on information from A. Hakan Ala, ezinc,
provided by Mauthner, op. cit. note 1. There are still no subsidies
in Turkey per Brbel Epp, personal communication with REN21,
26 March 2014.
27 About 60% based on an estimated 14,311.4 MWth of unglazed
water collectors in operation in 2012, from Weiss and Mauthner,
op. cit. note 1; 30,000 annually from Beam Engineering, Solar
Heating & Cooling: Energy for a Secure Future, prepared for
U.S. Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA) (Washington,
DC: 2013), http://www.seia.org/research-resources/
solar-heating-cooling-energy-secure-future.
28 Ranking and capacity data from Mauthner and Weiss, op. cit.
note 1. The United States added 530.2 MWth of unglazed systems
and 169.2 MWth of glazed systems in 2012, for a year-end total of
14,311.4 MWth of unglazed systems and 1,935.4 MWth of glazed
174
systems, from idem. Note that U.S. data are uncertain because
the U.S. Energy Information Administration no longer tracks
solar thermal and SEIA has not finalised a planned survey, from
Brbel Epp, USA: GoSolar at SEIAs Birthday, Solar Thermal
World, 27 January 2014, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/
usa-gosolar-seias-birthday.
29 See, for example, Jennifer Runyon, New Hampshire Sets Thermal
Renewable Energy Carve Out, Renewable Energy World, 26
article/2012/06/hew-hampshire-sets-thermal-renewableenergy-carve-out; SEIA, RPS Solar Carve Out Arizona, 12
February 2013, http://www.seia.org/sites/default/files/resources/
RPS%20Solar%20Fact%20Sheet%20AZ.pdf; SEIA, RPS Solar
Carve Out Pennsylvania, 12 February 2013, http://www.seia.
org/sites/default/files/resources/RPS%20Solar%20Fact%20
Sheet%20PA.pdf; Jennifer Runyon, Trend: U.S. States Adding
Thermal Energy to Their RPS (Part 1), District Energy, 15 August
2012, http://www.districtenergy.org/blog/2012/08/10/trend-u-sstates-adding-thermal-energy-to-their-rps-part-1/; Small-scale
Renewables: Big Problem, Small Solution, in REW Guide to
North American Renewable Energy Companies 2013, special
supplement in Renewable Energy World, MarchApril 2013, pp.
1824. A few states also allow utilities to meet requirements
under RPS laws by buying Solar Renewable Energy Emission
Certificates produced by solar water heaters. See, for example,
Brbel Epp, USA: Solar Thermal SRECs Traded in Washington,
D.C. and North Carolina, Solar Thermal World, 27 February 2011,
http://solarthermalworld.org/content/usa-solar-thermal-srecstraded-washington-dc-and-north-carolina, and Brbel Epp,
Maryland/USA: Solar Water Heaters Eligible for Solar Renewable
Energy Credits, Solar Thermal World, 27 April 2011, http://
solarthermalworld.org/content/marylandusa-solar-water-heaterseligible-solar-renewable-energy-credits.
30 Based on 643.9 MWth of capacity added during 2012, of which
455 MWth was unglazed, and 5,128.2 MWth of cumulative capacity
at years end, of which 3,045 MWth was unglazed, from Mauthner
and Weiss, op. cit. note 1.
31 Tim Flannery and Veena Sahajwalla, The Critical Decade:
Australias FutureSolar Energy (Climate Commission Secretariat,
Australian Department of Industry, Innovation, Climate Change,
Science Research and Tertiary Education, 2013), http://
climatecommission.files.wordpress.com/2013/09/australiasfuture-solar-energy-report.pdf.
32 Israel, Jordan, and Lebanon rankings from Mauthner and
Weiss, op. cit. note 10; 85% of households from Observatoire
Mditerranen de lEnergie (OME), Solar Thermal in the
Mediterranean Region: Market Assessment Report (Nanterre,
France: September 2012), p. 37, http://www.b2match.eu/
system/stworkshop2013/files/Market_Assessment_Report_
II.pdf?1357834276; Lebanon experienced market growth
averaging over 17% during 20082012, from Wilson Rickerson et
al., Solar Water Heating Techscope Market Readiness Assessment
(Paris: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),
2014), prepared for UNEP, Division of Technology, Industry and
Economics, Global Solar Water Heating Initiative, p. 67, http://
www.al.undp.org/content/dam/india/docs/EnE/solar-waterheating-techscope-market-readiness-assessment.pdf.
33 Mauthner and Weiss, op. cit. note 10. Egypt has a small market
but has seen a rapid increase, particularly in the hotel sector,
as solar thermal is a readily available option for reducing costly
diesel consumption, from Brbel Epp, Egypt: Green Star Hotels
Download the Sun, Solar Thermal World, 9 January 2013,
http://solarthermalworld.org/content/egypt-green-star-hotelsdownload-sun; thanks to a support scheme that was introduced
in 2009, Tunisia had 14,000 m2 by the end of 2012, mostly
in hotels, public baths, hospitals, and 30 hotels had installed
systems by late 2013, from Brbel Epp, Tunisia Funds Solar
Process Heat, Solar Thermal World, 7 October 2013, http://
solarthermalworld.org/content/tunisia-funds-solar-processheat; South Africa has seen success driven greatly by rising
electricity prices, fear of electricity shortages, and a national
rebate programme from utility Eskom, from Frank Stier, South
Africa: High Demand from Tourism Sector, Solar Thermal
south-africa-high-demand-tourism-sector.
34 Anton Schwarzlmller, Domestic Solar Heating, Zimbabwe, cited
in Zimbabwe: Installing 100 Locally Produced Storage Tanks in
2013 Would Be a Big Success, Solar Thermal World, 1 May 2013,
http://solarthermalworld.org/content/zimbabwe-installing-100locally-produced-storage-tanks-2013-would-be-big-success;
35 Mauthner and Weiss, op. cit. note 1. Also among the top 10 in
2012 were Australia, Germany, Turkey, China, and Jordan.
39 Mauthner and Weiss, op. cit. note 1; Mauthner, op. cit. note 1.
40 Mauthner and Weiss, op. cit. note 1; Mauthner, op. cit. note 1;
approximately two out of five systems in Germany are combisystems, from Bundesindustrieverband Deutschland Haus-,
Energie- und Umwelttechnik e.V. (BDH) and Bundesverband
Solarwirtschaft (BSW), Solarkollektorabsatz 2013 rcklufig
Solar- und Heizungsbranche fordern: Wrmewende jetzt
einluten, press release (Berlin and Cologne: 17 February
2014), http://www.solarwirtschaft.de/fileadmin/media/pdf/
pm_kollektorabsatz2013.pdf; Poland also from Marcin Czekanski,
Poland: Market in Transition, Solar Thermal World, 30 May 2013,
http://solarthermalworld.org/content/poland-market-transition;
France and Switzerland also have a growing share of combisystems, from European Commission, European Technology
Platform on Renewable Heating and Cooling, Strategic Research
and Innovation Agenda for Renewable Heating & Cooling (Brussels:
European Union, 2013), p. 14, http://www.rhc-platform.org/
fileadmin/user_upload/members/Downloads/RHC_SRA_epo_
final_lowres.pdf; and markets are growing in Russia, particularly
in areas with cold climates, per interviews with manufacturers
in Russia, New Polus, Inten, and Kassol, cited in Vladislava
Adamenkova, Russia: 2014 Year of Change and Growth, Solar
Thermal World, 22 January 2014, http://solarthermalworld.org/
content/russia-2014-year-change-and-growth.
41 European Commission, op. cit. note 13. The trend towards hybrid
systems including heat pumps is seen particularly in Austria,
Germany, and Switzerland, where policies and high electricity
prices create favourable conditions, per Solar + Heat Pump
Systems, Solar Update (IEA-SHC), January 2013, p. 14, http://
www.iea-shc.org/data/sites/1/publications/2013-01-SolarUpdate.
pdf.
43 Cooling systems include one-stage absorption chillers, adsorption
chillers, and desiccant cooling systems (DEC) systems for thermal
cooling, from ibid.
44 With such systems, pressurised water, steam or thermo-oil can be
used as heat transfer medium, from ibid.
45 Other heat sources from Jan-Olof Dalenbck and Sven Werner,
CIT Energy Management AB, Market for Solar District Heating,
supported by Intelligent Energy Europe (Gothenburg, Sweden:
revised July 2012), http://solarthermalworld.org/sites/gstec/files/
story/2013-05-21/sw_solar_markets.pdf.
46 Solar District Heating, Intelligent Energy Europe Programme of the
European Union, Solar District Heating, viewed 6 March 2014,
http://www.solar-district-heating.eu/SDH.aspx.
47 Jan-Olof Dalenbck, An Emerging Option: Solar District Heating
and Cooling, Euro Heat & Power, vol. 10, no. (2013), pp. 2629;
April 2014; cost competitive in Denmark only, from Brbel Epp,
solrico, personal communication with REN21, 29 April 2014;
Rachana Raizada, Renewables and District Heating: Eastern
Europe Keeps It Warm, Renewable Energy World, 13 September
article/2012/09/renewables-and-district-heating. Costs have
come down considerably in the past five years and, in Denmark,
the heat price from solar thermal is as low as USD 42.7/MWh
(EUR 31/MWh), below that of gas-fired district heating, due to the
large size of fields and low interest rates over expected lifetime
of at least 20 years, from Sren Elisiussen, Arcon, cited in Brbel
Epp, Denmark: We have improved the cost/performance ratio
by around 50 % over the last 5 years, Solar Thermal World, 4
March 2014, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/denmark-wehave-improved-costperformance-ratio-around-50-over-last-5years. See also Brbel Epp, Germany/Denmark: Solar District
Heating Prices between 37 and 88 EUR/MWh, Solar Thermal
World, 24 March 2014, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/
germanydenmark-solar-district-heating-prices-between-37-and88-eurmwh.
48 Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Solar Community Sets
New World Record for Energy Efficiency and Innovation,
press release (Okotoks, Alberta: 5 October 2012), http://www.
nrcan.gc.ca/media-room/news-release/2012/2143; Canada
also from Solar Community Tops World Record, Solar Update
(IEA-SHC), January 2013, p. 16, https://www.iea-shc.org/data/
sites/1/publications/2013-01-SolarUpdate.pdf; Government
of Canada, Drake Landing Solar Community, brochure,
www.dlsc.ca/DLSC_Brochure_e.pdf, viewed 29 April 2014;
Chinas Utopia Garden project in Dezhou covers 10 blocks
of apartment buildings with 5.025 m2 combined with seasonal
storage beneath the complex, per Brbel Epp, China: Utopia
Garden Sets New Standard for Architectural Integration,
Solar Thermal World, 10 April 2012, http://solarthermalworld.
org/content/china-utopia-garden-sets-new-standardarchitectural-integration; the University of Pretorias 672 m2
solar thermal system provides warm water for apartments for
550 students, per Stephanie Banse, South Africa: University
of Pretorias 672 m2 Solar Thermal System, Solar Thermal
World, 12 April 2012, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/
china-utopia-garden-sets-new-standard-architectural-integration.
49 Constructed in 2013 from Dalenbck, Emerging Options,
op. cit. note 47, and Dalenbck, personal communication, op.
cit. note 47. Most plants were in Denmark, but there were two
in Austria, two in Germany, one in France, and one in Norway.
See also Bsingen: First German ground-mounted solar district
heating plant in operation, Newsletter of the Solar District
Heating, Intelligent Energy Europe Programme of the European
Union, 16 September 2013, http://www.solar-district-heating.
eu/NewsEvents/News/tabid/68/ArticleId/299/Busingen-FirstGerman-groundmounted-solar-district-heating-plant-inoperation.aspx; Jan Erik Nielsen, Large Solar Heating and Cooling
Systems, IEA-SHC Task 45, 2014, provided by Mauthner, op. cit.
note 1. Denmarks Dronninglund Solar District Heating Plant is 26
MWth (37,000 m2 of collectors) with 60,000 m3 seasonal storage.
It is expected that the field together with storage will cover about
50% of annual heat load for 1,400 connected customers, from
Nielsen, op. cit. this note.
50 Uli Jakob, Technologies and Perspectives of Solar Cooling
Systems, presentation for AHK Conference, Sydney Australia,
24 March 2014, slide 29, http://australien.ahk.de/fileadmin/
ahk_australien/Dokumente/Delegations/Energieeffizienz_2014/
Presentations/DrJakob_Green_Chiller_Assoc.pdf; data
from Solem Consulting/TECSOL/Green Chiller, provided
by Uli Jakob, Green Chiller Verband fr Sorptionsklte e.V.,
personal communication with REN21, 22 April 2014. Note that
roughly 600 solar cooling systems were installed worldwide in
2010, per Hans-Martin Henning, Solar Air-conditioning and
RefrigerationAchievements and Challenges, Conference
Proceedings of International Conference on Solar Heating,
Cooling and BuildingsEuroSun 2010, Graz, Austria, 2010, http://
solarthermalworld.org/sites/gstec/files/EuroSun2010_KeynoteHenning.pdf.
51 Europe accounted for about 81% of installed systems worldwide
as of 2013, based on data from Jakob, op. cit. note 50; Australia,
Mediterranean islands, and Middle East from IEA, Technology
Roadmap, Solar Heating and Cooling (Paris: OECD/IEA, 2012), p.
11, http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/
Solar_Heating_Cooling_Roadmap_2012_WEB.pdf. Several
hundred small cooling kits were sold in these countries in 2011.
The Australian market has grown 30% annually over the past
eight years, from Uli Jakob, Green Chiller and Solem Consulting,
cited in Eva Augsten, Australia: Country to Publish First Solar
Air Conditioning Standard, Solar Thermal World, 17 June 2013,
http://solarthermalworld.org/content/australia-country-publishfirst-solar-air-conditioning-standard; in India, for example, solar
thermal is used for cooling at a hospital and at Muni Seva Ashram
in Gujarat state, where 100 parabolic dishes (Scheffler type)
supply a 100-tonne air conditioning system, from Eva Augsten,
India: Quarterly Sun Focus Magazine Presents Concentrating
Solar Heat, Solar Thermal World, 19 September 2013, http://
solarthermalworld.org/content/india-quarterly-sun-focusmagazine-presents-concentrating-solar-heat; Jamaicas first solar
cooling system was commissioned in an office tower in Kingston,
from SOLID, Commissioning of S.O.L.I.D.s First Solar Cooling
Plant in Jamaica, press release (Graz, Austria: 2013), http://www.
solid.at/en/news-archive/2013/152-commissioning-of-s-o-l-i-d-sfirst-solar-cooling-plant-in-jamaica.
02
Stier, op. cit. note 33; Yaping Zhang, Thailand: Prefabricated

Container Solution Improves Quality in Tannery, Solar Thermal
World, 9 April 2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/
thailand-prefabricated-container-solution-improves-qualitytannery; Alejandro Diego Rosell, Uruguay: Growing at Its Own
Pace, op. cit. note 21.
175
ENDNOTES 02 MARKET AND INDUSTRY TRENDS SOLAR THERMAL HEATING AND COOLING
52 IEA, op. cit. note 51, p. 11. Several hundred small cooling kits were
sold in Australia, Mediterranean islands, and the Middle East in
2011.
53 Daniel Rowe, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organisation (CSIRO), Australia, personal communication with
REN21, 29 April 2013.
54 Mauthner, op. cit. note 1. See also, for example, Uli Jacob, Green
Chiller, Status and Perspective of Solar Cooling in Europe,
Australian Solar Cooling 2013 Conference, Sydney, Australia, April
2013.
55 Eva Augsten, The world of solar process heat, Sun & Wind
Energy, March 2014, pp. 3645.
56 The 27.5 MWth (39,300 m2 of collector area) system is combined
with 4,000 m3 of heat storage to provide heat for the remote
Gaby mine of the state-owned company Codelco, per Brbel
Epp, Chile: President Inaugurates Worlds Largest Solar Field
with 27.5 MWth, Solar Thermal World, 13 November 2013, http://
solarthermalworld.org/content/chile-president-inauguratesworlds-largest-solar-field-275-mwth. This field is 8% larger than
the Saudi Arabian plant inaugurated at the end of 2011 to supply
heat to a womens university, per Eva Augsten, "Saudi Arabia:
World's Biggest Solar Thermal Plant in Operation," Solar Thermal
saudi-arabia-worlds-biggest-solar-thermal-plant-operation.
57 Solar Heat for Industrial ProcessesSHIP Database, IEA-SHC
Task 49/IV, http://ship-plants.info/projects, viewed 10 April 2014.
58 Jaideep Malaviya, India: Pilgrim Sites Use Solar Energy, Solar
Thermal World, 31 May 2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/
content/india-pilgrim-sites-use-solar-energy. At least a dozen
large religious sites in India use concentrating solar thermal
for community cooking; the largest (Saibaba Ashram in Shirdi,
Maharashtra State) uses solar thermal concentrators (parabolic
dishes) to cook for 50,000 people per day, saving 100,000
kilograms of LPG annually, from idem. By late 2013, at least 23
additional systems were under development in India, primarily
to replace conventional boilers and generate steam for cooking,
per Eva Augsten, India: Quarterly Sun Focus Magazine Presents
Concentrating Solar Heat, Solar Thermal World, 19 September
2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/india-quarterly-sunfocus-magazine-presents-concentrating-solar-heat.
59 Rapid expansion and fuel prices, and an estimated 11,600 m2 of
solar concentrators installed during 2012, with a cumulative area
of 28,000 m2 by years end, all from Jaideep Malaviya, Malaviya
Solar Energy Consultancy, interview with Franz Mauthner,
information provided by Mauthner, op. cit. note 1. The figure of
nearly 20MWth is based on a collector area of 28,000 m2 and the
conversion factor of 0.7 kWth /m2. Note that there is no agreedupon standard conversion factor for solar concentrators, and an
expert group of the IEA-SHC Task 49 is currently dealing with this
topic. However, for now the conversion with 0.7 is considered
acceptable, per Mauthner, op. cit. note 1. Note that India has
7,967 m of solar concentrator systems for solar cooling, and
a total of 27,972 m of solar concentrator-based systems for
industrial applications, from Shirish Garud, The Energy and
Resources Institute, personal communication with REN21, 16
April 2014.
60 See, for example, Eva Augsten, Germany: Solar Process
Heat Support Shows First Results, Solar Thermal World, 22
January 2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/germanysolar-process-heat-support-shows-first-results; Eva Augsten,
Germany: Solar Process Heat Cheaper than Fossil-Fuel Heat,
but Outperformed by CHP, Solar Thermal World, 4 December
2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/germany-solarprocess-heat-cheaper-fossil-fuel-heat-outperformed-chp;
Stephanie Banse, Austria: Large-Scale Solar Plants Subsidy
Scheme Shows Increase in Average System Sizes, Solar Thermal
austria-large-scale-solar-plants-subsidy-scheme-shows-increaseaverage-system-sizes; Frank Stier, Denmark: Launch of Subsidy
Scheme for the Industrial Sector, Solar Thermal World, 26
September 2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/denmarklaunch-subsidy-scheme-industrial-sector; Jaideep Malaviya,
India: 90 Process Heat Projects with Concentrating Collectors
in Five Years, Solar Thermal World, 11 June 2012, http://
solarthermalworld.org/content/india-90-process-heat-projectsconcentrating-collectors-five-years.
61 Interest growing from, for example, Vladislava Adamenkova,
Russia: 2014 Year of Change and Growth, Solar Thermal
World, 22 January 2014, http://solarthermalworld.org/
176
content/russia-2014-year-change-and-growth; Observatoire
Mditerranen de lEnergie (OME), Solar Thermal in the
Mediterranean Region: Market Assessment Report (Nanterre,
France: September 2012), pp. 4041, 7475, http://www.
b2match.eu/system/stworkshop2013/files/Market_Assessment_
Report_II.pdf; Brbel Epp, Tunisia Funds Solar Process Heat,
Solar Thermal World, 7 October 2013, http://solarthermalworld.
org/content/tunisia-funds-solar-process-heat; Emily Hois, US
Ranchers Roundup the Power of the Sun, Renewable Energy
World, 16 July 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
blog/post/2013/07/ranchers-roundup-the-power-of-the-sun; 1%
from Mauthner and Weiss, op. cit. note 10, p. 3.
62 European Commission, op. cit. note 13. Note that the Hyatt
Regency in Aruba uses solar thermal to provide its guests with
pure drinking water, from SOLID, S.O.L.I.D. Installed a Large Solar
Plant at the Hyatt Regency in Aruba, press release (Graz, Austria:
2013), http://www.solid.at/en/news-archive/2013/169-s-o-l-id-installed-a-large-solar-plant-at-the-hyatt-regency-in-aruba;
and solar thermal is being used in Oman, where it is cheaper
than natural gas for powering oil recovery projects, from Wael
Mahdi, Solar Beats Natural Gas to Unlock Middle Easts Heavy
Oil, Says GlassPoint Solar, Bloomberg, 20 January 2014, http://
solar-beats-natural-gas-to-unlock-middle-easts-heavy-oilsays-glassdoor-solar; a pilot tri-generation project in Jordan,
operational since 2011, uses a parabolic trough system for
electricity generation, industrial steam generation, and water
desalination and chilling, per Rayer Ltd., State of the Art
Tri-Generation Project, http://www.rayer.co.uk/tri-generationproject, viewed 3 May 2014.
63 Production data from Solar Alliance Network, http://www.21tyn.
com/news/echo.php?id=31269.htm (in Chinese), cited in Brbel
Epp, China: Flat Plate Collector Share is Growing, Solar Thermal
china-flat-plate-collector-share-growing.
64 Epp, op. cit. note 8. Chinas exports were up 20% between 2010
and 2012.
65 Poland from Czekanski, op. cit. note 40; Turkey from A.
Hakan Ala, ezinc, interview with Brbel Epp, Turkey:
Vacuum Tubes on the Rise, Solar Thermal World, 23 April
2012, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/turkey-vacuumtubes-rise; India from Jaideep Malaviya, India: Flat Plate
vs Vacuum Tube Technology, Solar Thermal World, 19
November 2012, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/
india-flat-plate-vs-vacuum-tube-technology.
66 For example, the Austrian Greiner Group announced in mid-June
2013 the closure of the former Sun Master collector production
plant, and the Danish Velux Group announced the phase out of its
production and sale of solar collector systems in September 2013,
per Brbel Epp and Eva Augsten, The seven year itch, Sun &
Wind Energy, NovemberDecember 2013, pp. 3245.
67 Brbel Epp, Germany: Management Buyout of Schcos Collector
Production, Solar Thermal World, 14 March 2013, http://
solarthermalworld.org/content/germany-management-buyoutschucos-collector-production; Brbel Epp, Austria/Europe:
General Solar Systems and Sonnenkraft Management Buyout,
Solar Thermal World, 27 February 2014, http://solarthermalworld.
org/content/austriaeurope-general-solar-systems-andsonnenkraft-management-buyout.
68 From the 12 collector manufacturers in the Czech Republic
in 2007, seven have since left the solar thermal sector or
plan to close in the coming months, per Brbel Epp, personal
communication with REN21, 4 March 2014.
69 Foreign markets from Alejandro Diego Rosell, Spain: Most of
these companies will survive thanks to internationalisation, Solar
Thermal World, 16 December 2013, http://solarthermalworld.
org/content/spain-most-these-companies-will-survive-thanksinternationalisation; local partnerships and investments from
Welling, op. cit. note 15. For example, boiler manufacturer Bosch
Thermotechnik (Germany) operated solar production facilities
in five locations on four continents by late 2012, from Epp and
Augsten, op. cit. note 66.
70 Greencape, Green Cape Sector Development, Market Intelligence
Report: Energy Efficiency & Embedded Generation, Cape Town,
South Africa, January 2014, pp. 78.
71 Carlos Alencar, DASOL, ABRAVA, cited in Cardoso, op. cit. note
18.
72 Ibid.
WIND POWER
1
A total of 35,289 MW was added during the year, bringing the total
to 318,105 MW, according to Global Wind Energy Council (GWEC),
Global Wind ReportAnnual Market Update 2013 (Brussels: April
2014), p. 17, http://www.gwec.net/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/
GWEC-Global-Wind-Report_9-April-2014.pdf, and Steve
Sawyer, GWEC, personal communication with REN21, 10 April
2014; 35,550 MW added for an increase of 12.8%, to a total of
318,529 MW, from World Wind Energy Association (WWEA),
World Wind Energy Report 2013 (Bonn: 2014); and 36,134 MW
added for a total of 321,559 MW, from Navigant Research, World
Market Update 2013: International Wind Energy Development.
Forecast 2014-2018 (Copenhagen: March 2014), Executive
Summary; 35,572 MW was installed for a total of 318,576 MW, per
EurObservER, Wind Energy Barometer (Paris: February 2014), p.
2, http://www.energies-renouvelables.org/observ-er/stat_baro/
observ/baro-jde14-gb.pdf. Figure 19 based on historical data
from GWEC, op. cit. this note, and data for 2013 from sources in
this note.
Down 10 GW after several record years from GWEC, op. cit. note
1; drop in United States from Steve Sawyer, GWEC, personal
communication with REN21, 18 December 2013.
GWEC, Global Wind Statistics 2013 (Brussels: 5 February 2014);

Sawyer, op. cit. note 2.
At least 85 countries from Shruti Shukla, GWEC, personal

communication with REN21, 13 April 2014; figures of 71 and 24
countries from Shruti Shukla, GWEC, personal communication
with REN21, 26 March 2014. Note that there was wind-related
activity in at least 46 countries during 2013 and, as of end-2013,
75 countries had 10 MW or more capacity, and 24 had more than
1 GW in operation, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1. During 2013,
19,028 new turbines were erected in 54 countries, from Navigant
Research, op. cit. note 1.
Based on 120,624 MW at end of 2008, and 39,431 MW at end of

2003, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 21.
Sixth consecutive year and shares based on data for China, the
European Union, the United States, Canada, and the world, from
GWEC, op. cit. note 1, pp. 17, 18. Note that Europe accounted for
32% of all new installations in 2013, up from 28.5% in 2012 and
24.5% in 2011, from Navigant Research, op. cit. note 1; and the
EU accounted for 32.3% of 2013 installations from WWEA, op. cit.
note 1.
Latin America (including Mexico) accounted for 1,615 MW in

2013, or nearly 4.6% of capacity additions based on data from
GWEC, op. cit. note 1; Latin America accounted for 5.1% of the
global market, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1.
GWEC, op. cit. note 1.
WWEA, op. cit. note 1. The top five are followed by Germany
(372.1 W/capita), Canada (209.7), Estonia (191.2), Austria (182.2),
and the United States (167.7).
74 Jaideep Malaviya, "India: Industry Shifts to Vacuum Tube

Collectors," Solar Thermal World, 1 May 2013, http://solar
thermalworld.org/content/india-industry-shifts-vacuumtube-collectors.
75 European Technology Platform on Renewable Heating
and Cooling, Strategic Research Priorities for Solar Thermal
Technologies (Brussels: December 2012), p. 22, http://www.rhcplatform.org/fileadmin/Publications/Solar_thermal_SRP.pdf.
76 Werner Weiss and Pam Murphy, IEA-SHC, personal
communication with REN21, March 2014.
77 Most PVT manufacturers are based in Europe, but there are
also companies in China, Israel, Turkey, and the United States,
from Irina Mitina, Fachhochschule Dsseldorf, Arbeitsgruppe
E 2 Erneuerbare Energien und Energieeffizienz, Technology
Survey: Pros and Cons of Different PVT Collectors, SMEThermal
2014, Berlin, 18 February 2014. See also Lydie Bahjejian, France:
Third Player to Launch PVT Panel on Market, Solar Thermal
World, 7 May 2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/
france-third-player-launch-pvt-panel-market.
78 See, for example, Stephanie Banse and Joachim Berner,
Lowering Costs, Maintaining Efficiency, Sun & Wind Energy,
December 2012, pp. 6265; Epp, op. cit. note 20; Rosell,
Mexico: Fight for New Incentives, op. cit. note 20.
79 The test standard EN ISO 9806, by ISO committees CEN/
TC 312 and ISO TC180, includes testing methodology for a
number of new solar thermal technologies, such as solar air
heating collectors and concentrating medium-temperature
collectors, from Brbel Epp, Global Collector Test Standard
Incorporates New Technologies, Solar Thermal World,
24 October 2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/
global-collector-test-standard-incorporates-new-technologies.
80 For example, review of a technical quality standard in Mexico
during 2012 reduced the approved system models from 250 to 40,
and there are still efforts under way to create a national standard,
from Rosell, Mexico: Fight for New Incentives, op. cit. note 20;
Costa Ricas Institute of Technical Standards began working on a
standardisation process for solar thermal systems, from Epp, op.
cit. note 20.
81 The first World Map of the Solar Process Heat Collector
Industry includes 36 companies from 10 countries including 18
parabolic trough collector manufacturers, four Fresnel collector
manufacturers, 1 evacuated flat-plate collector manufacturer, 8
scheffler/paraboloid dish collector manufacturers, and 4 receiver
(tube) manufacturers, per Eva Augsten, The world of solar
process heat, Sun & Wind Energy, March 2014. Only a small
portion (perhaps one-third) of manufacturers is also active in the
CSP field, per Brbel Epp, solrico, personal communication with
REN21, 26 March 2014.
82 Based on survey with manufacturers of process heat systems,
from Augsten, op. cit. note 81, pp. 3645.
83 Jakob, op. cit. note 50, slide 26.
84 Eva Augsten, Australia: Country to Publish First Solar
Air Conditioning Standard, Solar Thermal World, 17
June 2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/
australia-country-publish-first-solar-air-conditioning-standard.
85 Makatec (Germany) and Solabcool (Netherlands) released new
chillers; Solabcool, Mitsubishi Plastics (Japan), and Jiangsu
Huineng (China) put out new cooling kits, from Augsten, op. cit.
note 84.
86 Eva Augsten, Germany: Additional Support for Small
Solar Cooling Systems, Solar Thermal World, 3
February 2014, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/
germany-additional-support-small-solar-cooling-systems.
87 Daniel Mugnier, TECSOL SA, personal communication with
REN21, 11 April 2014. See, for example, http://en.helioclim.fr/.
10 Based on the following: 16,088 MW added for a total of

91,412MW installed by the end of 2013, from Chinese Wind
Energy Association (CWEA), provided by Shi Pengfei, CWEA,
personal communication with REN21, 14 March 2014; 16,000 MW
added for a total of 91,324 MW, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1; and
16,088 MW added for a total of 91,412 MW, from GWEC, op. cit.
note 1, p. 17. For more on China-related developments, see also
Statistics of Wind Power Development in China 2013, WWEA
Quarterly Bulletin, March 2014, pp. 2233, http://www.wwindea.
org/webimages/WWEA_Bulletin-ISSUE_1_2014_reduced.pdf.
Figure 20 based on country-specific data and sources provided
throughout this section.
02
73 Based on the ISOL Index, an international business climate index

developed and surveyed by solrico since the beginning of 2010.
This point-based indicator (ranging from 0 to 100 points) shows
the satisfaction of solar thermal manufacturers and system
suppliers with current and expected market development, and
company values are averaged to obtain country and regional
indices, per http://www.solrico.com. The average long-term
current business ISOL Index 2012/2013 for Greece was 58 points,
the highest score together with India, per Brbel Epp, solrico,
personal communication with REN21, February 2014.
11 Figure of 14.1 GW added to the grid for a year-end total of

75,480MW from China Electricity Council (CEC), provided by Shi
Pengfei, CWEA, personal communication with REN21, 15 April
2014. Note that 77,160 MW was available for grid connection,
from China Renewable Energy Engineering Institute (CREEI),
provided by Shi, op. cit. note 10. Most of the capacity added in
2013 was feeding the grid by years end, per Sawyer, op. cit. note
1. Note that the process of finalising the test phase and getting
a commercial contract with the system operator takes time, as
does getting paid, all of which account for delays in reporting. The
difference in statistics among Chinese organisations and agencies
is explained by the fact that they count different thingsthere are
three prevailing statistics in China: installed capacity (turbines
installed according to commercial contracts); construction
177
ENDNOTES 02 MARKET AND INDUSTRY TRENDS WIND POWER

capacity (constructed and connected to grid for testing); and
operational capacity (connected, tested, and receiving tariff
for electricity produced). The lowest number (operational) only
registers once the feed-in tariff has been paid, which can take
weeks or even months.
12 An estimated 16.2 TWh was curtailed in 2013, from Shi, op. cit.
note 10.
13 China National Energy Administration, provided by Liu
Minghui, CWEA, personal communication with REN21,
February 2014; China Wind Farm Idling Improves with
Better Planning, Bloomberg, 9 September 2013, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/09/chinawind-farm-idling-improves-with-better-planning. Note that a
800 kV DC transmission line over 2,200 kilometres, from Hami
in Xinjiang province to Zhengzhou in Henan, came into operation
in January 2014, with 8 GW capacity for wind and coal power. In
addition, several ultra-high transmission lines are planned to carry
electricity from Inner Mongolia and Gansu to eastern China. In
2012, 20.8 TWh of wind power could be generated but were lost
due to dispatching requirements, and unable to be consumed; this
number declined to 16.2 TWh in 2013, all from Shi, op. cit. note
10.
14 Figure of 140.1 TWh and exceeding nuclear from CEC, provided
by Shi Pengfei, CWEA, personal communication with REN21, 12
March 2014; and up 40% based on 100.4 TWh generated in 2012,
from CEC, provided by Shi, op. cit. note 10.
15 CREEI, provided by Shi, op. cit. note 10.
16 Based on data from European Wind Energy Association (EWEA),
Wind in Power: 2013 European Statistics (Brussels: February
2014), p. 3, http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/files/library/
publications/statistics/EWEA_Annual_Statistics_2013.pdf; from
GWEC, op. cit. note 3; and from WWEA, op. cit. note 1.
17 EWEA, op. cit. note 16. The EU added 11,264 MW to the grid in
2013 for a total of 117,289 MW.
18 Ibid., p. 5.
19 Market decline from ibid., p. 6; financing is becoming more
challenging particularly for offshore projects, according to Shruti
Shukla, GWEC, personal communication with REN21, 19 March
2014; policy uncertainty also from Sarah Azau, Wind Energy
Sector Faces Uncertainty Crisis, Wind Directions, April 2013, p.
19. Note that 2013 additions in Europe reflect orders that were
made before political uncertainty began to sweep across Europe
in 2011, per GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 22.
21 Germanys strong year was driven largely by developers efforts
to install projects and acquire the best wind power purchasing
terms possible before pending reform of the EEG in 2014, from
EurObservER, op. cit. note 1, p. 5; and from C. Ender, Wind
Energy Use in GermanyStatus 31.12.2013, DEWI Magazin,
February 2014, http://www.dewi.de/dewi/fileadmin/pdf/
publications/Magazin_44/07.pdf; the previous German record was
set in 2002, per EurObservER, op. cit. note 1, pp. 3, 5.
22 Germany added 3,591.71 MW of capacity in 2013, but only
3,237 MW of that was grid-connected by years end (not all new
offshore capacity was connected), and 236 MW was removed
for repowering, from Ender, op. cit. note 21. From other sources:
In 2013, Germany added 3,238 MW (of which 240 MW was gridconnected offshore) for a total of 33,730 MW, per EWEA, op. cit.
note 16, pp. 45; 3,238 MW was added for a total of 34,250 MW
grid-connected, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 48; 3,237 MW was
added, from Navigant Research, op. cit. note 1; 3,345 MW was
added for a total of 34,660 MW (including installed capacity that
was not grid-connected), from WWEA, op. cit. note 1; Germanys
gross additions were 3,592 MW, with net additions of 3,356
MW (accounting for repowering), including 2,761 MW onshore,
for a year-end total of 34,660 MW (including about 355 MW of
offshore capacity that was not grid-connected by years end),
per Arbeitsgruppe Erneuerbare Energien-Statistik (AGEE-Stat),
Erneuerbare Energien im Jahr 2013 (Berlin: Bundesministerium fr
Wirtschaft und Energie (BMWi), Berlin, 2014), http://www.bmwi.
de/BMWi/Redaktion/PDF/A/agee-stat-bericht-ee-2013.
23 AGEE-Stat, op. cit. note 22.
24 The United Kingdom installed 1,883 MW for a year-end total
of 10,531 MW, per EWEA, op. cit. note 16, pp. 45; the same
numbers are used by GWEC and Navigant Research. The U.K.
added 2,088 MW for a total of 10,976 MW, from U.K. Department
of Energy and Climate Change (DECC), Section 6 Renewables,
in Energy Trends (London: March 2014), https://www.gov.
178
uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/295362/ET_March_2014.PDF.
25 Poland added 894 MW for a total of 3,390 MW; Sweden added
724 MW for a total of 4,470 MW; Romania added 695 MW for a
total of 2,600 MW; Denmark added 657 MW for a total of 4,772
MW, from EWEA, op. cit. note 16, pp. 35. Note that Denmark
added net 626 MW for total of 4,792 MW at years end, per
Carsten Vittrup, 2013 Was a Record-Setting Year for Danish Wind
Power, Energinet.DK, 15 January 2014, http://www.energinet.dk/
EN/El/Nyheder/Sider/2013-var-et-rekordaar-for-dansk-vindkraft.
aspx. At the end of 2013, wind power accounted for 7% of
Swedens electricity consumption, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p.
23.
26 France added 631 MW for a total of 8,254 MW, and Italy added
444 MW for a total of 8,551 MW, from EWEA, op. cit. note 16,
pp. 35. Note that France added 535 MW of wind capacity in
2013, down from 815 MW in 2012, for a total of 8,163 MW, per
Commissariat Gnral au Dveloppement Durable, Ministre
de lcologie du Dveloppement durable et de lnergie,
Observation et Statistiques, Chiffres & Statistiques, no. 498,
February 2014, http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/IMG/
pdf/CS498.pdf.
27 Spain added 175 MW for a total of 22,959 MW from EWEA, op. cit.
note 16, p. 4; 173 MW net additions for total of 22,746 MW from
Red Elctrica de Espaa, Potencia Instalada Peninsular (MW),
http://www.ree.es, updated March 2014; policy changes from
Chris Rose, A Closer Look at Spain, Wind Directions, November
2013, p. 30; lowest in 16 years from EurObservER, op. cit. note
1, p. 9.
29 Ibid., p. 4. Iceland also added capacity (1.8 MW) for the first time
in 2013, from idem. In addition, Bolivia added wind capacity
(3 MW) for the first time in 2013, from Shukla, op. cit. note 4,
26 March 2014; and Mongolia added its first commercial wind
capacity (50 MW) for a total of 50 MW from GWEC, op. cit. note 1,
p. 17. Note, however, that Bolivia and Iceland added capacity prior
to, but not during, 2013; and Mongolia added 46.9 MW in 2013 for
a total of 50.9 MW, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1.
30 Market contraction based on 1,729 MW added in 2013 and 2,336
MW installed in 2012, with 2012 data from GWEC, op. cit. note 1,
p. 9.
31 Figure of 1,729 MW added in 2013 for a year-end total of 20,150
MW, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 17; and from EurObservER, op.
cit. note 1, p. 2; added 1,987 MW per Navigant Research, op. cit.
note 1; added 1,829 MW for a total of 20,150 MW, from WWEA,
op. cit. note 1.
32 Asia Report: Whats Driving, And Hampering, Indias Wind Market
Momentum, Renewable Energy World, 5 September 2013, http://
asia-report-whats-driving-and-hampering-indias-wind-marketmomentum-1; Natalie Obiko Pearson, Indias Currency Plunge
Derailing its $1.6 Billion Wind Industry, Bloomberg, 3 September
article/2013/09/rupee-derailing-1-6-billion-india-wind-farmrevival; GWEC, op. cit. note 1, pp. 28, 58; Navigant Research, op.
cit. note 1.
33 The GBI was reinstated in August 2013, retroactively from April
2012, from Shukla, op. cit. note 4, 26 March 2014. Accelerated
depreciation (of 80%), a key support policy for privately-owned
projects, was not yet reinstated as of years end, from Navigant
34 Japan added 50 MW in 2013 for a total of 2,661 MW, from GWEC,
op. cit. note 1, p. 17, and from WWEA, op. cit. note 1. Japans
guidelines for wind power projects are stricter than those for new
skyscrapers, per Steve Sawyer, GWEC, personal communication
with REN21, 15 January 2014; environmental assessments for
construction of large-scale wind farms in Japan take about three
years, from Kazuaki Nagata, Wind Power on Verge of Taking Off,
Japan Times, 26 February 2014, http://www.japantimes.co.jp/
news/2014/02/26/business/wind-power-on-verge-of-taking-off/#.
Uw-8m_l5Np8; Thailand added 111 MW for a total of 223 MW,
and Pakistan added 50 MW for a total of 106 MW, from GWEC, op.
cit. note 1, p. 17. Note that Thailand added 81 MW for a total of
193 MW, and Pakistan added no capacity for a total of 106 MW,
from WWEA, op. cit. note 1. Vietnams first commercial project
came on line in 2012, and the second in 2013, from Bac Lieu
Wind-Power Project Comes on Line, Vietnamnet.vn, 31 May
2013, http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/environment/75604/
35 Canada added 1,599 MW for a total of 7,803 MW, of which

2,470MW was in Ontario and 2,398.3 MW in Quebec, from GWEC,
op. cit. note 1, pp. 17, 22. Canada added nearly 1,600 MW for a
total of 7,802.72 MW from Canadian Wind Energy Association
(CanWEA), Installed Capacity, http://canwea.ca/wind-energy/
installed-capacity/, viewed 11 April 2014; 1,699 MW was added
per Navigant Research, op. cit. note 1; and 1,497 MW was added
for a total of 7,698 MW, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1. Market
increase of more than 70% based on 2013 additions and added
capacity of 935 MW in 2012, from GWEC, Global Wind Report:
Annual Market Update 2012 (Brussels: 2013), p. 9.
36 The United States added 1,087 MW in 2013 for a total
of 61,110 MW, from American Wind Energy Association
(AWEA), U.S. Capacity & Generation, in U.S. Wind
Industry Annual Market Report 2013 (Washington, DC: 10
April 2014), http://www.awea.org/AnnualMarketReport.
aspx?ItemNumber=6305&RDtoken=35392&userID=.
37 Figure of 13,131 MW was added during 2012, from AWEA, AWEA
U.S. Wind Industry Annual Market Report, Year Ending 2012
(Washington, DC: 2013), Executive Summary, http://www.awea.
org/annualmarketreport2012.
38 James Montgomery, Updated: Massachusetts Utilities Sign PPA
for Wind Energy That Is Cheaper Than Coal, Renewable Energy
World, 24 September 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.
com/rea/news/article/2013/09/massachusetts-utilities-poolfor-cheaper-wind-energy-supply; utilities included American
Electric Powers Public Service Company of Oklahoma, Xcel
Energy, Detroit Edison, Austin Energy, Omaha Public Power
District, from AWEA, Wind Powers Growth Continues to Attract
Investment, Benefit Consumers and Local Economies, press
release (Washington, DC: 31 October 2013), http://www.awea.org/
MediaCenter/pressrelease.aspx?ItemNumber=5775; corporate
purchasers included Google and Microsoft, which signed longterm PPAs to power data centres in Texas, from AWEA, AWEA U.S.
Wind Industry Fourth Quarter 2013 Market Report (Washington,
DC: 30 January 2014), Executive Summary, p. 4, http://www.
awea.org/4Q2013; in response to low power prices from
Christopher Martin, US Wind Power Slumps in 2013 After Tax
Credit Drives 2012 Boom, Bloomberg, 1 November 2013, http://
www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/11/u-swind-power-slumps-in-2013-after-tax-credit-drives-2012-boom;
more than 12 GW from AWEA, Largest-ever Crop of Wind Farms
Under Construction, Building U.S. Industrys Momentum, press
release (Washington, DC: 30 January 2014), http://www.awea.org/
MediaCenter/pressrelease.aspx?ItemNumber=6044. Note that
the U.S. market was still busy after expiration of the PTC because
a change in the law, made in early 2013, provides support to all
projects that were started before 31 December 2013.
39 Texas had 12,355 MW at years end, California 5,830 MW, Iowa
5,178 MW, Illinois 3,568 MW, and Oregon 3,153 MW, per AWEA,
AWEA U.S. Wind Industry Fourth Quarter 2013 Market Report, op.
cit. note 38, p. 6, http://www.awea.org/4Q2013.
40 In 2013, Brazil added 948.2 MW of capacity, which was
considered by ABEElica to be grid-connected; a further 304.2
MW was installed and not yet grid-connected at years end, for
a total of 3.46 GW, from Francine Martins Pisni, Associao
REN21 via Suani Coelho, CENBIO, 29 April 2014. For comparison,
in 2012, Brazil added an estimated 1,077 MW for a total of 2,508
MW, from GWEC, Global Wind Report Annual Market Update
2012 (Brussels: April 2013), and from ABEElica, Boletim Mensal
de Dados do Setor Elico Publico, January 2013, p. 2, http://
www.abeeolica.org.br. Ranked seventh based on data from
GWEC, op. cit. note 1. Note that ABEElica deems capacity to
be installed and grid-connected once it has achieved the status
Able to Operate, meaning that the wind farm operator receives
monthly payment for power sales, according to the accounting
system of the Chamber of Electric Energy Commercialisation
(CCEE), which considers the energy to be delivered under the
contract at the contracted price. This status was created due to
delays in completion of some transmission lines.
41 Figure of 3.5 GW based on 3.46 GW installed and with status Able
to Operate (see previous endnote), from Pisni, op. cit. note 40;
Brazil had about 2.2 GW in commercial operation by the end of
2013, from National Electricity Agency of Brazil (ANEEL), cited in
Capacidade instalada para energia elica cresce 20% no Brasil,
Jornal da Energia, 1 April 2014, http://www.portalabeeolica.org.

br/index.php/noticias/1739-capacidade-instalada-para-energiaelica-cresce-20-no-brasil.html (using Google Translate). Brazil
added 953 MW in 2013, all of which was fully commissioned but
not all grid-connected, for a total of 3,461 MW, from GWEC, op.
cit. note 1, p. 24; added 892 MW for a total of 3,399 MW, from
WWEA, op. cit. note 1.
42 Specifically, utilities such as CPFL Energia and Tractebel Energia
are seeking to increase their focus on wind power, per Bloomberg
New Energy Finance (BNEF), Marubeni Is the Main Attraction
in Stream of August Renewable Energy Deals, Energy: Week in
Review, 6-12 August 2013; 4.7 GW of new capacity was contracted
in 2013 alone, in three auctions, and a total of 10 GW was under
contract by the end of the year, from Sawyer, op. cit. note 1.
43 Argentina added 76 MW for a total of 218 MW; Chile added
130MW for a total of 335 MW; Mexico added 380 MW for a total of
1,917 MW, all from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 17. Data from WWEA
were similar, with Argentina adding 76.2 MW for a total of 217.1
MW, Chile adding 145 MW for a total of 335 MW, from WWEA, op.
cit. note 1. The exception is Mexico, with 644 MW added for a
total of 1,992 MW, from idem. Others in the region that also added
capacity were Ecuador (16.5 MW), Nicaragua (39.6 MW), and
Uruguay adding 3.6 MW for a total of 59.3 MW, from idem.
44 Australia added 655 MW for a total of 3,239 MW, from GWEC, op.
cit. note 1, p. 17. It added 465 MW for a total of 3,049 MW, from
WWEA, op. cit. note 1.
45 Reliance on Russian gas from Sarah Azau and Zo Casey,
Europes Emerging Markets Take Flight, Wind Directions,
February 2013, p. 37; Turkey added 646 MW for a total of
2,959MW, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 17, and from WWEA,
op. cit. note 1. An additional 11 GW of capacity was planned or
under construction in Turkey by years end, from Sarah Azau, The
Powerhouse Bridging East and West, Wind Directions, September
2013, p. 30.
46 Morocco added a total of 200 MW in three wind projects, from
Philippe Lempp, Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, personal communication with
REN21, 24 April 2014; 204 MW added from WWEA, op. cit.
note 1; 120 MW and mitigating impacts in Ethiopia from Aaron
Maasho, Ethiopia Opens Africas Largest Wind Farm to Boost
Power Production, Reuters, 28 October 2013, http://planetark.
org/wen/70186. The Ashegoda Wind Farm was scheduled for
completion in 2011, but delayed due to logistical constraints, and
it is the countrys second commercial wind project, from idem.
Ethiopia added 90 MW during 2013 for year-end total of 171 MW,
from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 17; and 120 MW were added for a
total of 171 MW, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1.
47 For example, South Africa expects 7001,000 MW to come on line
in 2014; at the end of 2013, Jordan signed a PPA with Jordan Wind
Power Company for a 117 MW wind farm, per Samer Zawaydeh,
Association of Energy Engineers, Jordan Energy Chapter, personal
communication with REN21, 12 April 2014. Long-term plans from
GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 24.
48 Figures of 14 countries, 1,625.9 MW added for a total of
7,040.9MW, from Shukla, op. cit. note 4, 26 March 2014. In
14 countries also from WWEA, op. cit. note 1. In 2013, 13 new
projects were installed with 1,720 MW of capacity, from Navigant
Research, op. cit. note 1; 1,902.1 MW was added offshore eight
countries for a global total of 7,357.8 MW, with 6,935.9 MW of
this capacity in Europe, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1. Offshore
capacities by country were: the United Kingdom added 733 MW
added for a total of 3,680.9 MW; Denmark added 349.5 MW
for 1,270.6 MW; China added 39 MW for 428.6 MW; Belgium
added 192 MW for 571.5 MW; Germany added 240 MW to the
grid for 520.3 MW of grid-connected capacity; Netherlands
added 0MW for 246.8MW; Sweden added 48 MW for 211.7 MW;
Finland added 0MW for 26.3 MW; Ireland added 0 MW for 25.2
MW; Japan added 24.4MW for 49.7 MW; South Korea added 0
MW for 5.0 MW; Spain added 5 MW for 5 MW; Norway added 0
MW for 2.3MW; Portugal added 0 MW for 2.0 MW; and United
States added 0 MW for 0.02 MW (pilot), all from GWEC, op. cit.
note 1, p. 55. Data from WWEA were similar with the following
exceptions: United Kingdom added 705.1 MW for total of 3,653
MW; Germany added 595 MW for 914.9 MW (including capacity
that was not grid-connected at years end); Finland added 0 MW
for 30 MW; China added 0MW for 389.6 MW; Japan added 2 MW
for 27.3MW; South Korea added 5 MW for 5 MW, all from WWEA,
op. cit. note 1.
02
bac-lieu-wind-power-project-comes-on-line.html; total of 52 MW
from Sawyer, op. cit. note 1. Note that Vietnam added 0 MW in
2013 for a total of 31 MW, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1.
49 Europe added 1,567 MW offshore capacity to the grid for a total
179

of 6,562 MW in 11 countries, from EWEA, The European Offshore
Wind Industry Key Trends and Statistics 2013 (Brussels: January
2014), p. 5, and from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 55. Of the 1,567
MW added, 72% were in the North Sea, 22% in the Baltic Sea, and
6% in the Atlantic Ocean, from EWEA, op. cit. this note. Europe
added 1,772.9 MW offshore for a total of 6,949.2 MW, from
EurObservER, op. cit. note 1, p. 4. The difference in year-end data
is explained by how sources count newly installed capacity that
was not grid-connected at years end.
50 EWEA, op. cit. note 49, p. 5, and from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p.
55. Note that Denmarks largest offshore wind farm, the 400 MW
Anholt wind farm was completed by Dong Energy, from Denmark:
All Turbines at Anholt Offshore Wind Farm Now Operational,
Wind Directions, September 2013, p. 19. Germany had 394.6 MW
of offshore capacity awaiting grid connection at years end (not
included in the 240 MW figure), from B. Neddermann, German
Offshore Market Growing Despite Problems with Grid Connection,
DEWI Magazin, February 2014, p. 55, http://www.dewi.de/dewi/
fileadmin/pdf/publications/Magazin_44/09.pdf.
51 Slowdown due to policy uncertainty from EWEA, op. cit. note
49, p. 19; and from Sarah Azau, Record Offshore Wind Figures
Conceal Slow-down in New Projects, Renewable Energy
World, 29 January 2014, http://www.renewableenergyworld.
com/rea/blog/post/2014/01/record-offshore-figures-concealslow-down-in-new-projects; Justin Wilkes, EWEA, cited in Tildy
Bayar, Europe Doubles Its Offshore Wind Capacity, but Policy
Uncertainty Still a Challenge, Renewable Energy World, 16
July 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/
article/2013/07/europe-doubles-its-offshore-wind-capacitybut-policy-uncertainty-still-a-challenge. Several projects
were cancelled due to concerns about challenging offshore
conditions and/or projects were deemed to be uneconomic
with existing technology, from Karolin Schaps, Scottish Power
Becomes Third Firm to Scrap UK Offshore Wind Farm, Reuters,
16 December 2013, http://planetark.org/wen/70684; Kelvin
Ross, RWE Scraps Atlantic Array Offshore Wind Farm in UK,
Power Engineering International, 26 November 2013, http://
rwe-scraps-atlantic-array-offshore-wind-farm-in-uk; RWE
Cuts UK Offshore Wind Farm Capacity by Up to Half, Reuters,
6 January 2014, http://uk.reuters.com/article/2014/01/06/
uk-britain-rwe-tritonknoll-idUKBREA050EC20140106; Alex
Morales, Birds, Bombs, Sharks Slow Offshore Wind from
UK to Germany, Bloomberg, 20 February 2014, http://www.
birds-bombs-sharks-slow-offshore-wind-from-uk-to-germany.
52 China added 39 MW for a year-end total of 428.6 MW, of which
300.5 MW is inter-tidal, from CWEA, provided by Shi Pengfei,
CWEA, personal communication with REN21, 24 March 2014.
No capacity was added in 2013, and China ended the year with
389.6 MW of offshore wind, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1. Japan
added 24 MW for a total of 49.7 MW, and South Korea added no
capacity and ended the year with 5 MW, from GWEC, op. cit. note
1, pp. 55, 56. Japan added a 16 MW near-shore project and South
Korea added no new capacity, from Navigant Research, op. cit.
note 1; Japan added 2 MW for a total of 27.3 MW, and South Korea
added 5 MW for a total of 5 MW, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1; and
Japan added 8 MW for a total of 34 MW, from Hironao Matsubara,
Institute for Sustainable Energy Policies (ISEP), Tokyo, personal
communication with REN21, 16 April 2014. Note that several
Chinese projects have been delayed over the use of sea areas,
from Mao Pengfei, Analysis: China Approves First Commercial
Offshore Projects, Wind Power Offshore, 4 December 2013,
http://www.windpoweroffshore.com/article/1223773/analysischina-approves-first-commercial-offshore-projects; but almost
5 GW of Chinese projects were approved in 2013, from Sawyer,
op. cit. note 2; and more than 1,000 MW of offshore capacity was
under construction in China by early 2014, from GWEC, op. cit.
note 1, p. 56.
53 Cape Wind (Massachusetts) and Deepwater Block Island (Rhode
Island) both qualified, from James Montgomery, Wind Energy
2014 Outlook: Major Markets Recover, Battling Policy and Grid
Concerns, Renewable Energy World, January-February 2014,
p. 35; competing to be first in operation, by 2015, from James
Montgomery, First US Offshore Leases Go to Deepwater,
Renewable Energy World, 1 August 2013, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/08/first-usoffshore-wind-leases-go-to-deepwater. In addition, there is a 20
kW machine in U.S. waters, from Shukla, op. cit. note 4, 26 March
2014.
180
54 See, for example, Honda, Honda Begins Construction of the

First Wind Farm by an Automaker in Brazil, press release (So
Paulo: 29 October 2013), http://world.honda.com/news/2013/
c131029First-Wind-Farm-Brazil/index.html; Louise Downing,
Ikea to Buy Wind Farm in Ireland from Mainstream Renewable,
Bloomberg, 12 August 2013, http://www.bloomberg.com/
news/2013-08-12/ikea-to-buy-wind-farm-in-ireland-frommainstream-renewable.html; Jeff Anthony, Utilities Appetite
for Wind Energy Continues to Grow, Renew-grid.com, 10 June
2013, http://www.renew-grid.com/e107_plugins/content/content.
php?content.9985.
55 For Australia, see, for example, Australias First CommunityOwned Wind Farm in Daylesford, Castlemaine Independent, 18
October 2013, http://www.castlemaineindependent.org/2013/10/
australias-community-owned-wind-farm-daylesford/; and The
Greens, Unleashing Community-Owned Energy, http://greens.
org.au/community-energy, viewed 3 March 2014; in Canada, for
example, the countrys first union-owned and -operated wind
turbine came on line, in Ontario (Port Elgin), per Ken Lewenza,
President of Canadian Auto Workers (CAW), cited in CAW Owned
and Operated Wind Turbine Begins Operation in Port Elgin,
Ontario, 25 March 2013, http://www.caw.ca/en/12003.htm;
Japan from Tetsu Iida, ISEP, Tokyo, personal communication
with REN21, 14 January 2014; United States from A.C. Orrell
et al., 2012 Market Report on Wind Technologies in Distributed
Applications (Richland, WA: Pacific Northwest Laboratory, August
2013), p. 59; and from Windustry, Community Wind, http://
www.windustry.org/community-wind, viewed 3 March 2014.
A community project came on line in South Dakota with 600
investors, but it is increasingly difficult to make investment open
for normal investors in the United States now that the federal
cash grant programme has expired, per Brian Minish in interview
with John Farrell, 600 Investors in South Dakotas Premier
Community Wind Project, (podcast) Renewable Energy World,
13 August 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
blog/post/2013/08/600-investors-in-south-dakotas-premiercommunity-wind-project; Europe from, for example, Energy4All
Limited, Delivering Community-Owned Green Power, http://
www.energy4all.co.uk/, viewed 3 March 2014, from Richard
Cowell, Community Wind in Europe Strength in Diversity?
WWEA Quarterly Bulletin, December 2012, pp. 1015, and from
Tildy Bayar, Community Wind Arrives Stateside, Renewable
Energy World, 5 July 2012, http://www.renewableenergyworld.
com/rea/news/article/2012/07/community-wind-arrives-stateside.
See also Community Wind Energy, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Community_wind_energy, viewed 3 March 2014.
56 Stefan Gsnger, WWEA, Bonn, personal communication with
REN21, 1 April 2013.
57 For example, over a 13-hour period, 1,700 Dutch
households bought shares in a wind turbine, to be located
in Culemborg, raising USD 1.8 million (EUR 1.3 million)
through crowd funding, from Tildy Bayar, Dutch Wind
Turbine Purchase Sets World Crowdfunding Record,
dutch-wind-turbine-purchase-sets-world-crowdfunding-record.
58 Pike Research, Small Wind Power, www.pikeresearch.
com/research/small-wind-power, viewed March 2013;
WWEA, Small World Wind Power Report 2013 (Bonn: March
2013), Summary, http://www.wwindea.org/webimages/
SWWR_summary.pdf; RenewableUK, Small and Medium
Wind UK Market Report (London: October 2013), http://
www.renewableuk.com/en/publications/index.cfm/
Small-and-Medium-Wind-UK-Market-Report-2013.
59 Off-grid from WWEA, op. cit. note 58.
60 Stefan Gsnger and Jean Pitteloud, Small Wind World Report 2014
Update (Bonn: WWEA, March 2014), Summary, http://small-wind.
org/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/2014_SWWR_summary_web.
pdf. Note that these numbers are based on available data, and the
total excludes data for Italy and India, both of which are important
markets. WWEA estimates that the actual total is closer to 1
million units worldwide.
61 All information except U.S. capacity data is from Gsnger and
Pitteloud, op. cit. note 60; the United States added about 18.4
MW in 2012 (nearly 3,700 turbines) for an estimated 216 MW
cumulative installed since 1980, with 131 MW added during
20032012, mostly by homeowners, farmers, and other
individuals, per Orrell et al., op. cit. note 55, pp. 11, 18, 62.
62 RenewableUK, op. cit. note 58. Note that a tariff degression in late
63 Gsnger and Pitteloud, op. cit. note 60.

64 International Energy Agency (IEA), Technology Roadmap
Wind Energy, 2013 Edition (Paris: OECD/IEA, 2013), p. 10;
James Lawson, Repowering Gives New Life to Old Wind
Sites, Renewable Energy World, 17 June 2013, http://www.
repowering-gives-new-life-to-old-wind-sites; B. Neddermann,
Status of Repowering in 2013, DEWI Magazin, February 2014,
p. 47, http://www.dewi.de/dewi/fileadmin/pdf/publications/
Magazin_44/08.pdf. Sidebar 5 from the following sources:
lifecycle carbon dioxide emissions from Union of Concerned
Scientists, Environmental Impacts of Wind Power, 3 May 2013,
www.ucsusa.org; offshore marine impacts from U.K. Maritime and
Coastguard Agency, Offshore Renewable Energy Installations:
Impact on Shipping, http://www.gov.uk, and from M.L. Johnson
and D.P. Rodmell, Fisheries, the Environment and Offshore Wind
Farms: Location, Location, Location, Food Ethics, vol. 4, no. 1
(2009), pp. 2324; public health effects from Australian National
Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), NHMRC
Public Statement: Wind Turbines & Health, July 2010, http://
www.nhmrc.gov.au; claims unsupported from Emma Fitzpatrick,
Acoustics Group Says Wind Turbine Infrasound Less than a
Heart-beat, 16 September 2013, http://reneweconomy.com.
au, and from NHMRC, op. cit. this note; innovation in turbine
blades and reduced noise generation from Z. Casey, Wind Farms:
A Noisy Neighbour? Wind Directions (EWIA), February 2013,
and from T. Evans, Macarthur Wind Farm, Infrasound & Low
Frequency Noise, Operational Monitoring Results, 18 July 2013,
http://www.agl.com.au; offshore noise reduction from German
Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (BFN), Development of
Noise Mitigation Measures in Offshore Wind Farm Construction
2013 (Bonn: February 2013), and from German Federal Ministry
for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety
(BMU), Innovation Through Research: 2012 Annual Report on
Research Funding in the Renewable Energies Sector (Bonn: July
2013); radar or GPS systems from M. Chediak, Texas Gulf Coast
Beckons Wind Farms, Bloomberg, 11 October 2013, http://
www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-10-10/gulf-coast-beckonswind-farms-when-west-texas-gusts-fade.html, and from R.
Drouin, 8 Ways Wind Power Companies Are Trying to Stop Killing
Birds and Bats, 6 January 2014, http://www.motherjones.com/
environment/2014/01/birds-bats-wind-turbines-deadly-collisions;
ultrasonic noise from idem; idling and bat fatalities from American
Wind Wildlife Institute, Wind Turbine Interactions with Wildlife
and their Habitats: A Summary of Research Results and Priority
Questions, fact sheet (Washington, DC: January 2014); other
areas under investigation from Drouin, op. cit. this note; land use
impacts from P. Denholm et al., Land-use Requirements of Modern
Wind Power Plants in the United States (Golden, CO: National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2009); rare earths from REN21,
Renewables 2011 Global Status Report (Paris: 2011); best practice
guidelines from, for example, Canadian Wind Energy Association,
Wind Energy Development Best Practices for Community
Engagement and Public Consultation (Ottawa: undated), and from
WindProtocol, The Protocol for Public Engagement with Proposed
Wind Energy Developments in England (London: Department of
Trade and Industry, May 2007); impact assessments, mitigation,
or compensation measures from the following: Martha Ekkert,
BMU, personal communication with REN21, 27 January
2014; Victoria Department of Transport, Planning and Local
Infrastructure, Wind Energy Facilities, 18 October 2013, http://
www.dpcd.vic.gov.au; Irish Wind Energy Association, Planning
Regulations and Administration, 2 September 2008, http://www.
iwea.com; A. Campbell, Standard Bank, Funding Projects in
REIPP lessons learned from BD1, presentation at PV Project
Development Summit South Africa, September 2012; U.K.
Department of Energy & Climate Change, Offshore Wind: Part
of the UKs Energy Mix, 1 August 2013, https://www.gov.uk/
offshore-wind-part-of-the-uks-energy-mix.
65 Other countries include India, Italy, Portugal, Spain, the United
Kingdom, and the United States, from IEA, op. cit. note 64, p. 10;
and from Lawson, op. cit. note 64.
66 Denmark replaced 39 units (47 MW), Finland (2 units/2.3 MW),

Japan (4 units/2.1 MW), from Navigant Research, op. cit. note 1;
Germany replaced 339 turbines (226 MW) with 256 turbines (726
MW), plus removed 34 turbines (10 MW) from single sites, which
also qualified for the "repowering bonus", from Neddermann, op.
cit. note 64, p. 47.
67 Key markets include Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Turkey, Vietnam,
and several countries in South America, from Lawson, op. cit. note
64.
68 Based on estimated 257 TWh of electricity production in a
normal wind year, calculated using average capacity factors
on- and offshore, and using Eurostat electricity consumption
data for 2011, from EWEA, op. cit. note 16, p. 3. Note that wind
power accounted for about 7.2% of Europes electricity output
(of 3,270 TWh) in 2013, up from 6.2% in 2012 and 1.8% in 2004,
per EurObservER, op. cit. note 1, p. 4. Winds contribution to EU
electricity demand is up from 6.3% at the end of 2011, and 4.8%
at the end of 2009, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 22. Note that
Portugal met more than 20% of its electricity demand with wind,
and Ireland more than 16%, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1; Irelands
share was up from 12.7% in 2012, from EWEA, Wind in Power:
2012 European Statistics (Brussels: February 2013).
69 In Spain, wind generated 20.9% versus nuclears 20.8%,
according to an advance report from the system operator Red
Elctrica de Espaa (REE), per Asociacin Empresarial Elica
(AEE), Spain Was in 2013 the First Country Where Wind Energy
Was the First Source of Electricity for an Entire Year, press
release (Madrid: 15 January 2014), http://www.aeeolica.org/en/
new/spain-was-in-2013-the-first-country-where-wind-energywas-the-first-source-of-electricity-for-an-entire-year/; this was
up from 16.3% in 2012, per EWEA, op. cit. note 68. Denmark
met 33.2% of electricity demand with wind power, based on 11.1
billion kWh of wind power generation in 2013 and 33.5 billion kWh
of total electricity consumption, from Vittrup, op. cit. note 25; this
was up from 30% in 2012, per GWEC, Global Wind Report Annual
Market Update 2012 (Brussels: April 2013), p. 34.
70 Mecklenburg-Vorpommern had enough wind to meet 65.5% of
its electricity demand, followed by Schleswig-Hostein (53%),
Sachsen-Anhalt (51.2%), and Brandenburg (50.9%); the next
state was Niedersachsen (26.2%), all from Ender, op. cit. note 21,
p. 42. Note that wind power supplied about 8% of Germanys net
electricity consumption in 2013, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 52.
71 Figure of 3.5% of U.S. generation in 2012 from U.S. Energy
Information Administration (EIA), Wind Industry Brings Almost
5,400 MW of Capacity Online in December 2012, www.eia.
gov/electricity/monthly/update/?scr=email, viewed 25April
2013; 2013 shares from AWEA, American Wind Power
Reaches Major Power Generation Milestones in 2013, press
release (Washington, DC: 5 March 2014), http://www.awea.org/
MediaCenter/pressrelease.aspx?ItemNumber=6184. States
generating over 12% of their electricity from wind were Colorado
(13.8%), Idaho (16.2%), Iowa (27.4%), Kansas (19.4%), Minnesota
(15.7%), North Dakota (15.6%), Oklahoma (14.8%), Oregon
(12.4%), and South Dakota (26%), from AWEA, Wind Energy
Generation Records, http://www.awea.org/generationrecords,
viewed 6 March 2014. Wind generated 167,776 MWh of U.S.
electricity during 2013, per AWEA, op. cit. note 36.
72 CEC, provided by Shi, op. cit. note 14.
73 The figure 2.9% is an estimate derived for Figure 3 in this report,
and is based on end-2013 capacity. See Endnote 39 in Global
Market and Industry Overview section for sources and details. In
addition, note that the figure of at least 2.87%, or 662 TWh is
considered a conservative estimate for 2014 based on existing
wind capacity at end-2013, from Navigant Research, op. cit. note
1, and is up from at least 2.6% in 2012, from Navigants BTM
Consult, World Market Update 2012 (Copenhagen: March 2013);
wind power generated about 527 TWh in the end of 2012, up from
254 TWh in end of 2008, per IEA, op. cit. note 64, pp. 910.
Wind power was enough to meet an estimated 4% of world
demand, or 640 TWh, from WWEA, op. cit. note 1. Estimated wind
shares depend on assumptions about global electricity demand.
02
2012 led to a rush of installations at years end. The U.K. installed

37 MW during 2012 and ended the year with 87.3 MW, per
Gsnger and Pitteloud, op. cit. note 60. Several other countries
also have small-scale wind specific tariff pricing under FITs,
including Cyprus, Greece, Italy, Israel, Japan, Lithuania, Portugal,
Slovenia, and Switzerland, as well as Ontario and Nova Scotia in
Canada, and the U.S. states of Indiana, Hawaii and Vermont, per
idem.
74 Sawyer, op. cit. note 1.

75 Sawyer, op. cit. note 34; Australia, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, New
Zealand, Turkey, and South Africa also from IEA, op. cit. note
64, p. 14. Also, in Australia, unsubsidised renewable energy is
now cheaper than electricity from new-build coal- and gas-fired
power stations (including cost of emissions under new carbon
pricing scheme), per BNEF, Renewable energy now cheaper
than new fossil fuels in Australia, 7 February 2013, http://about.
181

bnef.com/2013/02/07/renewable-energy-now-cheaper-thannew-fossil-fuels-in-australia/; the best wind projects in India can
generate power and the same costs as coal-fired power plants
and cheaper in some locations, per Ravi Kailas, CEO of Indias
third-largest wind farm developer, cited in Natalie Obiko Pearson,
Wind Installations Falling Off a Cliff in India, Bloomberg, 26
November 2012, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
news/article/2012/11/wind-installations-falling-off-a-cliff-in-india;
cheaper in some locations from Greenko Group Plc, cited in
Natalie Obiko Pearson, In Parts of India, Wind Energy Proving
Cheaper Than Coal, Bloomberg, 18 July 2012, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2012/07/in-partsof-india-wind-energy-proving-cheaper-than-coal; a 2012 study
concluded that, although wind power has higher upfront costs in
EUR/MWh than natural gas, the net cost of wind is lower than that
of combined-cycle gas turbines, per Ernst & Young, Analysis of
the value creation potential of wind energy policies, July 2012,
http://www.ey.com; in Brazil, wind was excluded from the A-5
auction because it was too cheap; in the wind-only auction, the
average contract price was USD 45/MWh, from Steve Sawyer,
GWEC, personal communication with REN21, 28 August 2013; bid
prices in South Africas national tender in late 2013 were around
USD 70/MWh, or about 30% below that of new coal plants under
construction there with World Bank support, from Steve Sawyer,
GWEC, personal communication with REN21, 13 November 2013
and 15 January 2014; many countries in the European Union from
Stefan Gsnger, WWEA, personal communication with REN21,
16 April 2014; United States from Michael Taylor, International
Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), personal communication
with REN21, April 2013; several U.S. utilities signed contracts for
more wind capacity than previously planned because of low prices
(as low as USD 25/MWh in some locations), from Christopher
Martin, US Wind Power Slumps in 2013 After Tax Credit Drives
2012 Boom, Bloomberg, 1 November 2013, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/11/u-s-windpower-slumps-in-2013-after-tax-credit-drives-2012-boom; James
Montgomery, Updated: Massachusetts Utilities Sign PPA for
Wind Energy that is Cheaper than Coal, Renewable Energy World,
24 September 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
news/article/2013/09/massachusetts-utilities-pool-for-cheaperwind-energy-supply; utilities included American Electric Powers
Public Service Company of Oklahoma, Xcel Energy, Detroit
Edison, Austin Energy, Omaha Public Power District, from AWEA,
Wind Powers Growth Continues to Attract Investment, Benefit
Consumers and Local Economies, press release (Washington,
DC: 31 October 2013), http://www.awea.org/MediaCenter/
pressrelease.aspx?ItemNumber=5775. See also Ryan Wiser et
al., 2012 Wind Technologies Market Report (Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Energy, August 2013), Executive Summary,
http://www.windpoweringamerica.gov/pdfs/2012_annual_wind_
market_report.pdf. Investment costs for offshore wind remain two
to three times higher than those for onshore wind, from IEA, op.
cit. note 64, p. 15.
76 Over the five-year period from Q2 2009 to Q1 2014, from Frankfurt
SchoolUNEP Collaborating Centre for Climate & Sustainable
Energy Finance (FS-UNEP Centre) and BNEF, Global Trends in
Renewable Energy Investment 2014 (Frankfurt: 2014), pp. 3637.
Offshore costs have risen 41%/MWh over this period as projects
have moved to deeper water farther from shore, and pressure
has increased on supply of installation vessels, cables, and other
items. Note that, in the United States, onshore generating costs
declined 43% between 2009 and 2012, per AWEA, AWEA U.S.
Wind Industry Fourth Quarter 2013 Market Report, op. cit. note 38,
p. 4.
77 Li Yan, China Wind Power 2013: Market Growth Stable, Faces
Grid Shortage, ecns.cn, 18 October 2013, http://www.ecns.
cn/2013/10-18/84917.shtml; EurObservER, Wind Power
Barometer (Paris: February 2013), p. 61, http://www.energiesrenouvelables.org/observ-er/stat_baro/observ/baro-jde12.pdf;
James Lawson, Keeping Wind Competitive: Manufacturing Ups
its Game, Renewable Energy World, March-April 2013, p. 19;
Christopher Martin, Shale Gas Boom Leaves Wind Companies
Seeking More Subsidy, Bloomberg.com, 7 April 2014, http://
www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-04-06/shale-gas-boom-leaveswind-companies-seeking-more-subsidy.html.
78 Bard from EurObservER, op. cit. note 1, pp. 9, 11; Fuhrlnder
from Gsnger, op. cit. note 75; Vestas from BNEF, Vestas Sees
Winds of Change, as UK Aims for Greener Biomass and California
CO2 Sells Out, Energy: Week in Review, 2026 August 2013.
79 Navigant Research, op. cit. note 1.
182
80 Factory closures and layoffs from Wiser et al., op. cit. note
75; from Sawyer, op. cit. note 2; and from Jennifer Runyon,
Nordex Announces Closure of US Wind Power Manufacturing
Plant, Renewable Energy World, 28 June 2013, http://www.
nordex-announces-closure-of-us-wind-power-manufacturingplant; ramped up from AWEA, American Wind Power See
Unprecedented Growth Entering 2014, press release
(Washington, DC: 30 January 2014), http://www.awea.
org/MediaCenter/pressrelease.aspx?ItemNumber=6044;
manufacturing from Elizabeth Salerno, AWEA, Fact Check:
IER Finds it Hard to Kick Habit of Attacking Wind Power,
Renewable Energy World, 9 December 2013, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/12/factcheck-ier-finds-it-hard-to-kick-habit-of-attacking-wind-power.
81 Natalie Obiko Pearson, Indias Currency Plunge Derailing
its $1.6 Billion Wind Industry, Bloomberg, 3 September
article/2013/09/rupee-derailing-1-6-billion-india-windfarm-revival; BNEF, Europe Skirmishes With America on
Airline Emissions, and With China on Solar, Energy: Week
in Review, 1824 September 2012; Natalie Obiko Pearson
and Anurag Joshi, Wind Turbine Manufacturer Suzlon to
Default on Bond Debt, Bloomberg, 11 October 2012, http://
wind-turbine-manufacturer-suzlon-set-to-default-on-bond-debt.
82 In Latin America, for example, wind power projects are being
delayed due to lack of grid infrastructure, from Gonzalo Bravo,
Fundacin Bariloche, personal communication with REN21,
14 January 2014; grid connection remains a major challenge
for offshore wind, particularly off Germanys coast, where 43%
of the turbines installed in 2013 (or nearly 395 MW) lacked
grid connection by years end, from B. Neddermann, German
Offshore Market Growing Despite Problems with Grid Connection,
DEWI Magazin, February 2014, p. 55, http://www.dewi.de/dewi/
fileadmin/pdf/publications/Magazin_44/09.pdf, and from Ender,
op. cit. note 21, p. 42; an issue formerly seen in the developing
world/emerging markets of Latin America and China, is now
seen in the established market of Germany, where electricity
is re-routed through Poland and the Czech Republic, from Aris
Karcanias, FTI Consulting, personal communication with REN21,
14 April 2014; curtailment and inability to integrate in several
countries, including China and India, from Shukla, op. cit. note
19, and from Klaus Rave, GWEC Chairman, Get Connected!
Editorial, in GWEC Newsletter, 12 November 2013,
http://www.gwec.net/get-connected/.
83 Oscar Fitch-Roy et al., Workers Wanted: The EU Wind Energy
Sector Skills Gap (Brussels: European Wind Energy Technology
Platform, August 2013), http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/files/
library/publications/reports/Workers_Wanted_TPwind.pdf;
Electricity Human Resources Canada, Renewing Futures: Powerful
HR Solutions for the Renewable Energy Workforce, cited in Michael
Copley, Canada Faces Labor Shortfall for Renewable Energy
Expansion, Report Finds, SNL Financial, 5 March 2014, http://
www.snl.com/Interactivex/article.aspx?CdId=A-27145217-13868;
Shukla, op. cit. note 19; Navigant Research, op. cit. note 1.
Sidebar 6 and Table 1 based on the following sources: from
IRENA, Renewable Energy and Jobs Annual Review 2014
(Abu Dhabi: 2014), http://www.irena.org/Publications/rejobsannual-review-2014.pdf; IRENA, Renewable Energy and Jobs
(Abu Dhabi: 2013), http://www.irena.org/rejobs.pdf; Brazil from
MTE/RAIS (Ministry of Labor and Employment/ Annual Report of
Social Information), Annual List of Social Information Database:
including active and inactive employments for sugarcane
cultivation and alcohol manufacture, http://portal.mte.gov.br/rais/
estatisticas.htm, viewed March 2014; U.K. from renewableUK,
Working for a Green Britain and Northern Ireland 2013-23.
Employment in the UK Wind & Marine Energy Industries (Solihull,
U.K.: September, 2013), http://www.renewableuk.com/download.
cfm/docid/82BF89A1-9EA2-4D77-8E9B1B986BE8B727; India
from K. Ganesan et al., IISD GSI Project: Assessing Green
Industrial Policy India Case Studies (New Delhi: CEEW,
forthcoming 2014).
84 IEA, op. cit. note 64, p. 10; Japan from Navigant Research, op. cit.
note 1. China was home to 8 of the top 15 manufacturers, from
idem.
85 IEA, op. cit. note 64, p. 11. See also GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 40.
Turbine manufacturers are located in many other countries as
well. For example, in 2013 Argentinean firm IMPSA sold 574MW to
the Brazilian market, from Gonzalo Bravo, Fundacin Bariloche,
87 Navigant Research, op. cit. note 1. Other sources also put

Vestas in the lead, but rank other companies differently.
Make Consulting estimated the top 10 captured 68.4% of
the market and puts Suzlon ahead of GE Wind and Gamesa,
from Make Consulting, cited in North American Windpower,
Top 15 Wind Turbine Suppliers of 2013 Revealed, 11 March
2014, http://www.nawindpower.com/e107_plugins/content/
content.php?content.12710. GlobalData ranks Enercon ahead
of Goldwind, followed by Siemens and Suzlon to round out the
top five, from Vestas Wind Systems Blows into World-Leading
Position for 2013 Wind Turbine Installations, says GlobalData,
GlobalData.com, 12 March 2014, http://energy.globaldata.com/
media-center/press-releases/power-and-resources/vestas-windsystems-blows-into-worldleading-position-for-2013-wind-turbineinstallations-says-globaldata. Figure 21 based on data from
Navigant Research, op. cit. note 1.
88 James Lawson, Keeping Wind Competitive: Manufacturing Ups
Its Game, Renewable Energy World, MarchApril 2013, p. 19.
89 Aris Karcanias, BTM Consult, cited in James Lawson, Keeping
Wind Competitive: Manufacturing Ups its Game, Renewable
Energy World, MarchApril 2013, p. 19.
90 Jennifer Runyon, Servicing the Wind Energy Sector is Big
Business for Siemens, Renewable Energy World, 19 September
article/2013/09/servicing-the-wind-energy-sector-is-bigbusiness-for-siemens; Navigant Research, op. cit. note 1. See
also, for example, GE, Wind Services, http://www.ge-energy.
com/products_and_services/services/wind_services/, viewed 3
March 2014; Gamesa, Operation and Maintenance Services,
http://www.gamesacorp.com/en/gamesaen/lines-of-business/
operation-and-maintenance-services/, viewed 3 March 2014;
Vestas, Active Output Management, http://www.vestas.com/en/
products_and_services/operation_and_maintenance#!, viewed
3 March 2014; increase value from Shukla, op. cit. note 19.
91 Mitsubishi, MHI and Vestas Agree to Form Joint-Venture
Company Dedicated to Offshore Wind Turbine Business, press
release (Tokyo: 27 September 2013), http://www.mhi.co.jp/en/
news/story/1309271718.html; Areva, Offshore Wind: Areva
Accelerates its Development by Creating a European Champion
with Gamesa to Become a Leading Global Player, press release
(Paris: 20 January 2014), http://www.areva.com/EN/news-10115/
offshore-wind-areva-accelerates-its-development-by-creating-aeuropean-champion-with-gamesa-to-become-a-leading-globalplayer.html; Toray acquired Zolteck, a producer of carbon fibre for
wind turbine blades, per GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 61.
92 Shukla, op. cit. note 19.
93 Lawson, op. cit. note 89.
94 David Appleyard, New Turbine Technology: Key Players On- and
Offshore, Renewable Energy World, 1 May 2013, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/05/newturbine-technology-the-future-is-larger-offshore; Siemens in the
United States from Feng Zhao, Navigant Research-BTM, personal
95 Appleyard, op. cit. note 94; James Montgomery, Wind Energy
2014 Outlook: Major Markets Recover, Battling Policy and Grid
Concerns, Renewable Energy World, JanuaryFebruary 2014,
p. 29; IEA, op. cit. note 64; Jeff Anthony, Utilities Appetite for
Wind Energy Continues to Grow, Renew-grid.com, 10 June 2013,
http://www.renew-grid.com/e107_plugins/content/content.
php?content.9985; Navigant Research, op. cit. note 1.
96 IEA, op. cit. note 64, p. 5; Wiser et al., op. cit. note 75; Valerie
A. Hines, Alistair B. Ogilvie, and Cody R. Bond, Continuous
Reliability Enhancement for Wind (CREW) Database: Wind
Plant Reliability Benchmark (Albuquerque, NM and Livermore,
CA: Sandia National Laboratories, September 2013), p. 12,
http://energy.sandia.gov/wp/wp-content/gallery/uploads/
CREW2013Benchmark-Report-SAND2013-72881.pdf.
97 James Montgomery, GE Wants to Power Up Older Wind
Turbines, Renewable Energy World, 11 October 2013, http://
ge-wants-to-power-up-older-wind-turbines; Appleyard, op. cit.
note 94. GE launched its services packages called PowerUp
Software, similar to an earlier package named WindBoost, to
improve the power output of each unit and the overall wind farm
while introducing a 2.5 MW brilliant model to incorporate
short-term battery storage as part of the complete turbine

package, from Navigant Research, op. cit. note 1.
98 The share of direct turbines rose from 12% in 2008 to 20% in
2012/13, per IEA, op. cit. note 64, p. 12; their share was 28.1% of
the global market in 2013, per Navigant Research, op. cit. note 1.
For example, two-bladed turbines are new to the offshore market,
with Aerodyn (Germany) introducing an innovative two-bladed
down-wind machine and Envision (China) testing its two-bladed
(3.6 MW) prototype in Denmark in 2013. Aerodyn from Eize de
Vries, Offshore Wind Turbine Vendors Unveil Next-Generation
Wind Power Machines, Renewable Energy World, 10 December
article/2013/12/offshore-wind-turbines-are-getting-bigger-all-thetime; Envision from Navigant Research, op. cit. note 1.
99 Average size delivered to market (based on measured rated
capacity) was 1,926 kW in 2012, up an average 79 kW over 2011,
from Navigant Research, op. cit. note 1.
100 Average sizes were 2.7 MW in Germany; 1,841 kW in the United
States, 1,719 kW in China, and 1,336 kW in India, from Navigant
Research, op. cit. note 1; 2.6 MW in Germany from Ender, op.
cit. note 21, p. 43, http://www.dewi.de/dewi/fileadmin/pdf/
publications/Magazin_44/07.pdf; and from GWEC, op. cit. note
1, p. 52. 1,720 kW in China also from Statistics of Wind Power
Development in China 2013, op. cit. note 10, p. 24.
101 Gsnger, op. cit. note 75.
102 The average size was about 4 MW, due to the dominance of
Siemens 3.6 MW machine, although larger turbines have been
commercialised, from EWEA, op. cit. note 49, p. 9. Note that the
average size installed offshore fell from 3,793 kW in 2012 to 3,613
kW in 2013, per Navigant Research, op. cit. note 1. Samsung
installed its 7 MW machine, the largest operating offshore by
late 2013, near Fife, Scotland, from Jim Bell, Securing the
Worlds Largest Turbine, Renewable Energy World, 1 October
article/2013/10/securing-the-worlds-largest-wind-turbine. The
average size of turbines installed in Germanys offshore wind farms
during 2013 was 4.2 MW (4,158 kW), per Ender, op. cit. note 21, p.
43; and it was 5 MW, from GWEC, op. cit. note 1, p. 56.
103 European manufacturers testing new turbines include Areva
(France), Vestas (Denmark), and Siemens (Germany), from
David Appleyard, A Window on the Future of Offshore Wind
Turbines, Renewable Energy World, 21 June 2013, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/06/a-windowon-the-future-of-offshore-wind-turbines; Eize de Vries, Offshore
Wind Turbine Vendors Unveil Next-Generation Wind Power
Machines, Renewable Energy World, 10 December 2013, http://
offshore-wind-turbines-are-getting-bigger-all-the-time; Vestas
began testing the worlds most powerful wind turbine (V164-8.0
MW) at the sterild Test Centre in Denmark, from GWEC, op. cit.
note 1, p. 46; Chinas Sinovel received a grant of USD 6.6 million
(RMB 42 million) from Chinas National Development and Reform
Commission to develop a 10 MW turbine, and Goldwind and
Guodian United Power are also competing to develop a 10 MW
machine, from Appleyard, op. cit. note 94; China also from James
Quilter, Ming Yang Working on 12 MW Offshore Turbine, Wind
Power Monthly, 11 July 2013, http://www.windpowermonthly.com/
article/1190352/ming-yang-working-12mw-offshore-turbine.
105 Foundation types include Spar Buoy, Tension Leg Platform, and
Semi-submersible, from David Appleyard, Floating Offshore
Wind Power Taking Hold, Renewable Energy World, 7 October
article/2013/10/floating-offshore-wind-power-taking-hold.
02

86 Figure of 70% from Navigant Research, op. cit. note 1; 77% in
2012 from Navigants BTM Consult, op. cit. note 73.
106 Japan launched a 2 MW turbine in October, and another off the

coast of Fukushima in November 2013, goal from Nobuteru
Ishihara, Japans Minister of Environment, cited in Another
Floating Offshore Wind Project Online in Japan This Week,
GWEC Newsletter, 12 November 2013, http://www.gwec.net/
japans-floating-wind-turbines/; Hiroko Tabuchi, To Expand
Offshore Power, Japan Builds Floating Windmills, New York
Times, 24 October 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/25/
business/international/to-expand-offshore-power-japanbuilds-floating-windmills.html?_r=0; leasing in the United
Kingdom from Appleyard, op. cit. note 105. Other countries
experimenting with floating turbines include Norway and
Portugal, from idem. In addition, the first offshore wind turbine
deployed off the U.S. coast, was a 20 kW floating turbine
anchored off the coast of Maine in mid-2013, from James
183

Montgomery, First US Offshore Wind Turbine Launches
in Maine, Renewable Energy World, 31 May 2013, http://
first-us-offshore-wind-turbine-launches-in-maine.
107 Tabuchi, op. cit. note 106; Kari Lundgren, Britains Forgotten
Ports Put Wind in Goldmans Sails: Freight, Bloomberg, 2 May
2013, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-05-01/britain-sforgotten-ports-put-wind-in-goldman-s-sails-freight.html.
108 UKs Seajacks International joined with Samsung Heavy
Industries (Korea) to the build worlds largest jack-up barge,
from Largest Offshore Wind Barge Under Construction,
Renewables International, 12 June 2013, http://www.
renewablesinternational.net/largest-offshore-wind-barge-underconstruction/150/505/63296/; Tildy Bayar, A Bigger Boat:
Offshore Wind Service Vessels Grow Up, Renewable Energy
World, 5 August 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.
com/rea/news/article/2013/08/a-bigger-boat-offshore-windservice-vessels-grow-up; David Appleyard, New Offshore
Jack-up Vessel Commissioned by Hochtief, Renewable Energy
World, 13 December 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.
com/rea/news/article/2013/12/new-offshore-jack-up-vesselcommissioned-by-hochtief; Philippa Jones, Booming Boats,
Wind Directions, September 2013, p. 48; Chinese from Navigant
109 Tildy Bayar, Subsea Cables Bring Offshore Wind Power to the
People, Renewable Energy World, 19 December 2013, http://
subsea-cables-bring-offshore-wind-power-to-the-people.
110 Offshore wind power costs rose 41%/MWh from the second
quarter of 2009 till the first quarter of 2014, as projects moved to
deeper water farther from shore, from FS-UNEP Centre and BNEF,
111 Based on USD 4.7 million/MW (EUR 3.4 million/MW) of installed
capacity and operational costs of USD 259 million/kW (EUR 187/
kW), from Aris Karcanias and Athanasia Arapogianni, Innovative
Financing of Offshore Wind (London: FTI Consulting, April 2014).
112 Pike Research, Small Wind Power, http://www.pikeresearch.
com/research/small-wind-power, viewed March 2013. By the end
of 2011, more than 330 manufacturers around the world offered
commercial systems, and more than 300 companies supplied
parts and services, per Gsnger and Pitteloud, op. cit. note 60.
113 Gsnger and Pitteloud, op. cit. note 60. In 2013, for example,
the United Kingdom had more than 10 manufacturers of wind
turbines ranging in size from several hundred watts to 60 kW, from
RenewableUK, op. cit. note 58.
114 As of 2011, 74% of commercialised one-piece small-scale wind
manufacturers produced horizontal axis machines, 18% focused
on vertical, and 6% on both, from Gsnger and Pitteloud, op. cit.
note 60.
115 Table 2 derived from the sources outlined in this endnote.
115
Note that all IRENA data are exclusive of subsidies, based on an
assumed 7% weighted average cost of capital, derived from actual
project data, with O&M costs sourced from International
Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Renewable Power Generation
Costs in 2012: An Overview (Abu Dhabi: 2013), http://costing.
irena.org/media/2769/Overview_Renewable-Power-GenerationCosts-in-2012.pdf.
POWER SECTOR
Biomass power: Bioenergy levelised costs of energy for power
generation vary widely with costs of biomass feedstock (typically
USD 0.509/GJ), complexity of technologies, plant capacity
factor, size of plant, co-production of useful heat (CHP), regional
differences for labour costs, life of plant (typically 30 years),
discount rate (typically 7%), etc. In some non-OECD countries,
lack of air emission regulations for boilers means capital costs are
lower due to lack of control equipment. So before developing a
new bioenergy plant, individual cost analysis is essential.
Bio-power plants that rely on seasonal crops, such as sugar cane
in Latin America, may have average capacity factors below 50%.
Sources: IRENA Renewable Cost Database 2014; IRENA,
Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2012..., op. cit. this note;
Frankfurt SchoolUNEP Collaborating Centre for Climate &
Sustainable Energy Finance (FSUNEP Centre) and Bloomberg
Investment 2012 (Frankfurt: 2012), http://fs-unep-centre.org/
publications/gtr-2014; O. Edenhofer et al., eds., IPCC Special
Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change
Mitigation (Cambridge, U.K. and New York: Cambridge University
184
Press, 2011), http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report; Joint Research

Centre of the European Commission (JRC), 2011 Technology
Roadmap of the European Strategic Energy Technology Plan
(Petten, The Netherlands: 2011). Geothermal power: Capacity
factor and from Edenhofer et al., op. cit. this note, pp. 42526 and
1,00406. Michael Taylor, IRENA, personal communication with
REN 21, MarchMay 2014, input based on the IRENA Renewable
Costs Database and analysis thereof; IRENA estimates the LCOE
of a typical project to be USD 0.050.14/kWh for greenfield and
brownfield projects. In 2010, the International Energy Agency
(IEA) estimated the LCOE of a binary plant to be USD 0.080.11/
kWh, per IEA, Energy Technology Systems Analysis Programme,
Geothermal Heat and Power, Technology Brief E07 (Paris: May
2010), Table 5, http://www.iea-etsap.org/web/E-TechDS/PDF/
E06-geoth_energy-GS-gct.pdf. Hydropower: Characteristics
based on Edenhofer et al., op. cit. this note, and on Arun Kumar,
Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, Indian Institute of Technology
Roorkee, personal communication with REN21, March 2012. For
grid-based projects, capital cost ranges and LCOE for new plants
of any size provided in table are from Taylor, op. cit. this note.
Off-grid capital costs and LCOE from REN21, Renewables 2011
Global Status Report (Paris: 2011), http://www.ren21.net/
Portals/0/documents/Resources/GSR2011_FINAL.pdf. Note that
the cost for hydropower plants is site specific and may have large
variations. Small capacity plants in some areas even may exceed
these limits. The cost is dependent on several factors especially
plant load factor, discount rate, and life of the project. Normally,
small-scale hydro projects last 2050 years compared to
large-scale hydro plants, which may last 3080 years. Hydro
facilities that are designed to provide system balancing (rather
than baseload) have lower capacity factors and therefore higher
generation costs per kWh, on average, but provide additional
value. Ocean Energy: All data are from Edenhofer et al., op. cit.
this note. Note that this is based on a very small number of pilot
and demonstration installations to date; LCOE range assumes a
7% discount rate. Electricity generation costs are in the range of
USD 0.310.39/kWh (EUR 0.240.30/kWh), from Sarasin,
Working Towards a Cleaner and Smarter Power Supply: Prospects
for Renewables in the Energy Revolution (Basel, Switzerland:
December 2012), p. 11. Solar PV: Rooftop solar systems: peak
capacities are based on Europe and drawn from European
Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA), Market Report 2011
(Brussels: January 2012), http://www.epia.org/uploads/
tx_epiapublications/Annual_Report_2011.pdf, and from EPIA,
personal communication with REN21, 3 April 2012. Capacity
factor from IRENA, Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2012,
op. cit. this note, p. 56. Note that values outside of this range are
possible for exceptional sites (higher) or where siting is suboptimal
(lower); adding tracking systems can raise these capacity factors
significantly, from IRENA, idem. Capital costs based on: average
of EUR 1,640/kW in Q1 2014 (using exchange rate of EUR 1 = USD
1.37) for residential systems from German Solar Industry
Association (BSW-Solar), Statistic Data on the German Solar
Power (Photovoltaic) Industry, 2014, at www.solarwirtschaft.de;
U.S. range of 3,500 to 7,000 based on data from IRENA and CSI,
(excludes top and bottom 5% of projects) and U.S. Solar Energy
Industries Association (SEIA) and GTM Research, U.S. Solar
Market Insight (Washington, DC and Boston: 2014); Japan from
Hironao Matsubara, Institute for Sustainable Energy Policies
(ISEP), personal communication with REN21, April 2014;
Germany, United States, China, and Italy from Gestore Servizi
Energetici (GSE) and provided by Taylor, op. cit. this note; Australia
from Taylor, op. cit. this note; typical global range for industrial
systems based on EUR 1,1502,000/kW (converted using EUR 1
= USD 1.3), from Gatan Masson, EPIA and IEA Photovoltaic
Power Systems Programme (IEA-PVPS), personal communication
with REN21, April 2013. LCOE costs for OECD and non-OECD are
real 2013 USD values, from lowest to highest, and based on 7%
cost of capital, from IRENA, Renewable Power Generation Costs in
2012, op. cit. this note, from IRENA Renewable Cost Database,
2013, and from Michael Taylor, IRENA, personal communication
with REN21, May 2013; Europe based on costs in the range of EUR
0.120.29/kWh (converted using EUR 1 = USD 1.3) for residential,
commercial, and industrial projects in the south and north of
France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom, from EPIA
database, provided by Masson, op. cit. this note. Ground-mounted
utility-scale systems: peak capacity from EPIA, Market Report
2011, op. cit. this note, from David Renne, International Solar
Energy Society (ISES), personal communication with REN21, April
2013, and from Denis Lenardic, pvresources.com, personal
communication with REN21, April 2013; also see relevant section
and endnotes in Market and Industry Trends section. Capital costs
2012 (Copenhagen: 2013); and on a range of about USD

1,2502,300/kW from IEA, Tracking Clean Energy, op. cit. this
note. LCOE for onshore wind assume 7% discount rate and are
from IRENA Renewable Cost Database, 2014, and from Taylor, op.
cit. this note, March-May 2014; also based on range of USD
0.040.16 U.S. cents/kWh from IEA, Deploying Renewables: Best
and Future Policy Practice (Paris: 2011), http://www.iea.org/
publications/freepublications/publication/Deploying_
Renewables2011.pdf; additional input from Steve Sawyer, Global
Wind Energy Council, personal communication with REN21, April
2014. Note that the lowest-capital cost onshore wind projects
have been installed in China; higher costs have been experienced
in Europe and the United States. Offshore capital from Taylor, op.
cit. this note, 2014; on Navigants BTM Consult, op. cit. this note;
and on range of USD 3,0006,000/kW from IEA, Tracking Clean
Energy, op. cit. this note. Offshore LCOE based on USD
0.150.17 assuming a 45% capacity factor, USD 0.035/kWh
operations and maintenance cost, and 10% cost of capital, and on
USD 0.14-0.15/kWh assuming a 50% capacity factor, from IRENA,
Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2012, op. cit. this note, p.
38; also from the low LCOE for offshore wind in the OECD is about
USD 0.15/kWh and the high is USD 0.23/kWh, assuming a 7%
discount rate, per idem, p. 37; IRENA Renewable Cost Database,
2013, and from Taylor, op. cit. this note, May 2013. Small-scale
wind capital costs ranged from USD 2,30010,000/kW in the
United States in 2011, with an average installed cost of USD
6,040/kW; this represented an increase of 11% over 2010. All
capital cost data from Stefan Gsnger and Jean Pitteloud, Small
Wind World Report 2014 (Bonn: World Wind Energy Association
(WWEA) and New Energy Husum, March 2014), Executive
Summary, http://small-wind.org/wp-content/
uploads/2014/03/2014_SWWR_summary_web.pdf. All
small-scale LCOE wind data from WWEA, 2012 Small Wind World
Report (Bonn: March 2012), http://www.wwindea.org/webimages/
WWEA%20Small%20Wind%20World%20Report%20
Summary%202012.pdf. Note that in 2011, installed costs of the
top 10 small wind turbine models in the United States were in the
range of USD 2,30010,000/kW in 2011, and the average installed
cost of all small-scale wind turbines was USD 6,040/kW; in China,
the average was USD 1,900/kW, per WWEA, Small Wind World
Report 2013 (Bonn: March 2013), http://www.wwindea.org/
webimages/SWWR_summary.pdf]].
HEAT AND COOLING SECTOR
Biomass heat: Cost variations between heat plants are wide for
reasons similar to those listed above for bio-power. Further details
can be found at: Fachagentur Nachwachsende Rohstoff e.V.
(FNR), Faustzahlen Biogas, www.biogasportal.info/daten-undfakten/faustzahlen/, viewed May 2013; and Pellet Fuels Institute,
Compare Fuel Costs, http://pelletheat.org/pellets/compare-fuelcosts/, viewed May 2013. Bioenergy CHP includes small-scale
biogas engine generating sets and biomass medium-scale steam
turbines. Data converted using USD 1 GJ = 0.36 U.S. cents/kWh.
Top of range for capital cost of USD 1,500 from Taylor, op. cit. this
note, March-May 2014. Geothermal heat: Geothermal space
heating from Edenhofer et al., op. cit. this note, pp. 427 and
1,01011 (converted from USD 2005 to 2012), assuming 7%
discount rate, and using USD 1 GJ = 0.36 U.S. cents/kWh. Also,
for building heating, assumptions included a load factor of
2530%, and a lifetime of 20 years; and for district heating, the
same load factor, a lifetime of 25 years, and transmission and
distribution costs are not included. For ground-source heat
pumps, IPCC shows capital costs of USD (2012) 1,0954,370/kW,
and USD 2065/GJ assuming 2530% as the load factor and 20
years as the operational lifetime. In 2011, IEA indicated a range of
USD 4394,000/kW based on 2007 data and operating efficiency
of 250500% (COP of 2.55.0), from IEA, Technology Roadmap
Energy Efficient Buildings: Heating and Cooling Equipment (Paris:
OECD/IEA, 2011), Table 5, http://www.iea.org/publications/
freepublications/publication/buildings_roadmap.pdf. For 2013,
the upper end of the range for capital cost has been reduced to
USD 2,250 and the LCOE has been adjusted accordingly, based
on input from Taylor, op. cit. this note, March-May 2014; It is worth
taking into account that actual LCOH are influenced by electricity
market prices. Drilling costs are included for commercial and
institutional installations, but not for residential installations. Solar
thermal heating: Solar heating plant sizes and efficiency rates for
hot water systems and combi systems, based on 2007 data, from
IEA, Technology Roadmap, op. cit. this note, pp. 1213, and
district heat plant sizes from Werner Weiss, AEE Institute for
Sustainable Technologies (AEE-INTEC), Gleisdorf, Austria,
personal communication with REN21, April 2012. Capital costs for
02
based on the following: typical global costs based on EUR

1,0001,500 per kW (converted using EUR 1 = USD 1.3) from
Masson, April 2013, op. cit. this note; United States, China,
Germany, Japan, and India from Taylor, op. cit. this note,
March-May 2014; LCOE based on the following: OECD and
non-OECD cost ranges are 2013 USD, with 7% discount rate, from
IRENA Renewable Cost Database, op. cit. this note and from
Taylor, op. cit. this note, March-May 2014; Europe based on LCOE
in the range of EUR 0.110.26/kWh (using exchange rate of EUR 1
= USD 1.3) for ground-mounted systems in the south and north of
France, Germany, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom, from EPIA
database, provided by Masson, op. cit. this note. Note that the
LCOE in Thailand is estimated to be in the range of USD 0.15
0.18/kWh, based on input from project developers and from
former Thai Minister of Energy Piyasvasti Amranand, per Chris
Greacen, Palang Thai, personal communication with REN21, April
2013. While PV module prices are global, balance of system costs
are much more local. Also, note that prices have been changing
rapidly. CSP: Characteristics including plant sizes from European
Solar Thermal Electricity Association (ESTELA), personal
communication with REN21, 22 March 2012 and 24 January
2013; from Protermosolar, the Spanish Solar Thermal Electricity
Industry Association, April 2012; and based on parabolic trough
plants that are typically in the range of 50200 MW; tower 2070
MW; and Linear Fresnel in the range of 150 MW, per Bank
Sarasin, Solar Industry: Survival of the Fittest in the Fiercely
Competitive Marketplace (Basel, Switzerland: November 2011).
Note that multiple systems can be combined for higher-capacity
plants. Capacity factors based on ESTELA, op. cit. this note, and
on Michael Mendelsohn, Travis Lowder, and Brendan Canavan,
Utility-Scale Concentrating Solar Power and Photovoltaics Projects:
A Technology and Market Overview (Golden, CO: U.S. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), April 2012), http://www.
nrel.gov/docs/fy12osti/51137.pdf; on 2028% capacity factor for
plants without storage and 4050% for plants with 67.5 hours
storage, from U.S. Department of Energy, SunShot Vision Study,
prepared by NREL (Golden, CO: February 2012), p. 105, http://
energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/01/f7/47927.pdf; on 2030% for
parabolic trough plants without storage and 40% to as high as
80% for tower plants with 615 hours of storage, from IRENA,
19; and on the capacity factor of parabolic trough plants with six
hours of storage, in conditions typical of the U.S. Southwest
estimated to be 3542%, per Edenhofer et al., op. cit. this note,
pp. 1,004, 1,006. Note that the Gemasolar plant, which began
operation in Spain in 2011, has storage for up to 15 hours, per
Torresol Energy, Gemasol, www.torresolenergy.com/
TORRESOL/gemasolar-plant/en. Capital costs based on: U.S.
parabolic trough and tower plants without storage in the range of
USD 4,0006,000/kW, and trough and towers with storage in the
range of USD 7,00010,000/kW, from U.S. Department of Energy,
Loans Programs Office, www.lgprogram.energy.gov, provided by
Fred Morse, Abengoa Solar, personal communication with REN21,
April 2013; U.S. tower plants at USD 5,600/kW without storage
and USD 9,000/kW with storage from Lazard, Lazards Levelized
Cost of Energy Analysis Version 7.0, (New Orleans, LA: August
2013); and on parabolic trough plants with storage capital costs of
USD 4,7007,300/kW in OECD countries, and 3,1004,050/kW in
non-OECD (based on costs of five projects), and costs with storage
all from IRENA, Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2012, op.
cit. this note, pp. 19, 5960; and on range of about 3,9008,000/
kW from IEA, Tracking Clean Energy Progress 2013 (Paris: OECD/
IEA, 2013), http://www.iea.org/publications/tcep_web.pdf. LCOE
estimates for trough and fresnel plants come from IRENA,
65. LCOE for tower plants from Lazard, op. cit. this note. Wind
power: Characteristics based on the following: turbine sizes from
JRC, 2011 Technology Map, op. cit. this note; on- and offshore
capacity factors from Edenhofer et al., op. cit. this note, p. 1005;
and from IRENA, Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2012,
op. cit. this note, p. 36. Note that weighted average capacity
factors range from around 25% for China to an average 33% in the
United States (with a range of 1853%); ranges in Africa and Latin
America are similar to the United States, whereas ranges in
Europe are closer to China. Curtailments in China due to grid
constraints put the average capacity factor for dispatched
generation closer to 20%, all from IRENA, Renewable Power
Generation Costs in 2012, op. cit. this note, p. 36. Capital costs
for onshore wind from Taylor, op. cit. this note, March-May 2014;
from IRENA, Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2012, op. cit.
this note, pp. 18, 3237; from Navigants BTM Consult,
International Wind Energy Development: World Market Update
185

OECD new-build and for OECD retrofit (for year 2007) from IEA,
Technology Roadmap, op. cit. this note; LCOH for domestic hot
water (low end), and capital costs and LCOH for China (all
converted from USD 2005 to USD 2012; and LCOH assuming 7%
discount rate, and converted using USD 1/GJ = 0.36 U.S. cents/
kWh) from Edenhofer et al., op. cit. this note, p. 1,010; and LCOH
for domestic hot water (high end) from Andreas Hberle, PSE AG,
Freiburg, personal communication with REN21, 29 May 2013.
European district heat capital costs from Weiss, op. cit. this note,
and from Hberle, op. cit. this note, 25 April 2013. Note that the
low of USD 470/kW is for district heat systems in Denmark, where
costs start at about USD 370/kW (EUR 200/m2) and storage costs
a minimum of USD 100/kW. LCOH for district heat in Denmark
based on low of EUR 0.03/kWh (converted using EUR 1 = USD
1.3), from Hberle, op. cit. this note. According to the IEA, the
most cost effective solar district heating systems in Denmark have
had investment costs in the USD 350400/kW range, resulting in
heat prices of USD 3540/MWhth, from IEA, Technology Roadmap
Solar Heating and Cooling (Paris: OECD/IEA, 2012), p. 21, http://
www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/2012_
SolarHeatingCooling_Roadmap_FINAL_WEB.pdf. Industrial
process heat data all from Hberle, op. cit. this note, 25 April
2013. LCOH of USD/GJ based on USD 0.4-016/kWh, from idem.
Solar cooling: capacity data, efficiency, and capital cost in the
range of USD 2,9255,850/kW from Uli Jakob, Status and
Perspective of Solar Cooling Outside Australia, in Proceedings of
the Australian Solar Cooling 2013 Conference (Sydney: 12 April
2013). Efficiency based on coefficient of performance (COP)
ranging from 0.50 to 0.70, depending on the system used and on
driving, heat rejection, and cold water temperatures. Capital cost
ranges based on EUR 2,250/kW for large-scale kits to EUR 4,500/
kW for small-scale kits. Low-end of capital costs based on range of
USD 1,6003,200/kW for medium- to large-scale systems from
IEA, Technology Roadmap Solar Heating and Cooling, op. cit. this
note, p. 21.
TRANSPORT SECTOR
Biofuel costs vary widely due to fluctuating feedstock prices (see,
for example, Agriculture Marketing Resource Center (AgMRC),
Tracking Ethanol Profitability, www.agmrc.org/renewable_
energy/ethanol/tracking_ethanol_profitability.cfm. Costs quoted
exclude value of any co-products. Sources: Taylor, op. cit. this
note, March-May 2014; IRENA, Road Transport: The Cost of
Renewable Solutions (Abu Dhabi: June 2013), http://www.irena.
org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/Road_Transport.pdf;
Gonzalo Bravo, Fundacin Bariloche, personal communication
with REN21, April 2014; Ernst and Young, Renewable Energy
Attractiveness Indices (London: November 2012), http://
emergingmarkets.ey.com/wp-content/uploads/
downloads/2012/11/EY-Cleantech-CAI-Issue-35-FINAL-1112.pdf;
JRC, 2011 Technology Roadmap ..., op. cit. this note; USDA
Foreign Agricultural Service, Indonesia Biofuels Annual
2012, 14 August 2012, http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20
GAIN%20Publications/Biofuels%20Annual_Jakarta_
Indonesia_8-14-2012.pdf.
RURAL ENERGY
Biogas digesters, average cost for Asia and Africa (weighted
average across countries based on number of installations) from
SNV, Domestic Biogas Newsletter, September 2011, http://www.
snvworld.org/en/download/publications/snv_domestic_biogas_
newsletter_issue_5_September_2011.pdf; wind capital cost data
based on what is representative for Africa, from B. Klimbie, Small
and Medium Wind for Off-Grid Electrification, presentation at
International Off-Grid Renewable Energy Conference and
Exhibition (IOREC), 2 November 2012, cited in IRENA, Renewable
Power Generation Costs in 2012, op. cit. this note, p. 34; LCOE
from Alliance for Rural Electrification, cited in Simon Rolland,
Campaigning for Small Wind: Facilitating Off-Grid Uptake,
Renewable Energy World, MarchApril 2013, pp. 4749. David
Lecoque, Alliance for Rural Electrification; Paul Bertheau, Reiner
Lemoine Institut; Nico Peterschmidt, INSENSUSall personal
communications with REN21, May 2014. All other data from past
editions of REN21, Renewables Global Status Report (Paris: REN21
Secretariat, various years).
186
ENDNOTES 03 INVESTMENT FLOWS
China Electricity Council, provided by Shi Pengfei, China Wind

Energy Association, personal communication with REN21, 12
March 2014; China Electricity Council, Planning and Statistics
Department, 2013 National Electricity Industry Statistics, 26
January 2014, http://www.cec.org.cn/guihuayutongji/tongjxinxi/
yuedushuju/2014-01-26/116224.html (using Google Translate).
The BNEF estimate for investment in large hydropower (>50 MW)

is based on at least 20 GW of capacity commissioned during
2013 and a capital cost per MW of USD 1.75 million, bringing the
total investment in large hydropower to USD 35 billion. The figure
USD 1.75 billion per GW is the average value based on numbers
provided by developers of large hydro projects in applications for
the Clean Development Mechanism. Estimates are approximate
only, due greatly to the fact that timing of the investment decision
on a project may be about four years on average away from
the moment of commissioning. As a result, a large share of the
investment total for the projects commissioned in 2013 was
actually invested in prior years; in addition, there was investment
during 2013 for projects that are currently under construction
and are not included in the BNEF estimates. Note that data for
hydropower projects larger than 50 MW differ somewhat between
this GSR and the Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment
2014 due to different methodologies and data sources. This GSR
estimates that about 40 GW of total hydropower capacity was
commissioned worldwide during 2013, and a significant portion
of this was projects larger than 50 MW (see Hydropower section in
this report), whereas BNEF estimates that at least 24 GW of hydro
capacity was commissioned in 2013, including more than 20 GW
of large projects (>50 MW). Taking the BNEF estimate that 4 GW
hydropower capacity <50 MW was added, that means as much as
36 GW of capacity >50 MW was added during 2013.
Note that these dollar amounts for capacity investment are based
on BNEF estimates that some 81 GW of new capacity (not
including hydropower >50 MW) was added in 2013, down from
an estimated 88 GW in 2012. These numbers are not necessarily
consistent with capacity data provided elsewhere in the GSR.
For more information, see Green Bond Principles 2014:

Voluntary Process Guidelines for Issuing Green Bonds,
http://www.ceres.org/resources/reports/green-bond-principles2014-voluntary-process-guidelines-for-issuing-green-bonds/
view.
03
INVESTMENT FLOWS
187
ENDNOTES 04 POLICY LANDSCAPE
POLICY LANDSCAPE
1
188
This section is intended to be only indicative of the overall

landscape of policy activity and is not a definitive reference.
Policies listed are generally those that have been enacted by
legislative bodies. Some of the policies listed may not yet be
implemented, or are awaiting detailed implementing regulations.
It is obviously difficult to capture every policy, so some policies
may be unintentionally omitted or incorrectly listed. Some
policies also may be discontinued or very recently enacted.
This report does not cover policies and activities related to
technology transfer, capacity building, carbon finance, and
Clean Development Mechanism projects, nor does it highlight
broader framework and strategic policiesall of which are still
important to renewable energy progress. For the most part, this
report also does not cover policies that are still under discussion
or formulation, except to highlight overall trends. Information
on policies comes from a wide variety of sources, including the
International Energy Agency (IEA) and International Renewable
Energy Agency (IRENA) Global Renewable Energy Policies and
Measures Database, the U.S. Database of State Incentives for
Renewables & Efficiency (DSIRE), RenewableEnergyWorld.com,
press reports, submissions from REN21 regional- and countryspecific contributors, and a wide range of unpublished data.
Much of the information presented here and further details on
specific countries appear on the Renewables Interactive Map
at www.ren21.net. It is unrealistic to be able to provide detailed
references to all sources here. Table 3 is based on idem and
numerous sources cited throughout this section. Figures 26 and
27 are from idem and from Renewable Energy Policy Network
for the 21st Century (REN21), Renewables 2005 Global Status
Report (Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute, 2005), and REN21,
Renewables Global Status Report 2006 Update (Paris: REN21
Secretariat and Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute, 2006).
REN21, Renewables 2005, op. cit. note 1. Figures 29 and

30 based on past editions of the GSR and all sources listed in
Endnote 1.
World Wind Energy Association (WWEA), World Wind Energy

Report 2013 (Bonn: 2014); Algerian Ministry of Energy and
Mines, Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Program (Algiers:
March 2011), http://www.mem-algeria.org/francais/uploads/enr/
Programme_ENR_et_efficacite_energetique_en.pdf; Chinas
49 GW target includes installations of a number of different
renewable energy sources (final installed capacity by technology
can be found in the corresponding technology sections of the
report), per Asia Report: Reacting to Chinas Goal of 49 GW
of Renewables in 2013, Renewable Energy World, 22 January
article/2013/01/asia-report-reacting-to-chinas-goal-of-49-gwof-renewables-in-2013; Jennifer Dugan, China Sets New World
Record for Solar Installations, The Guardian, 30 January 2014,
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/chinas-choice/2014/
jan/30/china-record-solar-energy.
India had installed only 2,110 MW as of January 2014, per

(MNRE), Physical Progress (Achievements),
http://www.mnre.gov.in/mission-and-vision-2/achievements/.
Economic Consultant Associates, Review of the Fiji National

Energy Policy, July 2013, http://www.fdoe.gov.fj/images/NEP2013/
draft%20national%20energy%20policy%202013.pdf.
France installed 613 MW of solar PV and no CSP in 2013, per

IEA Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme (IEA-PVPS), PVPS
ReportSnapshot of Global PV 1992-2013: Preliminary Trends
Information from the IEA PVPS Programme (Brussels: March
2014); Nepal from WWEA, op cit. note 3; South Africa from Wim
Jonker Klunne, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
(CSIR), personal communication with REN21, 26 January 2014;
South Korea installed 79 MW of wind power in 2013, per Global
Wind Energy Council (GWEC), Global Wind Statistics 2013
(Brussels: 5 February 2014).

Secretariat, 2013), http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
news/article/2013/01/france-doubles-solar-energy-target-seeksto-promote-european-equipment.
Vladislav Vorotnikov, Azerbaijan Aims to Boost Output of

Renewable Energy, Renewable Energy World, 1 August
article/2013/08/azerbaijan-aims-to-boost-output-of-renewableenergy?cmpid=WNL-Friday-August2-2013; Royal Government
of Bhutan, Alternative Renewable Energy Policy 2013 (Thimpu,

Bhutan: 2013), http://www.moea.gov.bt/documents/files/
pub0ip10496bv.pdf; Kazakhstan from Bloomberg New Energy
Finance (BNEF), Energy Week in Review, 2329 July 2013.
9
Kenya Ministry of Energy and Petroleum, National Energy Policy:

November 2013 Draft (Nairobi: November 2013), http://www.
kengen.co.ke/documents/National%20Energy%20Policy%20
-%20Final%20Draft%20-%2014%20Nov%202013.pdf; Dennis
Kibira, African Solar Designs, personal communication with
REN21, 4 December 2013.
10
Qatar Ministry of Energy & Industry, Qatar Launches

Project to Produce Electricity from Solar in Parallel with the
COP18 (Doha: 2012), http://www.mei.gov.qa/search-resultsen/?Search=renewable#news-en/Qatar-launches-project-toproduce-electricity-from-solar-in-parallel-with-the-COP18/67/;
Russia from BNEF, Energy Week in Review, 16 May 2013.
11
Michelle Yun, GCL-Poly Drops After China Sets Solar Target:

Hong Kong Mover, Bloomberg, 27 January 2014, http://
www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-01-27/gcl-poly-drops-afterchina-sets-solar-target-hong-kong-mover.html; China to
Boost Renewable Energy to Curb Air Pollution, CCTV Says,
Bloomberg, 15 January 2014, http://www.bloomberg.com/
news/2014-01-15/china-to-boost-renewable-energy-to-curbair-pollution-cctv-says.html; Frank Haugwitz and Rolf Hug
China became the worlds largest solar PV market in Q3; nation
is poised to additional multi-GW deployment, SolarServer,
undated, http://www.solarserver.com/solar-magazine/
solar-report/solar-report/china-became-the-worlds-largestsolar-pv-market-in-q3-nation-is-poised-to-additional-multigw-deployment.html; Feifei Shen, China Confirms Goal for
35 GW of Solar Capacity by 2015, Renewable Energy World,
15 July 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
news/article/2013/07/china-confirms-goal-for-35-gw-of-solarcapacity-by-2015?cmpid=SolarNL-Tuesday-July16-2013; John
Parnell, China Extends Distributed Solar Target to 2015,
PV Tech, 21 October 2013, http://www.pv-tech.org/news/
china_extends_distributed_solar_target_to_20gw_by_2015.
12
GWEC, Global Wind Report: Annual Market Update 2013

(Brussels: 2014).
13 Jeff Postelwait, Indias Prime Minister Vows to Double

Renewable Energy Capacity, Renewable Energy World, 18
article/2013/04/indias-pm-vows-to-double-renewable-energycapacity?cmpid=WNL-Friday-April19-2013.
14
BNEF, Energy Week in Review, 2329 July 2013; Paul Gipe,

Thailand Adding 1,000 MW of Solar with New Feed-in Tariffs,
Wind Works, 18 July 2013, http://www.wind-works.org/cms/index.
php?id=39&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=2534&c
Hash=d5ffa689d1bd548eb94f81d3838843a7.
15
Max Hall, Thai FITs for further 1 GW of solar, PV Magazine, 19

July 2013, http://www.pv-magazine.com/news/details/beitrag/
thai-fits-for-further-1-gw-of-solar_100012097/#axzz2rDDAHCB5.
16
Vanuata National Energy Roadmap 2013-2020, March 2013,

http://www.kuthenergy.com/assets/Vanuatu_National_Energy_
Roadmap.pdf.
17
Lara Ferreira, Portuguese Renewable Energy Association

(ARPEN), personal communication with REN21, 2 December
2013.
18
David Appleyard, UK Confirms Plans for 39 GW of Offshore

Wind by 2030, Renewable Energy World, 8 November
article/2013/11/uk-confirms-plans-for-39-gw-of-offshore-windby-2030?cmpid=WNL-Wednesday-November13-2013.
19
Martha Ekkert, Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature

Protection and Nuclear Safety (BMU), personal communication
with REN21, 27 January 2014; Germans Cut Offshore Wind
Goal, reNews.com, 11 November 2013, http://renews.biz/53795/
germans-cut-offshore-wind-goal/; Steve Sawyer, GWEC, cited in
James Montgomery, Wind Energy 2014 Outlook: Major Markets
Recover, Battling Policy and Grid Concerns, Renewable Energy
World Magazine, JanuaryFebruary 2014, p. 30.
20 Egypt from GTM Research, PV News, November 2013; Barbara

Lewis, Libya aims to get about fifth of power from solar by
2020, Reuters, 11 April 2013, http://www.reuters.com/
article/2013/04/11/eu-libya-idUSL5N0CY2MZ20130411; Ian
Clover, Desert Solar conference instills Saudi confidence, PV
Magazine, 15 November 2013, http://www.pv-magazine.com/
news/details/beitrag/desert-solar-conference-instills-saudi-confid
22 CARICOM, Targets approved for renewable energy development

and energy efficiency improvement in CARICOM, press release
(Georgetown, Guyana: 6 March 2013), http://www.caricom.org/
jsp/pressreleases/press_releases_2013/pres50_13.jsp.
23 Michael Puttre, Californias New 600 MW Renewables Law
Targets Distributed Solar, Low-Income Areas, Solar Industry, 10
October 2013, http://www.solarindustrymag.com/e107_plugins/
content/content.php?content.13321; Jeff Postelwait,
California Energy Bill Passes, Awaits Gov. Browns Signature,
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/09/californiaenergy-bill-passes-awaits-gov-browns-signature?cmpid=WNLFriday-September13-2013; California Senate, Groundbreaking
New California Law Will Provide Renewable Energy to Renters,
Small Business, 30 September 2013, http://sd03.senate.ca.gov/
news/2013-09-30-groundbreaking-new-california-law-willprovide-renewable-energy-renters-small-busine.
24 Governor of Massachusetts, Patrick-Murphy Administration
Reaches 2017 Solar Energy Targets, Sets New Goal, press
release (Boston: 1 May 2013), http://www.mass.gov/governor/
pressoffice/pressreleases/2013/0501-solar-power-goal-reached.
html; C2ES, Minnesota Passes Omnibus Energy Bill Including
1.5 Percent Solar Requirement, 2013, http://www.c2es.org/
us-states-regions/news/2013/minnesota-passes-omnibusenergy-bill-including-15-percent-solar-requirem.
25
25 Figure 28 based on past editions of the GSR and all sources listed
in Endnote 1.
26 Enerdata, Kazakhstan Adopts Energy Efficiency 2020
Programme and Feed-in Tariffs, 2 September 2013, http://
www.enerdata.net/enerdatauk/press-and-publication/
energy-news-001/kazakhstan-adopts-energy-efficiency-2020programme-and-feed-tariffs_21910.html; in Ecuador, rates for
biomass (11 U.S. cents/kWh) and geothermal (13.81 U.S. cents/
kWh) were unchanged, wind tariffs were raised from 9.13 to
11.74 U.S. cents/kWh, CSP rates were lowered to 25 U.S. cents/
kWh from 31 U.S. cents/kWh, and tidal energy rates were
lowered to 32 U.S. cents/kWh (down from 44 U.S. cents/kWh),
per BNEF and Multilateral Investment Fund (MIF), Climatescope
2013 (Washington, DC: 2013), http://idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/
getDocument.aspx?DOCNUM=38168432; Government of
Ecuador, National Electricity Council, Treatment for energy
produced from non-conventional renewable energy resources
(Regulation No. 004 CONELEC/11), April 2011, http://www.
conelec.gob.ec/normativa_detalle.php?cd_norm=361.
27 CITI FM Online, PURC to introduce special tariffs, 5 April 2013,
http://www.citifmonline.com/index.php?id=1.1326767.
28 GTM Research, PV News, June 2013; Government of Germany,
Federal Network Agency, EEG tariffs for PV systems, http://www.
bundesnetzagentur.de/DE/Sachgebiete/ElektrizitaetundGas/
Unternehmen_Institutionen/ErneuerbareEnergien/Photovoltaik/
DatenMeldgn_EEG-VergSaetze/DatenMeldgn_EEG-VergSaetze_
node.html. Reduction rates were 1.8% per month between
May and October 2013, 1.4% monthly between November
2013 and January 2014, and 1% monthly from February to
April 2014, per Markus Wacket and Madeline Chambers,
Germany Ushers in Renewable Energy Reform, Reuters, 8
April 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/04/08/
us-germany-energy-idUSBREA3716I20140408.
30 BNEF, Energy Week in Review, 1117 June 2013; Sinead Orlandi,
Italy: Rearrangement of the Conto Energia Scheme, Energy
Observer, 15 March 2014, http://www.energyobserver.com/tekst.
php?lang=2&ID=1978.
31 The Netherlands SDE+ feed-in premium support scheme
provides technology-differentiated payments over a maximum
contract length of 15 years. RES Legal, RAC 2013, 12
November 2013, http://www.res-legal.eu/search-by-country/
netherlands/sources/t/source/src/rac-2012/; Rijksdienst voor

Ondernemend Nederland, Solar Subsidy Scheme Closed, 8
August 2013, http://www.agentschapnl.nl/subsidies-regelingen/
subsidieregeling-zonnepanelen-gesloten.
32 Feed-in Tariff table, PV Magazine, 12 December 2013; Ilias
Tsagas, Czech Republic Ends FIT Program, Extends Solar Trax,
PV Magazine, 16 September 2013, http://www.pv-magazine.
com/news/details/beitrag/czech-republic-ends-fit-program-extends-solar-tax-_100012748/#axzz2nwMg7Z3c; Greece from
GTM Research, op. cit. note 28; Renewable Energy World Editors,
Greek Government Proposes More Cuts to Renewable Energy
Feed-in Tariff, Renewable Energy World, 25 March 2014, http://
greek-government-proposes-more-cuts-to-renewable-energyfeed-in-tariff?cmpid=WNL-Wednesday-March26-2014; Lins
Jegelevicius, Lithuanian FIT Cuts Dampen Solar Development,
But Net Metering May Rekindle Industry, Renewable Energy
World, 18 November 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.
com/rea/news/article/2013/11/lithuanian-fit-cuts-dampendevelopment-but-net-metering-may-rekindle-industry.
33 Ferreira, op. cit. note 17.
34 Marie Latour, Portugal: Drastic cuts to the feed-in tariff scheme,
European Photovoltaic Industry Association, January 2014, http://
www.photon.info/photon_news_detail_en.photon?id=83685;
RES Legal, Electricity Promotion in Portugal, 6 November 2013,
http://www.res-legal.eu/search-by-country/portugal/tools-list/c/
portugal/s/res-e/t/promotion/sum/180/lpid/179/page.pdf?out=pdf.
35 In addition to wind power, the full FIT remained in place for largescale CHP plants. Eclareon, Monthly Progress Update: Part of the
project Assessment of climate change policies in the context of
the EU Semester (Brussels: European Commission, 5 November
2013), http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/g-gas/progress/docs/
progress_201310_en.pdf.
Sustainable Energy Finance and BNEF, Global Trends in
Renewable Energy Investment 2013 (Frankfurt: 2013).
37 Feed-in Tariff table, op. cit. note 32.
38 Regionally differentiated rates for ground-mounted solar in China
have been set at either CNY 1/kWh (USD 0.163/kWh), CNY 0.9/
kWh (USD 0.147/kWh), or CNY 0.95/kWh (USD 0.155/kWh), per
Solar Server, China approves regional variations to feed-in tariff
for solar PV, 3 November 2013, http://www.solarserver.com/
solar-magazine/solar-news/current/2013/kw36/china-approvesregional-variations-to-feed-in-tariff-for-solar-pv-updated.html.
39 Chisake Watanabe, Japan Gives Final Approval to 10% Tariff
Cut for Solar Power, Bloomberg, 28 March 2013, http://www.
bloomberg.com/news/2013-03-29/japan-gives-final-approval-to10-tariff-cut-for-solar-power.html; Yuka Obayashi and James
Topham, Japan Lifts Offshore Wind Tariff, Cuts Solar Prices,
Reuters, 25 March 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/
03/25/japan-renewables-subsidies-idUSL4N0MM23520140325.
40 Feed-in Tariff table, op. cit. note 32.
41 GWEC, op. cit. note 12.
42 Legifrance, Arrt du 7 janvier 2013 portant majoration
des tarifs de l'lectricit produite par certaines installations
utilisant l'nergie radiative du soleil telles que vises au 3 de
l'article 2 du dcret n 2000-1196 du 6 dcembre 2000, 1
February 2013, http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.
do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000027008908; Craig Morris, EU Rules
Against French FITs for Wind, Renewables International, 16
January 2014, http://www.renewablesinternational.net/eu-rulesagainst-french-fits-for-wind/150/537/75762/; Paul Gipe,
EU Concludes French Feed-in Tariffs for Wind Energy
Permissable, Wind-Works, 28 March 2014, http://www.
wind-works.org/cms/index.php?id=39&tx_ttnews%5Btt_
news%5D=3037&cHash=8bc2af003adf136ba300d53af
143dacc.
04
ence_100013454/#axzz2nN7pXCI9.
21 Chile from Jenny Muirhead, Weekly Intelligence Brief: October
14-21, CSP Today, 21 October 2013, http://social.csptoday.
com/print/29790?utm_source=http%3A%2F%2Fuk.csptoday.
com%2Ffc_csp_pvlz%2F&utm_medium=email&utm_
campaign=CSP%20ebrief%2021-10-13%20en&utm_
term=Who%20are%20the%20leading%20CSP%20
companies%20in%202013%3F&utm_content=125566; Clean
Technica, 90% Renewable Electricity by 2015 Is Uruguays Goal,
http://cleantechnica.com/2013/01/08/90-renewable-electricityby-2015-is-uruguays-goal/.
43 Ocean Energy Systems, Irelands 1 Million Square Kilometers

of Potential Ocean Energy, press release (Lisbon: February
2014), at http://www.ocean-energy-systems.org/news/
irish_offshore_renewable_energy_development_plan/.
44 Peter Bennett, DECC extends FiT funding for community projects
up to 10 MW, Solar Power Portal, 3 July 2013, http://www.
solarpowerportal.co.uk/news/decc_extends_fit_funding_for_
community_projects_up_to_10mw_2356.
45 Xie Yu, New policy boosts construction of solar plants,
China Daily, 13 November 2013, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/
189

business/2013-09/13/content_16968866.htm.
46 Christopher Dent, University of Leeds, personal communication
with REN21, 2 April 2014.
47 Yuka Obayashi and James Topham, Japan Lifts Offshore Wind
Tariff, Cuts Solar Prices, Reuters, 25 March 2014,
http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/03/25/
japan-renewables-subsidies-idUSL4N0MM23520140325.
48 Thailands new rooftop solar PV FIT set rates at USD 0.21/kWh
(THB 6.96/kWh) for systems under 10kW, USD 0.20/kWh (THB
6.56/kWh) for systems of 10450 kW, and USD 0.19/kWh (THB
6.16/kWh) for systems of 450 kW1 MW, per Thailand Energy
Regulatory Commission, The purchase of electricity from solar
power installed on the roof, http://www.erc.or.th/ERCWeb2/
Front/StaticPage/StaticPage.aspx?p=200&Tag=SolarRooftop;
Government of Spain, Boletin Oficial Del Estado, December
2012, http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2012/12/28/pdfs/BOE-A2012-15649.pdf; Thailands revised community solar FIT scheme
set rates at THB 9.75/kWh for years 13, THB 6.5/kWh for years
410, and THB 4.5/kWh for years 1125, per Government of
Thailand, Joint Committee on the National Energy Policy: No.
2/2556, 16 July 2013, http://www.eppo.go.th/nepc/kpc/kpc-145.
html#7.
49 Algerias FIT provides payment only for a set number of hours per
year. After the cap is reached, electricity can be sold at market
rates. Minister de lEnergie et des Mines, Journal Officiel de la
Republique Algerienne N23, 23 April 2014, http://www.joradp.dz/
FTP/jo-francais/2014/F2014023.pdf; new rates in South Africa
are set at USD 0.16/kWh (ZAR 1.65/kWh) off-peak with peak rates
of USD 0.38/kWh (ZAR 3.96/kWh), per Max Crompton, CSP Today,
personal communication with REN21, 1 August 2013.
50 Ugandas FIT programme includes the introduction of a
Premium Payment Mechanism, a Guarantee Facility, and a
Private Finance Mechanism, per Tildy Bayar, Uganda Launches
Innovative Feed-in Tariff Program, Renewable Energy World,
2 July 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
news/article/2013/07/uganda-launches-innovative-feed-intariff-programme?cmpid=WNL-Wednesday-July3-2013; Get
FiT Uganda, About GET FiT, http://www.getfit-uganda.org/
information-for-developers/get-fit-solar-pv-component/.
51 FIT support is now guaranteed at a base rate of USD 0.133/kWh,
ranging up to USD 0.20/kWh for solar PV and USD 0.225/kWh for
CSP, per David Appleyard, Solar Power Surges on Turkish Policy
Backing, Renewable Energy World, 18 September 2013, http://
solar-power-surges-on-turkish-policy-backing?cmpid=SolarNLThursday-September19-2013.
52 Graham Armstrong, Renewable Energy in Australia: The Renewable
Energy Target (RET), Feed-in-Tariffs (FITs), Green Power, Solar
Hot Water-Heat Pumps and Some International Trends, Saturn
Corporate Resources Pty Ltd., 26 June 2013.
53 Tildy Bayar, Western Australia Backs Down on Solar Feed-in
Tariff Cut, Renewable Energy World, 12 August 2013, http://www.
renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2013/08/westernaustralia-backs-down-on-solar-feed-in-tariff-cut; Feed-in Tariff
table, op. cit. note 32.
54 Nova Scotia Department of Energy, Developmental Tidal Feed-in
Tariff Program, 21 August 2013, http://www.novascotia.ca/
energy/publications/Developmental-Tidal-Feed-in-TariffProgram-Discussion-Paper.pdf; Ontario Power Authority,
Changes to Domestic Content and New FIT/microFIT Price
Schedule, 16 August 2013, http://fit.powerauthority.
on.ca/newsroom/august-16-2013-program-update; GTM
Research, PV News, January 2014; Lucy Woods, Ontario
eliminates renewables domestic content requirement, PV
Tech, 13 December 2013, http://www.pv-tech.org/news/
ontario_eliminates_renewables_domestic_content_requirement.
59 BNEF, Energy Week in Review, 2329 April 2013; DSIRE USA

Database. Renewable Portfolio Standard Policies. March 2013,
http://www.dsireusa.org/documents/summarymaps/RPS_map.
pdf.
60 BNEF, op. cit. note 59; DSIRE USA, op. cit. note 59.
61 Michael Puttre, Californias New 600 MW Renewables
Law Targets Distributed Solar, Low-Income Areas, Solar
Industry, 10 October 2013, http://www.solarindustrymag.
com/e107_plugins/content/content.php?content.13321; Jeff
Postelwait, California Energy Bill Passes, Awaits Gov. Browns
Signature, Renewable Energy World, 12 September 2013, http://
california-energy-bill-passes-awaits-gov-browns-signature.
62 Solar PV and Solar Thermal Electric are listed as qualifying
solar technologies for the RPS mandate, per DSIRE
USA, Minnesota: Renewables Portfolio Standard, 4
June 2013, http://www.dsireusa.org/incentives/incentive.
cfm?Incentive_Code=MN14R&re=0&ee=0.
63 DSIRE USA, Colorado: Renewable Energy Standard, 25
June 2013, http://www.dsireusa.org/incentives/incentive.
cfm?Incentive_Code=CO24R&re=0&ee=0.
64 In addition to phasing out the Renewables Obligation, the Energy
Act in the U.K. also revised financial incentives for renewables,
changing support for a fixed certificate to rates based on a
guaranteed strike price for renewables. GWEC, op. cit. note 12.
65 India Solar Market, Is Solar in Tamil Nadu back? Bridge to
India, 11 February 2014, http://indiasolarmarket.com/2014/02/
solar-tamil-nadu-back/.
66 Greece from Eclareon, Monthly Progress Update: Part of the
2013), http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/g-gas/progress/
docs/progress_201310_en.pdf; Latvia Ministry of Economics,
Households green energy production made more accessible,
easier and simpler, press release (Riga: 10 October 2013), http://
www.em.gov.lv/em/2nd/?lng=lv&id=33544&cat=621; Ukraine
from GTM Research, PV News, November 2013.
67 Republic of Honduras, Decreto No. 138-2013, 1 August 2013,
http://www.tsc.gob.hn/leyes/Ref_art_2_ley_promocion_energia_
electrica_2013.pdf.
68 Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ),
Net-Metering Reference Guide (Bonn: November 2013), http://
www.giz.de/fachexpertise/downloads/giz2013-en-net-meteringreference-guide-philippines.pdf.
69 Denmark from IEA Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme,
Trends in 2013 in Photovoltaic Applications (Paris: 2013);
Netherlands from Ecologic, Assessment of climate change
policies in the context of the European Semester (Brussels:
European Commission, June 2013), http://ec.europa.eu/clima/
policies/g-gas/progress/docs/nl_2013_en.pdf.
70
Edgar Meza, India: Andhra Pradesh introduces net metering for

rooftop plants, PV Magazine, 26 August 2013, http://www.
pv-magazine.com/news/details/beitrag/india--andhra-pradeshintroduces-net-metering-for-rooftop-plants_100012497/#ixzz
2lPaJJ40; Avinash Nair, New net-metering policy to power
Gujarats solar-rooftops, Financial Express, 25 January 2014,
http://www.financialexpress.com/news/new-netmetering-policyto-power-gujarats-solarrooftops/1220714.
55 Ontario Power Authority, FIT/microFIT Schedule Changes,

http://fit.powerauthority.on.ca/sites/default/files/news/2013-FITPrice-Comparison-Table.pdf.
71
Bridge to India, India Solar Weekly Market Update, 30 August

2013.
72
GTM Research, op. cit. note 54.
56 Paul Gipe, Two Steps Forward, One Back: Ontario Cancels

Feed-in Tariffs for Large Projects, Renewable Energy World, 10
article/2013/06/two-steps-forward-one-back-ontario-cancelsfeed-in-tariffs-for-large-projects.
73
New net metering provisions were adopted with the passage of

AB 327. The bill also included provisions changing the states
electricity rate design system, per Jeff St. John, AB 327: From
California Solar Killer to Net Metering Savior? GreenTech Media,
3 September 2013, http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/
read/ab-327-from-california-solar-killer-to-net-metering-savior.
74
State of New York, Improvements Made to Renewable Energy

Program, 13 June 2013, http://www3.dps.
ny.gov/pscweb/WebFileRoom.nsf/Web/
57 Natalie Obiko Pearson, India Rejects Petition for Retroactive

Solar Tariff Cut, Renewable Energy World, 19 August 2013, http://
india-rejects-petition-for-retroactive-solar-tariff-cut.
190
58 Small-scale distributed generation is differentiated by technology:

solar, 50500 kW; wind, 50 kW1.5 MW; other technologies
may not exceed 1 MW, per State of Rhode Island, 2013-H 5803
Substitute A: An Act Relating to Public Utilities and CarriersDistributed Generation Standard Contracts, 28 February 2013,
http://webserver.rilin.state.ri.us/BillText/BillText13/HouseText13/
H5803A.pdf.
75 James Montgomery, Mixed Results: Arizona Keeps Net Metering,

But Levies Smaller Solar Fee, Renewable Energy World, 15
November 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/
rea/news/article/2013/11/mixed-result-arizona-keeps-netmetering-but-levies-smaller-solar-fee?cmpid=SolarNL-SaturdayNovember16-2013; GTM Research, op. cit. note 66.
76
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Renewable

Energy Auctions in Developing Countries (Abu Dhabi: 2013).
77
Mario Sergio Lima, Brazil Energy Auction Sells 2.3 Gigawatts

of Wind-Power Projects, Bloomberg, 13 December 2013,
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-12-13/brazil-energyauction-sells-2-3-gigawatts-of-wind-power-projects.html;
GTM Research, PV News, October 2013; Steve Sawyer, GWEC,
personal communication with REN21, 28 August 2013; Adam
James, Brazilian State Auction Clears 12 Megawatts of Solar PV,
GreenTech Media, 2 January 2014, http://www.greentechmedia.
com/articles/read/Brazilian-State-Auction-Clears-122Megawatts-of-Solar-PV; Stephan Nielsen, Brazil Gives Fossil
Fuels Advantage Over Wind in Power Auction, Bloomberg, 12
November 2013, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-11-12/
brazil-gives-fossil-fuels-advantage-over-wind-in-power-auction.
html.
78
79
Chile from Jenny Muirhead, Weekly Intelligence Brief: October

1421, CSP Today, 21 October 2013, http://social.csptoday.
com/print/29790?utm_source=http%3A%2F%2Fuk.csptoday.
com%2Ffc_csp_pvlz%2F&utm_medium=email&utm_
campaign=CSP%20ebrief%2021-10-13%20en&utm_
term=Who%20are%20the%20leading%20CSP%20
companies%20in%202013%3F&utm_content=125566;
Ecuador from Alejandro Lobo-Guerrero Rodriguez, juwi
Energas Renovables de Chile Ltda., personal communication
with REN21, 18 October 2013; Peru from GTM Research, op.
cit. note 77; BNEF, Energy Week in Review, 2329 April 2013;
Stephan Bielsen, Uruguay Taking Bids on First Big Solar Farms
Using Wind Development Strategy, Renewable Energy World, 4
September 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
news/article/2013/09/uruguay-taking-bids-on-first-big-solarfarms-using-wind-development-strategy?cmpid=WNL-FridaySeptember6-2013.
GTM Research, PV News, September 2013.
80 Muriel Boselli and Marion Douet, France to launch tender for pilot
marine projects, Reuters, 18 September 2013, http://planetark.
org/wen/69801; Tara Patel, France Double Solar Energy Target,
Seeks to Promote European Equipment, Renewable Energy World,
8 January 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
news/article/2013/01/france-doubles-solar-energy-target-seeksto-promote-european-equipment.
81 Heather OBrian, Italy assigns feed in tariff to 400MW, Wind
Power Monthly, 2 August 2013, http://www.windpowermonthly.
com/article/1193937/italy-assigns-feed-tariff-400mw; Mikael
Holter, Norway Approves $3 Billion for Wind Power Plants to
Triple Capacity, Renewable Energy World, 26 August 2013, http://
norway-approves-3-billion-for-wind-power-plants-to-triplecapacity.
82 Marc Roca, Russia Awards First Renewable Energy Tender to
Boost the Industry, Renewable Energy World, 26 September
article/2013/09/russia-awards-first-renewable-energy-tender-toboost-the-industry?cmpid=WNL-Friday-September27-2013.
83 Solar Server, Russia to introduce bidding program for 1.2 GW of
PV by 2020, Solar Plaza, 10 June 2013, http://www.solarplaza.
com/news/russia-to-introduce-bidding-program-for-12-gw-of-p.
84 Alex Morales, UK Solar, Wind to Compete Head-to-Head
With Solar Under Auction Plans, Renewable Energy World, 17
January 2014, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
news/article/2014/01/u-k-solar-wind-to-compete-head-tohead-with-solar-under-auction-plans?cmpid=SolarNL-FridayJanuary17-2014.
85 Egypt from GTM Research, PV News, June 2013; South Africa
from Jenny Muirhead, Weekly Intelligence Brief: September
20October 7, CSP Today, 7 October 2013, http://social.
csptoday.com/print/29768?utm_source=http%3A%2F%2Fuk.
csptoday.com%2Ffc_csp_pvlz%2F&utm_medium=email&utm_
campaign=CSP%20Ebrief%2007-10-13%20
en&utm_term=Using%20CSP%20to%20purify%20
water&utm_content=125566.
86 Muirhead, op. cit. note 85.
87 GTM Research, PV News, June 2013; Lucy Woods, India delays
solar auction for second time, PV Tech, 6 January 2014,
http://www.pv-tech.org/news/india_delays_solar_tender_bid_
for_second_time.
88 Asia Report: Whats Driving, and Hampering, Indias Wind Market
Momentum, Renewable Energy World, 5 September 2013, http://
asia-report-whats-driving-and-hampering-indias-wind-marketmomentum-1.
89 Offshore wind licences were awarded in an auction held by
the Department of Interior (DOI) and Bureau of Ocean Energy
Management (BOEM) for USD 3.8 billion. There have since
been additional licences granted. James Montgomery, First US
Offshore Wind Leases Go to Deepwater, Renewable Energy World,
1 August 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/
article/2013/08/first-us-offshore-wind-leases-go-to-deepwater.
90 Debjoy Sengupta, Government extends generation based
incentive scheme for wind power, Economic Times, 5 September
2013, http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2013-09-05/
news/41802395_1_wind-power-generation-based-incentivemerchant-power-plants.
91 China from Frank Haugwitz, Ministry of Finance announced
that manufacturers are subject to 50% VAT rebate, Briefing
Paper-China Solar PV Development, Asia Europe Clean Energy
(Solar) Advisory Co. Ltd (ACEA), September 2013, p. 2, and
from Hydroworld, China announces new policy to encourage
hydroelectric power development, 22 January 2014, www.
hydroworld.com/content/hydro/en/articles/2014/01/chinaannounces-new-policy-to-encourage-hydroelectric-powerdevelopment.html; Iran from IEA/IRENA Policies and Measures
Database, Renewable Energy Development Fund, 12 November
2013, http://www.iea.org/policiesandmeasures/renewableenergy.
92 Danish Ministry of Energy, How energy-intensive companies to
help you go green, 1 July 2013, http://www.ens.dk/info/nyheder/
nyhedsarkiv/saadan-kan-energitunge-virksomheder-faa-hjaelp
-groenne.
93 Ocean Energy Systems, op. cit. note 43.
94 BNEF, Energy: Week in Review, 28 July 2013.
95 Kiley Kroh, New York Governor Announces $1 Billion for Solar
Energy, Think Progress, 9 January 2014, http://thinkprogress.
org/climate/2014/01/09/3139091/cuomo-big-solar/.
96 France from TECSOL, Fin du credit dimpot pour le
photovotaique, maintien pour le chauffe-eau solaire, 22
September 2013, http://tecsol.blogs.com/mon_weblog/2013/09/
fin-du-cr%C3%A9dit-dimp%C3%B4t-pour-lephotovolta%C3%AFque-maintien-pour-le-chauffe-eau-solaire.
html; United States from DSIRE USA Database, Federal
Electricity Production Tax Credit (PTC), 2 October 2013, http://
dsireusa.org/incentives/incentive.cfm?Incentive_Code=US13F.
97 Novinte, Bulgaria MPs OK 20% Renewable Energy Tax, Defy
Protests, 5 December 2013, http://www.novinite.com/
view_news.php?id=156142; Ilias Tsagas, Czech Republic
ends FIT program, extends solar tax, PV Magazine, 16
September 2013, http://www.pv-magazine.com/news/details/
beitrag/czech-republic-ends-fit-program--extends-solar-tax_100012748/#axzz2nwMg7Z3c; Sarah Azau, Wind Energy
Sector Faces Uncertainty Crisis, Wind Directions, April 2013, p.
19.
04
EC38C89DDE53F42085257B6D005A9133/$File/pr13029.
pdf?OpenElement; Anne Galloway, Vermont House passes
net metering bill on voice vote; raises cap to 15%, Bennington
Banner, 1 February 2014, http://www.benningtonbanner.com/
localnews/ci_25039149/vermont-house-passes-net-meteringbill-voice-vote.
98 GTM Research, PV News, March 2014; FS-UNEP and BNEF,

2014).
99
99 Sidebar 7 from the following sources: disruptive technologies
that are emerging and may compete with utility-provided services
include solar PV, battery storage, fuel cells, geothermal energy
systems, wind power, micro-turbines, and electric vehicleenhanced storage, per Edison Electric Institute (EEI), Disruptive
Challenges: Financial Implications and Strategic Responses to
a Changing Retail Electric Business (Washington, DC: January
2013), http://www.eei.org/ourissues/finance/documents/
disruptivechallenges.pdf; this is particularly true in developed
countries where such business models are deeply entrenched,
191

per International Energy Agency (IEA) Lessons from Liberalised
Electricity Markets (Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development/ IEA, 2005), http://www.iea.org/publications/
freepublications/publication/LessonsNet.pdf, How to Lose
Half a Trillion Euros, The Economist, October 2013, http://
www.economist.com/news/briefing/21587782-europeselectricity-providers-face-existential-threat-how-lose-halftrillion-euros?frsc=dg%7Cb, and U.S. Electric Power Research
Institute, The Integrated Grid: Realizing the Full Value of Central
and Distributed Energy Resources (Palo Alto, CA: February
2014). http://www.eei.org/ourissues/finance/documents/
disruptivechallenges.pdf; reduced load on transmission and
distribution networks from Scott Sklar, Stella Group, Ltd., personal
communication with REN21, 24 April 2014, and from Rocky
Mountain Institute, A Review of Solar PV Benefit and Cost Studies
(Boulder, CO: April 2013), http://www.rmi.org/Content/Files/
eLab-DER_cost_value_Deck_130722.pdf; challenges facing
utilities from How to Lose Half a Trillion Euros, op. cit. this
note, and from EEI, op. cit. this note; European utility losses
from How to Lose Half a Trillion Euros, op. cit. this note; Citi
Research, Rising Sun: Implications for US Utilities (New York:
August 2013); Rainer Hinrichs-Rahlwes, German Renewable
Energies Federation (BEE), personal communication with REN21,
12 January 2014; Ross McCracken, Energy Economist: Tough
Times for European Utilities May Have a Lesson for the US,
Platts, 22 November 2013, http://blogs.platts.com/2013/11/22/
ee-nov13/?sf1076174=1; Amory Lovins, Dont Cry for the Electric
Utilities, GreenBiz.com, 12 February 2014, http://www.greenbiz.
com/blog/2014/02/12/dont-lament-renewables-disruptionelectric-utilities?page=full; Giles Parkinson, Australian Utilities
Erect Barricades in Bid to Halt Solar Storm, Renew Economy, 23
October 2013, http://reneweconomy.com.au/2013/australianutilities-erect-barricades-in-bid-to-halt-solar-storm-91715;
pushback in Europe from Hinrichs-Rahlwes, op. cit. this note;
Marc Gunther, With Rooftop Solar on Rise, U.S. Utilities Are
Striking Back, Yale Environment360, 3 September 2013, http://
e360.yale.edu/feature/with_rooftop_solar_on_rise_us_utilities_
are_striking_back/2687/; shift in electricity models and 3
million households from EURELECTRIC, Utilities: Powerhouses of
Innovation (Brussels: May 2013), p. 9, http://www.eurelectric.org/
media/79178/utilties_powerhouse_of_innovation_full_report_
final-2013-104-0001-01-e.pdf; Germany from German Chamber
of Commerce and Industry, cited in Jan Hromadko, German
Companies Take Back the Power, Wall Street Journal, 2 March
2014, http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB100014240527
02304899704579390871434033460?mg=reno64-wsj&url;
Germanys RWE has begun developing utility-scale PV projects,
and E.ONs subsidiaries started commercial operation for rooftop
PV customers in 2013; EDF (France) is investing in solar PV,
and Enel Green Power (Italy) has been developing renewable
power projects internationally while cooperating with technology
companies on the production of amorphous silicon PV modules,
all from IEA-Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme (IEA-PVPS),
Trends in Photovoltaic Applications 2013: Survey Report of Selected
IEA Countries Between 1992 and 2012 (Paris: 2013), p. 72; global
survey from Katherine Tweed, 40 Percent of Utilities Predict
Complete Transformation by 2030, Green Tech Media, 8
October 2013, http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/40Percent-of-Utilities-Predict-Complete-Transformation-by-2030;
EnBW quote from Stephen Lacey, This Is What the Utility Death
Spiral Looks Like, The Energy Collective, 6 March 2014, http://
theenergycollective.com/stephenlacey/349671/what-utilitydeath-spiral-looks; incresed investment in renewables from How
to Lose Half a Trillion Euros, op. cit. this note, and from Gunther,
op. cit. this note; share of utility investments in Europe from
EURELECTRIC, op. cit. this note; Sumit Moitra, Coal India Gets
Into Solar Power, DNA India, 27 May 2013, http://www.dnaindia.
com/money/report-coal-india-gets-into-solar-power-1839903;
examples of downstream activities include trading, and providing
energy advice, from How to Lose Half a Trillion Euros, op. cit.
this note, and from Gunther, op. cit. this note; Duke Energy and
Edison International have invested in Clean Power Finance, a
San Francisco-based firm that has raised half a billion dollars to
finance solar projects. Also, NRG Energy (New Jersey) created
a rooftop solar unit to sell systems to businesses and, eventually,
homeowners, per Gunther, op. cit. this note. In addition, through
its Solar Loan Programme (established in 2008), PSE&G of
New Jersey has provided loans to more than 1,000 residential
and commercial customers to help finance solar projects on
their sites. The next phase of the programme, launched in
2013, will support the financing of 97.5 MW of distributed solar
built on landfills and brownfields, and also residential and
192
commercial buildings, per Nora Caley, Some Utilities Embrace

DG Solar, Solar Industry Magazine, February 2014, http://www.
solarindustrymag.com/issues/SI1402/DEPT_New%20%26%20
Noteworthy.html; shift to service-based model from Electricity
Utilities Must Evolve or Die: Are They Up To the Task? 19 August
2013, http://theenergycollective.com/jessejenkins/261506/
electricity-utilities-must-evolve-or-die, and from EURELECTRIC,
op. cit. this note; RWE and EnBW from Lacey, op. cit. this note,
from Diarmaid Williams, Major European Utility Set for Dramatic
Renewable Energy Transformation, RenewableEnergyWorld.com,
31 October 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/
news/article/2013/10/major-european-utility-set-for-dramatictransformation?cmpid=SolarNL-Saturday-November2-2013, and
from Green Makeover Will Be Struggle for Germanys RWE,
Reuters, 1 November 2013, http://planetark.org/wen/70238;
hybrid model from Bianca Barth, Bundesverband Solarwirtschaft
e.V., personal communication with REN21, 23 April 2014; need
for policy framework from EURELECTRIC, op. cit. this note,
p. 49; design reforms from GTM Research, Grid Edge: Utility
Modernization in the Age of Distributed Generation (Boston:
October 2013); U.K. pricing scheme from Australian Government,
Department of Industry, Energy White Paper 2014, 7 February
2014, http://ewp.industry.gov.au/sites/ewp.industry.gov.au/files/
CCCLM%20Energy%20White%20Paper%20-%20Issues%20
Paper%20070214.pdf; California from Sklar, op. cit. this note;
capacity markets and new market designs from Felix Matthes,
et al, Focused Capacity Markets: A New Market Design for the
Transition to a New Energy System, short version of the study
for the WWF Germany Environmental Foundation, 8 October
2012, http://www.wwf.de/fileadmin/fm-wwf/Publikationen-PDF/
focused_capacity_market_ENG_short.pdf, from Freyr Sverrisson,
Sunna Research, personal communication with REN21, 28
April 2014, from Craig Morris, Has the Age of Capacity Markets
Only Just Begun? Energy Transition, 29 May 2013, http://
energytransition.de/2013/05/the-age-of-capacity-markets/, and
from EURELECTRIC, op. cit. this note.
100 Ann Koh and Winnie Zhu, Singapore Plans to Regulate Power
Futures to Prevent Speculation, Bloomberg Businessweek, 28
October 2013, http://www.businessweek.com/news/201310-28/singapore-plans-to-regulate-power-futures-to-preventspeculation; Feng Zengkun and Grace Chua, The Straits Times:
Plan to boost solar power without destabilizing grid, Singapore
National Climate Change Secretariat, 29 October 2013, http://app.
nccs.gov.sg/(X(1)S(150a3o45ym3sv1n3rifuj5bi))/news_details.
aspx?nid=1101&AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1 .
101 China Encourages Utility Purchase of Solar to Boos
Manufacturing Capacity, Renewable Energy World, 11 December
article/2013/12/china-encourages-utility-purchase-of-solarto-boost-manufacturing-capacity?cmpid=SolarNL-ThursdayDecember12-2013.
103 Jennifer Runyon, Spurred by Japan, Steady Growth Predicted
for Energy Storage Market, Renewable Energy World, 19 March
article/2014/03/spurred-by-japan-steady-growth-predictedenergy-storage-market.
104 James Montgomery, Energy Storage Roundup: Ontario and
California, Imergy, Stem, Hitachi, Renewable Energy World, 5
news/article/2013/12/energy-storage-roundup-ontario-andcalifornia-imergy-stem-hitachi.
105 Photon, Puerto Ricos energy regulator signs final PPAs for
six large-scale PV projects, 23 January 2014, http://www.
photon.info/photon_news_detail_en.photon?id=83685;
25X25, California Finalizes Major Rule to Mandate Energy
Storage, Boosting Renewables, in Weekly REsource
for 18 October 2013, http://www.25x25.org/index.
php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1188&Itemid=246.
106 Jeff St. John, Massachusetts Makes Smart Grid Mandatory,
GreenTech Media, 31 December 2013, http://www.
greentechmedia.com/articles/read/massachusetts-makessmart-grid-mandatory.
107 Jenny Muirhead, Weekly Intelligence Brief: October 14-21, CSP
Today, 21 October 2013, http://social.csptoday.com/print/29790.
109 President Obama Signs Groundbreaking Legislation to Expand
U.S. Hydropower Production, GreenTech Media, 12 August
110 U.S. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, Small Generator

Interconnection Agreements and Procedures (Washington, DC:
22 November 2013), https://www.ferc.gov/whats-new/commmeet/2013/112113/E-1.pdf.
111 Bridge to India, India Solar Weekly Market Update, 24 March
2014.
112 IEA, Solar energy could meet one-sixth of global demand for
heating and cooling in under 40 years, 9 July 2012, http://www.iea.
org/newsroomandevents/news/2012/july/name,28298,en.html.
113 Table 3 and REN21, Renewables 2005, op. cit. note 1.
114 Brbel Epp, Albania: New Energy Law Shows Countrys Strong
Commitment to Solar Thermal, Solar Thermal World, 25 June
2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/albania-new-energylaw-shows-countrys-strong-commitment-solar-thermal.
115 Interim Standard AS 5389 (Int): Solar heating and cooling
systems-Calculation of energy consumption, per Tildy
Bayer, Australia Leads with Solar Cooling Standard,
australian-solar-cooling-standard-published?cmpid=SolarNL.
116 Sidebar 8 from the following sources: USD 544 billion from IEA,
116
World Energy Outlook 2013 (Paris: IEA/OECD, 2013). Note that,
according to the IMF, subsidies are USD 1.9 trillion if considering
total post-tax subsidies, from International Monetary Fund
(IMF),Reforming Energy Subsidies Summary Note, 2013, http://
www.imf.org/external/np/fad/subsidies/pdf/note.pdf.; primary
fuel from IEA, Energy Efficiency Market Report 2013 (Paris:
IEA/OECD, 2013); co-benefits from IEA, Spreading the Net: The
Multiple Benefits of Energy Efficiency Improvements (Paris: 2012);
global primary energy intensity saw an average annual decrease
of around 1.5% between 2011 and 2012, per IEA, World Energy
Outlook 2013, op. cit. this note, p. 234; 7% reduction in primary
energy demand, or 1,260 Mtoe in absolute terms, from IEA New
Policies Scenario (the business-as-usual scenario is IEAs Current
Policies Scenario), per IEA, World Energy Outlook 2013, op. cit.
this note; greatest unrealised potential from IEA, Energy Efficiency
Market Report 2013, op. cit. this note; high rates of urbanisation
and construction from McKinsey Global Institute, Urban World:
Cities and the Rise of the Consuming Class (London: 2012); 70% of
Indian building stock from S. Kumar et al., Developing an Energy
Conservation Building Code Implementation Strategy in India,
2010 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings,
unpublished manuscript, May 2010; Chinese policies from
Frank Haugwitz, Briefing Paper China Solar PV Development
(Beijing: Asia Europe Clean Energy (Solar) Advisory Co. Ltd.,
September 2013); Indias Building Code is now mandatory in eight
of the 28 Indian states, and indicates that solar water heating
systems should be planned to meet at least 20% of expected
demand, per IEA, World Energy Outlook 2013, op. cit. this note,
and Indian Ministry of Power, Energy Conservation Building Code
2007 (New Delhi: 2007); Australian Government Department of
Industry, Local Government Energy Efficiency Program, http://
ee.ret.gov.au/node/2121, viewed 5 February 2014; REEEP and
GBPN initiative from REEEP, Interventions, www.reeep.org/
interventions, viewed 17 December 2013, and from M. Hiller
et al., 1 Billion m2 of Positive Energy Buildings A REEEP and
GBPN Intervention, unpublished manuscript (Vienna: REEEP, 6
May 2013) (as an example of other ongoing initiatives, UNEP is
implementing Development of Nationally Appropriate Mitigation
Actions (NAMAs) for the Building Sector in Asia, a four-year
project under the International Climate Initiative funded by the
German Federal Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation
and Nuclear Safety (BMU). The project will help Indonesia, the
Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam identify policies or projects
to increase energy efficiency and/or incorporate renewable
technologies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the
building sector, and incorporate them into NAMAs and national
climate and development strategies); IPEEC, Building Energy
Rating Schemes: Assessing Issues and Impacts, forthcoming
March 2014; LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design) from Marisa Long, LEED v4, the Newest Version of LEED
Green Building Program Launches at USGBCs Annual Greenbuild
Conference, 20 November 2013, at www.usgbc.org; Australias
Green Star rating system, launched in 2003, from Green Building
Council of Australia, Green Star Project Directory, www.gbca.
org.au/project-directory.asp, viewed 5 February 2014; Green
Building Council South Africa, Escalation of Green Star SA
ratings in month of June, 3 July 2013, at www.gbcsa.org.za.

117 Robert Schachtschneider, Heating& Cooling Promotion in
Netherlands, RES Legal, 12 November 2013, http://www.reslegal.eu/search-by-country/netherlands/tools-list/c/netherlands/s/
res-hc/t/promotion/sum/172/lpid/171/page.pdf?out=pdf; U.K.
from Diarmaid Williams, Amended Renewable Heat Incentive
regulations published, Cogeneration & On-Site Power Production,
13 May 2013, http://www.cospp.com/articles/2013/05/amendedrenewable-heat-incentive-regulations-published0.html.
118 EurObservER, Solar Thermal and Concentrated Solar Power
Barometer (Paris: May 2013).
119 Incentives are provided through the Fund for Renewable
Energy and Energy Saving, per Brbel Epp, Cyprus: Grants
Scheme for Solar Cooling Systems, Solar Thermal World,
27 February 2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/
cyprus-grants-scheme-solar-cooling-systems.
120 Brbel Epp, Czech Republic: New Green Savings Programme
Gets Off on the Wrong Foot, Solar Thermal World, 30 August
2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/czech-republicnew-green-savings-programme-gets-wrong-foot.
121 Frank Stier, Germany: Additional Support for Small Solar Cooling
Systems, Solar Thermal World, 3 February 2014,
http://solarthermalworld.org/content/germany-additionalsupport-small-solar-cooling-systems.
122 GSE, Heating and Cooling, http://www.gse.it/en/Heating_
Cooling/Pages/default.aspx.
123 Portail de l'nergie en Wallonie, Amlioration de la performance
nergtique des btiments, 28 March 2013, http://energie.
wallonie.be/nl/amelioration-de-la-performance-energetique-desbatiments.html?IDC=6431&IDD=83066.
124 Australian Government Department of Industry, Local
Government Energy Efficiency Program, http://www.ee.ret.gov.
au/energy-efficiency/grants/local-government-energy-efficiencyprogram; Brbel Epp, India: Rebate Programme for 400,000m2
in public, social and industrial sector, Solar Thermal World, 17
March 2014, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/india-rebateprogramme-400000-m2-public-social-and-industrial-sector;
Brbel Epp, Puerto Rico: New Solar Thermal Programme
to Benefit Low-Income Families, Solar Thermal World, 16
April 2014, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/puerto-riconew-solar-thermal-programme-benefit-low-income-families;
Stephanie Banse, Thailand: Ministry of Energy Extends Incentive
Programme until 2021, Solar Thermal World, 2 February 2014,
http://solarthermalworld.org/content/thailand-ministry-energyextends-incentive-programme-until-2021.
125 Brbel Epp, South Africa: Planned Rollout with 650,000 Solar
Water Heaters, Solar Thermal World, 4 September 2013,
http://solarthermalworld.org/content/south-africa-plannedrollout-650000-solar-water-heaters.
126 South Africa Department of Energy, Annual Performance Plan
201314, http://www.energy.gov.za/files/aboutus/DoE%20
APP%202013-14.pdf.
127 U.K. from Eclareon, Monthly Progress Update: Part of the project
Assessment of climate change policies in the context of the
EU Semester (Brussels: European Commission, 5 November
2013), http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/g-gas/progress/docs/
progress_201310_en.pdf; Flanders from Eclareon, Monthly
Progress Update: Part of the project Assessment of climate
change policies in the context of the EU Semester (Brussels:
European Commission, 6 August 2013), http://ec.europa.eu/
clima/policies/g-gas/progress/docs/progress_201307_en.pdf.
128 Brbel Epp, Spain: Most of these companies will survive thanks
to internationalization, Solar Thermal World, 16 December
2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/spain-most-thesecompanies-will-survive-thanks-internationalisation.
04
2013, http://www.greentechmedia.com/industry/read/presidentobama-signs-groundbreaking-legislation-to-expand-u-301773.
129 Tunisias incentives are offered under the countrys PROSOL

scheme, per Brbel Epp, Tunisia: Government Extends PROSOL
Support Scheme, Solar Thermal World, 19 March 2013, http://
solarthermalworld.org/content/tunisia-government-extendsprosol-support-scheme; Brbel Epp, Tunisia Funds Solar
Process Heat, Solar Thermal World, 7 October 2013, http://
solarthermalworld.org/content/tunisia-funds-solar-process-heat.
130 Brbel Epp, Chile: So Far No Government Compromise on
Extending Tax Credits, Solar Thermal World, 8 July 2013, http://
solarthermalworld.org/content/chile-so-far-no-governmentcompromise-extending-tax-credits; Brbel Epp, India:
National Incentive Programme Reduces Grants, Solar Thermal
193

World, 30 June 2013, http://solarthermalworld.org/content/
india-national-incentive-programme-reduces-grants.
131 Ukraine aims to lift bioethanol output by 6-fold, Xinhua, 1 April
2013, http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/business/201304/01/c_132277395.htm; Meghan Sapp, Ukraine set to
supply 2014 E5 entirely from domestic production, Biofuels
Digest, 30 October 2013, http://www.biofuelsdigest.com/
bdigest/2013/10/30/ukraine-set-to-supply-2014-e5-entirelyfrom-domestic-production/; Meghan Sapp, Ecuador to begin
B5 blend in May, Biofuels Digest, 26 March 2013, http://www.
biofuelsdigest.com/bdigest/2013/03/26/ecuador-to-beginb5-blend-in-may/; Panama from Jim Lane, Biofuels Mandates
Around the World: 2014. Biofuels Digest, 31 December
2013, http://www.biofuelsdigest.com/bdigest/2013/12/31/
biofuels-mandates-around-the-world-2014/.
132 Meghan Sapp, Indias ethanol mandate slowed down further
by hitches at OMCs, Biofuels Digest, 3 October 2013, http://
www.biofuelsdigest.com/bdigest/2013/10/03/indias-ethanolmandate-slowed-down-further-by-hitches-at-omcs/; Esther
Ng, Analysis: Malaysias expanded B5 biodiesel mandate
too late for some producers, Platts, 21 August 2013, http://
www.platts.com/latest-news/agriculture/singapore/analysismalaysias-expanded-b5-biodiesel-mandate-26202623;
Isabel Lane, Philippines raises biofuel blend mandate to
5%, Biofuels Digest, 15 July 2013, http://www.biofuelsdigest.
com/bdigest/2013/07/15/philippines-raises-biofuel-blendmandate-to-5/; Meghan Sapp, Philippines implementing long
awaited E10 mandate on April 1, Biofuels Digest, 26 March
philippines-implementing-long-awaited-e10-mandate-on-april-1/.
133 Meghan Sapp, Argentina to boost to B10 on June 1, Biofuels
Digest, 17 April 2013, http://www.biofuelsdigest.com/
bdigest/2013/04/17/argentina-to-boost-to-b10-on-june-1/; Brazil
to raise ethanol mix in gasoline to 25% from 20% May 1, Platts, 1
March 2013, http://www.platts.com/latest-news/oil/riodejaneiro/
brazil-to-raise-ethanol-mix-in-gasoline-to-25-8194390; Stephan
Nielsen and Mario Sergio Lima, Brazil Government Weighs
Mixing More Biodiesel with Diesel Fuel, Bloomberg, 30 October
2013, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-10-30/brazilgovernment-weighs-mixing-more-biodiesel-with-diesel-fuel.html.
141 Judy Hua, UPDATE 1-China levies consumption tax on biodiesel,

kerosene imports, Reuters, 2 January 2014, http://www.reuters.
com/article/2014/01/02/china-fuel-tax-idUSL3N0KC0MM20140102.
142 Colum Murphy, China Hopes Cities Can Help Boost Electric Car
Sales, Wall Street Journal, 27 October 2013, http://blogs.wsj.com/
chinarealtime/2013/11/27/china-hopes-cities-can-help-boostelectric-car-sales/; India from Sharish Garud, The Energy and
Resources Institute (TERI), personal communication with REN21,
25 January 2014; Romania from Eclareon, Monthly Progress
Update: Part of the project Assessment of climate change
policies in the context of the EU Semester (Brussels: European
Commission, 5 November 2013), http://ec.europa.eu/clima/
policies/g-gas/progress/docs/progress_201310_en.pdf; South
Africa from Jonathan Skeen, REN21, personal communication
with REN21, 1 January 2014; Government of the United Kingdom,
Guidance: Plugged-in Places, https://www.gov.uk/government/
publications/plugged-in-places.
143 Jan Burck, Germanwatch, personal communication with REN21, 9
December 2013.
144 State agencies get B4bn in solar panel assistance, Bangkok
Post, 5 December 2013, http://www.bangkokpost.com/business/
news/383269/state-agencies-get-b4bn-in-solar-panel-assistance.
145 GTM Research, PV News, January 2014.
146 For example, see Philipp Schnberger, Municipalities as Key
Actors of German Renewable Energy Governance: An Analysis of
Opportunities, Obstacles, and Multi-Level Influences, Wuppertal
Paper No. 186 (Wuppertal, Germany: January 2013), http://
epub.wupperinst.org/frontdoor/index/index/docId/4676; Gino
Van Begin, Look to cities for real climate action! Outreach
Magazine, http://www.stakeholderforum.org/sf/outreach/index.
php/previous-editions/cop-19/198-cop-19-day-9-cities-urbangovernance-and-transport/11626-look-to-cities-for-real-climateaction; World Future Council, Going Global with 100% Renewable
Energy, October 2013, http://power-to-the-people.net/2013/10/
going-global-with-100-renewable-energy/.
147 Kuna, India to develop 60 Solar Cities, https://www.kuna.net.kw/
ArticleDetails.aspx?id=2350114&language=en.
134 Meghan Sapp, Zimbabwe heads for higher blends with E15 and
sights on E20 for 2014, Biofuels Digest, 3 December 2013, http://
www.biofuelsdigest.com/bdigest/2013/12/03/zimbabwe-headsfor-higher-blends-with-e15-and-sights-on-e20-for-2014/.
148 Go 100% Renewable Energy, Energy City Frederikshavn100%

Renewable Energy Goal: 100% Renewable Electricity, Heat and
Transportation by 2015, interview with Poul Rask Nielsen, http://
www.go100percent.org/cms/?id=109, viewed December 2013.
135 All Africa, South Africa: Nation to Blend Biofuels From 2015, 1
October 2013, http://allafrica.com/stories/201310011284.html.
149 Go 100% Renewable Energy, Latest News from North America,

http://www.go100percent.org/cms/index.php?id=121, viewed
January 2013.
136 The reduction of the RFS comes in response to industry pressure

and an Environmental Protection Agency warning over its
feasibility with the current fuel mix. The EPA reported that the
approaching blend wall, the level at which the RFS could not
be met by the current renewable fuel mix being used in the
United States (predominantly E10), could necessitate reducing
the current RFS target. Timothy Gardner, In win for Big Oil, U.S.
proposes biofuel mandate cut, Reuters, 18 November 2013,
http://planetark.org/wen/70402; David Ripplinger, What is the
long-term impact of the RFS cut? AG Week, 9 December 2013,
http://www.agweek.com/event/article/id/22237/.
137 Jim Lane, Florida repeals E10 ethanol mandate, Biofuels Digest,
3 June 2013, http://www.biofuelsdigest.com/bdigest/2013/06/03/
florida-repeals-e10-ethanol-mandate/; Isabel Lane, Maine
approves ethanol blend ban, Biofuels Digest, 13 May
maine-approves-ethanol-blend-ban/.
138 Erin Voegele, European Parliament votes to cap crop-based
biofuels, Ethanol Producer, 11 September 2013,
http://www.ethanolproducer.com/articles/10226/
european-parliament-votes-to-cap-crop-based-biofuels.
139 Updated 2-Brazil throws troubled ethanol industry tax
breaks, credit, Reuters, 23 April 2013, http://uk.reuters.com/
article/2013/04/23/brazil-ethanol-taxes-idUKL2N0DA1E3201304
23?rpc=401&feedType=RSS&feedName=mnaNewsFinancialServ
icesAndRealEstate&rpc=401.
140 Poland from Eclareon, Monthly Progress Update: Part of the
2013), http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/g-gas/progress/
docs/progress_201310_en.pdf; Jim Lane, US DOE invests
$22M in algae biofuels accelerators, Biofuels Digest, 2 August
194
us-doe-invests-22m-in-algae-biofuels-accelerators/.
150 World Future Council, From Vision to Action: A Workshop Report

on 100% Renewable Energies in European Regions (Hamburg:
March 2013), pp. 3637, www.worldfuturecouncil.org/fileadmin/
user_upload/Climate_and_Energy/From_Vision_to_Action_
Policy_Recommendations_for_100__RE_in_European_Regions.
pdf; U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Clean Energy
Policy Analyses: Analysis of the Status and Impact of Clean Energy
Policies at the Local Level (Golden, CO: December 2010), www.
nrel.gov/tech_deployment/state_local_activities/status_impact.
html.
151 The Climate Institute, China launching two more carbon markets,
November 2013, http://www.climateinstitute.org.au/articles/
media-briefs/china-launching-two-more-carbon-markets.
html; World Resources Institute, China FAQs, Emissions
Trading in China: First Reports from the Field, January
2014, http://www.chinafaqs.org/blog-posts/why-does-chinawant-carbon-trading; Carnegie Endowment for International
Peace, A New Focus for U.S.-China Cooperation: Low-Carbon
Cities, July 2013, http://carnegieendowment.org/2013/07/24/
new-focus-for-u.s.-china-cooperation-low-carbon-cities/ggf3.
152 IEA, Cities, Towns and Renewable Energy YIMFY (Paris: IEA/
OECD, 2009), http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/
publication/Cities2009-1.pdf.
153 UK DECC announces 10 million fund for urban community
energy, AltEnergy Mag, January 2014, http://www.altenergymag.
com/news/2014/01/27/decc-announces-pound10-million-fundfor-urban-community-energy/32109.
154 Nick Harrison, Is It Time to Devolve Climate Change Policy
Making? Responding to Climate Change, 2 September 2013,
http://www.rtcc.org/2013/09/02/is-it-time-to-devolve-climatechange-policy-making/#sthash.WoxO7fvO.dpufLocal.
156 IEA, op. cit. note 152.

157 See the Urban-LEDS project with UN-HABITAT and ICLEI
as implementation partners, funded by the European
Commission, www.urban-leds.org. The results will be shared
with another 21 satellite cities, per Urban Low Emission
Development Strategies (Urban LEDS), Urban-LEDS
Eight Model Cities Selected, 3 December 2013, http://
urbanleds.iclei.org/index.php?id=127&tx_ttnews%5Btt_
news%5D=5&cHash=b1d7fcc5dd6237bb96b8bd3fa88a9f95
http://www.iclei.org/en/details/article/iclei-leads-nationalsubnational-integration-in-low-emission-development.html.
158 Diane Moss, 100% Renewable Energy: Becoming the New
Normal? Clean Technica, 22 February 2013, http://cleantechnica.
com/2013/02/22/100-renewable-energy-becoming-the-newnormal/.
159 City of London, Local Plan & Community Infrastructure Levy,
Infrastructure Delivery Plan, July 2013, http://www.cityoflondon.
gov.uk/services/environment-and-planning/planning/planningpolicy/local-development-framework/Documents/infrastructuredelivery-plan-july-2013.pdf.
160 EU Covenant of Mayors, Signatories, www.covenantofmayors.
eu/about/signatories_en.html, viewed January 2014.
161 Obama plan offers help to U.S. cities on climates front lines,
Reuters, 26 June 2013, http://planetark.org/wen/69054.
162 Asheville Next City That Has Voted to Go Beyond Coal, Grist,
27 October 2013, http://grist.org/article/asheville-votes-tomove-beyond-coal/.
163 Thousands of German Cities and Villages Looking to Buy Back
Their Power Grid, GreenTech Media, 11 October 2013, http://
www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/Thousands-of-GermanCities-and-Villages-Looking-to-Buy-Back-Their-Power-Gri,.
164 Recommunalization in Germany 72 new municipal power utilities
since 2005, Renewables International, 13 September 2013,
http://www.renewablesinternational.net/72-new-municipalpower-utilities-since-2005/150/537/72825/.
165 Cognisito, The Transformation of Americas Energy Economy,
15 November 2013, http://cognoscenti.wbur.org/2013/11/15/
boulder-xcel-robert-massie; City-Owned Texas Utility Already
Serves 40% Renewable Energy, Renewable Energy World, 4
blog/post/2013/12/city-owned-texas-utility-already-serves-40renewable-energy?cmpid=WNL-Wednesday-December4-2013.
166 The new 100 MW FIT is the successor to the LADWPs 10 MW
FIT Demonstration Program, launched in May 2012, which
restricted projects to solar PV systems of 30999 kW and
helped gauge market pricing and test the initial programmes
structure. Under the new FIT, the first 100 MW of local rooftop
solar PV will be procured under a set-price FIT, while the second
50 MW will be priced competitively through an RFP system
that is bundled with a utility-scale solar project (see articles
for details). American Public Power Association, Distributed
Generation, November 2013, http://www.publicpower.org/files/
PDFs/Distributed%20Generation-Nov2013.pdf; LA Business
Council, Largest in the Nation Feed in Tariff Solar Program
Kicks Off, April 2013, http://www.labusinesscouncil.org/
LargestintheNation-Feedin-Tariff-Solar-Program-Kicks-Off.
167 The FIT tariff for solar PV was initially set based on the utilitys
avoided cost of providing electricity. Vote Solar, How a Municipal
Utility Charted a Path to 48 Renewables by Going Big on Solar,
webinar, 24 July 2013, http://votesolar.org/2013/07/24/palo-altospath-to-48-renewable-power-webinar-recording/; Lindsay Joye,
City of Palo Alto Utilities, personal communication with REN21,
November 2013.
168 City of Palo Alto, Palo Alto Plugs Into 100% CarbonFree Electricity, press release (Palo Alto, CA: 4 March
2013), http://www.cityofpaloalto.org/civica/press/display.
asp?layout=1&Entry=864; U.S. Energy Information Administration,
Feed-in Tariff: A Policy Tool Encouraging Deployment of
Renewable Electricity Technologies, 30 May 2013, http://
www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=11471; Fort Collins
City council approved rates at USD 0.18/kWh for 10100 kW

and USD 0.15/kWh for >1001,000 kW, per City of Fort Collins
Utilities, Fort Collins Solar Power Purchase Program, 6 August
2013, http://www.fcgov.com/utilities/img/site_specific/uploads/
Solar_Power_Purchasing_Fact_Sheet.pdf.
169 Shota Furuya, Institute for Sustainable Energy Policies (ISEP),
personal communication with REN21, January 2014.
170 City of Sydney, Submission by the City of Sydney to the Inquiry by
the Public Accounts Committee into Cogeneration/Trigeneration
in NSW, 2013, www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au.
171 The six states with CCA are California, Illinois, Massachusetts,
Ohio, New Jersey, and Rhode Island. Toms River, Montgomery
County, Monroe, and Plumsted switched to aggregation in 2013.
Monterey, Santa Cruz, Lowell, Ashby, Lynn, Swampscott, Natick,
Greenfield, and the Hampshire Council of Governments (HCOG),
which represents more than 20 municipalities, have initiated the
process to create CCAs in 2013. San Diego and Yolo County are
exploring CCA as an option. Tufts University, Metropolitan Area
Planning Council, Community Choice Aggregation: Municipal
Bulk Buying of Electricity in Massachusetts, May 2013, http://
ase.tufts.edu/uep/degrees/field_project_reports/2013/Team_7_
Final_Report_2013.pdf; Triple Pundit, Big Progress Towards
Local Clean Energy Solutions, Community Choice Aggregation,
October 2013, http://www.triplepundit.com/podium/big-progresslocal-clean-energy-solutions-community-choice-aggregation/.
172 Triple Pundit, op. cit. note 171.
173 Tufts University, Metropolitan Area Planning Council, op. cit. note
171.
174 The cities are waiting approval from the Gujarat Electricity
Regulatory Commission, per Edgar Meza, India Sets 10
GW Solar Target by 2017, PV Magazine, 26 September
2013, http://www.pv-magazine.com/news/details/beitrag/
india-sets-10-gw-solar-target-by-2017-_100012849.
175 Green Business Guide, Reverse metering in the Nelson Mandela
Bay Metro, 2013, http://www.greenbusinessguide.co.za/
reverse-metering-in-the-nelson-mandela-bay-metro/.
176 Guntur Emerging as a Solar Power House, The Hindu, 19
December 2013, http://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/
Vijayawada/guntur-emerging-as-a-solar-power-house/
article5477374.ece; Ashok Pradhan, Green Rating in Housing
Norms, Times of India, 10 November 2013, http://timesofindia.
indiatimes.com/city/bhubaneswar/Green-rating-in-housingnorms/articleshow/25524418.cms; Nagpur is the second
city in the country to kick off the model solar city project after
Chandigarh, per Anjaya Anparthi, 4 Years on, Sun Rises on Solar
City Works, Times of India, 23 October 2013, http://timesofindia.
indiatimes.com/city/nagpur/4-years-on-sun-rises-on-solarcity-works/articleshow/24562773.cms; Delegation to study
feasibility of city's solar energy projects, Times of India, 6 October
2013, http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/aurangabad/
Delegation-to-study-feasibility-of-citys-solar-energy-projects/
articleshow/23601715.cms.
177 Chris Meehan, Kansas City Goes Solar at 80 Buildings,
SolarReviews.com, 30 May 2013, http://www.solarreviews.com/
news/Kansas-City-Goes-Solar-80-Buildings-5-29-13.
178 City of Sydney, Renewable Energy, http://www.cityofsydney.
nsw.gov.au/vision/sustainability/carbon-reduction/renewableenergy, viewed March 2014; Palmerston North City Council,
Largest Solar Farm in NZ to Be Built in Palmerston North, Scoop
Independent News, 20 December 2013, http://www.scoop.co.nz/
stories/AK1312/S00668/largest-solar-farm-in-nz-to-be-built-inpalmerston-north.htm.
04
155 Ethekwini municipality was selected in 2013 to participate

in the national pilot programme and to develop a vertically
integrated national appropriate mitigation action (v-NAMA).
Training webinars will be held in 2014 by GIZ and ICLEI to build
capacity on V-NAMA development. Ethekwini Municipality
Hosts Energy Efficiency Workshop, JournalismIziko, April
2013, http://journalismiziko.dut.ac.za/current-affairs/
ethekwini-municipality-hosts-energy-efficiency-workshop/.
179 The VPP project will run for four years after which the participants
can take over the BlueGen unit for an administrative fee. These
are fuel cell micro-CHP units to compensate for the varying output
of the solar park (6 MW) once completed, per David Appleyard,
Dutch VPP using Solar PV and Fuel Cell Tech, Renewable Energy
World, 14 November 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.
com/rea/news/article/2013/11/dutch-vpp-uses-pv-and-fuel-cellhybrid?cmpid=SolarNL-Saturday-November16-2013.
180 World Bank, ChinaGreen Energy for Low-Carbon City Project
in Shanghai Project, 6 February 2013, http://www.worldbank.org/
projects/P127034/green-energy-schemes-low-carbon-cityshanghai?lang=en.
181 The code covers all buildings larger than 50,000 square metres
(m2); it also applies to hotels and healthcare facilities larger than
20,000 m2, and educational facilities larger than 10,000 m2, per
Jakarta Set to See High-Rise Green Buildings, Jakarta Post, 13
195

April 2013, http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/04/13/
jakarta-set-see-high-rise-green-buildings.html.
182 For domestic buildings larger than 300 m2 to install 500 W
solar PV systems, non-domestic buildings larger than 500 m2
(excluding five-star hotels) to install 2 kWp systems, and five-star
hotels to install 5 kWp systems, per Ashok Pradhan, Here comes
the sun, Times of India, 3 March 2013, http://timesofindia.
indiatimes.com/city/bhubaneswar/Here-comes-the-sun/
articleshow/18771780.cms.
183 The cities are integrating the green rating for Integrated Habitat
Assessment (Griha), the national rating system for green buildings,
in city regulations. Griha, by its qualitative and quantitative
assessment criteria, is able to rate a building on the degree of its
greenness. Buildings getting Griha ratings get incentives from
MNRE, per Ashok Pradhan, Green Rating in Housing Norms,
Times of India, 10 November 2013, http://articles.timesofindia.
indiatimes.com/2013-11-10/bhubaneswar/43885245_1_
bhubaneswar-development-authority-green-rating-griha.
184 Clean Technica, Solar Mandate Approved By Sebastopol,
California, 22 May 2013, http://cleantechnica.com/2013/05/22/
solar-mandate-approved-by-sebastopol-california/; Matt
Hickman, Sebastopol Is Second California City Requiring
Solar on New Homes, Mother Nature Network, 13 May 2013,
http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/solar-mandateembraced-by-second-california-city; Miranda Green, California
Towns Pass Law Requiring New Buildings to Have Solar Panels,
The Daily Beast, 10 May 2013, http://www.thedailybeast.com/
articles/2013/05/10/california-towns-pass-law-requiring-newbuildings-to-have-solar-panels.html. In Sebastopol, new homes
that are on lots of 7,000 square feet (650 m2) or more must have
solar panels that can produce up to 1 kW of energy at any given
time. Lancaster requires solar PV systems of 11.5 kW for every
new home built on lots larger than 7,000 square feet (650 m2),
and 1.5 kW systems for rural homes on lots up to 100,000 square
feet (9,290 m2); builders will also have the option of building
distributed systems for new developments.
185 James Montgomery, Reenergizing Cities with Solar
Energy, Renewable Energy World, 1 October 2013, http://
reenergizing-cities-with-solar-energy?cmpid=WNL-WednesdayOctober2-2013.
186 Bekezela Phakathi, Cape Town to Launch Solar Water Heater
Accreditation Programme, Business Day, 26 July 2013, http://
www.bdlive.co.za/national/science/2013/07/26/cape-town-tolaunch-solar-water-heater-accreditation-programme.
187 Tyler Hamilton, Kathleen Wynne Fills Gap in Ontario Energy
Policy, Toronto Star, 9 November 2013, http://www.thestar.com/
business/2012/11/09/kathleen_wynne_fills_gap_in_ontario_
energy_policy.html.
188 Toronto Closer to Launching Ontarios First PACE Pilot Program
This Fall, Clean Break, 27 June 2013, http://www.cleanbreak.
ca/2013/06/27/toronto-closer-to-launching-ontarios-firstpace-pilot-program-this-fall/comment-page-1/; Toronto City
Council Unanimously Approves Residential PACE Pilot Project
for TorontoIts a Go! Clean Break, 19 July 2013, http://www.
cleanbreak.ca/2013/07/19/toronto-city-council-unanimouslyapproves-residential-pace-pilot-project-for-toronto-its-a-go/.
189 Thompson & Knight Attorneys and Counselors, Texas Gov. Rick
Perry Approves PACE Program for Low-Cost Financing of Water,
Energy Conservation Projects, 19 June 2013, http://www.tklaw.
com/texas-gov-rick-perry-approves-pace-program-for-lowcost-financing-of-water-energy-conservation-projects/; U.S.
Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy,
Commercial Property Assessed Clean Energy (PACE) Primer,
(undated), http://www1.eere.energy.gov/wip/pdfs/commercial_
pace_primer_revised.pdf; List of PACE Programs, PACENow.
org, http://pacenow.org/resources/all-programs/, viewed 21
March 2014; PACE Financing Option for Residential Solar
Making a Comeback, CleanEnergyAuthority.com, 29 November
2013, http://www.cleanenergyauthority.com/solar-energy-news/
pace-financing-for-solar-making-a-comeback-112913; Focus
on Michigan: Property Assessed Clean Energy (PACE) Market is
Growing, PRWeb.com, 11 December 2013,
http://www.prweb.com/releases/2013/12/prweb11406164.htm.
190 Argentina: Other Municipalities Follow Frontrunner City Rosario,
Solar Thermal World, 7 August 2013, http://solarthermalworld.
org/contentargentina-other-municipalities-follow-frontrunnercity-rosario.
196
191 Bekezela Phakathi, Cape Town Steps Up Drive to Roll Out

Solar Water Heaters, Business Day, 4 November 2013,
http://www.bdlive.co.za/business/energy/2013/11/04/
cape-town-steps-up-drive-to-roll-out-solar-water-heaters.
192 Loans are repaid by homeowners over a decade through an
increased property tax, per Watercanada, Halifax Solar City
Program Reducing Water Use and CO2 Emissions, 25 October
2013, http://watercanada.net/2013/halifax-solar-city-programreducing-water-use-and-co2-emissions/.
193 State Based and Municipal Corporation Based Incentives on Solar
Water Heaters, InSolTherm Times, vol. I, Iss. 8, http://mnre.gov.
in/file-manager/solar-thermal-newsletter/voloume-1-issue-8/EN/
freatureStory.php.
194 C40, London Must drive Smart Innovation and Investment, 16
April 2013, http://c40.org/c40blog/london-must-drive-smartinnovation-and-investment; How Cities Can Reach 100%
Renewable Energy, AltEnergy Mag, 28 January 2014, http://www.
altenergymag.com/emagazine/2013/12/how-cities-can-reach100-renewable-energy/2181. The city plan has identified low
carbon infrastructure zones, specific areas in the city that have
high energy demand loads that will be supplied by low carbon
energy via the thermal network. Key features of such a system are:
renewable gas developed from waste converted into substitute
natural gas and injected into the gas grid; the use of power to
gas technologies for surplus renewable electricity from variable
renewable electricity generation technologies, such as solar and
wind converted into renewable hydrogen or renewable gas and
injected into the gas grid; and heat recovered from decentralised
electricity generation for supplying heating and cooling.
195 Indianapolis: First US City to Require Electric Vehicles,
Indianapolis: Sustainable Business News, December
2012, http://www.sustainablebusiness.com/index.cfm/
go/news.display/id/24373; New York City Mandates
Biodiesel, Render Magazine, October 2013, http://www.
rendermagazine.com/articles/2013-issues/october-2013/
new-york-city-mandates-biodiesel/.
196 C40, Bogot Electrifies its Public Transportation System, 29
May 2013, http://c40.org/blog_posts/bogot%C3%A1-electrifiesits-public-transportation-system; Volvo Sells 200 Hybrid Buses
to Bogota, Colombia, Busworld Industry News, 11 August 2013,
http://www.busworld.org/articles/detail/1864; EVsRoll, Electric
Taxis, http://www.evsroll.com/Electric_Taxis.html, viewed 17
March 2014.
197 WEG Helps Equip Brazilian Bus with 100% Battery Drive, press
release (Jaragu do Sul, Brazil: 13 December 2013), http://www.
weg.net/ca/Media-Center/News/Products-Solutions/WEG-helpsequip-Brazilian-bus-with-100-battery-drive. Adelaide, Australia,
and Lublin, Poland, both launched solar-powered buses in 2013,
per First Solar Powered Public Transport, SA Breaking News, 20
September 2013, http://www.sabreakingnews.co.za/2013/09/20/
first-solar-powered-public-transport/, and Lublin Powers
Buses with Solar Cell from Midsummer, PV Magazine, October
2013, http://www.pv-magazine.com/services/press-releases/
details/beitrag/lublin-powers-buses-with-solar-cell-frommidsummer_100013066/.
198 City of Johannesburg, City of Joburgs Metrobus Company
issues tender for new buses as part of advancing green
transport agenda, press release (Johannesburg: October
2013), http://www.joburg.org.za/index.php?option=com_con
tent&view=article&id=8782:city-of-joburgs-metrobuscompany-issues-tender-for-new-buses-as-part-of-advancinggreen-transport-agenda&catid=217:press-releases2013&Itemid=114#ixzz2toh1BceU; London Mayor Calls for
Waste Oil to Be Used as Biofuel for Buses, Waste Management
World, July 2013, http://www.waste-management-world.com/
articles/2013/07/london-mayor-calls-for-waste-oil-to-be-usedas-biofuel-for-buses.html; Stagecoach, London Buses to Run on
Chip Fat in Pilot scheme, press release (Perth, Scotland, U.K.:
7 November 2013), http://www.stagecoach.com/media/newsreleases/2013/2013-11-07.aspx.
199 Palo Alto from New homes built in Palo Alto will be pre-wired
for electric car chargers, Treehugger, 1 October 2013, http://
www.treehugger.com/cars/new-homes-built-palo-alto-will-bepre-wired-electric-car-chargers.html; Palo Alto Looks to Require
Electric Vehicle Chargers, Mercury News, 24 October 2013,
http://www.mercurynews.com/breaking-news/ci_24162107/paloalto-looks-require-electric-vehicle-chargers-new, October 2013;
New York from Green City Grids for EVs, Renewable Energy
World, 21 March 2013, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/
rea/news/article/2013/03/greening-city-grids-for-evs, and from

Transportation Nation, NYC Mayor wants 10000 New Electric
Vehicle Charging Spaces, February 2013, http://www.wnyc.org/
story/285133-nyc-mayor-wants-10000-new-electric-vehiclecharging-spaces.
200 ICLEI, 414 cities report raft of inspiring climate actions,
November 2013, http://www.iclei.org/details/article/414-citiesreport-raft-of-inspiring-climate-actions.html.
201 C40Cities Climate Leadership Group, Year in Review: C40 Makes
Great Strides in Research Agenda, 6 January 2014, http://www.
c40.org/c40blog/year-in-review-c40-makes-great-strides-inresearch-agenda; C40Cities Climate Leadership Group, Expert
Voices: Stephen Hammer, Lead Urban SpecialistCities and
Climate Change, The World Bank, 16 October 2013, http://
c40.org/c40blog/expert-voices-stephen-hammer-lead-urbanspecialist--cities-and-climate-change-the-world-bank;
C40Cities Climate Leadership Group, C40, ICLEI, WRI and
Partners Achieve a Significant Milestone Towards Establishing a
Single Standard for Measuring Emissions for Cities, 14 May 2012,
http://www.c40.org/c40blog/c40-iclei-wri-and-partners-achievea-significant-milestone-towards-establishing-a-single-standardfor-measuring-emissions-for-cities.
202 C40Cities Climate Leadership Group, C40 & Siemens Announce
Broad Collaboration on Cities and Sustainability, press release
(New York: 19 April 2013), http://www.c40.org/press_releases/
press-release-c40-siemens-announce-broad-collaboration-oncities-and-sustainability.
04
203 This led to the Durban Platform (ADP) decision text, which notes
the inclusion of cities in technical meetings and in a sub-national
forum to be held in the next ADP session, per International
Institute for Sustainable Development, Summary of the Warsaw
Climate Change Conference, 11-23 November 2013, Earth
Negotiations Bulletin, 26 November 2013, http://www.iisd.ca/
vol12/enb12594e.html; Gino Van Begin, ICLEI, Look to Cities for
Real Climate Action! Outreach (COP 19 WARSAW), November
2013, http://www.stakeholderforum.org/sf/outreach/index.php/
previous-editions/cop-19/198-cop-19-day-9-cities-urbangovernance-and-transport/11626-look-to-cities-for-real-climateaction
197
ENDNOTES 05 DISTRIBUTED RENEWABLE ENERGY

1
International Energy Agency (IEA), World Energy Outlook 2013

(Paris: IEA/OECD, 2013), http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/
resources/energydevelopment/energyaccessdatabase/.
Ibid.
India from ibid.; Africa from IEA, World Energy Outlook 2011
(Paris: IEA/OECD, 2011), and from IEA, op. cit. note 1,
http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/resources/
energydevelopment/accesstoelectricity/.
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Renewable

Energy Jobs & Access (Abu Dhabi: 2012),
https://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/
Renewable_Energy_Jobs_and_Access.pdf.
Lighting Africa, Lighting Africa Market Trends Report 2012:

Overview of the Off-Grid Lighting Market in Africa (Nairobi:
International Finance Corporation (IFC)/World Bank, 2013),
http://africa.solarenergyevents.com/resource-centre/whitepaper/
lighting-africa-market-trends-report-2012.
Ibid.
Daniel Schnitzer et al., Microgrids for Rural Electrification

(Washington, DC: UN Foundation, February 2014),
http://energyaccess.org/images/content/files/
MicrogridsReportFINAL_low.pdf.
IEA, World Energy Outlook 2011, op. cit. note 3, p. 26,

http://www.iea.org/media/weowebsite/energydevelopment/
weo2011_energy_for_all.pdf; IEA, op. cit. note 1,
http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weowebsite/
energydevelopment/WEO2013_EnergyForAll.pdf.
United Nations (UN) Sustainable Energy for All, Country Level

Actions, http://www.se4all.org/actions-commitments/countrylevel-actions/, viewed 10 February 2014; UN Development
Programme (UNDP) and World Health Organization (WHO),
The Energy Access Situation in Developing Countries, A Review
Focusing on the Least Developed Countries and Sub-Saharan Africa
(New York: 2009), http://www.who.int/indoorair/publications/
Energy_Access_Report_Brief.pdf. Note that U.S.-based Bank
of America committed USD 50 billion over 10 years to finance
Energy Efficiency, Renewable Energy and Energy Access and
other activities that advance the low-carbon economy, per
Sustainable Development in Action, Special Report of the SD in
Action Newsletter, July 2013, p. 9, http://sustainabledevelopment.
un.org/content/documents/930Report%20on%20Voluntary%20
Commitments%20and%20Partnerships.pdf.
10 IFC, From Gap to Opportunity: Business Models for Scaling Up

Energy Access (Washington, DC: 2012), Executive Summary,
http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/
b7ce4c804b5d10c58d90cfbbd578891b/ExecutiveSummary.
pdf?MOD=AJPERES.
11 Her Excellency Sheikh Hasina, Prime Minister, Government of the
People's Republic of Bangladesh, 2 Million Solar Home Systems
and 1 Million Improved Cook Stoves, presented at Ruposhi
Bangla Hotel, Dhaka, 12 May 2013, http://www.pmo.gov.bd/index.
php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1007&Itemid=353.
12 Practical Action, Wind for Electricity Generation, Technical Brief
(Bourton on Dunsmore, Rugby, Warwickshire, U.K.: undated),
http://practicalaction.org/media/preview/10704.
13 J. Leary, A. While, and R. Howell, Locally Manufactured Wind
Power Technology for Sustainable Rural Electrification,
Energy Policy, vol. 43 (2012).
14 Practical Action, Micro-hydro Power, http://practicalaction.org/
micro-hydro-power, viewed 18 February 2014.
15 B.P. Koirala et al., Interconnected Mini-grids for Rural Energy
Transition in Nepal (Lalitpur, Nepal: Alternate Energy Promotion
Centre, 2013).
16 Sierra Club, The Water Wheels of Time: Micro Hydro Power in
the Western Ghats of India, Compass, 20 June 2011, http://
sierraclub.typepad.com/compass/2011/06/the-water-wheels-oftime-micro-hydro-power-in-the-western-ghats-of-india.html.
17 Thailand Department of Alternative Energy Development and
Efficiency, Thailand Energy Situation 2006 (Bangkok: 2007).
18 Sivan Kartha, Gerald Leach, and Sudhir Chella Rajan, Advancing

Bioenergy for Sustainable Development: Guideline for Policymakers
and Investors, Volumes I, II and III (Washington, DC: World
Bank Energy Sector Management Assistance Programme,
April 2005), http://www.energycommunity.org/documents/
SustainableBioenergyFinal.pdf.
19 Schnitzer et al., op. cit. note 7.
20 Ibid.
21 Debajit Palit, The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), personal
communication with REN21, December 2013.
22 UN Development Programme, UNDP and Energy Access for the
Poor: Energizing the Millennium Development Goals
(New York: October 2010), www.undp.org/content/dam/aplaws/
publication/en/publications/environment-energy/www-ee-library/
climate-change/undp-and-energy-access-for-the-poor/2593.
EnergyAccess_Booklet_Revision02.pdf.
23 World Bank, Scaling-Up Access to Clean Cooking Technologies
and Fuels in Sub-Saharan Africa (Washington, DC: 2012),
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTAFRREGTOPENERGY/
Resources/WorldBank_ACCES_AFREA_AFTEG_ESMAP_FINAL.
pdf.
24 Franck Jesus, Global Environment Facility, personal
communication with REN21, January 2014.
25 Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, The Solutions: Cookstove
Technology, http://www.cleancookstoves.org/our-work/thesolutions/cookstove-technology.html, viewed 21 January 2014;
Arnaldo Carvalho, Inter-American Development Bank (IDB)
Multilateral Investment Fund (MIF), personal communication
with REN21, December 2013. Gasifier stoves are generally less
efficient than forced air stoves.
26 IFC, op. cit. note 10.
27 Ibid.
28 Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, op. cit. note 25.
29 International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA),
Chapter 19: Energy Access for Development, in Global Energy
Assessment: Toward a Sustainable Future (Cambridge, U.K. and
Laxenburg, Austria: Cambridge University Press and IIASA, 2012),
http://www.iiasa.ac.at/web/home/research/Flagship-Projects/
Global-Energy-Assessment/GEA_Chapter19_energyaccess_
hires.pdf.
30 Wim van Nes and Felix ter Heegde, SNV, Building Viable
Domestic Biogas Programmes: Success Factors in Sector
Development, prepared for the Asia Clean Energy Forum, Manila,
27 June 2008, http://www.thepowerofhow.org/uploads/wysiwyg/
documents/other_resources/snv/Building_viable_domestic_
biogas_programmes.pdf.
31 Frank Haugwitz, Asia Europe Clean Energy Advisory Co., personal
32 Note that Indian figures are for fiscal years running April to
March, with the 4.7 million mark likely estimated in March 2013,
per Indian Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, provided
by Hari Natarajan, Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Internationale
Zusammenarbeit India, personal communication with REN21,
December 2013. Construction was under the National Biogas
and Manure Management Programme, and India had a total of
4.68 million plants as of October 2013, per SNV World, Almost
42,000 small-scale biogas plants constructed in the first half of
2013, 5 December 2013, http://www.snvworld.org/en/sectors/
renewable-energy/news/almost-42000-small-scale-biogasplants-constructed-in-the-first-half.
33 Nepal installed an estimated 290,508 units under the National
Biogas Programme, per Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, op.
cit. note 25; Kenya installed an estimated 9,046 units under the
Domestic Biogas Programme, per Energy for All, Almost 34,000
small-scale biogas plants constructed under SNV supported
programmes in Asia in the first half of 2013, 7 October 2013,
http://www.energyforall.info/almost-34000-small-scale-biogasplants-constructed-snv-supported-programmes-asia-firsthalf-2013/.
34 Solar Cookers International Network, News and Recent
Developments, http://solarcooking.wikia.com/wiki/Nepal, viewed
18 December 2013.
35 Bozhil Kondev, GIZ, personal communication with REN21, January
2014.
36 Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, op. cit. note 25.
198
38 Ernst & Young, Renewable Energy Country Attractiveness Indices,

November 2012, http://www.ey.com/Publication/vwLUAssets/
CAI_issue-35_Nov-2012/$FILE/CAI_issue-35_Nov-2012_
DE0372.pdf.
39 World Bank, Designing Sustainable Off-Grid Rural Electrification
Projects: Principles and Practices (Washington, DC: 2008),
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTENERGY2/Resources/
OffgridGuidelines.pdf.
40 C. Mitchell et al., Policy, Financing and Implementation, Chapter
11 in O. Edenhofer et al., eds., IPCC Special Report on Renewable
Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (Cambridge,
U.K. and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011); Teresa
Malyshev, Looking Ahead: Energy, Climate Change and Pro-poor
Responses (Paris: IEA, 2009); Gabriela Azuela, World Bank,
personal communication with REN21, December 2013.
41 Bangladesh data are for achievements by Grameen Shakti, which
reached 1 million SHS installed in November 2012, per Justin
Guay, Small Is Big: Bangladesh Installs One Million Solar Home
Systems, Climate Progress, 18 December 2012,
http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2012/12/18/1353791/smallis-big-bangladesh-installs-one-million-solar-home-systems/;
Lighting Africa, op. cit. note 5, p. 11.
Sustainable Energy Finance (FSUNEP Centre) and Bloomberg
Investment 2013 (Frankfurt: 2013), http://www.unep.org/pdf/GTRUNEP-FS-BNEF2.pdf.
43 Renata Grisoli, MGM Innova, personal communication with
REN21, December 2013; GNESD, Energy access program in
Brazil: Lighting for all, http://energy-access.gnesd.org/index.
php?option=com_content&view=article&id=104:energy-accessprogram-in-brazil-lighting-for-all-&catid=3:projects&Itemid=24,
viewed 12 February 2014; R. Deshmukh et al., Sustainable
Development of Renewable Energy Mini-grids for Energy Access:
A Framework for Policy Design, Clean Energy Ministerial,
March 2013, http://www.cleanenergyministerial.org/Portals/2/
pdfs/Sustainable_Development_of_Renewable_Energy_Minigrids_for_Energy_Access.pdf.
44 Grisoli, op. cit. note 43; GNESD, op. cit. note 43.
45 Government of China, National Energy Administration (NEA),
National Energy Board Held a Comprehensive Solution to the
Problem of People without Electricity, Electricity Conference, 31
July 2013, translated using Google Translate, http://www.nea.gov.
cn/2013-07/31/c_132590749.htm.
46 ECOWAS Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency
(ECREEE), Baseline Report for the ECOWAS Renewable Energy
Policy (EREP) (Praia, Cape Verde: 2012).
47 Francisca M. Antman, The Impact of Migration on Family
Left Behind (Boulder, CO: University of Colorado at Boulder
Department of Economics, 2010), http://spot.colorado.
edu/~antmanf/Antman_LeftBehindBookChapter.pdf.
48 Koffi Ekouevi and Reto Thoenen, Top-Down Concessions
for Private Operators in Mali and Senegal, PowerPoint
presentation, undated http://siteresources.worldbank.
org/EXTAFRREGTOPENERGY/Resources/7173051264695610003/6743444-1268073476416/3.3.TopDown_
concessions_private_operators_Senegal_N_Mali.pdf.
49 IRENA, Financial Mechanisms and Investment Frameworks for
Renewables in Developing Countries (Abu Dhabi: December 2012),
p. 105, http://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/
IRENA%20report%20-%20Financial%20Mechanisms%20for%20
Developing%20Countries.pdF.
50 MIF and BNEF Climatescope data provided by Arnaldo Carvalho,
IDB, personal communication with REN21, December 2013.
51 European Union Energy Initiative Partnership Dialogue Facility
(EUEI-PDF), REN21, and Alliance for Rural Electrification (ARE),
Mini Grid Policy Toolkit (Brussels: forthcoming 2014); IFC, op. cit.
note 10.
subsidies, under the National Solidarity Programme and the

National Area-based Development Programme, per Government
of Afghanistan, National Solidarity Programme, http://mrrd.gov.
af/Content/files/MRRD-Brochure.pdf.
54 EUEI-PDF, REN21, and ARE, op. cit. note 51.
56 Ibid.
57 World Bank, Solar Power Lights Up Future for
Mongolian Herders, 20 September 2012, www.
worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2012/09/20/
solar-power-lights-up-future-for-mongolian-herders.
58 IRENA, op. cit. note 49.
59 Government of China, op. cit. note 45.
60 UN Foundation, Country Level Action, viewed 21 January 2014,
http://www.energyaccess.org/our-work/country-level-action.
61 Atul Raturi, The University of the South Pacific School of
Engineering and Physics Faculty of Science, Technology and
Environment, personal communication with REN21, January
2014.
62 UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), UNIDO
Projects for the promotion of small hydro power for productive
use (Vienna: 2010), http://www.unido.org/fileadmin/user_media/
About_UNIDO/Evaluation/Project_reports/e-book_small-hydro.
PDF.
63 Ibid.
64 World Bank, Towards a Sustainable Energy for All: Directions for the
World Bank Groups Energy Sector (Washington, DC: 2013),
http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/
SDN/energy-secm2013-0281-2.pdf.
65 R. Bellanca and B. Garside, An approach to designing energy
delivery models that work for people living in poverty (London:
CAFOD and International Institute for Environment and
Development (IIED), 2013), http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/16551IIED.
pdf.
66 Deshmukh et al., op. cit. note 43.
67 D.L. Gazzoni et al., Science for a Better Life: Developing Regional
Scientific Programs in Priority Areas for Latin America and the
Caribbean, in ICSU-LAC/CONACYT, Sustainable Energy in Latin
America and the Caribbean: Potential for the Future, Volume 3
(Rio de Janeiro and Mexico City: 2010).
68 This is the first clean cook stoves project to be funded by the
Climate Investment Funds. Michael Hoffman, Climate Investment
Funds, MIF, personal communication with REN21, December
2013. Information based on SREP Honduras Sustainable Rural
Energization, 2013, https://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/cif/
sites/climateinvestmentfunds.org/files/ERUS_Parts_I_and_III_
IDB_Submission_with_cover_page.pdf.
69 Ibid.
70 Dalberg Global Development Advisors, India Cookstoves and
Fuels Market Assessment (Washington, DC: Global Alliance
for Clean Cookstoves, February 2013), http://www.dalberg.
com/documents/Dalberg-india-cookstove-and-fuels-marketassessment.pdf.
71 Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, Health Impacts,
http://www.cleancookstoves.org/our-work/the-issues/healthimpacts.html, viewed 21 January 2014.
72 GIZ- IGEN, Ingredients for Sustainable Cookstove Interventions
Lessons Learned from the Indian National Programme for Improved
Cookstoves (NPIC) (New Delhi: November 2013),
http://www.igen-re.in/files/igen-re_2013__ingredients_for_
sustainable_cookstove_interventions.pdf.
05
37 P. Raman et al., Evaluation of Domestic Cookstove Technologies

Implemented Across the World to Identify Possible Options for
Clean and Efficient Cooking Solutions (New Delhi: TERI, October
2013).

74 Ibid.
75 Ibid.
76 The model is being replicated with support from the Asian
Development Bank (ADB), per Jiwan Acharya, ADB, personal
52 Ibid.
53 Mali from IFC, op. cit. note 10; India subsidies, under the Remote
Village Electrification Programme, per Hari Natarajan,
Indo-German Energy Programme-GIZ (GIZ-IGEN), personal
communication with REN21, December 2013; Afghanistan
199
ENDNOTES 05 DISTRIBUTED RENEWABLE ENERGY

77 Justin Guay, Clean Energys Next Big Market: Off-Grid Solar,
Greentech Media, 5 November 2013,
http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/cleantechsnext-big-market-off-grid-solar; Athena Ballesteros et al.,
Implementation Strategies for Renewable Energy Services in
Low-Income, Rural Areas, Brief 1, Keys to Achieving Universal
Energy Access Series (Washington, DC: World Resources Institute,
2013), http://www.wri.org/sites/default/files/pdf/implementation_
strategies_renewable_energy_services_low_income_rural_
areas.pdf.
78 David Wogan, Pay-as-You-Go Solar Energy Finds Success in
Africa, Scientific American, 22 November 2013,
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.
cfm?id=pay-as-you-go-solar-energy.
79 The pay-as-you-go model is being used by start-up company Azuri
in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Sierra Leone,
Ghana, South Africa, Zimbabwe, and South Sudan, per ibid.
80 India from Acharya, op. cit. note 76; Africa from Wogan, op. cit.
note 78.
81 This is a programme of the Bright Green Energy Foundation, per
Ballesteros et al., op. cit. note 77.
82 World Bank, op. cit. note 39.
83 This is a campaign of TERI, per Ballesteros et al., op. cit. note 77.
84 Nancy Wimmer, Clean Energy Access for All: Grameen Installs
Over 500 Solar Homes Systems a Day in Rural Bangladesh,
Climate Progress, 26 July 2012, http://thinkprogress.org/
climate/2012/07/26/569071/clean-energy-access-for-allgrameen-installs-over-500-solar-homes-systems-a-day-in-ruralbangladesh/.
86 Ibid.
87 Ibid.
88 Ibid.
89 FSUNEP Centre and BNEF, op. cit. note 42.
90 Emma Wilson, How Can Business Help Boost Access to Energy
for Those Who Need It Most? IIED, 7 June 2013,
http://www.iied.org/how-can-business-help-boost-accessenergy-for-those-who-need-it-most.
91 Justin Guay, Solar Crowdfunding's Lessons Learned,
Huffington Post, 13 August 2013,
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/justin-guay/solar-crowdfundingslesso_b_3751247.html.
92 Summary for Policymakers in Edenhofer et al., eds., op. cit. note
40, p. 18,
http://srren.ipcc-wg3.de/report/IPCC_SRREN_SPM.pdf.
200
ENDNOTES 06 TRACKING THE GLOBAL ENERGY TRANSITION
TRACKING THE GLOBAL ENERGY TRANSITION:

A DECADE OF UNPRECEDENTED MOMENTUM FOR RENEWABLES
1
Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21),

Renewables Global Futures Report 2013 (Paris: REN21 Secretariat,
2013), http://www.ren21.net/Portals/0/REN21_GFR_2013_print.
pdf.
24 BNEF, Global Trends in Clean Energy Investment, 15 January

2014, http://about.bnef.com/files/2014/01/BNEF_PR_FactPack_
Q4_CleanEnergyInvestment_2014-01-15.pdf.
25 FSUNEP Centre and BNEF, op. cit. note 16.
26 Ibid.
Ibid.; REN21, Renewables 2007 Global Status Report

(Paris: REN21 Secretariat, 2007), http://www.ren21.net/Portals/0/
documents/activities/gsr/RE2007_Global_Status_Report.pdf.
27 Financial Innovations Spur Renewable Energy Investment

in Global Markets, PV Magazine, 15 January 2014, http://
www.pv-magazine.com/news/details/beitrag/financialinnovations-spur-renewable-energy-investment-in-globalmarkets_100013942/#axzz2sHJ3lFNV.

Secretariat, 2013), http://www.ren21.net/Portals/0/documents/
Resources/GSR/2013/GSR2013_lowres.pdf; see also data in
relevant sections of this report.
28 REN21, Renewables 2005, op. cit. note 4; REN21, Renewables

2013, op. cit. note 3; see also the Policy Landscape section and
related tables in this report.
29 REN21, Renewables 2013, op. cit. note 3.

Secretariat, 2005), http://www.ren21.net/Portals/0/documents/
activities/gsr/RE2005_Global_Status_Report.pdf; REN21,
Renewables 2013, op. cit. note 3; see also data in relevant
sections of this report.
30 EU Covenant of Mayors, Covenant in Figures, 2013,

http://www.eumayors.eu/about/covenant-in-figures_en.html;
ICLEILocal Governments for Sustainability, Frequently Asked
Questions, 2013, http://www.iclei.org/iclei-global/who-is-iclei/
faq.html.
Global Wind Energy Council, Global Wind Report Annual Market

Update 2013 (Brussels: 2014); REN21, Renewables 2005, op.
cit. note 4; REN21, Renewables 2013, op. cit. note 3; data in
relevant sections of this report.
31 100% Renewables Web site, http://go100re.net/.
International Energy Agency (IEA), Technology Roadmap: Wind

Energy (Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD)/IEA, 2013), http://www.iea.org/publications/
freepublications/publication/Wind_2013_Roadmap.pdf.
REN21, Renewables 2005, op. cit. note 4; REN21, Renewables

2013, op. cit. note 3; see also data in relevant sections of this
report.
33 Eurostat, Renewable Energy in the EU28: Share of Renewables

in Energy Consumption Up to 14% in 2012, press release
(Brussels: 10 March 2014), http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/
cache/ITY_PUBLIC/8-10032014-AP/EN/8-10032014-AP-EN.PDF.
IEA Energy Technology Systems Analysis Program (IEA-ETSAP)

and International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), Technology
Brief E11 January 2013 (Paris and Abu Dhabi/Bonn: 2013),
http://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/IRENAETSAP%20Tech%20Brief%20E11%20Solar%20PV.pdf.
European Commission Joint Research Centre, PV Production

Grows Despite a Crisis-driven Decline in Investment, press
release (Brussels: 30 September 2013), http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/
jrc/downloads/jrc_20130930_newsrelease_pv_status.pdf; see
also section on Solar PV in this report.
32 European Commission, The EU Climate and Energy Package,

6 January 2014, http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/package/
index_en.htm.
34 Bernard Chabot, Analysis of the 2003-2012 Global

Electricity Production with a Focus on the Contribution from
Renewables, Renewables International, December 2013,
http://cf01.erneuerbareenergien.schluetersche.de/files/
smfiledata/3/3/5/2/4/1/49WorldElecRE0312.pdf; World Energy
Council, World Energy Perspective: Nuclear Energy One Year
After Fukushima (London: 2012), http://www.worldenergy.org/
documents/world_energy_perspective__nuclear_energy_one_
year_after_fukushima_world_energy_council_march_2012_1.
pdf.
10 REN21, Renewables 2005, op. cit. note 4; REN21, Renewables

2013, op. cit. note 3; see also relevant sections of this report.
11 Ibid.
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid.
14 O. Edenhofer et al., Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change
Mitigation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), http://
www.ipcc.ch/pdf/special-reports/srren/SRREN_Full_Report.pdf.
15 Lazard Ltd., Lazards Levelized Cost of Energy Analysis Version
7.0 (New York: August 2013).
16 Frankfurt SchoolUnited Nations Environment Programme
Collaborating Centre for Climate & Sustainable Energy Finance
(FSUNEP Centre) and Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF),
2014), http://fs-unep-centre.org/publications/gtr-2014.
06
17 Jos Jaime de Domingo, Accessible Energy for Rural

Communities without Electricity, Empowering the Sun blog
(ISOFOTON), 31 July 2013, http://empoweringthesun.wordpress.
com/2013/07/; see also section on Distributed Renewable Energy
in Developing Countries in this report.
18 IEA, World Energy Outlook 2006 (Paris: OECD/IEA, 2006), http://
www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weowebsite/2008-1994/
WEO2006.pdf; World Bank, Global Tracking Framework
(Washington, DC: 2013), http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/
energy/publication/Global-Tracking-Framework-Report.
19 United Nations Sustainable Energy for All, Universal Energy
Access, 2013, http://www.se4all.org/our-vision/our-objectives/
universal-energy/.
20 FS-UNEP Centre and BNEF, op. cit. note 16.
21 Ibid.
22 Ibid.
23 lbid.
201
ENDNOTES REFERENCE TABLES
REFERENCE TABLES
1
202
Table R1 derived from the following sources: Bio-power based on

83 GW of capacity at end-2012 (see GSR 2013), preliminary data
from International Energy Agency (IEA), Medium-Term Renewable
Energy Market Report 2014 (Paris: OECD/IEA, forthcoming 2014),
and national level data from the following: U.S. Federal Energy
Regulatory Commission, Office of Energy Projects, Energy
Infrastructure Update for December 2013, https://www.ferc.
gov/legal/staff-reports/2013/dec-energy-infrastructure.pdf;
Arbeitsgruppe Erneuerbare Energien-Statistik (AGEE-Stat),
Erneuerbare Energien im Jahr 2013 (Berlin: Bundesministerium
fr Wirtschaft und Energie (BMWi), 2014), http://www.bmwi.
de/BMWi/Redaktion/PDF/A/agee-stat-bericht-ee-2013,prope
rty=pdf,bereich=bmwi2012,sprache=de,rwb=true.pdf; China
National Renewable Energy Centre, "CNREC 2013 Activities
within China National Renewable Energy Centre" (Beijing:
March 2014); Brazilian electricity regulatory agency (ANEEL),
2013, provided by Maria Beatriz Monteiro, CENBIO, personal
communication with REN21, 16 April 2014; IEA, Medium-Term
Renewable Energy Market Report 2013 (Paris: OECD/IEA, 2013);
Red Elctrica de Espaa (REE), Potencia instalada Peninsular
(MW), as of 31 December 2013, updated March 2014, http://
www.ree.es; Government of India, Ministry of New and Renewable
Energy (MNRE), Physical Progress (Achievements), 31
December 2013, http://www.mnre.gov.in/mission-and-vision-2/
achievements/; Directorate General for Energy and Geology
(DGEG), provided by Lara Ferreira, Portuguese Renewable
Energy Association, personal communication with REN21, May
2014; U.K. Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC),
Statistics, Energy Trends Section 6: Renewables, Department
of Energy and Climate Change, March 2014 (updated 10 April
2014), p. 6, https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/
uploads/attachment_data/file/295356/6_Renewables.pdf;
Institute for Sustainable Energy Policies (ISEP), Renewables Japan
Status Report 2014 (Tokyo: March 2014) (in Japanese), data
with REN21, 23 April 2014; Luca Benedetti, Energy Studies and
Statistics, Gestore dei Servizi Energetici (GSE S.p.A.), Rome,
personal communication with REN21, 16 May 2014; Government
Offices of Sweden, Sweden's second progress report on the
development of renewable energy pursuant to Article 22 of
Directive 2009/28/EC, 23 December 2013, http://ec.europa.eu/
energy/renewables/reports/2013_en.htm. Geothermal power
from Geothermal Energy Association (GEA), per Benjamin Matek,
GEA, personal communication with REN21, March 2014, and
other sources provided in Endnote 5 of this section. Hydropower
from International Hydropower Association (IHA), personal
communication with REN21, March-April 2014; from preliminary
estimates in IEA, Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market
Report 2014, op. cit. this note; and from Hydropower Equipment
Association (HEA) data based on its members aggregated
input, personal communication with REN21, April 2014. Ocean
power from Ocean Energy Systems (OES), Ocean Energy in the
World, http://www.ocean-energy-systems.org/ocean_energy_
in_the_world/; from OES, Annual Report 2012 (Lisbon: 2012),
Table 6.1, http://www.ocean-energy-systems.org/oes_reports/
annual_reports/2012_annual_report/; and from lectricit de
France (EDF), Usine marmotrice de La Rance, http://energie.
edf.com/hydraulique/energies-marines/carte-des-implantationsmarines/usine-maremotrice-de-la-rance/presentation-51516.
html. See Ocean Energy section and related endnotes for more
information. Solar PV from sources in Endnote 7 of this section.
CSP from sources in Endnote 8 of this section. Wind power from
sources in Endnote 10 of this section. Modern bio-heat based on
293 GWth in GSR 2013, which was estimated from the 297 GWth
in 2008 quoted in Helena Chum et al., Bioenergy, Chapter 2
in O. Edenhofer et al., eds., IPCC Special Report on Renewable
Energy Resources and Climate Change Mitigation, prepared by
Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (Cambridge, U.K. and New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2011) and the 270 GWth in 2009 referenced in Global
Energy Assessment Toward a Sustainable Future (Cambridge,
U.K. and Laxenburg, Austria: Cambridge University Press and
the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, 2012),
and assuming a 1% growth rate for 2013. No more-accurate data
currently exist. Geothermal heating capacity derived from the
average of two estimated values. The first (25.8 GWth) was derived
from global annual direct use in 20092011, from IEA, World
Energy Statistics (Paris: OECD/IEA, 2013), data for 2011, and from
a capacity factor of about 46% for 2009, calculated from John W.

Lund, Derek H. Freeston, and Tonya L. Boyd, "Direct Utilization
of Geothermal Energy 2010 Worldwide Review," Proceedings
World Geothermal Congress 2010, (Bali, Indonesia: 2529 April
2010), and escalated at the observed two-year average growth
rate (20092011) to 2012 and 2013; the second (19.3 GWth) was
derived from global capacity of 15,346 MWth in 2009, from Lund,
Freeston, and Boyd, op. cit. this note, which was escalated first
at the annual growth rate from IEA data to 2011 and then by the
two-year average growth rate (20092011) to 2013, as above.
The average of these two values is the estimated global heat
capacity at 22.6 GWth, with estimated increase of 1.3 GWth during
2013. The divergence between the two sources for geothermal
heat output, and the need to extrapolate over 24 years, makes
these estimates subject to great uncertainty. Solar collectors for
water heating estimates based on end-2012 total capacity, and
preliminary estimate for end-2013 capacity, from Franz Mauthner,
AEE Institute for Sustainable Technologies (AEE-INTEC),
Gleisdorf, Austria, personal communication with REN21, MarchMay 2014, and on Franz Mauthner and Werner Weiss, Solar Heat
Worldwide: Markets and Contribution to the Energy Supply 2012
(Gleisdorf, Austria: IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Programme
(SHC), forthcoming May 2014). See Solar Thermal Heating and
Cooling section and related endnotes for more details. Ethanol,
biodiesel, and HVO production data from sources in Endnote 4 of
this section.
2
Table R2 derived from the following sources: For all global data,
see Endnote 1 for this section and other relevant reference tables.
For more specific data and sources, see Global Market and
Industry Overview section and Market and Industry section and
related endnotes. Bio-power for EU-28 and individual European
countries based on the following: AGEE-Stat, op. cit. note 1;
Benedetti, op. cit. note 1; REE, op. cit. note 1; DGEG, op. cit.
note 1; DECC, op. cit. note 1; Rseau de Transport d'lectricit,
(RTE), Bilan lectrique 2013 (Paris: 2014), p. 21, http://www.
rte-france.com/uploads/Mediatheque_docs/vie_systeme/
annuelles/Bilan_electrique/bilan_electrique_2013.PDF;
Government Offices of Sweden, op. cit. note 1; E-Control Austria,
Entwicklung der anerkannten sonstigen kostromanlagen
(exclusive Kleinwasskraft) von 20022013, updated May 2014,
http://www.e-control.at/portal/page/portal/medienbibliothek/
oeko-energie/dokumente/pdfs/Entwicklung%20anerkannter%20
%C3%96kostromanlagen%202002-2013_Tabelle_Stand%20
Mai%202014.pdf; preliminary data from IEA, Medium-Term
Renewable Energy Market Report 2014, op. cit. note 1; United
States from FERC, op. cit. note 1.; BRICS and individual countries
from ANEEL, op. cit. note 1; CNREC, op. cit. note 1; MNRE,
op. cit. note 1; Russia and South Africa from IEA, MediumTerm Renewable Energy Market Report 2013, op. cit. note 1.
Geothermal power from global inventory of geothermal power
plants by GEA (unpublished database), provided by Benjamin
Matek, GEA, personal communication with REN21, MarchMay 2014; for other sources, see Endnote 5 in this section.
Hydropower from sources in Endnotes 1 and 6 for this section.
Ocean power from OES, Annual Report 2012 op. cit. note 1;
OES, Annual Report 2013 (Lisbon: 2013), Table 6.2, http://www.
ocean-energy-systems.org/documents/82577_oes_annual_
report_2013.pdf/; IEA, Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market
Report 2013, op. cit. note 1, p. 179, and other sources provided
in Ocean Energy section. Solar PV data for EU-28 from Gatan
Masson, IEA Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme (IEA-PVPS)
and iCARES Consulting, personal communication with REN21,
2 May 2014; European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA),
Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics 20142018 (Brussels:
June 2014); data for BRICS based on Brazil from IEA, MediumTerm Renewable Energy Market Report 2013, op. cit. note 1,
p. 119; South Africa from EScience Associates, Urban-Econ
Development Economists, and Chris Ahlfeldt, The Localisation
Potential of Photovoltaics (PV) and a Strategy to Support Large
Scale Roll-Out in South Africa, Integrated Report, Draft Final v1.2,
prepared for the South African Department of Trade and Industry,
March 2013, p. x, http://www.sapvia.co.za; for other countries
and sources, see Endnote 7 in this section. CSP from sources
in Endnote 8 for this section. Wind power data for EU-28 from
European Wind Energy Association (EWEA), Wind in Power: 2013
European Statistics (Brussels: February 2014); data for BRICS
based on data for Brazil from Francine Martins Pisni, Associao
REN21 via Suani Coelho, CENBIO, 29 April 2014; Russia from
EWEA, op. cit. this note; South Africa from World Wind Energy
Association (WWEA), World Wind Energy Report 2013 (Bonn:
in Utah, press release (Rome and Boston: 27 November 2013),

http://www.enelgreenpower.com/en-GB/ena/events_news/
press_releases/release.aspx?iddoc=1661220; U.S. Department of
Energy, Nevada Deploys First U.S. Commercial, Grid-Connected
Enhanced Geothermal System, 12 April 2013, http://www.
energy.gov/articles/nevada-deploys-first-us-commercialgrid-connected-enhanced-geothermal-system; In-field and
near-field EGS are located within or near existing conventional
geothermal installations, while greenfield projects would be
located on previously undeveloped sites, from GEA, 2013
Geothermal Power: International Market Overview (Washington,
DC: September 2013); Ormat, Ormat Completes the Don A.
Campbell Geothermal Power Plant with Full 16 Megawatt (net)
Output, press release (Reno, NV: 6 January 2014), http://
www.ormat.com/news/latest-items/ormat-completes-doncampbell-geothermal-power-plant-full-16-megawatt-net-output;
Alexander Richter, Gradient Resources starts operation of Patua
plant in Nevada, Think Geoenergy, 15 January 2014, http://
thinkgeoenergy.com/archives/17677; Gradient Resources Web
site, http://www.gradient.com/; Ormat, Ormat Becomes Sole
Owner of the Mammoth Complex in Mammoth Lakes, California,
press release (Reno, NV: 2 August 2010), http://www.ormat.
com/news/acquisitions/ormat-becomes-sole-owner-mammothcomplex-mammoth-lakes-california; Ormat, Ormat Reaches
Commercial Operation of the Newly Refurbished Mammoth G1
Power Plant, press release (Reno, NV: 23 January 2014), http://
www.ormat.com/news/latest-items/ormat-reaches-commercialoperation-newly-refurbished-mammoth-g1-power-plant; Ormat,
Ormat Reaches Commercial Operation of the Newly Refurbished
Mammoth G1 Power Plant, press release (Reno, NV: 23 January
2014), http://www.ormat.com/news/latest-items/ormat-reachescommercial-operation-newly-refurbished-mammoth-g1-powerplant; Kenya from Ormat, Ormat Technologies Commences
Operation of 36 MW Geothermal Power Plant In Kenya, press
release (Reno, NV: 2 May 2013), http://www.ormat.com/news/
latest-items/ormat-technologies-commences-operation-36-mwgeothermal-power-plant-kenya; Ormat Olkaria III Geothermal
Complex in Kenya Reaches 110 MW with Commercial Operation
of Plant 3, press release (Reno, NV: 4 February 2014), http://
www.ormat.com/news/latest-items/olkaria-iii-geothermalcomplex-kenya-reaches-110-mw-commercial-operation-plant-3;
Philippines from Maibarara Geothermal Inc., 20 MW Maibarara
Geothermal Power Project Starts Commercial Operations, 9
February 2014, http://maibarara.com.ph/news/20-mw-maibararageothermal-power-project-starts-commercial-operations;
Maibarara Geothermal Inc., Maibarara Geothermal Power
Project Gets CDM Approval, 15 May 2013, http://maibarara.com.
ph/uncategorized/maibarara-geothermal-power-project-getscdm-approval; Manuel S. Ogena and Ariel Fronda, Philippines
Department of Energy, Prolonged Geothermal Generation and
Opportunity in the Philippines, presentation at Geothermal
Resources Council Annual Meeting 2013, Las Vegas, NV, 30
September 2013, http://www.geothermal.org; Mexico from
Alstom, Los Humeros II, Units 9 & 10, http://www.alstom.com/
Global/Power/Resources/Documents/Brochures/los-humeros-IImexico-geothermal-power-plant-datasheet.pdf; Alstom, Alstom
to build Los Humeros III geothermal project in Mexico, 19
December 2013, http://www.alstom.com/press-centre/2013/11/
alstom-to-build-los-humeros-iii-geothermal-project-in-mexico/;
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
Project 8861: Los Humeros II Phase A+B Geothermal Project,
http://cdm.unfccc.int/Projects/DB/DNV-CUK1355831407.2/view;
Luis Gutierrez-Negrin, Mexican Geothermal Association, personal
communication with REN21, April 2014.
2014); for other sources, see Endnote 10 for this section.

Population data for 2012 from World Bank, World development
indicators - Population (total), 2014, http://data.worldbank.org/
indicator/SP.POP.TOTL, viewed 7 March 2014.
3
Trade data used in this analysis are complex and are not always
standardised among countries. Table R3 derived from the
following sources: P.A. Lamers, Mountain View Research,
Denver, CO, personal communication with REN 21, 9 January
2014; P. Lamers et al., Woody Biomass Trade for Energy, in M.
Junginger, C.S. Goh, and A. Faaij, eds., International Bioenergy
Trade: History, status and outlook on securing sustainable
bioenergy supply, demand and markets (Berlin: Springer, 2013),
pp. 4164; European Biomass Association (AEBIOM), European
Bioenergy Outlook - Statistical Report (Brussels: 2013); Hawkins
Wright, The Outlook for Wood Pellet Demand, presented at
the U.S. Industrial Pellet Association 3rd Annual Exporting
Pellets Conference, Miami, FL, 28 October 2013; C.S. Goh et al.,
Wood Pellet Market and Trade: A Global Perspective, Biofuels,
Bioproducts and Biorefining, vol. 7 (2013), pp. 2442; P. Lamers
et al., Developments in International Solid Biofuel Trade An
Analysis of Volumes, Policies, and Market Factors, Renewable &
Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 16 (2012), pp. 317699.
Table R4 derived from the following sources: ethanol and

biodiesel production and comparison with 2012 based on data
from F.O. Licht, Fuel Ethanol: World Production, by Country,
2014, and from F.O. Licht, Biodiesel: World Production, by
Country, 2014, with permission from F.O. Licht / Licht Interactive
Data; preliminary 2012 data that appeared in GSR 2013 have
been updated where possible; ethanol data converted from cubic
metres to litres using 1,000 litres/cubic metre; biodiesel data
converted from units of 1,000 tonnes using a density value for
biodiesel to give 1,136 litres per tonne based on U.S. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, Biodiesel Handling and Use Guide,
Fourth Edition (Golden, CO: 2009); other major sources of biofuel
production data are IEA and United Nations Food and Agriculture.
Note that data can vary considerably among sources. For further
details, see Bioenergy section in Market and Industry Trends by
Technology, and related endnotes.
Table R5 derived from the following sources: total global installed

capacity in 2013 of 12 GW is based on inventory of existing
capacity and installed capacity in 2013, from GEA, op. cit. note
1, with the following supplemental information, by country:
New Zealand from Contact Energy, Continued performance
improvement, press release (Wellington: 18 February 2014),
http://www.contactenergy.co.nz/web/pdf/financial/cen-hy14media-release.pdf; Robert Peltier, Contact Energy Ltd.s Te
Mihi Power Station Harnesses Sustainable Geothermal Energy,
Power Magazine, 1 August 2013, http://www.powermag.
com/contact-energy-ltd-s-te-mihi-power-station-harnessessustainable-geothermal-energy/; Mighty River Power, PM opens
showcase geothermal plant: boost for MRP, benefits for NZ, press
release (Auckland: 3 October 2013), http://www.mightyriver.
co.nz/PDFs/PDFs/New-Geothermal-plant-boosts-MRP-andbenefits-NZ.aspx; Ormat, Ormat Successfully Completed the
Ngatamariki Geothermal Plant, press release (Reno, NV: 3
September 2013), http://www.ormat.com/news/latest-items/
ormat-successfully-completed-ngatamariki-geothermal-plant;
Turkey from Phillip Dumas, European Geothermal Energy
Council, personal communication with REN21, February 2014;
zgr alan Kuyumcu, Middle East Geothermal Potential,
presentation at Geothermal Resources Council Annual Meeting
2013 (Las Vegas, NV, 29 September2 October 2013, http://
www.geothermal.org; Mahmut Parlaktuna et al., Geothermal
Country Update report of Turkey (2012-2013), prepared for
the European Geothermal Congress 2013, Pisa, Italy, 37 June
2013, http://www.geothermal-energy.org/pdf/IGAstandard/
EGC/2013/EGC2013_CUR-32.pdf; Fuji Electric, Introduction
to Fuji Electrics Recent Experiences in Geothermal Power
Plant Business, presentation, October 2013, http://www.
jica.go.jp/information/seminar/2013/ku57pq00001ktre1att/20131101_01_06.pdf; Zorlus geothermal power plant
opened, Hurriyet Daily News, 30 September 2013, http://www.
hurriyetdailynews.com/zorlus-geothermal-power-plant-opened.
aspx?pageID=238&nID=55378&NewsCatID=345; MB Holding
[Menderes Geothermal Elektrik retim (MEGE)], Dora-3
Produces, Turkey Wins, 17 September 2013, http://www.
mb.com.tr/en/basinda-mb-holding; BM Holding, Gmky
GEPP Project, http://www.bmholding.com.tr/group_companies/
geothermal.asp?show=gumuskoy_gepp_project&menu=power_
generation; United States from Enel Green Power, Enel Green
Power: The Cove Fort Geothermal Power Plant Starts Operations
Table R6 derived from the following sources: China: China

Electricity Council (CEC), summary of electricity supply and
demand from CECs 2014 Annual Report, http://www.cec.org.cn/
guihuayutongji/gongxufenxi/dianligongxufenxi/2014-02-25/
117272.html; Shi Pengfei, China Wind Energy Association,
personal communication with REN21, 12 March 2014; Brazil:
1,533 MW (264 MW small hydro and 1,264 MW large hydro)
added in 2013, per National Agency for Electrical Energy (ANEEL),
Fiscalizao dos servios de gerao, February 2013, http://
www.aneel.gov.br/area.cfm?idArea=37; large hydro capacity is
listed as 81.093 GW at end-2013 and small hydro at 4.656 GW, for
a total of 85,749 MW; generation from National Electrical System
Operator of Brazil (ONS), Gerao de Energia, http://www.ons.
org.br/historico/geracao_energia.aspx; United States: 2012
capacity from U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), Electric
Power Annual, Table 4.3 Existing Capacity by Energy Source, http://
www.eia.gov/electricity/annual/html/epa_04_03.html; projected
203
ENDNOTES REFERENCE TABLES

net additions in 2013 of 201 MW from idem, Table 4.5 Planned
Generating Capacity Changes by Energy Source, 20132017,
http://www.eia.gov/electricity/annual/html/epa_04_05.html;
generation from EIA, Electric Power Monthly, February 2014, Table
1.1, http://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly; Canada: Canadian
Hydropower Association, communication with REN21, February
2014; Hydropower Equipment Association (HEA) data based on
its members aggregated input, personal communication with
REN21, April 2014; generation from Statistics Canada, Table
127-0002 Electric Power Generation, by class of electricity
producer, http://www5.statcan.gc.ca/cansim; Russia: capacity
and generation from System Operator of the Unified Energy System
of Russia, Report on the Unified Energy System in 2013 (Moscow:
undated), http://www.so-ups.ru/fileadmin/files/company/reports/
disclosure/2014/ups_rep2013.pdf; India: installed capacity in
2013 (units larger than 25 MW) of 39,893.4MW from Government
of India, Ministry of Power, Central Electricity Authority, Installed
capacity as of 31 December 2013, http://www.cea.nic.in/
reports/monthly/inst_capacity/dec13.pdf, and idem, List of H.E.
Stations in the Country with Station Capacity Above 25MW,
http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/hydro/list_he__stations.pdf;
capacity additions in 2013 (>25 MW) of 554 MW from Central
Electricity Authority, Executive Summary of the Power Sector
(monthly), http://www.cea.nic.in/exesum_cood.html; installed
capacity in 2013 (<25 MW) of 3,763.15 MW from MNRE, op. cit.
note 1; capacity additions in 2013 (<25 MW) of 267 MW based
on difference of year-end 2013 figure (above) and year-end 2012
(New Delhi: undated), Table 3.7, http://www.mnre.gov.in/missionand-vision-2/publications/annual-report-2; generation for plants
larger than 25 MW from Central Electricity Authority, Executive
Summary of the Power Sector (monthly), op. cit. this note, and
output from hydropower plants smaller than 25 MW estimated,
based on capacity from MNRE, Annual Report 20122013, op.
cit. this note and on average capacity factor for large hydropower
facilities in India; Turkey: capacity was 19,609.4 MW at the end
of 2012 and 22,493.6 MW by 31 January 2014, from Dr. ztrk
Selvitop, Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, Republic of
Turkey, Hydropower in Turkish Energy Sector, presentation,
Ankara, 4 March 2014, http://suyonetimi.ormansu.gov.tr/
Libraries/su/Hydropower_in_Turkish_Energy_Sector.sflb.ashx;
see also Turkish Electricity Transmission Company, capacity
projections, http://www.teias.gov.tr/YayinRapor/APK/projeksiyon/
KapasiteProjeksiyonu2013.docx; Vietnam: late 2013 capacity
from Do Duc Quan, director, Hydropower Department, General
Department of Energy, Policies on Sustainable Hydropower
Development in Vietnam, presentation, Second Mekong River
Commission Summit and International Conference, Ho Chi Minh
City, 25 April 2014, http://www.mrcsummit.org/presentations/
track2/1.2-d-policy-for-sustainable-dev-ofhydro-QuanDoDuc.
pdf; 2012 year-end capacity of 12.95 GW from National Electricity
Center of Vietnam, http://www.nldc.evn.vn/News/7/661/Baocao-tong-ket-nam-2012.aspx; World based on International
Hydropower Association (IHA) Hydropower Database, personal
communication with REN21, March 2014; from preliminary
estimates in IEA, Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report
2014, op. cit. note 1.
7
204
Table R7 derived from the following sources: Germany:

32,643MW at end-2012, added 3,305 MW in 2013 for a total of
35,948MW, from AGEE-Stat, op. cit. note 1; 3,304 MW added
for a total of 35,500 MW, from IEAPhotovoltaic Power Systems
Programme (IEA-PVPS), PVPS Report Snapshot of Global PV
19932013: Preliminary Trends Information from the IEA PVPS
Programme (Brussels: March 2014), http://www.iea-pvps.org/
fileadmin/dam/public/report/statistics/PVPS_report_-_A_
Snapshot_of_Global_PV_-_1992-2013_-_final_3.pdf; China:
7GW at end-2012 from EPIA, op. cit. note 2; added 12.92 GW
from China National Energy Administration, provided by Gatan
Masson, IEA PVPS and iCARES Consulting, May 2014; for an
estimated total of 19.9 GW from Masson, op. cit. this note; Italy:
16.4 GW at end 2012, from IEA-PVPS, Trends in Photovoltaic
Applications 2013: Survey Report of Selected IEA Countries
Between 1992 and 2012 (Brussels: 2013), http://iea-pvps.org/
fileadmin/dam/public/report/statistics/FINAL_TRENDS_v1.02.
pdf; added 1,461 MW in 2013 for a total of 17.6 GW from IEAPVPS, PVPS Report, op. cit. this note; Japan: 6,631 MW at end
2012, from IEA-PVPS, Trends in Photovoltaic Applications 2013,
op. cit. this note; added 6,900 MW for a total of 13,643 MW, from
IEA-PVPS, PVPS Report, op. cit. note 7; United States: 7.2 GW
at end 2012, from IEA-PVPS, Trends in Photovoltaic Applications
2013, op. cit. this note; added 4,751MW for a total of 12.1 GW
from GTM Research and U.S. Solar Energy Industries Association,

U.S. Solar Market Insight Report: 2013 Year-in Review (Washington,
DC: 2014), Executive Summary, http://www.seia.org/researchresources/solar-market-insight-report-2013-year-review; added
4,750 MW for a total of 12,020MW from IEA-PVPS, PVPS Report,
op. cit. this note; Spain: 5.4GW at end 2012 from Gatan Masson,
IEA PVPS and iCARES Consulting, personal communications
with REN21, FebruaryMay 2014; added 152MW in 2013 for
a total of 5,566MW, from IEA-PVPS, PVPS Report, op. cit. this
note; France: 4,033 MW at end 2012 from IEA-PVPS, Trends in
Photovoltaic Applications 2013, op. cit. this note; 613 MW added
in 2013 for a total of 4,632 MW from IEA-PVPS, PVPS Report, op.
cit. this note; United Kingdom: 1,829 MW at end 2012, from IEAPVPS, Trends in Photovoltaic Applications 2013, op. cit. this note;
added 1.5 GW in 2013 for a total of 3.3 GW from EPIA, op. cit. note
2; Australia: 2,415 MW at end-2012, from IEA-PVPS, Trends in
Photovoltaic Applications 2013, op. cit. this note; added 848 MW
in 2013 for a total of 3,255MW, from IEA-PVPS, PVPS Report, op.
cit. this note; Belgium: 2,698 MW at end-2012, from IEA-PVPS,
Trends in Photovoltaic Applications 2013, op. cit. this note; added
215 MW in 2013 for a total of 2,983 MW, from IEA-PVPS, PVPS
Report, op. cit. this note; Rest of World based on other data
provided in table; World Total: 99,690 MW at end-2012, from
EPIA, Market Report 2013 (Brussels: March 2014), http://www.
epia.org/uploads/tx_epiapublications/Market_Report_2013_02.
pdf; added more than 39 GW for a total of 139 GW based on:
3940 GW installed for a total of 138140 GW, from Masson,
op. cit. this note, and preliminary estimates from IEA-PVPS, PVPS
Report, op. cit. this note, and from EPIA, op. cit. note 2.
8
Table R8 derived from the following sources: REN21, Renewables

2013 Global Status Report (Paris: REN21 Secretariat, June
2013), http://www.ren21.net/Portals/0/documents/Resources/
GSR/2013/GSR2013_lowres.pdf; Luis Crespo, ESTELA, personal
communication with REN21, February 2014; Fred Morse, Morse
Associates, Inc., personal communication with REN21, February
2014; CSP World Map, CSP World, http://www.csp-world.
com/cspworldmap; CSP Today Global Tracker, CSP Today,
http://social.csptoday.com/tracker/projects; U.S. Solar Energy
Industries Association (SEIA), Solar Energy Facts: 2013 Year in
Review, 5 March 2014, http://www.seia.org/sites/default/files/
YIR%202013%20SMI%20Fact%20Sheet.pdf; SEIA, Major Solar
Projects in the United States: Operating, Under Construction,
or Under Development, 6 March 2014, http://www.seia.org/
sites/default/files/resources/Major%20Solar%20Projects%20
List%203.6.14.pdf; NextEra dedicates 250 MW Genesis CSP
Plant, Solar Server, 25 April 2014, http://www.solarserver.
com/solar-magazine/solar-news/current/2014/kw17/nexteradedicates-250-mw-genesis-csp-plant.html; Abengoa Solar,
Mojave Solar Project, http://www.abengoasolar.com/web/en/
nuestras_plantas/plantas_en_construccion/estados_unidos/.
Table R9 derived from the following sources: Mauthner and Weiss,

op. cit. note 1; Mauthner, op. cit. note 1. The Mauthner and Weiss
report covers an estimated 95% of the world total, which REN21
has adjusted to 100% to derive the world total. See Solar Heating
and Cooling section and endnotes for further details.
10
10 Table R10 derived from the following sources: year-end world
and country data for 2012 from Global Wind Energy Council
(GWEC), Global Wind ReportAnnual Market Update 2013
(Brussels: April 2014), GWEC), http://www.gwec.net/wp-content/
uploads/2014/04/GWEC-Global-Wind-Report_9-April-2014.
pdf; data for 2013 from the following sources: China: added
16,089 MW for a total of 91,412 MW installed by the end of 2013,
from Chinese Wind Energy Association (CWEA), provided by
Shi Pengfei, CWEA, personal communication with REN21, 14
March 2014; official data for grid-connected and operational
by years end, including 60.8 GW at end-2012, 14.1GW
added in 2013, and 75.5 GW at years end, are from China
Electricity Council, provided by Shi Pengfei, CWEA, personal
communication with REN21, 15 April 2014; United States:
added 1,087 MW for a total of 61,110 MW, from American
Wind Energy Association, U.S. Capacity & Generation, U.S.
Wind Industry Annual Market Report 2013 (Washington, DC:
10 April 2014), http://www.awea.org/AnnualMarketReport.
aspx?ItemNumber=6305&RDtoken=35392&userID=; Germany:
added 3,592 MW of capacity, of which 3,237 MW was gridconnected and 236 MW was used for repowering, for a total of
34,660 MW installed and 34,305MW grid-connected at year's
end, based on C. Ender, Wind Energy Use in GermanyStatus
31.12.2013, DEWI Magazin, February 2014, http://www.dewi.
de/dewi/fileadmin/pdf/publications/Magazin_44/07.pdf; added
3,238 MW (2,980 MW net additions, accounting for repowering)
to grid for a total of 34,250 MW, from GWEC, op. cit. this note;
Spain: added 175 MW for a total of 22,959 MW, from European
Wind Energy Association (EWEA), Wind in Power: 2013 European
Statistics (Brussels: February 2014), p. 4, http://www.ewea.org/
fileadmin/files/library/publications/statistics/EWEA_Annual_
Statistics_2013.pdf; 173 MW net additions for total of 22,746
MW, from REE, op. cit. note 1; India added 1,729 MW in 2013 for
a total of 20,150 MW, from GWEC, op. cit. this note, p. 17; United
Kingdom added 1,883 MW for a year-end total of 10,531MW,
from EWEA, op. cit. this note, pp. 45; Italy added 444 MW for
a total of 8,551 MW, from idem, pp. 45; France added 631
MW for a total of 8,254 MW, from idem, pp. 35; Canada added
nearly 1,600 MW for a total of 7,802.72 MW, from Canadian Wind
Energy Association, Installed Capacity, http://canwea.ca/
wind-energy/installed-capacity/, viewed 11 April 2014; Denmark:
added 657 MW for a total of 4,772 MW, from EWEA, op. cit. this
note, pp. 45; added net 626 MW for total of 4,792 MW at years
end, from Carsten Vittrup, 2013 Was a Record-Setting Year for
Danish Wind Power, Energinet.DK, 15 January 2014, http://
www.energinet.dk/EN/El/Nyheder/Sider/2013-var-et-rekordaarfor-dansk-vindkraft.aspx; Rest of World based on other data
provided in table; Global: added 35,289 MW during the year,
bringing the total to 318,105MW, from GWEC, op. cit. this note,
p. 16; 35,550MW added for a total of 318,529 MW, from World
Wind Energy Association, World Wind Energy Report 2013 (Bonn:
2014); and 36,134 MW added for a total of 321,559 MW, from
Navigant Research, World Market Update 2013: International Wind
Energy Development. Forecast 20142018 (Copenhagen: March
2014), Executive Summary; 35,572 MW installed for a total of
318,576MW, from EurObservER, Wind Energy Barometer (Paris:
February 2014), p. 2, http://www.energies-renouvelables.org/
observ-er/stat_baro/observ/baro-jde14-gb.pdf. See Wind Power
text and related endnotes for further world and country statistics
and details.
hj/en/facts/factsheets/pdf/05_green_hongkong_en.pdf;
City of Malm, Environmental Programme for the City of
Malm 2009-2020 (Malmo: 2009), http://www.malmo.se/
download/18.6301369612700a2db9180006227/EnvironmentalProgramme-for-the-City-of-Malmo-2009-2020.pdf; IRENA,
Renewable Energy Policy in Cities: Selected Case Studies
- Malmo, Sweden(Abu Dhabi: January 2013), www.irena.org/
Publications/RE_Policy_Cities_CaseStudies/IRENA%20cities%20
case%207%20Malmo.pdf; City of Seoul, City Initiatives, Overview
of Seoul Citys Administration Plan (Seoul: 2011), http://english.
seoul.go.kr/gtk/cg/policies.php; City Planning of Seoul (Seoul:
2013), http://english.seoul.go.kr/library/common/download.
php?fileDir=/community/&fileName=04_City_Planning_of_Seoul.
pptx; City of Sydney, Decentralised Energy Master Plan Renewable
Energy (Sydney: 2013), http://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.
au/2030/makingithappen/documents/Building_Water_Energy_
Retrofit_EOI.pdf; City of Sydney, Decentralised Energy Master
Plan Trigeneration 20102030 (Sydney: 2013), http://www.
cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/153282/
Renewable-Energy-Master-Plan.pdf; City of Vancouver, Green
Vancouver, Greenest City 2020 Action Plan (Vancouver:
November 2012), http://vancouver.ca/files/cov/greenest-cityaction-plan.pdf; City of Yokohama, Climate Change Policy-related
Pages of the Mid-Term Plan of the City of Yokohama (Yokohama:
2013), http://www.city.yokohama.lg.jp/ondan/english/pdf/policies/
mid-term-plan-of-the-city-of-yokohama.pdf.
20 Table R20 from the following sources: REN21 database; IEA,
20
World Energy Outlook 2013, Energy Access Database, http://
www.worldenergyoutlook.org/resources/energydevelopment/
energyaccessdatabase/; submissions from report contributors.
21
21 Table R21 from IEA, op. cit. note 20
11
11 Table R11 from Frankfurt SchoolUNEP Collaborating Centre for
Climate & Sustainable Energy Finance and Bloomberg New Energ
Finance, Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment 2014
(Frankfurt: 2014).
12 Table R12 from the following sources: REN21 database;
12
submissions by report contributors; various industry reports;
EurObservER, The State of Renewable Energies in Europe (Paris:
2014), http://www.energies-renouvelables.org/observ-er/
stat_baro/barobilan/barobilan13-gb.pdf. For online updates, see
the Renewables Interactive Map at www.ren21.net.
13 Table R13 from the following sources: REN21 database;
13
submissions by report contributors; various industry reports;
EurObservER, Worldwide Electricity Production from Renewable
Energy Sources: Stats and Figures Series (Paris: 2014) Targets
for the EU-28 were set in each country's National Renewable
Energy Action Plan (NREAP), available at http://ec.europa.eu/
energy/renewables/action_plan_en.htm. Certain NREAP targets
have been revised subsequently. For online updates, see the
Renewables Interactive Map at www.ren21.net.
14 Table R14 from REN21 database compiled from all available
14
policy references plus submissions from report contributors.
Targets for the EU-28 were set in each country's NREAP. Certain
NREAP targets have been revised subsequently.
For online updates, see the Renewables Interactive Map at
www.ren21.net.
15 Table R15 from ibid.
15
16 Table R16 from all available policy references, including the
16
IEA/IRENA online Global Renewable Energy Policies and
Measures database, published sources as given in the endnotes
for the Policy Landscape section of this report, and submissions
from report contributors.
17
18
19 Table R19 derived from the following sources: For selected
19
targets and policies, see the EU Covenant of Mayors, ICLEI Local
Governments for Sustainability; REN21, Global Futures Report
(Paris: 2013); and REN21, ISEP, and ICLEI, 2011 Global Status
Report on Local Renewable Energy Policies (Paris: May 2011).
For selected examples in urban planning, see: City of
Glasgow, Environment, Sustainable Glasgow Report (Glasgow:
January 2010), http://www.glasgow.gov.uk/chttphandler.
asx?id=10159&p=0; City of Hong Kong, Blueprint for Sustainable
Use of Resources 2013 2022 (Hong Kong: May 2012), http://
www.enb.gov.hk/en/files/WastePlan-E.pdf; Green Hong
Kong (Hong Kong: May 2012), http://www.brandhk.gov.
205
NOTES
METHODOLOGICAL NOTES
This 2014 report follows eight previous editions of the Renewables
Global Status Report (GSR), produced since 2005 (with the
exception of 2008). Readers are directed to the previous GSR
editions for historical details.
Most 2013 data for national and global capacity, output, growth,
and investment portrayed in this report are preliminary. Where
necessary, information and data that are conflicting, partial,
or older are reconciled by using reasoned expert judgment.
Endnotes provide additional details, including references,
supporting information, and assumptions where relevant. (See
Sidebar 1 on renewable energy data and related challenges.)
Each edition draws from thousands of published and
unpublished references, including: reports from international
organisations and industry associations; input from the GSR
community via hundreds of questionnaires submitted by
country, regional, and technology contributors, and feedback
from several rounds of formal and informal reviews; additional
personal communications with scores of international experts;
as well as a variety of electronic newsletters, news media, and
other sources.
Much of the data found in the GSR is built from the ground up by
the authors with the aid of these resources. This often involves
extrapolation of older data, based on recent changes in key
countries within a sector, or based on recent growth rates and
global trends. Other data, often very specific and narrow in
scope, come more-or-less prepared from third parties. The GSR
attempts to synthesise these datapoints into a collective whole
for the focus year.
The GSR endeavours to cover accurately, on a global level, all
data related to renewable energy markets and industries, policy
developments, as well as renewable energy-related advances to
expand energy access in developing countries. It aims to provide
the best data available in each successive edition; as such, data
should not be compared with previous versions of this report to
ascertain year-by-year changes.
NOTE ON ACCOUNTING AND REPORTING

A number of issues arise when counting renewable energy
capacities and energy output. Some of these are discussed
below:
1. CAPACITY VERSUS ENERGY DATA

The GSR aims to give accurate estimates of capacity additions
and totals, as well as of electricity, heat, and transport fuel
production in the past year. These measures are subject to
some uncertainty, with the level of uncertainty differing from
technology to technology. The section on Market and Industry
Trends includes estimates for energy produced where possible
but, due to data constraints, focusses mainly on electricity or
heat capacity data. This is because capacity data generally
can be estimated with a greater degree of certainty. Further,
actual heat and electricity generation data for most countries
are usually available only 12 months or more after the fact, and
sometimes not at all. In addition, capacity data better mimic
investment trends over time.
2. CONSTRUCTED CAPACITY VERSUS CONNECTED

CAPACITY AND OPERATIONAL CAPACITY
Over the past few years, the solar PV and wind power markets
have seen increasing amounts of capacity that was connected
to the electricity grid but not yet deemed officially operational,
or constructed capacity that was not connected to the grid by
year-end (and, in turn, capacity that was installed in one year but
connected to the grid during the next). This phenomenon has
been particularly evident for wind power installations in China
(20092013), as well as for solar PV in some European countries
in recent years.
Starting with the 2012 edition, the GSR has aimed to count only
capacity additions that were grid-connected, or that otherwise
went into service (e.g., capacity intended for off-grid use), during
the previous calendar year. However, there may be exceptions
borne out of necessity of data availability (as with China, for
example). Known deviations to this approach are outlined in the
text and/or endnotes for the technology sections.
The reasoning is that the sources from which the GSR draws
have varying methodologies for counting installations, and many
official bodies report grid connection statistics. As a result, in
many countries the data for actual installations are becoming
increasingly difficult to obtain. Some renewable industry groups,
including the European Photovoltaic Industry Association and the
Global Wind Energy Council, have shifted to tracking and reporting
on operational/grid-connected rather than installed capacities.
3. BIO-POWER DATA
Given existing complexities and constraints (see Figure 5 in this
report, and Sidebar 2 in GSR 2012), the GSR strives to provide
the best and latest available data regarding biomass energy
developments. The reporting of biomass-fired combined heat
and power (CHP) systems varies among countries, which adds
to the challenges experienced when assessing total heat and
electricity capacities and total bioenergy outputs. Wherever
possible, the bio-power data presented include capacity and
generation from both electricity-only and CHP systems using
solid biomass, landfill gas, biogas, and liquid biofuels.
206
4. GEOTHERMAL HEAT AND HEAT PUMPS
6. SOLAR THERMAL HEAT DATA
Starting with GSR 2014, ground-source (geothermal) heat pump

capacity and output is not included in the section on geothermal
energy. Ground-source, air-source (aerothermal), and watersource (hydrothermal) heat pumps are all discussed in Sidebar
4. Consequently, estimates of geothermal heat capacity and
utilisation provided in the geothermal section are lower than in
some previous editions. This change is also reflected in Figure 1,
although the scale of the change relative to other technologies is
so small that it does not affect the figure.
Starting with this edition, the GSR includes all solar thermal
collectors that use water as the heat-transfer medium (or heat
carrier) in global capacity data and ranking of top 12 countries.
Previous GSRs focussed primarily on glazed water collectors
(both flat plate and evacuated tube); this edition also includes
unglazed water collectors, which are used predominantly for
swimming pool heating, in data throughout. This change affects
reported global capacity data, as well as the rankings of top
countries, relative to previous GSR editions.
This adjustment was made for several reasons: 1) ground-source

heat pumps are but one of three categories of heat pumps,
differentiated only by their source/sink, and should be covered
along with other types; 2) data are severely lacking on global
installed heat pump capacity and output; and 3) although a
common methodology on defining the renewable component of
heat pump output has been formulated in Europe, uncertainty
about specific technology and operating efficiencies globally
make the data on heat-pump derived/enabled renewable energy
output even murkier. (See Sidebar 4.)
Most countries that report data for solar water collectors gather
information on glazed collectors only. Furthermore, glazed
water collectors represent more than 90% of cumulative global
installed solar thermal capacity, and more than 95% of newly
installed capacity. Thus, past GSRs focussed primarily on glazed
water collectors to avoid mixing countries that have detailed data
across all collectors with those that do not. However, because
most of the largest markets for unglazed water collectors now
gather data on this collector type, and data are improving
elsewhere, unglazed collectors are covered more fully starting
with GSR 2014.
5. HYDROPOWER DATA REVISION AND TREATMENT

OF PUMPED STORAGE
Note that data for solar air collectors (solar thermal collectors
that use air as the heat carrier) are far more uncertain, and these
collector types play a minor role in the market overall. Solar
thermal air collectors are included where specified.
The adjustment to global hydropower capacity also affects

reported total global renewable power capacity relative to
previous editions of the GSR and, thus, such data should not
be compared directly with statistics in previous editions. (Note,
however, that historical capacity data in the Renewable Energy
Indicators Table on page 15 account for this change.) For future
editions of the GSR, ongoing efforts are being made to further
improve data.
Moreover, starting with the 2012 edition, the GSR has attempted
to report hydropower generating capacity without including pure
pumped storage capacity (the capacity used solely for shifting
water between reservoirs for storage purposes). The distinction is
made because pumped storage is not an energy supply source
but rather a means of energy storage. It involves conversion losses
and is potentially fed by all forms of electricity, renewable and nonrenewable. However, some conventional hydropower facilities do
have pumping capability that is not separate from, or additional
to, their normal generating capability. It is the aim of the GSR to
distinguish and separate only the pure (or incremental) pumped
storage component. (As noted in Sidebar 3 of GSR 2013, pumped
storage can play an important role as balancing power in a grid
system, particularly where a large share of variable renewable
resources appears in the generation mix.)
Concentrating solar thermal systems used for industrial

processes, or to drive double- or triple-stage absorption
chillers, are included in the section Solar Thermal Heating and
Cooling. These systemsincluding parabolic trough, dish, and
Fresnel collectorsare smaller than their concentrating solar
thermal power (CSP) relatives, and are adapted to provide hightemperature heat (typically 120250 C, and up to 400 C) that
is not used to generate electricity.
7. OTHER
Editorial content of this report closed by 17 May 2014 for
technology data, and by 1 May for other content.
All exchange rates in this report are as of 31 December 2013,
and are calculated using the OANDA currency converter (http://
www.oanda.com/currency/converter/).
The GSR 2013 reported a global total of 990 GW at the end of

2012. This figure has been revised downward in this edition by
30 GW, due primarily to the availability of improved data. The
reduction also reflects further removal of capacity that has been
identified as pure pumped storage (see below).
This method of accounting is accepted practice by the industry.

The International Hydropower Association is working to track and
report pure pumped storage numbers separately. In addition,
several countries report data for pumped storage separately
from data for conventional hydropower and other renewables.
207
GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
ABSORPTION CHILLERS . Chillers that use heat energy from any
source (solar, biomass, waste heat, etc.) to drive air conditioning
or refrigeration systems. The heat source replaces the electric
power consumption of a mechanical compressor. Absorption
chillers differ from conventional (vapour compression) cooling
systems in two ways: the absorption process is thermo-chemical
in nature rather than mechanical, and water is circulated as a
refrigerant, rather than chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) or hydro
chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs, also called freon). The chillers are
generally supplied with district heat, waste heat, or heat from
cogeneration, and they can operate with heat from geothermal,
solar, or biomass resources.
BIODIESEL . A fuel produced from oilseed crops such as soy,

rapeseed (canola), and palm oil, and from other oil sources such
as waste cooking oil and animal fats. Biodiesel is used in diesel
engines installed in cars, trucks, buses, and other vehicles,
as well as in stationary heat and power applications. Also see
Hydro-treated vegetable oil.
BIOENERGY. Energy derived from any form of biomass, including
bio-heat, bio-power, and biofuel. Bio-heat arises from the
combustion of solid biomass (such as dry fuel wood) or other
liquid or gaseous energy carriers. The heat can be used directly or
used to produce bio-power by creating steam to drive engines or
turbines that drive electricity generators. Alternatively, gaseous
energy carriers such as biomethane, landfill gas, or synthesis
gas (produced from the thermal gasification of biomass) can be
used to fuel a gas engine. Biofuels for transport are sometimes
also included under the term bioenergy (see Biofuels).
BIOMASS PELLETS . Solid biomass fuel produced by compressing

pulverised dry biomass, such as waste wood and agricultural
residues. Torrefied pellets produced by heating the biomass
pellets have higher energy content per kilogram, as well as
better grindability, water resistance, and storability. Pellets
are typically cylindrical in shape with a diameter of around 10
millimetres and a length of 3050 millimetres. Pellets are easy
to handle, store, and transport and are used as fuel for heating
and cooking applications, as well as for electricity generation
and combined heat and power.
BRIQUETTES . Blocks of flammable matter made from solid

biomass fuels, including cereal straw, that are compressed in
a process similar to the production of wood pellets. They are
physically much larger than pellets, with a diameter of 50100
millimetres and a length of 60150 millimetres. They are less
easy to handle automatically but can be used as a substitute for
fuelwood logs.
CAPACITY. The rated capacity of a heat or power generating plant

refers to the potential instantaneous heat or electricity output,
or the aggregate potential output of a collection of such units
(such as a wind farm or set of solar panels). Installed capacity
describes equipment that has been constructed, although it
may or may not be operational (e.g., delivering electricity to the
grid, providing useful heat, or producing biofuels).
BIOFUELS . A wide range of liquid and gaseous fuels derived from

biomass. Biofuelsincluding liquid fuel ethanol and biodiesel,
as well as biogascan be combusted in vehicle engines as
transport fuels and in stationary engines for heat and electricity
generation. They also can be used for domestic heating and
cooking (for example, as ethanol gels). Advanced biofuels are
made from sustainably produced non-food biomass sources
using technologies that are still in the pilot, demonstration,
or early commercial stages. One exception is hydro-treated
vegetable oil (HVO), which is now produced commercially in
several plants.
CAPITAL SUBSIDY. A subsidy that covers a share of the upfront

capital cost of an asset (such as a solar water heater). These
include, for example, consumer grants, rebates, or one-time
payments by a utility, government agency, or governmentowned bank.
BIOGAS/BIOMETHANE . Biogas is a gaseous mixture consisting
COMBINED HEAT AND POWER (CHP) (ALSO CALLED COGENERATION) .
mainly of methane and carbon dioxide produced by the

anaerobic digestion of organic matter (broken down by microorganisms in the absence of oxygen). Organic material and/or
waste is converted into biogas in a digester. Suitable feedstocks
include agricultural residues, animal wastes, food industry
wastes, sewage sludge, purpose-grown green crops, and the
organic components of municipal solid wastes. Raw biogas
can be combusted to produce heat and/or power; it can also be
transformed into biomethane through a simple process known
as scrubbing that removes impurities including carbon dioxide,
siloxanes, and hydrogen sulphides. Biomethane can be injected
directly into natural gas networks and used as a substitute for
natural gas in internal combustion engines without fear of
corrosion.
208
BIOMASS . Any material of biological origin, excluding fossil fuels

or peat, that contains a chemical store of energy (originally
received from the sun) and is available for conversion to a wide
range of convenient energy carriers. These can take many
forms, including liquid biofuels, biogas, biomethane, pyrolysis
oil, or solid biomass pellets.
CAPACITY FACTOR . The ratio of the actual output of a unit of

electricity or heat generation over a period of time (typically one
year) to the theoretical output that would be produced if the unit
were operating without interruption at its rated capacity during
the same period of time.
CHP facilities produce both heat and power from the combustion
of fossil and/or biomass fuels, as well as from geothermal and
solar thermal resources. The term is also applied to plants that
recover waste heat from thermal power-generation processes.
CONCENTRATING PHOTOVOLTAICS (CPV) . Technology that uses

mirrors or lenses to focus and concentrate sunlight onto a
relatively small area of photovoltaic cells that generate electricity
(see Solar photovoltaics). Low-, medium-, and high-concentration
CPV systems (depending on the design of reflectors or lenses
used) operate most efficiently in concentrated, direct sunlight.
Technology that uses mirrors to focus sunlight into an intense

solar beam that heats a working fluid in a solar receiver, which
then drives a turbine or heat engine/generator to produce
electricity. The mirrors can be arranged in a variety of ways, but
they all deliver the solar beam to the receiver. There are four types
of commercial CSP systems: parabolic troughs, linear Fresnel,
power towers, and dish/engines. The first two technologies are
line-focus systems, capable of concentrating the suns energy
to produce temperatures of 400 C, while the latter two are
point-focus systems that can produce temperatures of 800
C or higher. These high temperatures make thermal energy
storage simple, efficient, and inexpensive. The addition of
storageusing a fluid (most commonly molten salt) to store
heatusually gives CSP power plants the flexibility needed for
reliable integration into a power grid.
CONVERSION EFFICIENCY. The ratio between the useful energy

output from an energy conversion device and the energy input
into it. For example, the conversion efficiency of a PV module is
the ratio between the electricity generated and the total solar
energy received by the PV module. If 100 kWh of solar radiation
is received and 10 kWh electricity is generated, the conversion
efficiency is 10%.
CROWD FUNDING . The practice of funding a project or venture by

raising small amounts of money from a large number of people
(crowd), generally using the Internet and social media. The
money raised through crowdfunding does not necessarily buy
the lender a share in the venture, and there is no guarantee that
money will be repaid if the venture is successful. However, some
types of crowd funding reward backers with an equity stake,
structured payments, and/or other products.
DISTRIBUTED GENERATION . Generation of electricity from
dispersed, generally small-scale systems that are close to the
point of consumption.
ENERGY. The ability to do work, which comes in a number of

forms including thermal, radiant, kinetic, chemical, potential,
and electrical. Primary energy is the energy embodied in (energy
potential of) natural resources, such as coal, natural gas, and
renewable sources. Final energy is the energy delivered to enduse facilities (such as electricity to an electrical outlet), where
it becomes usable energy and can provide services such as
lighting, refrigeration, etc. When primary energy is converted
into useful energy, there are always losses involved.
ENERGY SERVICE COMPANY (ESCO) . A company that provides a

range of energy solutions including selling the energy services
from a renewable energy system on a long-term basis while
retaining ownership of the system, collecting regular payments
from customers, and providing necessary maintenance service.
An ESCO can be an electric utility, co-operative, NGO, or private
company, and typically installs energy systems on or near
customer sites. An ESCO can also advise on improving the energy
efficiency of systems (such as a building or an industry) as well
as methods for energy conservation and energy management.
ENERGIEWENDE . German term that means transformation of

the energy system. It refers to the move away from nuclear and
fossil fuels towards an energy system based primarily on energy
efficiency improvements and renewable energy.
ETHANOL (FUEL) . A liquid fuel made from biomass (typically corn,

sugar cane, or small cereals/grains) that can replace gasoline in
modest percentages for use in ordinary spark-ignition engines
(stationary or in vehicles), or that can be used at higher blend
levels (usually up to 85% ethanol, or 100% in Brazil) in slightly
modified engines such as those provided in flex-fuel vehicles.
Note that some ethanol production is used for industrial,
chemical, and beverage applications and not for fuel.
FEE-FOR-SERVICE MODEL . An arrangement to provide consumers

with an electricity service, in which a private company retains
ownership of the equipment and is responsible for maintenance
and for providing replacement parts over the life of the service
contract. A fee-for-service model can be a leasing or ESCO
model.
FEED-IN POLICY. A policy that: (a) sets a guaranteed payment

over a stated fixed-term period when renewable power can
be sold and fed into the electricity network, and (b) usually
guarantees grid access to renewable electricity generators.
Some policies provide a fixed tariff or minimum price (see
Feed-in tariff), whereas others provide premium payments that
are added to wholesale market prices or cost-related tariffs (see
Feed-in premium). Feed-in policies are sometimes combined
with tendering, e.g. electricity producers have to qualify in a
bidding procedure. Other variations exist, and feed-in policies
for heat are evolving.
FEED-IN PREMIUM (FIP) . A type of feed-in policy. Producers
of electricity from renewable sources sell electricity at
market prices, and a premium is added to the market price to
compensate for higher costs and thus to mitigate financial risks
of renewables production. Premiums are set as fixed premiums
(a fixed amount is added to the market price for a certain period
of time) or as flexible premiums (the exact amount is dependent
from other criteria, e.g., market price, electricity demand,
defined cap, defined floor). Normally, fixed premiums expose
electricity producers to higher market risks, whereas flexible
premiums mitigate at least some of the market price volatility
and the resulting risks.
FEED-IN TARIFF (FIT) . The basic form of feed-in policies. A
guaranteed minimum price (tariff) per unit (normally kWh or
MWh) is guaranteed over a stated fixed-term period when
electricity can be sold and fed into the electricity network,
normally with priority or guaranteed grid access and dispatch.
CONCENTR ATING SOL AR THERMAL POWER (CSP) (AL SO CALLED

CONCENTRATING SOLAR POWER OR SOLAR THERMAL ELECTRICITY, STE).
FINAL ENERGY. The part of primary energy, after deduction of

losses from conversion, transmission, and distribution, that
reaches the consumer and is available to provide heating,
hot water, lighting, and other services. Final energy forms
include electricity, district heating, mechanical energy, liquid
hydrocarbons such as kerosene or fuel oil, and various gaseous
fuels such as natural gas, biogas, and hydrogen. Final energy
accounts only for the conversion losses that occur upstream of
the end-user, such as losses at refineries and power plants.
209
GLOSSARY
FISCAL INCENTIVE . An economic incentive that provides
individuals, households, or companies with a reduction in their
contribution to the public treasury via income or other taxes,
or with direct payments from the public treasury in the form of
rebates or grants.
and/or useful heat from a primary energy source such as wind,
solar radiation, natural gas, biomass, etc.
of favourable future returns. In this report, new investment

in renewable energy refers to investment in: technology
research and development, commercialisation, construction of
manufacturing facilities, and project development (including
construction of wind farms, purchase and installation of solar
PV systems). Total investment refers to new investment plus
merger and acquisition (M&A) activity (the refinancing and sale
of companies and projects).
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY. Heat energy emitted from within the
INVESTMENT TAX CREDIT. A taxation measure that allows
GENERATION . The process of converting energy into electricity
Earths crust, usually in the form of hot water or steam. It can be

used to generate electricity in a thermal power plant or to provide
heat directly at various temperatures for buildings, industry, and
agriculture.
GREEN ENERGY PURCHASING . Voluntary purchase of renewable

energyusually electricity, but also heat and transport fuelsby
residential, commercial, government, or industrial consumers,
either directly from an energy trader or utility company, from a
third-party renewable energy generator, or indirectly via trading
of renewable energy certificates (RECs, also called green tags
or guarantees of origin). It can create additional demand for
renewable capacity and/or generation, often going beyond that
resulting from government support policies or obligations.
HEAT PUMP. A device that transfers heat from a heat source to

a heat sink using a refrigeration cycle that is driven by external
electric or thermal energy. It can use the ground (geothermal),
the surrounding air (aerothermal), or a body of water
(hydrothermal) as a heat source in heating mode, and as a heat
sink in cooling mode. A heat pumps final energy output can be
several multiples of the energy input, depending on its inherent
efficiency and operating condition. The output of a heat pump is
at least partially renewable on a final energy basis. However, the
renewable component can be much lower on a primary energy
basis, depending on the composition and derivation of the input
energy; in the case of electricity, this includes the efficiency of
the power generation process. The output of a heat pump can be
fully renewable energy if the input energy is also fully renewable.
HYDROPOWER . Electricity derived from the potential energy of

water captured when moving from higher to lower elevations.
Categories of hydropower projects include run-of-river,
reservoir-based capacity, and low-head in-stream technology
(the least developed). Hydropower covers a continuum in
project scale from large (usually defined as more than 10 MW of
installed capacity, but the definition varies by country) to small,
mini, micro, and pico.
HYDROTREATED VEGETABLE OIL (HVO) . A drop-in biofuel

produced by using hydrogen to remove oxygen from waste
cooking oils, fats, and vegetable oils. The result is a hydrocarbon
fuel that blends more easily with diesel and jet fuel than does
biodiesel produced from triglycerides as fatty acid methyl esters
(FAME).
210
INVESTMENT. Purchase of an item of value with an expectation
investments in renewable energy to be fully or partially deducted

from the tax obligations or income of a project developer,
industry, building owner, etc.
JOULE/KILOJOULE/MEGAJOULE/GIGAJOULE/TERAJOULE
PETAJOULE/EXAJOULE . A Joule (J) is a unit of work or energy
equal to the energy expended to produce one Watt of power
for one second. For example, one Joule is equal to the energy
required to lift an apple straight up by one metre. The energy
released as heat by a person at rest is about 60 J per second.
A kilojoule (kJ) is a unit of energy equal to one thousand (103)
Joules; a megajoule (MJ) is one million (106) Joules; and so on.
The potential chemical energy stored in one barrel of oil and
released when combusted is approximately 6 GJ; a tonne of oven
dry wood contains around 20 GJ of energy.
LEASING OR LEASE-TO-OWN . A fee-for-service arrangement in

which a leasing company (generally an intermediary company,
co-operative, or NGO) buys stand-alone renewable energy
systems and installs them at customer sites, retaining ownership
until the customer has made all payments over the lease period.
Because the leasing periods are longer than most consumer
finance terms, the monthly fees can be lower and the systems
affordable to a larger segment of the population.
LEVELISED COST OF ENERGY (LCOE) . The unique cost price of

energy outputs (e.g., USD/kWh or USD/GJ) of a project that
makes the present value of the revenues equal to the present
value of the costs over the lifetime of the project.
MANDATE/OBLIGATION . A measure that requires designated
parties (consumers, suppliers, generators) to meet a minimum,
and often gradually increasing, target for renewable energy,
such as a percentage of total supply or a stated amount of
capacity. Costs are generally borne by consumers. Mandates
can include renewable portfolio standards (RPS); building codes
or obligations that require the installation of renewable heat or
power technologies (often in combination with energy efficiency
investments); renewable heat purchase requirements; and
requirements for blending biofuels into transport fuel.
MARKET CONCESSION MODEL . A model in which a private company
or NGO is selected through a competitive process and given the
exclusive obligation to provide energy services to customers in
its service territory, upon customer request. The concession
approach allows concessionaires to select the most appropriate
and cost-effective technology for a given situation.
MINI-GRIDS . Small electric grids that serve entire communities

through distribution networks. Until recently, most mini-grids
relied on diesel fuel. Hydro-powered mini-grids are mature
technologies, whereas gas-fired generator mini-grids, powered
by agricultural waste or biogas, are maturing technologies. The
use of inverter-connected mini-grids that incorporate a variety
of renewable and other technologies (including battery banks)
is developing rapidly.
MODERN BIOMASS ENERGY. Energy derived from combustion

of solid, liquid, and gaseous biomass fuels in efficient small
domestic appliances to large-scale industrial conversion plants
for modern applications of space heating, electricity generation,
combined heat and power, and transport (as opposed to
traditional biomass energy).
NET METERING . A regulated arrangement in which utility

customers who have installed their own generating systems
pay only for the net electricity delivered from the utility (total
consumption minus on-site self-generation). A variation
that employs two meters with differing tariffs for purchasing
electricity and exporting excess electricity off-site is called net
billing.
OCEAN ENERGY. Energy captured from ocean waves (generated

by wind passing over the surface), tides, currents, salinity
gradients, and ocean temperature differences. Wave energy
converters capture the energy of surface waves to generate
electricity; tidal stream generators use kinetic energy of moving
water to power turbines; and tidal barrages are essentially dams
that cross tidal estuaries and capture energy as tides flow in and
out.
PAY-AS-YOU-GO (PAYG) MICRO-PAYMENT SCHEMES . A flexible

metering solution that allows consumers to acquire modern
energy on an installment basis and to purchase varying amounts
of energy credit using a mobile phones short message service.
After a small down-payment, customers decide how much
energy credit to buy and continue to buy more depending on
their needs.
POWER . The rate at which energy is converted per unit of time,

expressed in Watts (Joules/second).
PRIMARY ENERGY. The theoretically available energy content of

a naturally occurring energy source (such as coal, oil, natural
gas, uranium ore, geothermal and biomass energy, etc.) before
it undergoes conversion to useful final energy delivered to the
end-user. Conversion of primary energy into other forms of
useful final energy (such as electricity and fuels) entails losses.
Some primary energy is consumed at the end-user level as final
energy without any prior conversion.
PRODUCTION TAX CREDIT. A taxation measure that provides the
investor or owner of a qualifying property or facility with an
annual tax credit based on the amount of renewable energy
(electricity, heat, or biofuel) generated by that facility.
PUBLIC COMPETITIVE BIDDING (ALSO CALLED AUCTION OR TENDER) .

A procurement mechanism by which public authorities solicit
bids for a given amount of renewable energy supply or capacity,
generally based on price. Sellers offer the lowest price that they
would be willing to accept, but typically at prices above standard
market levels.
PUMPED-STORAGE HYDROPOWER . Plants that pump water from a

lower reservoir to a higher storage basin using surplus electricity,
and that reverse the flow to generate electricity when needed.
They are not energy sources but means of energy storage and
can have overall system efficiencies of around 8090%.
REGULATORY POLICY. A rule to guide or control the conduct of
those to whom it applies. In the renewable energy context,
examples include mandates or quotas such as renewable
portfolio standards, feed-in tariffs, biofuel blending mandates,
and renewable heat obligations.
RENEWABLE ENERGY CERTIFICATE (REC) . A certificate awarded to

certify the generation of one unit of renewable energy (typically
1 MWh of electricity but also less commonly of heat). In systems
based on RECs, certificates can be accumulated to meet
renewable energy obligations and also provide a tool for trading
among consumers and/or producers. They also are a means of
enabling purchases of voluntary green energy.
RENEWABLE ENERGY TARGET. An official commitment, plan, or

goal set by a government (at the local, state, national, or regional
level) to achieve a certain amount of renewable energy by a
future date. Some targets are legislated while others are set by
regulatory agencies or ministries.
RENEWABLE PORTFOLIO STANDARD (RPS) . An obligation placed
by a government on a utility company, group of companies,
or consumers to provide or use a predetermined minimum
renewable share of installed capacity, or of electricity or heat
generated or sold. A penalty may or may not exist for noncompliance. These policies are also known as renewable
electricity standards, renewable obligations, and mandated
market shares, depending on the jurisdiction.
MERIT ORDER . A way of ranking available sources of energy

(particularly electricity generation) in ascending order based on
short-run marginal costs of production, such that those with the
lowest marginal costs are the first ones brought on line to meet
demand, and those with the highest are brought on last. The
merit-order effect is a shift of market prices along the merit-order
or supply curve due to market entry of power stations with lower
variable costs (marginal costs). This displaces power stations
with the highest production costs from the market (assuming
demand is unchanged), and admits lower-priced electricity into
the market.
211
GLOSSARY
SMART ENERGY SYSTEM . A smart energy system aims to optimise
the overall efficiency and balance of a range of interconnected
energy technologies and processes, both electrical and nonelectrical (including heat, gas, and fuels). This is achieved through
dynamic demand- and supply-side management; enhanced
monitoring of electrical, thermal, and fuel-based system assets;
control and optimisation of consumer equipment, appliances,
and services; better integration of distributed energy (on both
the macro and micro scales); as well as cost minimisation for
both suppliers and consumers.
SMART GRID . Electrical grid that uses information and
communications technology to co-ordinate the needs and
capabilities of the generators, grid operators, end-users, and
electricity market stakeholders in a system, with the aim of
operating all parts as efficiently as possible, minimising costs
and environmental impacts, and maximising system reliability,
resilience, and stability.
SOLAR COLLECTOR . A device used for converting solar energy to

thermal energy (heat), typically used for domestic water heating
but also used for space heating, industrial process heat, or to
drive thermal cooling machines. Evacuated tube and flat-plate
collectors that operate with water or a water/glycol mixture as
the heat-transfer medium are the most common solar thermal
collectors used worldwide. These are referred to as glazed water
collectors because irradiation from the sun first hits a glazing
(for thermal insulation) before the energy is converted to heat
and transported away by the heat transfer medium. Unglazed
water collectors, often referred to as swimming pool absorbers,
are simple collectors made of plastics and used for lowertemperature applications. Unglazed and glazed air collectors
use air rather than water as the heat-transfer medium to heat
indoor spaces, or to pre-heat drying air or combustion air for
agriculture and industry purposes.
SOLAR HOME SYSTEM (SHS) . A stand-alone system composed

of a relatively small power photovoltaic module, battery, and
sometimes a charge controller, that can power small electric
devices and provide modest amounts of electricity to homes for
lighting and radios, usually in rural or remote regions that are not
connected to the electricity grid.
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS (PV) . A technology used for converting

solar radiation (light) into electricity. PV cells are constructed
from semi-conducting materials that use sunlight to separate
electrons from atoms to create an electric current. Modules
are formed by interconnecting individual solar PV cells.
Monocrystalline modules are more efficient but relatively more
expensive than polycrystalline silicon modules. Thin film solar
PV materials can be applied as flexible films laid over existing
surfaces or integrated with building components such as roof
tiles. Building-integrated PV (BIPV) generates electricity and
replaces conventional materials in parts of a building envelope,
such as the roof or faade. Bifacial PV modules are double-sided
panels that generate electricity with sunlight received on both
sides (direct and reflected) and are used primarily in the BIPV
sector.
212
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC-THERMAL (PV-T) . Solar PV-thermal hybrid

system that includes solar thermal collectors mounted beneath
PV modules to convert solar radiation into electrical and thermal
energy. The solar thermal collector removes waste heat from the
PV module, enabling it to operate more efficiently.
SOLAR PICO SYSTEM (SPS) . A very small solar PV systemsuch as

a solar lamp or an information and communication technology
(ICT) appliancewith a power output of 110 W that typically
has a voltage up to 12 volt.
SOLAR WATER HEATER (SWH) . An entire systemconsisting
of a solar collector, storage tank, water pipes, and other
componentsthat converts the suns energy into useful
thermal (heat) energy for domestic water heating, space
heating, process heat, etc. Depending on the characteristics
of the useful energy demand (potable water, heating water,
drying air, etc.) and the desired temperature level, a solar water
heater is equipped with the appropriate solar collector. There
are two types of solar water heaters: pumped solar water heaters
use mechanical pumps to circulate a heat transfer fluid through
the collector loop (active systems), whereas thermo-siphon solar
water heaters make use of buoyancy forces caused by natural
convection (passive systems).
SUBSIDIES . Government measures that artificially reduce the
price that consumers pay for energy or reduce production costs.
TRADITIONAL BIOMASS . Solid biomass, including gathered fuel
wood, charcoal, agricultural and forest residues, and animal
dung, that is usually produced unsustainably and typically used
in rural areas of developing countries by combustion in polluting
and inefficient cookstoves, furnaces, or open fires to provide
heat for cooking, comfort, and small-scale agricultural and
industrial processing (as opposed to modern biomass energy).
TORREFIED WOOD . Solid fuel, often in the form of pellets, produced

by heating wood to 200300 C in restricted air conditions. It
has useful characteristics for a solid fuel including relatively high
energy density, good grindability into pulverised fuel, and water
repellency.
WAT T/KILOWAT T/MEGAWAT T/GIGAWAT T/TER AWAT T-HOUR .

A Watt is a unit of power that measures the rate of energy
conversion or transfer. A kilowatt is equal to one thousand
(103) Watts; a megawatt to one million (106) Watts; and so on.
A megawatt electrical (MW) is used to refer to electric power,
whereas a megawatt-thermal (MWth) refers to thermal/heat
energy produced. Power is the rate at which energy is consumed
or generated. For example, a light bulb with a power rating of 100
Watts (100 W) that is on for one hour consumes 100 Watt-hours
(100 Wh) of energy, which equals 0.1 kilowatt-hour (kWh), or 360
kilojoules (kJ). This same amount of energy would light a 100 W
light bulb for one hour or a 25 W bulb for four hours. A kilowatthour is the amount of energy equivalent to steady power of 1 kW
operating for one hour.
NOTES
ENERGY UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS

METRIC PREFIXES
VOLUME
kilo (k)
1 m3
= 1,000 litres (l)
mega (M) = 106
1 U.S. gallon
= 3.78 l
giga (G)
= 109
1 Imperial gallon = 4.55 l
tera (T)
= 10
peta (P)
= 1015
exa (E)
= 1018
= 103
12
Example:
1 TJ = 1,000 GJ = 1,000,000 MJ = 1,000,000,000 kJ = 1,000,000,000,000 J = 1012 J
1 J = 0.001 MJ = 0.000001 GJ = 0.000000001 TJ
ENERGY UNIT CONVERSION

multiply by:
GJ
Toe MBtu MWh
GJ
1 0.024 0.948 0.278
Toe
41.868 1 39.683
11.630
MBtu
1.055 0.025 1
MWh
3.600 0.086 3.412
Toe
1 Mtoe =
tonnes oil equivalent

41.9 PJ
0.293
1
Example: 1 MWh x 3.600 = 3.6 GJ
HEAT OF COMBUSTION (HIGH HEAT VALUES)
SOLAR THERMAL HEAT SYSTEMS
1 l gasoline = 47.0 MJ/kg = 35.2 MJ/l (density 0.75 kg/l)
1 million m = 0.7 GWth
1 l ethanol = 29.7 MJ/kg = 23.4 MJ/l (density 0.79 kg/l)

1 l diesel
= 45.0 MJ/kg = 37.3 MJ/l (density 0.83 kg/l)
1 l biodiesel = 40.0 MJ/kg = 35.2 MJ/l (density 0.88 kg/l)
Used where solar thermal heat data have been converted

from square metres (m) into gigawatts thermal (GWth), by
accepted convention.
Note: 1) These values can vary with fuel and temperature.

2) Around 1.5 litres of ethanol is required to equate

to 1 litre of gasoline.
213
NOTES
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BIPV
BNEF
BOS
BRICS
CDM
CHP
CO2
CPV
CSP
DRE
DSM
ECOWAS
ECREEE

EEG

EMEC
EPA
ESCO
EU
EV
FIP
FIT
FPIC
FUNAE
GACC
GEF
GFR
GHG
GHP
GSR
GW / GWh
GWth
Building-integrated solar photovoltaics

Bloomberg New Energy Finance
Balance of system
Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa
Clean Development Mechanism
Combined heat and power
Carbon dioxide
Concentrating solar photovoltaic
Concentrating solar (thermal) power
Distributed renewable energy
Demand-side management
Economic Community of West African States
ECOWAS Centre for Renewable Energy and
Energy Efficiency
German Renewable Energy Law
Erneuerbare-Energien-Gesetz
European Marine Energy Centre
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Energy service company
European Union (specifically the EU-28)
Electric vehicle
Feed-in premium
Feed-in tariff
Free, Prior and Informed Consent
Energy Fund of Mozambique Fundo de Energia
Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves
Global Environment Facility
Greenhouse gas
Ground-source heat pump
Renewables Global Status Report
Gigawatt / gigawatt-hour
Gigawatt-thermal
HSAP
HVO
IEA
IFC
IPCC
IRENA
kW / kWh
LED
LCOE
m2
MENA
MFI
MSW
Mtoe
MW / MWh
NGO
NREAP
OECD

PPP
PTC
PV
RPS
SE4ALL
SHS
SPS
SWH
TW / TWh
UNIDO
USD
VAT
Wp
WTO
Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol

Hydrotreated vegetable oil
International Energy Agency
International Finance Corporation
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
International Renewable Energy Agency
Kilowatt / kilowatt-hour
Light-emitting diode
Levelised cost of energy
Square metre
Middle East and North Africa
Microfinance institution
Municipal solid waste
Million tonnes of oil equivalent
Megawatt / megawatt-hour
Non-governmental organisation
National Renewable Energy Action Plan
Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development
Public-private partnership
Production tax credit
Solar photovoltaics
Renewable portfolio standard
UN Sustainable Energy for All initiative
Solar home system
Solar pico system (pico PV)
Solar water heater / solar water heating
Terawatt/terawatt-hour
United Nations Industrial Development Organization
United States dollar
Value-added tax
Watt-peak (nominal power)
World Trade Organization
PHOTO CREDITS
Page 18 Ethanol fuel plant at the countryside
shutterstock
Page 18 Green mountain / shutterstock
Page 18 Tidal power generation / shutterstock
Page 19 Photovoltaic cells / shutterstock
Page 19 Wind power, Netherlands /
shutterstock
Page 27 Galizia, Spain / shutterstock
Page 29 City Train in Frankfurt, Germany /

Art Konovalov
Page 29 Electric car to rent, Brussels / Artens
Page 37 shutterstock
Page 37 Biofuel factory / Aigars Reinholds
Page 40 Geothermal power station in northern

Iceland / shutterstock
Page 44 Dam, Vietnam / Duc Den Thui
Page 49 Solar power station / shutterstock
Page 52 Solar thermal electric generating plant
shutterstock
Page 55 Vacuum solar water heating system /
shutterstock
Page 57 Aerial view of a wind farm / B. Brown

Page 58 Offshore Windfarm, Denmark /

V. Schlichting
Page 61 Aragon, Spain / Pedrosala,
shutterstock
Page 62 Workers install solar panels, California,

USA / Spirit of America
Page 71 Kartell small hydro power plant in

St. Anton, Austria / VOITH
Page 72 Construction of aerogenerator,

Czech Republic / shutterstock
Page 73 New family homes with solar panels

on the roof / shutterstock
Page 76 Wind Turbine on Lantau Island /
shutterstock
Page 82 Residential photovoltaic solar system /

Mana Photo
Page 83 SWH / Alexander Tihonov
Page 85 Free Recharging Station / shutterstock
Page 87 Solar panels on the roof of

administrative building / Mik Lav
COPYRIGHT & IMPRINT

Renewable Energy Policy Network
for the 21st Century

214
REN21 Secretariat
c/o UNEP
15 rue de Milan
75441 Paris, France
Page 88 New London Routemaster,

April 5, 2014, London / Ron Ellis
Page 93 Offgrid Solar India/ UNWTO
Page 94 Bar Zimbabwe / Phaesun
Page 95 Cookstove / Himalayanstove
Page 96 Mini grid, Kenya/ Practical Action
Page 97 Man with solar cooker, Zanskar,

Ladakh, India / Falk
Page 98 Lighting / EnDev
Page 99 DRE Solar-Wind / Phaesun
Page 101 Wind power plants at Thar desert,

India / shutterstock
Page 102 Solar paneled covered parking,

Arizona / Tim Roberts
Page 103 High voltage electricity pillars in

desert / Protasov AN
Page 104 Wind turbine with clouds /
shutterstock
RENEWABLES
2014
ISBN 978-3-9815934-2-6
REN21
c /o UNEP
15, Rue de Milan
F-75441 Paris CEDEX 09
France
www.ren21.net

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RENEWABLES 2014

GLOBAL STATUS REPORT

Ernesto Macas Galn

SCIENCE AND ACADEMIA

Mariangela Rebu de Andrade Simes

Hans Jrgen Koch

Tania Rdiger-Vorwerk / Karsten Sach

policy trends. Special thanks go to the ever-growing

Bonn, Germany, for the worlds first government-hosted

network of contributors, including authors, researchers,

international conference on renewable energy. Global

and reviewers, who participated in this years process

perceptions of renewables have shifted considerably

and helped make the GSR a truly international and

over the past decade. Continuing technology advances

and rapid deployment of many renewable energy

On behalf of the REN21 Secretariat, I would like to thank

all of those who ensured the successful production of

GSR 2014. These people include lead author/research

Today, renewables are seen not only as sources of

director Janet Sawin, the section authors, GSR project

energy, but also as tools to address many other pressing

manager Rana Adib, and the entire team at the REN21

needs, including: improving energy security; reducing

Secretariat, under the leadership of REN21s Executive

the health and environmental impacts associated with

Secretary Christine Lins.

fossil and nuclear energy; mitigating greenhouse gas

The past decade has set the wheels in motion for a

emissions; improving educational opportunities; creating

global transition to renewables, but a concerted and

jobs; reducing poverty; and increasing gender equality.

sustained effort is needed to achieve it. With increasingly

Renewables have entered the mainstream. This is

ambitious targets and innovative policies, renewables

welcome news as we begin the Decade of Sustainable

can continue to surpass expectations and create a

Energy for All (SE4ALL), mobilising towards universal

clean and sustainable energy future. As this years GSR

access to modern energy services, improved rates of

clearly demonstrates, the question is no longer whether

energy efficiency, and expanded use of renewable energy

renewables have a role to play in the provision of energy

sources by 2030. While this years Renewables Global

services, but rather how we can best increase the

Status Report (GSR) clearly documents advancements

current pace to achieve a 100% renewables future with

in the uptake of renewables, it also demonstrates that

full energy access for all.

we need to move faster and more deliberately if we are to

report on renewable energy market, industry, and

GSR 2014 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Heating and Cooling Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Power Generation Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Heating and Cooling Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Green Energy Purchasing and Labelling. . . . . . . . . . . 86

City and Local Government Policies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Geothermal Power and Heat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

05 DISTRIBUTED RENEWABLE ENERGY

E xpansion Beyond Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

SIDEBAR 1 Renewable Energy Data: Current Status and

SIDEBAR 2 Regional Spotlight: Latin America and the Caribbean. . . 24

TABLE 3 Renewable Energy Support Policies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

SIDEBAR 3 Bioenergy and Carbon Accounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

SIDEBAR 5 Sustainability Spotlight: Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Figure 2 Average Annual Growth Rates of Biofuels Production

Figure 3 Estimated Renewable Energy Share of Global

SIDEBAR 4 Heat Pumps and Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

SIDEBAR 7 Innovating Energy Systems: Transformation

Figure 4 Renewable Power Capacities in World, EU-27,

Figure 5 Biomass Resources and Energy Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Figure 8 Geothermal Power Capacity Additions,

Figure 9 Geothermal Power Capacity and Additions,

TABLE R3 Wood Pellets Global Trade, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Figure 10 Hydropower Global Capacity,

Figure 11 Hydropower Global Capacity Additions,

Figure 12 Solar PV Total Global Capacity, 20042013 . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Figure 15 Concentrating Solar Thermal Power Global

Figure 16 Solar Water Heating Collectors Global Capacity,

Figure 17 Solar Water Heating Collectors Additions,

Figure 18 Solar Water Heating Collectors Global Capacity,

Figure 19 Wind Power Total World Capacity, 20002013 . . . . . . . . 59

Figure 21 Market Shares of Top 10 Wind Turbine

TABLE R5 Geothermal Power Global Capacity and