5.

1 UNDERSTANDING REFLECTION OF LIGHT

1. Reflection of light on a
Plane Mirror

40

2. Laws of Reflection

Mirror works because it reflects light..

The light ray that strikes the surface of the mirror is called
incident ray.
The light ray that bounces off from the surface of the mirror
is called reflected ray.
The normal is a line perpendicular to the mirror surface
where the reflection occurs.
The angle between the incident ray and the normal is called
the angle of incidence, i
The angle between the reflected ray and the normal is called
the angle of reflection, r.

1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal all lie in
the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence, i, is equal to the angle of
reflection, r.

3. Draw ray diagrams to

show the positioning
and characteristics of
the image formed by a
plane mirror.

4. Describe the
characteristics of the
image formed by
reflection of light..

Image

1. laterally inverted,
2. same size as the object,
3. virtual
4. upright
5. as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.
Notes:
Real image : Image that can be seen on a screen
Virtual image : Image that cannot be seen on a screen.
form

76

Reflection of light on curved mirror

Convex mirror
Concave mirror
Common terminology of curved mirrors
Centre of curvature, The center of sphere of the mirror
C
Principle axis
The connecting line from the centre of curvature to point P
Radius of curvature, The distance between the centre of curvature and the surface of
CP
the mirror.
Focal point, F
The focal point of a concave mirror is the point on the principle axis
where all the reflected rays meet and converge.
The focal point of convex mirror is the point on the principle axis
where all the reflected rays appear to diverge from behind the
mirror.
Focal length, f
The distance between the focal point and the surface of the mirror.
(FP or CP)
Object distance, u
Image distance, v

The distance between the object and the surface of the mirror.
The distance between the image and the surface of the mirror.
Differences
Concave Mirror
Convex Mirror
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Rays travelling parallel to the principal axis

converge to a point, called the focal point
on the principal axis.
FP = focal length, f

Rays travelling parallel to the principal axis

appear to diverge from a point behind the
mirror, called the focal point on the principal
axis.
FP = focal length, f

Construction Rules for Concave Mirror and Convex Mirror

Rule 1:

Object

Concave Mirror
A ray parallel to the principal axis is
reflected through F.

Object
Convex Mirror
A ray parallel to the principal axis is reflected
as if it comes from F.
out

Rule 2:

Object
Object
Concave Mirror
A ray passing through F is reflected
parallel to the principal axis

Convex Mirror
A ray directed towards F is reflected parallel
to the principal axis.

Rule 3:

Object
Object
Concave Mirror
A ray passing through C is reflected back
along the same path through C.

Convex Mirror
A ray is directed towards C is reflected back
along the same path away from C.
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Ray Diagram to determine the position and characteristics of an image in a concave mirror
u = 2f or u = c
u > 2f
f = 2cm

Object

u = 6cm

v=3cm

2F
Image
Characteristics of the image:
Inverted, diminished, real

Characteristics of the image:

inverted, same size, real, v = u

f < u < 2f or f < u < c

u=f

Characteristics of the image:

inverted, magnified, real
u<f

Characteristics of the image:

Image at infinity, virtual
Conclusion
Object
distrance
u > 2f
u = 2f
f < u < 2f
u=f
u<f

Characteristics of the
image:

Upright, virtual, magnified

Characteristics of the image:

Upright, magnified, virtual
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Ray diagrams for convex mirror

u<f
u < f < 2f

C
Characteristics of the image:

c
Characteristics of the image:

Conclusion:
Characteristics of the image of convex
mirror is always virtual, upright and
diminished.

ALWAYS Upright, diminished, virtual

Application of Reflection of Light

1 Anti-parallax Mirror in Ammeters or Voltmeters
A parallax error occurs when the eye sees both the
pointer and its image.
Our eyes are normal to the pointer when the image of
the pointer in the mirror cannot be seen.

80

2. Periscope
A periscope can be used to see over the top of high
obstacles such as a wall.
It is also used inside a submarine to observe the
surrounding above water surface.
Consist of 2 plane mirror inclined at an angle of 45.
The final image appears upright.

3. Ambulance
Why is the word AMBULANCE purposely inverted
laterally on an ambulance car?
Images seen through the rear mirror of a car is
laterally inverted.

4. Make-up Mirror
Concave mirrors with long focal lengths. Produce
virtual, magnified and upright images

parabolic dish

5. Transmission of radio waves and

signals
A concave parabolic surface is used to
focus the radio wave signals.

5. Reflector of torchlight
The light bulb is fixed in position at the focal point of
the concave mirror to produce a beam of parallel light
rays. The beam of parallel light rays will maintain a
uniform intensity for a greater distance.
Other applications are the headlight of motor vehicles
and the lamp of slide projectors.

81

7. Widening the field of vision

When a convex mirror is used, the field of vision is
larger than a plane mirror
Convex mirrors are used as rear view mirrors in
motor vehicles to give drivers a wide-angle view of
vehicles behind them.
It is also used as shop security mirrors.

5.2 UNDERSTANDING REFRACTION OF LIGHT

Refraction of light

Phenomena where the direction of light is changed when

it crosses the boundary between two materials of
different optical densities. /MEDIUM
It due to the change in the velocity of light as it passes
from one medium into another.

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Angle of incidence, i = the angle between the incident

ray and the normal.
Angle of refraction, r = the angle between the refracted
ray and the normal
When i > r, the ray bent towards the normal, and the
speed of light decreases.
When r < i , the ray bent away from the normal and the
speed of light increases.
3 ways in which a ray of light can travel through two medium
When a light ray travels
When a ray of light travels
When light ray is incident
from less dense medium to from denser medium to less normally on the boundary
denser medium
dense medium.
between the two medium.
i=0
Normal
Normal
r=0
The light ray is refracted
towards the normal.
The speed of light
decreases.
The Laws of
Refraction

Snells Law.

The light ray is refracted

away from the normal.
The speed of light
increases.

The light ray is does not

bend.

when light travels from one medium to another medium which has a
different optical density,
1. the incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of
incidence all lie in the same plane.
2. the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence (sin i) to the sine of
the angle of refraction (sin r) is a constant.
sin i = constant = n
sin r

Refractive Index, n
The refraction of light is caused by the change in velocity of light when it passes from a
medium to another medium.
n = speed of light in vacuum
speed of light in medium
The refractive index has no units.
>= 1.0
It is an indication of the light-bending ability of the medium as the ray of light enters
its surface from the air.
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 A material with a higher refractive index has a greater bending effect on light because
it slows light more. It causes a larger angle of deviation of the ray of light, bends the
ray of light more towards the normal.

n=1.33

n=1.5

normal line

Examples

1. Calculate the refractive index of

medium x.

2. The light ray travels from air to medium

x. Find the:
(a) incident angle
(b) refracted angle
(c) refractive index

3. A light ray travels from glass to air. The refractive

index of glass is 1.54 and the speed of light in air is 3
x 108 ms-1. Calculate
(a) the angle of refraction,
(b) the speed of light in glass.

84

4. A light ray is incident normally on a

glass prism which has a refractive
index of 1.50.
(a) complete the ray diagram.
(b) Find the incident angle and the
refractive angle

5. A light ray travels from air

to plastic. What is the
refractive index of the
plastic?

60
30

normal

R
S

Real Depth and Apparent Dept

Rays of light coming from the real fish, O travels from water (more dense) to air (less
dense)
The rays are refracted away from the normal as they leave the water.
When the light reaches the eye of the person, it appears to come from a virtual fish, I
which is above the real fish O.
Complete the ray diagram below.

Apparent depth, h = distance of the virtual

image, I from the surface of water.
Real depth, H = the actual distance of the
real objects, O from the surface of water.
Refractive index =
n = Real depth
Apparent depth
n = H
h

85

(a) Draw a ray diagram from point P

to the eye to show how the legs
appear shorter.

(b) The depth of water is 0.4 m.

Calculate the distance of the
image of the foot at point P from
the surface of the water.
[Refractive index of water = 1.33]

5.2 UNDERSTANDING TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION OF LIGHT

1. When light travels from a denser
medium to a less dense, it bends away
from normal.

less dense

strong

A small part of the incident ray is

reflected inside the glass.
.
The angle of refraction is larger than
the angle of incidence, r > i

2. When the angle of incidence, i keeps on

increasing, r too increases and the
refracted ray moves further away from
the normal and thus approaches the
glass air boundary.

denser

weak

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3. The refracted ray travels along the

glass-air boundary.
4. This is the limit of the light ray that can
be refracted in air as the angle in air
cannot be any larger than 90.
5. The angle of incidence in the denser
medium at this limit is called the critical
angle, c.

The critical angle, c, is defined as the angle of incidence in the denser medium when
the angle of refraction in the less dense medium is 90.
6. If the angle of incidence is increased
further so that it is greater than the
critical angle, the light is not refracted
anymore, but is internally reflected.
7. This phenomenon is called total internal
reflection.

greater/more than
Total internal reflection is the internal reflection of light at the surface in a medium when
the angle of incidence in the denser medium exceeds a critical angle.
The two conditions for total internal reflection to occur are:
1. light ray enters from a denser medium towards a less dense medium
2. the angle of incidence in the denser medium is greater than the critical angle of
the medium.
i>c
Relation between Critical Angle and Refractive Index.

87

1. A light rays incident on a plastic block at X.

Which shows the critical angle of plastic?
Air

normal

45

Plastic

2. Figure 1 shows a light ray strikes the

surface of a prism. The refractive index
of glass is 1.5. Find the critical angle.
Complete the path of the light ray that
passes into and out of the prism.

3. A light ray passes through an ice block

and emerges from the ice block at Y.
(b) Label the critical angle as c.

45

c
47

(c) Find the value of the critical angle of ice.

45

43
47
133

(d) Determine the refractive index of ice.

Natural Phenomenon involving Total Internal Reflection

1. Mirages
Refraction

Mirage is caused by refraction and total internal reflection.

Mirage normally occur in the daytime when the weather is hot.
The air above the road surface consists of many layers.
The layers of air nearest the road are hot and the layers get cooler and denser towards
the upper layers.
The refractive index of air depends on its density. The lower or hotter layers have a
lower refractive index than the layers above them.
A ray of light from the sky traveling downwards gets refracted away from the normal.

88

 As the ray passes through the lower layers, the angle of incidence increases while
entering the next layer.
Finally, the ray of light passes through a layer of air close to the road surface at an
angle of incidence greater then the critical angle.
Total internal reflection occurs at this layer and the ray of light bends in an upward
curve towards the eye of the observer.
The observer sees the image of the sky and the clouds on the surface of the road as a
pool of water.
Rainbow
A rainbow is a colourful natural
phenomenon caused by refraction,
dispersion and total internal reflection of
light within water droplets.
Dispersion : The separation of light into
colours arranged according to their
frequency.
When sunlight shines on millions of water droplets in the air after rain, a multicoloured
arc can be seen.
When white light from the sun enters the raindrops, it is refracted and dispersed into its
various colour components inside the raindrops.
When the dispersed light hits the back of the raindrop, it undergoes total internal
reflection.
It is then refracted again as it leaves the drop.
The colours of a rainbow run from violet along the lower part of the spectrum to red
along the upper part.
Sunset

The Sun is visible above the horizon even though it has set below the horizon.
Light entering the atmosphere is refracted by layers of air of different densities
producing an apparent shift in the position of the Sun.
Applications of Total Internal Reflection

89

Prism Periscope
The periscope is built using two right-angled prisms.
The critical angle of the glass prisms is 42.
Total internal reflection occurs when the light rays
strike the inside face of a 45angles with an angle of
incidence, I, greater than the critical angle, c,.
The image produced is upright and has the same
size as the object.

Advantage of the prisms periscope compared to a mirror periscope:

(a) the image is brighter because all the light energy is reflected.
(b) the image is clearer because there are no multiple images as formed in a mirror
periscope.
Prism Binoculars
A pair of binoculars uses two prisms which are
arranged as shown in figure.
Light rays will be totally reflected internally two
times in a pair of binoculars.
The benefits of using prisms in binoculars:
(a) an upright image is produced.
(b) The distance between the objective lens and
the eyepiece is reduced. This make the
binoculars shorter as compared to a
telescope which has the same magnifying
power.

90

Optical fibers
Fiber optics consists of a tubular rod
which is made from glass and other
transparent material.
The external wall of a fiber optic is less
dense than the internal wall.
When light rays travel from a denser
internal wall to a less dense external
wall at an angle that exceeds the
critical angle, total internal reflection
occurs repeatedly.
This will continue until the light rays
enter the observers eye.
Optical fiber is widely used in
telecommunication cables to transmit
signal through laser. It can transmit
signal faster and through long distance
with high fidelity.
Optical fiber is also used in an
endoscope for medical emerging.

Denser

Less dense

Advantage of using optical fibres cables

over copper cables:
(a) they are much thinner and lighter
(b) a large number of signals can be sent
through them at one time.
(c) They transmit signals with very little loss
over great distances.
(d) The signals are safe and free of
electrical interference
(e) The can carry data for computer and TV
programmes.

Fishs Eye View

A fish is able to see an object
above the water surface because
the rays of light from the object are
refracted to the eyes of the fish or
diver.
Due to total internal reflection, part
of the water surface acts as a
perfect mirror, which allows the
fish and diver to see objects in the
water and the objects around
A fish sees the outside world inside a 96 cone.
obstacles.
Outside the 96cone, total internal reflection
occurs and the fish sees light reflected from the
bottom of the pond. The water surface looks like
a mirror reflecting light below the surface.
5.4
UNDERSTANDING LENSES
1. Types of Lenses
Lenses are made of transparent material such as glass or clear plastics. They have two
faces, of which at least one is curved.

91

Convex lenses @ converging lenses

- thicker at the centre

Concave lenses @ diverging lenses

- thinner at the centre

2. Focal Point and Focal Length of a Lens

Convex Lens
@ Converging
Lens

Focal Point @
the principal
focus, F
Focal Length, f

A point on the principle axis to which incident rays of light traveling

parallel to the axis converge after refraction through a convex lens.
Distance between the focal point, F and the optical centre , C

Concave lens @
Diverging lens

Focal Point @
principal focus, F

A point on the principal axis to which incident rays of light traveling

parallel to the axis appear to diverge after refraction through a
concave lens.
Focal Length
Distance between the focal point , F and optical centre, C on the
lens.
Note: Power of Lenses
1. The power of a lens is a measure of its ability to converge or to diverge an incident
beam of light.
2. Power of a lens = 1 / f (m)
3. The focal length, f is measured in metre. The unit of power is m-1 or Diopter or D.
4. The power of a lens is 10 D if its focal length is 0.10 m = 10 cm
5. Power for a convex lens is positive. Power for a concave lens is negative.

92

Higher power

Thin convex lens

Thin concave lens

Thick convex lens

Higher power

A thin lens with a longer

focal length, f has a lower
power
A thick lens with a shorter
focal length, f has a higher
power.
Convex lens: A thick lens
has a stronger converging
effect, i.e the incident beam
of light converges nearer to
the lens.

Thick concave lens

Find the power: (a) convex lens, f = 20 cm, (b) convex lens, f = 5 cm.

Rules for Ray Diagrams

Convex Lens

The ray parallel to the principal axis is

refracted through the focus point, F.

Concave Lens

The ray parallel to the principal axis is

refracted as if it appears coming from focus
point, F which is located at the same side of
the incident ray.

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A ray passing through the focus point is

refracted parallel to the principal axis.

A ray passing through the optical centre

travels straight without bending.

A ray passing the focus point is refracted

parallel to the principle axis.

A ray passing through the optical centre

travels straight on without bending.

The point of intersection of the rays is a

The point of intersection of the rays is a
point on the image.
point on the image.
Real image: the image is on the side
Virtual image: The image is on the same
opposite of the object.
side with the object
u = object distance : the distance from the optical centre to the object
v = image distance : the distance from the optical centre to the image.
Characteristics of the image formed:
(a) real image / virtual image
(b) inverted / upright
(c) Magnified (bigger) / diminished (smaller) / same size

virtual image
upright image
bigger

real image
inverted image
smaller
94

Images Formed by Convex Lenses

Object
Ray Diagram
distance
u = infinity

Characteristics of
image
Image distance: v
=f

u > 2f

Real image
Inverted
smaller
Diminished

Image distance: f
< v < 2f
Real image
Inverted
Small
Diminished

u = 2f

Image distance: v
= 2f
Real
Inverted
Same size

f < u < 2f

Image is beyond
2F (v > 2f)

u = f

Real
Inverted
magnified

Image is at infinity
The image:
virtual
upright
magnified
used to produce
95

parallel beam of
light

Image is behind
the object, on the
same side of the
lens.
Image
Virtual, upright
magnified.

u < f

Concave Lens
Ray diagram

Object
distance

LENS FORMULA

Rules using lens formula

Equation 1
1 =
f

1 +
u

Sign
1
v

f = focal length
u = object distance
v = image distance

Equation 2
m

v
u

Characteristic of
Image
ALWAYS
Diminished, upright
virtual

m = Linear magnification
m<1 image is diminished
m>1 image is magnified

u
v
f

Positive
value (+)
Real
image
obj
Real
image
Convex
lens

Negative ()
Virtual
image
obj
Virtual
image
Concave
lens
96

u
Equation 3
m = hi
ho

u = object distance
v = image distance
m = Linear magnification
hI = size of image /height of image
hI0 = size of object

m < 1 : diminished, m = 1 : same size , m > 1 :

magnified.
f=10 cm
Examples
1. An object is placed in front of a convex lens
with focal length of 10 cm. Find the nature,
position and magnification of the image
formed when the object distance is 15 cm.
v=? , m =?

u=15 cm

2. An object is placed 20 cm from a concave

lens of focal length 15 cm.
(a) Calculate the image distance.
(b) State the characteristics of the image
formed.
3. A convex lens with focus length of 15 cm
formed an image which is real, inverted and
same size with the object. What is the
object distance from the lens?
4. When an object of height 3.0 cm is placed
20 cm from a concave lens of focal length
30 cm, what is the height of the image
formed?

Simple Microscopes
Application : to magnified the image
Lens : a convex lens
Object distance: less than the focal length of the lens, u < f
Characteristics of image: virtual, upright, magnified
The magnifying power increases if the focal length of the lens is shorter.
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Compound Microscope:
Application: to view very small objects like microorganisms
Uses 2 powerful convex lenses of short focal lengths.
Objective lens:
Eyepiece lens:
Focal length fo for objective lens is shorter than the focal length for eyepiece lens, fe
Object to observed must be placed between F0 and 2F0
Characteristics of 1st image: real, inverted, magnified
The eyepiece lens is used as a magnifying glass to magnify the first image formed by
the objective lens.
The eyepiece lens must be positioned so that the first image is between the lens and
Fe, the focal point of the eyepiece lens.
Characteristics of final image formed by the eyepiece lens: virtual, upright and
magnified.
Normal Adjustment: The distance between the lenses is greater than the sum of their
individual focal length (fo + fe)

fe

Telescope
Application : view very distant objects like the planets and the stars.
Made up of two convex lenses :Objective lens and eyepiece lens
Focal length fo for objective lens is longer than the focal length for eyepiece lens, fe

98

The objective lens converges the parallel rays from a distant object and forms a
real, inverted and diminished image at its focal point.
The eyepiece lens is used as a magnifying glass to form a virtual, upright and
magnified image.
At normal adjustment the final image is formed at infinity.
This is done by adjusting the position of the eyepiece lens so that the first real
image becomes the object at the focal point, Fe of the eyepiece lens.
Normal adjustment: The distance between the lenses is f0 + fe

50 cm

10 cm
60 cm

99