Telemark University College

Department of Electrical Engineering, Information Technology and Cybernetics

INTRODUCTION TO DATABASE SYSTEMS

HANS-PETTER HALVORSEN, 9. DESEMBER 2009

Faculty of Technology,

Postboks 203, Kjlnes ring 56, N-3901 Porsgrunn, Norway.

Tel: +47 35 57 50 00

Fax: +47 35 57 54 01

PREFACE
This document explains the basic concepts of a database system and how to communicate with a database
system.
The main focus in this document is on relational databases and Microsoft SQL Server.
For more information about Databases, visit my Blog: http://home.hit.no/~hansha/
Some text in this document is based on text from www.wikipedia.org.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface .................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................................... iii
1

Database Systems .......................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1

RDBMS Components.............................................................................................................................. 1

1.2

Data warehouse ..................................................................................................................................... 1

1.3

Relational Database ............................................................................................................................... 1

1.4

Real-time databases .............................................................................................................................. 2

1.5

Database Management Systems ........................................................................................................... 2

1.6

MDAC ..................................................................................................................................................... 2

1.6.1

ODBC ............................................................................................................................................. 3

1.6.2

OLE DB........................................................................................................................................... 3

1.6.3

ADO (ActiveX Data Objects) .......................................................................................................... 3

Relational Databases ..................................................................................................................................... 4

2.1

Tables..................................................................................................................................................... 4

2.2

Unique Keys and Primary Key ................................................................................................................ 4

2.3

Foreign Key ............................................................................................................................................ 6

2.4

Views ..................................................................................................................................................... 7

2.5

Functions ............................................................................................................................................... 7

2.6

Stored procedures ................................................................................................................................. 8

2.7

Triggers .................................................................................................................................................. 8

Structured Query Language (SQL) ................................................................................................................. 9

3.1

Queries .................................................................................................................................................. 9

3.2

Data manipulation ............................................................................................................................... 10

3.3

Data definition ..................................................................................................................................... 11

3.4

Data types ............................................................................................................................................ 11

3.4.1

Character strings ......................................................................................................................... 11

iii

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Table of Contents
3.4.2

Bit strings .................................................................................................................................... 11

3.4.3

Numbers ..................................................................................................................................... 11

3.4.4

Date and Time ............................................................................................................................. 12

Database Modelling ..................................................................................................................................... 13

4.1

ER Diagram .......................................................................................................................................... 13

4.2

Microsoft Visio ..................................................................................................................................... 14

EXERCISES ......................................................................................................................................................... 15
5

Microsoft SQL Server ................................................................................................................................... 17

5.1

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 17

5.2

Requirements ...................................................................................................................................... 17

5.3

SQL Server Express .............................................................................................................................. 17

5.4

AdventureWorks.................................................................................................................................. 17

5.5

SQL Server Management Studio .......................................................................................................... 18

5.6

Create a new Database ........................................................................................................................ 18

5.7

Backup/Restore ................................................................................................................................... 20

5.8

Example Database ............................................................................................................................... 22

EXERCISES ......................................................................................................................................................... 23
6

Microsoft Office Access ............................................................................................................................... 24

6.1

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 24

6.2

Example Database ............................................................................................................................... 24

EXERCISES ......................................................................................................................................................... 26
7

Creating and Using Tables ........................................................................................................................... 28

Creating and Using Views ............................................................................................................................ 31

Creating and using Stored Procedures ........................................................................................................ 32

10

Creating and Using Triggers ......................................................................................................................... 34

11

Creating and Using Functions ...................................................................................................................... 35

12

Whats Next? ................................................................................................................................................ 36

12.1

My Blog ................................................................................................................................................ 36

Tutorial: Introduction to Database Systems

Table of Contents
12.2

Training ................................................................................................................................................ 36

Tutorial: Introduction to Database Systems

DATABASE SYSTEMS

A database is an integrated collection of logically related records or files consolidated into a common pool that
provides data for one or more multiple uses.
One way of classifying databases involves the type of content, for example: bibliographic, full-text, numeric,
and image. Other classification methods start from examining database models or database architectures.
The data in a database is organized according to a database model. The relational model is the most common.
A Database Management System (DBMS) consists of software that organizes the storage of data. A DBMS
controls the creation, maintenance, and use of the database storage structures of organizations and of their
end users. It allows organizations to place control of organization-wide database development in the hands of
Database Administrators (DBAs) and other specialists. In large systems, a DBMS allows users and other
software to store and retrieve data in a structured way.
Database management systems are usually categorized according to the database model that they support,
such as the network, relational or object model. The model tends to determine the query languages that are
available to access the database. One commonly used query language for the relational database is SQL,
although SQL syntax and function can vary from one DBMS to another. A great deal of the internal engineering
of a DBMS is independent of the data model, and is concerned with managing factors such as performance,
concurrency, integrity, and recovery from hardware failures. In these areas there are large differences between
products.

1.1

RDBMS COMPONENTS

A Relational Database Management System (DBMS) consists of the following components:

Interface drivers - A user or application program initiates either schema modification or content
modification. These drivers are built on top of SQL. They provide methods to prepare statements,
execute statements, fetch results, etc. An important example is the ODBC driver.
SQL engine - This component interprets and executes the SQL query. It comprises three major
components (compiler, optimizer, and execution engine).
Transaction engine - Transactions are sequences of operations that read or write database elements,
which are grouped together.
Relational engine - Relational objects such as Table, Index, and Referential integrity constraints are
implemented in this component.
Storage engine - This component stores and retrieves data records. It also provides a mechanism to
store metadata and control information such as undo logs, redo logs, lock tables, etc.

1.2

DATA WAREHOUSE

A data warehouse stores data from current and previous years data extracted from the various operational
databases of an organization. It becomes the central source of data that has been screened, edited,
standardized and integrated so that it can be used by managers and other end-user professionals throughout
an organization.

1.3

RELATIONAL DATABASE
1

Database Systems

A relational database matches data using common characteristics found within the data set. The resulting
groups of data are organized and are much easier for people to understand.
For example, a data set containing all the real-estate transactions in a town can be grouped by the year the
transaction occurred; or it can be grouped by the sale price of the transaction; or it can be grouped by the
buyer's last name; and so on.
Such a grouping uses the relational model (a technical term for this is schema). Hence, such a database is called
a "relational database."
The software used to do this grouping is called a relational database management system. The term "relational
database" often refers to this type of software.
Relational databases are currently the predominant choice in storing financial records, manufacturing and
logistical information, personnel data and much more.
Strictly, a relational database is a collection of relations (frequently called tables).

1.4

REAL-TIME DATABASES

A real-time database is a processing system designed to handle workloads whose state may change constantly.
This differs from traditional databases containing persistent data, mostly unaffected by time. For example, a
stock market changes rapidly and dynamically. Real-time processing means that a transaction is processed fast
enough for the result to come back and be acted on right away. Real-time databases are useful for accounting,
banking, law, medical records, multi-media, process control, reservation systems, and scientific data analysis.
As computers increase in power and can store more data, real-time databases become integrated into society
and are employed in many applications

1.5

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

There are Database Management Systems (DBMS), such as:

Microsoft SQL Server
Oracle
Sybase
dBase
Microsoft Access
MySQL from Sun Microsystems (Oracle)
DB2 from IBM
etc.
This document will focus on Microsoft Access and Microsoft SQL Server.

1.6

MDAC

The Microsoft Data Access Components (MDAC) is the framework that makes it possible to connect and
communicate with the database. MDAC includes the following components:

Tutorial: Introduction to Database Systems

Database Systems
ODBC (Open Database Connectivity)
OLE DB
ADO (ActiveX Data Objects)

MDAC also installs several data providers you can use to open a connection to a specific data source, such as an
MS Access database.

1.6.1 ODBC
Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) is a native interface that is accessed through a programming language
that can make calls into a native library. In MDAC this interface is defined as a DLL. A separate module or driver
is needed for each database that must be accessed.

1.6.2 OLE DB
OLE allows MDAC applications access to different types of data stores in a uniform manner. Microsoft has used
this technology to separate the application from the data store that it needs to access. This was done because
different applications need access to different types and sources of data, and do not necessarily need to know
how to access technology-specific functionality. The technology is conceptually divided into consumers and
providers. The consumers are the applications that need access to the data, and the provider is the software
component that exposes an OLE DB interface through the use of the Component Object Model (or COM).

1.6.3 ADO (ACTIVEX DATA OBJECTS)

ActiveX Data Objects (ADO) is a high level programming interface to OLE DB. It uses a hierarchical object model
to allow applications to programmatically create, retrieve, update and delete data from sources supported by
OLE DB. ADO consists of a series of hierarchical COM-based objects and collections, an object that acts as a
container of many other objects. A programmer can directly access ADO objects to manipulate data, or can
send an SQL query to the database via several ADO mechanisms.

Tutorial: Introduction to Database Systems

RELATIONAL DATABASES

A relational database matches data using common characteristics found within the data set. The resulting
groups of data are organized and are much easier for people to understand.
For example, a data set containing all the real-estate transactions in a town can be grouped by the year the
transaction occurred; or it can be grouped by the sale price of the transaction; or it can be grouped by the
buyer's last name; and so on.
Such a grouping uses the relational model (a technical term for this is schema). Hence, such a database is called
a "relational database."
The software used to do this grouping is called a relational database management system. The term "relational
database" often refers to this type of software.
Relational databases are currently the predominant choice in storing financial records, manufacturing and
logistical information, personnel data and much more.

2.1

TABLES

The basic units in a database are tables and the relationship between them. Strictly, a relational database is a
collection of relations (frequently called tables).

2.2

UNIQUE KEYS AND PRIMARY KEY

In relational database design, a unique key or primary key is a candidate key to uniquely identify each row in a
table. A unique key or primary key comprises a single column or set of columns. No two distinct rows in a table
can have the same value (or combination of values) in those columns. Depending on its design, a table may
have arbitrarily many unique keys but at most one primary key.
A unique key must uniquely identify all possible rows that exist in a table and not only the currently existing
rows. Examples of unique keys are Social Security numbers or ISBNs.
A primary key is a special case of unique keys. The major difference is that for unique keys the implicit NOT
NULL constraint is not automatically enforced, while for primary keys it is enforced. Thus, the values in unique
key columns may or may not be NULL. Another difference is that primary keys must be defined using another
syntax.
Primary keys are defined with the following syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name (

Relational Databases
id_col

INT,

col2

CHARACTER VARYING(20),

...
CONSTRAINT tab_pk PRIMARY KEY(id_col),
...
)
If the primary key consists only of a single column, the column can be marked as such using the following
syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name (
id_col

INT

PRIMARY KEY,

col2

CHARACTER VARYING(20),

...
)

The definition of unique keys is syntactically very similar to primary keys.

Likewise, unique keys can be defined as part of the CREATE TABLE SQL statement.
CREATE TABLE table_name (
id_col

INT,

col2

CHARACTER VARYING(20),

key_col

SMALLINT,

...
CONSTRAINT key_unique UNIQUE(key_col),
...
)
Or if the unique key consists only of a single column, the column can be marked as such using the following
syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name (
id_col

INT

col2

CHARACTER VARYING(20),

...
key_col

PRIMARY KEY,

SMALLINT UNIQUE,

Tutorial: Introduction to Database Systems

Relational Databases
...

2.3

FOREIGN KEY

In the context of relational databases, a foreign key is a referential constraint between two tables. The foreign
key identifies a column or a set of columns in one table that refers to a column or set of columns in another
table. The columns in the referencing table must be the primary key or other candidate key in the referenced
table. The values in one row of the referencing columns must occur in a single row in the referenced table.
Thus, a row in the referencing table cannot contain values that don't exist in the referenced table. This way
references can be made to link information together and it is an essential part of database normalization.
Multiple rows in the referencing table may refer to the same row in the referenced table. Most of the time, it
reflects the one (master table, or referenced table) to many (child table, or referencing table) relationship.
The referencing and referenced table may be the same table, i.e. the foreign key refers back to the same table.
Such a foreign key is known as self-referencing or recursive foreign key.
A table may have multiple foreign keys, and each foreign key can have a different referenced table. Each
foreign key is enforced independently by the database system. Therefore, cascading relationships between
tables can be established using foreign keys.

Improper foreign key/primary key relationships or not enforcing those relationships are often the source of
many database and data modeling problems.
Foreign keys can be defined as part of the CREATE TABLE SQL statement.
CREATE TABLE table_name (
id

INTEGER

PRIMARY KEY,

col2

CHARACTER VARYING(20),

col3

INTEGER,

...
CONSTRAINT col3_fk FOREIGN KEY(col3)
REFERENCES other_table(key_col),
... )
If the foreign key is a single column only, the column can be marked as such using the following syntax:
CREATE TABLE table_name (
id

INTEGER

PRIMARY KEY,

col2

CHARACTER VARYING(20),

col3

INTEGER REFERENCES other_table(column_name),

... )
Tutorial: Introduction to Database Systems

2.4

Relational Databases

VIEWS

In database theory, a view consists of a stored query accessible as a virtual table composed of the result set of
a query. Unlike ordinary tables in a relational database, a view does not form part of the physical schema: it is a
dynamic, virtual table computed or collated from data in the database. Changing the data in a table alters the
data shown in subsequent invocations of the view.
Views can provide advantages over tables:
Views can represent a subset of the data contained in a table
Views can join and simplify multiple tables into a single virtual table
Views can act as aggregated tables, where the database engine aggregates data (sum, average etc)
and presents the calculated results as part of the data
Views can hide the complexity of data; for example a view could appear as Sales2000 or Sales2001,
transparently partitioning the actual underlying table
Views take very little space to store; the database contains only the definition of a view, not a copy of
all the data it presents
Views can limit the degree of exposure of a table or tables to the outer world

Syntax:
CREATE VIEW <ViewName>
AS

2.5

FUNCTIONS

In SQL databases, a user-defined function provides a mechanism for extending the functionality of the
database server by adding a function that can be evaluated in SQL statements. The SQL standard distinguishes
between scalar and table functions. A scalar function returns only a single value (or NULL), whereas a table
function returns a (relational) table comprising zero or more rows, each row with one or more columns.
User-defined functions in SQL are declared using the CREATE FUNCTION statement.
Syntax:
CREATE FUNCTION <FunctionName>
(@Parameter1 <datatype>,
@ Parameter2 <datatype>,
)
RETURNS <datatype>
AS

Tutorial: Introduction to Database Systems

2.6

Relational Databases

STORED PROCEDURES

A stored procedure is executable code that is associated with, and generally stored in, the database. Stored
procedures usually collect and customize common operations, like inserting a tuple into a relation, gathering
statistical information about usage patterns, or encapsulating complex business logic and calculations.
Frequently they are used as an application programming interface (API) for security or simplicity.
Stored procedures are not part of the relational database model, but all commercial implementations include
them.
Stored procedures are called or used with the following syntax:
CALL procedure()
or
EXECUTE procedure()
Stored procedures can return result sets, i.e. the results of a SELECT statement. Such result sets can be
processed using cursors by other stored procedures by associating a result set locator, or by applications.
Stored procedures may also contain declared variables for processing data and cursors that allow it to loop
through multiple rows in a table. The standard Structured Query Language provides IF, WHILE, LOOP, REPEAT,
CASE statements, and more. Stored procedures can receive variables, return results or modify variables and
return them, depending on how and where the variable is declared.

2.7

TRIGGERS

A database trigger is procedural code that is automatically executed in response to certain events on a
particular table or view in a database. The trigger is mostly used for keeping the integrity of the information on
the database. For example, when a new record (representing a new worker) added to the employees table,
new records should be created also in the tables of the taxes, vacations, and salaries.
The syntax is as follows:
CREATE TRIGGER <TriggerName> ON <TableName>
FOR INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
AS

Tutorial: Introduction to Database Systems

STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE (SQL)

SQL (Structured Query Language) is a database computer language designed for managing data in relational
database management systems (RDBMS).

3.1

QUERIES

The most common operation in SQL is the query, which is performed with the declarative SELECT statement.
SELECT retrieves data from one or more tables, or expressions. Standard SELECT statements have no persistent
effects on the database.
Queries allow the user to describe desired data, leaving the database management system (DBMS) responsible
for planning, optimizing, and performing the physical operations necessary to produce that result as it chooses.
A query includes a list of columns to be included in the final result immediately following the SELECT keyword.
An asterisk ("*") can also be used to specify that the query should return all columns of the queried tables.
SELECT is the most complex statement in SQL, with optional keywords and clauses that include:
The FROM clause which indicates the table(s) from which data is to be retrieved. The FROM clause can
include optional JOIN subclauses to specify the rules for joining tables.
The WHERE clause includes a comparison predicate, which restricts the rows returned by the query.
The WHERE clause eliminates all rows from the result set for which the comparison predicate does not
evaluate to True.
The GROUP BY clause is used to project rows having common values into a smaller set of rows.
GROUP BY is often used in conjunction with SQL aggregation functions or to eliminate duplicate rows
from a result set. The WHERE clause is applied before the GROUP BY clause.
The HAVING clause includes a predicate used to filter rows resulting from the GROUP BY clause.
Because it acts on the results of the GROUP BY clause, aggregation functions can be used in the
HAVING clause predicate.
The ORDER BY clause identifies which columns are used to sort the resulting data, and in which
direction they should be sorted (options are ascending or descending). Without an ORDER BY clause,
the order of rows returned by an SQL query is undefined.
Example:
The following is an example of a SELECT query that returns a list of expensive books. The query retrieves all
rows from the Book table in which the price column contains a value greater than 100.00. The result is sorted
in ascending order by title. The asterisk (*) in the select list indicates that all columns of the Book table should
be included in the result set.
SELECT *
FROM Book
WHERE price > 100.00
ORDER BY title;
The example below demonstrates a query of multiple tables, grouping, and aggregation, by returning a list of
books and the number of authors associated with each book.

10

Structured Query Language (SQL)

SELECT Book.title,count(*) AS Authors

FROM Book
JOIN Book_author ON Book.isbn = Book_author.isbn
GROUP BY Book.title
Example output might resemble the following:
Title
Authors
------------------------------SQL Examples and Guide

The Joy of SQL

An Introduction to SQL

Pitfalls of SQL

3.2

DATA MANIPULATION

The Data Manipulation Language (DML) is the subset of SQL used to add, update and delete data.
The acronym CRUD refers to all of the major functions that need to be implemented in a relational database
application to consider it complete. Each letter in the acronym can be mapped to a standard SQL statement:
Operation

SQL

Create

INSERT

Read (Retrieve)

SELECT

Update

UPDATE

Delete (Destroy)

DELETE

Example: INSERT
INSERT adds rows to an existing table, e.g.,:
INSERT INTO My_table field1, field2, field3)
VALUES ('test', 'N', NULL)
Example: UPDATE
UPDATE modifies a set of existing table rows, e.g.,:
UPDATE My_table
SET field1 = 'updated value'
WHERE field2 = 'N'
Example: DELETE
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Structured Query Language (SQL)

DELETE removes existing rows from a table, e.g.,:

DELETE FROM My_table
WHERE field2 = 'N'

3.3

DATA DEFINITION

The Data Definition Language (DDL) manages table and index structure. The most basic items of DDL are the
CREATE, ALTER, RENAME and DROP statements:
CREATE creates an object (a table, for example) in the database.
DROP deletes an object in the database, usually irretrievably.
ALTER modifies the structure an existing object in various waysfor example, adding a column to an
existing table.
Example: CREATE
Create a Database Table
CREATE TABLE My_table
(
my_field1
INT,
my_field2
VARCHAR(50),
my_field3
DATE
NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (my_field1)
)

3.4

DATA TYPES

Each column in an SQL table declares the type(s) that column may contain. ANSI SQL includes the following
datatypes.

3.4.1 CHARACTER STRINGS

CHARACTER(n) or CHAR(n) fixed-width n-character string, padded with spaces as needed
CHARACTER VARYING(n) or VARCHAR(n) variable-width string with a maximum size of n characters
NATIONAL CHARACTER(n) or NCHAR(n) fixed width string supporting an international character set
NATIONAL CHARACTER VARYING(n) or NVARCHAR(n) variable-width NCHAR string

3.4.2 BIT STRINGS

BIT(n) an array of n bits
BIT VARYING(n) an array of up to n bits

3.4.3 NUMBERS
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Structured Query Language (SQL)

INTEGER and SMALLINT
FLOAT, REAL and DOUBLE PRECISION
NUMERIC(precision, scale) or DECIMAL(precision, scale)

3.4.4 DATE AND TIME

DATE
TIME
TIMESTAMP
INTERVAL

Tutorial: Introduction to Database Systems

4
4.1

DATABASE MODELLING
ER DIAGRAM

In software engineering, an Entity-Relationship Model (ERM) is an abstract and conceptual representation of

data. Entity-relationship modeling is a database modeling method, used to produce a type of conceptual
schema or semantic data model of a system, often a relational database, and its requirements in a top-down
fashion.
Diagrams created using this process are called entity-relationship diagrams, or ER diagrams or ERDs for short.

There are many ER diagramming tools. Some of the proprietary ER diagramming tools are ERwin, Enterprise
Architect and Microsoft Visio.
Microsoft SQL Server has also a built-in tool for creating Database Diagrams.

13

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4.2

Database Modelling

MICROSOFT VISIO

Microsoft Visio is a diagramming program for creating different kinds of diagrams. Visio have a template for
creating Database Model Diagrams.

Tutorial: Introduction to Database Systems

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Database Modelling

In the Database menu Visio offers lots of functionality regarding your database model.

Reverse Engineering is the opposite procedure, i.e., extraction of a database schema from an existing
database into a database model in Microsoft Visio.

EXERCISES
Exercise: Database Diagram
Create the following tables in an ER Diagram using MS Visio.
CUSTOMER
o CustomerId (PK)
o FirstName
o LastName
o Address
o Phone
o PostCode
o PostAddress
PRODUCT
o ProductId (PK)
o ProductName
o ProductDescription
o Price
o ProductCode
ORDER
o OrderId (PK)
o OrderNumber
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Database Modelling
o OrderDescription
o CustomerId (FK)
ORDER_DETAIL
o OrderDetailId (PK)
o OrderId (FK)
o ProductId (FK)

Database Diagram:

Tutorial: Introduction to Database Systems

5
5.1

MICROSOFT SQL SERVER

INTRODUCTION

Microsoft SQL Server is a relational model database server produced by Microsoft. Its primary query languages
are T-SQL and ANSI SQL.
The latest version is Microsoft SQL Server 2008.
Microsoft SQL Server homepage: www.microsoft.com/sqlserver
The Microsoft SQL Server comes in different versions, such as:
SQL Server Developer Edition
SQL Server Enterprise Edition
SQL Server Web Edition
SQL Server Express Edition
Etc.
The SQL Server Express Edition is a freely-downloadable and -distributable version.

5.2

REQUIREMENTS

In order to install SQL Server 2008, you need:

Microsoft .NET Framework 3.5 SP1
Windows Installer 4.5
Windows PowerShell 1.0
Note: You must have administrative rights on the computer to install Microsoft SQL Server 2008.

5.3

SQL SERVER EXPRESS

The SQL Server Express Edition is a freely-downloadable and -distributable version.

However, the Express edition has a number of technical restrictions which make it undesirable for large-scale
deployments, including:
Maximum database size of 4 GB per. The 4 GB limit applies per database (log files excluded); but in
some scenarios users can access more data through the use of multiple interconnected databases.
Single physical CPU, multiple cores
1 GB of RAM (runs on any size RAM system, but uses only 1 GB)
SQL Server Express offers a GUI tools for database management in a separate download and installation
package, called SQL Server Management Studio Express.

5.4

ADVENTUREWORKS

The AdventureWorks is a sample Database with lots of examples, etc.

17

18

Microsoft SQL Server

You should install this sample Database because some of the examples in this document will use the
AdventureWorks database.

5.5

SQL SERVER MANAGEMENT STUDIO

SQL Server Management Studio is a GUI tool included with SQL Server for configuring, managing, and
administering all components within Microsoft SQL Server. The tool includes both script editors and graphical
tools that work with objects and features of the server. As mentioned earlier, version of SQL Server
Management Studio is also available for SQL Server Express Edition, for which it is known as SQL Server
Management Studio Express.
A central feature of SQL Server Management Studio is the Object Explorer, which allows the user to browse,
select, and act upon any of the objects within the server. It can be used to visually observe and analyze query
plans and optimize the database performance, among others. SQL Server Management Studio can also be used
to create a new database, alter any existing database schema by adding or modifying tables and indexes, or
analyze performance. It includes the query windows which provide a GUI based interface to write and execute
queries.

5.6

CREATE A NEW DATABASE

It is quite simple to create a new database in Microsoft SQL Server. Just right-click on the Databases node and
select New Database

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Microsoft SQL Server

There are lots of settings you may set regarding your database, but the only information you must fill in is the
name of your database:

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5.7

Microsoft SQL Server

BACKUP/RESTORE

Database backup and Restore:

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Microsoft SQL Server

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22

5.8

Microsoft SQL Server

EXAMPLE DATABASE

Examples and exercises in this training are based on some basic tables. The Example Database consists of the
following Tables:
CUSTOMER
o CustomerId (PK)
o FirstName
o LastName
o Address
o Phone
o PostCode
o PostAddress
PRODUCT
o ProductId (PK)
o ProductName
o ProductDescription
o Price
o ProductCode
ORDER
o OrderId (PK)
o OrderNumber
o OrderDescription
o CustomerId (FK)
ORDER_DETAIL
o OrderDetailId (PK)
o OrderId (FK)
o ProductId (FK)

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Microsoft SQL Server

EXERCISES
Exercise: Database
Create a new Database in MS SQL Server called TEST_SQLSERVER.
Exercise: Database Diagram
Create the tables in the Example Database Tables using the Diagram Designer Tool in Microsoft SQL Server.
Exercise: Database Script
Create the tables in the Example Database Tables using SQL Code. Save the Tables as a SQL Script file (.sql). Use
The Query Tool in Microsoft SQL Server.
Exercise: ODBC
Create an ODBC connection for the Database.

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6
6.1

MICROSOFT OFFICE ACCESS

INTRODUCTION

Microsoft Office Access, previously known as Microsoft Access, is a relational database management system
from Microsoft that combines the relational Microsoft Jet Database Engine with a graphical user interface and
software development tools. It is a member of the Microsoft Office suite of applications and is included in the
Professional and higher versions for Windows. Access stores data in its own format based on the Access Jet
Database Engine.
Microsoft Access is used by programmers and non-programmers to create their own simple database solutions.
Microsoft Access is a file server-based database. Unlike client-server relational database management systems
(RDBMS), e.g., Microsoft SQL Server, Microsoft Access does not implement database triggers, stored
procedures, or transaction logging. All database tables, queries, forms, reports, macros, and modules are
stored in the Access Jet database as a single file. This makes Microsoft Access useful in small applications,
teaching, etc. because it is easy to move from one computer to another.

6.2

EXAMPLE DATABASE

I will present an example database in Microsoft Access 2007 which will be used in some of the examples and
exercises in this document.
The database consists of the following tables:
CUSTOMER
o CustomerId (PK)
o FirstName
o LastName
o Address
o Phone
o PostCode
o PostAddress
PRODUCT
o ProductId (PK)
o ProductName
o ProductDescription
o Price
o ProductCode
ORDER
o OrderId (PK)
o OrderNumber
o OrderDescription
o CustomerId (FK)
ORDER_DETAIL
o OrderDetailId (PK)
o OrderId (FK)
o ProductId (FK)
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25

Microsoft Office Access

ODBC Connection:
Administrative Tools Data Sources (ODBC)

Tutorial: Introduction to Database Systems

26

Microsoft Office Access

EXERCISES
Exercise: Database
Create a new Database in MS Access called TEST.

Tutorial: Introduction to Database Systems

27

Microsoft Office Access

Exercise: Database Tables

Create the tables in the Example Database Tables using the Diagram Designer Tool in Microsoft SQL Server.

Exercise: ODBC
Create an ODBC connection for the Database.

Tutorial: Introduction to Database Systems

CREATING AND USING TABLES

The SQL syntax for creating a Table is as follows:

CREATE TABLE <TableName>
(
<ColumnName> <datatype>

The SQL syntax for inserting Data into a Table is as follows:

INSERT INTO <TableName> (<Column1>, <Column2>, )
VALUES(<Data for Column1>, <Data for Column2>, )

Example: Insert Data into Tables

We will insert some data into our tables:

The following SQL Query inserts some example data into these tables:
--CUSTOMER
INSERT INTO [CUSTOMER] ([FirstName],[LastName],[Address],[Phone],[PostCode],[PostAddress])
VALUES ('Per', 'Nilsen', 'Vipeveien 12', '12345678', '1234', 'Porsgrunn')
GO
INSERT INTO [CUSTOMER] ([FirstName],[LastName],[Address],[Phone],[PostCode],[PostAddress])
VALUES ('Tor', 'Hansen', 'Vipeveien 15', '77775678', '4455', 'Bergen')
GO

28

29

Creating and Using Tables

INSERT INTO [CUSTOMER] ([FirstName],[LastName],[Address],[Phone],[PostCode],[PostAddress])

VALUES ('Arne', 'Nilsen', 'Vipeveien 17', '12345778', '4434', 'Porsgrunn')
GO
--PRODUCT
INSERT INTO [PRODUCT] ([ProductName],[ProductDescription],[Price],[ProductCode]) VALUES
('Product A', 'This is product A', 1000, 'A-1234')
GO
INSERT INTO [PRODUCT] ([ProductName],[ProductDescription],[Price],[ProductCode]) VALUES
('Product B', 'This is product B', 1000, 'B-1234')
GO
INSERT INTO [PRODUCT] ([ProductName],[ProductDescription],[Price],[ProductCode]) VALUES
('Product C', 'This is product C', 1000, 'C-1234')
GO
--ORDER
INSERT INTO [ORDER] ([OrderNumber],[OrderDescription],[CustomerId]) VALUES ('10001', 'This is
Order 10001', 1)
GO
INSERT INTO [ORDER] ([OrderNumber],[OrderDescription],[CustomerId]) VALUES ('10002', 'This is
Order 10002', 2)
GO
INSERT INTO [ORDER] ([OrderNumber],[OrderDescription],[CustomerId]) VALUES ('10003', 'This is
Order 10003', 3)
GO
--ORDER_DETAIL
INSERT INTO [ORDER_DETAIL]
GO
INSERT INTO [ORDER_DETAIL]
GO
INSERT INTO [ORDER_DETAIL]
GO
INSERT INTO [ORDER_DETAIL]
GO
INSERT INTO [ORDER_DETAIL]
GO
INSERT INTO [ORDER_DETAIL]
GO
INSERT INTO [ORDER_DETAIL]
GO
INSERT INTO [ORDER_DETAIL]
GO
INSERT INTO [ORDER_DETAIL]
GO

([OrderId],[ProductId]) VALUES (1, 1)

([OrderId],[ProductId]) VALUES (1, 2)
([OrderId],[ProductId]) VALUES (1, 3)
([OrderId],[ProductId]) VALUES (2, 1)
([OrderId],[ProductId]) VALUES (2, 2)
([OrderId],[ProductId]) VALUES (3, 3)
([OrderId],[ProductId]) VALUES (3, 1)
([OrderId],[ProductId]) VALUES (3, 2)
([OrderId],[ProductId]) VALUES (3, 3)

Executing the following Queries then gives:

select * from CUSTOMER

select * from PRODUCT

Tutorial: Introduction to Database Systems

30

Creating and Using Tables

select * from [ORDER]

select * from ORDER_DETAIL

Tutorial: Introduction to Database Systems

CREATING AND USING VIEWS

In database theory, a view consists of a stored query accessible as a virtual table composed of the result set of
a query. Unlike ordinary tables in a relational database, a view does not form part of the physical schema: it is a
dynamic, virtual table computed or collated from data in the database. Changing the data in a table alters the
data shown in subsequent invocations of the view.
Views can provide advantages over tables:
Views can represent a subset of the data contained in a table
Views can join and simplify multiple tables into a single virtual table
Views can act as aggregated tables, where the database engine aggregates data (sum, average etc)
and presents the calculated results as part of the data
Views can hide the complexity of data; for example a view could appear as Sales2000 or Sales2001,
transparently partitioning the actual underlying table
Views take very little space to store; the database contains only the definition of a view, not a copy of
all the data it presents
Depending on the SQL engine used, views can provide extra security
Views can limit the degree of exposure of a table or tables to the outer world
Just as functions (in programming) can provide abstraction, so database users can create abstraction by using
views. In another parallel with functions, database users can manipulate nested views, thus one view can
aggregate data from other views.

Syntax:
CREATE VIEW <ViewName>
AS

31

CREATING AND USING STORED PROCEDURES

A stored procedure is a subroutine available to applications accessing a relational database system. Typical uses
for stored procedures include data validation (integrated into the database) or access control mechanisms.
Furthermore, stored procedures are used to consolidate and centralize logic that was originally implemented in
applications. Large or complex processing that might require the execution of several SQL statements is moved
into stored procedures, and all applications call the procedures only.
A stored procedure is a precompiled collection of SQL statements and optional control-of-flow statements,
similar to a macro. Each database and data provider supports stored procedures differently. Stored procedures
offer the following benefits to your database applications:
PerformanceStored Procedures are usually more efficient and faster than regular SQL queries because SQL
statements are parsed for syntactical accuracy and precompiled by the DBMS when the stored procedure is
created. Also, combining a large number of SQL statements with conditional logic and parameters into a stored
procedure allows the procedures to perform queries, make decisions, and return results without extra trips to
the database server.
MaintainabilityStored Procedures isolate the lower-level database structure from the application. As long as
the table names, column names, parameter names, and types do not change from what is stated in the stored
procedure, you do not need to modify the procedure when changes are made to the database schema. Stored
procedures are also a way to support modular SQL programming because after you create a procedure, you
and other users can reuse that procedure without knowing the details of the tables involved.
SecurityWhen creating tables in a database, the Database Administrator can set EXECUTE permissions on
stored procedures without granting SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE permissions to users. Therefore, the
data in these tables is protected from users who are not using the stored procedures.

Stored procedures are similar to user-defined functions. The major difference is that functions can be used like
any other expression within SQL statements, whereas stored procedures must be invoked using the CALL
statement.
The syntax for creating a Stored Procedure is as follows:
CREATE PROCEDURE <ProcedureName>
@<Parameter1> <datatype>

Example: Create a Stored Procedure

This Procedure gets Customer Data based on a specific Order Number.
IF EXISTS (SELECT name
FROM
sysobjects
WHERE name = 'sp_CustomerOrders'
AND
type = 'P')
DROP PROCEDURE sp_CustomerOrders
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33

Creating and using Stored Procedures

GO
CREATE PROCEDURE sp_CustomerOrders
@OrderNumber varchar(50)
AS
/*------------------------------------------------------------------------Last Updated Date:
2009.11.03
Last Updated By:
hans.pr.halvorsen@hit.no
Description:
Get Customer Information from a specific Order Number
-------------------------------------------------------------------------*/
SET NOCOUNT ON
declare @CustomerId int
select @CustomerId = CustomerId from [ORDER] where OrderNumber = @OrderNumber
select CustomerId, FirstName, LastName, [Address], Phone from CUSTOMER where
CustomerId=@CustomerId
SET NOCOUNT OFF
Og
Example: Using a Stored Procedure
Using the Stored procedure like this
exec sp_CustomerOrders '10002'
gives the following result:

Tutorial: Introduction to Database Systems

10 CREATING AND USING TRIGGERS

A database trigger is procedural code that is automatically executed in response to certain events on a
particular table or view in a database. The trigger is mostly used for keeping the integrity of the information on
the database. For example, when a new record (representing a new worker) added to the employees table,
new records should be created also in the tables of the taxes, vacations, and salaries.
Triggers are commonly used to:
prevent changes (e.g. prevent an invoice from being changed after it's been mailed out)
log changes (e.g. keep a copy of the old data)
audit changes (e.g. keep a log of the users and roles involved in changes)
enhance changes (e.g. ensure that every change to a record is time-stamped by the server's clock, not
the client's)
enforce business rules (e.g. require that every invoice have at least one line item)
execute business rules (e.g. notify a manager every time an employee's bank account number
changes)
replicate data (e.g. store a record of every change, to be shipped to another database later)
enhance performance (e.g. update the account balance after every detail transaction, for faster
queries)
The major features of database triggers, and their effects, are:
do not accept parameters or arguments (but may store affected-data in temporary tables)
cannot perform commit or rollback operations because they are part of the triggering SQL statement
can cancel a requested operation
can cause mutating table errors, if they are poorly written.

Microsoft SQL Server supports triggers either after or instead of an insert, update, or delete operation.

Syntax:
CREATE TRIGGER <TriggerName> ON <TableName>
FOR INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
AS

34

11 CREATING AND USING FUNCTIONS

In SQL databases, a user-defined function provides a mechanism for extending the functionality of the
database server by adding a function that can be evaluated in SQL statements. The SQL standard distinguishes
between scalar and table functions. A scalar function returns only a single value (or NULL), whereas a table
function returns a (relational) table comprising zero or more rows, each row with one or more columns.
Stored Procedures vs. Functions:
Only functions can return a value (using the RETURN keyword).
Stored procedures can use RETURN keyword but without any value being passed[1]
Functions could be used in SELECT statements, provided they dont do any data manipulation and also
should not have any OUT or IN OUT parameters.
Functions must return a value, but for stored procedures this is not compulsory.
A function can have only IN parameters, while stored procedures may have OUT or IN OUT
parameters.
A function is a subprogram written to perform certain computations and return a single value.
A stored procedure is a subprogram written to perform a set of actions, and can return multiple values
using the OUT parameter or return no value at all.
User-defined functions in SQL are declared using the CREATE FUNCTION statement.
Syntax:
CREATE FUNCTION <FunctionName>
(@Parameter1 <datatype>,
@ Parameter2 <datatype>,
)
RETURNS <datatype>
AS

35

12 WHATS NEXT?
12.1 MY BLOG
For more information about Databases, visit my Blog: http://home.hit.no/~hansha/

12.2 TRAINING
This Training is a part of a series with other Training Kits I have made, such as:
Introduction to LabVIEW
Data Acquisition in LabVIEW
Control and Simulation in LabVIEW
LabVIEW MathScript
Linear Algebra in LabVIEW
Datalogging and Supervisory Control in LabVIEW
Wireless Data Acquisition in LabVIEW
Intermediate Topics in LabVIEW
Advanced Topics in LabVIEW
Control and Simulation in labVIEW
Introduction to MATLAB
Introduction to Simulink
These Training Kits are available for download from my blog: http://home.hit.no/~hansha

36

Telemark University College

Faculty of Technology
Kjlnes Ring 56
N-3914 Porsgrunn, Norway
www.hit.no

Hans-Petter Halvorsen, M.Sc.

Telemark University College
Department of Electrical Engineering, Information Technology and Cybernetics

Phone: +47 3557 5158

E-mail: hans.p.halvorsen@hit.no
Blog: http://home.hit.no/~hansha/
Room: B-237a