Steam turbine

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See also: steam engine

The rotor of a modern steam turbine used in a power plant

A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal energy from
pressurized steam and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft.
Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884.[1][2]
Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is particularly suited to be used
to drive an electrical generator about 90% of all electricity generation in the
United States (1996) is by use of steam turbines. [3] The steam turbine is a form
of heat engine that derives much of its improvement in thermodynamic
efficiency from the use of multiple stages in the expansion of the steam, which
results in a closer approach to the ideal reversible expansion process.
Contents
[hide]

1History

2Manufacturing

3Types

3.1Blade and stage design

3.2Blade Design Challenges

3.3Steam supply and exhaust conditions

3.4Casing or shaft arrangements

3.5Two-flow rotors

4Principle of operation and design

4.1Turbine efficiency

4.1.1Impulse turbines

4.1.2Reaction turbines

4.2Operation and maintenance

4.3Speed regulation

4.4Thermodynamics of steam turbines

4.4.1Isentropic efficiency

5Direct drive

6Marine propulsion
o

6.1Early development

6.2Cruising machinery and gearing

6.3Turbo-electric drive

6.4Current usage

7Locomotives

8Testing

9See also

10References

11Further reading

12External links

History[edit]

A 250 kW industrial steam turbine from 1910 (right) directly linked to

agenerator (left).
The first device that may be classified as a reaction steam turbine was little more
than a toy, the classic Aeolipile, described in the 1st century
by Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria in Roman Egypt.[4][5][6] In 1551, Taqi
al-Din in Ottoman Egypt described a steam turbine with the practical application
of rotating a spit. Steam turbines were also described by the Italian Giovanni
Branca (1629)[7] andJohn Wilkins in England (1648).[8] The devices described by
Taqi al-Din and Wilkins are today known as steam jacks. In 1672 an impulse
steam turbine driven car was designed by Ferdinand Verbiest. A more modern
version of this car was produced some time in the late 18th century by an
unknown German mechanic.

The modern steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Sir Charles Parsons, whose
first model was connected to a dynamo that generated 7.5 kW (10 hp) of
electricity.[9] The invention of Parsons' steam turbine made cheap and plentiful
electricity possible and revolutionized marine transport and naval warfare.
[10]
Parsons' design was a reaction type. His patent was licensed and the turbine
scaled-up shortly after by an American, George Westinghouse. The Parsons
turbine also turned out to be easy to scale up. Parsons had the satisfaction of
seeing his invention adopted for all major world power stations, and the size of
generators had increased from his first 7.5 kW set up to units of 50,000 kW
capacity. Within Parson's lifetime, the generating capacity of a unit was scaled up
by about 10,000 times,[11] and the total output from turbo-generators constructed
by his firm C. A. Parsons and Company and by their licensees, for land purposes
alone, had exceeded thirty million horse-power. [9]
A number of other variations of turbines have been developed that work
effectively with steam. The de Laval turbine (invented by Gustaf de Laval)
accelerated the steam to full speed before running it against a turbine blade. De
Laval's impulse turbine is simpler, less expensive and does not need to be
pressure-proof. It can operate with any pressure of steam, but is considerably
less efficient.[citation needed] fr:Auguste Rateau developed a pressure compounded
impulse turbine using the de Laval principle as early as 1896, [12]obtained a US
patent in 1903, and applied the turbine to a French torpedo boat in 1904. He
taught at the cole des mines de Saint-tienne for a decade until 1897, and later
founded a successful company that was incorporated into the Alstom firm after
his death. One of the founders of the modern theory of steam and gas turbines
was Aurel Stodola, a Slovak physicist and engineer and professor at the Swiss
Polytechnical Institute (now ETH) in Zurich. His work Die Dampfturbinen und ihre
Aussichten als Wrmekraftmaschinen(English: The Steam Turbine and its
prospective use as a Mechanical Engine) was published in Berlin in 1903. A
further book Dampf und Gas-Turbinen (English: Steam and Gas Turbines) was
published in 1922.
The Brown-Curtis turbine, an impulse type, which had been originally developed
and patented by the U.S. company International Curtis Marine Turbine Company,
was developed in the 1900s in conjunction with John Brown & Company. It was
used in John Brown-engined merchant ships and warships, including liners and
Royal Navy warships.
Manufacturing[edit]
The present-day manufacturing industry for steam turbines is dominated by
Chinese power equipment makers. Harbin Electric, Shanghai Electric,
and Dongfang Electric, the top three power equipment makers in China,
collectively hold a majority stake in the worldwide market share for steam
turbines in 2009-10 according to Platts.[13] Other manufacturers with minor
market share include Bhel, Siemens, Alstom, GE, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries,
and Toshiba.[13] The consulting firm Frost & Sullivan projects that manufacturing
of steam turbines will become more consolidated by 2020 as Chinese power
manufacturers win increasing business outside of China. [14]
Types[edit]

Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small <0.75 kW
(<1 hp) units (rare) used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other
shaft driven equipment, to 1 500 000 kW (1.5 GW; 2 000 000 hp) turbines used
to generate electricity. There are several classifications for modern steam
turbines.
Blade and stage design[edit]

Schematic diagram outlining the difference between an impulse and a 50%

reaction turbine
Turbine blades are of two basic types, blades and nozzles. Blades move entirely
due to the impact of steam on them and their profiles do not converge. This
results in a steam velocity drop and essentially no pressure drop as steam moves
through the blades. A turbine composed of blades alternating with fixed nozzles
is called an impulse turbine, Curtis turbine, Rateau turbine, or Brown-Curtis
turbine. Nozzles appear similar to blades, but their profiles converge near the
exit. This results in a steam pressure drop and velocity increase as steam moves
through the nozzles. Nozzles move due to both the impact of steam on them and
the reaction due to the high-velocity steam at the exit. A turbine composed of
moving nozzles alternating with fixed nozzles is called a reaction
turbine or Parsons turbine.
Except for low-power applications, turbine blades are arranged in multiple stages
in series, called compounding, which greatly improves efficiency at low speeds.
[15]
A reaction stage is a row of fixed nozzles followed by a row of moving nozzles.
Multiple reaction stages divide the pressure drop between the steam inlet and
exhaust into numerous small drops, resulting in a pressurecompounded turbine. Impulse stages may be either pressure-compounded,
velocity-compounded, or pressure-velocity compounded. A pressurecompounded impulse stage is a row of fixed nozzles followed by a row of moving
blades, with multiple stages for compounding. This is also known as a Rateau
turbine, after its inventor. A velocity-compounded impulse stage (invented by
Curtis and also called a "Curtis wheel") is a row of fixed nozzles followed by two
or more rows of moving blades alternating with rows of fixed blades. This divides

the velocity drop across the stage into several smaller drops. [16] A series of
velocity-compounded impulse stages is called a pressure-velocity
compounded turbine.

Diagram of an AEG marine steam turbine circa 1905

By 1905, when steam turbines were coming into use on fast ships (such
as HMS Dreadnought) and in land-based power applications, it had been
determined that it was desirable to use one or more Curtis wheels at the
beginning of a multi-stage turbine (where the steam pressure is highest),
followed by reaction stages. This was more efficient with high-pressure steam
due to reduced leakage between the turbine rotor and the casing. [17] This is
illustrated in the drawing of the German 1905 AEG marine steam turbine. The
steam from the boilers enters from the right at high pressure through athrottle,
controlled manually by an operator (in this case a sailor known as the
throttleman). It passes through five Curtis wheels and numerous reaction stages
(the small blades at the edges of the two large rotors in the middle) before
exiting at low pressure, almost certainly to a condenser. The condenser provides
a vacuum that maximizes the energy extracted from the steam, and condenses
the steam into feedwater to be returned to the boilers. On the left are several
additional reaction stages (on two large rotors) that rotate the turbine in reverse
for astern operation, with steam admitted by a separate throttle. Since ships are
rarely operated in reverse, efficiency is not a priority in astern turbines, so only a
few stages are used to save cost.
Blade Design Challenges[edit]
A major challenge facing turbine design is reducing the creep experienced by the
blades. Because of the high temperatures and high stresses of operation, steam
turbine materials become damaged through these mechanisms. As temperatures
are increased in an effort to improve turbine efficiency, creep becomes more
significant. To limit creep, thermal coatings and superalloys with solid-solution
strengthening and grain boundary strengthening are used in blade designs.
Protective coatings are used to reduce the thermal damage and to
limit oxidation. These coatings are often stabilized zirconium dioxide-based
ceramics. Using a thermal protective coating limits the temperature exposure of
the nickel superalloy. This reduces the creep mechanisms experienced in the
blade. Oxidation coatings limit efficiency losses caused by a buildup on the
outside of the blades, which is especially important in the high-temperature
environment.[18]
The nickel-based blades are alloyed with aluminum and titanium to improve
strength and creep resistance. The microstructure of these alloys is composed of

different regions of composition. A uniform dispersion of the gamma-prime phase

a combination of nickel, aluminum, and titanium promotes the strength and
creep resistance of the blade due to the microstructure. [19]
Refractory elements such as rhenium and ruthenium can be added to the alloy to
improve creep strength. The addition of these elements reduces the diffusion of
the gamma prime phase, thus preserving the fatigue resistance, strength, and
creep resistance.[20]
Steam supply and exhaust conditions[edit]

A low-pressure steam turbine in a nuclear power plant. These turbines exhaust

steam at a pressure below atmospheric.
These types include condensing, non-condensing, reheat, extraction and
induction.
Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants. These
turbines receive steam from a boiler and exhaust it to acondenser. The
exhausted steam is at a pressure well below atmospheric, and is in a partially
condensed state, typically of a quality near 90%.
Non-condensing or back pressure turbines are most widely used for process
steam applications. The exhaust pressure is controlled by a regulating valve to
suit the needs of the process steam pressure. These are commonly found at
refineries, district heating units, pulp and paper plants, and desalination facilities
where large amounts of low pressure process steam are needed.
Reheat turbines are also used almost exclusively in electrical power plants. In a
reheat turbine, steam flow exits from a high pressure section of the turbine and
is returned to the boiler where additional superheat is added. The steam then
goes back into an intermediate pressure section of the turbine and continues its
expansion. Using reheat in a cycle increases the work output from the turbine
and also the expansion reaches conclusion before the steam condenses, thereby
minimizing the erosion of the blades in last rows. In most of the cases, maximum
number of reheats employed in a cycle is 2 as the cost of super-heating the
steam negates the increase in the work output from turbine.
Extracting type turbines are common in all applications. In an extracting type
turbine, steam is released from various stages of the turbine, and used for
industrial process needs or sent to boiler feedwater heaters to improve overall
cycle efficiency. Extraction flows may be controlled with a valve, or left
uncontrolled.

Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to

produce additional power.
Casing or shaft arrangements[edit]
These arrangements include single casing, tandem compound and cross
compound turbines. Single casing units are the most basic style where a single
casing and shaft are coupled to a generator. Tandem compound are used where
two or more casings are directly coupled together to drive a single generator. A
cross compound turbine arrangement features two or more shafts not in line
driving two or more generators that often operate at different speeds. A cross
compound turbine is typically used for many large applications. A typical 1930s1960s naval installation is illustrated below; this shows high- and low-pressure
turbines driving a common reduction gear, with a geared cruising turbine on one
high-pressure turbine.

Starboard steam turbine machinery arrangement of Japanese Furutakaand Aoba-class cruisers.

Two-flow rotors[edit]

A two-flow turbine rotor. The steam enters in the middle of the shaft, and exits at
each end, balancing the axial force.
The moving steam imparts both a tangential and axial thrust on the turbine
shaft, but the axial thrust in a simple turbine is unopposed. To maintain the
correct rotor position and balancing, this force must be counteracted by an
opposing force. Thrust bearings can be used for the shaft bearings, the rotor can
use dummy pistons, it can bedouble flow- the steam enters in the middle of the
shaft and exits at both ends, or a combination of any of these. In adouble
flow rotor, the blades in each half face opposite ways, so that the axial forces
negate each other but the tangential forces act together. This design of rotor is
also called two-flow, double-axial-flow, or double-exhaust. This
arrangement is common in low-pressure casings of a compound turbine. [21]
Principle of operation and design[edit]

A simple turbine schematic of the Parsons type: rotating and fixed stators
alternate and steam pressure drops by a fraction of the total across each pair.
The stators grow larger as pressure drops.
An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic process, or constant
entropy process, in which the entropy of the steam entering the turbine is equal
to the entropy of the steam leaving the turbine. No steam turbine is truly
isentropic, however, with typical isentropic efficiencies ranging from 2090%
based on the application of the turbine. The interior of a turbine comprises
several sets of blades orbuckets. One set of stationary blades is connected to the
casing and one set of rotating blades is connected to the shaft. The sets
intermesh with certain minimum clearances, with the size and configuration of
sets varying to efficiently exploit the expansion of steam at each stage.
Turbine efficiency[edit]
To maximize turbine efficiency the steam is expanded, doing work, in a number
of stages. These stages are characterized by how the energy is extracted from
them and are known as either impulse or reaction turbines. Most steam turbines
use a mixture of the reaction and impulse designs: each stage behaves as either
one or the other, but the overall turbine uses both. Typically, lower pressure
sections are reaction type and higher pressure stages are impulse type. [citation needed]
Impulse turbines[edit]

A selection of impulse turbine blades

An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into high speed
jets. These jets contain significant kinetic energy, which is converted into shaft
rotation by the bucket-like shaped rotor blades, as the steam jet changes
direction. A pressure drop occurs across only the stationary blades, with a net
increase in steam velocity across the stage. As the steam flows through the
nozzle its pressure falls from inlet pressure to the exit pressure (atmospheric
pressure, or more usually, the condenser vacuum). Due to this high ratio of
expansion of steam, the steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity. The
steam leaving the moving blades has a large portion of the maximum velocity of

the steam when leaving the nozzle. The loss of energy due to this higher exit
velocity is commonly called the carry over velocity or leaving loss.
The law of moment of momentum states that the sum of the moments of
external forces acting on a fluid which is temporarily occupying thecontrol
volume is equal to the net time change of angular momentum flux through the
control volume.
The swirling fluid enters the control volume at radius with tangential
velocity and leaves at radius with tangential velocity .

Velocity triangle
A velocity triangle paves the way for a better understanding of the relationship
between the various velocities. In the adjacent figure we have:
and are the absolute velocities at the inlet and outlet respectively.
and are the flow velocities at the inlet and outlet respectively.
and are the swirl velocities at the inlet and outlet respectively.
and are the relative velocities at the inlet and outlet respectively.
and are the velocities of the blade at the inlet and outlet respectively.
is the guide vane angle and is the blade angle.
Then by the law of moment of momentum, the torque on the fluid is given by:
For an impulse steam turbine: . Therefore, the tangential force on the blades is .
The work done per unit time or power developed: .

When is the angular velocity of the turbine, then the blade speed is . The
power developed is then .
Blade efficiency
Blade efficiency () can be defined as the ratio of the work done on the blades to
kinetic energy supplied to the fluid, and is given by
Stage efficiency

Convergent-divergent nozzle

Graph depicting efficiency of Impulse turbine

A stage of an impulse turbine consists of a nozzle set and a moving wheel. The
stage efficiency defines a relationship between enthalpy drop in the nozzle and
work done in the stage.
Where is the specific enthalpy drop of steam in the nozzle.
By the first law of thermodynamics:
Assuming that is appreciably less than , we get Furthermore, stage efficiency
is the product of blade efficiency and nozzle efficiency, or
Nozzle efficiency is given by = , where the enthalpy (in J/Kg) of steam at the
entrance of the nozzle is and the enthalpy of steam at the exit of the nozzle
is .
The ratio of the cosines of the blade angles at the outlet and inlet can be taken
and denoted . The ratio of steam velocities relative to the rotor speed at the
outlet to the inlet of the blade is defined by the friction coefficient .
and depicts the loss in the relative velocity due to friction as the steam flows
around the blades ( for smooth blades).
The ratio of the blade speed to the absolute steam velocity at the inlet is termed
the blade speed ratio =
is maximum when or, . That implies and therefore . Now (for a single stage
impulse turbine)

Therefore, the maximum value of stage efficiency is obtained by putting the

value of in the expression of /
We get: .
For equiangular blades, , therefore , and we get . If the friction due to the blade
surface is neglected then .
Conclusions on maximum efficiency
1. For a given steam velocity work done per kg of steam would be maximum
when or .
2. As increases, the work done on the blades reduces, but at the same time
surface area of the blade reduces, therefore there are less frictional losses.
Reaction turbines[edit]
In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to form
convergent nozzles. This type of turbine makes use of the reaction force
produced as the steam accelerates through the nozzles formed by the rotor.
Steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the stator. It leaves the
stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of the rotor. The steam then
changes direction and increases its speed relative to the speed of the blades. A
pressure drop occurs across both the stator and the rotor, with steam
accelerating through the stator and decelerating through the rotor, with no net
change in steam velocity across the stage but with a decrease in both pressure
and temperature, reflecting the work performed in the driving of the rotor.
Blade efficiency
Energy input to the blades in a stage:
is equal to the kinetic energy supplied to the fixed blades (f) + the kinetic
energy supplied to the moving blades (m).
Or, = enthalpy drop over the fixed blades, + enthalpy drop over the moving
blades, .
The effect of expansion of steam over the moving blades is to increase the
relative velocity at the exit. Therefore, the relative velocity at the exit is always
greater than the relative velocity at the inlet .
In terms of velocities, the enthalpy drop over the moving blades is given by:
(it contributes to a change in static pressure)
The enthalpy drop in the fixed blades, with the assumption that the velocity of
steam entering the fixed blades is equal to the velocity of steam leaving the
previously moving blades is given by:

Velocity diagram
= where V0 is the inlet velocity of steam in the nozzle
is very small and hence can be neglected
Therefore, =
A very widely used design has half degree of reaction or 50% reaction and this is
known as Parsons turbine. This consists of symmetrical rotor and stator
blades. For this turbine the velocity triangle is similar and we have:
,
,
Assuming Parsons turbine and obtaining all the expressions we get
From the inlet velocity triangle we have
Work done (for unit mass flow per second):
Therefore, the blade efficiency is given by
Condition of maximum blade efficiency

Comparing Efficiencies of Impulse and Reaction turbines

If , then
For maximum efficiency , we get
and this finally gives
Therefore, is found by putting the value of in the expression of blade efficiency
Operation and maintenance[edit]

A modern steam turbine generator installation

Because of the high pressures used in the steam circuits and the materials used,
steam turbines and their casings have high thermal inertia. When warming up a
steam turbine for use, the main steam stop valves (after the boiler) have a
bypass line to allow superheated steam to slowly bypass the valve and proceed
to heat up the lines in the system along with the steam turbine. Also, a turning
gear is engaged when there is no steam to slowly rotate the turbine to ensure
even heating to prevent uneven expansion. After first rotating the turbine by the
turning gear, allowing time for the rotor to assume a straight plane (no bowing),
then the turning gear is disengaged and steam is admitted to the turbine, first to
the astern blades then to the ahead blades slowly rotating the turbine at 10
15 RPM (0.170.25 Hz) to slowly warm the turbine. The warm up procedure for
large steam turbines may exceed ten hours.[22]
During normal operation, rotor imbalance can lead to vibration, which, because
of the high rotation velocities, could lead to a blade breaking away from the rotor
and through the casing. To reduce this risk, considerable efforts are spent to

balance the turbine. Also, turbines are run with high quality steam:
either superheated (dry) steam, or saturated steam with a high dryness fraction.
This prevents the rapid impingement and erosion of the blades which occurs
when condensed water is blasted onto the blades (moisture carry over). Also,
liquid water entering the blades may damage the thrust bearings for the turbine
shaft. To prevent this, along with controls and baffles in the boilers to ensure high
quality steam, condensate drains are installed in the steam piping leading to the
turbine.
Maintenance requirements of modern steam turbines are simple and incur low
costs (typically around $0.005 per kWh); [22] their operational life often exceeds 50
years.[22]
Speed regulation[edit]

Diagram of a steam turbine generator system

The control of a turbine with a governor is essential, as turbines need to be run
up slowly to prevent damage and some applications (such as the generation of
alternating current electricity) require precise speed control. [23] Uncontrolled
acceleration of the turbine rotor can lead to an overspeed trip, which causes the
governor and throttle valves that control the flow of steam to the turbine to
close. If these valves fail then the turbine may continue accelerating until it
breaks apart, often catastrophically. Turbines are expensive to make, requiring
precision manufacture and special quality materials.
During normal operation in synchronization with the electricity network, power
plants are governed with a five percent droop speed control. This means the full
load speed is 100% and the no-load speed is 105%. This is required for the stable
operation of the network without hunting and drop-outs of power plants.
Normally the changes in speed are minor. Adjustments in power output are made
by slowly raising the droop curve by increasing the spring pressure on
a centrifugal governor. Generally this is a basic system requirement for all power
plants because the older and newer plants have to be compatible in response to
the instantaneous changes in frequency without depending on outside
communication.[24]

Thermodynamics of steam turbines[edit]

T-s diagram of a superheated Rankine cycle

The steam turbine operates on basic principles of thermodynamics using the part
3-4 of the Rankine cycle shown in the adjoining diagram. Superheated steam (or
dry saturated steam, depending on application) leaves the boiler at high
temperature and high pressure. At entry to the turbine, the steam gains kinetic
energy by passing through a nozzle (a fixed nozzle in an impulse type turbine or
the fixed blades in a reaction type turbine). When the steam leaves the nozzle it
is moving at high velocity towards the blades of the turbine rotor. A force is
created on the blades due to the pressure of the vapor on the blades causing
them to move. A generator or other such device can be placed on the shaft, and
the energy that was in the steam can now be stored and used. The steam leaves
the turbine as a saturated vapor (or liquid-vapor mix depending on application)
at a lower temperature and pressure than it entered with and is sent to the
condenser to be cooled.[25] The first law enables us to find an formula for the rate
at which work is developed per unit mass. Assuming there is no heat transfer to
the surrounding environment and that the changes in kinetic and potential
energy are negligible compared to the change in specific enthalpy we arrive at
the following equation
where

is the rate at which work is developed per unit time

is the rate of mass flow through the turbine

Isentropic efficiency[edit]
To measure how well a turbine is performing we can look at
its isentropic efficiency. This compares the actual performance of the turbine with
the performance that would be achieved by an ideal, isentropic, turbine. [26] When
calculating this efficiency, heat lost to the surroundings is assumed to be zero.

The starting pressure and temperature is the same for both the actual and the
ideal turbines, but at turbine exit the energy content ('specific enthalpy') for the
actual turbine is greater than that for the ideal turbine because of irreversibility
in the actual turbine. The specific enthalpy is evaluated at the same pressure for
the actual and ideal turbines in order to give a good comparison between the
two.
The isentropic efficiency is found by dividing the actual work by the ideal work. [26]
where

h3 is the specific enthalpy at state three

h4 is the specific enthalpy at state 4 for the actual turbine

h4s is the specific enthalpy at state 4s for the isentropic turbine

(but note that the adjacent diagram does not show state 4s: it is vertically below
state 3)
Direct drive[edit]

A direct-drive 5 MW steam turbine fuelled with biomass

Electrical power stations use large steam turbines driving electric generators to
produce most (about 80%) of the world's electricity. The advent of large steam
turbines made central-station electricity generation practical, since reciprocating
steam engines of large rating became very bulky, and operated at slow speeds.
Most central stations are fossil fuel power plants and nuclear power plants; some
installations use geothermal steam, or use concentrated solar power (CSP) to
create the steam. Steam turbines can also be used directly to drive
large centrifugal pumps, such as feedwater pumps at a thermal power plant.
The turbines used for electric power generation are most often directly coupled
to their generators. As the generators must rotate at constant synchronous
speeds according to the frequency of the electric power system, the most
common speeds are 3,000 RPM for 50 Hz systems, and 3,600 RPM for 60 Hz
systems. Since nuclear reactors have lower temperature limits than fossil-fired
plants, with lower steamquality, the turbine generator sets may be arranged to
operate at half these speeds, but with four-pole generators, to reduce erosion of
turbine blades.[27]
Marine propulsion[edit]
"Turbine Steam Ship" redirects here. For other uses, see TS (disambiguation).
See also: Marine steam engine

Turbinia, 1894, the first steam turbine-powered ship

High and low pressure turbines forSS Maui.

Parsons turbine from the 1928 Polish destroyer Wicher.

In steamships, advantages of steam turbines over reciprocating engines are
smaller size, lower maintenance, lighter weight, and lower vibration. A steam
turbine is only efficient when operating in the thousands of RPM, while the most
effective propeller designs are for speeds less than 300 RPM; consequently,
precise (thus expensive) reduction gears are usually required, although
numerous early ships through World War I, such as Turbinia, had direct drive from
the steam turbines to the propeller shafts. Another alternative is turbo-electric
transmission, in which an electrical generator run by the high-speed turbine is
used to run one or more slow-speed electric motors connected to the propeller
shafts; precision gear cutting may be a production bottleneck during wartime.
Turbo-electric drive was most used in large US warships designed during World
War I and in some fast liners, and was used in some troop transports and massproduction destroyer escorts in World War II.
The higher cost of turbines and the associated gears or generator/motor sets is
offset by lower maintenance requirements and the smaller size of a turbine when
compared to a reciprocating engine having an equivalent power, although the

fuel costs are higher than a diesel engine because steam turbines have lower
thermal efficiency. To reduce fuel costs the thermal efficiency of both types of
engine have been improved over the years. Today, propulsion steam turbine
cycle efficiencies have yet to break 50%, yet diesel engines routinely exceed
50%, especially in marine applications. [28][29][30] Diesel power plants also have
lower operating costs since fewer operators are required. Thus, conventional
steam power is used in very few new ships. An exception is LNG carriers which
often find it more economical to use boil-off gas with a steam turbine than to reliquify it.
Nuclear-powered ships and submarines use a nuclear reactor to create steam for
turbines. Nuclear power is often chosen where diesel power would be impractical
(as in submarine applications) or the logistics of refuelling pose significant
problems (for example, icebreakers). It has been estimated that the reactor fuel
for the Royal Navy's Vanguard-class submarines is sufficient to last 40
circumnavigations of the globe potentially sufficient for the vessel's entire
service life. Nuclear propulsion has only been applied to a very few commercial
vessels due to the expense of maintenance and the regulatory controls required
on nuclear systems and fuel cycles.
Early development[edit]
The development of steam turbine marine propulsion from 1894-1935 was
dominated by the need to reconcile the high efficient speed of the turbine with
the low efficient speed (less than 300 rpm) of the ship's propeller at an overall
cost competitive with reciprocating engines. In 1894, efficient
reduction gears were not available for the high powers required by ships,
so direct drive was necessary. In Turbinia, which has direct drive to each
propeller shaft, the efficient speed of the turbine was reduced after initial trials
by directing the steam flow through all three direct drive turbines (one on each
shaft) in series, probably totaling around 200 turbine stages operating in series.
Also, there were three propellers on each shaft for operation at high speeds.
[31]
The high shaft speeds of the era are represented by one of the first US
turbine-powered destroyers, USS Smith, launched in 1909, which had direct drive
turbines and whose three shafts turned at 724 rpm at 28.35 knots. [32] The use of
turbines in several casings exhausting steam to each other in series became
standard in most subsequent marine propulsion applications, and is a form
of cross-compounding. The first turbine was called the high pressure (HP)
turbine, the last turbine was the low pressure (LP) turbine, and any turbine in
between was an intermediate pressure (IP) turbine. A much later arrangement
than Turbinia can be seen on RMS Queen Mary in Long Beach, California,
launched in 1934, in which each shaft is powered by four turbines in series
connected to the ends of the two input shafts of a single-reduction gearbox. They
are the HP, 1st IP, 2nd IP, and LP turbines.
Cruising machinery and gearing[edit]
The quest for economy was even more important when cruising speeds were
considered. Cruising speed is roughly 50% of a warship's maximum speed and
20-25% of its maximum power level. This would be a speed used on long
voyages when fuel economy is desired. Although this brought the propeller
speeds down to an efficient range, turbine efficiency was greatly reduced, and

early turbine ships had poor cruising ranges. A solution that proved useful
through most of the steam turbine propulsion era was the cruising turbine. This
was an extra turbine to add even more stages, at first attached directly to one or
more shafts, exhausting to a stage partway along the HP turbine, and not used at
high speeds. As reduction gears became available around 1911, some ships,
notably the battleship USS Nevada, had them on cruising turbines while retaining
direct drive main turbines. Reduction gears allowed turbines to operate in their
efficient range at a much higher speed than the shaft, but were expensive to
manufacture.
Cruising turbines competed at first with reciprocating engines for fuel economy.
An example of the retention of reciprocating engines on fast ships was the
famous RMS Titanic of 1911, which along with her
sisters RMS Olympic and HMHS Britannic had triple-expansion engines on the two
outboard shafts, both exhausting to an LP turbine on the center shaft. After
adopting turbines with the Delaware-class battleships launched in 1909,
the United States Navy reverted to reciprocating machinery on the New Yorkclass battleshipsof 1912, then went back to turbines on Nevada in 1914. The
lingering fondness for reciprocating machinery was because the US Navy had no
plans for capital ships exceeding 21 knots until after World War I, so top speed
was less important than economical cruising. The United States had acquired
the Philippines and Hawaii as territories in 1898, and lacked the British Royal
Navy's worldwide network of coaling stations. Thus, the US Navy in 1900-1940
had the greatest need of any nation for fuel economy, especially as the prospect
of war with Japan arose following World War I. This need was compounded by the
US not launching any cruisers 1908-1920, so destroyers were required to perform
long-range missions usually assigned to cruisers. So, various cruising solutions
were fitted on US destroyers launched 1908-1916. These included small
reciprocating engines and geared or ungeared cruising turbines on one or two
shafts. However, once fully geared turbines proved economical in initial cost and
fuel they were rapidly adopted, with cruising turbines also included on most
ships. Beginning in 1915 all new Royal Navy destroyers had fully geared turbines,
and the United States followed in 1917.
In the Royal Navy, speed was a priority until the Battle of Jutland in mid-1916
showed that in the battlecruisers too much armour had been sacrificed in its
pursuit. The British used exclusively turbine-powered warships from 1906.
Because they recognized that a significant cruising range would be desirable
given their world-wide empire, some warships, notably the Queen Elizabethclass battleships, were fitted with cruising turbines from 1912 onwards following
earlier experimental installations.
In the US Navy, the Mahan-class destroyers, launched 1935-36, introduced
double-reduction gearing. This further increased the turbine speed above the
shaft speed, allowing smaller turbines than single-reduction gearing. Steam
pressures and temperatures were also increasing progressively, from 300 psi/425
F (2.07 MPa/218 C)(saturation temperature) on the World War Iera Wickes class to 615 psi/850 F (4.25 MPa/454 C) superheated steam on some
World War II Fletcher-class destroyers and later ships.[33][34] A standard
configuration emerged of an axial-flow high pressure turbine (sometimes with a
cruising turbine attached) and a double-axial-flow low pressure turbine

connected to a double-reduction gearbox. This arrangement continued

throughout the steam era in the US Navy and was also used in some Royal Navy
designs.[35][36] Machinery of this configuration can be seen on many preserved
World War II-era warships in several countries. [37] When US Navy warship
construction resumed in the early 1950s, most surface combatants and aircraft
carriers used 1,200 psi/950 F (8.28 MPa/510 C) steam. [38] This continued until the
end of the US Navy steam-powered warship era with the Knox-classfrigates of
the early 1970s. Amphibious and auxiliary ships continued to use 600 psi (4.14
MPa) steam post-World War II, with USS Iwo Jima, launched in 2001, possibly the
last non-nuclear steam-powered ship built for the US Navy.
Turbo-electric drive[edit]

NS 50 Let Pobedy, a nuclear icebreaker with nuclear-turbo-electric propulsion

Turbo-electric drive was introduced on the battleship USS New Mexico, launched
in 1917. Over the next eight years the US Navy launched five additional turboelectric-powered battleships and two aircraft carriers (initially ordered
as Lexington-class battlecruisers). Ten more turbo-electric capital ships were
planned, but cancelled due to the limits imposed by the Washington Naval
Treaty. Although New Mexicowas refitted with geared turbines in a 1931-33 refit,
the remaining turbo-electric ships retained the system throughout their careers.
This system used two large steam turbine generators to drive an electric motor
on each of four shafts. The system was less costly initially than reduction gears
and made the ships more maneuverable in port, with the shafts able to reverse
rapidly and deliver more reverse power than with most geared systems. Some
ocean liners were also built with turbo-electric drive, as were some troop
transports and mass-production destroyer escorts in World War II. However,
when the US designed the "treaty cruisers", beginning
with USS Pensacolalaunched in 1927, geared turbines were used for all fast
steam-powered ships thereafter.
Current usage[edit]
Since the 1980s, steam turbines have been replaced by gas turbines on fast
ships and by diesel engines on other ships; exceptions are nuclear-powered ships
and submarinesand LNG carriers.[39] Some auxiliary ships continue to use steam
propulsion. In the U.S. Navy, the conventionally powered steam turbine is still in
use on all but one of the Wasp-class amphibious assault ships. The U.S. Navy
also operates steam turbines on their nuclear powered Nimitz-class and Fordclass aircraft carriers along with all of their nuclear submarines (Ohio-,Los
Angeles-, Seawolf-, and Virginia-classes). The Royal Navy decommissioned its last
conventional steam-powered Leander-class frigate in 1993, also converting its
sole Type 82 destroyer, HMS Bristol, into a training ship that same year. In 2013,
the French Navy ended its steam era with the decommissioning of its

last Tourville-class frigate. Amongst the other blue-water navies, the Russian
Navy currently operates steam-powered Kuznetsov-class aircraft
carriers and Sovremenny-class destroyers. TheIndian Navy currently operates
two conventional steam-powered carriers, INS Viraat, a former British Centaurclass aircraft carrier (to be decommissioned in 2016), and INSVikramaditya, a
modified Kiev-class aircraft carrier; it also operates three Brahmaputraclass frigates commissioned in the early 2000s and two Godavariclass frigates currently in the process of being decommissioned.
Most other naval forces either retired or re-engined their steam-powered
warships by 2010. The Chinese Navy currently operates steam-powered
Russian Kuznetsov-class aircraft carriers and Sovremenny-class destroyers; it
also operates steam-powered Luda-class destroyers. The JS Kurama, the last
steam-powered JMSDF Shirane-class destroyer, will be decommissioned and
replaced in 2017. as of 2016, the Brazilian Navy operates So Paulo, a former
French Clemenceau-class aircraft carrier, while the Mexican Navy currently
operates four former U.S. Knox-class frigates and two former U.S. Bronsteinclass frigates. The Royal Thai Navy, Egyptian Navy and the Republic of China
Navy respectively operate one, two and six former U.S. Knox-class frigates.
The Peruvian Navy currently operates the former Dutch De Zeven Provincinclass cruiser BAP Almirante Grau; theEcuadorian Navy currently operates
two Condell-class frigates (modified Leander-class frigates).
Locomotives[edit]
Main article: Steam turbine locomotive
A steam turbine locomotive engine is a steam locomotive driven by a steam
turbine.
The main advantages of a steam turbine locomotive are better rotational balance
and reduced hammer blow on the track. However, a disadvantage is less flexible
output power so that turbine locomotives were best suited for long-haul
operations at a constant output power.[40]
The first steam turbine rail locomotive was built in 1908 for the Officine
Meccaniche Miani Silvestri Grodona Comi, Milan, Italy. In 1924 Krupp built the
steam turbine locomotive T18 001, operational in 1929, for Deutsche
Reichsbahn.
Testing[edit]
British, German, other national and international test codes are used to
standardize the procedures and definitions used to test steam turbines. Selection
of the test code to be used is an agreement between the purchaser and the
manufacturer, and has some significance to the design of the turbine and
associated systems. In the United States, ASMEhas produced several
performance test codes on steam turbines. These include ASME PTC 6-2004,
Steam Turbines, ASME PTC 6.2-2011, Steam Turbines in Combined Cycles, PTC
6S-1988, Procedures for Routine Performance Test of Steam Turbines. These
ASME performance test codes have gained international recognition and
acceptance for testing steam turbines. The single most important and
differentiating characteristic of ASME performance test codes, including PTC 6, is

that the test uncertainty of the measurement indicates the quality of the test
and is not to be used as a commercial tolerance. [41]
See also[edit]

Balancing machine

Mercury vapour turbine

Tesla turbine

References[edit]
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History, Revised Edition, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis: 2004, p.
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36.Jump up^ The Leander Project turbine page
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Further reading[edit]

Cotton, K.C. (1998). Evaluating and Improving Steam Turbine

Performance.

Parsons, Charles A. (1911). The Steam Turbine. University Press,

Cambridge.

Traupel, W. (1977). Thermische Turbomaschinen (in German).

Thurston, R. H. (1878). A History of the Growth of the Steam Engine. D.

Appleton and Co.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia
Commons has
media related
to Steam
turbines.

Steam Turbines: A Book of Instruction for the Adjustment and Operation of

the Principal Types of this Class of Prime Movers by Hubert E. Collins

Steam Turbine Construction at Mike's Engineering Wonders

Tutorial: "Superheated Steam"

Flow Phenomenon in Steam Turbine Disk-Stator Cavities Channeled by

Balance Holes

Extreme Steam- Unusual Variations on The Steam Locomotive

Interactive Simulation of 350MW Steam Turbine with Boiler developed

by The University of Queensland, in Brisbane Australia

"Super-Steam...An Amazing Story of Achievement" Popular Mechanics,

August 1937

Modern Energetics - The Steam Turbine

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GND: 4011002-3

NDL: 00575026
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