METER SELECTION GUIDES

Experts claim that over 75 percent of the flowmeters installed in industry are
not performing satisfactorily. And improper selection accounts for 90 percent
of these problems. Obviously, flowmeter selection is no job for amateurs.
The most important requirement is knowing exactly what the instrument is
supposed to do. Here are some questions to consider. Is the measurement
for process control (where repeatability is the major concern), or for
accounting or custody transfer (where high accuracy is important)? Is local
indication or a remote signal required? If a remote output is required, is it to
be a proportional signal, or a contact closure to start or stop another device?
Is the liquid viscous, clean, or a slurry? Is it electrically conductive? What is
its specific gravity or density? What flow rates are involved in the
application? What are the processes' operating temperatures and pressures?
Accuracy (see glossary), range, linearity, repeatability, and piping
requirements must also be considered.
It is just as important to know what a flowmeter cannot do as well as what it
can do before a final selection is made. Each instrument has advantages and
disadvantages, and the degree of performance satisfaction is directly related
to how well an instrument's capabilities and shortcomings are matched to
the application's requirements. Often, users have expectations of a
flowmeter's performance that are not consistent with what the supplier has
provided. Most suppliers are anxious to help customers pick the right
flowmeter for a particular job. Many provide questionnaires, checklists, and
specification sheets designed to obtain the critical information necessary to
match the correct flowmeter to the job.
Technological improvements of flowmeters must be considered also. For
example, a common mistake is to select a design that was most popular for a
given application some years ago and to assume that it is still the best
instrument for the job. Many changes and innovations may have occurred in
recent years in the development of flowmeters for that particular application,
making the choice much broader.
A recent development is the availability of computer programs to perform
the tedious calculations often necessary for selecting flowmeters.
Calculations that used to take an hour can be performed in a matter of
seconds.

Flowmeter Characteristics Comparison Sheet

Flowmeter
Element

Recomme
nded
Service

Orifice

Clean,
dirty
liquids;
some
slurries

Rangea
bility

Press
ure
Loss

Typical
Accurac
y(%)

2 to 4
of full
scale

Requir
ed
Upstre Visco
am
sity
pipe
Effect
diame
ters

4 to 1

Mediu
m

Wedge

Slurries
and
Viscous
liquids

3 to 1

Low to
mediu
m

0.5 to
2 of full
scale

Venturi tube

Clean,
dirty and
viscous
liquids;
some
slurries

4 to 1

Low

1 of full
scale

5 to 20

Mediu
m

1 to 2
of full
scale

10 to
30

Very
low

3 to 5
of full
scale

20 to
30

Flow nozzle

Pitot tube

Elbow meter

Target meter

Clean and
dirty
liquids

Clean
liquids

Clean,
dirty
liquids;
some
slurries
Clean,
dirty

4 to 1

3 to 1

3 to 1

10 to 1

Very
low

Mediu
m

10 to
30

10 to
30

Relat
ive
Cost

High

Low

Low

High

High

Mediu
m

High

Mediu
m

Low

Low

5 to
10 of
full scale

30

Low

Low

1 to 5
of full

10 to
30

Mediu
m

Mediu
m

viscous
liquids;
some
slurries
Clean,
dirty
viscous
liquids

scale

10 to 1

Mediu
m

1 to
10 of
full scale

None

Mediu
m

Low

Clean,
Positive
viscous
Displacement
liquids

10 to 1

High

0.5 of
rate

None

High

Mediu
m

Turbine

Clean,
viscous
liquids

20 to 1

High

0.25 of
rate

5 to 10

High

High

Vortex

Clean,
dirty
liquids

10 to 1

Mediu
m

1 of
rate

10 to
20

Mediu
m

High

Electromagn
etic

Clean,
dirty,
viscous
conductive
liquids and
slurries

40 to 1

None

0.5 of
rate

None

High

Dirty,
Ultrasonic(Do viscous
ppler)
liquids and
slurries

10 to 1

None

5 of full
scale

5 to 30

None

High

20 to 1

None

1 to 5
of full
scale

5 to 30

None

High

10 to 1

Low

None

None

High

Variable area

Ultrasonic
(Time-oftravel)

Clean,
viscous
liquids

Mass
(Coriolis)

Clean,
dirty
viscous

0.4 of
rate

liquids;
some
slurries

Mass
(Thermal)

Clean,
dirty,
viscous
liquids;
some
slurries

10 to 1

Low

1 of full
scale

None

None

High

Weir (Vnotch)

Clean,
dirty
liquids

100 to 1

Very
low

2 to 5
of full
scale

None

Very
Low

Mediu
m

Flume
(Parshall)

Clean,
dirty
liquids

50 to 1

Very
low

2 to 5
of full
scale

None

Very
low

Mediu
m

Cost Considerations
There are a wide range of prices for flowmeters. Rotameters are usually the least
expensive, with some small-sized units available for less than $100. Mass
flowmeters cost the most. Prices start at about $3500. However, total system costs
must always be considered when selecting flowmeters. For example, an orifice plate
may cost only about $50. But the transmitter may add an additional $500 or $600,
and sensing line fabrication and installation may cost even more.
Installation, operation, and maintenance costs are important economic factors too.
Servicing can be expensive on some of the more complicated designs.
As with many other products, a plant engineer generally gets what he pays for when
he purchases a flowmeter. But the satisfaction that he receives with the product will
depend on the care that he uses in selecting and installing the instrument. And that
gets back to knowing the process, the products, and the flow-metering
requirements. "Overbuying" is not uncommon. Plant engineers should not buy a
flowmeter more capable or complicated than they need.
WORKING WITH FLOWMETERS
Although suppliers are always ready to provide flowmeter installation service,
estimates are that approximately 75 percent of the users install their own
equipment. But installation mistakes are made. One of the most common is not
allowing sufficient upstream and downstream straight-run piping for the flowmeter.

Every design has a certain amount of tolerance to nonstable velocity conditions in

the pipe, but all units require proper piping configurations to operate efficiently.
Proper piping provides a normal flow pattern for the device. Without it, accuracy and
performance are adversely affected. Flowmeters are also installed backwards on
occasion (especially true with orifice plates). Pressure-sensing lines may be
reversed too.
With electrical components, intrinsic safety is an important consideration in
hazardous areas. Most flowmeter suppliers offer intrinsically safe designs for such
uses.
Stray magnetic fields exist in most industrial plants. Power lines, relays, solenoids,
transformers, motors, and generators all contribute their share of interference.
Users must ensure themselves that the flowmeter they have selected is immune to
such interference. Problems occur primarily with the electronic components in
secondary elements, which must be protected. Strict adherence to the
manufacturer's recommended installation practices will usually prevent such
problems.
Calibration
All flowmeters require an initial calibration. Most of the time, the instrument is
calibrated by the manufacturer for the specified service conditions. However, if
qualified personnel are available in the plant, the user can perform his own
calibrations.
The need to recalibrate depends to a great extent on how well the meter fits the
application. Some liquids passing through flowmeters tend to be abrasive, erosive,
or corrosive. In time, portions of the device will deteriorate sufficiently to affect
performance. Some designs are more susceptible to damage than others. For
example, wear of individual turbine blades will cause performance changes. If the
application is critical, flowmeter accuracy should be checked at frequent intervals.
In other cases, recalibration may not be necessary for years because the application
is noncritical, or nothing will change the meter's performance. Some flowmeters
require special equipment for calibration. Most manufacturers will provide such
service in their plant or in the user's facility, where they will bring the equipment for
on-site calibration.
Maintenance
A number of factors influence maintenance requirements and the life expectancy of
flowmeters. The major factor, of course, is matching the right instrument to the
particular application. Poorly selected devices invariably will cause problems at an
early date. Flowmeters with no moving parts usually will require less attention than
units with moving parts. But all flowmeters eventually require some kind of
maintenance.
Primary elements in differential pressure flowmeters require extensive piping,
valves, and fittings when they are connected to their secondary elements, so

maintenance may be a recurring effort in such installations. Impulse lines can plug
or corrode and have to be cleaned or replaced. And, improper location of the
secondary element can result in measurement errors. Relocating the element can
be expensive.
Flowmeters with moving parts require periodic internal inspection, especially if the
liquid being metered is dirty or viscous. Installing filters ahead of such units will help
minimize fouling and wear. Obstructionless instruments, such as ultrasonic or
electromagnetic meters, may develop problems with their secondary element's
electronic components. Pressure sensors associated with secondary elements
should be periodically removed and inspected.
Applications where coatings may occur are also potential problems for
obstructionless instruments such as magnetic or ultrasonic units. If the coating is
insulating, the operation of magnetic flowmeters will ultimately be impaired if the
electrodes are insulated from the liquid. This condition will be prevented by periodic
cleaning. With ultrasonic flowmeters, refraction angles may change and the sonic
energy absorbed by the coating will cause the meter to become inoperative

Flow measurement

Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid movement. It can be

measured in a variety of ways.

Units of measurement
Both gas and liquid flow can be measured in volumetric or mass flow rates (such as
litres per second or kg/s). These measurements can be converted between one
another if the materials density is known. The density for a liquid is almost
independent of the liquids conditions, however this is not the case for a gas, whose
density highly depends upon pressure and temperature.
In engineering contexts, the volumetric flow rate is usually given the symbol Q and
the mass flow rate the symbol
.
Gas
Due to the nature of an Ideal gas or a Real gas, the volumetric gas flow rate will
differ for the same mass flow rate when at differing temperatures and pressures. As

such gas volumetric flow rate is sometimes measured in "standard cubic

centimeters per minute" (abbreviation sccm). This unit, although not an SI unit is
sometimes used due to the additional information attached to the unit symbol,
which indicates the temperature and pressure of the gas. Many other similar
abbreviations are also in use, for two reasons, firstly mass flow and volumetric flow
can be equated at known conditions, and secondly due to the imperial system older
units such as standard cubic feet per minute or per second may still be used in
some countries. It is often necessary to employ standard gas relationships (such as
the ideal gas law) to convert between units of mass flow and volumetric flow.
Liquid
For liquids other units used depend on the application and industry but might
include gallons (U.S. liquid or imperial) per minute, liters per second, bushels per
minute and, when describing river flows, acre-feet per day.
Mechanical flow meters
There are several types of mechanical flow meter
Piston Meter
Because they are used for domestic water measurement, piston meters, also known
as rotary piston or semi-positive displacement meters, are the most common flow
measurement devices in the UK and are used for almost all meter sizes up to and
including 40 mm (1 1/2"). The piston meter operates on the principle of a piston
rotating within a chamber of known volume. For each rotation, an amount of water
passes through the piston chamber. Through a gear mechanism and, sometimes, a
magnetic drive, a needle dial and odometer type display is advanced.

Woltmann Meter
Woltman meters, commonly referred to as Helix meters are popular at larger sizes.
Jet meters (single or Multi-Jet) are increasing in popularity in the UK at larger sizes
and are commonplace in the EU.
Multi-jet Meter
A multi-jet meter is a velocity type meter which has an impeller which rotates
horizontally on a vertical shaft. The impeller element is in a housing in which
multiple inlet ports direct the fluid flow at the impeller causing it to rotate in a
specific direction in proportion to the flow velocity. This meter works mechanically
much like a paddle wheel meter except that the ports direct the flow at the impeller
equally from several points around the circumference of the element, where a
paddle wheel normally only receives flow from one offset flow stream.

Venturi Meter
Another method of measurement, known as a venturi meter, is to constrict the flow
in some fashion, and measure the differential pressure (using a pressure sensor)
that results across the constriction. This method is widely used to measure flow rate
in the transmission of gas through pipelines, and has been used since Roman
Empire times.
Dall Tube
The Dall tube is a shortened version of a Venturi meter with a lower pressure drop
than an orifice plate. Both flow meters the flow rate of Dall tube is determined by
measuring the pressure drop caused by restriction in the conduit. The pressure
differential is measured using diaphragm pressure transducers with digital read out.
Since these meters have significantly lower permanent pressure losses than the
orifice meters, the Dall tubes have widely been used for measuring the flow rate of
large pipeworks.
Orifice Plate
Another simple method of measurement uses an orifice plate, which is basically a
plate with a hole through it. It is placed in the flow and constricts the flow. It uses
the same principle as the venturi meter in that the differential pressure relates to
the velocity of the fluid flow (Bernoulli's principle).
Pitot tube
A Pitot tube is a pressure measuring instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity
by determining the stagnation pressure. Bernoulli's equation is used to calculate the
dynamic pressure and thence fluid velocity.
Paddle wheel
The paddle wheel translates the mechanical action of paddles rotating in the liquid
flow around an axis into a user-readable rate of flow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The paddle
tends to be inserted into the flow.
Pelton wheel
The Pelton wheel turbine (better described as a radial turbine) translates the
mechanical action of the Pelton wheel rotating in the liquid flow around an axis into
a user-readable rate of flow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The Pelton wheel tends to have all the
flow traveling around it with the inlet flow focussed on the blades by a jet. The
original Pelton wheels were used for the generation of power and consisted of a
radial flow turbine with "reaction cups" which not only move with the force of the
water on the face but return the flow in opposite direction using this change of fluid
direction to further increase the efficiency of the turbine.
Turbine flow meter

The turbine flow meter (better described as an axial turbine) translates the
mechanical action of the turbine rotating in the liquid flow around an axis into a
user-readable rate of flow (gpm, lpm, etc.). The turbine tends to have all the flow
traveling around it.
The turbine wheel is set in the part of a fluid stream. The flowing fluid impinges on
the turbine blades, imparting a force to the blade surface and setting the rotor in
motion. when a steady rotation speed has been reached, the speed is proportional
to fluid velocity.
Thermal mass flow meters
Thermal mass flow meters generally use combinations of heated elements and
temperature sensors to measure the mass flow of a fluid. The fluid temperature is
also measured and compensated for. They provide a direct mass flow readout, and
do not need any additional pressure temperature compensation over their specified
range. Technological progress allows today to manufacture thermal mass flow
meters on a microscopic scale as MEMS sensors.
Thermal mass flow meters are used for compressed air, nitrogen, helium, argon,
oxygen, natural gas. In fact, most gases can be measured as long as they are fairly
clean and non-corrosive.
For liquids a media isolated principle is state of the art. Heat transfer is measured
through the wall of a channel. Because in chemistry and biology more and more
systems get miniaturized in Lab-on-a-chip-systems thermal MEMS flow sensors are
used to measure flow rates in the range of nano litres or micro litres per minute.
Vortex flowmeters
Another method of flow measurement involves placing a bluff body (called a
shedder bar) in the path of the fluid. As the fluid passes this bar, disturbances in the
flow called vortices are created. The vortices trail behind the cylinder in two rolls,
alternatively from the top or the bottom of the cylinder. This vortex trail is called the
Von Krmn vortex street after von Karman's 1912 mathematical description of the
phenomenon. The speed at which these vortices are created is proportional to the
flow rate of the fluid. Inside the shedder bar is a piezoelectric crystal, which
produces a small, but measurable, voltage pulse every time a vortex is created. The
frequency of this voltage pulse is also proportional to the fluid flow rate, and is
measured by the flowmeter electronics.
With f= SV/L where,

f = the frequency of the vortices

L = the characteristic length of the bluff body

V = the velocity of the flow over the bluff body

S = Strouhal number and is a constant for a given body shape

Electromagnetic, ultrasonic and coriolis flow meters

Modern innovations in the measurement of flow rate incorporate electronic devices
that can correct for varying pressure and temperature (i.e. density) conditions, nonlinearities, and for the characteristics of the fluid.
Magnetic flow meters

Industrial magnetic flowmeter

The most common flow meter apart from the mechanical flow meters, is the
magnetic flow meter, commonly referred to as a "mag meter" or an "electromag". A
magnetic field is applied to the metering tube, which results in a potential difference
proportional to the flow velocity perpendicular to the flux lines. The physical
principle at work is Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The magnetic flow
meter requires a conducting fluid, e.g. water, and an electrical insulating pipe
surface, e.g. a rubber lined non magnetic steel tube.
Ultrasonic flow meters
Ultrasonic flow meters measure the difference of the transit time of ultrasonic
pulses propagating in and against flow direction. This time difference is a measure
for the average velocity of the fluid along the path of the ultrasonic beam. By using
the absolute transit times both the averaged fluid velocity and the speed of sound
can be calculated. Using the two transit times tup and tdown and the distance between
receiving and transmitting transducers L and the inclination angle one can write
the equations:

and
where v is the average velocity of the fluid along the sound path and c is the speed
of sound.

Schematic view of a flow sensor.

Measurement of the doppler shift resulting in reflecting an ultrasonic beam off the
flowing fluid is another recent innovation made possible by electronics. By passing
an ultrasonic beam through the tissues, bouncing it off of a reflective plate then
reversing the direction of the beam and repeating the measurement the volume of
blood flow can be estimated. The speed of transmission is affected by the
movement of blood in the vessel and by comparing the time taken to complete the
cycle upstream versus downstream the flow of blood through the vessel can be
measured. The difference between the two speeds is a measure of true volume flow.
A wide-beam sensor can also be used to measure flow independent of the crosssectional area of the blood vessel.
For the Doppler principal to work in a flowmeter it is mandatory that the flow stream
contains sonically reflective materials, such as solid particles or entrained air
bubbles.
Coriolis flow meters
Using the Coriolis effect that causes a laterally vibrating tube to distort, a direct
measurement of mass flow can be obtained in a coriolis flow meter. Furthermore a
direct measure of the density of the fluid is obtained. Coriolis measurement can be
very accurate irrespective of the type of gas or liquid that is measured; the same
measurement tube can be used for hydrogen gas and peanut butter without
recalibration.
Laser doppler flow measurement

Laser-doppler flow meter.

Blood flow can be measured through the use of a monochromatic laser diode. The
laser probe is inserted into a tissue and turned on, where the light scatters and a
small portion is reflected back to the probe. The signal is then processed to
calculate flow within the tissues. There are limitations to the use of a laser doppler
probe; flow within a tissue is dependent on volume illuminated, which is often
assumed rather than measured and varies with the optical properties of the tissue.
In addition, variations in the type and placement of the probe within identical
tissues and individuals result in variations in reading. The laser doppler has the
advantage of sampling a small volume of tissue, allowing for great precision, but

does not necessarily represent the flow within an entire organ. The flow meter is
more useful for relative rather than absolute measurements.