Aeronautical Institute of Bangladesh

Department of Aircraft

Maintenance

Engineering

TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY

Chapter 4

Factors Affecting Performance

The performance abilities and limitations of aircraft maintenance engineers have been
described in Chapter 2. Other factors may also impinge on the engineer, potentially
rendering him less able to carry out his work and attain the levels of safety required.
These include fitness and health, stress, time pressures, workload, fatigue and the
effects of medication, alcohol and drugs. These subjects are discussed in this
chapter.

Fitness and Health

1.1

The job of an aircraft maintenance engineer can be physically demanding. In addition,

his work may have to be carried out in widely varying physical environments, including
cramped spaces, extremes of temperature, etc. (as discussed in the next chapter).
There are at present no defined requirements for physical or mental fitness for
engineers or maintenance staff. ICAO Annex 11 states:
"An applicant shall, before being issued with any licence or rating [for
personnel other than flight crew members], meet such requirements in.
respect of age, knowledge, experience and, where appropriate, medical
fitness and skill, as specified for that licence or rating."

1.2

In the UK, the ICAO requirements are enforced through the provision of Article 13
(paragraph 7) of the Air Navigation order (ANO)2. This states:
"The holder of an aircraft maintenance engineer's licence shall not
exercise the privileges of such a licence if he knows or suspects that his
physical or mental condition renders him unfit to exercise such
privileges."

1.3

There are two aspects to fitness and health: the disposition of the engineer prior to
taking on employment and the day-to-day well being of the engineer once employed.

1.4

Pre-employment Disposition
Some employers may require a medical upon commencement of employment. This
allows them to judge the fitness and health of an applicant (and this may also satisfy
some pension or insurance related need). There is an obvious effect upon an
engineer's ability to perform maintenance or carry out inspections if through poor
physical fitness or health he is constrained in some way (such as his freedom of
movement, or his sight). In addition, an airworthiness authority, when considering
issuing a licence, will consider these factors and may judge the condition to be of
such significance that a licence could not be issued. This would not, however, affect
the individual's possibility of obtaining employment in an alternative post within the
industry where fitness and health requirements are less stringent.

1. ICAO (1988) Annex 1 - Personnel Licensing. 8th edition, July 1988. Reprinted March 2000.
2. CAA (2001) CAP393: Air Navigation: The Order and the Regulations. UK Civil Aviation Authority.

Chapter 4 Page 1

Aeronautical Institute of Bangladesh

Department of Aircraft

Maintenance

Engineering

TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY

1.5

Day-to-Day Fitness and Health

1.5.1

Fitness and health can have a significant affect upon job performance (both physical
and cognitive). Day-to-day fitness and health can be reduced through illness (physical
or mental) or injury.
JAR 66.50 imposes a requirement that "certifying staff must not exercise the privileges of
their certification authorisation if they know or suspect that their physical or mental
condition renders them unfit."

1.5.2

Responsibility falls upon the individual aircraft maintenance engineer to determine

whether he is not well enough to work on a particular day. Alternatively, his
colleagues or supervisor may persuade or advise him to absent himself until he feels
better. In fact, as the CAA's Airworthiness Notice No. 47 (AWN47)1 points out, it is a
legal requirement for aircraft maintenance engineers to make sure they are fit for
work:
"Fitness: In most professions there is a duty of care by the individual to
assess his or her own fitness to carry out professional duties. This has
been a legal requirement for some time for doctors, flight crew members
and air traffic controllers. Licensed aircraft maintenance engineers are
also now required by law to take a similar professional attitude. Cases of
subtle physical or mental illness may not always be apparent to the
individual but as engineers often work as a member of a team any substandard performance or unusual behaviour should be quickly noticed by
colleagues or supervisors who should notify management so that
appropriate support and counselling action can be taken."

1.5.3

Many conditions can impact on the health and fitness of an engineer and there is not
space here to offer a complete list. However, such a list would include:
Minor physical illness (such as colds, 'flu, etc.);
More major physical illness (such as HIV, malaria, etc.);
Mental illness (such as depression, etc.);
Minor injury (such as a sprained wrist, etc.);
Major injury (such as a broken arm, etc.);
Ongoing deterioration in physical condition, possibly associated with the ageing
process (such as hearing loss, visual defects, obesity, heart problems, etc.);
Affects of toxins and other foreign substances (such as carbon monoxide
poisoning, alcohol, illicit drugs, etc.).

1.5.4

This document does not attempt to give hard and fast guidelines as to what
constitutes 'unfit for work'; this is a complex issue dependent upon the nature of the
illness or condition, its effect upon the individual, the type of work to be done,
environmental conditions, etc. Instead, it is important that the engineer is aware that
his performance, and consequently the safety of aircraft he works on, might be
affected adversely by illness or lack of fitness.

1.5.5

An engineer may consider that he is letting down his colleagues by not going to work
through illness, especially if there are ongoing manpower shortages. However, he
should remind himself that, in theory, management should generally allow for
contingency for illness. Hence the burden should not be placed upon an individual to

1.

CAA (1999) CAP455: Airworthiness Notices. AWN47. UK Civil Aviation Authority.

Chapter 4 Page 2

Aeronautical Institute of Bangladesh

Department of Aircraft

Maintenance

Engineering

TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY

turn up to work when unfit if no such contingency is available. Also, if the individual
has a contagious illness (e.g. 'flu), he may pass this on to his colleagues if he does not
absent himself from work and worsen the manpower problem in the long run. There
can be a particular problem with some contract staff due to loss of earnings or even
loss of contract if absent from work due to illness. They may be tempted to disguise
their illness, or may not wish to admit to themselves or others that they are ill. This is
of course irresponsible, as the illness may well adversely affect the contractor's
standard of work.
1.6

Positive Measures

1.6.1

Aircraft maintenance engineers can take common sense steps to maintain their
fitness and health. These include:

1.6.2

Eating regular meals and a well-balanced diet;

Taking regular exercise (exercise sufficient to double the resting pulse rate for 20
minutes, three times a week is often recommended);

Stopping smoking;

Sensible alcohol intake (for men, this is no more than 3 - 4 units a day or 28 per
week, where a unit is equivalent to half a pint of beer or a glass of wine or spirit);

Finally, day-to-day health and fitness can be influenced by the use of medication,
alcohol and illicit drugs. These are covered later in Section 6.
Further Reading:
a) CAA (1999) CAP455: Airworthiness Notices. AWN47. UK Civil Aviation Authority.
b) Thorn, T. (1999) The Air Pilot's Manual Volume 6: Human Factors and Pilot
Performance (3rd edition). Shrewsbury: Airlife Publishing - Chapter 4 (aimed at
pilots, but generally applicable to engineers)
c) Hawkins, F.H. (1993) Human Factors in Flight (2nd edition). Aldershot: Ashgate Chapter 4.
d) Campbell, R. D and Bagshaw, M. (1999) Human Performance and Limitations in
Aviation (2nd edition). Oxford: Blackwell Scientific - Chapter 4.

Stress: D o m e s t i c a n d W o r k R e l a t e d

2.1

Stress is an inescapable part of life for all of us.

Stress can be defined as any force, that when applied to a system, causes some
significant modification of its form, where forces can be physical, psychological or due to
social pressures.
Source: Penguin Dictionary of Psychology1

2.2

1.

From a human viewpoint, stress results from the imposition of any demand or set of
demands which require us to react, adapt or behave in a particular manner in order to
cope with or satisfy them. Up to a point, such demands are stimulating and useful,
but if the demands are beyond our personal capacity to deal with them, the resulting
stress is a problem.

Reber, A.S. (1995) Dictionary of Psychology (2nd edition). London: Penguin.

Chapter 4 Page 3

Aeronautical Institute of Bangladesh

Department of Aircraft

Maintenance

Engineering

TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY

2.3

Causes and Symptoms

2.3.1

Stress is usually something experienced due to the presence of some form of

stressor, which might be a one-off stimulus (such as a challenging problem or a
punch on the nose), or an on-going factor (such as an extremely hot hangar or an
acrimonious divorce). From these, we get acute stress (typically intense but of short
duration) and chronic stress (frequent recurrence or of long duration) respectively.

2.3.2

Different stressors affect different people to varying extents. Stressors may be:
Physical - such as heat, cold, noise, vibration, presence of something damaging to
health (e.g. carbon monoxide);
Psychological - such as emotional upset (e.g. due to bereavements, domestic
problems, etc.), worries about real or imagined problems (e.g. due to financial
problems, ill health, etc.);
Reactive - such as events occurring in everyday life (e.g. working under time
pressure, encountering unexpected situations, etc.).

2.3.3

AWN47 points out that:

"A stress problem can manifest itself by signs of irritability, forgetfulness,
sickness absence, mistakes, or alcohol or drug abuse. Management have
a duty to identify individuals who may be suffering from stress and to
minimise workplace stresses. Individual cases can be helped by
sympathetic and skilful counselling which allows a return to effective
work and licensed duties."

2.3.4

In brief, the possible signs of stress can include:

Physiological symptoms - such as sweating, dryness of the mouth, etc.;
Health effects - such as nausea, headaches, sleep problems, diarrhoea, ulcers,
etc.;
Behavioural symptoms - such as restlessness, shaking, nervous laughter, taking
longer over tasks, changes to appetite, excessive drinking, etc.;
Cognitive effects - such as poor concentration, indecision, forgetfulness, etc.;
Subjective effects - such as anxiety, irritability,
aggression, etc.

depression, moodiness,

It should be noted that individuals respond to stressful situations in very different ways.
Generally speaking though, people tend to regard situations with negative consequences
as being more stressful than when the outcome of the stress will be positive (e.g. the
difference between being made redundant from work and being present at the birth of a
son or daughter).
2.4

Domestic Stress

2.4.1

When aircraft maintenance engineers go to work, they cannot leave stresses

associated with home behind. Pre-occupation with a source of domestic stress can
play on one's mind during the working day, distracting from the working task. Inability
to concentrate fully may impact on the engineer's task performance and ability to pay
due attention to safety.

2.4.2

Domestic stress typically results from major life changes at home, such as marriage,
birth of a child, a son or daughter leaving home, bereavement of a close family
member or friend, marital problems, or divorce.

Chapter 4 Page 4

Aeronautical Institute of Bangladesh

Department of Aircraft

Maintenance

Engineering

TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY

2.5

Work Related Stress

2.5.1

Aircraft maintenance engineers can experience stress for two reasons at work:
because of the task or job they are undertaking at that moment, or because of the
general organisational environment. Stress can be felt when carrying out certain tasks
that are particularly challenging or difficult. This stress can be increased by lack of
guidance in this situation, or time pressures to complete the task or job (covered later
in this chapter). This type of stress can be reduced by careful management, good
training, etc.

2.5.2

Within the organisation, the social and managerial aspects of work can be stressful.
Chapter 3 discussed the impact on the individual of peer pressure, organisational
culture and management, all of which can be stressors. In the commercial world that
aircraft maintenance engineers work in, shift patterns, lack of control over own
workload, company reorganisation and job uncertainty can also be sources of stress.

2.6

Stress Management

2.6.1

Once we become aware of stress, we generally respond to it by using one of two

strategies, defence or coping.
Defence strategies involve alleviation of the symptoms (taking medication, alcohol, etc.) or
reducing the anxiety (e.g. denying to yourself that there is a problem (denial), or blaming
someone else).

2.6.2

Coping strategies involve dealing with the source of the stress rather than just the
symptoms (e.g. delegating workload, prioritising tasks, sorting out the problem, etc.).
Coping is the process whereby the individual either adjusts to the perceived demands of
the situation or changes the situation itself.
Source: Green, R.G. et al (1996)1

2.6.3

Unfortunately, it is not always possible to deal with the problem if this is outside the
control of the individual (such as during an emergency), but there are well-published
techniques for helping individuals to cope with stress2. Good stress management
techniques include:
Relaxation techniques;
Careful regulation of sleep and diet;
A regime of regular physical exercise;
Counselling - ranging from talking to a supportive friend or colleague to seeking
professional advice.

2.6.4

There is no magic formula to cure stress and anxiety, merely common sense and
practical advice.
Further Reading:
a) Campbell, R.D. and Bagshaw, M. (1999) Human Performance and Limitations in
Aviation (2nd edition). Oxford: Blackwell Scientific - Section 10.2.

1.
2.

Green. R.G.; Muir, H.; James, M.; Gradwell, D. and Green, R.L (1996) Human Factors For Pilots (2nd edition). Aldershot:
Ashgate.
Wilkinson, G. (1997) Understanding Stress. Family Doctor Publications.

Chapter 4 Page 5

Aeronautical Institute of Bangladesh

Department of Aircraft

Maintenance Engineering
TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY

b) Ribak, J., Rayman, R.B., Froom, P. (1995) Occupational Health in Aviation:

Maintenance and Support Personnel. Academic Press - Chapter 5.
c) Stokes, A., Kite, K. (1994) Flight Stress: Stress, Fatigue and Performance in
Aviation. Aldershot: Avebury.
d) Wilkinson, G. (1997) Understanding Stress. Family Doctor Publications.
Time Pressure and Deadlines
3.1

There is probably no industry in the commercial environment that does not impose
some form of deadline, and consequently time pressure, on its employees. Aircraft
maintenance is no exception. It was highlighted in the previous section that one of
the potential stressors in maintenance is time pressure. This might be actual
pressure where clearly specified deadlines are imposed by an external source (e.g.
management or supervisors) and passed on to engineers, or perceived where
engineers feel that there are time pressures when carrying out tasks, even when no
definitive deadlines have been set in stone. In addition, time pressure may be selfimposed, in which case engineers set themselves deadlines to complete work (e.g.
completing a task before a break or before the end of a shift).

3.2

Management have contractual pressures associated with ensuring an aircraft is

released to service within the time frame specified by their customers. Striving for
higher aircraft utilisation means that more maintenance must be accomplished in
fewer hours, with these hours frequently being at night. Failure to do so can impact
on flight punctuality and passenger satisfaction. Thus, aircraft maintenance engineers
have two driving forces: the deadlines handed down to them and their responsibilities
to carry out a safe job. The potential conflict between these two driving pressures can
cause problems.

3.3

The Effects of Time Pressure and Deadlines

As with stress, it is generally thought that some time pressure is stimulating and may
actually improve task performance. However, it is almost certainly true that excessive
time pressure (either actual or perceived, external or self-imposed), is likely to mean
that due care and attention when carrying out tasks diminishes and more errors will
be made. Ultimately, these errors can lead to aircraft incidents and accidents.
It is possible that perceived time pressure would appear to have been a contributory factor
in the BAC 1-11 accident described in Chapter 1. Although the aircraft was not required the
following morning for operational use, it was booked for a wash. The wash team had been
booked the previous week and an aircraft had not been ready. This would have happened
again, due to short-staffing, so the Shift Manager decided to carry out the windscreen
replacement task himself so that the aircraft would be ready in time.
Source: AAIB, 19921

1.

AAIB (1992) Report on the accident to BAC 1-11, G-BJRT over Didcot, Oxfordshire on 10 June 1990. Aircraft Accident
Report 1/92.

Chapter 4

Page 6

Aeronautical Institute of Bangladesh

Department of Aircraft

Maintenance

Engineering

TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY

An extract from the NTSB report on the Aloha accident refers to time pressure as a
possible contributory factor in the accident: "The majority of Aloha's maintenance was
normally conducted only during the night. It was considered important that the airplanes
be available again for the next day's flying schedule. Such aircraft utilization tends to drive
the scheduling, and indeed, the completion of required maintenance work. Mechanics and
inspectors are forced to perform under time pressure. Further, the intense effort to keep
the airplanes flying may have been so strong that the maintenance personnel were
reluctant to keep airplanes in the hangar any longer than absolutely necessary."
Source: NTSB, 1989 1

3.4

Managing Time Pressure and Deadlines

3.4.1

One potential method of managing time pressures exerted on engineers is through

regulation. For example, FAA research has highlighted the need to insulate aircraft
maintenance engineers from commercial pressures. They consider this would help to
ensure that airworthiness issues will always take precedence over commercial and
time pressures. Time pressures can make 'comer-cutting' a cultural norm in an
organisation. Sometimes, only an incident or accident reveals such norms (the extract
from the Aloha accident above exemplifies this).

3.4.2

Those responsible for setting deadlines and allocating tasks should consider:
Prioritising various pieces of work that need to be done;
The actual time available to carry out work (considering breaks, shift handovers,
etc.);

The personnel available throughout the whole job (allowing a contingency for
illness);
The most appropriate utilisation of staff (considering an engineer's specialisation,
and strengths and limitations);
Availability of parts and spares.
It is important that engineering staff at all levels are not afraid to voice concerns over
inappropriate deadlines, and if necessary, cite the need to do a safe job to support this. As
highlighted in Chapter 3, within aircraft maintenance, responsibility should be spread
across all those who play a part. Thus, the aircraft maintenance engineer should not feel
that the 'buck stops here'.
Further Reading:
a) King, D. (1998) Learning Lessons the (not quite so) Hard Way; Incidents - the route
to human factors in engineering. In: Proceedings of the 12th Symposium on
Human Factors in Aviation Maintenance.

1.

NTSB (1989) Aircraft Accident Report-Aloha Airlines, Flight 243. Boeing 737-200, N73711, near Maui, Hawaii, April 28,
1988. NTSB/AAR 89/03

Chapter 4 Page 7

Aeronautical Institute of Bangladesh

Department of Aircraft

Maintenance

Engineering

TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY

4

Workload - Overload and Underload

4.1

The preceding sections on stress and time pressure have both indicated that a certain
amount of stimulation is beneficial to an aircraft maintenance engineer, but that too
much stimulation can lead to stress or over-commitment in terms of time. It is
noteworthy that too little stimulation can also be a problem.

4.2

Before going on to discuss workload, it is important to consider this optimum level of

stimulation or arousal.

4.3

Arousal

4.3.1

Arousal in its most general sense, refers to readiness of a person for performing
work. To achieve an optimum level of task performance, it is necessary to have a
certain level of stimulation or arousal. This level of stimulation or arousal varies from
person to person. There are people who are overloaded by having to do more than
one task at a time; on the other hand there are people who appear to thrive on stress,
being happy to take on more and more work or challenges. Figure 16 shows the
general relationship between arousal and task performance.
Perfor nance
i i

Good
Performance ~ ^ ^
\
\

Poor
Performance
/
/

. r

Under - Aroused

Poor
Performance
\
si

Optimum Arousal

^ Level of
*~ Arousal

Over - Aroused

Figure 16 Optimum arousal leads to best task performance (adapted from Thom
1999)1
1.

Thom, T. (1999) The Pilot's Manual Volume 6: Human Factors and Pilot Performance (3rd edition).
Shrewsbury: Airlife Publishing.

4.3.2

At low levels of arousal, our attentional mechanisms will not be particularly active and
our performance capability will be low (complacency and boredom can result). At
the other end of the curve, performance deteriorates when arousal becomes too high.
To a certain extent, this is because we are forced to shed tasks and focus on key
information only (called narrowing of attention). Best task performance occurs
somewhere in the middle.

4.3.3

In the work place, arousal is mainly influenced by stimulation due to work tasks.
However, surrounding environmental factors such as noise may also influence the
level of arousal.

Chapter 4 Page 8

Aeronautical Institute of Bangladesh

Department of Aircraft

Maintenance

Engineering

TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY

4.4

Factors Determining Workload

4.4.1

An individual aircraft maintenance engineer can usually identify what work he has to
do quite easily. It is more difficult to assess how that work translates into workload.
The degree of stimulation exerted on an individual caused by a task is generally referred to
as workload, and can be separated into physical workload and mental workload.

4.4.2

As noted in the section on information processing in Chapter 2, humans have limited

mental capacity to deal with information. We are also limited physically, in terms of
visual acuity, strength, dexterity and so on. Thus, workload reflects the degree to
which the demands of the work we have to do eats into our mental and physical
capacities. Workload is subjective (i.e. experienced differently by different people)
and is affected by:
The nature of the task, such as the:
physical demands it requires (e.g. strength required, etc.);
mental demands it requires (e.g. complexity of decisions to be made, etc.).
The circumstances under which the task is performed, such as the:
standard of performance required (i.e. degree of accuracy);
time available to accomplish the task (and thus the speed at which the task
must be carried out);
requirement to carry out the task at the same time as doing something else;
perceived control of the task (i.e. is it imposed by others or under your
control, etc.);
environmental factors existing at time (e.g. extremes of temperature, etc.).
The person and his state, such as his:
skills (both physical and mental);
his experience (particularly familiarity with the task in question);
his current health and fitness levels;
his emotional state (e.g. stress level, mood, etc.).

4.4.3

As the workload of the engineer may vary, he may experience periods of overload and
underload. This is a particular feature of some areas of the industry such as line
maintenance.

4.5

Overload
Overload occurs at very high levels of workload (when the engineer becomes over
aroused). As highlighted previously, performance deteriorates when arousal becomes
too high and we are forced to shed tasks and focus on key information. Error rates
may also increase. Overload can occur for a wide range of reasons based on the
factors highlighted above. It may happen suddenly (e.g. if asked to remember one
further piece of information whilst already trying to remember a large amount of data),
or gradually. Although JAR145 states that "The JAR145 approved maintenance
organisation must employ sufficient personnel to plan, perform, supervise and
inspect the work in accordance with the approval"1, and "the JAR 145 organisation
should have a production man hours plan showing that it has sufficient man hours for

1.

JAR145.30 (b), July 1998

Chapter 4 Page 9

.-J

Aeronautical Institute of Bangladesh

Department of Aircraft

Maintenance

Engineering

TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY

the work that is intended to be carried out"\ this does not prevent individuals from
becoming overloaded. As noted earlier in this section, it can be difficult to determine
how work translates into workload, both for the individual concerned, and for those
allocating tasks.
4.6

Underload
Underload occurs at low levels of workload (when the engineer becomes under
aroused). It can be just as problematic to an engineer as overload, as it too causes a
deterioration in performance and an increase in errors, such as missed information.
Underload can result from a task an engineer finds boring, very easy, or indeed a lack
of tasks. The nature of the aircraft maintenance industry means that available work
fluctuates, depending on time of day, maintenance schedules, and so forth. Hence,
unless stimulating 'housekeeping' tasks can be found, underload can be difficult to
avoid at times.

4.7

Workload Management

4.7.1

Unfortunately, in a commercial environment, it is seldom possible to make large

amendments to maintenance schedules, nor eliminate time pressures. The essence
of workload management in aircraft maintenance should include:

4.7.2

4.7.3

ensuring that staff have the skills needed to do the tasks they have been asked to
do and the proficiency and experience to do the tasks within the timescales they
have been asked to work within;

making sure that staff have the tools and spares they need to do the tasks;

allocating tasks to teams or individual engineers that are accomplishable (without

cutting comers) in the time available;

providing human factors training to those responsible for planning so that the
performance and limitations of their staff are taken into account;

encouraging individual engineers, supervisors and managers to recognise when an

overload situation is building up.

If an overload situation is developing, methods to help relieve this include:

seeking a simpler method of carrying out the work (that is just as effective and still
legitimate);

delegating certain activities to others to avoid an individual engineer becoming

overloaded;

securing further time in order to carry out the work safely;

postponing, delaying tasks/deadlines and refusing additional work.

Thus, although workload varies in aircraft maintenance engineering, the workload of

engineers can be moderated. Much of this can be done by careful forward planning
of tasks, manpower, spares, tools and training of staff.
Further Reading:
a) JAR 145.30 (b), & JAR145 AMC 145.30 (b). July 1998
b) Thorns, T. (1999) The Air Pilot's Manual Volume 6: Human Factors and Pilot
Performance (3rd edition). Shrewsbury: Airlife Publishing - Chapter 6.
c) Ribak, J., Rayman, R.B., Froom, P. (1995) Occupational Health in Aviation:
Maintenance and Support Personnel - Chapter 5

1.

JAR145.30 (b) AMC 145.30 (b) July 1998

Chapter 4 Page 10

Aeronautical Institute of Bangladesh

Department of Aircraft

Maintenance

Engineering

TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY

Sleep, Fatigue and Shift Work
5.1

What Is Sleep?

5.1.1

Man, like all living creatures has to have sleep. Despite a great deal of research, the
purpose of sleep is not fully understood.
Sleep is a natural state of reduced consciousness involving changes in body and brain
physiology which is necessary to man to restore and replenish the body and brain.

5.1.2

Sleep can be resisted for a short time, but various parts of the brain ensure that
sooner or later, sleep occurs. When it does, it is characterised by five stages of sleep:
Stage 1: This is a transitional phase between waking and sleeping. The heart rate
slows and muscles relax. It is easy to wake someone up.
Stage 2: This is a deeper level of sleep, but it is still fairly easy to wake someone.
Stage 3: Sleep is even deeper and the sleeper is now quite unresponsive to
external stimuli and so is difficult to wake. Heart rate, blood pressure and body
temperature continue to drop.
Stage 4: This is the deepest stage of sleep and it is very difficult to wake someone
up.
Rapid Eye Movement or REM Sleep: Even though this stage is characterised by
brain activity similar to a person who is awake, the person is even more difficult to
awaken than stage 4. It is therefore also known as paradoxical sleep. Muscles
become totally relaxed and the eyes rapidly dart back and forth under the eyelids.
It is thought that dreaming occurs during REM sleep.

5.1.3

Stages 1 to 4 are collectively known as non-REM (NREM) sleep. Stages 2-4 are
categorised as slow-wave sleep and appear to relate to body restoration, whereas
REM sleep seems to aid the strengthening and organisation of memories. Sleep
deprivation experiments suggest that if a person is deprived of stage 1-4 sleep or
REM sleep he will show rebound effects. This means that in subsequent sleep, he
will make up the deficit in that particular type of sleep. This shows the importance of
both types of sleep.

5.1.4

As can be seen from Figure 17, sleep occurs in cycles. Typically, the first REM sleep
will occur about 90 minutes after the onset of sleep. The cycle of stage 1 to 4 sleep
and REM sleep repeats during the night about every 90 minutes. Most deep sleep
occurs earlier in the night and REM sleep becomes greater as the night goes on.

Chapter 4 Page 11

Aeronautical Institute of Bangladesh

Department of Aircraft

Maintenance

Engineering

TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY

Figure 17 Typical cycle of stage 1-4 (NREM) sleep and REM sleep in the course of
a night. Source: Gross, 1996 1
5.2

Circadian Rhythms

5.2.1

Apart from the alternation between wakefulness and sleep, man has other internal
cycles, such as body temperature and hunger/eating. These are known as circadian
rhythms as they are related to the length of the day.
Circadian rhythms are physiological and behavioural functions and processes in the body
that have a regular cycle of approximately a day (actually about 25 hours in man).

5.2.2

Although, circadian rhythms are controlled by the brain, they are influenced and
synchronised by external (environmental) factors such as light.
An example of disrupting circadian rhythms would be taking a flight that crosses time
zones. This will interfere with the normal synchronisation with the light and dark (day/
night). This throws out the natural link between daylight and the body's internal clock,
causing jet lag, resulting in sleepiness during the day, etc. Eventually however, the
circadian rhythm readjusts to the revised environmental cues.

5.2.3

1.

Figure 18 shows the circadian rhythm for body temperature. This pattern is very
robust, meaning that even if the normal pattern of wakefulness and sleep is disrupted
(by shift work for example), the temperature cycle remains unchanged. Hence, it can
be seen that if you are awake at 4-6 o'clock in the morning, your body temperature is
in a trough and it is at this time that is hardest to stay awake. Research has shown
that this drop in body temperature appears to be linked to a drop in alertness and
performance in man.

Gross, R. (1996) Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour (3rd edition). London: Hodder and Stoughton.

Chapter 4 Page 12

Aeronautical Institute of Bangladesh

Department of Aircraft

Maintenance

Engineering

TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY

0600

1200

Time of Day
Figure 18 The Circadian Rhythm for Internal Body Temperature
Although there are many contributory factors, it is noteworthy that a number of major
incidents and accidents involving human error have either occurred or were initiated in the
pre-dawn hours, when body temperature and performance capability are both at their
lowest. These include Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Bhopal, as well as the BAC1-11,
A320, and B737 incidents summarised in Chapter 1.
5.2.4

The engineer's performance at this 'low point' will be improved if he is well rested,
feeling well, highly motivated and well practised in the skills being used at that point.

5.3

Fatigue

5.3.1

Fatigue can be either physiological or subjective. Physiological fatigue reflects the

body's need for replenishment and restoration. It is tied in with factors such as recent
physical activity, current health, consumption of alcohol, and with circadian rhythms.
It can only be satisfied by rest and eventually, a period of sleep. Subjective fatigue
is an individual's perception of how sleepy they feel. This is not only affected by when
they last slept and how good the sleep was but other factors, such as degree of
motivation.

5.3.2

Fatigue is typically caused by delayed sleep, sleep loss, desynchronisation of normal

circadian rhythms and concentrated periods of physical or mental stress or exertion.
In the workplace, working long hours, working during normal sleep hours and working
on rotating shift schedules all produce fatigue to some extent.

Chapter 4 Page 13

Aeronautical Institute of Bangladesh

Department of Aircraft
5.3.3
\

Maintenance

Engineering

Symptoms of fatigue (in no particular order) may include:

diminished perception (vision, hearing, etc.) and a general lack of awareness;

diminished motor skills and slow reactions;

**

problems with short-term memory;

channelled concentration - fixation on a single possibly unimportant issue, to the

neglect of others and failing to maintain an overview;
v

being easily distracted by unimportant matters;

poor judgement and decision making leading to increased mistakes;

abnormal moods - erratic changes in mood, depressed, periodically elated and

energetic;

5.3.4

diminished standards of own work.

AWN47 highlights the potential for fatigue in aircraft maintenance engineering:

"Tiredness and fatigue can adversely affect performance. Excessive
hours of duty and shift working, particularly with multiple shift periods or
additional overtime, can lead to problems. Individuals should be fully
aware of the dangers of impaired performance due to these factors and
of their personal responsibilities."

54

Shift Work
Most aircraft movements occur between 6 a.m. and 10 p.m. to fit in with the
requirements of passengers. Aircraft maintenance engineers are required whenever
aircraft are on the ground, such as during turn arounds. However, this scheduling
means that aircraft are often available for more significant maintenance during the
night. Thus, aircraft maintenance engineering is clearly a 24 hour business and it is
inevitable that, to fulfil commercial obligations, aircraft maintenance engineers usually
work shifts. Some engineers permanently work the same shift, but the majority cycle
through different shifts. These typically comprise either an 'early shift', a 'late shift'
and a 'night shift', or a 'day shift' and a 'night shift' depending on the maintenance
organisation.

,
5.4.1

Advantages and Disadvantages of Shift Work

There are pros and cons to working shifts. Some people welcome the variety of
working different times associated with regular shift work patterns. Advantages may
include more days off and avoiding peak traffic times when travelling to work. The
disadvantages of shift working are mainly associated with:
working 'unsociable hours', meaning that time available with friends, family, etc.
will be disrupted;
working when human performance is known to be poorer (i.e. between 4 a.m and
6 a.m.);

i
'

5.4.2

problems associated with general desynchronisation and disturbance of the body's

various rhythms (principally sleeping patterns).

Working At Night

>

Shift work means that engineers will usually have to work at night, either permanently
or as part of a rolling shift pattern. As discussed earlier in this chapter, this introduces
the inherent possibility of increased human errors. Working nights can also lead to
problems sleeping during the day, due to the interference of daylight and

Chapter 4 Page 14

Aeronautical Institute of Bangladesh

Department of Aircraft

Maintenance Engineering
TRAINING'PURPOSE ONLY~

environmental noise. Blackout curtains and use of ear plugs can help, as well as
avoidance of caffeine before sleep.
In the B737 double engine oil loss incident, the error occurred during the night shift. The
accident investigation report commented that: "It is under these circumstances that the
fragility of the self monitoring system is most exposed because the safety system can be
jeopardised by poor judgement on the part of one person and it is also the time at which
people are most likely to suffer impaired judgement'.'

5.4.3

Rolling Shift Patterns

When an engineer works roiling shifts and changes from one shift to another (e.g.
'day shift' to 'night shift'), the body's internal clock is not immediately reset. It
continues on its old wake-sleep cycle for several days, even though it is no longer
possible for the person to sleep when the body thinks it is appropriate, and is only
gradually resynchronised. However, by this time, the engineer may have moved onto
the next shift. Generally, it is now accepted that shift rotation should be to later shifts
(i.e. early shift > late shift * night shift or day shift > night shift) instead of rotation
towards earlier shifts (night shift > late shift -^ early shift).

5.4.4

Continuity of Tasks and Shift Handovers

Many maintenance tasks often span more than one shift, requiring tasks to be passed
from one shift to the next. The outgoing personnel are at the end of anything up to a
twelve hour shift and are consequently tired and eager to go home. Therefore, shift
handover is potentially an area where human errors can occur. Whilst longer shifts
may result in greater fatigue, the disadvantages may be offset by the fact that fewer
shift changeovers are required (i.e. only 2 handovers with 2 twelve hour shifts, as
opposed to 3 handovers with 3 eight hour shifts). Shift handover is discussed further
in Chapter 7 when looking at 'work logging and recording'.

5.5

Sleep, Fatigue, Shift Work and the Aircraft Maintenance Engineer

5.5.1

Most individuals need approximately 8 hours sleep in a 24 hour period, although this
varies between individuals, some needing more and some happy with less than this
to be fully refreshed. They can usually perform adequately with less that this for a few
days, building up a temporary sleep 'deficit'. However, any sleep deficit will need to
be made up, otherwise performance will start to suffer.
I A good rule of thumb is that one hour of high-quality sleep is good for two hours of activity. I

5.5.2

As previously noted, fatigue is best tackled by ensuring adequate rest and good
quality sleep are obtained. The use of blackout curtains if having to sleep during
daylight has already been mentioned. It is also best not to eat a large meal shortly
before trying to sleep, but on the other hand, the engineer should avoid going to bed
hungry. As fatigue is also influenced by illness, alcohol, etc., it is very important to get
more sleep if feeling a little unwell and drink only in moderation between duties
(discussed further in the next section). Taking over-the-counter drugs to help sleep
should only be used as a last resort.

5.5.3

When rotating shifts are worked, it is important that the engineer is disciplined with
his eating and sleeping times. Moreover, out of work activities have to be carefully
planned. For example, it is obvious that an individual who has been out night-clubbing
until the early hours of the morning will not be adequately rested if rostered on an
early shift.

Chapter 4 Page 15

Aeronautical Institute of Bangladesh

Department of Aircraft

Maintenance

Engineering

TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY

5.5.4

Shift working patterns encountered by aircraft maintenance engineers may include

three or four days off after the last night shift. It can be tempting to work additional
hours, taking voluntary overtime, or another job, in one or more of these days off. This
is especially the case when first starting a career in aircraft maintenance engineering
when financial pressures may be higher. Engineers should be aware that their
vulnerability to error is likely to be increased if they are tired or fatigued, and they
should try to ensure that any extra hours worked are kept within reason.
It is always sensible to monitor ones performance, especially when working additional
hours. Performance decrements can be gradual, and first signs of chronic fatigue may be
moodiness, headaches or finding that familiar tasks (such as programming the video
recorder) seem more complicated than usual.

5.5.5

Finally, it is worth noting that, although most engineers adapt to shift working, it
becomes harder to work rotating shifts as one gets older.
Further Reading:
a) Thorn, T. (1999) The Air Pilot's Manual Volume 6: Human Factors and Pilot
Performance (3rd edition). Shrewsbury: Airlife Publishing -Chapter 5.
b) Campbell, R.D. and Bagshaw, M. (1999) Human Performance and Limitations in
Aviation (2nd edition). Oxford: Blackwell Scientific - Section 10.3.
c) Maddox, M. Ed. (1998) Human Factors Guide for Aviation Maintenance 3.0.
Washington DC: Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Aviation Medicine Chapter 4. Available from http://hfskyway.faa.gov
d) Morgan, D. (1996) Sleep Secrets for shift workers and people with off-beat
schedules. Whole Person Associates.
e) Ribak, J., Rayman, R.B., Froom, P. (1995) Occupational Health in Aviation:
Maintenance and Support personnel - Chapter 5.

Alcohol, Medication and Drug Abuse

6.1

It should come as no surprise to the aircraft maintenance engineer that his

performance will be affected by alcohol, medication or illicit drugs. Under both U K and
JAA legislation it is an offence for safety critical personnel to carry out their duties
whilst under the influence of alcohol or drugs. Article 13 (paragraph 8) of the UK ANO,
states:
"The holder of an aircraft maintenance engineer's licence shall not, when
exercising the privileges of such a licence, be under the influence of drink
or a drug to such an extent as to impair his capacity to exercise such
privileges."

6.2

The current law which does not prescribe a blood/alcohol limit, is soon to change.
There will be new legislation permitting police to test for drink or drugs where there
is reasonable cause, and the introduction of a blood/alcohol limit of 20 milligrams of
alcohol per 100 millilitres of blood for anyone performing a safety critical role in UK
civil aviation (which includes aircraft maintenance engineers).

Chapter 4 Page 16

Aeronautical Institute of Bangladesh.

Department of Aircraft

Maintenance

Engineering

TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY

6.3

Alcohol

6.3.1

Alcohol acts as a depressant on the central nervous system, dulling the senses and
increasing mental and physical reaction times. It is known that even a small amount
of alcohol leads to a decline in an individual's performance and may cause his
judgement (i.e. ability to gauge his performance) to be hindered.

6.3.2

Alcohol is removed from the blood at a fixed rate and this cannot be speeded up in
any way (e.g. by drinking strong coffee). In fact, sleeping after drinking alcohol can
slow down the removal process, as the body's metabolic systems are slower.

6.3.3

AWN47 provides the following advice concerning alcohol:

"Alcohol has similar effects to tranquillisers and sleeping tablets and may
remain circulating in the blood for a considerable time, especially if taken
with food. It may be borne in mind that a person may not be fit to go on
duty even 8 hours after drinking large amounts of alcohol. Individuals
should therefore anticipate such effects upon their next duty period.
Special note should be taken of the fact that combinations of alcohol and
sleeping tablets, or anti-histamines, can form a highly dangerous and even
lethal combination."
As a general rule, aircraft maintenance engineers should not work for at least eight hours
after drinking even small quantities of alcohol and increase this time if more has been
drunk.

6.3.4

The affects of alcohol can be made considerably worse if the individual is fatigued,
or using medication.

6.4

Medication

6.4.1

Any medication, no matter how common, can possibly have direct effects or side
effects that may impair an engineer's performance in the workplace.
Medication can be regarded as any over-the-counter or prescribed drug used for
therapeutic purposes.

6.4.2

There is a risk that these effects can be amplified if an individual has a particular
sensitivity to the medication or one of its ingredients. Hence, an aircraft maintenance
engineer should be particularly careful when taking a medicine for the first time, and
should ask his doctor whether any prescribed drug will affect his work performance.
It is also wise with any medication to take the first dose at least 24 hours before any
duty to ensure that it does not have any adverse effects.
Medication is usually taken to relieve symptoms of an illness. Even if the drugs taken do
not affect the engineer's performance, he should still ask himself whether the illness has
made him temporarily unfit for work.

6.4.3

Various publications, and especially AWN47 give advice relevant to the aircraft
maintenance engineer on some of the more common medications. This information
is summarised below, however the engineer must use this with caution and should
seek further clarification from a pharmacist, doctor or their company occupational
health advisor if at all unsure of the impact on work performance.
Analgesics are used for pain relief and to counter the symptoms of colds and 'flu.
In the UK, paracetamol, aspirin and ibuprofen are the most common, and are

Chapter 4 Page 17

Aeronautical Institute of Bangladesh

Department of Aircraft

Maintenance Engineering
TRAININGPUKPOSE ONLY'

generally considered safe if used as directed. They can be taken alone but are
often used as an ingredient of a 'cold relief medicine. It is always worth bearing in
mind that the pain or discomfort that you are attempting to treat with an analgesic
(e.g. headache, sore throat, etc.) may be the symptom of some underlying illness
that needs proper medical attention.
Antibiotics (such as Penicillin and the various mycins and cyclines) may have short
term or delayed effects which affect work performance. Their use indicates that a
fairly severe infection may well be present and apart from the effects of these
substances themselves, the side-effects of the infection will almost always render
an individual unfit for work.
Anti-histamines are used widely in 'cold cures' and in the treatment of allergies
(e.g. hayfever). Most of this group of medicines tend to make the user feel drowsy,
meaning that the use of medicines containing anti-histamines is likely to be
unacceptable when working as an aircraft maintenance engineer.
Cough suppressants are generally safe in normal use, but if an over-the-counter
product contains anti-histamine, decongestant, etc., the engineer should exercise
caution about its use when working.
Decongestants (i.e. treatments for nasal congestion) may contain chemicals such
as pseudo-ephedrine hydrochloride (e.g. 'Sudafed') and phenylphrine. Side-effects
reported, are anxiety, tremor, rapid pulse and headache. AWN47 forbids the use
of medications containing this ingredient to aircraft maintenance engineers when
working, as the effects compromise skilled performance.
'Pep' pills are used to maintain wakefulness. They often contain caffeine,
dexedrine or benzedrine. Their use is often habit forming. Over-dosage may cause
headaches, dizziness and mental disturbances. AWN47 states that "the use of
'pep' pills whilst working cannot be permitted. If coffee is insufficient, you are not
fit for work."
Sleeping tablets (often anti-histamine based) tend to slow reaction times and
generally dull the senses. The duration of effect is variable from person to person.
Individuals should obtain expert medical advice before taking them.
6.4.4

Melatonin (a natural hormone) deserves a special mention. Although not available

without a prescription in the UK, it is classed as a food supplement in the USA (and is
readily available in health food shops). It has been claimed to be effective as a sleep
aid, and to help promote the resynchronisation of disturbed circadian rhythms. Its
effectiveness and safety are still yet to be proven and current best advice is to avoid
this product.
If the aircraft maintenance engineer has any doubts about the suitability of working whilst
taking medication, he must seek appropriate professional advice.

6.5

Drugs

6.5.1

Illicit drugs such as ecstasy, cocaine and heroin all affect the central nervous system
and impair mental function. They are known to have significant effects upon
performance and have no place within the aviation maintenance environment. Of
course, their possession and use are also illegal in the UK.

6.5.2

Smoking cannabis can subtly impair performance for up to 24 hours. In particular, it

affects the ability to concentrate, retain information and make reasoned judgements,
especially on difficult tasks.

Chapter 4 Page 18

Aeronautical Institute of Bangladesh

Department of Aircraft Maintenance

Engineering

TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY

Further Reading:
a) CAA (1999) CAP455: Airworthiness Notices. AWN47. UK Civil Aviation Authority.
b) Transport Canada (1993) Shift Wise: a Shiftworker's Guide to Good Health.
Publication number TP11658E.
c) Maddox, M.E. (Ed.) (1998) Human Factors Guide for Aviation Maintenance 3.0.
Washington DC: Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Aviation Medicine.
Available from http://hfskyway.faa.gov

Chapter 4 Page 19