RUDDER

A rudder is a primary control surface used to steer a ship that moves

through the water.The rudder is used to steer the ship. The turning action is largely
dependent on the area of the rudder. The required area of the rudder varies with
different type of vessels since desired maneuvering ability differs considerably and
the general ship design may imposed restriction.
Rudder may be hinged on the pintles and gudgeons, or they may turn about an
axle which passes down through the rudder. The weight of rudder may be taken by
bearing pintles, or by a bearing at the rudder head (rudder carrier), or by a
combination of both.

TYPES OF RUDDER:
SPADE OR BALANCED RUDDER
A spade or balanced rudder is basically a rudder plate that is fixed to the
rudder stock only at the top of the rudder. A portion of the blade area is disposed
symmetrically through the rudder height and forward of stock.

In other words, the rudder stock (or the

axis of the rudder) doesnt run down along the
span of the rudder. The position of the rudder
stock along the chord of the rudder (width
meaning, from the forward to aft end of the
rudder) actually decides whether the rudder is a
balanced of semi-balanced one. In balanced
rudders, (which spade rudders generally are) the
rudder stock is at such a position such that 40
percent of the rudder area is forward of the stock
and the remaining is aft of it.

UNBALANCED RUDDER
The blade is entirely aft of stock. These rudders have their stocks attached at
the forward most point of their span.
Unlike balanced rudders, the rudder
stock runs along the chord length of the
rudder. The reason is simple. In this
case, the torque required to turn the
rudder is way higher than what is
required for a corresponding balanced
rudder. So, the topmost part of the
rudder has to be fixed to the spintle so as to prevent it from vertical displacement
from its natural position. However, unbalanced rudders are not widely used now.

THREE MAIN TYPES OF AN UNBALANCED RUDDER:

SEMI BALANCED RUDDER

If you have been able to visualize a

unbalanced rudder by now, it should be pretty
visualize a semi-balanced rudder. In fact,

balanced

and
easy

to

the

rudder you see on most ships are semibalanced in the modern industry. The
name semi-balanced itself implies, that
the rudder is partly balanced, and partly
unbalanced. If you refer to the figure
below, youll see that a portion of the chord length
from the top is un-balanced, and the remaining
chord length is balanced.
The top part being un-balanced will help in acting as a structural support to
the rudder from vertical displacement. And the balanced part will render less
torque in swinging the rudder. As a result, a semi balanced rudder returns to the
centreline orientation on its own if the steering gear equipment fails during a turn.

FLAPS RUDDER
You must have watched an aeroplanes wings closely. Did you watch
those flaps coming in and out of the aft end of the wing? Why do you think they do

that? Primarily to change the effective angle of attack of

the entire aero foil section of the wing. Youll see, during
a takeoff, how all the flaps are completely deployed. That
actually helps in attaining the effective angle of attack so
as to get the maximum lift force.
The same principle, when used in rudders,
provides a similar result. Just that, in case of rudders,
the flaps
are

not

retractable and they have their significant effects when the rudder is given some
angle of attack.

 PLEUGER RUDDER

Perhaps one of the most

innovative rudder mechanisms you
will ever come across. Suppose you
have

ship,

too

large

to

be

maneuver in a basin with size

constraints, such that the ship
cannot use its propeller during the
maneuvers. This situation often arises in case of large ships operating in space
constrained basins, or in any case of low speed maneuvers.
So, a Pleuger rudder (as you can see in the figure below), has a smaller
auxiliary propeller housed within it (which runs by a motor). As this housing is
mounted on the rudder itself, it generates a thrust (which is smaller than what is
generated by the ships main engine propeller) in a direction that is oriented along
the rudder, therefore allowing effective man oeuvre in slow speed condition.

Such a rudder
can be used in normal
conditions also. Just
that, in normal speeds,
the

Pleuger

operated.

is

not

However,

when the Pleuger is

run, the main engine
propeller must not be operated simultaneously, which will otherwise cause the
Pleuger to be torn away.

MAIN PARTS OF A RUDDER

HANGING RUDDER

SIMPLEX RUDDER

RUDDER WITH 1 PINTLE

T-TYPE RUDDER

WITH 2 PINTLES

MARINER RUDDER

MARINER RUDDER
WITH 2 PINTLES

COLT NOZZLE RUDDER

ACTIVE RUDDER

PROPELLER

A propeller is a rotating fan like structure which is used to propel the ship by
using the power generated and transmitted by the main engine of the ship. The
transmitted power is converted
from

rotational

motion

to

generate a thrust which imparts

momentum

to

the

water,

resulting in a force that acts on

the ship and pushes it forward.

MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION OF PROPELLER

Marine propellers are made from corrosion resistant materials as they are
made operational directly in sea water which is a corrosion accelerator. The
materials used for making marine propeller are alloy of aluminum and stainless
steel. Other popular materials used are alloys of nickel, aluminum and bronze
which are 10~15 % lighter than other materials and have higher strength.
The construction process of the propeller includes attaching a number of
blades to the hub or boss by welding or forging in one piece. Forged blades are
highly reliable and have greater strength but are expensive as compare to welded
ones. A marine propeller is constructed by sections of helicoidally surfaces acting
together to rotate through water with a screw effect.

TYPES OF PROPELLER

Propellers are be classified on the basis of several factors. The classification of

different types of propellers is shown below:

A. CLASSIFICATION BY NUMBER OF BLADES ATTACHED:

Propeller blades may vary from 3 blade propellers to 4 blade propellers
and sometimes even 5 blade propellers. However, the most commonly used are 3
blades and 4 blade propellers.

THREE ( 3 ) BLADE PROPELLER:

A 3 blade propeller has following characteristics:
The manufacturing cost is lower than other types.
Are normally made up of aluminum alloy.
Gives a good high speed performance.
The acceleration is better than other types.
Low speed handling is not much efficient.

FO

UR ( 4 ) BLADE PROPELLER:
A 4 blade propeller has following characteristics:
The manufacturing cost is higher than 3 blade propellers.
4 blade propellers are normally made up of stainless steel alloys.
Have better strength and durability.
Gives a good low speed handling and performance.

Has a better holding power in rough seas.

4 blade propeller provides a better fuel economy than all the other types.

FIVE ( 5 )
BLADE
PROPELLER:
A 5 blade propeller has following characteristics:

Manufacturing cost is higher of all.

Vibration is minimal from all the other types.

5 blade propellers have better holding power in rough seas.

B. CLASSIFICATION BY PITCH OF THE BLADE:

Pitch of a propeller can be defined as the displacement that a propeller

makes for every full revolution of 360 . The classification of the propellers on the
basis of pitch is as follows.

FIXED PITCH PROPELLER (FPP):

The blades in fixed pitch propeller are permanently attached to the hub.
The fixed pitch type propellers are casted and the position of the blades and hence
the position of the pitch is permanently
fixed and cannot be changed during the
operation.
Fixed

pitch

propellers

are

robust and reliable as the system

doesnt incorporate any mechanical and
hydraulic connection as in Controlled
Pitch

Propeller

(CPP).

The

manufacturing, installation and operational costs are lower than controlled pitch
propeller (CPP) type. The maneuverability of fixed pitch propeller is also not as good
as CPP.

VARIABLE or CONTROLLABLE PITCH PROPELLER (CPP):

In Controlled Pitch type propeller, it is possible to alter the pitch by
rotating the blade about its vertical axis by means of mechanical and hydraulic
arrangement. This helps in
driving

the

propulsion

machinery at constant load

with no reversing mechanism
required as the pitch can be
altered to match the required
operating
the
improves

condition.

Thus

manoeuvrability
and

the

engine

efficiency also increases.

This drawback includes the possibility of oil pollution as the hydraulic oil
in the boss which is used for controlling the pitch may leak out. It is a complex and
expensive system from both installation and operational point. Moreover, the pitch

can get stuck in one position, making it difficult to manoeuvre the engine.

MAIN PARTS OF A PROPELLER

HUB
This is the center round portion, sometimes called the
barrel, or boss, of the propeller.
What It Does: It is the attachment point for the blades and for
some props; the hub also includes the center hub, which is typically splined to mate
the prop to the propeller shaft. On many propellers, the engines exhaust exits
directly through the hub.

OUTER HUB
On through-hub exhaust propellers, the
exterior hub surface is in direct contact with the
water.

What It Does: The outer hub forms the attachment

point for the blade roots and, along with the inner hub,
creates the tunnels that are the exhaust passages. Sometimes it has exhaust ports
as well.

DIFFUSER RING
Its a flared rim on the aft end of a throughhub-exhaust propellers hub.
What It Does: A flared boss aka diffuser ring prevents exhaust gases from
feeding back into the blades and diminishing thrust. It does so by creating a
pressure difference.

KEYWAY
This is a machined slot or groove in the hub of a
propeller.

What It Does: The keyway allows the prop and shaft to mate to each other;
corresponding machined slots on each are filled by the key, a rectangular piece of
metal.

STRAIGHT RIB
On through-hub exhaust propellers, the ribs
are the connections between the inner and outer
hub.
What It Does: Ribs create the exhaust passages in
a through-hub exhaust prop. Ribs are usually either parallel to the propeller shaft
(straight) or parallel to the blades (helical).

INNER HUB
Many propellers have a sacrificial composite center between the hub and the
splines.
What It Does: Should the propeller strike a hard object, the inner hub will break or
spin, protecting the drive train. When this happens, one is said to have spun the
hub.

THE BLADES

 LEADING EDGE
That is the forward part of the blade adjacent to the forward part of the hub.
What It Does: The leading edge of the propeller advances toward the water flow,
allowing the prop to enter and deliver water across the blade face.

TRAILING EDGE
This is the aft edge of the blade adjacent to the aft portion of the hub.
What It Does: The aft edge of the propeller blade retreats from the water flow. It
must allow water to cleanly release from the blade face for maximum efficiency.

BLADE TIP
The tip is the part of the blade farthest from the propeller hub.
What It Does: The blade tip travels the most distance in a revolution and therefore
performs most of the work done by the blade in propelling the boat.

BLADE ROOT
The point at which the blade attaches to the hub is the blade root.
What It Does: The root describes the smallest diameter circle, thus traveling the
shortest distance in a revolution. Its the point where the nominal pitch is
measured on the propeller blade.

 BLADE FACE
The face is that side of the blade facing aft, also known as the pressure side.
The pressure face is the part of the blade that pushes water when the boat is
moving forward.

BLADE BACK
The side of the blade facing forward, known as the negative pressure, or
suction, side of the blade is the blade back.
What It Does: The blade back is the first part of the propeller to meet the water in
a revolution and is usually shaped like a foil in cross-section to create a difference in
pressure.
Why Three?
A single-blade propeller would be the most efficient, even
though it transmits less thrust, since it would create the least
drag if the vibration could be tolerated. As blades are added,
efficiency decreases, but so does the vibration level. Most
propellers are made with three blades as a compromise for vibration, convenient
size, efficiency and cost.

DIAMETER
Diameter is the distance across the circle swept by the blade tips. Generally,
the larger the diameter, the more boat-driving control (especially in rough water)

that the propeller will provide and the more power it can absorb from the engine
and transmit to the water. However, diameter will be limited by the engine gearcase size, draft considerations and aperture
clearances, and increased diameter also increases
drag while it increases thrust. As a result, in
many instances, smaller propellers, which run at
higher rpm, are used instead of larger-diameter
props running at lower rpm.

PITCH
Pitch is best described as the distance that a
propeller would move in one revolution if it were
moving through a solid, like a screw in wood.
Theoretically, a propeller with a 21-inch pitch
would move forward (taking the boat with it) 21
inches in one revolution, though in reality the
actual distance is somewhat less. It is important
to note that pitch is not the blade angle and in fact, most prop blades have a
varying angle in order that the pitch is kept constant. This is because the root
sweeps a smaller circle than the tips, and so the tips are given a shallower angle
than the roots, resulting in the characteristic twist of most propeller blades. In
general, more pitch means faster speed but decreased rpm; less pitch means
decreased boat speed while raising engine rpm. Its key to mating most props with
most boat-engine combinations.

RAKE
Rake

is

the

angle

at

which

propellers blades are set relative to the hub.

Blades that tilt back radically from the hub
are said to have high rake. Blades that are
set perpendicular to the hub are said to have
little to no rake. Higher rake angles improve
the ability of the propeller to operate in a
surfacing condition (like on performance and
racing boats). When surfacing, higher blade rake can better hold the water as it is
being thrown off into the air by centrifugal force, and it creates more thrust than
similar but lower rake. On lighter, faster boats, with a higher engine or drive
transom height, higher rake often will increase performance by holding the bow of
the boat higher, resulting in higher boat speed due to less hull drag.

CUP
When the trailing edge of the blade and/or part of the tip is formed or cast
with an edge curl (away from the boat), it is said to have cup. Cup permits the
propeller to hold water better and typically adds about a half-inch (12.7 mm) to 1
inch (25.4 mm) of pitch. Originally, cupping was done to gain the same benefits as
just described for progressive pitch and curved or higher rake. However, cupping
benefits are so desirable that nearly all modern, recreational, high-performance or
racing propellers are cupped. Cupping usually will reduce full-throttle engine speed
about 150 to 300 rpm below that of the same pitch propeller with no cup. A propeller
repair shop can increase or decrease cup to alter engine rpm to meet specific

operating requirements on most propellers. Cup

also allows sterndrive and outboard props to
run at higher mounting heights and trim levels
because, basically, it provides more grip on the
water. Ventilation is also reduced by cup. Cup is
usually of little value on propellers used in
heavy-duty or work applications in which the
propeller remains fully submerged.

Its an Anti-Ventilation Plate

Ventilation

occurs

when air from the

waters surface or
exhaust gases gets
drawn
propeller

into

the

blades;

the propeller overrevs, losing much of its thrust. Outboards and stern drives have anti-ventilation
plates to prevent this (the boats bottom serves this function with inboards). At
lower pressures water boils at lower temperatures. Cavitations occurs when water
boils at the lower pressures on the back of the blade, creating bubbles that can
explode and actually damage the prop when they reach the high pressure on the
blade face.