UNIT III

MEANING AND SIGNIFICANCE OF STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL

(SPC) Statistical process control (SPC) is a method for achieving quality control
in manufacturing processes. It employs control charts to detect whether the
process observed is under control.
Classical quality control was achieved by inspecting 100% of the finished
product and accepting or rejecting each item based on how well the item met
specifications. In contrast, statistical process control uses statistical tools to
observe the performance of the production line to predict significant deviations
that may result in rejected products.
The underlying assumption is that there is variability in any production
process: The process produces products whose properties vary slightly from their
designed values, even when the production line is running normally, and these
variances can be analyzed statistically to control the process. For example, a
breakfast cereal packaging line may be designed to fill each cereal box with 500
grams of product, but some boxes will have slightly more than 500 grams, and
some will have slightly less, in accordance with a distribution of net weights. If
the production process, its inputs, or its environment changes (for example, the
machines doing the manufacture begin to wear) this distribution can change. For
example, as its cams and pulleys wear out, the cereal filling machine may start
putting more cereal into each box than specified. If this change is allowed to
continue unchecked, more and more product will be produced that fall outside
the tolerances of the manufacturer or consumer, resulting in waste. While in this
case, the waste is in the form of "free" product for the consumer, typically waste
consists of rework or scrap.
By using statistical tools, the quality engineer responsible for the production
line can troubleshoot the root cause of the variation that has crept in to the
process and correct the problem.
Statistical process control

CONSTRUCTION OF CONTROL CHARTS FOR VARIABLES AND ATTRIBUTES

Common Types of Charts
The types of charts are often classified according to the type of quality
characteristic that they are supposed to monitor: there are quality control charts
for variables and control charts for attributes. Specifically, the following charts
are commonly constructed for controlling variables:
X-bar chart. In this chart the sample means are plotted in order to control the
mean value of a variable (e.g., size of piston rings, strength of materials, etc.).
R chart. In this chart, the sample ranges are plotted in order to control the
variability of a variable.
S chart. In this chart, the sample standard deviations are plotted in order to
control the variability of a variable.
S**2 chart. In this chart, the sample variances are plotted in order to control
the variability of a variable.
For controlling quality characteristics that represent attributes of the product, the
following charts are commonly constructed:
C chart. In this chart (see example below), we plot the number of defectives
(per batch, per day, per machine, per 100 feet of pipe, etc.). This chart assumes
that defects of the quality attribute are rare, and the control limits in this chart
are computed based on the Poisson distribution (distribution of rare events).
U chart. In this chart we plot the rate of defectives, that is, the number of
defectives divided by the number of units inspected (the n; e.g., feet of pipe,
number of batches). Unlike the C chart, this chart does not require a constant
number of units, and it can be used, for example, when the batches (samples)
are of different sizes.
Np chart. In this chart, we plot the number of defectives (per batch, per day,
per machine) as in the C chart. However, the control limits in this chart are not
based on the distribution of rare events, but rather on the binomial distribution.
Therefore, this chart should be used if the occurrence of defectives is not rare
(e.g., they occur in more than 5% of the units inspected). For example, we may
use this chart to control the number of units produced with minor flaws.
P chart. In this chart, we plot the percent of defectives (per batch, per day, per
machine, etc.) as in the U chart. However, the control limits in this chart are not
based on the distribution of rare events but rather on the binomial distribution (of
proportions). Therefore, this chart is most applicable to situations where the
occurrence of defectives is not rare (e.g., we expect the percent of defectives to
be more than 5% of the total number of units produced).

PROCESS CAPABILITY MEANING, SIGNIFICANCE AND MEASUREMENT

Process Capability
1. Select a candidate for the study. This step should be institutionalized. A
goal of any organization should be ongoing process improvement. However,
because a company has only a limited resource base and cant solve all problems
simultaneously, it must set priorities for its efforts. The tools for this include
Pareto analysis and fishbone diagrams.
2. Define the process. It is all too easy to slip into the trap of solving the wrong
problem. Once the candidate area has been selected in step 1, define the scope
of the study. A process is a unique combination of machines, tools, methods, and
personnel engaged in adding value by providing a product or service. Each
element of the process should be identified at this stage. This is not a trivial
exercise. The input of many people may be required. There are likely to be a
number of conflicting opinions about what the process actually involves.
3. Procure resources for the study. Process capability studies disrupt normal
operations and require significant expenditures of both material and human
resources. Since it is a project of major importance, it should be managed as
such. All of the usual project management techniques should be brought to bear.
This includes planning, scheduling, and management status reporting.
4. Evaluate the measurement system. Using the techniques described in
Chapter V, evaluate the measurement systems ability to do the job. Again, be
prepared to spend the time necessary to get a valid means of measuring the
process before going ahead.
5. Prepare a control plan. The purpose of the control plan is twofold: 1) isolate
and control as many important variables as possible and, 2) provide a
mechanism for tracking variables that can not be completely controlled. The
object of the capability analysis is to determine what the process can do if it is
operated the way it is designed to be operated. This means that such obvious
sources of potential variation as operators and vendors will be controlled while
the study is conducted. In other words, a single well-trained operator will be used
and the material will be from a single vendor. There are usually some variables
that are important, but that are not controllable. One example is the ambient
environment, including temperature, barometric pressure, or humidity. Certain
process variables may degrade as part of the normal operation; for example,
tools wear and chemicals are used. These variables should still be tracked using
logsheets and similar tools.
6. Select a method for the analysis. The SPC method will depend on the
decisions made up to this point. If the performance measure is an attribute, one
of the attribute charts will be used. Variables charts will be used for process
performance measures assessed on a continuous scale. Also considered will be
the skill level of the personnel involved, need for sensitivity, and other resources
required to collect, record, and analyze the data.
7. Gather and analyze the data. Use one of the control charts described in this
chapter, plus common sense. It is usually advisable to have at least two people
go over the data analysis to catch inadvertent errors in transcribing data or
performing the analysis.
8. Track down and remove special causes. A special cause of variation may
be obvious, or it may take months of investigation to find it. The effect of the
special cause may be good or bad. Removing a special cause that has a bad

effect usually involves eliminating the cause itself. For example, if poorly trained
operators are causing variability, the special cause is the training system (not the
operator), and it is eliminated by developing an improved training system or a
process that requires less training. However, the removal of a beneficial special
cause may actually involve incorporating the special cause into the normal
operating procedure. For example, if it is discovered that materials with a
particular chemistry produce better product the special cause is the newly
discovered material and it can be made a common cause simply by changing the
specification to assure that the new chemistry is always used.
9. Estimate the process capability. One point can not be overemphasized: the
process capability cannot be estimated until a state of statistical control has
been achieved! After this stage has been reached, the methods described later in
this chapter may be used. After the numerical estimate of process capability has
been arrived at it must be compared to managements goals for the process, or it
can be used as an input into economic models. Demings all-or-none rules
provide a simple model that can be used to determine if the output from a
process should be sorted 100% or shipped as-is.
10. Establish a plan for continuous process improvement. Once a stable
process state has been attained, steps should be taken to maintain it and
improve upon it. SPC is just one means of doing this. Far more important than the
particular approach taken is a company environment that makes continuous
improvement a normal part of the daily routine of everyone.
SIX SIGMA CONCEPTS OF PROCESS CAPABILITY
Six Sigma
The often-used six sigma symbol.
Six Sigma is a system of practices originally developed by Motorola to
systematically improve processes by eliminating defects. Defects are defined as
units that are not members of the intended population. Since it was originally
developed, Six Sigma has become an element of many Total Quality Management
(TQM) initiatives.
The process was pioneered by Bill Smith at Motorola in 1986 and was originally
defined as a metric for measuring defects and improving quality, and a
methodology to reduce defect levels below 3.4 Defects Per (one) Million
Opportunities (DPMO).
Six Sigma is a registered service mark and trademark of Motorola, Inc. Motorola
has reported over US$17 billion in savings from Six Sigma as of 2006.
In addition to Motorola, companies which also adopted Six Sigma methodologies
early-on and continue to practice it today include Bank of America, Caterpillar,
Honeywell International (previously known as Allied Signal), Raytheon and
General Electric (introduced by Jack Welch).
Recently Six Sigma has been integrated with the TRIZ methodology for problem
solving and product design.
Key concepts of Six Sigma
At its core, Six Sigma revolves around a few key concepts.
Critical to Quality: Attributes most important to the customer
Defect: Failing to deliver what the customer wants
Process Capability: What your process can deliver

 Variation: What the customer sees and feels

Stable Operations: Ensuring consistent, predictable processes to improve what
the customer sees and feels
Design for Six Sigma: Designing to meet customer needs and process
capability
Methodology
Six Sigma has two key methodologies:[7] DMAIC and DMADV. DMAIC is used to
improve an existing business process. DMADV is used to create new product
designs or process designs in such a way that it results in a more predictable,
mature and defect free performance.
DMAIC
Basic methodology consists of the following five steps:
Define the process improvement goals that are consistent with customer
demands and enterprise strategy.
Measure the current process and collect relevant data for future comparison.
Analyze to verify relationship and causality of factors. Determine what the
relationship is, and attempt to ensure that all factors have been considered.
Improve or optimize the process based upon the analysis using techniques like
Design of Experiments.
Control to ensure that any variances are corrected before they result in defects.
Set up pilot runs to establish process capability, transition to production and
thereafter continuously measure the process and institute control mechanisms.
DMADV
Basic methodology consists of the following five steps:
Define the goals of the design activity that are consistent with customer
demands and enterprise strategy.
Measure and identify CTQs (critical to qualities), product capabilities,
production process capability, and risk assessments.
Analyze to develop and design alternatives, create high-level design and
evaluate design capability to select the best design.
Design details, optimize the design, and plan for design verification. This phase
may require simulations.
Verify the design, set up pilot runs, implement production process and
handover to process owners.
Some people have used DMAICR (Realize). Others contend that focusing on the
financial gains realized through Six Sigma is counter-productive and that said
financial gains are simply byproducts of a good process improvement.
Another additional flavor of Design for Six Sigma is the DMEDI method. This
process is almost exactly like the DMADV process, utilizing the same toolkit, but
with a different acronym. DMEDI stands for Define, Measure, Explore, Develop,
Implement.
Roles required for implementation
Six Sigma identifies five key roles for its successful implementation.
Executive Leadership includes CEO and other key top management team
members. They are responsible for setting up a vision for Six Sigma

implementation. They also empower the other role holders with the freedom and
resources to explore new ideas for breakthrough improvements.
Champions are responsible for the Six Sigma implementation across the
organization in an integrated manner. The Executive Leadership draws them from
the upper management. Champions also act as mentor to Black Belts. At GE this
level of certification is now called "Quality Leader".
Master Black Belts, identified by champions, act as in-house expert coach for
the organization on Six Sigma. They devote 100% of their time to Six Sigma.
They assist champions and guide Black Belts and Green Belts. Apart from the
usual rigor of statistics, their time is spent on ensuring integrated deployment of
Six Sigma across various functions and departments.
Experts This level of skill is used primarily within Aerospace and Defense
Business Sectors. Experts work across company boundaries, improving services,
processes, and products for their suppliers, their entire campuses, and for their
customers. Raytheon Incorporated was one of the first companies to introduce
Experts to their organizations. At Raytheon, Experts work not only across multiple
sites, but across business divisions, incorporating lessons learned throughout the
company.
Black Belts operate under Master Black Belts to apply Six Sigma methodology
to specific projects. They devote 100% of their time to Six Sigma. They primarily
focus on Six Sigma project execution, whereas Champions and Master Black Belts
focus on identifying projects/functions for Six Sigma.
Green Belts are the employees who take up Six Sigma implementation along
with their other job responsibilities. They operate under the guidance of Black
Belts and support them in achieving the overall results.
In many successful modern programs, Green Belts and Black Belts are
empowered to initiate, expand, and lead projects in their area of
responsibility.The terms black belt and green belt are borrowed from the
ranking systems in various martial arts.

UNIT IV-OUTLINE
Seven Tools of Quality
Ishikawa diagram
Pareto chart
Check sheet
Control chart
Flowchart
Histogram
Scatter diagrams
Seven New Management and Planning Tools
1. Affinity diagram: organizes a large number of ideas into their natural
relationships.
2. Relations diagram: shows cause-and-effect relationships and helps you analyze
the natural links between different aspects of a complex situation.
3. Tree diagram: breaks down broad categories into finer and finer levels of
detail, helping you move your thinking step by step from generalities to specifics.
4. Matrix diagram: shows the relationship between two, three or four groups of
information and can give information about the relationship, such as its strength,
the roles played by various individuals, or measurements.
5. Matrix data analysis: a complex mathematical technique for analyzing
matrices, often replaced in this list by the similar prioritization matrix. One of the
most rigorous, careful and time-consuming of decision-making tools, a
prioritization matrix is an L-shaped matrix that uses pairwise comparisons of a
list of options to a set of criteria in order to choose the best option(s).
6. Arrow diagram: shows the required order of tasks in a project or process, the
best schedule for the entire project, and potential scheduling and resource
problems and their solutions.
7. Process decision program chart (PDPC): systematically identifies what might
go wrong in a plan under development.