Water Soluble Polymers E

Water
Soluble
Polymers
Introduction
Water soluble polymers cover a wide range of
highly varied families of products of natural or
synthetic origin, and have numerous uses.
Among these families, synthetic polymers, and

more particularly coagulants and flocculants, are
used mainly for facilitating the separation of
materials in suspension in aqueous media. They
also help to dewater sludge from various separation processes.
The separation of solids in a liquid medium takes

place rapidly when the density of the particles is
markedly different from that of the liquid
medium. Either the particles settle out or they
float on top of the liquid.
Difficulties occur when the particle size allows it

to remain in suspension in the liquid medium.
In this case, the use of coagulants and flocculants
allows separation to be carried out.
2 Table of contents
1I
INTRODUCTION
II
TABLE OF CONTENTS
III
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COLLOID SCIENCE
III-1
Colloidal suspensions
III-1-1
Hydrophobic colloids
III-1-2
Hydrophilic colloids
III-2
Measurement of the concentration of colloids
IV
COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION
IV-1
Charge neutralization
IV-2
Adsorption
IV-3
Suspension destabilization by coagulation
10
IV-4
Suspension destabilization by flocculation
10
IV-4-1
Initiation of flocs
10
IV-4-2
Kinetics of floc development
12
IV-4-3
Consistency of flocs
12
IV-5
IV-6
Other suspension destabilization systems
13
IV-5-1
Encapsulation systems
13
IV-5-2
Two-polymer-component coagulation systems
13
IV-5-3
Microparticulate systems
13
Efficiency of flocculation and coagulation
Water Soluble Polymers - Flocculation Coagulation
14
Table of contents
IV-7
Parameters having an influence on the efficiency of flocculation and coagulation
14
IV-7-1
Influence of the particles
14
IV-7-2
Influence of the polymers
15
IV-7-3
Influence of the polymer mixing in the solution
16
IV-7-4
Influence of the pH and the temperature of the solution
17
IV-7-5
Influence of the organic nature of the suspension
17
IV-8
Advantages of synthetic coagulants
17
WATER SOLUBLE POLYMERS
18
V-1
Coagulants
V-2
V-1-1
Quaternary polyamines
18
V-1-2
PolyDADMAC
19
V-1-3
Dicyandiamide resins
20
Flocculants
20
V-2-1
Nonionic flocculants
20
V-2-2
Anionic flocculants
21
V-2-3
Cationic flocculants
21
V-3
Amphoteric copolymers
22
V-4
Other polymers
22
V-5
Products in solution
23
V-6
Branched polymers
23
V-7
Thickening agents
23
Table of contents
VI
PHYSICAL FORMS OF POLYMERS
24
VI-1
Powders
24
VI-2
Emulsions
25
VI-3
Polyacrylamides in bead form
27
VI-4
Products in solution
27
VII CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYMERS
28
VII-1
Viscosity
29
VII-2
Measurements of the molecular mass
30
VII-2-1
Light scattering method
31
VII-2-2
Intrinsic viscosity method
31
VII-3
Stability
32
VII-3-1
Chemical and biochemical stability
32
VII-3-2
Mechanical stability
32
VII-4
Ionicity
33
VII-5
Residual polymer content
33
VII-6
Toxicity
33
VIII LABORATORY TESTS AND INDUSTRIAL TRIALS
34
VIII-1 Principles
34
VIII-2 Main laboratory process-water and municipal-water treatment applications
36
VIII-3 Use of the polymers
37
VIII-3-1
Polymers in powder form and in bead form
37
VIII-3-2
Polymer emulsions
37
VIII-3-3
Polymer solutions
37
Water Soluble Polymers-Flocculation Coagulation
Table of contents
IX
IX-1
GENERAL APPLICATIONS
38
Separation processes using flocculation
39
IX-1-1
Settling
39
IX-1-2
Centrifuging
40
IX-1-3
Belt filters
41
IX-2
Potable water
42
IX-3
Process water
43
IX-4
Industrial effluent
44
IX-5
Municipal sewage
45
IX-6
Thickening and dewatering of sludge
46
SPECIAL APPLICATIONS
48
X-1
Mining industry
48
X-2
The paper industry
49
X-3
The petroleum industry
50
X-4
The cosmetic industry
51
X-4-1
Conditioners and film-forming agents for hair and skin products
51
X-4-2
Thickening agents and emulsion stabilizers
51
X-5
X-6
The textile industry
52
X-5-1
Synthetic thickeners
52
X-5-2
Sizing agents
52
X-5-3
Fixing agents
52
Agriculture-Soil conditioners
53
Basic principles
6 of colloid science
III-1 Colloidal suspensions
In liquid media and more particularly aqueous
media, organic or inorganic materials are present
in dissolved or solid form.
These two forms are distinguished by the size of
the particles.
Dissolved compounds are:
- Inorganic compounds, ions and/or organic compounds of low molecular weight with a particle
size of at most 10 -3 m;
- Soluble organic compounds of high molecular
weight, such as proteins or polymers, with a
slightly larger particle size of between 10 -3 and
10 -2 m.
Solid compounds are:
- Colloids with a particle size of between about
10 -2 and 1 m;
- Materials in suspension with a particle size of
more than 1 m.
Colloidal particles, invisible to the naked eye, undergo

high-speed Brownian motion - the speed is between
0.004 m/s in the case of the largest particles and
100 m/s in the case of the smallest.These particles also
have a very high specific surface area (inversely proportional to the particle diameter). They are therefore more
sensitive to surface phenomena than to gravitational
forces.Thus, the largest colloid particles will have a natural settling time over a depth of 1 m of water of about
two years.
Colloidal particles can therefore form suspensions which
are very stable over time.
The stability of a colloid suspension depends on the equilibrium between two types of opposing forces involved.
These are Van der Waals-type force - the universal attractive force between atoms and molecules, - and an electrostatic interaction force.
These two forces act differently depending on the intrinsic
nature of the colloids, which are either hydrophilic, i.e.
water molecules are adsorbed onto their surface, or,
conversely, hydrophobic.
III-1-1 Hydrophobic colloids
Colloids of a hydrophobic nature (for example, clays) form
stable suspensions because their surface charge is the
same and they repel each other.These charges may come
from selective adsorption of an ion onto the surface or
from the surface itself (crystal lattice defects).
The surface of the electrically charged particle is at a different potential from the solvent medium. Electrostatic
equilibrium between the surface of the particle and the
solvent medium is achieved by means of two transitional
layers.
Water Soluble Polymers-Flocculation Coagulation
Basic principles
of colloid science
The first layer is fixed and remains attached to the surface of the particle. The second layer, separated from the
first by a shear plane, is more diffuse.
Figure 1 Equilibrium layers of a colloidal particle
The charges have an influence on the solubility of hydrophilic colloids. The importance of the role of the charges
depends on the degree of ionization of the particles functional groups. The degree of ionization itself depends on
the pH of the medium. In general, the solubility is a minimum around the isoelectric point, which corresponds to a
pH of between 4.0 and 6.5.
Hydrophilic colloidal suspensions therefore are akin to an
actual solution of very large molecules or of aggregates of
small molecules, with a very high affinity for the solvent.
In some cases, hydrophilic colloids can be adsorbed onto
the surface of hydrophobic colloids, such as clays for
example, and thus impart a hydrophilic nature to the
hydrophobic particle. Such colloidal suspensions are then
very difficult to destabilize.
III-2 Measurement of the colloid

concentration
The potential difference between the shear plane and the
solution is called the zeta potential. This potential difference is about 10 to 200 mV.When it is reduced to zero
or close to zero (the isoelectric point), the particles tend to
agglomerate under the influence of the Van der Waals
forces and the colloidal suspension becomes destabilized.
III -1- 2 Hydrophilic colloids
Colloids of a hydrophilic nature (generally organic substances) owe their stability to the layers of water molecules bonded to the surface of the particle.The bonds are
of a chemical nature and the electrostatic charges play
only a secondary role.The layers of water molecules prevent any agglomeration between particles. In this case,
there is no real interface between the particle and the solvent medium.
There are no direct measurements of the colloid concentration.

The colloidal particles can be directly observed with a
microscope.They are visible indirectly by light reflection or
the Tyndall effect, which is why colloidal solutions are turbid.
The turbidity may be quantified by nephelometry, a relative measurement expressed in NTU (Nephelometric
Turbidity Unit) with respect to a calibration solution of
formazine in water which has zero turbidity (French
Standard NF T 90.053).
8 Coagulation and flocculation

IV-1 Charge neutralization
The conventional methods of solid-liquid separation, such as filtration, sedimentation, centrifugation and flotation, cannot be used directly on
stabilized suspensions. The particles are too fine
a n d re m a i n s e p a ra t e d f ro m e a c h o t h e r.
Coagulation and flocculation destabilize these
In aqueous media, hydrophobic colloidal particles are

generally negatively charged. The increase in the cation
content of the solution reduces the zeta potential and
therefore the thickness of the double layer which
surrounds the colloidal particle.
When the electrical protection of the particles has been
removed or sufficiently reduced, the moving particles can
collide with each other due to the momentum of
Brownian motion, the movement of the fluid in which they
are contained and the relative movement of the particles
by sedimentation.
suspensions and allow solid-liquid separation.

The Van der Waals forces and the surface adsorption
phenomena then become dominant again. Since the
particle can bond together, the suspension is destabilized.
Two mechanisms are mainly involved, namely
charge neutralization and adsorption.
This charge neutralization mechanism is reversible.There

is a limiting cation concentration which allows destabilization to occur. Above this critical concentration, if cations
continue to be added, a new ionic imbalance between the
particle and the solution may be created, leading to the
formation of a new double layer and to the restabilization
of the suspension.
The charge neutralization efficiency of an electrolyte
increases with its valency (the Schulze and Hardy rule).
This explains the predominant use of bivalent or trivalent
electrolytes for destabilizing colloidal suspensions.
Coagulation and flocculation
IV-2 Adsorption
Adsorption is a surface mechanism which allows two
contacting particles to be bonded to each other by Van
der Waals forces or hydrogen bonds.
Measuring the amount of polymer adsorbed by a colloidal
suspension as a function of time allows a characteristic
curve, called a Langmuir isotherm, to be plotted:
Figure 2 Adsorption isotherm
Adsorption is a complex mechanism involving a

large number of parameters relating to:
The coagulant:
structure of the molecular chain
ionic charge density
molecular weight
The colloids:
number of available sites
surface charges
specific surface area
particle concentration
The aqueous medium:
pH
conductivity
presence of other substances
turbulence
shear rate temperature
mixing of the products
The characteristic curve is called an isotherm since the

adsorption is strongly dependent on the temperature and
any measurement must be carried out at constant
temperature.
Adsorption is an irreversible mechanism which takes place
in two steps. Firstly, after a few seconds, most of the reaction has taken place. After a relatively long second step, a
balance is achieved, which is limited by the number of
sites available on the surface of the particle.When all the
available sites are occupied, no further molecule can be
attached to the surface of the particle.
The complexity of this system explains the difficulties still

encountered at the present time in understanding and
modelling this phenomenon. The experimental approach
remains indispensable.
10
IV-3 Suspension destabilization

by coagulation
IV-4 Suspension destabilization

by flocculation
Coagulation is the destabilization of a colloidal suspension

using products with a high ionic charge density.Two types
of mechanisms may occur.
Flocculation is the destabilization of a hydrophobic colloidal suspension by bonding between colloidal particles
using long polymer chains.
In a first type, the cations are added to the colloidal suspension in an amount just equal to neutralize the nega
tive charges. Coagulation occurs directly by charge neutralization.This type of coagulation is extensively used in the
treatment of potable water with iron or aluminium
cations.
This requires the use of polymers with a high molecular

weight (greater than 1 million) and takes place in two
main steps: floc initiation and floc growth.
A second type of coagulation is achieved using polymers

of Low Molecular Weight (LMW = 20,000 to 1 million)
with a high cationic charge.When this type of polymer is
in contact with anionic particles, its chains may be entirely adsorbed onto part of the surface of the colloidal particles thus forming regions of a cationic nature.
Figure 3 Coagulation using a LMW polymer
IV-4-1 Initiation of flocs

To initiate flocs, the polymers essentially act via a mechanism of irreversible adsorption of the colloids along their
molecular chain.The effect of this mechanism depends on
the concentration of polymer, the concentration of particles and the particle size.
If an excess of polymer covers the surface of the particle,
the particle will once again be isolated and the suspension
will restabilize.
Figure 4 Isolation of a particle by a polymer
This adsorption of oppositely charged ions reduces the

surface potential and the protection of the particles.
Having become true dipoles, these particles are attracted
to each other and collide with each other. The Van der
Waals forces then come into play, binding the two particles and destabilizing the suspension.
Coagulation by this type of mechanism generally has
higher degrees of aggregation than those of the simple
electrical neutralization mechanism.
In the case of a suspension containing particles which

have a wide particle-size distribution or several particle
size distributions, the suspension may be restabilized for
different polymer concentrations corresponding to the different particle-size distributions.Thus, good results may be
achieved using a given polymer for one particle size, but
not for another. As a general rule, when this phenomenon
occurs, relatively good flocculation is observed but the
solution remains very cloudy.
If the polymer concentration is such that adsorption sites
remain free on the particles, the same polymer chain may
be able to be adsorbed onto two different particles:
Figure 5 Bridging between two particles
The length of the completely uncoiled polymer chains is

about 1 m, possibly as much as a few tens of m in the
case of the longest chains.These lengths should be compared with the dimensions of the particles, which are
about 1 m.
Inter-particle bridging can occur with nonionic, cationic or
anionic polymers. In these mechanisms, the charge neutralization phenomena have a secondary influence. This
explains why flocculation reactions can occur with polymers carrying charges of the same sign as the colloidal
suspension.
The charges may have an influence which promotes
better uncoiling of the polymer chains due to the effect of
electrostatic repulsion. The shape of the polymer chain
may also be a key factor in this process.
The ionicity of the solution may also influence chain uncoiling by limiting or eliminating the repulsion effect. This
phenomenon is known as the counterion effect or salt
effect.
In this mechanism, the polymer allows part of its molecular chain to uncoil in the solution beyond the particles
double layer.The free end of the molecular chain is in turn
adsorbed onto the surface of a second particle, which
thus creates bridging between the two particles.
In general, it is found that the optimum polymer concentration must be such that more than half the adsorption
sites remain available on the particles.
For a given polymer, bridging mainly depends on two

parameters: the number of sites available for adsorption
on the surface of the particle and the rate of collision of
the particles.
11
12
IV-4-2 Kinetics of floc development

Depending on the mechanisms described above, development of the flocs takes place in several sequential steps:
IV-4 -3 Consistency of flocs

Flocs can be of two types consistencies, namely soft,
which are reversible, and hard, which are irreversible.
- Dispersion of the polymer in the medium
When a floc provides good retention of fine particles for

low shear rates in a quiescent zone, as the shear rate
increases the retention of the fine particles decreases. On
returning to the initial shear conditions, if the floc resumes
its initial structure, it is called a soft floc. Soft flocs are
generally obtained with polymers of low molecular weight.
- Diffusion of the polymer towards the solid-liquid inter

face
- Adsorption of the polymer onto the surface of a particle
Collision of particles carrying an adsorbed flocculant with
another particle
- Adsorption of the flocculant onto a second particle in
order to form a bridge and a microfloc
- Growth of the microflocs by successive collisions and
adsorptions
- Breaking of the flocs formed, by shear.
Each step takes place according to its own kinetics and
the final result, in terms of the floc, depends on the relative rates of the various steps. Thus, for example, if the
adsorption phase is much more rapid than the growth
phase, there will be many small flocs whereas, if the
growth rate is higher, the flocs will be larger and fewer in
number.
In general, adsorption reactions are extremely rapid. The
limiting step in the development of flocs is mainly due, to
the frequency of collision between particles and collusions
with flocs already formed.
A hard floc, is stronger, maintains good retention of fine

particles over wider turbulence and increased shear.
However, when it is subjected to high turbulence for an
excessive length of time, the retention of fine particles
decreases.The floc then becomes soft.
The assumed reasons for this phenomenon stem from the
configuration of the polymer chains on the surface of the
particle.A hard floc is composed of particles connected by
bridging via molecular chains which uncoil in the space
around the particle:
Figure 6 Hard floc by double flocculation
1. Initial adsorption
2. Initial flocculation
3. Change of conformation
4. Reflocculation
After shear, the molecular chains, due to the influence of

the ionic forces, have a tendency to cover more of the surface of the particle, giving, by bridging, a floc of soft consistency.
IV-5 Other suspension

destabilization systems
Three other systems are also encountered - still
employing the two basic mechanisms, namely
charge neutralization and adsorption.
Figure 7 Two-component coagulation
IV -5-1 Encapsulation systems

The bridging system described above is based on the primary interaction between a polymer chain and the particle in order to initiate flocculation. As regards
encapsulation mechanisms, these occur when two or
more polymer chains react first of all with each other due
to the influence of electrostatic interactions or of hydrogen
bonds. This reaction produces a network of crosslinked
polymer chains which mechanically trap the particle. In
this mechanism, which is not very well understood, the
electrostatic interactions between the particles and the
polymer do not play an important role.
IV-5-2 Two-polymer-component
coagulation systems
The sequential addition of two polymers of opposite charge allows very good coagulation to be achieved. In prac
tice, a cationic polymer of low or moderate molecular
weight is firstly introduced into the solution, followed by an
anionic polymer of high molecular weight.
The low-molecular-weight cationic polymer is adsorbed
onto the particle to form cationic regions onto which the
high-molecular-weight anionic polymer may be fixed. The
anionic molecular chain tends to uncoil in the solution due
to the effect of charges of the same type carried by the
particle. Eventually the chain is adsorbed onto other particles via bridging.
It is important for a slight excess of cationic polymer to

remain in solution when the anionic polymer is added. If it
does not, the polymers can react with each other in the
liquid phase and form a gel.
IV-5-3 Microparticulate systems
Microparticulate systems generally involve a cationic polymer and fine inorganic anionic particles (bentonite, silica,
etc.).
They allow small, very strong, flocs to be obtained which
do not retain water.
13
14
IV-6 Efficiency of flocculation

and coagulation
The efficiency of coagulation and flocculation is essentially measured by the size of the flocs and their characteristics, the amount of flocculated or coagulated matter in
suspension and the turbidity of the supernatant liquid.
These various parameters depend on the specific characteristics of the flocs, and also on the separation processes
used. In order to measure the efficiency of flocculation, it
is therefore necessary to carry out tests according to the
separation process employed.
Table 1 gives the main characteristics of flocs for various
separation processes:
Table 1
Separation
Characteristics of the flocs
Filtration
Sedimentation
Porous, strong, permeable

Dense, strong, large, uniform shape,
minimal porosity
Strong, dense, large
Low density, strong uniform size, large
Centrifuging
Flotation
IV-7 Parameters having an

influence on the efficiency of
flocculation and coagulation
The efficiency of coagulation and flocculation depends on
many parameters relating to the particles, the polymers
used and the solution to be treated.
To date, many studies have appeared on the subject, particularly aiming to provide simplified models which allow
extrapolation.
Without attempting to give all the parameters that
influence the efficiency of coagulation and flocculation, the
following are the main ones.
IV-7 1 Influence of the particles
Usually, flocculation occurs for individual particles smaller
than 50 m. Large particles (greater than 100 m) generally do not flocculate since the collision rates are too low.
It is difficult for the polymers to become fixed to their surfaces during collision and the rate of breakage of the flocs
formed is very high.
However, flocculation of large particles can take place
using suitable polymers with a very high molecular weight.
Depending on their nature and their concentration, the
floculation of suspended matter is:
- Either diffuse, in which all the flocs are separated and of
different size.The large flocs settle rapidly, leaving the finer
flocs and microflocs in suspension, these being unable to
settle and often leave a settling tank via its overflow.The
flocculation times are long-between about 1 and 15
minutes;
- Or homogeneous, in which the flocs are of similar size
and settle at the same rate, leaving a clear interstitial
water.
In the case of clays for example, the flocculation is diffuse

for a concentration of less than about 2 g/l and homogeneous type for a concentration of about 2 to 5 g/l.
Above a certain concentration, flocculant-suspension
mixing no longer occurs and no floc appears.
The particle concentration in the suspension has an effect
on the nature of the phenomena involved. In general it is
found that at low particle concentrations the dominant
phenomena involve charge neutralization, whereas, for
higher concentrations, the phenomena of adsorption and
bridging are dominant. Moreover, the flocs formed with a
high particle concentration are stronger and contain a
higher concentration of suspended matter.
IV-7- 2 Influence of the polymers
The nature of the polymer is the main element in flocculation. In this case, three main characteristics are involved
the molecular weight, the concentration and the ionic
charge.
In general, the efficiency of the polymer is greater the longer its molecular chain, the chain length depending on the
molecular weight and on the spatial configuration of the
molecule.The longer the chain, the greater is the possibility of creating bridging and the smaller the amount of
polymer used for the same result. In addition, high-molecular-weight polymers can have a secondary effect: the filter effect, in which an unflocculated particle becomes
trapped in the floc mesh. The structure of the chain
(linear, branched or crosslinked) also plays an important
role.
Figure 8 Filter effect
15
16
However, the molecular chains must not be too long as

their efficiency is limited by problems of diffusion in the
solution and of steric hindrance. Furthermore, increasing
the chain length has the effect of increasing the viscosity
of the solution and the time required to dissolve the polymer.
These polymer diffusion and dissolution problems also
depend on the necessary dosage to be used (the amount
of polymer per tonne of dry matter). The appearance of
the floc allows the right dosage to be determined. For
example, on a filter, a matt appearance indicates good
flocculation, whereas a shiny appearance indicates that
too much polymer has been added.
In practice, for a high or moderate dosage (polymer quantities of between 1 kg and 10 kg per tonne of dry matter
for municipal sludge), the size of the floc particles is
directly related to the molecular weight of the polymer.
The higher the molecular weight, the larger the floc. On
the other hand, for low dosages, polymers of moderate
molecular weight give better results because of the poor
mixing of high-molecular-weight polymers and their tendency to retain unflocculated particles.
The influence of the polymer charge on the flocs is
expressed in relation to the ionic demand of the medium.
Weaker charges give flexible flocs, having good shear
strength, but their filtration properties are not exceptional.
On the other hand, a moderate or stronger charge gives
better filtration properties, but the flocs obtained are
more shear-sensitive.
One particular case consists of flocculation in a high-pressure centrifuge. In this case, the polymer must be present
in the free form over the entire amount of sludge to allow
both initial flocculation and re-flocculation after the initial
flocs have been sheared. In this case, any excess polymer
must not produce a sludge redispersion effect.
IV-7-3 Influence of polymer mixing

in the solution
The conditions under which the polymer is mixed in the
solution are fundamental to achieving good coagulation
and flocculation.
Since the adsorption reactions are irreversible and very
rapid, the quality of mixing must be high enough to allow
rapid diffusion of the polymer in the suspension.
Moreover, since the polymers are generally used in
concentrated form and in small quantities, they must be
distributed uniformly throughout the medium.
An experimental compromise therefore has to be found
so that, depending on the points at which the polymer is
injected, the quality of mixing is satisfactory without shearing the flocs which are forming. Because, above a certain
size, the flocs become very shear-sensitive.
Because of their intrinsic shear strength and the shear
rate in the medium, the flocs can break up and become
smaller flocs or even individual particles. Over time, an
equilibrium is established between the formation and
disappearance of the flocs.
The hydrodynamic state of the solution is also important
for mixing. Flocculation gives good results in laminar or
turbulent-flow. In the latter, smaller flocs result due to
shearing. In the interim state, the performance is unpredictable.
IV-7-4 Influence of the pH and

the temperature of the solution
We have seen that the pH of the solution has a direct
effect on the behaviour of the polymer chains. It can also
have other effects:
Adjusting the pH of the solution allows metal hydroxides
to be precipitated, and these may directly interfere with
flocculation, for example by capturing the colloids.
Hydrolysis, and therefore the ionic charge of the polymer,
depends on the pH.
Strongly anionic polymers are very effective in basic
medium, but their performance is not as good in acid
medium because the carboxylate/carboxylic functional
groups do not dissociate in such a medium. Nonionic or
moderately cationic polymers are the best performers in
acid medium.
The temperature of the solution directly influences the
kinetics of the reactions involved and the activity of the
colloids. Thus, lowering the temperature reduces flocculation.
IV-7-5 Influence of the organic nature of the suspension
A final important factor regarding the suspension is its
organic nature. In general, the more organic the nature of
the suspension the greater the cationicity of the polymer.
Conversely, anionic polymers are more effective in inorganic solutions.
IV-8 Advantages of synthetic

coagulants
Well known for their higher unit cost than inorganic substances, organic polymers prove, in many
cases, to be more economical to use than inorganic substances because of their following specific
advantages:
- The amounts needed are generally 10 times lower than
those of inorganic substances;
- They do not increase the amounts of solid matter to be
removed and therefore help to minimize the cost of treating the residual sludge;
- The flocs obtained using organic polymers have a higher
shear strength than those formed using inorganic substances, inter-particle bridging resulting from stronger
elastic bonding;
- The flocs obtained using inorganic coagulants are not
very compressible.They therefore take up more space on
a filter medium and rapidly increase the head loss;
- Organic polymers are less sensitive to pH variations and
can therefore be used for treating a greater variety of
water types;
- Organic polymers help to reduce the amount of trivalent
salts dissolved in the water (in particular, there is a fear of
aluminium because of Alzheimers disease);
- Synthetic polymers can be used together with inorganic
substances, the organic polymers mechanically reinforcing
the structure formed by the inorganic substance.
17
18 Water soluble polymers

V-1 Coagulants
The two main characteristics of a coagulant are:
- a very high cationic charge, to neutralize the
negative charges of the colloids
- a relatively low molecular weight, to allow rapid
diffusion in the medium and around the particles.
Controlling the addition of monomer into the reactor

allows the molecular weight to be varied.
Three large families of products are used, namely

quaternar y polyamines, polyDADMAC and
dicyandiamide resins.
Polyamines differ from other polymers because the cationic charge is on the main chain.
V-1-1 Quaternary polyamines

The condensation reaction of epichlorhydrin with a primary or secondary amine, usually dimethylamine, produces a polymer of moderate molecular weight in which
all the nitrogen atoms are in quaternized form:
The addition of polyamines allows the branching and total

length of the chain to be controlled.
Such polymers have the following characteristics:

- Molecular weight between 10,000 and 1,000,000
- Liquid form with 40 to 50% concentration
- Cationic site on the main chain
- Viscosity at 50% of between 40 and 20,000 centipoise
- Chlorine stability
- Compatibility with inorganic coagulants
- Good storage stability
- Use with or without pre-dilution.
Polyamines are organic coagulants which may completely
or partially replace the inorganic coagulants (aluminium
sulphate, aluminium perchloride, ferric chloride, etc.).
Epichlorhydrin
Dimethylamine
Polyamine
These substances are approved for potable water in the

United States, South America, Great Britain, Russia and
Korea.
Polyamines are also used in the manufacture of
paper, drilling muds, latex coagulation, etc.
Water soluble polymers
V- 1-2 PolyDADMAC
Diallyldimethyl ammonium chloride (DADMAC) is obtained by the reaction of allyl chloride with dimethylamine.
Polymerization of DADMAC, limited by the reactivity of
the allyl radical, produces a water-soluble cyclic polymer of
low to medium molecular weight:
By polymerization via a cyclization mechanism, the following two structures are obtained:
PolyDADMACs have the following main characteristics:

- Molecular weight: 10,000 to 1,000,000
- Liquid or bead form at 20% to 100% concentration
- Cationic sites on a side chain
- Viscosity of the liquids at 40%: between 1000 and
20,000 centipoise
- Chlorine stability
- Compatibility in terms of mixing with inorganic coagulants
- Good storage stability
- Use with or without pre-dilution
- pH stability.
The main applications of PolyDADMAC are:
- Coagulants for potable water with the same regulatory
situation as for polyamines. In addition, polyDADMAC is at
the present time the only polymer approved for potable
water in China;
- Coagulants for process water;
- Conditioning agents for cosmetics;
- Neutralizing agents for harmful anionic colloidal substances;
- Copolymers with acrylamide for water treatment and for
temporary wet strength in paper;
- Agents for treating the ultrafines recirculating in the
white water in papermaking.
19
20
water soluble polymers
V-1-3 Dicyandiamide resins

Dicyandiamide resins are obtained by condensation of
dicyandiamide with formaldehyde:
Dicyandiamide
Formaldehyde
Polydicyandiamide (DMD)
followed by quaternization with ammonium chloride:
V-2 Flocculants
Flocculants are hydrophilic polymers having a molecular
weight varying from 1 to 30 million, i.e. a degree of polymerization of between 14,000 and 420,000 monomer
units.Their water solubility comes from sufficiently strong
solvation of the polar groups (either ionic or nonionic) that
they contain, so that the various segments of a chain are
dissociated.
Usually based on acrylamide, they have, by homopolymerization, a nonionic nature and may have, by copolymerization, a cationic or anionic nature, with a degree of
ionicity varying between 0% and 100%.
V-2-1 Nonionic flocculants
Nonionic flocculants are acrylamide homopolymers:
DMD
Dicyandiamide Resin
The main characteristics of dicyandiamide resins

are:
- Molecular weight: 3000 to 150,000
- Cationic sites on a side chain
- Liquid at 40 to 60% concentration
- Viscosity of the liquids: 50 to 300 centipoise
- Very high cationicity.
Their main applications are in water treatment,
as dye fixers for textile printing and in paper.
Acrylamide
Polyacrylamide
These polymers are called nonionic, even though slight

hydrolysis of the amide groups gives them an anionic
nature (with an anionicity of less than 1%). Nonionic polymers containing less than 1% of anionic groups may be
obtained under special polymerization conditions.
Their main characteristics are:

- Molecular weight: between 1.5 and 15 million
- Viscosity at 5 g/l: between 8 and 200 cps.
They are used for the treatment of potable
water, the treatment of waste process water, the
treatment of municipal sewage and the treatment of ores.
V- 2-2 Anionic flocculants

Anionic flocculants are obtained either by hydrolysis of the
amide groups on a polyacrylamide chain or by copolymerization of the polyacrylamide with a carboxylic or sulphonic acid salt.
The most commonly used is acrylic acid:
V-2-3 Cationic flocculants

Cationic flocculants are mainly derived from the copolymerization of acrylamide with dimethylaminoethyl acrylate (DMAEA) in quaternized form.
A first reaction of DMAEA with methyl chloride allows it to
be converted into a quaternary ammonium salt in the
form of chloromethylated DMAEA (DMAEA-MeCl):
The copolymerization of DMAEA-MeCl with acrylamide

produces the cationic polymer:
The anionicity of these copolymers can vary between 0%
and 100% depending on the ratio of the monomers involved.
The main characteristics of the copolymers are:
- Molecular weight: 3 to 30 million
- Viscosity at 5 g/l: between 200 and 2800 cps.
The main applications are given in Chapter IX
and X.They relate to water treatment and mining
industry. They are also used as thickeners in the
petroleum, textile, cosmetic and other industries.
The cationic charge of the copolymer is determined by the

ratio of each monomer and may vary between 0 and
100%.
The ester group of the copolymer is very sensitive to the
pH above a pH of 6:
Hydrolysis of the polymer reduces its efficiency by creating

amphoteric polymers and then anionic polymers. It is
therefore essential to prepare these polymers at a pH of
about 5.5, even though the flocculation is carried out at a
higher pH. However, during flocculation, the floc may be
converted by chemical modification of the polymer when
the contact times are long, for example during settling.
The main characteristics of the products obtained are: Molecular weight: 3 to 10 million,
Viscosity at 5 g/l: 100 to 1700 cps
Their main applications are given in Chapters IX
and X.
21
22
waters soluble polymers
V-3 Amphoteric polymers

Amphoteric polymers exhibit both cationic and
anionic behaviour, for example acrylamide-acrylic acid-DMAEA-MeCl or DADMAC-acrylic acid.
- followed by condensation with epichlorhydrin in order to

give tertiary amine groups and to cause branching and
crosslinking:
The strength and the relative number of sites of

opposite ionic nature may vary.
V-4 Other polymers

There are many other forms of polymers and the
imagination of chemists is unlimited. However,
despite remarkable properties, the industrial use
of these products is often limited by their cost or
by the performance of a single product compared
with a wide range of polyacrylamides. Among
products that have found an industrial outlet,
mention may be made of:
Polyethyleneimines:
the polymerization of ethyleneimine:
NH-CH2-CH2 n
produces a highly cationic polymer of low molecular

weight, especially used as a drainage aid in papermaking.
Polyamide-amines:
the condensation of adipic acid with diethylenetriamine
and with epichlorhydrin produces a low-molecular-weight
copolymer in which all the amine groups are quaternized
by the epichlorhydrin. The manufacturing process takes
place in two steps:
-condensation of diethylenetriamine with adipic acid:
The solubility is maintained by controlling the degree of

branching between the epoxy groups on one polymer
chain and the secondary amine on another chain.
The polyamide-amines are used in papermaking as a drystrength additive.
Polyamine-based polymers:
These are condensates of halogenated compounds
(dichloroethane, epichlorhydrin, etc.) with polyamines.
They cover an entire family of polymers, some of which
have been studied in flocculation applications.
Polyethylene oxides (PEO):
These have a very high molecular weight (2 to 8 millions)
and although they do not have an electric charge, they are
non-ionic in nature because of a free electron pair on the
oxygen atom. These products are particularly specific to
the flocculation of silica.They are also used for the flotation of ores and the reduction of head losses, and they are
used in paper as a retention agent in newsprint production and as a formation agent for tissue paper.
Sulphonated compounds:
- The sodium polystyrene sulphonate or sodium polyvinylsulphonate type, which are highly anionic polymers of low
molecular weight;
- Copolymers of acr ylic acid with, in par ticular,
2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulphonic acid (AMPSA).
Polyacrylate-type dispersants:
The dispersants are sodium polyacrylates of low molecular weight.
V-5 Products in solution

For uses in coagulation, for example for dispersion, the polymers must have a low or even very
low molecular weight. Only the technique of solution polymerization allows this type of polymer
to be obtained in a simple manner.
The main solution products are:
- The Mannich reaction product, in which polyacrylamide
is made to react with formaldehyde and a secondary
amine, such as dimethylamine.This reaction may be followed by quaternization and gives a polymer which is used
as a flocculant;
- The product of the reaction with glyoxal, the main application which is in papermaking as a wet-strength agent;
- The product of Hoffman degradation with hypochlorite,
which gives an acrylamide-vinylamine copolymer used in
the treatment of sludge and for wet or dry strength in
paper.
V-6 Branched polymers

These polymers are formed by introducing small amounts
of multifunctional monomers into the polymerization of
monofunctional monomers.
They have the advantage of forming more stable flocs
without the risk of the suspension restabilizing.These properties derive from the characteristics of these polymers.
Being less deformable, they are unable to cover all the
active sites of the same particle. Several polymer molecules can therefore be adsorbed onto the same particle.
This allows more structured, and therefore more stable,
flocs to be formed, although they are small.
V-7 Thickening agents

A final family of polymers relates to synthetic thickeners.
These products derive from acrylic copolymers, generally
of high molecular weight, with a small number of
branches (acrylic acid, maleic acid, acrylamide, etc.).They
carry carboxylic functional groups at the end of the chain
which, in the presence of water, are easily hydrated, so as
to develop a thickening action. In the swollen state, the
volume of these so-called short thickeners is one hundred
times greater.
In an acid medium, the polymer has a slight tendency to
be ionized and has few electric charges along the chain,
which remains flexible and tends to coil up on itself.
During alkanization, the chain carries negatively charged
groups which repel each other. The molecular chain
extends and becomes rigid, causing the thickening action
in water.
These products are sensitive to electrolytes, causing a
drop in viscosity.
23
Physical forms
24 of polymers
VI-1 Powders
The main physical forms of polymers are
Powders are obtained by the gel polymerisation, a basic

production process.The process is as follows:
powders, emulsions, beads and liquid solutions.

Figure 9 Gel process
Manufactured from the same monomers,

monomers
water
these products are distinguished by their

manufacturing processes.
catalysts
polymerization
gel
granulation
drying
removal of water
grinding
screening
bagging
The monomers are polymerized in liquid form. Next, the

gel obtained is ground and then dried. The quality obtained by this process, particularly with regard to solubility, is
exceptionally good and the molecular weight is very high.
The powders thus obtained have a particle size of 0 to
1mm and may be dissolved in 30 to 240 minutes depending on the type and the molecular weight.
25
Physical forms of polymers
VI-2 Emulsions
It is essential that these polymers be dispersed in water
without any agglomerates (fisheyes) using various types of
dispersing equipment in the form of vane-type, pumptype, pneumatic transfer-type ejectors, or similar equipment.
Emulsions are suspensions of polymer hydrogels in a oil.

They generally contain 25 to 50% of active material.The
hydrogel-a hydrated polymer - is in the form of micro
spheres with an average diameter of 1 m. These micro
spheres are dispersed in the oil and protected from agglomeration by surfactants.
The manufacturing process normally does not include
drying and therefore allows high-molecular-weight polymers with a high solubility to be obtained.The process is
as follows:
Figure 10 Emulsion process
monomers
surfactants
oil
water
emultions
catalysts
polymerization
hydrogel
filtration
packaging or bulk
26
Physical forms
of polymers
By varying the amount of surfactant it is possible to create semi-microemulsions (0.2 m in size) or micro emulsions (less than 0.1 m in size and transparent) having
properties similar to emulsions.
The emulsions are formed using hydrophobic surfactants
(Hydrophilic Lipophilic Balance, HLB 6) creating reverse
(water-in-oil) emulsions which are insoluble in water.
An alternative process consists in distilling the

emulsions in order to remove the water.Thus, the
following caracteristics are achieved:
A high concentration, thereby reducing the packaging and
transport costs
Good stability over time (lifetime: 12 months)
It is necessary, after polymerization or in some cases

during polymerization, to add a hydrophilic surfactant to
them to allow the emulsion to undergo inversion on
contact with water and allow the hydrogel particles to
dissolve.
Depending on the mechanical dissolution conditions, the
dissolving time may vary from a few seconds to a few
minutes. It is important to observe an optimum concentration in solution, corresponding to approximately 5 g/l of
active material.
High fluidity, easy to handle

But a higher cost and a slight loss of efficiency because of
the heating during distillation.
Figure 11 Emulsion of polyacrylamide
Inverting
surfactant
Stabilizer
surfactant
It is recommended that these emulsions be stored under

dry conditions at a temperature of between 0 and 35C
and that a StockEMULTM-type storage tank, allowing
easier metering, be used.
Water +
polymer
Oil
27
Physical forms of polymers
VI-3 Polyacrylamides in bead form

Another method used for synthesizing polymers is the production of beads.The process is as follows:
Figure 12 Bead process
monomers
oil
surfactant
VI-4 Products in solution

For use as a coagulant or dispersant, it is necessary for
the molecular weights to be low or even very low.
These products are obtained by solution polymerization of
the monomers, followed by a post reaction with specific
reagents. Since solution polymers are highly viscous, it is
not possible to obtain high concentrations.
suspension
Figure 13 Solution process
catalysts
polymerisation
recirculation
monomers
water
gel in bead form

solution
azeotropic distillation
distillation
of the solvent
initiators
polymerisation
centrifugation
drying
bagging
The beads have essentially the following advantages:

- More rapid dissolution time (order of magnitude 30
minutes) because their particle size is less than 300 m;
- Better flow, but, like the powder products, requiring the
use of dispersion equipment;
- No dust.
The molecular weights achieved are lower than those
obtained using the solution, emulsion or powder process.
Very low molecular weight polymers can thus be produced
for specific applications (textile, oil drilling...)
polymer solution of
accectable viscosity
Chemical characteristics
28 of polymers
The main parameters normally
used to characterize polymers are:
The nature of the monomers
and of the polymers:
- polyacrylamides
- polyacrylates
- acrylamide-dimethylaminoethyl acrylate copolymers
- polyamines
- polyethyleneimines
- polyamidoamines
- polyethylene oxide
The molecular weight:
- low molecular weight (LMW): 1 to 3 millions
- medium molecular weight: 3 to 6 millions
- standard molecular weight: 6 to 10 millions
- high molecular weight: 10 to 15 millions
- very high molecular weight: greater than
15 millions
The molecular distribution:
- low polydispersity
- high polydispersity
The nature of the charges:
- nonionic
- anionic
- cationic
- amphoteric
The charge density:

- low: 1 to 10 %
- medium: 10 to 40 %
- high: 40 to 80 %
- very high: 80 to 100 %
The charge distribution:
- random polymers
- block polymers
The viscosity, which depends on the charge
and the molecular weight
The physical form:
- emulsion
- solution
- powder
- beads
The stability:
- storage stability
- temperature stability
- pH stability
- gel stability
- moisture stability
of polymers
VII-1 Viscosity
The viscosity is the coefficient of proportionality between the applied shear stress and the shear rate :
= /
The viscosity of a solution of a given polymer generally
depends on the shear applied:
The viscosity also depends on the polymer concentration

in the solution.
When the variation in the viscosity of a solution is plotted
as a function of the concentration on a log-log plot, three
regions may generally be distinguished:
Figure 14 Variation of viscosity vs shear rate
Figure 15 Variation of viscosity

of a polymer solution vs concentration
Four regions may be distinguished:

1 - Constant-viscosity region in which the behaviour of the
At low concentration, the polymer molecules individually
solution is Newtonian. This region is associated with low
retract on themselves like a ball of string separated by solvent
shear rates and/or low concentrations.
molecules. When the concentration increases, the balls move
2 - Transition region, which corresponds to the polymer mole-
closer together. Above a concentration C1, the balls start to
cules undergoing deformation due to the effect of the
come into contact with each other. Increasing the concentra-
increasing shear rate.
tion further, the balls start to interpenetrate and to contact up
3 - Region in which the viscosity decreases as the shear rate
to the concentration C 2. The concentration Ccr - the critical
increases. The greater the shear, the more the molecular
concentration - defines the point at which all the balls are in
chains orient in the flow direction. The behaviour of the
contact with each other and have just started interpenetration.
solution is pseudo plastic.

4 - Transition region, which corresponds to high degrees of
shear.
29
30
of polymers
VII-2 Measurement of
the molecular mass
It is important to determine these limiting concentrations
if it is desired to measure the behaviour of the individual
macromolecules and in particular to measure the molecular mass of the polymer. In this case, the viscosity measurements have to be carried out at concentrations of less
than C1.
The critical shear rate depends on the molecular weight
of the polymer.This critical rate decreases as the molecular weight increases.
The molecular mass can be measured by a direct method,

namely light scattering or an indirect method, namely
intrinsic viscosity.
VII-2-1 Light scattering method
If macromolecules in dilute solution are illuminated with a
laser, the light is scattered in space.
If I0 is the intensity of the incident light, the intensity of
the scattered light I, for a given solution, is a unique function of the distance r and the angle q:
Figure 16
r
q
I0
Sample
For an ideal solution, the difference in intensity of the scattered light between the polymer solution and the solvent
is proportional to the molecular mass of the polymer.The
following equation can be applied:
(I + cos )
2
Isolution - Isolvent
= K
I0
where
r2
C Mw
K is a constant
C is the concentration of the polymer in g/l
MW is the molecular mass in g/mol
of polymers
The constant K can be more precisely defined by the following equation:
The intrinsic viscosity is the extrapolation, to zero concentration, of the reduced viscosity which is defined by the
equation:
where no = 1.33 (refractive index of the solvent)

= 632.8 nm (wavelength of the laser)
Na = 6.023x1023 (Avogadros number)
dn
= 0.15 (refractive index increment of the polymer
dc
in the solvent and at the wavelength of the laser)
For real solutions, the anisotropy and fluctuations in the

scattered intensity have to be taken into account.
VII-2-2 Intrinsic viscosity method

In order to determine the molecular masses of polymers,
an indirect method is used which consists in calculating
the molecular mass from the Mark-Houwink equation:
h = k Ma
where h is the intrinsic viscosity, M is the average molecular
mass and k and a are two constants which depend on the
polymer-solvent pair and the temperature.
For polyacrylamides, the constants usually have the following values for capillary viscometry measurements:
K = 3.73 x 10 -4 and a = 0.66
where h is the viscosity of the polymer solution

h0 is the viscosity of the solvent at the same temperature
C is the polymer concentration in the solution
In order to determine the intrinsic viscosity, the reduced

viscosity at various concentrations is usually measured by
means of a capillary viscometer. The intrinsic viscosity is
obtained by extrapolation to zero concentration.
Figure 17 Determination of the intrinsic viscosity
31
32
Main characteristics
of polymers
VII-3 Stability
In general, polymers are stable over periods of
several months. However, in solution, chemical,
mechanical or bacteriological degradation may
occur, sometimes rapidly.
VII-3-1 Chemical and biochemical stability
The chemical degradation of polymers can be distinguished by processes such as hydrolysis and molecular attack
by foreign bodies.
With regard to hydrolytic degradation, the stability of polyacrylamides depends on the pH according to their ionic
nature:
nonionic:
stable from pH 1 to pH 12
anionic:
cationic:
Polyamines and polyDADMAC are stable from

pH 1 to pH 14.
The external factors affecting the degradation

of water-soluble polymers are:
- free radicals which cause chain scission and rapid reduction in the molecular weight. Products resulting in redox
systems are the most detrimental, such as the oxygen/ferrous ion pair often encountered in underground water;
- aerobic and anaerobic bacteria which, by forming precipitates, rapidly reduce the efficiency of the products;
- divalent and trivalent ions which precipitate the polymers and polymers of opposite charge;
- UV radiation, which degrades the polymer chain by forming free radicals. It is recommended for the solutions to
be kept away from light.
The following table gives the stability times for
polymer solutions prepared in demineralized
water:
Table 2
Stability (5 g/l):
Stability (1 g/l):
anionic:
cationic:
anionic:
cationic:
8 days
24 hours
2 days
4 hours
VII-3-2 Mechanical stability

From a mechanical standpoint, as we have already mentioned, long polymer chains can be broken by high shear
stress.The longer the molecular chain the more shear sensitive is a polymer.
Under service conditions, the equipment - centrifuges,
pumps, stirrers and nozzles - may be sources of significant shear degradation.
Main characteristics
of polymers
VII-4 Ionicity
VII-6 Toxicity
The degree of ionicity of a polymer, expressed in mol% is

normally measured using a colloidal method.
In general, the polymers referred to in this report are of

no danger to human health. Moreover, some of them play
an important role in very strictly regulated industries relating directly to human food: potable water, paper in
contact with food, treatment of sugar, etc., these products
also being used in applications sensitive to environmental
protection issues. At the present time, many studies have
been carried out and published for the purpose of determining whether these products have any impact.
The anionic charges are measured by the reaction of a

cationic colloid, such as methyl glycol chitosan, which
reacts stochiometrically with the anionic charges. In practice, a known excess of cationic polymer is added to a
known mass of anionic polymer. Next, the excess is backtitrated with potassium polyvinyl sulphate (an anionic
polymer) in the presence of toluidine blue.The color turns
violet when the point of equivalence is obtained.
The cationic charges are measured directly using potassium polyvinyl sulphate in the presence of toluidine blue.
The precipitation of polymers of opposite charge significantly modifies the titration time and the precision of the
measurement.
VII-5 Residual polymer content

In some cases - process studies (in mining) or characterization of the effluents - it is necessary to determine the
residual polymer content in the water.
When the type of polymer is known, the colloidal method
is used to determine its concentration when this is of the
order of 100 ppm.
For concentrations of the order of 1 ppm, compared
flocculation methods are normally used.
Below 1 ppm, only state-of-the-art analytical methods
allow the content to be determined.
In particular, the effects of ageing on the aquatic toxicity

of cationic polyacrylamides, which are among the polymers most widely used, have been studied. It has thus
been demonstrated that very rapid hydrolysis of the chain
removes the cationic charges and therefore the effect on
aquatic organisms.
With regard to anionic polyacrylamides, it has also been
demonstrated that there is no systemic toxicity towards
aquatic organisms or micro-organisms. The only deleterious effects, observed in laboratory tests, have been at
concentrations that are always greater than 100 mg/l and
are probably due to the high viscosity obtained in the test
medium.
Finally, polyacrylamides are very UV-sensitive. Photolysis
results in the degradation of the polymer chain and the
formation of much smaller molecules which can be biologically degraded. Polyacrylamides therefore neither persist
nor accumulate in the environment.
33
Laboratory tests
34 and industrial trials
VIII-1 Principles
The complexity of the coagulation and flocculation systems means that a polymer cannot be
selected for a given application without experimental testing.The testing is generally carried out
in two stages:
Laboratory simulation of actual operational conditions is

not possible. In particular, the shear conditions (in mixers,
pipework, separation equipment, filters, centrifuges, etc.),
which are key factors in choosing the molecular weight,
are difficult to reproduce in the laboratory.
Only cumulative experience and rigorous test methods
allow the optimum solution to be determined. However,
there may be some cases in which the laboratory results
are not confirmed in industrial trials.
- laboratory tests for selecting the type of proThere are two main reasons for this:
duct and more particularly the optimum ionicity
- industrial trials for confirming the product
selection and for determining its amount and its
molecular weight.
- Non-representativeness of the specimen used

in the laboratory.
If the characteristics of the effluents vary over time, a
representative average specimen must be used.
If the composition of the specimen changes over time, the
tests must be carried out as rapidly as possible on site, or
the change must be limited by refrigerating the specimens
or treating them with a bactericide.
Finally, difficulties may occur in the case of different raw
materials (dissolving water or post-dilution water, for
example).
- Difficulty of mixing under industrial conditions.
If the polymer is mixed in the solution too soon or too late
compared with flocculation, differently sized flocs are
obtained in industrial trials from those obtained in the
laboratory. In this case, various options may be considered:
changing the polymer concentration,
changing the point of introduction of the polymer,
introducing the polymer at several
points
or possibly changing the polymer.
Laboratory tests
and industrial trials
Of course, laboratory error cannot be excluded. This can

occur for example when the specimen studied is heterogeneous, in terms of particle size or ionic charge, in particular as a function of the specific surface area of the
particles.
Figure 18 Particle size distribution
As a general rule:
- In the case of settling of a dilute suspension (diffuse flocculation), the mixing takes place in a low-speed flocculator. The contact time is inversely proportional to the
concentration of the suspended matter.This contact time
may vary between 10 seconds and 15 minutes. In recirculation or sludge-blanket plants, flocculation is much
more rapid. In this case, the flocculant is premixed with
the water to be treated, just before mixing it with the
sludge;
- In the case of a belt filter, the sludge and the flocculant
are introduced into a variable-speed mixer. Optimization
is achieved by varying the speed;
- In the case of a centrifuge, a central injection pipe allows
mixing inside the centrifuge. The dissolution and dilution
concentrations are key factors in determining the level of
performance obtained.
The heterogeneity of the suspension (particle size, organic

matter, etc.) may mean that polymers of different cationicities are selected in the laboratory.The product giving the
best clarification or floc strength then has to be selected.
However, when there is such heterogeneity, it may prove
difficult to select the polymer. In particular, a 0 to 30%
excess of polymer compared with the laboratory conditions may be necessary for industrial equipment. It is
therefore absolutely necessary to carry out trials which
take into account this excess, and its effects on ionic redispersion.
The flocculation step, which consists in bringing the polymer solution into contact with the suspension to be treated, proves in practice to be very tricky. It depends on the
existing equipment and it is often necessary to adapt the
quality, quantity and dilution of the flocculant to the equipment.
35
36
Laboratory tests
VIII-2 Main laboratory tests for process-water

and municipal water treatment applications
The laboratory tests are comparative tests
making it possible to classify the efficiency of the
various products tested one with respect to another.
The main tests used include:
- Standard jar-test method: determination of the degree of
clarification.
- Flotation tests in which water saturated with air at a

pressure of 7 bar is injected.
- Vacuum filtration tests: Bchner filtration and submergedcell method.
- Tests on the dehydration of sludge by draining, while
recording the filtration rate.
- Measurement of the diffusion rate on a porous substrated (CST).

- A method in which a suspension of average concentration (1 g/l of dry matter) is stirred.
- Measurement of the dryness limit under pressure.
- A method in which the samples are turned upside down

(DIN 23007 Standard using 6 samples) for suspensions
giving homogeneous-type flocculation, either directly or
after the formation of a sludge bed.
- Measurement of the zeta potential.

- Measurement of the SCD (Streaming Current
Detection).
These methods are more or less standardized, but often

have to be adapted to the practical conditions under
which the flocculants are used.
Laboratory tests
VIII-3 Use of the polymers
VIII-3-1 Polymers in powder form
and in bead form
The use of powders firstly requires that they are properly
dissolved in order to avoid forming lumps. The dissolving
time can vary from 30 minutes to 4 hours, depending on
the products.
These times also depend on several parameters:
- The dissolution concentration:
the more concentrated the solution, the shorter the dissolving time, if the mixing conditions are satisfactory;
- The water temperature:
35 to 40C maximum, provided that the polymer is
stable. Below 5C, very slow dissolution is observed;
- The nature of the product, particularly the ionic charge
and the particle size.
In order to ensure that the polymers are properly
dissolved, it is essential to comply with the following steps:
- Effective dispersion at the highest possible concentration
compatible with the equipment used (3 to 10 g/l). This
high concentration makes it possible both to reduce the
size of the equipment and to increase the solubility of the
polymer. There are many types of dispersion equipment:
pneumatic mixers, pumps, wetting blades, ejectors, etc.
- Dissolution with stirring at the dispersion concentration
for the minimum time recommended for the polymer;
- Transfer to a storage tank, which is stirred to prevent
agglomerated or poorly dissolved particles from settling;
- Dosing and diluting to the final use concentration via a
static mixer.
To prevent the polymers from degrading, it is recommended to use positive-displacement pumps (of the Moineau-,
gear- or lobe-type) and non-centrifugal pumps, as well as
stirrers whose peripheral velocity is less than 8 m/s.
It is also essential to check that the dissolving water does
not contain elements prejudicial to the stability of the
polymers (hardness, ferrous cations, etc.).
Specific equipment is available on the market that are
efficient and properly prepare polymer solutions.
VIII- -2 Polymer emulsions
Emulsions are usually most effective when the dissolving
operation is carried out continuously. This is particularly
important when they are used in centrifuges.
Specific equipment is available on the market for both
adapting the dissolution concentration and for injecting
the emulsion.
Special precautions have to be taken when storing the
emulsions. The Emulsion handbook instructions recommend the storage conditions and the materials that can
be used
VIII-3-3 Polymer solutions
Depending on their nature, the polymer solutions are
either diluted in line or metered directly. For rapid mixing,
it is recommended to limit the viscosity of the dilute solution to 10 cps.
37
38 General applications
The main applications of the polymers
are in water treatment, coagulation,
flocculation and sludge treatment.
Many other polymer properties are
particularly useful in specific applications:
- Textile thickeners
In the case of water treatment, two types of polymer may be considered, although their actions
are often common:
- O r g a n i c c o a g u l a n t s , e . g . p o l ya m i n e s ,
polyDADMAC, etc., are used for treating water
with low suspended solids content and they
replace (completely or partly) the inorganic coagulants (e.g. aluminium sulphate, aluminium
polychloride and ferric chloride). Commercial
polymer s are used at a concentration of
1 to 10 ppm.
- Cosmetic thickeners
- Hair conditioners
- Pharmaceutical adjuvants
- Friction reducers, etc.
- Organic flocculants, especially polyacrylamides

and polyethylene oxides, are used for settling at
concentrations of 0.1 to 10 ppm and for sludge
treatment at 0.5 to 15 kg per tonne.
General applications
IX-1 Separation processes
using flocculation
IX-1-1 Settling
Conventional flocculation takes place in one pass, in stirred or static tanks with baffles. Several types of equipment are available. Figure 19 shows an example of a
flocculator/settling tank.
These contact-enhancing systems have many

advantages:
- Removal of all fines by adsorption on the flocs
- Formation of homogeneous flocs
Figure 19 Flocculator/settling tank
- Reduction in the flocculation and settling times

- Homogeneous-type settling velocity.
Fig. 20: Settling tank with sludge recirculation
1. Raw water inlet

2. Rotating scraper bridge
3. Flocculation zone
4. Clarified water
5. Sludge extraction
Increasing the mass of sludge fosters contact between

flocs and microflocs and therefore improves the efficiency
of the flocculation.This principle is used in sludge-contact
flocculation processes using either sludge recirculation or
a sludge bed. These processes are more specific for the
treatment of potable water.
1. Raw water inlet

2. Raw water distribution chute
3. Sludge recirculation turbine
4. Clarified water outlet
5. Sludge extraction
In recirculation systems, the concentrated sludge, taken

from the bottom of the settling tank, is sent back into the
tank in order to maintain the optimum concentration.
In sludge-bed systems, the velocity of the upflowing water
slows down the rate of settling of the downflowing sludge
and, above a certain sludge concentration, a sludge bed is
formed which has a degree of cohesion.
39
40
IX-1-2 Centrifuging
Centrifuging uses the action of the centrifugal force to
separate particles from a solid-liquid mixture into two
separate phases - the sediment, which is the collection of
the solid particles, and the centrate, which generally
consists of a well-clarified liquid phase. The acceleration
generated by the rotating machines ie centrifuges, allows
very rapid separation due to the centrifugal forces which
vary from 800 to 4000g, depending on the size of the
machine.The most widespread application is the separation of the solid matter in highly concentrated suspensions
for treating the residual sludge.
Industrial machines used for this application are continuous solid-bowl centrifuges.
This type of centrifuge has a horizontal bowl of cylindroconical shape, rotating at high speed. Inside the bowl, a
helical feed screw rotates, about the same axis, at a slightly lower speed.The shape of the screw matches perfectly
the internal surface of the bowl, while maintaining a clearance between the bowl and the screw.
The suspension is fed into the centrifuge, along the axis,
using a manifold and is then propelled by the centrifugal
force into the annular space between the bowl and the
body of the screw.
Settling takes place mainly in the cylindrical part.The relative velocity of the screw with respect to the bowl allows
the settled product to advance inside the bowl towards
the conical part, from where the thickened sludge is extracted.
The clarified liquid is removed at the other end, by flowing
over an adjustable sill which maintains a ring of liquid
over a cylindrical surface.
When the solid has been removed from the ring of liquid,
the residual part of the cone allows final draining of the
sludge.
Continuous centrifuging has many advantages:
- Strictly continuous operation;
- Faster separation;
- Screw transfer of the thickened sludge, preventing any
risk of blockage;
- Production of a homogeneous sediment with a high
solids content, thanks to the use of polymers.
Figure 21 Continuous solid-bowl centrifuge
Sludge +
Polymer
inlet
Centrate
1 : Feed pipe
2 : Distributor
3 : Bowl
4 : Conveyor / Scroll
Cake
Discharge
Two continuous centrifuge systems are used:

- Concurrent systems in which the sludge is introduced at
the start of the cylindrical part and the liquid and solid
advance in the same direction. Settling thus takes place
with less disturbance and over a longer path. These systems have the advantage of being better suited to lowdensity low-concentration suspensions. However, the
machines are more sensitive to abrasion, with a lower
hydraulic capacity and a sediment which is less dry.
IX-1-3 Belt filters

The filtration process comprises the following
steps:
- Flocculation in flocculators with a short residence time,
or directly in the pipe;
- Draining of the interstitial water over a filter medium;
- Pressing the drained sludge between two filter belts
which form a wedge and gradually compress the sludge.
The two belts are wrapped around perforated drums and
rolls arranged in a staggered configuration.
- Countercurrent systems in which the sludge is fed into

the junction between the cone and the cylinder.
Separation of the solid matter is therefore very rapid.This
system has the advantage of being better suited to dense
sludge and of having a larger hydraulic capacity.
The efficiency of the dewatering depends on the pressure

resulting from the tension in the belts around the rolls.
Because of the mechanical strength of the belts and of
the rolls, this pressure remains moderate (about 0.3 to 1
bar).
For optimum performance, it is paramount to find the

best polymer. The floc obtained must be bulky and very
strong. It is difficult to interpret the laboratory tests in
order to predict the dynamic behaviour of the sludge
because of shear forces and turbulence. Industrial trials
therefore remain indispensable.
If the pressure is too high, the cohesion of the sludge blanket is destroyed.The sludge is ejected laterally, out of the
filtration space, by a creep phenomenon. The pressure
causing the creep depends on the physical structure of
the sludge.
The efficiency also depends on the pressing time, which
itself depends on the active surface area of the wrappings
and on the run speed of the belts.
41
42
IX-2 Potable water

The use of polymers has allowed these machines to be
developed specifically for the treatment of residual sludge.
Their main advantages are:
- Very easy operation with visual control of the sludge
during dewatering;
- Low operating cost and low investment cost;
- Continuous process with belt washing;
- Simple mechanical machine;
- Production of pelletizable sludge.
Potable water mainly contains humic substances (humic

acid and fulvic acid) which represent 50% to 80% of the
COD in surface water generally treated for drinking.These
strongly anionic substances may be coagulated by highly
cationic organic coagulants.
In primary coagulation, the organic coagulants may be
used directly or in combination with metal salts.
The main mechanism of coagulation is charge neutralization. However, a chemical bridging effect can be obtained
by varying the molecular weights.
The polymers used are of low or medium molecular
weight, with high cationic charge density such as
polyDADMAC or polyamines.
After colloidal suspensions have been destabilized by
organic or inorganic coagulants, flocculants polymers, at
low dosage (0,05 to 0,5 ppm), are frequently used to
enhance the performance of clarification process. Because
of their very high molecular weight, these flocculants are
extremely effective in bridging the micro-flocs formed
during coagulation to produce larger macro-flocs.
IX-3 Process water

(boilers, cooling towers)
Flocculants are indispensable in modern treatment plants
(lamellar settling tanks, microsand,...).
In the case of soft water, there are some problems with
the coagulation performances due to the effect of inorganic coagulants on the pH.
Process water used for heat exchange has to

undergo specific anti-scale, anti-redeposition or
deincrustation treatments. These treatments are
carried out with the aid of formulations, and
polymers are used at various stages in these
treatments:
The alkalinity of the water must therefore be increased,

using lime for example, in order to obtain better results.
Since organic coagulants and flocculants do not have an
effect on the pH, they greatly improve this treatment.
Low-molecular-weight sodium polyacrylate homopolymers

which prevent surface deposition of calcium carbonate,
calcium sulphate, barium sulphate, magnesium hydroxide
and other low-solubility salts;
The organic coagulants, particularly polyDADMAC, have a

significant algicide effect.They allow both flocculation and
destruction of microscopic algae, which can thus be incorporated into the microflocs.
Acrylic acid - AMPS copolymers make it possible to stabilize calcium phosphate.These products are very effective
dispersants for cooling towers.They keep iron salts in solution and prevent them from being deposited on the walls;
Polyamines and anionic flocculants for the treatment of
boiler feedwater, particularly in the nuclear industry.
43
44
IX-4 Industrial effluent

There are very many fields of application and the
corresponding treatments are:
Physico-chemical treatments using coagulants and flocculants for settling and for sludge dewatering.
Biological treatments for water containing organic matter:

water treatment using bacteria and sludge dewatering
using flocculants;
The diversity of the applications preclude us giving details

about the characteristics of the polymers for each of
them. However, it is possible, from experience, to establish
a few general rules and these are given in the following
table 3:
Inorganic
coagulants
Organic
coagulants
Agrifoodstuff
Sludge treatment
Water treatment
Dyeing
Sludge treatment
Water treatment
Papermaking
Sludge treatment
Water treatment
Chemical industry
Sludge treatment
Water treatment
Effluents with oil
Mechanical industry
Sludge treatment
Water treatment
Effluents with oil
Municipal effluents
Sludge treatment
Water treatment
Nonionic
flocculants
Anionic
flocculants
Cationic
flocculants
Dicyandiamide
resins
IX-5 Municipal sewage

Water consumption per person worldwide varies
between 4 and 1000 litres per day.The pollution
discharged is thus very different depending on
lifestyle, eating and hygiene habits, living conditions and climatic conditions.
The treatment of municipal sewage therefore
varies according to the qualitative and quantitative nature of the pollutants.
Two types of treatment are used:
1- Biological treatment, which generally comprises four main steps:
preliminary treatment for removing the coarsest solid
particles by screen cleaning;
grit and grease removal by aeration;
primary treatment for removing suspended solids by
settling or flotation;
aeration in order to form biological flocs;

secondary treatment for settling the biological flocs;
in some cases, a tertiary treatment is added in order to
complete the removal of certain specific pollutants
(phosphates).
The flocculants can be used at various steps in the process: primary or secondary settling tanks or thickeners,
but their most common use is for sludge dewatering by filtration or centrifuging.
2- Physico-chemical treatment in which the water
is treated directly by a coagulant and a flocculant.
The sludge is then dewatered by filtration or centrifugation using a flocculant. This method, which has a slightly
lower efficiency than the biological treatment, is often
used as an intermediate investment step.
45
46
IX-6 Thickening and

dewatering of sludge
The use of polymers for promoting sludge dewatering represents one of the most important
applications of the polymers.
Table 4 shows the solids contents in sludge
coming from water treatment plants:
Sludge treatment
Input concentration (% solids)
Output concentration (% solids)
Static settling
Continuous thickening
with polymer
Continuous thickening
without polymer
Centrifuging
Filter press
Belt filter
0.03 - 0.2
0.03 - 0.2
1-5
3-9
0.03 - 0.2
1-5
1-5
1-5
1-5
12 - 30
30 - 50
12 - 27
Table 4
Polymers are used for obtaining large dense flocs which

facilitate separation from a clear supernatant liquid. Since
the flocs are compressible without breaking, filtering and
centrifuging are also facilitated. In these cases, the centrifuge centrate and the filtrate have quite high polymer
concentrations (5 to 20 ppm) and have to be recycled at
the start of the plant. They promote primary settling
without affecting the aeration step.
The criteria upon which the polymers are selected are:

- The nature of the sludge, organic/inorganic proportion;
cationic polymers are generally used on organic sludge
and anionic polymers on inorganic sludge. In the case of
very fine, or even colloidal inorganic sludge, coagulants
may give the best results
- The pH; cationic polymers in an acid medium (cationic
polymers degrade in a basic medium) and anionic polymers in a basic medium
- Dewatering equipment, see floc characteristics
(Chapter IX );
- The size and strength of the flocs, depending on the
molecular weight of the polymer;
- The sludge concentration.
The nature of the charge depends on the ionicity of the

sludge. Sludge coagulated with alum is generally cationic
when it is fresh, but becomes anionic on ageing.The polymers used will therefore be of the anionic or cationic type
depending on the case. On the other hand, activated sludge is anionic in nature and therefore has to be treated
using cationic polymers.
In the case of organic sludge, the organic matter content
and the degree of aerobic or anaerobic digestion determine the required cationicity and the amount of polymer.
The organic matter content and the degree of digestion
are measured by the pH, the loss on ignition and the total
organic carbon content. A well digested sludge normally
has a pH of 7 to 8 and a loss on ignition of 30 to 55%
by weight, calculated on the dry matter. Poorly digested
sludge, fresh sludge and activated sludge have a pH of
between
5 and 7 and a loss on ignition of 55 to
80% by weight.
As a general rule:
The more complete the digestion, the lower the
cationicity may be;
The higher the proportion of activated sludge,
the higher the cationicity must be.
In the case of the usual digested sludge, polymers
with a low to medium cationicity give the best
results, whereas for fresh, activated and mixed
sludge, highly cationic polymers are used. The
sludge treatment can also be carried out using
partially crosslinked polymers.
47
48 Special applications
X-1 Mining industry
In general, the flocculants used for thickening the flotation
concentrates, for the sedimentation of fines and for the
treatment of effluent are high-molecular-weight nonionic
or anionic polyacrylamides. Nonionic flocculants are specific for acid solutions (leaching solutions) or solutions with
a high salt content (potassium solutions).
The main applications are given in the following
table 5:
Clarification
after acid
Settling
Suspension Clarification Effluents treatment Thickening Filtration
The mining industry consumes a great deal of

water:
- Either in ore washing and flotation, in which the
gangue (often clays) is separated from the ore to
be processed.
In these instances flocculants are used for:
separating the water from the gangue and recycling the
water
dewatering the sludge obtained (centrifuging, filtration,
thickening, etc.)
separating the water from the suspended one (settling,
filtration, centrifuging, etc.)
(there are many ores for which these processes are used:
iron, coal, phosphates, diamonds, sand, zinc, uranium, etc.);
- Or in processes for obtaining the metal or
metalloid itself. In this case, the ore, which may already have been physically concentrated, is dissolved in an
acid, alkaline or specific solution in which the impurities
are precipitated using a flocculant.The metal is then recovered in the form of a hydroxide or salt, often by flocculation.
Aluminium
Calcium
Carbonate
Clay
Coal
Copper
Gold
Lead
Nickel
Phosphates
Sand
Silver
Titanium
Oxyde
Uranium
Zinc
The mining industry also makes use of polymers

for various other applications. In particular:
Pelletization:
this process is used for agglomerating fine wet particles in
the form of granules. As the particles are being rotated in
pelletizing equipment, the anionic polymers allow consolidation of the granules which form under the effect of the
weight of the moving particles;
Dispersion:
polymers are used for keeping clays, calcium carbonate or
titanium oxide in suspension, or for grinding them. The
products used are low-molecular-weight sodium polyacrylates.
Special applications
X-2 The paper industry

The paper industry uses polymers in a wide variety of
applications: the treatment of debarking water and of
green liquor, retention, dewatering, the treatment of stickies, the treatment of ultrafines, the treatment of water
and sludge, etc.
- Increase in the dry strength by adding, for example, lowmolecular-weight polymers with a low cationic charge.
The use of polymers allows this industry - the largest

consumer of process water - to reduce water consumption, to increase its equipment productivity and to improve
the quality of the paper and reduce its impact on the environment.
- The treatment of anionic impurities (pitch) in the paper,

using polyDADMAC or polyamines.
The main applications and the polymers

involved are:
- Retention of fillers (titanium oxide, kaolin, calcium carbonate, etc.) in the paper:
- The polymer is introduced at the headbox of the paper
machine in order to flocculate the fibres and fillers. This
flocculation allows better retention of the fillers within the
sheet.The operation can also be carried out by combining
the polymers with microparticulate systems (silica, bentonite, etc.).
- The polymers used are anionic or cationic polyacrylamides, depending on the characteristics of the processes
involved.
- Dewatering: polymers are used to increase the speed of
board machines and the production rate by improving the
dewatering operation at the wet end, and therefore improving the drying operation.
- The recovery of fibres, using moderately or highly charged cationic polymers.
- Temporary wet strenght increase in the wet web, for

example using glyoxalated polyacrylamides.
- The treatment of factory feedwater, waste water and

residual sludge using various polymers described in the
corresponding paragraphs.
- Clarification of waste-paper de-inking, with treatment of
the water produced using, for example, coagulants followed by a high-molecular-weight flocculant.
- The fixation of dyes on the fibers.
- Finally, the cationization of AKD-type sizing agents.
49
50
X-3 The petroleum industry

In the petroleum industry, polymers are used
constantly in many applications:
- Drilling mud in which the polymers have
several functions: viscosity modifier, filtrate reducer,
bentonite extender, swelling inhibitor for water-sensitive
clays, etc. Depending on their functions, the polymers are
chosen from a range of products going from low to
medium molecular weights and from moderate to very
high anionicities.
- Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) in which an aqueous
solution, whose viscosity is modified by moderately anionic
polymers, is injected in order to displace the oil in situ.The
molecular weight of the polymer is determined depending
on the permeability of the reservoir and on the viscosity of
the oil in situ.
- Drag reduction, in which a moderately anionic polymer of high molecular weight is used, because of its cohesion properties, to reduce the frictions and turbulences
when injecting water with a high flow rate.
- Water shut-off, in which the inflow of water into a well
is blocked by injecting a polymer solution which is then
gelled by in-situ crosslinking.The water permeability of the
reservoir is modified, without affecting the oil permeability,
by absorption of the polymer on the rock.
- Finally, polymers are normally used for more conventional applications, namely oil-water separation by flotation or centrifuging, and water treatment
before re-injection or before discharge.
X-4 The cosmetic industry

The cosmetic industry is one of the most complex and
innovative sector. Every day new raw materials and active
ingredients for the formulation of cosmetic products are
offered.
The various properties of polymers are used in many
applications.
X-4-1 Conditioners and film-forming agents for
personnal care products
In hair care products:
Given their adsorption properties, polymers can deposit a
continuous film on the hair surface.They can also be fixed
by electrostatic combination.
This film gives the hair a better combability and manageability, a smooth after-feel and shine.
Since hair is anionic in nature, cationic compounds are
commonly used as conditioners.
In skin care products:
The film-forming properties of polymers are used in skin
care products.They provide a soft and velvety after-feel.
X-4-2 Thickening agents and emulsion

stabilizers
Conventionally, emulsions are formulated:
- With surfactants, carefully selected depending on the
Hydrophilic Lipophilic Balance (HLB) of the system;
- With a thickening agent in order to structure the external phase, to improve the stability of the emulsion or to
increase the viscosity of the product.
Crosslinked and branched acrylic polymers can
also be selected for such properties:
- emulsifier for the formulation of emulsions without
adding emulsifying surfactants. This reduces the irritancy
of the formulation and limits re-emulsification of the product after it has been applied;
- thickener and rheology modifier to give formulations a pseudoplastic and non-thixotropic nature. During
application, the product becomes fluid and so allows uniform spreading.
- stabilizer for emulsions and suspensions of solid particles (suncreams);
- to simplify both the formulation and the manufacture of emulsions, since it is no longer necessary to
calculate the HLB. A wide range of oils can be emulsified;
51
52
X-5 The textile industry

The three main applications of polymers in the
textile industry are as thickeners, fixing agents
and sizing agents.
X-5-2 Sizing agents

A size gives temporary protection to warp yarns in order
to reduce the number of yarn breakages as much as possible. The size improves the elasticity and the abrasion
resistance and reduces the hairiness of the yarns which
are subjected, during weaving, to high stresses. Given the
temporary nature of the size, the products used must be
fixed only by weak bonding, without any chemical reaction.
The polymers used are acrylic acid homopolymers or acrylic acid-acrylamide copolymers.They
provide the following properties:
- Excellent interstrand cohesion;
- High performance on dry looms;
- No tendency of yarns to stick to the beam;
- No deposition on sizers and looms;
X-5-1 Synthetic thickeners

Synthetic thickeners are used in the composition of printing pastes and give them a particularly appropriate rheological behaviour.Their high viscosity at low shear prevents
any spreading of the paste at rest, thereby allowing very
sharp patterns to be obtained.Their low viscosity at higher
shear allows the paste to be applied very easily.
In addition, these products have a low solids content.
During heat treatment, the alkaline agents are removed
and little dry matter remains on the fabric.
Finally, during fixing, the thickener, because of these polyacids, acts as an acid dispenser which helps the film of
binder to adhere to the fibre.
- Easy preparation and desizing.

X-5-3 Fixing agents
Fixing agents prevent reactive and direct dyes from migrating during drying.
The cationic nature of certain polymers makes it possible
to block the anionic solubilizing functional groups on dyes
and therefore reduces their solubility and affinity for
water.
The products used are quaternary ammonium compounds or aliphatic derivatives of polyamines or polyamides (methylolamide, dicyandiamide).
X-6 Agriculture Soil conditioners

Modern agriculture consumes about 40% of the pumped
water used worldwide. With water becoming increasingly
scarce, more and more reutilization or saving approaches
are being adopted. Organic polymers have many properties allowing the optimum use of agricultural water, especially soil-conditioning polymers.
- By being spread over a surface to be treated, the polymers allow the formation of a synthetic mulch which
improves both soil cohesion and permeability.Thus, thanks
to superior hydrophilic properties, the soil is more stable
on the surface so as to make it easier for seeds to germinate and to ensure that plants take root effectively.
The first application covers a wide range of polymers in

emulsion, powder or block form, suitable for any type of
gravity or spray irrigation. Under the action of the polymer, the fine surface particles form aggregates via a true
clay flocculation process. This improves the soil porosity,
thereby considerably reducing the effects of soil crusting
under spray irrigation and erosion under gravity irrigation.
These products are anionic polyacrylamides and

their uses have the following advantages:
- Up to 95% reduction in soil loss due to run-off;
- Resistance to compaction, surface erosion and consolidation of soils under irrigation;
The use of these polymers has the following

advantages:
- They are easy to use and can be spread with seeds and
fertilizers using hydroseeding equipment;
- Soil working is easier, especially ploughing, and costs are

reduced;
-They improve soil cohesion and reduce erosion effects;
- Environmental protection, by reducing surface run-off of

pesticides and fertilizers.
- A vegetation cover is easy to establish, even on a steep

slope;
- A second application covers the same range of products

for soil stabilization.
- They reduce soil improvement costs;

- They resist soil erosion and desertification.
- Bare soil is very sensitive to erosion due to the action of

wind and rain. In order to improve degraded soil, by covering it with a protective and lasting vegetation, these polymers allow surface soil to be stabilized so that plants can
become more easily established.
53
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Water

Among these families, synthetic polymers, and

The separation of solids in a liquid medium takes

Difficulties occur when the particle size allows it

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COLLOID SCIENCE

Measurement of the concentration of colloids

COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION

Suspension destabilization by coagulation

Suspension destabilization by flocculation

Kinetics of floc development

Other suspension destabilization systems

Two-polymer-component coagulation systems

Efficiency of flocculation and coagulation

Water Soluble Polymers - Flocculation Coagulation

Parameters having an influence on the efficiency of flocculation and coagulation

Influence of the particles

Influence of the polymers

Influence of the polymer mixing in the solution

Influence of the pH and the temperature of the solution

Influence of the organic nature of the suspension

Advantages of synthetic coagulants

WATER SOLUBLE POLYMERS

PHYSICAL FORMS OF POLYMERS

Polyacrylamides in bead form

VII CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYMERS

Measurements of the molecular mass

Light scattering method

Intrinsic viscosity method

Chemical and biochemical stability

Residual polymer content

VIII LABORATORY TESTS AND INDUSTRIAL TRIALS

VIII-2 Main laboratory process-water and municipal-water treatment applications

VIII-3 Use of the polymers

Polymers in powder form and in bead form

Water Soluble Polymers-Flocculation Coagulation

Separation processes using flocculation

Thickening and dewatering of sludge

The paper industry

The petroleum industry

The cosmetic industry

Conditioners and film-forming agents for hair and skin products

Thickening agents and emulsion stabilizers

The textile industry

Colloidal particles, invisible to the naked eye, undergo

Water Soluble Polymers-Flocculation Coagulation

Figure 1 Equilibrium layers of a colloidal particle

III-2 Measurement of the colloid

There are no direct measurements of the colloid concentration.

8 Coagulation and flocculation

In aqueous media, hydrophobic colloidal particles are

suspensions and allow solid-liquid separation.

This charge neutralization mechanism is reversible.There

Water Soluble Polymers - Flocculation Coagulation

Coagulation and flocculation

Figure 2 Adsorption isotherm

Adsorption is a complex mechanism involving a

The characteristic curve is called an isotherm since the

The complexity of this system explains the difficulties still

Coagulation and flocculation