WATER

April
2008

HAMMER
PAGE 40

www.che.com
4
FLEXIBLE SCREW CONVEYORS WATER HAMMER PREVENTION

Carbon
Certification of
Biofuels
Advanced
Bio-based
Products

PAGE 36

Facts at Your
Fingertips:
Random Tower
Packing
Fired-Heater
Burner
Performance
Piping Design:
Installation
& Cleaning
Focus
on
Analyzers

VOL. 115 NO. 4 APRIL 2008

360
Feedback
Reports

01_CHE_041508_COV.indd 1

3/21/08 9:07:48 AM

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Dow Chemical 4-08.indd 1

3/19/08 12:20:49 PM

More of what you want

from a bulk solids conveyor:
Flexicon flexible screw conveyors deliver
unique advantages you need to improve
productivity and quality while cutting cost:
Gentle conveying of bulk ingredients from large
pellets to sub-micron powders
Sanitary conveying: enclosed tube prevents
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quickly, thoroughly. Available to 3-A standards
Multi-directional conveying: vertically, horizontally
or at any angle, around, over, or under obstructions, to nearby or distant plant locations
Positive conveying of free-flowing products
as well as materials and blends that separate,
fluidize, degrade, pack, cake, smear, seize,
or plug
Simple conveying: rugged inner screw is the
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Flexicon conveyors offer solutions to problems that can exist with other
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UNITED KINGDOM
+44 (0)1227 374710
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Flexicon 4-07.indd 1

Revolutionary discharger
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TELE-TUBE telescoping
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retying of partially empty bags. BAG-VAC dust collector creates negative pressure within dust-tight system to collapse
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Connect bulk bags quickly,

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New SWING-DOWN bulk
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plant floor, allowing safe,
rapid bag connections.
Eliminates danger of stepping onto and over roller
conveyors to access rear
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upward over inflatable collars while reaching for bag inflator
buttons. Available to industrial, food, dairy and pharmaceutical standards with numerous performance enhancements.

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*Patent(s) granted and/or pending. 2005 Flexicon Corporation.
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internal bearings, filters, seals, air streams,
or cleaning difficulty
Limited angles of incline or straight-only
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Product degradation due to high impact at
elbows, crushing in troughs, or grinding
between moving parts
Separation of blends
Problematic conveying of materials that
fluidize, degrade, plug, pack, cake or smear
Cost, wear, and/or maintenance of
components such as blowers, compressors,
filters, separators, internal bearings, shaft seals,
chains, etc.

Flexicon pneumatic conveying systems transport a

broad range of bulk materials over short or long distances between single or
multiple inlet and discharge points in small to
high capacities. Offered in
both positive pressure or
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from single-point up-andin installations to mobile
units to cross-plant systems complete with rotary
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Convey pneumatically to/from

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3/19/08 12:14:15 PM

Circle 05 on p. 76or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-05

Solutia 2-08.indd 1

3/19/08 12:17:12 PM

APRIL 2008

IN THIS ISSUE

VOLUME 115, NO. 4

COMMENTARY

5 Editors Page
Go green, but be
realistic The word
green should be
applied with caution,
or its meaning is lost

32 CE Community
This month we
feature a crossword
puzzle on pumps

COVER STORY

36 Cover Story Move Difficultto-Handle Bulk Materials with

Flexible Screw Conveyors
Convey tough bulk materials that
tend to pack, cake, smear, break
apart or fluidize, and prevent
separation of blended products

DEPARTMENTS
Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Calendar . . . . . . . . 9,11
Whos Who . . . . . . . . 31

NEWS

13 Chementator An ammonia-based CO2-

capture process moves several steps closer

to commercialization; Diamond may be a
pumps best friend; This composite combines the unique properties of two new
forms of carbon; A new polymer set for a
commercial launch; Halogenated activated
carbon reduces mercury emissions from a
coal-fired plant; Sugar-beet pulp may cut
the cost of biodegradable plastic; and more

21 Technology Showcase Biofuels Face a

Carbon Certification Challenge So-called
carbon certification rules are about to take
effect in Europe and possibly in the U.S.
Certified biofuels will have tax relief, noncertified ones will not which bears major
implications for this subsidized industry

24 Newsfront Teaching an Old Dog New

Tricks Processors use fermentation to develop new and advanced bio-based products
ENGINEERING

33 Facts At Your Fingertips Random Tower

Packing This one-page guide illustrates
several common types of random packing
while describing design considerations and
packing objectives

40 Feature Report The Number One Problem in a Steam System: Water Hammer
There is only one time to correct water hammer immediately

44 Engineering Practice Fired-Heater Burner

Performance Use burner and heater operating variables to predict burner response

48 Engineering Practice Piping Design Part

5: Installation and Cleaning These practical guidelines for deciding which installation
procedure to follow, and for cleaning a new
pipeline system, can prevent problems from
happening during startup

61 Environmental Manager A Checklist for

Safer Chemical Batch Reactions A good
understanding of the reaction chemistry is
needed for a safe process design

Reader
Service page . . . . . . . 76
Economic
Indicators . . . . . . 77, 78

63 You and Your Job Getting the Information You Need Through a 360 Feedback
Report Properly implemented, this full-circle
review is a good way for people in management to learn how they are perceived by team
members above and below them
EQUIPMENT & SERVICES

34D-1 Show Preview Powder & Bulk Solids

This year, the show will be held at the Donald E. Stephens Convention Center in Rosemont, Ill. on May 58. This preview includes
a sampling of the equipment and services
that will be on display

34I-1 New Products & Services

(International Edition) Prevent the
growth of germs in water softeners, without heat; Move more oil with this powerful
pump; This wireless transmitter is approved
for hazardous areas; This transmitter now
handles two thermocouples; Inline hydraulics screens make sure nothing gets
through; A hermetically sealed probe for
level measurements; These isolators are intrinsically safe; Pastillation process
proven again for trouble-free solids
handling; and more

59 Focus Analyzers High-resolution x-ray diffraction; This hand-held data acquisition

system uploads to a PC; Maintain low-sulfur
product quality with this analyzer; Designed
for position measuring in adverse conditions;
A mass spectrometer for complex mixtures;
A pH sensor with an increased performance
lifetime; and more

ADVERTISERS
Product
Showcase. . . . . . . 68, 69
Classified
Advertising . . . . . 7074
Advertiser Index . . . . 75
COMING IN MAY
Look for: Feature Reports on An Integrated
Approach to Industrial
Security; and Temperature Measurement and
Control; Engineering Practice articles
on Benchmarking for
Success; and A Design
Review of Steam-Stripping Columns for
Wastewater Service;
A Solids Processing
article on Blending and
Segregation; A Focus on
Pumps; A News article
on Trends in Petroleum
Refining; A Technology
Showcase on Carbon
Capture and Storage;
Facts at Your Fingertips on Acid Handling;
and more
Cover Photograph:
Flexicon Corp.

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02_CHE_041508_TOC.indd 3

3/21/08 8:15:56 AM

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37!  #HEM%NG!2INDD

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swagelok 6-06.indd 1

3/19/08 12:18:35 PM

Winner of Eight Jesse H. Neal

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Editors Page

Go green, but be realistic

s spring approaches, the woods around Frankfurt are beginning to get

green again. Taking in this annual transformation, it seems like a good
time to reflect on how the meaning of the word green has changed
through misuse or at least, in my opinion, overuse of the word. Many
press releases course through our offices, and more and more (it seems),
companies are touting a greener process, a greener product, or how green
they have become as an organization. Admittedly, we at CE also use green
or greener in the headlines of stories and chementators.
Overuse of a word or phrase ultimately leads to that word or phrase
losing its meaning. Worse still is when the word or phrase, through continued use, misuse, or even abuse, ultimately causes readers or listeners to
become skeptical of what they are reading or hearing.
Last May, a group of about seventy-five individuals from around the
world with expertise in either ionic liquids (ILs) toxicology, or both
gathered in Berlin for a two-day working meeting: Biodegradability and
Toxicology of Ionic Liquids (BATIL; Berlin, Germany; May 68). The idea
for the gathering was initially conceived back in 2000 when a group of
scientists met in Crete for a NATO Advanced Research Workshop, which
concluded that: (1) ILs are intrinsically interesting and (2) ILs are not necessarily green, but that the development of ILs should follow the principles
of Green Chemistry from the beginning, explains Robin Rogers, chemistry
professor at University of Alabama (Tuscaloosa), who opened the BATIL
meeting. Rogers lamented that early articles in both the literature and
trade press touted ILs as being green solvents because of their lack of
vapor pressure at room temperature. If ILs can be so different that they
are either totally immiscible or totally miscible in water, how can they be
totally green? he asked. Rogers stressed that it is very important to avoid
over generalization. He compared the false logic to the following conclusions: Benzene is carcinogenic, therefore all solvents are carcinogenic; or,
water is non-toxic, therefore all solvents are green.
Those working in the emerging field of biofuels, or the more mature petroleum and coal sectors would do well to take heed of the lessons learned
and experiences discussed at the BATIL workshop. And tacking the word
green onto a product, be it biodiesel, bioethanol or even coal, is something
that should be done with caution, because sooner or later, such eco-friendly
claims may turn out to be incorrect.
This months Newsfront on biofuels (pp. 2122) points out that, at least
in terms of carbon footprint, biofuels may not be as green as we are led
to believe. And although biofuels contain less sulfur than traditional fuels,
their combustion products may actually be more harmful than those released from petroleum-derived gasoline. This may be the case for ethanol,
for example, as shown by computer simulations (CE, May 2007, p. 18) of
the effects of using E85 as fuel.
The Energy Independence and Securities Act, which President Bush
signed into law last December, includes a Renewable Fuels Standard calling
for at least 36 million gallons of ethanol to be used in the U.S. by 2022. This
is certainly a step towards energy independence (and good news for ethanol producers), but it seems to me that we should avoid
equating ethanol (or any other biofuel for that matter)
with the word green. Doing so is just plain unrealistic,
and will only result in accusations of greenwashing.
With the price of crude oil at record levels ($110/bbl
on March 13), more expensive alternatives will increasingly make sense. But ultimately, the only truly green
solution is to reduce consumption the second law of
thermodynamics says so.
O
Gerald Ondrey










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5

03_CHE_041508_ED.indd 5

3/20/08 12:56:15 PM

Letters

Circle 07 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-07

HART Plant of the Year nominations

Nominations for the 7th annual HART Plant of the Year

Award are now being accepted by the HART Communication Foundation (HCF). The global award is presented
annually to recognize innovative use of HART Communication in realtime industrial-process plant applications.
Nominations are encouraged from all world areas and will
be accepted through June 30. Nomination forms are available at www.hartcomm.org.
We want to recognize the innovators around the world
who have taken the capabilities of their HART instruments beyond configuration and calibration and have discovered new and better ways to use the HART technology
already in their plants, says HCF executive director Ron
Helson.
The HART Plant of the Year winner receives an award
plaque to display at its facility, special recognition at an
international trade show, exposure to the global industry
press, and a full feature article in a major trade publication. Information also appears in the Foundations
HARTLine newsletter and on the HART website. An official awards presentation is held at the plant site.
The HART Plant of the Year is the only public award
presented to end-user companies to recognize ingenuity in
the application of HART technology. Nominations should
include a description of how the plant is using the diagnostics and other intelligent capabilities of HART-enabled
devices in realtime applications with plant control, safety
and asset management systems to improve operations,
lower costs and increase plant availability.
Previous recipients include the following: StatoilHydro
(Norway); BP Canada Energy (Alberta); Sasol Solvents
(South Africa); BP Cooper River (South Carolina); Clariant (Germany); Detroit Water and Sewerage (Michigan);
and DuPont (Mississippi).
The HART Communication Foundation (www.hartcomm.org) is an international, not-for-profit, membership
organization supported by more than 200 companies
worldwide. Founded in 1993, the Foundation is the technology owner and central authority on the HART Protocol
and provides global support for application of the HART
technology. The Foundation manages and controls the
HART standards, including new technology developments
and enhancements that benefit and support the needs of
the industry. HART is the leading communication technology for smart process instruments with more than 25 million devices installed worldwide.

Do you have
Ideas to air?
Feedback about our articles?
Comments about todays
engineering practice or education?
Job-related problems or gripes to share?
If so Send them, for our Letters column, to
Rebekkah Marshall
Chemical Engineering, Access Intelligence,
110 William St., 11th floor
New York, NY 10038; letters@che.com

04_CHE_041508_LET.indd 6

3/21/08 8:18:26 AM

Circle 08 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-08

Axens 1-08.indd 1

3/19/08 12:23:58 PM

Circle 09 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-09

Emerson 12-07.indd 1

3/19/08 12:25:17 PM

Motorrad_E_4C_98,8x273,1.qxp

03.03.2008

9:31 Uhr

Seite 1

Calender
NORTH AMERICA

Polyurethane Manufacturers Association (PMA)

Annual Meeting. PMA (Milwaukee, Wis.). Phone: 414431-3094; Fax: 414-276-7704; Web: pmahome.org
San Antonio, Tex.
May 46
ESTECH 2008. Institute of Environmental Sciences and
Technology (Rolling Meadows, Ill.). Phone: 847-255-1561;
Fax: 847-255-1699; Web: iest.org
Bloomingdale, Ill.
May 47
2008 Offshore Technology Conference. Offshore
Technology Conference (Richardson, Tex.). Phone: 972952-9494; Web: otcnet.org/2008
Houston, Tex.
May 57

International Powder and Bulk Solids. Canon Communications LLC (Los Angeles, Calif.). Phone: 310-4454200; Fax: 310-996-9499; Web: processtechexpo.com
Rosemont, Ill.
May 58
Industrial Energy Technology Conference. Texas
Energy Experiment Station (College Station, Tex.). Phone:
979-862-8479; Fax: 979-862-8687; Web: tamus.edu
New Orleans, La.
May 69
International Conference on Thermal Treatment
Technologies. Air & Waste Management Association
(Pittsburgh, Pa.). Phone: 412-232-3444; Fax: 412-232-3450;
Web: awma.org
Montreal, Canada
May 1216
American Filtration and Separations Society
(AFS) 21st Annual Technical Conference. AFS
(Richfield, Minn.). Phone: 612-861-1277; Fax: 612-8617959; Web: afssociety.org
Valley Forge, Pa.
May 1922
Plastics in Underground Pipes 2008. Applied Market
Information LLC (Wyomissing, Pa.). Phone: 610-478-0800;
Fax: 610-478-0900; Web: amiplastics.com
Houston, Tex.
May 2223
2008 Nano Science and Technology Institute
(NSTI) Nanotechnology Conference and Trade
Show. NSTI (Danville, Mass.). Phone: 781-273-3322; Fax:
781-273-6603; Web: nsti.org/Nanotech2008
Boston, Mass.
Jun. 15
CSI Cleantech 2008. Clean Technology and Sustainable Industries Organization (Danville, Calif.). Phone:
774-249-1341; Fax: 925-886-8461; Web:
csievents.org/Cleantech2008/
Boston, Mass.
Jun. 15

05_CHE_041508_CAL.indd 9

Get the Power!

Westfalia Separator is continually opening up new
economic potential for the starch sector.
So, every grain of corn holds even more profit for you.
By fermentation of regenerative substances, fuel
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basic materials for manufacturing modern high-tech
products in the plastic industry. This is beneficial from
an ecological standpoint and valuable for you in terms
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Get in touch with us! Perhaps with individual centrifuges or with a compact installation together we will
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Take the Best Separate the Rest

Circle 10 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-10

Westfalia Separator
Industry
Werner-Habig-Strae 1
59302 Oelde (Germany)
Phone
+49 2522 77-0
Fax
+49 2522 77-2828
industry@gea-westfalia.de
www.westfalia-separator.com

3310.23

Electric Power. Trade Fair Group (Houston, Tex.).

Phone: 832-242-1969; Fax: 832-242-1971; Web:
electricpowerexpo.com
Baltimore, Md.
May 68

3/19/08 12:33:40 PM

Circle 11 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-11

Paratherm 4-08.indd 1

3/19/08 12:31:33 PM

FP0.C.GB

Calender
Plastec East. Canon Communications LLC (Los Angeles, Calif.). Phone: 310-445-4200; Fax: 310-996-9499;
Web: plasteceast.com
New York, N.Y.
Jun. 35
2008 World Congress on Powder Metallurgy &
Particulate Materials. Metal Powder Industries Federation (Princeton, N.J.). Phone: 609-452-7700; Fax:
609-987-8523; Web: mpif.org
Washington, D.C.
Jun. 812
LNG North America Summit 2008. World Trade
Group (Toronto, Canada). Phone: 416-214-3400; Fax:
416-214-3403; Web: lngevent.com
Houston, Tex.
Jun. 1920
Sustainability 2008: Green Practices for the
Water Environment. Water Environment Federation
(Alexandria, Va.). Phone: 703-684-2414; Fax: 703-5355261; Web: wef.org/Sustainability
National Harbor, Md.
Jun. 2225

europe

Smart Synthesis and Technologies for Organic

Processes Bridging Chemistry and Engineering. VDI Wissenforum GmbH (Dsseldorf, Germany).
Phone: +49(0) 211 62 14 201; Fax: +49(0) 211 62 14
154;
Web: vdi-wissenforum.de
Potsdam, Germany
Jun. 1113

asia and elsewhere

Interphex China. Reed Sinopharm Exhibitions Co.

Ltd. (Beijing, China). Phone: 0086-10-62028899; Fax:
0086-10-62033210; Web: reed-sinopharm.com
Dalian, China
May 1214

Conveying

Chem Middle East. International Expo-Consults

LLC (Dubai, U.A.E.). Phone: +971 4 3435777; Fax:
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Palletizing

Packaging

As a leading international manufacturer of

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properties. This expertise flows into the design
and construction of all our plants and systems
for the chemical industry. Find out for yourself!
Visit us on the internet!
Circle 12 on p. 76 or go to
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www.beumer.com
05_CHE_041508_CAL.indd 11

BEU_AZ_99x273,4_AllgChem_GB.indd 1

3/19/08 12:34:27 PM
13.03.2008 9:30:07 Uhr

Circle 13 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-13

Charles Ross 9-07.indd 1

3/19/08 12:36:00 PM

Edited by Gerald Ondrey

April 2008

An ammonia-based CO2-capture process moves several

Clean
steps closer to commercialization combustion
Water

ast month, the first pilot project that

used chilled ammonia to capture carbon dioxide from the fluegas (FG) of a
coal-fired power plant started operating
at the 1,210-MW We Energies Pleasant Prairie power plant in Wisconsin.
Alstom (Windsor, Conn.; edlinks.che.
com/7371-531) designed, built and will
operate the 1.7-MW pilot system, which
is part of a cost-sharing partnership of
35 utilities coordinated by the Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI; Palo
Alto, Calif.; edlinks.che.com/7371-532).
EPRI will conduct an engineering and
environmental performance and cost
analysis during the project, which will
last at least one year.
Alstoms chilled ammonia process
(flowsheet) is comprised of three steps.
First, the FG is cooled from 120130F
down to about 40F before it enters the
absorber tower. This not only serves to
bring the FG to the operating temperature of the absorber, but also drops out
water, SO2 and chloride, which would
otherwise react with the absorbent,
says Robert Hilton, director of business development for Alstoms environmental control systems. The cooled FG
then enters the absorber tower, which
is a packed tower containing a slurry
of NH4CO3 and (NH4)2CO3. There,
CO2 is absorbed from the FG by forming NH4HCO3 crystals. When the absorbent is saturated, the slurry is bled
off and regenerated at about 120F
and 300 psi, releasing a pure, stream

From fluegas
desulfurization

Steam
REF

Pressurized
CO2

wash

gas

Cooling

Cooling

REF

REF
Steam

Booster fan
CO2 absorber
REF

Bleed

Cooling and
cleaning
Gas

Water

CO2 absorption
Rich solution

of CO2. Because the CO2 is already

pressurized, the compression ratio
needed to inject the gas into a well for
storage is only 57 to 1. This helps to
reduce the cost compared to aminebased scrubbers, which regenerate at
ambient pressure, thus requiring a
compression ration of 100 or more to
achieve the 1,500 to 2,000 psi pressure
needed for CO2 injection, says Hilton.
In laboratory tests, Alstoms process
has demonstrated the potential to capture more than 90% of the CO2 at a cost
that is far less than other carbon-capture technologies, says the firm. With
chilled ammonia, we are projecting a
20% increase in the parasitic load to
the power plant, which is well below the
increase caused by conventional amines

dvanced Diamond Technologies, Inc. (ADT;

Romeoville, Ill.; edlinks.che.com/7371533) has launched a new family of mechanical seals to improve efficiency, save energy
and reduce costs in fluid-pumping systems.
The patented UNCD (ultrananocrystalline
diamond) Seals provide the benefits of a
diamond at a cost comparable to silicon carbide face seals, according to ADT, which was
formed in 2003 to commercialize the UNCD
technology developed at Argonne National
Laboratory (ANL; Argonne, Ill.). ADT is the
exclusive licensee to ANLs portfolio of patents for synthesizing and using UNCD.
Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number
on p. 62, or use the website designation.

06_CHE_041508_CHM.indd 13

CO2 regenerator

Refrigeration
system
CO2 regeneration
CO2

Lean solution

(34%) or advanced amine absorbents

(2627%), says Hilton.
Later this year, Alstom plans to pilot
test the chilled ammonia process in
other pilot projects in Sweden (with
E.ON) and Norway (with Statoil). In addition, it signed a contract with American Electric Power (Columbus, Ohio) to
implement the technology at a 30 MW
level, followed by a potential commercial scale (200 MW) by 2011. The first
phase of this project is a 30-MW validation plant that will capture CO2 from
AEPs 1,300 MW Mountaineer Plant
near New Haven, West Virginia. When
the unit starts up at the end of the year,
it will capture up to 100,000 m.t./yr of
CO2, which can be stored in deep saline
aquifers at the site.

Diamond may be a pumps best friend

Stripper

CO2-capture demo . . .

UNCD Seals save energy by reducing friction at the sealing interface; the coefficient
of friction of UNCD faces running against
SiC primaries is between 0.018 and 0.040,
which is well below that of SiC running
against SiC (>0.18) and SiC against resinbonded carbon (0.080.1). The UNCD Seal
also reduces the mean-time to replacement
due to longer lasting faces. In accelerated
wear tests with extremely poor lubrication,
we have seen negligible wear on the UNCD
faces and reductions in the coefficient of friction of over 75%. In the same tests, SiC faces
(Continues on p. 16)

Basin Electric Power Cooperative (BEPC; Bismarck, N.D.)

has selected the CO2-capture
technology of Powerspan Corp.
(Portsmouth, N.H.; edlinks.
che.com/7371-546) for a
commercial demonstration
at BEPCs Antelope Station
coal-fired power plant, located
near Beulah, North Dakota.
Approximately 1 million ton/yr
of CO2 will be captured from
the 120-MW slipstream project.
The captured CO2 will be pipe-

(Continues on p. 14)

Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2008

13

3/21/08 7:24:55 AM

(Continued from p. 13)

C hementato R

This composite combines the unique

properties of two new forms of carbon

f all known materials, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have the highest thermal
conductivity and mechanical strength as
well as the ability to withstand the highest electric-current density, making them
an attractive material for electric wiring,
heat dissipation, field electron emission,
and other applications. And graphene a
two-dimensional hexagonal lattice of carbon atoms has become attractive as a
channel material for future transistors due
to its high electron mobility.
Now, scientists at Fujitsu Laboratories Ltd. (Kawasaki, Japan; edlinks.che.
com/7371-535) synthesized a new material
that is said to be the worlds first carbon
composite featuring the excellent characteristics of both graphene and CNTs, which
are perpendicularly connected with good
uniformity at the CNTs end points (diagram, courtesy of Fujitsu Laboratories). The
graphene layer shows excellent electron
mobility, but only along its plane, while the
CNTs show excellent electric conductivity
and thermal dissipation, but only along the
tubes axial direction. The combination of
these anisotopic behaviors is expected to be
useful for making future electronic devices,
says the firm.

. . . and pilot test

To synthesize the composite, a catalyst

made of a titanium nitride film, sputtered
with a thin cobalt layer, is first deposited
onto a silicon substrate. Then, a chemical
vapor deposition (CVD) process is used to
crack a hydrocarbon at 510C in a vacuum
chamber. Through a self-organizing mechanism, carbon first grows into graphene at the
cobalt catalyst, and then multiwalled CNTs
grow between the Co and Titanium nitride
catalyst. The composite has a few dozen layers of graphene on top of the CNTs. Because
this CVD process operates at a lower temperature than conventional CVD methods
(typically greater than 700C), the material
is expected to become directly applicable
for electronic devices that are vulnerable to
thermal damage, says the firm.

A new polymer set for a commercial launch

olyglycolic acid (PGA) has good properties: a very high gas impermeability, even
under 80% humidity; biodegrability; high
mechanical strength; and good moldability,
which makes it a promising polymer for applications such as medical devices and barrier films. But up to now, it has been difficult
to make large quantities of the material.
Kureha Corp. (Tokyo, Japan; edlinks.che.
com/7371-536) has developed a continuous
process for producing PGA that will make
its commercial debut in 2010, when a 4,000m.t./yr plant starts production at the Belle
Factory of Dupont in West Virginia. In January a new company, Kureha PGA LLC, was
established to produce and market this polymer, which is expected to become a $100-million business in the future.
The main difficulty in producing PGA
with the required narrow molecular-weight
(MW) distribution has been impurities in
the raw materials, which lead to the formation of glycolide intermediates the
14

lined to an existing compressor

station at Dakota Gasifications
adjacent synfuels plant, and
injected into Dakota Gasifications 205-mile pipeline system.
The BEPC facility, which will
use Powerspans ECO2 technology a post-combustion,
regenerative process based
on an aqueous ammonia absorber (CE, July 2006, p. 14)
is expected to be operational in 2012.

cyclic dimer of glycolic acid (GA) during polymerization. Kureha discovered

that this intermediate is the key to forming PGA with a high MW and narrow MW
distribution. Kurehas proprietary process
first condenses GA into oligomers under a
controlled vacuum environment. The GA
oligomer is then completely decomposed
into glycolide, which is then purified and
converted into PGA by a ring-opening polymerization mechanism.
According to Kureha, PGA has a better
gas barrier property than any other conventional polymer, including EVOH (ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer) and MXD-6
nylon (meta-xylene diamine type 6-nylon).
The company believes it is possible to reduce the volume of PET resin usage by
more than 20% by adding 1 vol.% PGA as
the gas barrier layer in PET bottles. World
patents on PGA technology have been filed,
and Kureha has begun to supply samples to
prospective customers.

Meanwhile, CSIRO (Melbourne, Australia; edlinks.che.

com/7371-547) and Chinas
Thermal Power Research
Institute (Xian) plan to install
a pilot plant at the Huaneng
Beijing Co-generation Power
Plant that will capture 3,000
m.t./yr of CO2 using an aminebased process.

Stronger die cast parts

High-pressure die-cast
(HPDC) aluminum alloys
cannot normally be heated to
high temperatures due to the
presence of pores containing
entrapped gases, which lead
to the formation of surface
blisters. CSIRO Materials Science and Engineering (Melbourne, Australia; edlinks.che.
com/7371-548) has found that
blistering can be avoided by
using shorter solution-treatment times at lower temperatures. CSIRO says its process
also offers major improvements in tensile-mechanical
and other properties.
We envisage that this will
make it possible to use HPDC
components more widely in
load-carrying structural and
safety applications, says
Roger Lumley a researcher
at CSIRO Materials Science and Engineering. Also,
treated parts exhibit thermal
conductivity about 20% above
their as-cast status, opening
up potential applications in
engines or transmissions. Surprisingly, Lumley says, fatigue
resistance of aluminum HPDC
components, heat-treated
with the new process, can be
as high as for some wrought
aluminum products, tending
toward limiting behavior usually observed in steel.
When Al Alloy 360 is treated

(Continues on p. 16)

Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2008

06_CHE_041508_CHM.indd 14

3/21/08 7:27:07 AM

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Answers for industry.

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06.03.2008 15:17:32 Uhr

3/19/08 12:37:17 PM

C hementato R
(Continued from p. 13)
fail due to severe leakage, says Charles
West, ADT vice president of engineering.
ADTs UNCD process is suitable for seal
designs with shaft diameters from 0.375 to 10
in., and can handle both contacting and noncontacting face designs. The company offers
a line of O-ring pusher seals with diamond
mating rings and blister-resistant carbons,
and a line of cartridge seals for ANSI pumps
with shaft diameters between 1 and 2 in.
a pumps best friend

Meanwhile, Burgmann Industries GmbH

& Co. KG (Wolfratshausen, Germany;
edlinks.che.com/7371-534) launched its
own DiamondFaces mechanical seals at
last years Chem Show in New York. These
seals feature a larger-grained microcrystalline diamond coating that is applied to both
seal faces using a chemical-vapor-deposition
process. Coatings of up to 8 m thick can be
applied without affecting the flatness of the
sealing face, says the manfacturer.

Halogenated activated carbon reduces

mercury emissions from a coal-fired plant

n its first full-scale test on a coal-fired

power plant, halogenated activated carbon (AC) made by ADA-ES, Inc. (Littleton, Colo.; edlinks.che.com/7371-537) has
reduced mercury emissions by more than
90%. The significance of the results is that
the plant burns western coal, which differs
from bituminous coal in that it contains
elemental mercury, which is not amenable
to absorption.
Compared to bituminous coal, western coal

contains less chlorine and other oxidants to

oxidize the mercury so that it can be readily absorbed. ADAs process gets around this
problem by using halogen-doped AC, notes
Jean Bustard, chief operating officer.
ADA-ES is one of a number of companies
offering mercury-control processes (CE,
January 2007, pp. 2630). Bustard says
the company already has more than 25
contracts for mercury-control systems, of
which four have started up.

A platinum-free catalytic converter

ippon Steel Materials Co., Ltd. (NSM;

Tokyo, Japan; edlinks.che.com/7371538) has developed a new catalyst for combustion engines that contains 70% less precious metals than conventional catalytic
converters. The catalyst is expected to not
only lead to lower costs, but also outperform conventional catalysts.
Conventional catalytic converters typically include platinum, rhodium and palladium supported on an alumina carrier that
is doped with cerium oxide to improve the
oxygen adsorption. Instead, NSMs catalyst
features an iron oxide support a compos-

ite of several different nano-sized crystalline phases of iron oxide with alkaline
earth metals as the additive. This carrier
is said to have 100 times higher O2 adsorption capacity than conventional supports.
Only Pd (or Pd with a small amount of Rh)
is used on the new support.
The catalyst can operate at temperatures up to 900C and is expected to have
a long operating life. NSM is testing the
catalyst on mopeds (to meet the Euro 3
regulation), and plans to apply the technology for diesel-fueled automobiles in the
near future.

Switchgrass to syngas

lthough theoretically promising 80%

more energy than is required to grow
and convert to cellulosic ethanol, switchgrass has proven to be a difficult fuel
source to break down cost effectively.
With $1 million from the U.S. Depts. of
Agriculture (USDA) and Energy (DOE),
a team led by Professor Alan Weimer of
the University of Colorado at Boulder
(UCB; edlinks.che.com/7371-539) plans
to develop a switchgrass-to-syngas alternative. The rapid thermal-chemical reactor will use concentrated sunlight to heat
biomass, such as switchgrass, sorghum,
16

corn stalks and leaves, wood waste and

algae to over 2,000F for a fraction of a
second, producing intermediate synthesis
gas (syngas; CO and H2). The syngas can
then be converted into either H2 or liquid
fuels, according to Weimer. UCB is subcontracting the production of the high-flux
solar furnace to the National Renewable
Energy Laboratory (NREL; Golden, Colo.;
edlinks.che.com/7371-540), as well as commissioning studies on switchgrass growth
and bulk orders of the plant from Colorado
State University (CSU; Fort Collins, Colo.;
edlinks.che.com/7371-541).

(Continued from p. 14)

using a conventional, prolonged solution treatment of
16 h at 545C, severe surface
blistering and discoloration
occurs, and the specimen becomes dimensionally unstable,
resulting in expansion in both
radial and longitudinal directions. Blistering diminished
significantly when the solution-treatment time is reduced
to 15 min, and then further as
the temperature was lowered.
At 525C and below, blistering and dimensional change
are eliminated in specimens
heated for a standard time of
15 min. Similar schedules were
developed for HPDC prepared
from Al Alloy 380.

Novel solar electrode

Unidym, Inc., (Menlo Park,
Calif.; edlinks.che.com/7371549) has entered into a joint
development agreement with
Nippon Kayaku (Tokyo, Japan;
edlinks.che.com/7371-550),
to integrate their printable
transparent electrodes into the
Japanese firms thin-film photovoltaic cells. Its expected that
Unidyms transparent, carbonnanotube-based electrodes
(CE, February, p. 1819) will
resolve the issues of price, toxicity and performance life associated with the current materials
in use, namely indium tin oxide
(ITO) and its doped variants.

A new valve diaphragm

GEM GmbH & Co. KG (Ingelfingen-Criesbach, Germany;
edlinks.che.com/7371-551)
has developed a new EPDM
diaphragm for use at high temperatures and steam for the
biotechnological and pharmaceutical industries. Service life
is said to be up to three times
longer compared to other diaphragms of the same design.
An additional sealing bead has
also been integrated into the
top of the unit, which further
improves external sealing,
says the firm. The diaphragm
is available in all sizes MG
8100 (DN 4100), and fits
into the existing modular valve
system, and can be retrofitted
for all of the manufacturers
diaphragm valves.

Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2008

06_CHE_041508_CHM.indd 16

3/21/08 7:28:09 AM

Silversons high shear Batch mixers dont just mix; they

emulsify, homogenize, solubilize, suspend, disperse
and disintegrate solids. Every high shear Batch mixer in
our range significantly outperforms conventional mixers by
cutting processing times by up to 90% while improving
quality, product consistency and process efficiency.

Silverson High Shear

Batch Mixers will:
Process from 1 to 8000 gallons
Eliminate agglomerates and
fish eyes
Create stable emulsions
and suspensions
Reduce particle size
Rapidly dissolve solids
Accelerate reactions
For more information or
a free trial give us a call @

800.204.6400

Mixing at the speed of

silverson.com
Circle 14 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-14

Silverson4-08.indd 1

3/19/08 12:38:44 PM

C hementato R

Sugar-beet pulp may cut the cost of biodegradable plastic

ugar-beet processors in the U.S. generate approximately 40 million tons of

fiber-rich sugar-beet pulp every year as
a byproduct of sucrose extraction. Most
of it is used as livestock feed or in pet
food. Researchers with the U.S. Agricultural Research Service (ARS; edlinks.
che.com/7371-542) are working on a
process to convert the pulp into a filler
for polylactic-acid-based plastics (PLA),
biodegradable plastics derived from fermented corn sugars.

PLAs physical properties are similar to those of polypropylene, but its

production cost is higher, says Victoria
Finkenstadt, a chemist with the ARS
National Center for Agricultural Utilization Research (Peoria, Ill.). The inexpensive beet-pulp filler would reduce the
cost. The researchers plasticize the pulp
and reshape its particulate matter into
tendrils by co-extruding it with glycerol
at 75C. The resultant material is co-extruded with PLA at about 170C, then

pelletized for injection molding.

The goal is to have 4050% filler in
the plastic, but PLAs tensile strength decreases in relation to the amount of filler,
which does not adhere well to the plastic
at high fill levels. Finkenstadt notes that
sugar-beet pulp is hydrophilic, whereas
PLA is hydrophobic, so the research team
is using chemical modification to make
the pulp more hydrophobic. This will
make the tendrils of the pulp and the
PLA form a stronger bond, she says.

Nanozeolites

catalysts, says the company. For example

when combined with fluorescent dyes,
Lucidot can lead to the development of
more powerful thin-film solar panels and
fluorescent concentrators, light emitting
diodes and laser systems.
Two versions of this L-type zeolite are
commercially available. Lucidot NZL 40
are whisker-like crystals with a surface
area of 150170 m2/g and sizes between
30 and 60 nm which is roughly 100
times smaller than conventional L-type
zeolites, says Hans Joachim Metz, prod-

uct manager at Clariant Produkte GmbH

(Frankfurt). Lucidot DISC features disclike crystals (0.52 m dia., 0.20.4-m
thick) obtained by favoring lateral over
longitudinal growth, says Metz. The company is producing the materials in central Europe, with a current capacity that
can serve demands in the range of several
hundred kilograms per year. The product
is ready to enter the market in commercial (proprietary) applications, and more
applications are expected in the next two
years, he says.

n cooperation with several universities,

Clariant International Ltd. (Muttenz,
Switzerland; edlinks.che.com/7371-543)
has developed a process to manufacture high-quality nano-sized zeolite L
(Linde Type L) in technical quantities.
This new range of nano-scale aluminosilicates, tradenamed Lucidot, open up
a new range of possibilities in biochemical processes, including molecular sieves,
ion exchangers, selective absorbents and

Circle 53 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-53

06_CHE_041508_CHM.indd 18

3/21/08 7:29:01 AM

Circle 15 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-15

solex 4-08.indd 1

3/19/08 12:39:40 PM

C hementato R

Nanomaterial filters and recycles water

new nanomaterial which doubles as a

filter and a reactor capable of destroying unwanted substances, has been developed by a team from Nanyang Technological University (NTU; Singapore;
edlinks.che.com/7371-544), and the Singapore Public Utilities Board. The material consists of nanosized crystals of
titanium dioxide, which can capture unwanted matter in water and can act as a
catalyst under the application of visible
or ultraviolet light.
TiO2 is a popular photocatalyst, but

nanosized TiO2 particles are difficult to

clean and recover. The team claims it has
developed a TiO2 nanofiber membrane
in the form of a nonwoven spider web.
A member of the team which developed
the material, associate professor Darren
Sun, of NTUs School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, said the material offers several advantages: when
exposed to ultraviolet or solar radiation it self-regenerates, eliminating the
membrane fouling problem; it has a high
surface area, which allows for higher ad-

sorption rates of various organic materials and bacteria, in water purification; it

has a high temperature resistance and a
high resistance to acids and bases; and
it is flexible and can be formed into various membrane modules.
Sun says the material can save up to
90% of the energy used in traditional filtration methods, such as those using a
polymer membrane. The Public Utilities
Board plans to build a pilot plant to test
the nanomaterial at Chua Chu Kang Waterworks in approximately two years.

First WirelessHART products set to launch

merson Process Management (St.

Louis, Mo.; edlinks.che.com/7371-545)
claims to be the first process-automation
supplier to start taking orders for WirelessHART-enabled products, based on
the recently approved open standard for

in-plant wireless communications. These

measurement
and
communications
products include pressure, flow, level,
temperature and vibration transmitters
and gateways, as well as the AMS Suite
predictive maintenance software and 375

field communicator. The WirelessHART

standard specifies use of open wireless
communications for process measurement and control applications. Emerson
estimates the demand for wireless technology will exceed 1.5 billion by 2012.

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ChemicalEngineering_halfpg_HPI.indd 2
06_CHE_041508_CHM.indd 20

3/13/08 11:46:18 AM
3/21/08 7:31:36 AM

Technology Showcase

Biofuels face a carbon

certification challenge
Base case carbon footprints
for major petrofuels and biofuels

So-called carbon certification rules

are about to take effect in Europe
and possibly in the U.S.
Certified biofuels will have tax relief,
non-certified ones will not
which bears major implications
for this subsidized industry

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Eric Johnson and Russel Heinen

SRI Consulting

nvestment, production and consumption of biofuels are booming,

thanks mainly to American and
European governments subsidy
and promotion. In part this is driven
by fear of environmental enemy number one global warming. The simple, conventional wisdom is that biofuels have smaller carbon footprints
than competing petroleum-based
fuels (petrofuels).
Yet, as our recent study shows,* the
inconvenient truth is neither simple
nor conventional. Not simple, because
alternative land use is important,
at times overwhelmingly so, to the
choice between the two. Alternative
land use can tip the scales between
choosing a biofuel or a petrofuel. Unconventional, not only in that petrofuels sometimes wear the smaller
shoes, but also, generally speaking,
where a crop is grown plays a more
important role in the biodiesel-petrodiesel footprint than what type of
crop is grown.
Governments in Europe and in
the U.S. are beginning to listen to
our message. Rather than granting
blanket tax relief, they are introduc* Carbon Footprint of Biofuels & Petrofuels,
SRI Consulting (www.sriconsulting.com/GHG)

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ing systems that will waive

levies only to biofuels that
are certified low carbon,
as compared to conventional
gasoline and diesel.

The devil you know

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Figure 1. The carbon footprint is lowest for fuel

made from used cooking oil from restaurants (yellow grease) and highest for Fischer-Tropsch diesel

Biofuels and celebrities have

one trait in common: they can
be up one day and down the next. Just
a few short years ago, governments in
Europe and the U.S. were celebrating
biofuels as a major solution to global
warming, not to mention energy security and farm policy. In the meantime, that party has produced a bit of
a hangover.
Rising demand for bioethanol and
biodiesel, say many analysts, has
spiked global food prices. This burdens
the poorest of the poor, the 12 billion
people who live close to the brink of
subsistence, warns the International
Monetary Fund (IMF; Washington,
D.C.; www.imf.org). A United Nations
special expert on the right to food,
Jean Ziegler, went even further with
his criticism. In a statement last October he called the practice of converting
food crops into biofuel a crime against
humanity, and called for a five-year
moratorium on biofuel production to

halt what he called a growing catastrophe for the poor.

Meanwhile, biofuels presumed
global warming advantage over conventional fuels has also come into
question. Studies by the International
Energy Agency (IEA; Paris; www.iea.
org) and the California Energy Commission (Sacramento; www.energy.
ca.gov) first raised alarm bells last
summer, and these were verified and
quantified by our work, published in
the autumn.

Whos the boss?

Our study came up with state-of-theart, independent carbon footprints for

a range of conventional and alternative fuels (Figure 1). The lowest-footprint feedstock is yellow grease (used
cooking oil from restaurants), followed
by beef tallow and soybean oil, while
the worst footprint of the lot comes

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Table 1.Default carbon certification targets proposed for Germany

Fuel

Crop

Grown in

GHG reduction,
Total

Total

Land use

GHG reduction, excl.

Land use

Other activities

Percent

kg CO2/
GJ

kg CO2/
GJ

Percent

kg CO2/
GJ

Petrodiesel

86.2

Rape methyl ester (biodiesel)

Rapeseed

Europe

9%

78.1

32.8

47%

45.3

Soy methyl ester (biodiesel)

Soybeans

S. America

-274%

322

289.6

62%

32.4

Soy methyl ester (biodiesel)

Soybeans

N. America

-5%

90.7

54.5

58%

36.2

Palm methyl ester (biodiesel)

Palm oil

S.E. Asia

-61%

138.7

112.8

70%

25.9

Gasoline

85

Ethanol

Wheat

Europe

1%

83.9

26.2

32%

57.7

Ethanol

Corn (maize)

N. America

20%

68

19.8

43%

48.2

Ethanol

Sugar cane

S. America

-120%

187.1

158.8

67%

28.3

Ethanol

Sugar beet

Europe

1%

84.4

15.6

19%

68.8

from stranded gas that is converted

to Fischer-Tropsch diesel. Petrodiesel and gasoline come out roughly in
the middle of the field, not much better than many biofuels but not much
worse either.
So that settles that, right? Not exactly, because there is a tremendous,
inherent variety in fuel footprints that
stems from three causes:
Imprecision its a big world out

there, so there are many ways to

grow crops and make fuels. Even the
same crop, soybeans for example,
can show a significantly different
footprint, depending on where and
how it is grown
Inaccuracy knowledge is always
expanding, rendering some measurements invalid. For instance,
early footprints of biofuels generally
neglected emissions of nitrous oxide,

which have turned out, in some

cases, to be significant
Methodology there are several
areas of debate, probably the biggest
is that of allocation, that is, in what
proportion are emissions allocated
among products in multi-output
processes such as oil refining or oilseed crushing
Finally there is the all-important
issue of alternative land use. If al-

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Technology Showcase
ternative land use is accounted for,
and soybeans are grown on Midwest
U.S. cropland, soy biodiesel creates a
smaller footprint than petrodiesel. But
if the soybeans were grown on former
tropical forest, then petrodiesel would
be a far better choice. In other words,
greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions are
reduced more by fuelling with petrodiesel and preserving the topical forest, rather than knocking it down to
grow soybeans for biodiesel.
If the results can be boiled into a
sound bite, it would be this: the lowest
biofuels carbon footprints will be from
waste products, waste land or very
high-efficiency cultivation systems.

obliged to process minimum quotas of

renewable fuels, which must achieve
at least a 20% reduction in lifecycle
GHG emissions, compared to 2005
baseline for conventional fuels.
Details of all these programs are
still being worked out, but one thing is
clear. Biofuels carbon savings will no
longer be taken for granted, but must

be proven by their promoters. And for

some, this may turn out to be an insurmountable challenge.
n
Edited by Gerald Ondrey

Authors
Eric Johnson (ejohnson@ecosite.co.uk), based in
Zurich, was the lead author of SRI Consultings
Carbon Footprint of Biofuels & Petrofuels. Russell Heinen (rheinen@sriconsulting.com), based
in Houston, is a vice-president of SRI Consulting.

Please Mr. Taxman

At stake here is a lot more than an academic disagreement. Under proposed

carbon certification rules, government
regulations of biofuels will soon be
tied directly to footprints.
Three EU countries Germany,
Netherlands and the U.K. are planning to tax biofuels according to their
carbon emissions. The EU has picked
up the idea as well, and its legislation,
if passed, would apply to all 27 member states. The basic principle is that
to qualify for relief from excise taxes
(which can amount to well over half of
fuel prices in the EU), a biofuel must
demonstrate a certified footprint at
least 30% lower (40% from 2011) than
the petrofuel it putatively substitutes.
According to German proposals,
none of the major biofuels would currently qualify for certification, because
under default values nominated by
the Ministry of Environment (Table
1), none of them clears the 30% hurdle. The closest candidate is bioethanol from corn (maize) grown in North
America, which comes in at 20% below
the gasoline reference value. However, some biofuels analysts argue
that producers will be able to exclude
land-use from their carbon footprints;
if this becomes true, then all the major
biofuels, except bioethanol from European sugar beets, will get past the
30% barrier.
In the U.S., carbon footprints have
been made part of the Renewable Fuel
Standard (RFS) program introduced
by the Energy Independence and Security Act (EISA) of 2007. Refiners are

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Alfa Laval

Newsfront

Teaching
an Old Dog
New Tricks
Processors use fermentation to develop
new and advanced bio-based products

hile it may be one of the

oldest chemical processes
known to mankind, fermentation is getting a high-tech
face lift as industrial biotech firms put
a fresh spin on the age-old technology in an effort to develop advanced
products in a more environmentally
friendly and less costly way.
The technology is generally the
same using microbial systems and
metabolic fermentation but by applying genetic engineering we are able
to improve the microbes used in that
fermentation. We are also using enzymes produced by these genetically
enhanced microbes to ferment starch
more effectively, explains Brent Erickson, executive vice president of the
industrial and environmental section
at the Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO; Washington, D.C.).
The bioplastics, biofuels and biopharmaceuticals industries are increasingly taking advantage of fermentation because it helps control
production costs and is easier on the
environment, according to the experts.
The area of bioprocessing is now
extremely important in terms of finding ways to control production costs
and finding new methods to recover
molecules, says Mani Subramanian,
director of the Center for Biocatalysis
and Bioprocessing at the University of
Iowa (Coralville). Producing the molecules isnt the difficult part, he says.
The problem comes when we try to
recover them from the media. And, as
the science behind industrial biotechnology advances and we find more ef24

fective ways to do this, it will begin to

help control costs.
As for being environmentally
friendly, BIO claims that bioprocessing tends to prevent pollution in the
first place, reducing and possibly
eliminating the need for pollution
control in certain processes.
Industrial biotechnology is already
reducing pollution and manufacturing costs in some industry sectors,
says Erickson. It provides a new set
of tools that hold great promise to
further reduce pollution and the consumption of raw materials if deployed
more broadly. This, in turn, can reduce
the cost of producing goods and may
lead to better products.
For example, BIO says that biotechnology process changes in plastic
production replace petrochemical feedstocks with ones made from organic materials, such as corn, which could reduce
the demand for petrochemicals by 20 to
80%. Because bioplastics are biodegradable, their use could also reduce plastics
in the waste stream by up to 80%. Waste
burdens are reduced partly because disposable food service items such as plates,
cups and containers can be composted
along with food waste, eliminating the
need for separation. These plastics can
also be used to make many other products, ranging from clothing to car parts,
which can be composted instead of disposed of in landfills.
BIO says that more than 80-billion
lb of plastic products are produced
annually in the U.S. Of that, 1-billion lb are bio-based. The remaining
potential for environmental benefits

Figure 1. Cleanliness is one requirement

common to all biotechnology processes

and reduced demand for foreign oil is

obviously substantial. For example, if
all plastics were made from bio-based
polylactic acid, oil consumption would
decrease by 90145-million bbl/yr,
which is about as much oil as the U.S.
consumes in one week.
The results in biopharmaceuticals
are equally impressive. For example,
biotechnology process changes in the
production of riboflavin reduce associated carbon dioxide emissions by 80%
and water emissions by 67%, says BIO.
Changes in the production of the antibiotic cephalexin reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 50%, energy demand
by 20% and water usage by 75%.
In biofuels, biotechnology process
changes allow for bioethanol production not only from corn, but also from
cellulosic biomass. BIO says the energy demand during production of
ethanol in this way falls by almost
3%. According to the organization,
the closed-loop nature of using cellulosic biomass to produce bioethanol
can contribute substantially to the
mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions and provide a partial solution
to global warming (however, see pp.
2122). The U.S. has the potential to
produce between 20 and 40-billion gal
of bioethanol from cellulosic biomass
in the future.

Moving into new territory

Because of the major R&D and equipment investments necessary to bring

bio-based products to market, its the
big chemical firms, such as Cargill, Archer Daniels Midland, DSM and Du-

Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2008

08_CHE_041508_NF2_JLP.indd 24

3/20/08 1:01:10 PM

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For more information

Newsfront
Pont, that are throwing capital at the
technology, especially when it comes
to bio-based plastics.
For example, the largest commercial producer of bioplastics in the U.S.
is NatureWorks LLC (Minnetonka,
Minn.), which is a joint venture between Cargill (Minneapolis, Minn.)
and Teijin Ltd. (Tokyo, Japan). At
the NatureWorks plant in Blair, Nebraska, the company uses corn sugar
to produce PLA plastic packaging materials, as well as fibers. PLA plastic,
which offers characteristics similar to
petrochemical-based plastics and can
be processed on the same equipment
as conventional plastics, is made by
fermenting starch from crops, such
as corn starch, into lactic acid that is
then polymerized.
Archer Daniels Midland Co. (ADM;
Decatur, Ill.), which specializes in agricultural processing and fermentation,
has teamed with Metabolix Inc. (Cambridge, Mass.) to produce a bioplastic

called Mirel. The bioplastic commercial manufacturing facility is located

adjacent to ADMs corn
wet mill in Clinton, Iowa.
Produced from renewable resources like corn
sugar, Mirel provides an
alternative to traditional,
oil-based plastics for use
in products as diverse as
cosmetics, food industry
packaging and consumer
goods, says Oliver Peoples, co-founder
and chief science officer at Metabolix.
Peoples says his firm has developed
an advanced production technology
which makes bioplastics more effectively and efficiently in a process that
is scaleable to large scale. Whats different from conventional plastics is
that these are made of sugar, which
is a renewable resource, explains
Peoples. Another important aspect
is that they provide a completely bio-

Circle 29 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-29
26

Alfa Laval
Archer Daniels Midland
Bioengineering
Biotechnology Industry
Organization
Cargill
DSM
DuPont
Ekato
GEA Niro
Genencor
GIG Karasek
Metabolix
NatureWorks LLC
New Brunswick Scientific
Pall Corp.
University of Iowa
Westfalia Separator

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based solution to a material that is

very much a generator of greenhouse
gases. Peoples says Mirel has the potential to reduce petrochemical usage
by about 95% and greenhouse gas production by 200% while providing the
same functional performance as petroleum-based plastics.
The only difference between biobased plastics and conventional plastics is that these are bioproduced in a
cleaner way and are completely biodegradable at the end of their lifecycle,
says Peoples.
In another collaborative move, DuPont (Wilmington, Del.) has teamed
with Genencor International (Rochester, N.Y.) to bioproduce 1,3-propanediol, a key monomer used for the production of DuPont Sorona polymer and
fiber. The polymers have environmental benefits since the manufacturing
process begins with glucose from corn
and the finished Sorona is recyclable.
DuPont also has a hand in the biofuels till, as well. The chemical giant
is working with the U.S. Dept. of Energy (DOE; Washington, D.C.) to fund
a four-year research program to develop technology to convert corn stover into ethanol. In addition, DuPont
is involved in a biobutanol partnership with BP and Advanced Biofuels
Pipeline. The partnership with BP
(Warrenville, Ill.) to develop biobutanol
is intended to bring advanced biofuels
to market to expand the use of biofuels in gasoline. Biobutanol will be the
first product available via the partnership and is said to enhance ethanolgasoline blends by lowering the vapor
pressure when co-blended with these
fuels. It also enhances fuel stability of
biobutanol-gasoline blends, giving it
the potential to be distributed via the
existing fuel supply infrastructure.

Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2008

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New Brunswick Scientific

she says. This ensures that theres

cleanliness by design.
According to Christian Stoffers,
marketing manager of natural resources with Alfa Laval (Richmond,
Va.), there are additional ways to
improve yield in biofuels production.
Today most bioethanol plants work
on the same principle as normal po-

table alcohol plants. It is really finding the right yeast cells that provide
the most benefits regarding yield improvements, Stoffers says. However,
certain adjacent technologies in the
equipment can make a significant difference in the future.
Efficient cleaning of fermenter vessels provides a good environment for

Figure 2. Automated systems using

new software allow better process control of fermentation

Technological advances

Despite the financial backing of the

chemical giants, bioprocessing advancements would not be possible
without fermentation equipment. But
because much of the work in bioprocessing is in the early developmental
stages, researchers are still trying to
figure out exactly which techniques
and types of equipment work best.
For example, while experts still
dont know with certainty which biofuel will be the one that is ultimately
chosen for common use, they do know
that the process will need to be a clean
one. For this reason equipment that is
engineered to be sterile is currently
getting attention, says Sue Reeb,
product manager and staff scientist
at GEA Niro (Columbia, Md.) Theres
currently a lot of activity in this sector
trying to determine THE technology,
says Reeb. Theres a lot of work at the
lab scale with fermenters and bioreactors and the cellulosic materials. But
these processes dont necessarily lend
themselves to being sterile or clean.
Reeb says that in the beginning researchers werent really worried about
biofuel cleanliness, but thats changing because theyve learned that contamination affects yields.
Since we engineer cleanliness into
the process and do a lot of hygienic design as a consequence of our dairy experience, we are getting calls from companies that are building pilot plants for
these processes, says Reeb. She adds
that sterilization was used on a small
scale, but its not energy efficient to do
a lot of steam sterilization on a larger
scale. They are turning to us to build
a hygienic design into the bioreactors,
fermenters and, ultimately, the plants,

Circle 21 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-21
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08_CHE_041508_NF2_JLP.indd 27

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Newsfront
the yeast and avoids infections, which
will lower the activity of the yeast and
will decrease yield. High-speed separators and membranes can also be
used to purify the product and get rid
of substances that can lower the activity of the yeast. And, because the fermentation process achieves the best
yield within a certain temperature

range, a well-working heat exchanger

can ensure that the fermenter is kept
within the proper range.
Alfa Lavals fermenter cooler, Widegap350, provides a solution to these
needs. The unit can handle fibrous materials found in grain-based processes
and achieves a high thermal efficiency
with regard to a tight temperature ap-

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Circle 22 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-22

proach between the warm mash and

the cooling water.
While the biofuel industry is busy
figuring these things out, biopharm
is developing a different set of requirements. Processing bioactive
materials is about more than moving
volume through a system. Its about
meeting production goals with products that are active, intact and undamaged, notes Ian Sellick, director
of marketing at Pall Life Sciences
(East Hills, N.Y.). But traditional
tangential flow filtration and centrifuges dont always accomplish this,
particularly when processing viscous
or high-solids materials.
As a result, Pall launched the
PallSep Biotech vibrating membrane
filter system, which is designed for
processing very difficult materials.
The system offers better flux and capacity compared to static filtration. It
employs vibrational energy to generate shear force on the order of 1,000 to
150,000 s1 at the membrane surface,
which reduces the effects of membrane
fouling and permits gentle processing
and high recovery rates. The system is
effective in high-solids and high-viscosity applications where heat cant be
applied, such as the recovery of therapeutic proteins.
Another issue common to biopharmaceuticals is the lack of willingness
to invest large sums of capital during the early developmental stages.
For this reason, we are working to
develop disposable technologies for all
the unit operations in processes, says
Thomas Scholz, marketing director
with Pall Life Sciences. For example,
our Kleenpak TFF Micorfiltration
Capsule offers a high-flux rate with
minimal hold up volumes, even under
demanding bioprocessing conditions.
Biopharmaceutical
manufacturers
benefit from the unique combination
of an efficient microfiltration mechanism packaged in a disposable, easyto-use capsule.
While each segment has special
needs, there is one common platform
from which all industrial biotech processes can benefit. The optimization
and automation of processes through
software integration of multiple analyzers, probes and ancillary equipment is now possible, says Richard

Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2008

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3/20/08 1:05:43 PM

Consumer Products made with Biotechnology (Source: BIO)

Product

Old manufacturing
process

New industrial
biotech process

Biotech enabling
technology

Benefit

Detergent Phosphates added

Addition of biotech enzymes
Genetically enhanced mi- Elimination of water
as a brightening and as brightening and cleaning
crobes or fungi bioengipollution from
cleaning agent
agents
neered to make enzymes
phosphates
Protease enzymes remove
Brighter, cleaner clothes
protein stains
with lower temperature
Lipases remove grease stains
wash water
Amylases remove starch stains
Energy savings
Bread

Potassium bromate,
a suspected cancer-causing agent
at certain levels,
added as a preservative and a dough
strengthening agent

Genetically enhanced
microorganisms to produce baking enzymes
(Directed evolution and
recombinant DNA)

High quality bread

Longer shelf life
Eliminates use of
potassium bromate

Polyester
bedding

Polyester produced Biotech polyester

chemically from
(PLA by Cargill ) produced from
petroleum feedstock corn sugar feedstock
Biotech polyester (PDO DuPont)

Existing bacillus microbe

used to ferment corn
sugar to lactic acid. Lactic acid converted to a
biodegradable polymer
by heating. Polymer
made into plastic products and polyester

PLA polyester does not

harbor body odor like
other fibers
Biodegradable
Not made from
petroleum
Does not give off toxic
smoke if burned

Toxic chemicals,
One-step fermentation process
Vitamin B2 such as aniline, used uses vegetable oil as a feedin a nine-step chemi- stock and sugar as nutrient
cal synthesis process
(hazardous waste
generated)

Genetically enhanced
microbe developed to
produce vitamin B2
(Directed evolution)

Biologically produced
without chemicals
Greatly reduces hazardous waste generation
and disposal

Stonewashed
jeans

Fabric washed with biotech enzyme (cellulases) to fade and

soften jeans or khakis

Textile enzymes produced Less mining

by genetically enhanced Softer fabric
microbe (Extremophiles
Reduced energy
and recombinant DNA)
consumption
Lower cost

Paper
Wood chips are
bleaching boiled in a harsh
chemical solution to
yield pulp for paper
making

Use of enzymes to selectively

degrade lignin and to break
down wood cell walls during
pulping

Wood bleaching enzymes Reduces the use of chloproduced by genetically

rine bleach and reduces
enhanced microbes
toxic dioxin in the envi(Recombinant DNA)
ronment
Cost savings due to lower
energy and chemical
costs

Ethanol
fuel

Cellulase enzyme technology

allows conversion of crop residues (stems, leaves, straw and
hulls) to sugars that are then
converted to ethanol

Genetically enhanced or- Renewable feedstock -ganism developed to pro- reduces greenhouse
duce enzymes that congas emissions
vert agricultural wastes
Increases domestic
into fermentable sugars
energy production
(Directed evolution, gene Production more energy
shuffling)
efficient than old process

One step biological process

using direct fermentation to produce antibiotic intermediate for
cephalexin production (DSM)

Genetically enhanced
65% reduction in energy
organism developed to
consumption
produce the key interme- Overall cost savings
diate of certain antibiotics (Recombinant DNA)

Open-pit mining
of pumice. Fabric washed with
crushed pumice
stone or acid

Food and feed

grains are fermented
into ethanol (a technology that is thousands of years old)

Antibiotics Chlorinated solvents

and hazardous
chemicals used to
produce antibiotics
through chemical
synthesis
Contact
lens solution

Addition of biotech enzymes to

Enhance rising
Strengthen dough
Prolong freshness

Surfactants or saline Protease enzymes remove prosolutions (do not

tein deposits from the contact
remove protein delens
posits) used to clean
lenses

Mirro, product manager for autoclavable fermenters and bioreactors with

New Brunswick Scientific (Edison,
N.J.). Fermentation may be one of the
oldest sciences in the world, but now
we are better able to control it and
gather more data than we could years
ago thanks to the addition of software
that allows users to link analyzers
and testers into one data system. This

Genetically enhanced
microbes engineered to
make protease enzymes
(Directed evolution)

helps end users examine their processes and data more carefully in real
time, says Mirro. This is where the
real advances have been made.
Subramanian agrees. Software
made for monitoring the fermentation and process analyticals has
made significant leaps. Whether for
biotherapeutics or biofuels, you can
monitor how the organisms are grow-

More effective contact

lens cleaning
Less eye irritation

ing, what gases are coming out of the

equipment and change the fermentation process accordingly. Advanced
software has helped maximize all the
processes, he says.
And, this is helping to put bioprocessing on the map as a feasible, practical, cost-effective and environmentally friendly chemical process.
n
Joy LePree

Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2008

08_CHE_041508_NF2_JLP.indd 29

29

3/20/08 1:06:20 PM

Up to Six Channels of input

for measurement in:
> Reverse Osmosis
- Flow
- pH / ORP

> Cooling Towers

- Flow
- Conductivity

> Plating

- pH / ORP
- Flow
- Conductivity

> Scrubbers
- Flow
- pH

> Pools and Spas

- Flow
- pH / ORP

> Waste Treatment

- Flow
- pH

Signet 8900
Multi-Parameter Controller
Member of the ProcessPro
Family of Instruments

Circle 24 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-24

George Fischer 4-08.indd 1

3/19/08 12:53:46 PM

People
WHOS WHO

Doyon

West

Aaron Aleithe is named vice president

and general manager of Low-Voltage
Drives at ABB Inc. (New Berlin, Wis.).
Air Liquide Canada (Montral,
Canada) promotes president and
COO Luc Doyon to CEO.
Hans Engels is appointed president
and business unit director of DSM
Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (Parsippany,
N.J.).
DuPont (Wilmington, Del.) names
Linda West vice president and gen-

Grier

Gilsdorf

eral manager - DuPont Imaging

Technologies. Filling her previous
position of vice president - general
auditor and chief ethics and compliance officer is Donna Grier.
Industrial Scientific Corp. (Pittsburgh, Pa.) promotes Dan Timco to
global director of operational excellence.
Honeywell (Morristown, N.J.) elects
Norman Gilsdorf vice president and
general manager of Honeywell process solutions EMEA.

Martin

Gary Swan becomes vice president

of operations by Laureate Pharma
(Princeton, N.J.).
Manitowoc (Manitowoc, Wis.) names
Gilles Martin executive vice president
of the crane division in the Asia-Pacific region.
Rotex Global (Cincinnati, Ohio) appoints Robert W. Dieckman CFO.
M. Clay Chambers is elected COO of
SulphCo, Inc. (Houston, Tex.) n
Kate Torzewski

Circle 25 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-25
Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2008

09_CHE_041508_WW.indd 31

31

3/26/08 10:29:00 AM

CE Community
Crossword: Pumps
By Myles Mellor
Across
1. Pump used widely for
liquid capacities from
10 m3/h and upwards
and moderate liquid
heads
7. Pump speed
measurement
10. Morning period
11. Study closely, with over
12. ____ - friction bearings
13. Drys opposite
15. Circumferential ____
(type of rotary PD pump)
18. Listener
20. Operation, abbr.
21. Inner gear in an internal
gear pump
24. The product of Re and Pr
25. One type of PD pump
27. The dimensionless
group = hD/k
28. Half
31. West coast city
32. Approval word
33. The crescent functions
as one

34. ____ conditions are one

factor in deciding which
pump to purchase
37. Close to, abbr.
38. ____ of order
39. Expert
40. Internal gear pumps
have been used
successfully with ____
sensitive paints
41. Florida to the U.S.
42. Foot-Lambert, for short
44. Period before
47. Resistance of a fluid to
shear forces
49. Internal and external,
in pumps
51. Press guy
52. Firm, briefly
53. Release a new product
line
55. Type of pump often used
for food products
57. Land of the euro,
for short
58. Baby talked
60. Sodium symbol

61. Smooth flowing

62. Pump choice can
help save ____
63. Liquid with a high
viscosity

Down
1. Finishes which can
extend pump life
2. NPSH part
3. Newport locale
4. Unobstructed
5. Atlanta locale
6. Power measurement
Look for the solution next month and at www.che.com
7. Outer gear that drives
29. Spoil
44. Sci-fi writer, Doc Smith
21 across
30. Chicago locale
45. PD pump used for thin
8. Push forward
35. Head ____ head
liquids
9. Guys
36. Differential ____ is
46. Hospital room
11. Millionth of a millionth
another factor affecting 47. Flow controller
of a second, briefly!
the type of pump
48. Follow down
14. Spigot
needed
49. Very viscous,
16. Standing alone
39. Pressure measurement
probably!
17. Environmentally
(abbr.)
50. Good bargain
friendly color
40. The flow from discharge 52. Bung up
19. Oil processing plant
back to suction
54. Color
22. Two-man operation
42. Pressure
56. Birthday, for short
23. Double bend shape
43. Dot the is and cross the 59. Alternative word
26. One form of water
____
60. Symbol for nickel
For hints to some of these clues, see Selecting a Positive Displacement Pump,
CE, August 2007, p. 42

Baghouse Controls

The original intelligent Baghouse

Performance Analyzer and Controller

As the industry pioneer in baghouse diagnostics, FilterSense provides unmatched products for small dust collectors to large scale
multi-compartment filters. For assistance with EPA compliance,
process optimization or maintenance reduction call us today.

Analyze, Optimize, Comply

1-978-927-4304
www.filtersense.com

Powder Show Booth 1350, May 6 - 8

Circle 26 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-26
32 Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2008

10_CHE_041508_TALK.indd 32

USE THE BEST

NOISE CONTROL SYSTEM
SoundPLAN is recognized around the globe as the
leader in noise evaluation and mapping software.

B-PAC Controls use field proven

IntelliPULSE to reduce energy
costs, lower emissions and extend
filter life. B-PAC Diagnostics reduce
maintenance by instantly detecting and
locating filter leaks, failed solenoids
and failed pulse diaphragms.

FilterSense

Psst ...

We give you cutting edge noise-control innovations with fast

calculations and striking graphics that are easy to understand.
Its all designed to help you manage potential noise problems
before they arise, keeping your project on budget and on time.
Software is available in English, Asian & European
languages. And we are proud to offer expert, local
support for your technical and sales needs.

Let us introduce you to SoundPLAN

CONTACT US FOR A FREE DEMO CD
Call today +1 360 432 9840
www.soundplan.com
Circle 36 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-36

3/19/08 12:57:23 PM

Random Tower
Packing
Department Editor: Kate Torzewski
PACKED COLUMNS [1]

random packings. When packed

together, they prevent significant
portions of wetting liquid from
being blocked off, thus avoiding
pools of liquid, trapped gas and
violent directional changes of
gas. They offer higher capacity,
higher efficiency and lower pressure drop than Berl Saddles.

A packed column is a vertical,

cylindrical pressure vessel containing one or more sections of a
packing material over whose surface the liquid flows downward
by gravity, as a film or as droplets, between packing elements.
Vapor flows upward through the
wetted packing, contacting the
liquid and facilitating absorption
of the vapor into the liquid.
Packings are offered in either random or structured designs. Here,
we will focus on random packings, which are separate pieces
of packing that have a uniform
geometric shape. Instead of being arranged in a structured way,
they are dumped or randomly
packed into the column shell.

The Intalox Saddle was further

improved into the Super Intalox
Tower Packing, which has scalloped edges and holes in the
material. This allows further
liquid drainage, the elimination of stagnant pockets, and
more open area for vapor rise,
thus providing higher capacity
and efficiency.

Pall rings are modified Raschig

Rings that have windows cut and
bent inward. This lowers friction
while improving packing area
DESIGN
Source: Separation Process Principles, 2nd ed., John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
distribution, wetting and liquid
CONSIDERATIONS [2]
distribution. This design allows
higher capacity and efficiency than all
ring and a Pall ring of identical size have
Size. Random packings are typically availpreviously developed packings.
identical surface areas per unit volume,
able in diameters of 13.5 in. Generally,
but the Pall ring has a superior spread of
as packing size increases, mass-transfer
The next generation of packings features
surface area and therefore gives much
efficiency and pressure drop decrease.
through-flow structures of a lattice-work
better efficiency.
By this correlation, for a given column
design. The Metal Intalox IMTP offers the
3. Maximize the void space per unit
diameter, an optimal packing size can be
best features of packings that preceded it,
column volume. This minimizes resistance
determined that represents a compromise
combines the high void fraction and the
to gas upflow, thereby enhancing packing
between achieving low pressure drop and
well-distributed surface area of the Pall
capacity. Capacity increases with random
high mass-transfer rates. A rule of thumb
ring with the low aerodynamic drag of the
packing size. This poses a trade off,
that must also be taken into account is to
saddle shape.
however, in that the ideal size of packing
choose a packing diameter that is less than
Similar in structure to the Pall Ring is the
is a compromise between maximizing efone-eighth of the column diameter, which
Cascade Mini-Ring, which has a height
ficiency
and
maximizing
capacity.
minimizes liquid channeling.
to diameter ratio of 1:3 compared to 1:1
4. Minimize friction. An open shape
Material. Metal packings are usually
in the Pall Ring. This allows the individual
minimizes friction, providing good aerodypreferred because of their superior strength
packing components to be oriented with
namic characteristics.
and good wettability. Ceramic packings,
their open side facing vapor flow, thus reon the other hand, have superior wettability
ducing friction and exposing more surface
5. Minimize costs. Packing costs, as well
but inferior strength, and are used only in
to mass transfer.
as the requirements for packing supports
situations at elevated temperatures where
and column foundations, generally increase
The latest generation of random packings
corrosion resistance is needed and plastics
with the weight per unit volume of packing.
features a very open, smooth and wave-like
would fail. Plastic packings, usually made
Packings generally become cheaper as the
geometry that promotes wetting, but still
of polypropylene, are inexpensive and
size of random packing increases.
promotes recurrent turbulence. This allows
have sufficient strength; however, they may
a decreased pressure drop while sustainexperience poor wettability, especially at
PACKING STRUCTURES [3,2]
ing mass-transfer efficiency that may be
low liquid flowrates.
independent of column diameter, and may
Raschig Rings are hollow cylinders with
PACKING OBJECTIVES [1]
allow a greater depth of packing without a
a height that is equal to the ring diamliquid redistributor.
eter. This structure is the oldest form of
1. Maximize the specific surface area. InReferences
random packing.
creasing the surface area per unit volume
maximizes the vapor-liquid contact area,
and, therefore, efficiency. Efficiency generally increases as the random packing size
is decreased.
2. Spread the surface area uniformly. This
improves vapor-liquid contact, and therefore, efficiency. For instance, a Raschig

The original saddle-shaped packings, Berl

Saddles, have a smaller free-gas design
than Raschig Rings. However, they are often a more preferable choice, as they offer
a lower pressure drop and higher capacity.
The invention of the Intalox Saddle marked
the start of the second generation of

1.Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 8th

ed. McGraw Hill, New York, 2008.

2.Seader, J. D. and Henley, E. J., Separation

Process Principles, 2nd ed., John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., New Jersey, 2006.
3.Schweitzer, P., Handbook of Separation
Techniques for Chemical Engineers, 3rd ed.,
McGraw Hill, New York, 1997.

FACTS AT YOUR FINGERTIPS Sponsored by:

11_CHE_041508_FACTS.indd 33

3/24/08 10:29:15 AM

Circle 27 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-27

Sulzer 4-08.indd 1

3/24/08 8:18:18 AM

Show Preview

Conveyor
Components

Malvern
Instruments

he International Powder &

Bulk Solids Conference and
Exhibition will be held from
May 58 at the Donald E. Stephens Convention Center in Rosemont, Illinois. This leading event
is intended for engineers and managers who process, handle, package, transport, test and store dry
particulate matter and bulk solids
from many industries, including
food, mining, petroleum, pharma- Kaeser Compressors
ceuticals, plastics and more. This
show will be a part of the PTXi Inter
Inter- cartridge changes. Kaeser Compresnational Convention, which will also in- sors, Fredericksburg, Va.
clude the ChemProcess, PharmaProcess, Booth 2507
and ProcessPack exhibitions.
edlinks.che.com/7371-331
The educational conference will feature educational sessions on a variety
This safety stop switch detects
of topics related to bulk solids han- cable breaks and pulls
dling. Below, find a selection of ser- The new Broken-Cable Series of its
vices and products that will be seen at Model RS Series of cable-operated
the show. For more information, please safety stop switches (photo) incorpovisit www.powdershow.com.
rates a detection device that signals
whenever the actuation cable is sevBlower packages offer reduced
ered or pulled. Known as the Model
pulsations and quiet operation
RSB, this control is designed to act as
This firm has expanded its line of Com- an emergency stop for conveyors and
paK Plus tri-lobe blower packages with other moving machinery. It has an extwo units that feature quieter opera- tension spring that maintains constant
tion. The CB 110 and CB 130C units tension on the pull cable. The operat(photo) deliver up to 434 ft3/min in ing handle is held in the center vertical
pressures up to 15 psig and vacuum up position with the internal switch in a
to 15 in. Hg. The new CB units have a normally closed condition. If the cable
smaller footprint than previous models. is pulled or breaks, the handle rotates
They include a removable front panel to release the switch lever. Conveyor
for easy access and a simplified check Components Co., Croswell, Mich.
valve for customization on site, as well Booth 2315
as a new angled inlet filter for quicker edlinks.che.com/7371-332
Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number
on p. 76, or use the website designation.

Hy-Safe
Technology

Perform particle analysis on wet

and dry process streams
Insitec particle characterization
systems (photo) are designed for realtime process measurement. For
dry-powder analysis, the lightweight
Insitec Voyager can be operated at- or
online, providing realtime analysis.
For wet processes, on the other hand,
the flexible design of the Insitec LPS
enables the system to be tailored for
specific process applications. Incorporating a sampler, pre-diluter, cascade
diluter and measurement cell, the Insitec LPS is a fully automated system
for measurement of almost any wet
stream. Malvern Instruments, Bedfordshire, U.K.
Booth 2415
edlinks.che.com/7371-333
Ensure safety and comfort
with these harnesses
Premium X-treme and X-treme Ultra
harnesses (photo) are designed for
comfort, safety, ease-of-use and dura-

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"13*-





34D-1

American Process Systems

Show Preview

K-Tron

Vortex Valves
North America

FilterSense

bility. The comfort back pad keeps the

harness in a vest-style shape for nohassle donning. The back and leg pads
are made of an open cell foam material
that allows for air circulation to keep
the worker dry and comfortable all day.
Connection points include large dorsal
D-ring for easy attachment to fall-arrest systems, two front web loops for
vertical and rescue applications and
optional hip D-rings for work positioning. Harnesses are available in highvisibility or all-black webbing. HySafe Technology, Union Grove, Wis.
Booth 2744
edlinks.che.com/7371-334
This feeder can dispense material at a few granules at a time
Featuring a screwless feeding mechanism, the Micro Cone feeder (photo)
accurately doses free-flowing color, masterbatch or additives into a blending
system or directly in the process screw
of an extruder. Utilizing an inducedflow rotating tube/cone, the Micro Cone
Feeder doses down to a few granules at
a time with a feed rate range of 0.22
dm3/h. An extension tip allows the
feeder to feed volumes as low as 0.1 dm3.
The minimum dispersive rate is approximately 2 pellets/s. For easy maintenance and cleanability, this unit has
no pockets or screws, and has a feeder
housing that swings open for fast material change. K-Tron, Pitman, N.J.
Booth 1328
edlinks.che.com/7371-335

Mixing speed and efficiency

at low cost and power
The OptimaBlend Fluidizing Paddle
Blender (photo) is a balance of mixing
speed and efficiency with low equipment cost and consumed power. Traditional ribbon-blender applications will
benefit from increased capacity in the
same space, as well as mixing that occurs five times faster. Regardless of a
large range of particle size, shape or
density, the OptimaBlend delivers homogenous mixes. Units are available in
carbon steel, stainless steel and sanitary construction for a wide variety
of solids-to-solid and solids-to-liquid
blending applications. American
Process Systems, O'Fallon, Mo.
Booth 3541
edlinks.che.com/7371-336
Ensure superior sealing with
these line diverters
The Quantum Series Wye Line Diverters (photo) are engineered to handle dry
bulk solids in dilute phase pneumatic
conveying systems with vacuum or
positive pressures up to 1 bar. Typical
trouble spots in conventional diverters
are eliminated with this series of diverters, which provide superior sealing, low
installation weight, fast inline maintenance, and an abrasion-resistant design
for long-term, reliable service, according
to the manufacturer. Vortex Valves
North America, Salina, Kans.
Booth 3645
edlinks.che.com/7371-337

Circle 37 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-37

12_CHE_041508_Powder.indd 2

3/20/08 9:12:21 AM

Hawk Measurement America

This feeder handles

many materials
For metering a vari
variety of powders, gran
granules, chips, flakes and
fibers, this company
now offers the Mecha
Mechatron Coni-Steel Vibro Feeder (photo).
With a maintenance-free feed chute,

dry solid materials are gently metered for applications in the plastics,
food chemical and pharmaceutical
industries. Volumetric and gravimetric configurations of the feeder
are available with complete disassembly from the non-process side for
easy cleaning and maintenance. The
Mechatron feeder is capable of accu-

Schenck AccuRate

Non-clogging pressure
transmitters for dust collectors
Non-Clogging pressure transmitters
(photo, p. 34D-2) are for all types of
dust collectors, baghouses and powder
processes. Designed as a reliable alternative to typical tube-style gauges that
clog, these pressure transmitters feature a large, ceramic diaphragm that is
durable and resists clogging. Both differential and static configurations are
available in ranges to as low as 010
in. H2O. A 420-mA output is provided
from the all stainless-steel, heavy-duty
package. FilterSense, Beverly, Mass.
Booth 1350
edlinks.che.com/7371-338
Combine point level measurement and communication tech
The Gladiator Smart Admittance
Level Switch (photo) is designed to
detect the level of liquid, slurry or
powder in a tank or vessel by measuring the capacitance between a probe
and the wall of the container. With
the ability to monitor materials with
a wide range of dielectric constants,
the Gladiator can be used with a large
variety of liquids, slurries and powders. The Gladiator communicates
using modbus, HART or Profibus
protocols. A remote amplifier can be
positioned up to 500 m away from the
unit. Hawk Measurement America,
Middleton, Mass.
Booth 5324
edlinks.che.com/7371-339

Space at a premium?
Compact Fisher-Klosterman MS Series Particulate Scrubbers
save valuable plant space, allowing for additional processing
equipment. Our innovative design provides efficient particle and
water droplet removal at gas velocities much higher than larger,
more expensive, traditional cyclonic separators, without the use
of internal baffles or packings. Its a system thats so efficient,
we offer guaranteed performance when provided with
complete operating information.
Fisher-Klosterman will have your plant swimming in profits.

Dust Collection s Product Recovery s Pollution Control

(502) 572-4000
Fax: (502) 572-4025
fki@fkinc.com
fkinc.com

Circle 38 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-38





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"13*-





34D-3

Show Preview
racies greater than 0.5% and feed
rates from 0.01 to 53 ft3/h. Schenck
AccuRate, Whitewater, Wis.
Booth 1055
edlinks.che.com/7371-340
This economical sensor is ideal
for bulk solids applications
The MCT360 NIR Transmitter (photo,
p. 34D-5) was designed in response to
the need for a high-quality sensor at
an economical price. The MCT360 can
operate either on its own or in a multipoint network and is able to make
three near infrared (NIR) constituent
measurements with a fourth product
temperature measurement simultaneously. Used in a wide variety of
applications throughout the powder
and bulk solids industry, the MCT360
provides offline accuracy under online operating conditions. Process
Sensors Corp., Millford, Mass.
Booth 2719
edlinks.che.com/7371-341

These railcar movers are best for

small to mid-size applications
The CUB Railcar Mover (photo) is an
electro-mechanical machine designed to
move single railcars or groups of cars.
The CUB moves along a steel runway
utilizing two traveling carriage assemblies that ride on anti-friction bearings.
Two pivoting arms securely capture the
railcar truck frame to move the cars. A
variable speed motor drive powers a
chain and sprocket arrangement that
allows the CUB to travel in a swift bidirectional manner. Safe, easy to install
and easy to operate, the CUB is ideal for
small to mid-sized railcar loading, unloading and repositioning applications.
Heyl & Patterson, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pa.
Booth 3648
edlinks.che.com/7371-342
Use this product for sifting and
screening of moderate volumes
This company will display the QA24
Inline and the Tru-Balance sifter/

Heyl & Patterson

screener. For pressure or vacuum pneumatic conveying systems, the QA24 provides an economical quality assurance
and HACCP solution for operations
with moderate production volumes. For
gravity flow applications, the stainlesssteel Tru-Balance drive is designed for
high-capacity sifting or screening applications. Both units feature easy access for inspection and maintenance,
pneumatic sieve-compression system,
and the reliable Tru-Balance drive that
provides a gentle gyratory sifting motion. Great Western Manufacturing,
Leavenworth, Kans.
Booth 2649
edlinks.che.com/7371-343

For Solvent Recovery Drying

Wyssmonts TURBO-DRYER
thermal processor

Highest

is best

-Solvent Recovery Efficiency

-Reliability
-On-stream Time
-Product Quality
-Customer Satisfaction

Lowest
-Final Volatiles Levels (ppm)
-Maintenance Requirements
-Operating Costs
-Operator Attention
-Nitrogen Usage

...and all without the need for vacuum.

It pays to buy the best

Circle 39 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-39
34D-

Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2008

12_CHE_041508_Powder.indd 4

4/7/08 12:21:41 PM

Vibco Vibrators
Process Sensors

Perform pulley alignment with

this system of lasers
The SheaveMaster now features a
Greenline laser for optimum visibility
under bright sunlight conditions, which
is ideal for outdoor applications. The
waterproof SheaveMaster Greenline
(photo) mounts magnetically to the face
of a pulley. A permanently calibrated
green laser beam fans out, striking
three magnetic targets on the opposite
pulley and measures angular, offset and
twist misalignment of the drive. It can
be used equally well on chain-driven
sprockets. Ludeca, Inc., Doral, Fla.
Booth 2621
edlinks.che.com/7371-344

Ludeca

This electric vibrator is

corrosion resistant
The CE-60 (photo) is the latest offering in this new line of durable, injection-molded-plastic housed vibrators.
The housing is an alternative to steel
and cast-iron housings that can become corroded easily. In addition to
the durable, corrosion-resistant housing, the CE-60 vibrator features stainless-steel hardware and is completely
enclosed to withstand fumes and other
air-quality issues. Producing up to 100

lb of centrifugal force at 3,600 vibrations/min, this unit is quiet and can be

operated continuously. Vibco Vibrators, Wyoming, R.I.
Booth 2331, 5206
edlinks.che.com/7371-345
Condition bulk solids more efficiently than traditional methods
The Material Master bulk bag material conditioner (photo, p. 34D-6) utilizes hydraulically actuated conditioning arms and a rotary lift table to
quickly, safely and efficiently return
even the most problematic hardened
materials to a manageable, freeflowing state. The operator loads the

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Circle 41 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-41

Circle 40 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-40

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34D-5

Material Transfer

Show Preview
bulk bag to be conditioned into the
unit via forklift and activates the
PLC-controlled automatic conditioning sequence. The arms penetrate
deeply into the materials for more
effective results than
traditional vertical compression plates, while
the lift table rotates and
positions the bulk bag
for complete material
conditioning. Material
Transfer, Allegan, Mich.
Booth 3917
edlinks.che.com/7371-346
These clean drawer magnets
remove ferrous contaminants
Engineered to remove medium and
fine ferrous contaminants from dry,
free-flowing products under gravity
flow, the Drawer Magnets (photo)
protect processing machinery and
improve product purity. Multiple
staggered rows provide maximum

Puritan
Magnetics

contact area for product flow. As

product flows through the stainlesssteel housing, it cascades over the
staggered rows of magnetic tubes.
Ferrous contaminants are pulled to
the surface of the magnets where
they move to the underside of the
tube to prevent washoff. Puritan
Magnetics, Inc., Oxford, Mich.
Booth 2704
edlinks.che.com/7371-347

Circle 42 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-42

34D-6




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Custom shaft seals allow increased machine efficiency

The latest in Meco custom seal design includes seals fitted for ATEX
or clean-in-place service and performance up to 1,000 ft2/m of shaft speed
on dry-running shafts. Custom-engineered to each application, these
seals accommodate high shaft runout on vertical, inclined or horizontal
shafts of 120-in. dia. Seal designs are

Circle 43 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-43

Tuthill

Fike

available fully-split and use very low

purge gas flow rates. Woodex Bearing Company, Inc., Georgetown, Maine
Booth 2531
edlinks.che.com/7371-348
Positive displacement blowers
offer high pressure quietly
For quiet pneumatic conveying and
chemical processing, the Q Series line
of rotary positive-displacement blowers

(photo) provides high pressure of 18 psi

at a high efficiency. They offer flow up to
3,400 ft3/min at speeds of up to 4,800 rpm.
Precision helical gears keyed to rotor
shafts provide quiet operation, while
double row ball bearings allow for added
durability. Combination piston ring airgas and oil-labyrinth seals are fitted as
standard. Tuthill, Springfield, Mo.
Booth 2237
edlinks.che.com/7371-349

Controlling ensuing
fire situations
The Flex-V reclosable
explosion vent (photo)
is designed to protect
industrial
process
equipment from the
damaging effects of dust
and gas explosions. Unlike
traditional venting, the Flex-V panel
returns to its original position at the
end of its venting process, restoring
about 90% of the vent-relief area. With
the Fire Limiting Explosion Vent, the affected space becomes re-confined, allowing fire-fighting agents, such as carbon
dioxide and watermist systems, to control fires more effectively. The shortened
venting process also reduces the risk of
secondary explosions. This unit can also
open inward, which offers protection
against vessel collapse due to vacuum
pressure. Fike, Blue Springs, Mo.
Booth 2311
edlinks.che.com/7371-350

Circle 44 on p. 76
6 or go to adlinks.che.com/
adlinks.che.com/7371-44





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"13*-





34D-7

Trust ARI.
Show Preview

All of the traps

with none of the pitfalls!

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Drying Technology

CONA-Universal
CONA-Connector

CONA S
Float Trap

CONA M
Thermostatic Trap

CONA B
Bimetallic Trap

CODI Condensate
Collector / Diverter

CONA TD
Disc Trap

CONA-control
Monitoring

CONA-system offers more options to simplify the steam trapping

process. The wide range of CONA steam traps allows the pipeline to remain
intact during turnaround, resulting in huge user benets:
Less maintenance
Massive time savings
Less cost

Faster turnaround
Compact solution

Part of the system is CONA-control. Our new patent pending test device
for all ARI steam traps. In just 3 seconds the function of thousands of steam
traps is tested!
For more than 50 years, ARI has been providing high performance control
products to isolate, secure, control and trap the ow of liquids, vapours and
gases in industrial processes in more than 50 countries world wide.

ARI-Armaturen USA, Inc., 9363 Winkler Dr. Suite A, Houston, TX 77017, USA
Phone: 713-947-3622 Fax: 713-947-3635
Internet: http://www.ari-armaturen.com E-mail: info@ari-armaturenusa.com
Circle 45 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-45
34D-8




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"13*-


Maximize moisture content without

sacrificing product quality
This new online water activity control capability is an optional
addition to this companys Delta T moisture control system
(photo), enabling moisture content to be maximized without
subjecting product to the growth of mold or other harmful microorganisms. According to the manufacturer, this new option
achieves significant improvements in production rate, energy
savings, product quality and safety. The Delta T is based on
a moisture sensor that uses two temperature sensors and a
mathematical model. It is compatible with products such as
petfood, animal feed, grain products, gluten, starch and foods.
Drying Technology, Inc., Silsbee, Tex.
Booth 2518
edlinks.che.com/7371-351
For increased life, use Ultra 600
induction-hardened pipe
According to this firm, the induction of the Ultra 600 hardened piping systems can offer 46 times the longevity of mild
steel. After a steel pipe of a hardenable chemistry has been
induction-heated and water-quenched on its inner wall, the
pipe has an increased inner-wall abrasion resistance, yet an
outer wall that resists impact. Diameters are available up
to 40 in., with or without flanges, and the induction bending
system allows bending to 180 deg for pipe and tubes from
2.525 in. Ultra Tech Pipe, Port Washington, Wis.
Booth 2029
edlinks.che.com/7371-352
These polyester silos can hold
up to 400 ton of bulk solids
This firm will display the newly developed range of Flexible
Silos. The high-strength, durable polyester fabric containers are supported on a steel frame capable of storing a few
cubic yards up to 200 cubic yards and 400 ton in weight of
dry bulk-solid materials. The Flexible Silos can be mobile or
stationary, tailor-made to suit any indoor or weatherproof
location and designed to connect to any of this firms range of
conveyors. Spiroflow Systems, Inc., Charlotte, N.C.
Booth 2132
edlinks.che.com/7371-353
O
Kate Torzewski
Circle 56 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-56

Christ Water
Technology

GE Sensing & Inspection

Technologies

APRIL

Prevent the growth of germs in

water softeners, without heat
Water softeners are needed in pretreatment stages for pure-water generators, but they also harbor risks: the
ionic-exchange resins offer large surface areas for the growth of microorganisms. A safe and simple solution to
this problem is the germ-reducing regeneration tablets, Sanisal P (photo).
The tablets are poured into the salt or
brine tank of water softener, and its
active substance is released, entering
the water softener during regeneration. Dead germs and any residue are
then flushed out of the softener during
the rinse stages. Regeneration salts
are no longer needed, and, in contrast
to hot-water sanitation, no energy is
required. Christ Water Technology
Group, Aesch, Switzerland
edlinks.che.com/7371-390

provides users with a cost-ef

cost-effective way to access data
from the hundreds of discrete
points at process plants that
are not connected to the control system. The unit supports a variety of non-powered switch types, with single
or dual-channel capacity, and
is approved for use in hazardous
areas. Fully compatible with existing
Smart Wireless networks, the
702 provides HART diagnostic data, 715 yr SmartPower
battery life, and reliable and
secure performance, says
the firm. Emerson Process Management, Bredbury,
Stockport, U.K.
edlinks.che.com/7371-392

Move more oil

with this powerful pump
The performance range of the Allub
RUV vertically immersed screw pump
(photo) has been expanded, with the
maximum capacity boosted by 30% or
more to 1,300 L/min. The pump is suitable for any industry segment where
mineral-based and synthetic lube oil,
hydraulic oil and similar media must
be moved efficiently. The three-screw,
self-priming pump is designed for vertical installation in the oil container
at depths between 325 and 1,600 mm,
depending on the size of the pump and
motor. The Series now covers a capacity range from 30 to 1,300 L/min, with
maximum pressure of 16 bar. AllweilerAG, Radolfzell, Germany
edlinks.che.com/7371-391

This transmitter now handles two thermocouples

Two independent Pt100/
TC sensors can now be
connected to the new
T32.XS temperature
transmitter (photo).
The transmitter also
offers enhanced diagnostics capabilities
with its integrated
drift detection combined with extended
error signaling. Corrosion monitoring in accordance with Namur NE89
is also included. The head-mounting
transmitter comes with the accepted
size, but with additional terminals for
the HART communication. WIKA
Alexander Wiegand GmbH & Co. KG,
Klingenberg, Germany
edlinks.che.com/7371-393

This wireless transmitter is approved for hazardous areas

The Rosemount 702 Discrete Wireless Transmitter (photo) is the latest
addition to this firms Smart Wireless
solutions family. The 702 transmitter
installs and commissions quickly, and

Inline hydraulics screens make

sure nothing gets through
The Industrial Microhydraulic (IMH)
range of cartridge screens provide a
low-cost, effective last-chance filtration barrier for fluid-control components. The latest additions to the range

Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number

on p. 76, or use the website designation.

13_CHE_041508_NPi.indd 1

Emerson
Process
Management
Allweiler

WIKA
Alexander
Wiegand

Lee Products

are the high-pressure cartridge screens, which are

rated for a minimum burst
pressure of 25 MPa (5,000
psi). The screens are made of
stainless-steel woven mesh and
bonded together by a proprietary process that ensures integrity and long
life. They are available in diameters of
5.5, 8, 10 and 12 mm. Lee Products
Ltd., Gerrards Cross, U.K.
edlinks.che.com/7371-394
A hermetically sealed probe for
level measurements
This new corrosion-resistant, submersible level probe (SLP; photo)
has been developed to allow troublefree operation in tasks ranging from
level measurement in single tanks to
multiple-point level data gathering
in high-value commodity storage facilities. Available in both gauge and

$)&.*$"-
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34I-1

3/20/08 7:57:27 AM

New Products

Sandvik Process Systems

WIRELESS!
Fixturlaser XA -

Express
Alignment
X-Large High Resolution
Colour Touch Screen
Automatic Registration of
Measurement Points
Color Animations Guiding
and Highlighting Operations
and Results
No External Software
Needed for Printouts of
Measurement Reports and
Screen Pictures
Oversized Keydata
X-Large Detector Surface
Thin and Small Laser Heads
USB Connectors
Premounted Fixtures
Express Alignment Expansion Kits for Online Measurements, Alignment of
Cardan Shafts, and Alignment of Machine Trains

www.xturlaser.com

MTL Instruments Group

absolute versions, the probe requires

just a 10-V d.c., 2-mA power supply.
The SLP is hermetically sealed using
corrosion-resistant plastic materials.
It can measure levels up to 70 m H2O,
to an accuracy of 0.5% in operating environments from 40 to 80C. GE
Sensing & Inspection Technologies,
Billerica, Mass.
edlinks.che.com/7371-395
These isolators
are intrinsically safe
This firm has introduced its next-generation, intrinsic-safety isolators, the
backplane-mounted MTL4500 and
DIN-rail mounted MTL550 (photo)
Series. Both Series utilize the companys One-Core technology, incorporating advanced circuit design, a common set of components and innovative
transformer construction. The isolator
modules achieve a significant reduction in power consumption while
increasing channel-packing densities,
says the manufacturer. Other features
include three-port isolation, low power
dissipation and a quick install-release
mechanism. The 4500 is designed for
project-oriented applications, such
as distributed control systems, emergency shutdown systems, and fire and
gas monitoring; the DIN-mounted version meets the needs of application-focused projects, ranging from singleinstrument loops to fully equipped
cabinets. MTL Instruments Group
Plc., Luton, U.K
edlinks.che.com/7371-396

Circle 46 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-46
34I-2




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13_CHE_041508_NPi.indd 2

Malvern
Instruments

Pastillation process proven again

for trouble-free solids handling
The growing demand for biodiesel has
also created an increased demand for
fatty alcohol pastilles produced by the
Rotoform process, according to this
manufacturer. One such installation
where both biodiesel and fatty alcohols are produced is the large complex
recently completed for Thai Oleochemicals and Thai Fatty Alcohols Co. (Map
Ta Phut, Thailand), which produces
100,000 ton/yr of liquid fatty alcohol
as much as 15% of which needs to
be converted into solid pastilles to ease
handling, storage and transportation.
Based around a 25-m long, 1,500-mm
wide steel belt cooler, the Rotoform
system (photo) combines under-belt
water-spray cooling with air cooling
on the upper side to deliver a total capacity of 2.5 ton/h. Sandvik Process
Systems, Fellbach, Germany
edlinks.che.com/7371-397
More options now available
for this particle-size analyzer
Two new options are now available for
the Parsum IPP-70 inline particle-size
measurement probe (photo), which
is used for realtime monitoring and
control of granulation, coating and
spray-drying processes. The first option allows for the provision of IQ/OQ
(installation and operational qualification) documentation, together with
a verification kit for checking measurement accuracy. The second option
is a unit with highly polished contact

3/19/08 2:26:32 PM

Circle 47 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-47

Witzenmann 4-08.indd 1

3/19/08 2:40:05 PM

New Products

Pyro-Contrle

Measure accurate flame temperatures with this small thermocouple

This bare-wire thermocouple (photo)
has a measuring point with diameter
of only a few microns. As a result, the
sensor has no effect on the flame temperature and significantly reduces

surfaces, and includes material traceability documentation. Option 2 is

particularly suitable for fouling duties
and applications requiring high levels
of hygiene. Malvern Instruments,
Ltd., Malvern, U.K.
edlinks.che.com/7371-398

Pfeiffer Vacuum

Welcome to our sealing world

www.eagleburgmann.com
Allison Engineering

measurement errors by minimizing

losses due to radiation and conduction. The thermocouple is particularly
suitable for measuring at the heart of
flames of burners. The sensor covers a
temperature range between 400 and
1,700C, and the output is via a male
LEMO plug. Pyro-Contrle, Chauvin
Arnoux Group, Meyzieu Cedex, France
edlinks.che.com/7371-399

n
ea

environmen

t.

pr

oo

fo

Dry running
as if lubricated
wear-free and
energy-saving

Burgmann AGSZ the gaslubricated mechanical seals

for agitators, mixers, kneadersand other slow-rotating
machines. Whether in chemical or pharmaceutical industry, wherever sterility is
required, product contamination is undesirable
and with dry-running applications. Our AGSZ seals
combine state-of-the-art
sealing technology with economic efficiency and fit all
standardized connections.

Le

ak

Burgmann Industries
GmbH & Co. KG
D-82515 Wolfratshausen
Tel. +49 / 8171 / 23-0
Fax +49 / 8171 / 23 10 95

Circle 48 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-48

08 AGSZ-e.indd
1
34I- Chemical
Engineering www.che.com April 2008

13_CHE_041508_NPi.indd 4

This vacuum pump works in

both industry and R&D
HenaLine (photo) is a complete line of
oil-sealed rotary vane pumps that are
suitable for both industrial and R&D
applications. With pumping speeds
of 251,000 m3/h, the pumps can be
used as a stand-alone or a backup
pump. Their low operating temperature increases the service life of the
oil and eliminates the need for additional water cooling for the pump. Oil
mist separator, oil-return system and
safety valves are integrated as standard equipment. A gas ballast valve
assures pump down of steam and
other process vapors. Pfeiffer Vacuum, GmbH, Asslar, Germany
edlinks.che.com/7371-400
See dangerous leaks
with this color-changing
On-Guard (photo), an acid-alert paint,
provides immediate, visual detection
of dangerous spray-outs in critical
areas in process systems, such as pipe
flanges, weld sites and sample ports.
Recently introduced into the U.K., OnGuard is a modified alkyd acid indicating paint that has been formulated
and patented for industrial applications. The material is applied like any
other exterior paint to 4-mm thickness

10.01.2008 15:18:21

3/19/08 2:28:00 PM

Ad-Ex-Waagen-e_200x273.qxp

14.03.2008

11:14 Uhr

Seite 1

Sartorius EX weighing solutions

your safest bet for reliable, on-target results!

The Sartorius array of explosion-protected products offers

you the widest selection from compact stand-alone systems
to complex network solutions, in a range from milligrams to
several tons, and with a painted or a stainless steel finish.

2008 Sartorius AG

Compact scales and indicators

Platforms, pallet scales, flat-bed scales
Weigh and load cells, plus transmitters
Electronic and mechanical weighing accessories
Verification of Intrinsic Safety diagrams with all safetyrelevant specifications and instructions come standard with
our equipment, saving you time and money in preparing
your explosion protection documents.

www.sartorius-mechatronics.com
turning science into solutions

Circle 49 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-49

Sartroius 4-08.indd 1

3/19/08 2:41:25 PM

Seidenader Maschinenbau

Fluke

New Products
ness (dry). A primer is also required for raw metal surfaces;
otherwise, it can be applied over existing paint.
Should acids or acid vapors (pH <3) escape, OnGuard will instantaneously
change color from yellow to
red (photo), thereby alerting
operators to the potential dangers.
Allison Engineering, Basildon, U.K.
edlinks.che.com/7371-401
Quickly assess rejected products
with this inspection tool
Automatic inspection for particle and
cosmetic defects of pharmaceutical
products is state-of-the art in modern
production plants, but often, shift supervisors and quality-assurance staff
would like to quickly classify what
the automatic machine has rejected.
The VPE module (photo) has been introduced for this purpose. Using two
different types of light and variable

Tovatech

rotation speeds, the VPE determines

the nature of the defect, providing
immediate feedback to the production and filling process. Seidenader Maschinenbau GmbH, Markt
Schwaben, Germany
edlinks.che.com/7371-402
Dual frequencies extend the performance of ultrasonic cleaning
The Elam Transonic TI-H cleaners
(photo) are heavy-duty, multi-frequency cleaning units available in
several sizes up to 180 L. Expanded
utility is obtained with dual frequencies (25 and 45 kHz, or 35 and

The Sharpest ICP Ever

The New SPECTRO ARCOS High Performance ICP Spectrometer

130 kHz) in a single unit. The lowest

frequency is used for coarse particle
removal; mid-range frequencies are
used to clean grease and oils from
hard surfaces; and the highest frequency is used for gentle cleaning
of sensitive surfaces, such as electronic parts. The units have three
different operation modes: Sweep
(for common cleaning tasks), Degas

The new SPECTRO ARCOS ICP spectrometer records the

required spectrum with a performance that has never been
seen before: The resolution is 8.5 picometers in the most
significant range between 130 and 340 nm 15 picometers
at higher wavelengths up to 770 nm enabling unusually
sharp spectrum, an unbeatable sensitivity and extreme
precision.
SPECTRO ARCOS
High Performance ICP Spectrometer
Paschen-Runge optic with extended wavelength range from
130 to 770 nm completely in first order
8.5 picometer resolution from 130 to 340 nm;
15 picometer from 340 to 770 nm
Robust free-running, air-cooled generator with 5 kW ceramic tube
Low maintenance UV system with minimal operating costs
Compact, space-saving design

Find out more about the new

ICP performance class for complex
analytical requirements.
www.spectro.com/arcos
Tel. +49.2821.892-2102
spectro.info@ametek.com

Circle 50 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-50
34I-6




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13_CHE_041508_NPi.indd 6

3/19/08 2:32:50 PM

M 853-E4 Chemical Engineering.QXD:Layout 1

HAVER & BOECKER

WILL CONVINCE YOU

INTERPACK 2008
Hall 12
Stand D08/E07

and Normal. Tovatech LLC, South

Orange, N.J.
edlinks.che.com/7371-403
Simultaneously view visual and
IR images with this analyzer
Built to withstand harsh work environments, the Ti25m and Ti10
(photo, p. 34I-6) thermal imagers
are designed as a complete, effective
and easy-to-use thermal-imaging
solution for routine troubleshooting
and maintenance of industrial and
electrical equipment. Both versions
incorporate IR Fusion, a patent-pending technology that integrates infrared and visual images in full-screen
or picture-in-picture views. IR Fusion
helps users recognize image details
and better identify problem areas
by quickly scrolling through the different viewing modes. The devices
cover a temperature range of 20 to
350C (Ti25) and 20 to 250C (Ti10).
Fluke Corp., Everett, Wash.
edlinks.che.com/7371-404
When forced,
this vertical pump doesnt mind
The DPVCF vertical pump (photo)was
developed to withstand extreme mechanical forces that may occur in
some vertical-pump applications (due
to thermal expansion of pipes, for
example). Two new models are now
available, extending the maximum
capacity to 58 m3/h over pressure
heads from 30 to 245 m. The DPVCF
is equipped with a cast-iron pump foot
and additional strengthening ribs
extra support of piping to protect the
base is no longer necessary. Equipped
with a peroxide-cured EPDM elastomers and sleeve O-rings, the pumps
can handle temperatures up to 120C,
making them suitable for boiler feed
applications. DP-Pumps, Alphen
a/d Rijn, Netherlands
edlinks.che.com/7371-405

Plastic mag-drive pumps

for corrosive, hazardous service
Designed for use in corrosive environments, the Finnish Thompson DB
Series of plastic, magnetic-drive centrifugal pumps (photo) comprise eight
new models, which are available in either PP or PVDF. The Series provides
flowrates of up to 27 m3/h and heads
of up to 27 m. They are available in
close-coupled configuration for optimum magnetic alignment, and provide extended dry-running capability
when specified with a carbon bushing.
Evenly spaced impeller trims enable
duty points to be precisely met, and
a two-piece impeller design allows
the impeller or inner drive magnet to
be individually replaced. Michael
Smith Engineers Ltd., Woking, U.K.
edlinks.che.com/7371-406
A rupture disc
for biotech applications
Last November, this firm expanded its
Axius line of rupture discs to include
the Axius SC, which is specifically designed for the stringent sanitary and
aseptic requirements of the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries.
Free of any indentations or crevices
that may trap process contaminants,
the SC is designed for most clean-inplace and steam-in-place applications.
The reverse-acting rupture disc is the
first of as kind to be manufactured
without hard tooling. Using the firms
G2 technology, all discs feature a line
of weakness on the dome instead of a
score line. There are no stress zones
that can fatigue, and no tool marks
or indentations on the process side.
Fike, Blue Springs, Mo.
edlinks.che.com/7371-407
Corrosives are not a problem
for this plastic strainer
Basket strainers made of Kynar polyvinylidene (PVDF) are now available
Circle 51 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-51

13_CHE_041508_NPi.indd 7

The HAVER
Packing Benefits

The symbol indicates that the mark has been registered in Germany.

Michael Smith Engineers

M 853-E4

DP-Pumps

HAVER INTEGRA
The perfect solution for
valve-type bags.
fully automatic
high performance
clean

Modern Plug & Pack

concept!
HAVER & BOECKER
P.O. Box 33 20 59282 OELDE, Germany
Phone: +49 2522 30-271
Fax: +49 2522 30-403
E-mail: chemie@haverboecker.com
www.haverboecker.com

3/19/08 2:34:00 PM

10

Gneu Kunststofftechnik

New Products
exclusively from this firm. Plastic
strainers previously available were
not able to handle corrosive materials, such as halogens and many acids,
or temperatures exceeding 220C.
PVDF far outperforms polyvinylchlorides (PVC and cPVC), polypropylene
and acetal materials, says the firm.
With higher capacity than Y-strainers, these units capture substantial
solids, thereby extending the life of expensive downstream equipment. Sizes
from 1/2 to 3 in., with a wide variety
of connections and mesh screens are
available. Micromold Products, Inc.,
Yonkers, N.Y.
edlinks.che.com/7371-408
Keep cooling water healthy with
this new biocide
After recently being granted registration by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the biocides Bellacide
350 (5% active) and 355 (50% active)
are now being introduced into the U.S.

Used for industrial cooling water and

oilfield applications, the new biocides offer a combination of biocidal
effectiveness enhanced with
exceptional biodispersancy
to destroy harmful biofilms,
says the producer. Studies
have shown the biocide to be effective
against algae, fungi, and aerobic and
anaerobic bacteria, especially sulfatereducing species. BWA Water Addi
Additives, Atlanta, Ga.
edlinks.che.com/7371-409
An improved way
to filter polymer melts
Thanks to a new concept for heating the system, the latest generation
of SFXmagnus filtration systems
(photo) makes it possible to filter
polymer melt even more gently. The
completely encapsulated system prevents chemical reactions with oxygen
or airborne moisture, and specially
designed retaining plates ensure ac-

curate location and sealing of the

filter elements, even at a filtration
fineness of 10 m. The drive unit now
operates pneumatically instead of
hydraulically, thus eliminating the
hydraulic power pack; this has lead
to a reduction in investment costs by
up to 20% compared with the previous design, says the manufacturer.
Gneu Kunststofftechnik GmbH,
Bad Oeynhausen, Germany
edlinks.che.com/7371-410
Gerald Ondrey

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PI REAL-TIME INFRASTRUCTURE
from PLANT to ENTERPRISE

+,

Software that enable the creativity of the USERS

Robust software CUSTOMERS rely on

OSI SOFTWARE GmbH

Hauptstrae 30 D-63674 Altenstadt Germany
Phone: +49 6047 9890 email: gmbh@osisoft.com
Circle 52 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-52

iLi`i

WWW.OSISOFT.DE

+,VVi
CERTIFIEDBY

FULLSTAINLESSSTEEL
MULTIPLEUSE
VENTDUCTS
NOLONGERREQUIRED
LESSMAINTENANCE
BIGCOSTSSAVINGS

OSIsoft mission to maximize the VALUE customers

get from our PRODUCT & SERVICES

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Circle 41 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-41

34I-8




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13_CHE_041508_NPi.indd 8

3/19/08 2:35:58 PM

Directory of Chemical Producers:

SRI Consultings Directory of Chemical Producers (DCP) is the worlds leading
source of information about chemical manufacturers, their plant locations and
chemical products. The DCP has been providing comprehensive, accurate and
timely coverage of the chemical industry since 1961. It is backed by the extensive
resources of our sister publications
Chemical Economics Handbook, China
Report, Specialty Chemicals Update Program, and World Petrochemicals.

Available Now!
2007 DCP - EUROPE
This directory includes:
2,475 Chemical manufacturing companies
3,655 Chemical manufacturing sites
12,580 Individual chemical products, extensively cross-referenced
Plant-by-plant capacity data for more than 200 products, including petrochemicals,
organic intermediates, inorganic chemicals, polymers and fibers
Available in your choice of an easy-to-use book edition or access to the powerful
Internet service which provides the convenience of desktop access for multiple users

Smart Research. Smart Business.

www.sriconsulting.com/DCP

Circle 28 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-28

MENLO PARK

SRI #1 4-08.indd 1

HOUSTON

BEIJING

TOKYO

ZURICH

3/19/08 12:59:37 PM

Feature
Cover
Story
Report

Move Difficult-to-Handle Bulk Materials with

Flexible Screw Conveyors

Convey tough bulk
materials that tend to
pack, cake, smear, break
apart or fluidize,
and prevent separation
of blended products
David Boger
Flexicon Corp.

lexible screw conveyors are suitable for use with most bulk materials, from sub-micron powders
to large pellets, both free-flowing
and non-free-flowing. They are capable
of conveying bulk materials at any
angle, moving over or under obstructions and through small holes in walls
or ceilings (Figure 1). These conveyors
also have the advantage of simple construction, low space requirements, reliability of operation and favorable economics. Although alternate conveying
methods may be preferable depending
on the application parameters of a project, this article focuses specifically on
flexible screw conveyors for materials
that are problematic to convey.

Difficult-to-convey materials

When engineering a flexible screw

conveyor for difficult-to-handle materials, it is necessary to establish the
materials physical characteristics,
flow properties, temperature, moisture content, inherent hazards and allowable degree of degradation, as well
as the material source and destination, conveying rate, distance, cleaning requirements, plant layout and
economics. Flexible screw conveyors
are appropriate for use with:
Cohesive materials
Ultra-fine particles
Fragile or friable materials
Abrasive materials

FIGURE 1.
1SPQFSMZ
FOHJOFFSFE
GMFYJCMF
TDSFX
DPOWFZPS
TZTUFNT
DBO
USBOTQPSU
GSFF
GMPXJOH
BOE
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CVML
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BU
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UISPVHI
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IPMFT
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PS
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5IF
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BSPVOE
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UIF
OFFE
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FYBDU
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SPVUJOH

Materials that fluidize

Blended products of disparate particle
sizes and bulk properties
A caveat for the plant engineer: the
flow characteristics of a bulk material
being conveyed under unique circumstances cannot always be predicted
with sufficient accuracy to ensure successful performance. In these cases,
the importance of simulating plant
conditions with a full-size conveyor in
a test facility is extremely important.

Efficient flow of a bulk material

through any bulk-material-handling
system is generally a function of the
materials physical properties, but it
can also be affected by external factors, such as ambient moisture and
temperature levels, as well as the design of the equipment in which it is
contained. Although certain material
parameters, such as the angle of repose, may be determined by evaluating a material sample in a laboratory,

36




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14_CHE_041508_KT.indd 36

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3BU
IPMJOH

FIGURE 2.

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PG
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GSFFGMPXJOH
BT
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TUJDLZ


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FIGURE 4.
3BU
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MFGU

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B

SBHHFE
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SJHIU


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/POGSFFGMPXJOH

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JOHSFEJFOUT

FIGURE 3. 'MFYJCMF
TDSFX
DPOWFZPST
DBO
CF
EFTJHOFE
UP
IBOEMF
B
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BOE
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BT
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BCPWF

these controlled-condition tests are not

necessarily predictive of flow behavior
in full production-scale systems. When
dealing with large volumes of materials under varying conditions, a bulk
materials flowability cannot be determined by physical characteristics
alone, such as bulk density, particle
size and shape, compressibility or cohesive strength.
Therefore, when designing a flexible screw conveyor, the engineer
must consider not only the materials
physical properties and flow characteristics, examples of which are illustrated in Figure 3, but also how these
characteristics will be affected by actual conditions in the plant and the
design of the equipment:
Is the material free-flowing, semifree-flowing or non-free-flowing?
Has the equipment been designed
with proper flow-promotion devices
and hopper geometry?
Is it hygroscopic? How much moisture is in the plant environment?
Does it tend to pack, cake or smear?
Do the particles interlock or mat?
Is the product degradable or
breakable, such that use or value
is impacted?
Is it abrasive?
Is it a blend of various types and

sizes of particles that should remain

homogeneous during conveying?
Does it bridge or dome in storage
vessels, or is it prone to the formation of ratholes?
Does it tend to aerate or fluidize
when being handled?
With the answers to these practical
questions, as well as testing in a fullscale system if required, the performance of a conveying system for a specific bulk material in a unique plant
environment can be predicted.

forces inside the conveyor in a slightly

different manner than a non-beveled
design. This variant can allow efficient
transfer of materials that may cause
problems with other designs. Another
variant sometimes employed with high
bulk-density materials is a heavy-duty
version of one of the basic screw types.
Materials of construction and finish
levels are specific to application, with
screws constructed of spring steel or
stainless steel, and tubes of stainless
steel or polymer.

Screw geometry

Equipment and systems

Geometry of the flexible screw is critical to performance. Screws vary from

round wires that produce relatively
high radial forces, to flat screws that
generate comparatively greater directional force (Figure 2). This difference
in the manner in which the forces are
distributed within the conveyor allows system performance to be optimized based on the properties of a
given material.
For example, due to its greater directional force, a flat design is better
suited than a round design for lighter
powders that tend to fluidize. Variants
of these two basic screw geometries are
also available. For example, flat screws
with beveled outer edges distribute the

Flexible screw conveyors are frequently integrated into systems with

accessories for feeding and discharging bulk materials. These might include: bulk bag dischargers or manual
bag-dump stations with dust collection; feed hoppers with or without flow
promotion devices, such as pneumatic
vibrators or mechanical agitators;
weigh batching systems for precise
control of feed; discharge equipment,
such as bulk-bag fillers; and control
systems.
Feed-hopper design is critical when
specifying a conveying system for materials with poor flow characteristics,
as the throughput capacity of any conveyor is limited to the rate at which

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Cover Story

FIGURE 5.


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BEIFTJWF

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GMPX
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UFSJTUJDT
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material will flow down to the pick-up

area of the conveyor. The shear stress
created by gravitational forces and
flow-promotion devices must be high
enough to overcome static cohesive
forces between the solid particles. If
not, some particles in the vessel will
remain stationary and the result will
be rat holing or bridging (Figure 4).
The resulting restriction of flow may
limit downstream processes because
of insufficient feed, or cause flooding
of the bin if material enters faster
than it can exit.
Problems caused by rat holing include loss of effective surge capacity
in the feed hopper, reduced system
throughput and additional time required for an operator to manually
clean the static product out of the
hopper, if necessary. The main problem caused by bridging (also known
as arching or doming) is that once the
bridge forms, material flow essentially
ceases, requiring a process shutdown
while material is removed.
Feed hoppers for materials that may
rat hole or bridge should be designed
with proper geometry and sufficiently
steep walls to promote flow. They may
incorporate devices such as vibrators
or air fluidizers to dislodge material
from hopper walls, or mechanical agitators to promote flow.

Cohesive materials

Sticking, packing, caking and smearing

are the result of particle binding. This
can be caused by chemical reactions,

FIGURE 6.
"
TFBMBOU
QSPEVDFS
OFFET
UP
DPOWFZ
EJWFSTF
JOHSFEJFOUT
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UIF
NBJO

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PO
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N
IJHI
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UIF
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XJUI
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BOE
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BU

WBSJPVT
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BOE
TQFFET

partial melting, binder hardening or

crystallization of dissolved substances;
adhesion/cohesion of particles joined
together from mechanical deformation;
attractive forces, such as electrostatic
or magnetic pull; interlocking forces resulting from irregular particle shapes;
and moisture, oil or fat content.
Moisture is particularly problematic
for hygroscopic materials, such as magnesium chloride. As water is absorbed
from the surrounding atmosphere, relatively free-flowing materials can begin
to agglomerate. In extreme cases, large
volumes of these types of materials can
solidify, creating large masses of material that can impede flow or immobilize
moving equipment components. Since
flexible screw conveyors are totally enclosed, temperature and moisture levels of the product can be maintained.
Upstream and downstream equipment
such as bulk-bag fillers, bulk-bag unloaders, feed hoppers, screeners, blenders and discharge vessels, can also
have an airtight design.
In addition, materials with high fat
content, such as cake mixes, and materials such as zinc oxide and titanium
dioxide, which are cohesive and compressible by nature, are generally nonfree-flowing, making them good candidates for flexible screw conveyors.
An example from the paint-and-coatings industry demonstrates the design
of a mobile conveyor system for cohesive materials. A flexible screw conveyor transports a mixture of five materials, including calcium carbonate,

titanium dioxide powder, two semi-free

flowing talcs and a free-flowing resin
for a producer of aftermarket autobody
paints. The materials are particularly
difficult to convey because of disparate
bulk densities of 1646 lb/ft3 and flow
characteristics ranging from free-flowing to non-free-flowing. The company
converted from manual dumping of
bags to a 3-m long, 45-deg angle, portable flexible-screw conveyor mounted on
a cart with an integral feed hopper and
dust collector. The specially engineered
screw design allows the system to function across the wide range of materials. The feed hopper has been designed
with steep walls and other beneficial
geometric features. Flow-promotion devices combined with proper flow angles
prevent bridging by directing the material toward the back wall and down
into the conveyor. Conveyor interface
adapters have vertical walls to keep
material flowing. Feed testing on fullsize equipment was integral to the success of the design.

Ultra-fine particles

Mechanical conveyors have an advantage over pneumatic conveying for light

or dusty materials, because fine particles can make it difficult to keep the
filters operational in filter receivers.
Some fine materials tend to fluidize;
for example, fumed silica (synthetic
amorphous silicon dioxide) is light and
feathery with a bulk density of only
2.53 lb/ft3 and a very small particle
size of 0.20.3 m (Figure 7). It is not

38




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flexible screw can be removed for

inspection or replacement with
minimal downtime.

Diverse mixtures

Figure 7. With a bulk density of 2.53

lb/ft3, fumed silica is an ultra-light powder. Its chain-like particle morphology
contributes to the characteristics that
make it difficult to handle

only prone to dusting, but can also fluidize, taking on some characteristics
of a liquid, making it a particularly
difficult material to convey. A properly
designed screw with flat flight surfaces and some modifications will lift
particles by restricting the materials
ability to fluidize. Bag-dumping stations for such fine materials should be
equipped with internal dust collectors,
including cartridge filters and pulsejet filter cleaning.
Many pigments are comprised of
particles under 5 m, and although
the bulk densities may range, materials such as titanium dioxide, iron
oxide and carbon black all have a
tendency to pack. In order to prevent
a conveyor from seizing with such
materials, the ideal conveyor screw
should have a geometry that distributes the forces inside the conveyor to
minimize compression.
Flexible screw conveyors can reduce fluidization and aeration of light
bulk materials by employing proper
design elements. For example, diatomaceous earth (DE), a dry, dusty material consisting of irregularly shaped
525 m particles, with a typical bulk
density of 1016 lb/ft3, has a tendency
to bridge and rathole in feed hoppers
and to fluidize during transport. Flex-

References
1. Boger, David & Powell, Dilute-phase pneumatic conveyor or flexible screw conveyor:
How to choose, Powder and Bulk Engineering, July 2005.
2. Ehrenman, Gayle, Technology Focus: Lighter
than Air, Mechanical Engineering, August
2004.
3. Gill, David R., Choosing a Flexible Screw
Conveyor, Powder and Bulk Engineering,
November 2000.
4. Gill, David R., The Most Efficient Distance
Between Two Points, Paint & Coatings Industry, August 2002.
5. Gill, David R., Conveying strategies: Determining the characteristics or parameters for
a flexible screw conveyor, Food Processing,
March 2002.

A properly engineered flexible

screw conveyor can prevent
Figure 8. Flexible screw conveyors can
separation of blends throughprevent degradation and separation of blends
out the length of the conveyor,
comprised of materials with disparate particle
regardless of differences in flow
sizes and flow characteristics
characteristics, bulk density
or particle size, whereas pneuible screw conveyors for such materi- matic conveyors or other types of meals are generally designed to combat chanical conveyors may cause separaaeration with a wide, flat spiral screw tion of mixtures during transport. For
to provide a wider carrying surface example, a major spice company has
with positive forward force and mini- over 8,000 different recipes, each conmal radial force.
sisting of a mixture of 125 ingredients, with particle sizes ranging from
Fragile and friable materials
150 m to 6.4 mm. The company tried
Testing is particularly important for a pneumatic conveyor, which caused
fragile or friable particles that must blended products to separate. A bucket
be conveyed without breakage. The conveyor and a rigid auger conveyor
self-centering action of the rotating both proved difficult to clean. The comflexible screw can maintain ample pany found that flexible screw conveyclearance between the screw and the ors did not separate blends or damage
tube walls to eliminate or minimize the fragile spices, and now it operates
product damage.
15 flexible screw conveyors, all running
daily (Figure 8). A removable clean-out
Abrasive materials
cap at the intake of each tube allows
Flexible screw conveyors are appropri- reversal of the screw to fully evacuate
ate for abrasive materials, primarily the tube for ease of cleaning.
due to the ease of maintenance resultIn conclusion, flexible screw conveying from a design that utilizes no in- ors are particularly suited for transternal bearings and only one moving porting of materials that are cohesive,
component that contacts material. For dusty, friable and abrasive, as well
example, anhydrous borax is abrasive, as materials that fluidize and blends
yet light and fluffy with a bulk density prone to separate. Conveying such disof 47.6 lb/ft3 and a 74-m particle size. parate materials efficiently, however,
A flexible screw conveyor with a heavy- requires engineering of each flexible
duty, flat-wire screw can stand up to the screw system according to specific apabrasiveness of the product, since the plication requirements, and running
flat conveying surface minimizes the ra- the actual material to be conveyed on
dial force to reduce friction and wearing full-size test equipment at the rates
of the conveyor wall. If necessary, the anticipated during production.

Edited by Kate Torzewski

6. Gill, David R., Portable Flexible Conveyor Cuts
Paint Manufacturer's Mixing Time by 30%,
Paint & Coatings Industry, October 2000.
7. Montague, Jim, Automated line aids coffee
creamer bulk bag filling, reduces waste, Control Engineering, November 2001
8. Adjustable bulk bag filler offers the answer
at Anchor Products, Powder & Bulk Engineering, September 2001.
9. Automated bag unloading, flexible conveyor,
Technology for Developing World Business,
April 2003.
10. Bulk Bag Unloader, Flexible Conveyor Improve Filtration Effectiveness at Winery,
Water Engineering & Management, April
2000.

Author
David Boger is vice president of sales and marketing
for The Flexicon Corp. (2400
Emrick Blvd., Bethlehem,
Pa. 18020-8006; phone: 610814-2400; fax; 610-814-0600;
website: www.flexicon.com),
a global leader in the design
and manufacture of bulk handling equipment and customengineered and integrated
plant-wide systems. During
his tenure at Flexicon, the author had previously
held the positions of service engineer, applications engineer and sales manager. He holds a
B.S.Ch.E. from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
(Troy, N.Y.).

Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2008

14_CHE_041508_KT.indd 39

39

3/24/08 7:39:57 AM

Feature Report

The Number One

Problem in a Steam System:

Water
Hammer

FIGURE 1.
5IJT
ESBXJOH

PG
B
TUBOEBSE
IFBUFSVOJU

JOTUBMMBUJPO
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TUFBN

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IFBEFS

There is only one time

to correct water hammer
immediately
Kelly Paffel, Swagelok Company

ater hammer a high-pressure surge or wave created

by the kinetic energy of the
moving liquid is not only
a system issue, but primarily a safety
concern. Understanding the nature and
severity of water hammer in a steamand-condensate system will allow
prevention of its destructive forces.
A better understanding will also help
with the introduction of preventative
measures into system designs, steam
system startups, maintenance and
installations, which can contribute to
personnel safety, reduce maintenance
costs, and reduce system downtime.
In its most severe form, water hammer can cause injuries or even fatalities. Unfortunately, 82% of the steam
systems in North America are experiencing some type of water hammer.
Many mistakenly believe that water
hammer is an unavoidable and natural part of steam-and-condensate systems; this is entirely false. Water hammer is never normal, it is abnormal.
If the system is properly designed and
correctly operated, water hammer will
not occur. It is possible for high-pressure steam systems to function without water hammer over a long operational life.

Water hammer can occur in any

steam or condensate line. Its effects
can be more pronounced in heterogeneous or condensate bi-phase systems.
Condensate bi-phase systems contain
two states, the liquid (condensate) and
a vapor (flash or generated steam).
This bi-phase condition is found in
steam systems where condensate coexists with generated steam or flash
steam. Typical examples include heat
exchangers, tracer lines, steam mains,
condensate-return lines and sometimes pump-discharge lines.
A common example of water hammer occurs during the startup or energizing of a steam system. If the steam
line is energized too quickly without
proper warm-up time and the condensate created during the startup is not
properly removed, water hammer will
be the result.

Effects of water hammer

The effect of water hammer cannot be

underestimated. Its forces have been
documented to result in the collapse of
elements within all designs of steam
traps including the cracking of steam
trap bodies. Water hammer can overstress pressure gauges, bend internal
system mechanisms and otherwise

impair inline analytical equipment.

Ruptured piping systems and pipe
fittings, broken pipe welds, as well
as valve, pipe support, and heat-exchanger-equipment tube failures can
all occur with prolonged exposure to
water hammers effects. When severe,
it can result in not only damage to
equipment, but also significant injury
to plant personnel.
Water hammer may be occurring
and yet remain silent to personnel.
This means that water hammer is not
always accompanied by audible noise.
For example, a steam bubble may be
small in size and yet the collapsing
bubble creates a thermal shock that
is not heard by the human ear. However, damage to steam and condensate
components is still occurring.
The continuing banging and other
audible sound that may accompany
water hammer should be interpreted
as the way the steam system is trying
to communicate with plant personnel. This audible noise should be an
alarm meaning fix the water hammer problem or damage will occur.
This water-hammer sound means
something in the system is wrong and
needs to be corrected.
Evidence gathered while conduct-

40




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FIGURE 3.
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FIGURE 2.

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ing root-cause analysis on steam-component failure suggested that water

hammer causes 67% of premature
component failures.

Causes of water hammer

The following four conditions have

been identified as causes of the violent
reactions known as water hammer:
Hydraulic shock
Thermal shock
Flow shock
Differential shock
The following is a description of each
of these causes.
Hydraulic shock. A small percentage of the water-hammer problems
found in steam systems are caused by
hydraulic shock. This condition can be
easily described by using the example
of a household faucet. When the faucet in a home opens, a uniform mass
of water moves through the pipes from
the point where it enters the house to
the outlet of the faucet. This could be a
200-lb quantity of water moving at 10
ft/s or about 7 mph.
When the faucet is suddenly shut, it
could be compared to a 200-lb hammer
coming to a stop. There is a noticeable bang heard in the system when
the faucet is closed. This shockwave

6OJPO

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sound is similar to a hammer hitting a

piece of steel. The shock pressure wave
of about 300 psi is reflected back and
forth from end to end until the energy
is dissipated in the piping system.
This is the same action that can
take place in the suction or discharge
piping in a steam and condensate system. Pumps are often installed with
check valves. As the pump starts and
stops, hydraulic shock can occur as
the flow rapidly stops and the check
valves restrict the flow in one direction. Slow closure of the valve, just
like slow closure of a faucet, is the solution to this problem. When a column
of water is slowed before it is stopped,
its momentum is reduced gradually
and, therefore, damaging water hammer will not be produced.
Thermal shock. One pound of steam
at 0 psig occupies 1,600 times the
volume of a pound of water at atmospheric conditions. This ratio drops
proportionately as the condensate line
pressure increases. When the steam
collapses, water is accelerated into the
resulting vacuum from all directions
with great speeds.
In bi-phase condensate systems,
steam bubbles may be introduced
below the level of condensate in a con-

densate line. For example, a branch

line from a steam trap may be piped to
the bottom or side of a condensate main
header (Figures 1 and 2). The pressure
in the condensate line is lower than
the flash steam temperature (lower
pressure yields lower temperature).
The condensate cools the flash steam
bubble and the steam bubble collapses
immediately. While collapsing, a void is
created in the volume of the pipe and
condensate rushes to fill this void, thus
causing an audible pinging sound.
Flow shock. Flow shock is most
commonly caused by lack of proper
drainage ahead of a steam-line-isolation valve or steam control valve. For
example, consider a steam-line-isolation valve (typically used with pipe of
3-in. dia. or larger) opened without
the use of a warm-up. When the large
valve is opened, steam rushes down a
cold pipe producing a large quantity
of condensate at high velocity. This
condensate will continue to build in
mass as it travels along the pipe and
a large wave of condensate is created
(Figure 3). The wave will travel at a
high velocity until there is a sudden
change in direction, possibly an elbow
or valve in the line. When the condensate changes direction, the sudden

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Feature Report
stop will generate water hammer.
When a steam control valve opens,
a slug of condensate enters the equipment at a high velocity. Water hammer
is produced when the condensate impinges on the heat exchanger tubes or
walls. Additionally, water hammer from
thermal shock will result from the mixing of steam and condensate that fol-

lows the relatively cooler condensate.

Differential shock. Differential
shock, like flow shock, occurs in biphase systems. It occurs whenever
steam and condensate flow in the
same line, but at different velocities.
This is commonly seen in condensatereturn lines.
In bi-phase systems, the velocity of

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15_CHE_041508_MDP.indd 42

the steam is often 10 times that of the

liquid. If condensate waves rise and fill
a pipe, a seal is formed temporarily between the upstream and downstream
side of the condensate wave. Since the
steam cannot flow through the condensate seal, pressure drops on the
downstream side. The pressure differential then drives the condensate seal
at a high velocity downstream accelerating it like a piston. As it is driven
downstream, the wave of condensate
picks up more liquid, which adds to
the existing mass of the slug and the
velocity increases.
Just as in the example above, the
slug of condensate gains high momentum and will be forced to change direction due to a tee, elbow or valve in the
line. The result is usually great damage when the condensate slug pounds
into the wall of a valve or fitting while
changing direction.
Since having a bi-phase mixture is
possible in most condensate return
lines, correctly sizing condensate return lines becomes essential.
Condensate normally flows at the
bottom of a return line with the assistance of gravity. Condensate flows
naturally because of the pitch in the
pipe and also because the higher velocity flash steam above it, pulls it
along. The flash steam moves at a
higher-velocity because it moves by
differential pressure.
Flash steam occurs in return lines
when condensate discharges into
these lines that are operating at a
lower pressure. The lower pressure
causes a percentage of the condensate
to flash back to steam at the given
saturation pressure. If the lines are
also undersized, additional pressure
is created in the line. This pressure
pushes the flash steam at relatively
higher velocities toward the condensate receiver, where it is vented to atmosphere. Heat loss of the flash steam
while moving in the line causes some
of the flash steam to condense, which
contributes to this pressure difference
and amplifies the velocity. Because
the flash steam moves faster than the
condensate, it makes waves. As long
as these waves are not high enough
to touch the top of the pipe and do not
close off the flash steams passageway,
there is not a problem. This is why

3/24/08 10:41:58 AM

larger-sized condensate return lines

are preferred.
To control differential shock, the condensate seal must be prevented from
forming in a bi-phase system. Steam
mains must be properly trapped and
condensate lines must be properly
sized. The length of horizontal lines to
the traps inlet should be minimized.
Steam-main drainage is one of the
most common applications for steam
traps. It is important that water is
removed from steam mains as quickly
as possible, for reasons of safety and
to permit greater plant efficiency. A
build-up of water can lead to water
hammer, and as we have already discussed, the water hammer can have
any number of adverse effects on the
steam and condensate components of
a system.

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Prevention or resolution

There are a variety of design or system

changes that can be implemented to
prevent or eliminate water hammer.
Proper training and well-documented, standard operation procedures (SOPs) should be provided to
plant personnel for steam system
startups, shut downs, maintenance
and general operation. Maintenance
programs, in particular, should be designed to take a pro-active approach
on water hammer. Pipe insulation, for
instance, should be regularly checked
and repaired as needed. Doing this will
save energy and reduce accumulation
of condensate in the piping system.
Installation standards for steam
components should be implemented
and rigorously enforced to ensure correct steam and condensate design. For
steam traps, these standards should
include their proper sizing and general suitability for each application.
Steam-line-drip steam traps must be
properly specified and placed on the
steam system (Figure 4). Warm-up
valves should be included on steamline-isolation valves that are 2-in. dia.
or larger. Do not crack open large
steam-line-isolation valves with the
hope of avoiding condensation-induced
water hammer. This will not guarantee safe operation.
Condensate line-sizing is crucial to
insure proper operation of the steam
system as under-sizing condensate

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TUBOEBSE

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lines is one of the largest contributors

to water hammer. To be correct, condensate connections of branch lines to
the main condensate line should enter
only through the top (Figure 5).
Systems that have a modulating
control valve should have a dripleg-trap (Figure 6) upstream of the
valve to remove condensate during a closed condition for the valve.
Always gravity drain away from
process applications with a modulating control valve. The condensate can be drained into
a pressurized-condensate-return line
only if a proper differential is maintained.
Finally, be sure to properly label the
steam and condensate lines and to remove abandoned steam and condensate lines from the system. Adherence

to these basic heuristics will provide a

suitable foundation for the reduction
of water hammer and water-hammer-related losses in most industrial
steam systems.
O
Edited by Matthew Phelan

Author
Kelly Paffel is a technical
manager at Swagelok Company (Email: kelly.paffel@
plantsupport.com). A recognized authority in the industry, Paffel has published
many technical papers on
the topics of steam and compressed air system design
and operation. He has more
than 36 years of experience
in steam, compressed air systems and power operations and a Steam System
Level V certification in Steam Systems. He is a
member of the Department of Energys (DOE)
Steam Best Practices Committee and Steam
Technical Committee and is chairman of Quantum Steams Roundtable, a non-profit organization for steam professionals.

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43

15_CHE_041508_MDP.indd 43

3/24/08 10:43:27 AM

John Zink

Feature Report
Engineering
Practice

Fired-Heater Burner

PERFORMANCE
Use burner and heater operating
variables to predict burner response
Alan Cross

ndustrial furnaces, or direct-fired

heaters, are only as good as the
burners that supply them with
thermal energy for heat transfer
and endothermic chemical reactions.
This article presents equations that
permit calculation of such important
burner-operating characteristics as
flame length, flame diameter, ignitability, and flameout conditions for both
very high and very low velocities.
The data and equations presented
are based on burner operations at
atmospheric pressure, when firing a single type of fuel, specifically
natural gas conditions well suited
for a premix burner (Figs. 3 and 4).
Variations of the equations can also
be used to calculate burner-operating characteristics when the burners
operating pressure is higher or lower
than atmospheric, as well as when
fuel mixtures containing two or more
different types of combustibles are in
use. These latter conditions are better suited for a raw gas burner (Figs.
1 and 2).

Burner requirements

For proper performance of a directfired heater, it is required that the

burners be capable of providing sufficient heat liberation to satisfy heater
processing requirements based on
the lower heating value of the fuel
fired. When the heater operates at
the design process flowrate, the heat
necessary to maintain process fluid
temperature must be met, as must
vaporization requirements at the
heating coil outlet.

In the case of multi-coil heaters, the

number, size, and placement of burners
provided to satisfy the above requirements must be such that each coil operates at the same design outlet temperature and vaporization, and that the
design tube-metal temperature is not
exceeded at any point in the coils.
Individual burners must be sized
such that burner outlet velocity does
not result in burner malfunction at
any point over the entire range of flow
conditions, from flameout at maximum flow conditions to flashback at
minimum flow conditions. Flame dimensions, burner-to-tube clearance or
both must also be such as to avoid tube
overheating from flame impingement.
For burners ignited at points close
to the burner outlets by pilots or other
means, it must be possible to easily achieve burner ignition. In some
cases, this might not be possible, due
to inflammability caused by very high
burner outlet velocity, excessive air-tofuel ratios or both.
Burner flame length should be less
than firebox height, as in the case of
vertical cylindrical heaters and upfired cabin heaters, or firebox length,
as in the case of end-wall fired heaters. This ensures that complete combustion occurs before the flame exits
the firebox. Excessive flame height or
diameter is also to be avoided in order
that flame impingement on sidewall
or roof tubes is prevented. This could
otherwise result in tube-metal temperatures that exceed design limitations, resulting in tube failure due to
excessive oxidation or creep.

FIGURE 1.

0GUFO
SFGFSSFE
UP
BT
BO
JO
MJOF
EVDU
CVSOFS
B
SBX
HBT
CVSOFS
DBO

CF
VTFE
XJUI
NBOZ
GVFM
DPNQPTJUJPOT

Number and spacing of burners

Burner inside diameter and flame

diameter may be calculated from the
following:
Qlib heater

(1)
Nb
0.785 Db2 VbC fuel 3, 600

 LHV

Cair  fuel SVfuel

where
Qlib heater = Heater liberation,
Btu/h
Nb = Number of burners
Db = Burner diameter, ft
Vb = Burner exit velocity, ft/s
Cfuel = fuel, ft3
LHV = Lower heating value of fuel,
Btu/lb
Cair + fuel = ft3 of air and fuel mixture
SVfuel = Specific volume of fuel, ft3/lb
The number of burners required,
in the case of bottom up-flow cabin
heaters with inline burners, is determined by dividing the firebox length
by the burner spacing. Burner spacing is normally 2 to 5 ft or sufficient
to provide reasonable burner-toburner clearance, as based on maximum burner-flame diameter. Burnerto-tube clearance must also be such
that minimum clearance is based
on a reasonable distance between
burner outside-flame diameter and
outside diameter of the tubular heating surfaces. (Burner-flame diameter
should be evaluated at maximum
burner-flame length.) In the case of
a vertical cylindrical heater, burners
are arranged circularly, the centerline

44




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16_CHE_041508_EP_MDP.indd 44

3/24/08 1:34:17 PM

TABLE 1.
Prespecified
data

Manufacturers
data

Burner Heat Liberation, MM Btu/h

3.0

3.0

Burner diameter, ft

1.0

1.0

Number of burner
velocity heads

4.0

Not specified

Excess air, %

20

20

Natural gas

Not specified

20,000

N.S.

Calclated
data

Manufacturers
data

Burner pressure
drop, in. of water

0.2

0.3

Flame temperature, F

3,500

N.S.

Maximum flame
length, ft

7.8

N.S.

Maximum flame
diameter, ft

2.7

N.S.

Fuel
Fuel LHV, Btu/lb

FIGURE 2.

3BX
HBT
CVSOFST
BSF
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VTFE
PWFS
QSFNJY
CVSO
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JO
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VTJOH
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HBTFT
XJUI
IJHIMZ

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PS
XIFO
EFBMJOH
XJUI
IJHI
CVSOFS
UVSOEPXO

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5IFZ
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PO
UJQESJMMJOH
TJ[F

of the burner circle corresponding to

the centerline of the heater. Sufficient
burner-to-burner
outside-diameter
clearance is to be provided to allow
for placement of structural members
for support between burners. Minimum burner-to-burner clearance is to
correspond to reasonable clearances
between maximum burner-flame
outside diameters. Radial clearance
between maximum burner-flame outside diameter and the outside diameter of the tubular heating surfaces is
to be such as to avoid burner-to-tube
flame impingement.
The objective of these provisions is
to prevent tube damage due to tube
overheating, and to fully utilize the
heating surfaces, so as to provide
what amounts, ideally, to a continuous and equal fluid-temperature
transition from tube to tube in each
tube of a multi-coil heater and further that there be no locations anywhere in the coil where tube-metal
temperatures exceed design temperatures. Additionally, adherence
to the above provisions will result in
burner-to-burner spacing that will
avoid interference between the flame
bodies and unburned fuel cores generated by adjacent burners, which results in the absence of unburned fuel
within the burner flames when maximum burner length is reached. This
is equivalent to saying that burner
center-to-center
spacing
should
be at least equal to one fully combusted flame diameter.

Burner size and flame diameter

Maximum flame diameter may be calculated from Equations (2) and (3),
and maximum burner length from
Equation (4).
2
0.785 Db2 Vb 0.785 Df Vb

SVfuel  air
SVflame

Df max

0.785 Db2 Vb  3.14

(3)

Db Lf Vf

(4)

where
Df max = Maximum flame diameter, ft
Lf = Flame length, ft
SVflame = Specific volume of flame,
ft3/lb
SVfuel + air = Specific volume of fuel
and air mixture, ft3/lb
Vf = Flame propagation velocity, ft/s
Support calculations based on Equations (5) through (8) were used to compare calculated performance data for
a typical gas-fired burner with comparable data available from the burner
manufacturer. The results are summarized in Table 1.
Vb 

q
0.785 Db2

(6)

Wair +fuel 

0.785 Db2 Vb 3, 600

SVair  fuel

(7)

q

Db

27.8 N vh Vb2
2 gSVair  fuel 144

(2)

0.5

SV

flame

SVfuelair

$Pburner 

(5)

Qlib burner SVfuel Cair  fuel

(8)

3, 600  LHV C fuel

where
q = volumetric flow rate of fuel and air
mixture, ft3/s
Pburner = Burner pressure drop, in.
of water
Nvh = Number of burner velocity
heads
g = 32.2 ft/s2
Wair + fuel = air and fuel mixture, lb/h

Flameout and flashback

Flameout usually occurs at relatively

high burner velocities much higher
than those used in normal heater operation and usually because attempts are made to increase firing
rate so as to achieve higher heater
capacity. It is characterized by flame
loss while the heater is in operation,
by difficulty in obtaining a stable
flame during startup, or by a complete inability to obtain burner ignition. The cause is a condition wherein
heat gain due to burner ignition is
somewhat less than heat loss from
the burner flame. The following equations can be used to predict under

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45

16_CHE_041508_EP_MDP.indd 45

3/24/08 1:40:50 PM

Engineering Practice
what circumstances this condition
might occur:
As Vf C fuel  LHV 3, 600

Qgain 

Cair  fuel SVfuel

Qloss   HTC c As Tflame Tsurr

 HTC

(9)

 HTC

 0.3 Tflame Tsurr

 0.0144

D

(11a)

0.25

G 0.8 C p surr

(10)

0.2

(11b)

 HTC

(12)

4
4

0.01Tflame 0.01Tsurr
0.173 Eg
Tflame 540 R

where
As = Flame front area, ft2
Qgain = Burner heat gain, Btu/hr
Q loss = Burner heat loss, Btu/hr
(HTC)c, (HTC)f, (HTC)r, = Natural
convective, forced convective, and
radiative heat transfer coefficients
respectively, Btu/h-ft2-F
Tflame = Flame temperature, R
Tsurr = Surrounding temperature, R
Eg = flame emissivity
Cp = gas specific heat, Btu/lb-F
Calculations using the above equations indicate that flameout velocity, or more correctly the velocity at
which ignition will not occur, is equal
to almost 1,000 ft/s at atmospheric
pressure for a 1-ft-dia. burner firing
natural gas, assuming flame heat loss
is equal to losses due to convection
only. The assumption of a flame heat
loss due to both radiation and convection results in a flame out velocity of
800 ft/s. It must be noted, however,
that heat loss as given by Equation
(10) is valid only at start-up conditions, wherein surroundings are at
an assumed ambient temperature of
80F. To do otherwise, for an operating heater, would require calculation
of heat losses from elevated-temperature burner flames to somewhat
lower-temperature surrounding heattransfer surfaces. Such calculations
are more complex and beyond the
scope of this article.

Flashback is a condition wherein

the burner flame, instead of remaining above the outlet nozzle of a single
outlet burner (or a multi-port burner
with relatively small diameter ports)
enters the burner nozzle or ports and
burns therein. Flashback usually
occurs at relatively low burner velocities that are much lower than the
velocities used in normal operation.
Such velocities are usually a result
of attempts to decrease firing rate so
as to achieve reduced heater capacity.
It is usually thought to occur when
burner velocity is less than the flame
propagation velocity, but observations indicate that this never occurs,
at least not in multi-ported burners
firing natural gas with conventionally
used air-to-gas ratios.
Instead, flameout occurs at very low
velocity lower than flame propagation velocity and before flashback occurs. The reason for this is that flaming inside the ports is not possible
because the pressure drop across the
ports, while sufficient to support the
flame velocity outside of the ports,
is insufficient to support the flame
velocity inside the ports. Thus, pressure drop across the ports is directly
proportional to the square of the port
velocity and inversely proportional to
the burner-jet specific volume immediately above the port. The burner jet
at this location is at a temperature
equal to that of the fuel-air mixture
before combustion. If burning were to
take place inside the ports, the jet specific volume would be based on a much
higher temperature a temperature
comparable to the flame temperature.
The net result would be as defined by
the following equations:
$Po t

Cd Vpre-comb

(13)

Tfuel  air , pre-comb

2

T
Cd Vpre comb fuel  air , post -comb (14)
Tfuel  air , pre-comb

$Pi t
Tfuel  air , post -comb
$Pi Tfuel  air , post -comb


$Po Tfuel  air , pre-comb

(15)

where
Po and Pi = burner pressure drops

John Zink

FIGURE 3.

'PS
B
QSFNJY
CVSOFS
UIF

GVFM
OFFEFE
GPS
DPNCVTUJPO
JT
NJYFE

XJUI
BJS
QSJPS
UP
FYJUJOH
UIF
OP[[MFT

outside and inside burner ports, respectively

Tfuel + air, pre-comb and
Tfuel + air, post-comb = gas mixture
temperatures, before and after combustion, respectively, R
Cd = pressure-drop discharge coefficient
The above equations indicate that
in the case of a normal, natural gasair mixture, the pressure drop for a
condition wherein burning occurs inside the ports is 7.6 times as great as
for a condition wherein burning occurs
outside the ports. Flashback cannot
occur under these circumstances.

Other factors

Burner ignition occurs in ambient air

surroundings when heat generated
by combustion equals heat loss by
convection, in accordance with Equations (9) through (12). It will be noted,
however, that calculation of the heat
generated by combustion is dependent
on the flame propagation velocity, as
shown in Figure 5. The graphical data
provided consist of flame propagation
velocities for a variety of fuels as a
function of the fuel-to-air ratio. Flame
propagation velocity is easily evaluated from the curves provided that
show values of the (fuel)-to-(fuel+air)
ratio by volume are about 0.1, corresponding to 0% excess air in the
fuel-air mixture. The curves, however,
particularly those for the natural gasair mixtures, drop precipitously at
fuel concentrations above and below
that corresponding to 0% excess air,
making evaluation of flame propagation velocity at these concentrations
almost impossible. Equations (16) and
(17) can therefore be used to predict
flame propagation velocity at higher

46




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16_CHE_041508_EP_MDP.indd 46

3/24/08 1:42:55 PM



)

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FIGURE 5.
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GMBNF
QSPQBHBUJPO
WFMPDJUJFT
PG
WBSJPVT
HBT
BJS
NJYUVSFT
XBT
DPNQJMFE
CZ
UIF
64
#VSFBV
PG
.JOFT
VTJOH

EBUB
GSPN
UIF
+PVSOBM
PG
3FTFBSDI
PG
UIF
/BUJPOBM
#VSFBV
PG
4UBO
EBSET


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UIF
"NFSJDBO
(BT
"TTPDJBUJPO
QVCMJDBUJPO

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XJUI
QFSNJTTJPO
GSPN
1FSSZ
3

FIGURE 4. 1SFNJY
CVSOFST
DSFBUF
TIPSU
BOE
DPNQBDU
GMBNFT
DPN
QBSFE
UP
SBX
HBT
CVSOFST
5IFZ
BSF
EFTJHOFE
UP
GVODUJPO
XJUI
GVFM
HBT
)
PUIFST
FET
i$IFNJDBM
&OHJOFFST
)BOECPPLu
UI
FE

.D(SBX)JMM
/FX
:PSL
4FD


'JH


5IF
HSBQI

NJYUVSFT
UIBU
IBWF
DPOTJTUFOU
TQFDJGJD
HSBWJUZ
BOE
DPNQPTJUJPO
JT
OPU
JO
UIF
UI
BOE
NPTU
DVSSFOU
FEJUJPO

and lower (fuel)-to-(fuel+air) ratio by

volume air concentrations than 0.1.
H
(16)
K  Ae RT
dCm
 K Cm
dt

(17)

where
A = Frequency factor in the Arrhenius
equation
H = Heat of activation, Btu/lb-mol
R = Gas constant, 1.987 Btu/lb-mol R
T = gas temperature, R
dCm/dt = Fuel concentration change,
mol per ft3/s
K = Reaction velocity constant, s-1
Using a logarithmic transformation of Equation (16) and making
allowances for the use of flame propagation velocity instead of fuel concentrations and concentration rates,
results in the relationship provided
in Equation (18):
V
H 1 1
ln i 

(18)
1.987 Ti Tf
Vf
where
Vi and Vf = Initial and final flame
propagation velocities, respectively
Ti and Tf = Initial and final flame
propagation temperatures or ignition temperatures, respectively, R
For a natural gas concentration of
0.1, the curves in Figure 5 indicate a
flame propagation velocity of 1 ft/s.
The adiabatic flame temperature,
also the temperature corresponding to
the propagation velocity, is calculated

from Equation (19) and is found equal

to 3,436F.

Wf  LHV  Wair fuel C p average Tflame 60oF

(19)
where
Wf = fuel, lb/h
Cp = average combustion gas specific
heat, Btu/lb-F
Wair + fuel = air and fuel mixture, lb/h
Tflame = Flame temperature, F
Additionally, the ignition temperature for a natural gas-air mixture
having a (fuel)-to-(fuel+air) ratio of
0.096, as obtained from Table 35 in
Reference [1], is about 1,400F. Because the mixture is at its ignition
point, heat gain and heat loss, as obtained from Equations (9) and (10)
are equal. This permits calculation of
a flame propagation velocity equal to
0.00905 ft/s, which corresponds to the
ignition point temperature of 1,400F.
These data, in combination with the
flame propagation velocity of 1 ft/s
at the flame temperature of 3,436F,
permit calculation of a heat of activation equal to 33,000 Btu/lb-mol from
Equation (18).
Reference conditions consisting
of the calculated heat of activation,
equal to 33,300 Btu/lb-mol, the ignition temperature of 1,400F, for a
fuel-air mixture having 0% excess air,
and a flame propagation velocity corresponding to the ignition temperature, can be used in Equations (9),
(10), (18) and (19), to determine the

excess air level corresponding to the

flameout of a natural gas-air mixture.
Thus, for an excess air level equal to
about 130% of theoretical, and for
flame heat loss by convection only,
flameout of the fuel-air mixture, or an
inability to ignite the mixture, would
occur since the calculated flame temperature of the mixture would be
somewhat lower than the ignition
temperature. The same would occur
at an excess air level of about 100%,
for a case wherein flame heat loss
was considered due to both radiation
and convection.

Edited by Matthew Phelan

References
1. Perry, J., and others, eds., Chemical Engineers
Handbook, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York,
pp. 23982405, 1941.
2. McAdams, W. H., Heat Transmission, 3rd ed.,
McGraw-Hill, New York, p. 226, 1954.
3. Kern, D. Q., Process Heat Transfer, 1st ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, p. 215, 1950.

Author
Alan Cross (73-34 244th
St., Little Neck, NY, 11362;
E-Mail: Across8588@aol.com)
is a BChE graduate from
The City College of N.Y. and
an MSChE graduate from
the Polytechnic University
of N.Y., and has had more
than 30 years fired heater
design experience with ABB
Lummus Heat Transfer (now
HB&I Lummus Technology).
Accomplishments include authorship of directfired heater patents and patents pending, relating to the design of coal fired heaters, and compact, low-cost fired heaters capable of processing
low- and high-boiling-point petroleum-based fluids, using design strategies that reduce fouling
of internal tube surfaces due to coke deposition.

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Feature Report
Engineering
Practice

Piping Design Part 5:

Installation and Cleaning

These practical guidelines for deciding
which installation procedure to follow, and for
cleaning a new pipeline system can prevent
problems from happening during startup
W. M. Huitt
W. M. Huitt Co.

his fifth in a series of articles

[14] on piping design discusses
the practical issues of installation and cleaning.

PIPE INSTALLATION

The installation of pipe follows its fabrication and is very frequently a part
of it. The installation of pipe can be
accomplished in the following four primary ways, or combinations thereof:
1. Field fabricate and install
2.Shop fabricate and field erected
3. Skid fabrication, assembly and installation
4.Modular construction

Field fabricate and install

In the first method, the pipe is fabricated onsite, either in place or in segments, at an onsite field-fabrication
area and then erected. A number of
factors will dictate whether or not it
is feasible to field fabricate, including the following: the size and type
of the project; pipe size and material;
the facility itself; weather conditions;
availability of qualified personnel; existing building operations; cleanliness
requirements; and time available to
do the work.
Efficiency, quality and safety are
the imperatives that are factored in
when considering field fabrication.
And cost is the fallout of those factors.
Logistically speaking, if all pipe could
be fabricated onsite in a safe and efficient manner maintaining qual-

ity while doing so it would

make sense to do it in that
manner. However, before making that final decision, lets
look at some of the pros and
cons of field fabrication:
Pros:
Only raw material (pipe, fittings, valves and so on) need to be
shipped to the site location. Such
materials are much easier to handle
and store than multi-plane configurations of pre-fabricated pipe
No time-consuming need to carefully
crib, tie-down and chock pre-fabricated spool* pieces for transport to
the job site
Reduced risk of damage to spool
pieces
More efficient opportunity to fabricate around unexpected obstacles
(structural steel, duct, cable tray,
and so on)
Fabricate-as-you-install
reduces
the rework risk assumed when
pre-fabricating spools, or the cost
related to field verification prior to
shop fabrication
The field-routing installation of pipe
through an array of insufficiently
documented locations of existing pipe
and equipment, on a retrofit project,
is quite frequently more effective
than attempting to pre-fabricate pipe
based on dimensional assumptions
*Spool pieces are the pre-fabricated sections of
pipe that are fabricated and numbered in the
shop, then shipped to the job site for installation.

Cons:
Weather is arguably the biggest
deterrent. If the facility under construction is not enclosed, then protection from the elements will have
to be provided
When welding has to be done in conditions that are not environmentally
controlled, then pre-heating will be
required if the ambient temperature
(not the metal surface temperature)
is 0F or below
In a new facility, as opposed to having to route piping through an
array of poorly located existing pipe
and equipment, field fabrication of
buttwelded pipe is not as efficient
and cost effective as shop fabrication
There may be concerns about safety
and efficiency when working in a
facility while it is in operation in
advance of a turnaround or to begin
advance work on a plant expansion
Generally speaking, threaded, socketweld, grooved, and other proprietary-type joints that do not require
buttwelding are field fabricated and
installed. Buttwelding of small, 1
1/2-in. NPS and less, are very often
field fabricated and installed because

48




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of the added risk of

damage during transport, in pre-fabricated
form, from the shop to
the site.

Shop fabricate
and install

Shop fabrication refers

to, generally speaking,
any pipe, fittings and
components that are
assembled by welding
into spool assemblies
at the fabricators facility. The spools are
then labeled with an
identifier and transported to the job site
for installation.
Each spool piece
needs its own identifier
marked on the piece
itself in some fashion
that will make it easy
to know where its destination is in the facility
and where it belongs in
a multi-spool system of
pipe. This will allow the installer to efficiently stage the piece and ready it
for installation.
As part of the process of developing
spool sections, field-welded joints need
to be designated. These are welded
joints that connect the pre-fabricated
spools. In doing this the designer or
fabricator will identify two different
types of field-welded joints: field weld
(FW) and field closure weld (FCW).
FW indicates a joint in which the
end of a pipe segment is prepared for
the installer to set in place and weld to
its connecting joint without additional
modification in the field. This means
that the length of pipe that is joined
to another in the field is cut precisely
to length and the end prepared in the
shop for welding.
FCW provides the installer with an
additional length of pipe, usually 4
to 6 in. longer than what is indicated
on the design drawings, to allow for
field adjustment.
What has to be considered, and what
prompts the need for a FCW, is the actual, as-installed, location of both the
fixed equipment that the pipe assemblies may connect to and the actual

installed location of the pipe assembly

itself. Odds are that all equipment and
piping will not be installed exactly
where indicated on design drawings.
The dimensional location of the
equipment items given on design
drawings is not a finite location, it is
merely an intended location, as are
dinensional locations on drawings for
building steel, pipe supports and others. What factors into the installation
of shop-fabricated pipe is the actual
location of the equipment nozzle it
will be connecting to in relation to the
pipes installed location.
In connecting to equipment there is
a build-up, or stack-up, of tolerances
that will effectively place the actual,
or final, location of the nozzle at some
point in three-dimensional space, other
than where the design drawing indicates. The tolerance stack-up results
from the following circumstances:
Manufacturing tolerances in material forming, nozzle location, and
vessel support location
The actual set-in-place location of
the vessel
Load cell installation (when applicable)
The actual set-in-place pipe runup location
In order to allow for these inevitable
deviations between the drawing dimensions used to fabricate the vessel,
set the vessel and install the pipe assembly and the actual installed location of the connecting points, a fieldclosure piece, or two, will be required
for that final adjustment.
The field-closure piece is a designated
section of the pipe assembly in which a
field-closure weld has been indicated.

Skid (super skid) fabrication

A skid is a pre-packaged assembly that

may contain all or some of the following that make up an operating system:
vessels, rotating equipment, piping,
automation components, operator interfaces, instrumentation, gages, electrical panels, wiring and connectors,
framework, supports, inline piping
components, and insulation. A single
process or utility system may fit onto
one skid or, depending on size restraints, may comprise multiple skids.
After fabrication of a skid is complete, it will typically go through fac-

tory-acceptance testing (FAT) at the

fabricators facility. The skid is then
shipped to the job site where it is installed in its final location. After installation it would typically go through
a follow-up site-acceptance test (SAT),
including additional hydrotesting.
This is basically a system shake-down
to determine that everything is intact,
and that those things that did not remain intact during transport are discovered and repaired.
Logistics and the necessary skill set
required for the installation, connection and startup of a particular skid
package will dictate to what extent
the skid fabricator will be involved
after it is shipped to the job site.

Modular construction

The term module or modular construction is quite often, in this context, interchanged with the term skid fabrication.
A module can refer to pre-fabricated
units that actually form the structure
of a facility as each is installed. Or, the
units may be smaller sub-assemblies
that, when combined, make up a complete process or utility system.
Modules also consist of all or some of
the following: vessels, rotating equipment, piping, automation components,
HVAC, instrumentation, electrical wiring and connectors, framework, walls,
architectural components, lighting,
supports, inline piping components,
and insulation. This, as an example,
allows a complete locker-room module
to be placed and connected to a complete water-treatment module.
The smaller sub-assembly modules,
in many cases, are interchanged with
the term skid. Misconception can be
avoided when a company defines these
terms, both for internal discussion
and for the purpose of making it clear
to outside contractors, as to what is
meant when using the term module.

Installation approach

Now that we have a general idea of

the four primary approaches to piping
installations how do we decide which
is the best method, or combination of
methods, to use for a particular project? Each project is unique with its
own particular set of decision drivers
with regard to a selected execution
approach. There are no hard and fast

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Engineering Practice
rules for determining a best approach.
It requires experienced personnel to
assign values to the various aspects of
project execution, overlay a timeline,
and then assess logistics. It sounds
simple, but in actuality can be a very
complex process.
Therefore, the following is a guideline and not a hard and fast set of rules.
There are simply too many project variables and complexities otherwise.
When considering an approach,
keep in mind that the method of installation needs to be weighed against
a contractors preferred methodology.
This does not imply that the contractors preferred methodology should
drive your decision on how to execute
a job. On the contrary, once you determine how the job needs to be executed,
then look to only those contractors
whose preferred methodology agrees
with your project execution plans.
Some contractors prefer to do most,
if not all, fabrication in the shop, others prefer to set up at the job site,
while others are flexible enough to
utilize the best of both methods.
The three main criteria discussed
above efficiency, quality and safety
would apply here as well. Using
these three elements as a basis for
making a determination, let us look at
some common variables.
Environment: The environment is
only a factor when work has to be
done in an open-air structure or other
outdoor installation (such as tank
farm, pipeline, pipe rack or yard piping). Working in an open-air structure
will require protection from the elements (such as rain, snow, wind and
cold). In addition, there may also be a
requirement to work in elevated areas
with the use of scaffolding. All of this
can have a potential impact on safety
and efficiency.
Pipe-rack
installation
consists
mainly of straight runs of pipe, and
will not necessarily have a requirement or need for pre-fabrication.
That is, unless it is pre-fabricated as
modular-skid units. Depending on the
project, it could be cost effective on an
overall strategic basis to modularize
the pipe rack, steel and all.
The big advantage to shop fabrication is the controlled environment in
which its done. This includes the qual50

ity control aspect, better equipment

(generally speaking), a routine methodology of how a piece of work progresses through the shop, and better
control, through a developed routine
of required documentation.
Industry: The various sectors of the
chemical process industries (CPI) can
be grouped into two categories: clean/
indoor build and non-clean/outdoor
build. Realizing that there will be
exceptions to this generalization, we
can include in the clean/indoor built
category: pharmaceutical, biopharmaceutical, semiconductor and food
and dairy. Under non-clean/outdoor
build we can include: petroleum refining; bulk chemicals; pulp and paper;
off-shore; pipeline (oil and gas); and
power generation.
The clean-build philosophy comes
from the need to construct certain facilities with a more stringent control
on construction debris. Those industries included in this category often require a facility at least a portion of a
facility to be microbial and particulate free, as stipulated by the design.
There can be no debris, organic or
inorganic, remaining after construction in accessible or inaccessible
spaces of the facility. Of particular
concern with pharmaceutical, biopharm and food-and-dairy facilities
are food waste and hidden moisture.
Food waste can entice and support rodents and insects, and hidden moisture can propagate mold, which can
eventually become airborne. If these
intruders are not discovered until the
facility is in operation, the impact,
upon discovery, can potentially be
devastating to production.
Such contamination can be found
in one of two ways. Discovery at the
source, possibly behind a wall or some
other out-of-the-way place, means that
not only does current production have
to cease, but product will have to be analyzed for possible contamination. Once
found, it then has to be remediated.
The other method of discovery
comes from the continuous testing
and validation of the product stream.
If a contaminant is discovered in
the product, the production line is
stopped, and the problem becomes an
investigation into finding the source
of the contamination.

The clean-build philosophy, therefore, dictates more stringent and strict

requirements for controlling and inspecting for debris on an ongoing basis
throughout construction and startup.
It will be necessary, on a clean-build
site, to adhere to the following rather
simple rules:
Smoking or smokeless tobacco products of any kind are not allowed on
the site property
Provide for offsite break and lunch
areas; no food or drink, other than
water, are allowed on the site
premises
Do not begin installing pipe, duct or
equipment until, at the very least, a
roof is installed
After roof and walls are installed,
ensure that there is no standing
water remaining in the facility
Prior to and during the construction of hollow walls, such as those
framed and dry-walled, ensure on a
daily basis that there is no moisture
or debris in the wall cavity
Duct work delivered to the job site
shall have the ends covered with a
plastic sheet material, which shall
remain on the ends until connected
in place
Fabricated pipe delivered to the job
site shall have the ends covered in a
suitable fashion with suitable material, and the cover shall remain
on the ends until pipe is ready to be
connected in place
During and after flushing and testing of pipelines, all water spills
shall be controlled to the extent
possible and shall be cleaned after
each flushing and testing or at the
end of the work day

Type of project

While the type of project is not the

main influence in determining how
you approach the execution of a project, it does play a key role. It will help
drive the decision as to how the piping
should be fabricated and installed.
For example, if the project is a retrofit, it will require much of the pipe,
regardless of size and joint connection, to be field fabricated and installed. This is due simply to the fact
that the effort and cost necessary to
verify the location of all existing pipe,
equipment, walls, columns, duct and

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TABLE 1. SHOP VERSUS FIELD FABRICATION

Size (in.)
1
1
2
2
1
1
1

Material
Pipe
Pipe
Pipe
Pipe
Tubing
Tubing
Tubing

Joint
1, 2, 3, 6
4&5
3&6
4&5
5
5
5

Shop or field
Field
Shop
Field
Shop
Field
Shop (a, b)
Shop

so on, in a somewhat precise

manner, would not be very
practical. You would be better served by field verifying
Joint Type:
the approximate location of 1 = Socketweld
the above items with existing 23 == Threaded
Grooved Fully (Grooved fittings and pipe ends.)
drawings, for planning and 4 = Grooved Partially (Shop-welded spools with grooved
logistic purposes, then shop 5 = ends.)
Buttweld
or field fabricate, verify and 6 = Flanged Lined or unlined Pipe
Notes:
install as you go.
a. Hygienic tubing
A fast track project, one that b. Special cribbing and support for transport
has a compressed schedule,
will require parallel activities where to a minimum at the job site is not
possible. Shop and skid fabrication an absolute, but is one of the key conwould be utilized as much as possible siderations to the efficiency of pipe
simply to expend more man-hours installation. Following that logic,
over a shorter time period while at- most of the buttwelded pipe should
tempting to maintain efficiency, even be shop fabricated. A couple of things
though there may be added cost to to consider, when determining which
this approach. This approach is time buttwelded pipe to shop fabricate, are
driven and not budgetary driven.
size and material.
A new grassroots facility still requires routing verification as you go, Pipe material and size range
but certainly not the much-more in- Shop-fabricated spools need to be
volved need to locate previously in- transported to the job site, which restalled obstructions that is necessary quires handling. Handling and transwhen working with an existing facility. porting small diameter pipe and thinIf the project is a clean-build project wall tubing spools create the potential
inside an environmentally controlled for damage to those spools.
area, it will be more practical to shop
If you are shop fabricating everyfabricate or utilize skid or modular fab- thing and the distance from shop to
rication for most, if not all of the piping. site is across town, the risk to damThis will reduce the number of person- aging small-diameter pipe spools is a
nel and the amount of fabrication de- great deal less than if they have to be
bris in the facility, and provide better shipped halfway across the U.S., Eucontrol for keeping it out of the pipe rope or Asia, or even across an ocean.
itself. With personnel, you could have
In transporting spools over long
food wrappers, drink cans and bottles, distances, unless there is a great deal
food waste, and clothing items. Fabrica- of thought and care given to cribbing
tion debris could include metal filings, the load of spools, it may not be bencutting oil, pieces of pipe, weld-rod and eficial to transport buttwelded pipe
weld-wire remnants, and so on.
spools NPS 1 1/2 in. and less. It may be
If the project is not a clean-build, but more practical to fabricate these sizes
is still inside an environmentally con- on site, unless you are fabricating hytrolled facility, the same logic does not gienic or semiconductor piping; these
necessarily apply. The decision to shop types of systems require a great deal
fabricate and install or to field fabri- more control and a cleaner fabrication,
cate and install becomes one based meaning that pipe fabrication will reon efficiency rather than how best to quire a clean shop area onsite, or the
maintain a clean area. But thats not to pipe will need to be fabricated at an
say that if it doesnt qualify as a clean- offsite, better controlled shop facility.
build project then the construction deA practical rule of thumb in deterbris can just be allowed to pile up.
mining what to fabricate in the shop
There is still safety and efficiency or in the field is provided in Table 1.
to consider on any project, and a clean Dictates of the project and a contracjob site is a major part of that. Main- tors standard operating proceedures
taining a clean job site is an integral will determine how best to define
component of good project execution.
what is shop fabricated and what is
Keeping personnel and equipment field fabricated.
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Table 2. General cleaning scenarios

Engineering Practice
Petroleum-refining and bulk-chemical projects are generally open-air
projects in which field fabrication
and installation of pipe are exposed
to the elements. While a clean build
is not a requirement on these types
of projects efficiency and, above all,
safety are. Because of this, it would
make sense to utilize shop fabrication
as much as possible.
Fabricating pipe spools under bettercontrolled shop conditions will provide
improved efficiency and safer-per-hour
working conditions over what you will
generally find in the field. This translates into fewer accidents.
Referring back to Table 1, with
respect to the potential for damage
during transport, pipe sizes NPS 23
in. and larger ship much better than
smaller pipe sizes, particularly when
working with thin-wall tubing.

Location

Job-site location is one of the key

markers in determining shop or field
fabrication. In many cases, building a
facility in a remote location will be a
driver for utilizing a disproportionate
amount of skid or module fabrication
disproportionate in the sense that
project management may look at modularizing the entire job, rather than mobilize the staffing and facilities needed
to fabricate and install on or near the
job site. This would constitute a larger
amount of modularization over what
might normally be expected for the
same type project in a more metropolitan region, or an area with reasonable
access to needed resources.
To expand on that thought; it was
pointed out to me by Earl Lamson,
senior project manager with Eli Lilly
and Co., that project resources, even
in metropolitan areas, are quite frequently siloed around a specific industry segment. In certain regions of
the U.S. for example, you may discover
that there is an abundance of craftsman available when building a refinery, but that same region may have
difficulty, from a trained and experienced personnel perspective, in supporting the construction of a semiconductor facility.
Consequently when building a pharmaceutical facility in another region
you may find a sufficient population
52

Category
C-1
C-2
C-3
C-4

Description
Flush only (water, air or inert gas)
Flush, clean with cleaning solution, flush
Clean with cleaning solution, flush
Flush, clean, passivate, flush

of trained and experienced craftsman for

Table 3. General Leak Testing Scenarios
that industry, but may
Category
Description
not find resources adT-1
Initial service leak test
equate when building
T-2
Hydrostatic leak test
a chemical plant.
T-3
Pneumatic leak test
Building a project in
T-4
Sensitive leak test
a remote location reT-5
Alternative leak test
quires the project team
to rethink the job-asusual methodology. From a logistics Flushing. This is a process by which
standpoint, mobilization of personnel water, air or an inert gas is forced
and material become a major factor through a piping system either in
in determining the overall execution preparation for chemical cleaning or
of such a project. Project planning is as the only cleaning process. Flushing
a big component in project execution, can be accomplished by using dynamic
but is more so when attempting to pressure head or released static presbuild in remote areas. And this doesnt sure head, as in a fill-and-dump proceeven touch on the security aspect.
dure. Blow-down can be considered as
Nowadays, when constructing in flushing with a gas.
any number of remote areas, security Passivation. In this process, a chemiis a real concern that requires real cal solution, usually with a base of
consideration and real resolution. Re- nitric, phosphoric, citric acid or other
duced onsite staffing is a good counter mild oxidant, is used to promote or acmeasure in reducing risk to personnel celerate the formation of a thin (2550
when building in remote or even non- ), protective oxide layer (a passive
remote third-world areas.
layer) on the internal surfaces of pipe,
fittings and equipment. In stainless
PIPE SYSTEM CLEANING
steels the most commonly used alloy
While there are requirements in at present passivation removes any
ASME for leak testing, cleaning re- free iron from the pipe surface to form
quirements do not exist. ASTM A 380 a chromium-rich oxide layer to protect
and 967 has standards on cleaning, the metal surface from aggressive liqdescaling and passivation, but there uids such as high-purity waters.
is nothing in ASTM on simply flushNote that the terms cleaning and
ing and general cleaning. Defining the flushing can be interchanged when
requirements for the internal cleaning the process only requires water, air or
of piping systems falls within the re- an inert gas to meet the required level
sponsibilities of the owner.
of cleanliness. When the term cleanThe term cleaning, in this context, ing is used in this context it may infer
is a catch-all term that also includes what is defined as flushing.
flushing, chemical cleaning, and passivation. So before we go further, let Cleaning and testing
me provide some definition for these With regard to cleaning and leak testterms as they apply in this context, be- ing, and which to do first, there are
cause these terms are somewhat flex- drivers for both and different schools
ible in their meaning, depending on of thought on the overall process. Each
source and context, and could be used contractor will have its preference. It
to describe activities other than what is in the owners best interest to deteris intended here.
mine its preference or be at risk in just
leaving it to the contractor. In either
Definitions
case you should have a line of thought
Cleaning: This is a process by which on the process, if for no other reason
water, solvents, acids or proprietary than to be able to understand what
cleaning solutions are flushed through the contractor is proposing to do.
a piping system to remove contamiAt the very least, in advance of leak
nants such as cutting oils, metal fil- testing, perform either a basic flush of
ings, weld spatter, dirt and other un- a test circuit, or perform an internal
wanted debris.
visual examination as the pipe is in-

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Engineering Practice
stalled. A walk-down of the test circuit
should be done just prior to filling the
system with any liquid. The last thing
you want to happen is to discover too
late that a joint wasnt fully connected
or an inline component was taken out
of the pipeline. In a facility that is not
a clean-build, it can simply be a mess
that has to be cleaned. In a clean-build
facility, an incident such as this can
potentially be costly and time consuming to remediate.
Tables 2 and 3 list general cleaning and testing procedures along with
easy-to-use indicators.
Since this article is concerned with
new pipe installations, we will not include steam-out cleaning or pipeline
pigging in our discussion. These are
cleaning procedures that are used on
in-service piping to clean the fluid service residue buildup from interior pipe
walls after a period of use.
Before subjecting the system to an
internal test pressure, you should first
perform a walk down of the piping to
make certain, as mentioned earlier,
that there are no missing or loose components. The system is then flushed
with water or air to make sure that
there are no obstacles in the piping.
Over the years, we have discovered
everything from soda cans to shop
towels, work gloves, nuts and bolts,
weld rod, Styrofoam cups, candy wrappers, and other miscellaneous debris,
including dirt and rocks in installed
piping systems.
After an initial flush, which could
also be the only flush and cleaning required, the system is ready for chemical cleaning or leak testing. In large
systems, it may be beneficial to leak
test smaller test circuits and then perform a final cleaning once the entire
system is installed and tested. This
would include a final completed system leak test that would test all of the
joints that connect the test circuits.
That is, unless these joints were tested
as the assembly progressed.
On large systems, if it is decided
to leak test smaller segments, or test
circuits as they are installed (prior to
flushing the entire system), the piping
needs to be examined internally as
it is installed. This is to prevent any
large-debris items from remaining in
the piping during the test.
54

Now that we have

Table 4. Rate of flushing liquid (gal/
touched on generalimin) needed to maintain a velocity of
approximately 10 ft/s
ties, lets take a look
at each of the clean- Pipe Pipe size (in.)
ing categories listed in Sch.

1
1
2
3
4
Table 2 and see how to 5S
12
20
34
77
123
272
460
apply them.
40
10
16
27
64
105
230
397
Cleaning Category 80
7
13
22
55
92

C-1: This is simply a

flush with water, air
or inert gas. The one non-manual locity of 10 ft/s. This gets a little cumassist that water requires in order bersome and costly unless you have
for it to clean the inside of a piping pumps or compressors in place that
system is velocity. But what velocity can achieve the necessary flowrate.
is necessary?
The alternative for liquid flushing
The main concept behind flushing the larger pipe sizes other than using
a pipeline is to dislodge and remove source line pressure or a pump is to
suspected debris. In order to dislodge, perform a fill-and-dump. In this prosuspend and remove this unwanted cess, the pipe system is completely
material in the piping system, it is filled with liquid and then drained
necessary that water or air be forced through a full-line-size, quick-openthrough the piping system at a veloc- ing valve. In doing this, there has to
ity sufficient to suspend the heaviest be enough static head to generate sufsuspected particles and move them ficient force and velocity to achieve
along the pipeline.
essentially the same result as the
The velocity required to suspend pumped or line pressure liquid.
the particles and move them along Cleaning Category C-2: This is a
the pipeline for removal is dependent three-step process by which the piping
upon their size and weight, and the system is initially flushed out with a
flush medium. Metal filings, arguably liquid to remove most of the loose dethe heaviest particles normally found bris. This is followed by the circulation
in newly fabricated pipe, will have a of a cleaning solution, which is then
terminal mid-range settling veloc- followed by a final flush of water.
ity, in water, of approximately 10 ft/s.
Cleaning solutions are, in many
Therefore, a flushing velocity of ap- cases, proprietary detergent or acidproximately 10 ft/s should be achieved based solutions each blended for speduring the flush. (This does not apply cific uses. Detergent-based solutions
to acid cleaning.) Table 4 indicates the are generally used for removing dirt,
rate of flow required to achieve ap- cutting oils and grease. Acid-based soproximately 10 ft/s of velocity through lutions are used to remove the same
various sizes and schedules of pipe.
contaminants as the detergent-base
Purging a piping system clear of de- plus weld discoloration and residue.
bris with air requires a velocity of ap- The acid-based solution also passivproximately 25 ft/s. Table 5 indicates ates the pipe wall.
the air flowrate required to achieve apAs defined earlier, passivation
proximately 25 ft/s of velocity through provides a protective oxide barrier
various sizes and schedules of pipe.
against corrosion. The acids used in
One thing you might notice is that some cleaning solutions for ferrous
the size range only extends to 4-in. and copper materials leave behind a
NPS for both the liquid flush and for passivated interior pipe surface as a
the air or gas blow-down. The reason result of the cleaning process. In utilfor that is the volume of liquid or gas ity water services, such as tower and
required to achieve the necessary ve- chilled water, this barrier against corlocity through the larger pipe sizes is rosion is maintained with corrosion
quite significant.
inhibitors that are injected into the
For example, a 6-in. NPS pipeline fluid stream on an ongoing basis.
would require approximately 900
Keep in mind that the formation of
to 1,000 gal/min, depending on wall passivated surfaces is a natural occurthickness of the pipe, to achieve a ve- rence with metals in an oxygen envi-

Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2008

17_CHE_041508_EP_GSO.indd 54

3/19/08 1:16:50 PM

CHEM ENGINEERING

ronment; the acid merely initiates and

speeds up the process.
When using stainless alloys usually 316L, in hygienic-water services
such as water for injection (WFI), purified water, deionized (DI) water and
in some cases soft water passivation is a final step in the preparation
for service of these pipelines.
Passivation is also a periodic ongoing preventative-maintenance procedure. High-purity water is very
corrosive and attacks any free iron
found on the surface of stainless-steel
pipe. Free iron has a tendency to come
out of solution when material is cold
worked, as in bending or forming pipe
without the benefit of heat. It also occurs with the threading of alloy bolts,
which are solution annealed (heat
treated) after threading. Passivation
removes this free iron while also accelerating, in the presence of O2, the
oxidation rate of the stainless steel,
providing a chromium-rich, oxide corrosion barrier as defined above.
Over time (and this is one hypothetical thought on the subject), this very
thin corrosion barrier tends to get
depleted or worn off, particularly at
high impingement areas of the piping
system, such as elbows, tees and pump
casings. Once the passive layer wears
through, any free iron exposed to the
high purity water will oxidize, or rust.
This will show up as surface rouge.
Rouging is an unwanted surface discoloration that is periodically removed
by means of a derouging process. This
is an operational, as-needed chemicalcleaning process that will remove all
or most of the rouge and also re-passivate the internal pipe surface.
Discussions and research on the topic
of rouging continue. This is a subject
that has more questions than answers
at the present time. Currently, the
ASME-BPE is looking into this issue.
One of the questions to be answered is
whether or not rouge is actually detrimental to product streams.
Cleaning Category C-3: This is a
two-step cleaning process that uses
a detergent- or acid-based solution
to clean the pipe interior of any unwanted residue or debris. This is then
followed by a final flush of water.
Cleaning Category C-4: This is a
three- or four-step process generally

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17_CHE_041508_EP_GSO.indd 55

3/19/08 1:18:49 PM

Engineering Practice
used in hygienic service piping. In
most cases, simply due to the clean
fabrication approach used in hygienic
pipe fabrication, only a water flush
with deionized- (DI) quality water, or
better, would be necessary for cleaning
,followed by passivation of the piping
system, then a final flush of water.
There are variations to each of these
primary cleaning functions and it
would be in an owners best interest to
define these requirements, by fluid service, in advance of the work to be done.

Cleaning procedures

This section describes some fundamental cleaning procedures as they might

appear in a specification or guideline
and includes the leak-test procedures
that will follow in Part 6. This will give
you some idea as to what you might
consider developing for your own set
of specifications. Assuming that if your
company repeatedly executes projects
you will have cleaning and testing
guidelines, in some form, prepared for
your contractor. If not, you may not get
what you expect. Its better to give some
forethought to these activities rather
than be surprised at the results.
Once a menu of these cleaning and
testing procedures are developed, using
pre-assigned symbols, similar to those
given in the following, they can then be
specified in the line list with the respective fluid services as you require. In
this manner, there is no second guessing during construction. Each piping
circuit is assigned a specific clean and
test protocol in advance.
Many pre-developed procedures I
have seen over the years, those developed by owners in particular, have
been very simplistic, and typically out
of date. This is an indicator to most contractors that the owners representative
will most likely not attempt to enforce
them. The contractor, in making that
assumption, may simply ignore them
and perform their own procedures.
Your procedural guidelines should
be explicit and current to ensure that
the contractors know that someone
has given some thought to how he or
she wants that work accomplished,
making it far more likely that the contractors will execute your procedure
instead of their own.
It is certainly acceptable to accom56

Table 5. Rate of air flow (ft3/s) to maintain a velocity of

approximately 25 ft/s
Pipe
Sch.
Press.
15
psig
Press.
50
psig

5S
40
80
5S
40
80

Pipe Sizes (in.)

0.14
0.23
0.11
0.19
0.08
0.15
0.30
0.51
0.23
0.41
0.18
0.33

1
0.39
0.30
0.25
0.84
0.66
0.55

modate suggestions to a procedure

from a contractor when they dont
compromise the intent of the owners
requirements and are likely to improve the efficiency of the contractor.
If a submitted alternate procedure
does not compromise the intent of the
owner, it is recommended that it be
accepted. This will allow the owner
to see if that efficiency is really there.
With that in mind, lets create a couple
of general cleaning procedures.
A general practice in the flushing
and cleaning process (also indicated
in leak testing), is the evacuation of
air when using liquids. Always provide high-point vents for evacuating
air during the fill cycle and low point
drains for clearing out all of the liquid
when the process is complete.
Using the same terminology in
Table 2 these cleaning procedures will
be categorized as follows:
Category C-1: Flush or blowdown
only (water, air or inert gas)
C-1.1 These systems shall be
flushed with the fluid that the system is intended for. There shall be
no hydrostatic or pneumatic leak
test. An initial-service leak test will
be performed.
a. Connect system to its permanent
supply line. Include a permanent
block valve at the supply line connection. All outlets shall have temporary hoses run to drain. Do not
flush through coils, plates, strainers
or filter elements.
b. Using supply line pressure, flush
system through all outlets until
water is clear and free of any debris
at all outlet points. Flush a quantity
of fluid through each branch not less
than three times that contained in
the system. Use Table 6 to estimate
volume of liquid in the system.
c. These systems are required only to
undergo an initial-service leak test.

1
0.86
0.71
0.62
1.88
1.56
1.35

2
1.39
1.18
1.04
3.02
2.56
2.26

3
3.06
2.59
2.32
6.67
5.65
5.05

4
5.17
4.47
4.03
11.3
9.73
8.79

During the flushing procedure, and

as the system is placed into service,
all joints shall be checked for leaks.
d. Any leaks discovered during the flushing process, or during the process of
placing the system into service, will
require the system to be drained and
repaired. After which the process will
start over with Step 2.
C-1.2 These systems shall be
flushed clean with potable water.
a. Connect a flush/test manifold at a
designated inlet to the system, and
a temporary hose or pipe on the designated outlet(s) of the system.
b. Route temporary hose or pipe from
potable water supply, approved by
owner, and connect to flush/test
manifold. Route outlet hose or pipe
to sewer, or as directed by owner
represenative. Secure end of outlet.
c. Using a once through procedure
(not a re-circulation), and the rate
of flow in Table 4, perform an initial flush through the system with
a quantity of potable water not less
than three times that contained in
the system. Use Table 6 to estimate
volume of liquid in the system. Discharge to sewer, or as directed by
owner representative.
d. After the initial flush, insert a conical strainer into a spool piece located
between the discharge of the piping
system and the outlet hose. Perform
a second flush with a volume of potable water not less than that contained in the system.
e. After the second flush (Step d), pull
the strainer and check for debris; if
debris is found repeat Step c. If no
debris is found the system is ready
for leak testing.
Category C2: Flush then clean with
cleaning solution, followed by a neutralization rinse. Because of the thoroughness of the flush, clean and rinse
process there should be no need to

Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2008

17_CHE_041508_EP_GSO.indd 56

3/19/08 1:19:31 PM

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57

CHE_0408_Pg57.indd 57

3/19/08 1:31:07 PM

Engineering Practice
Table 6.Volume of water (gal) per lineal foot of pipe
Sch.
5S
20
40
80

Pipe Sizes (in.)

1/2
3/4
1
.021
.035
.058

.016
.028
.045
.012
.023
.037

11/2
.129

.106
.093

2
.207

.176
.154

check for transient debris, only for

neutralization. However, if circumstances dictate otherwise, then a final
check for debris may be warranted.
C-2.1 These systems shall be preflushed with potable water, cleaned
with (indicate cleaning agent) then a
rinse/neutralization followed by leak
testing with potable water. If it is
determined that the system will be
installed and tested progressively in
segments, the sequence of cleaning
and testing can be altered to follow the
segmented installation, thereby leak
testing segments of a piping system
as they are installed without cleaning. The entire system would then be
cleaned once installed and tested.
a. Hook up flush/test manifold at a designated temporary inlet to the system between the circulating pump
discharge and the system inlet. Install a temporary hose or pipe on the
designated outlet(s) of the system.
b. Route temporary hose or pipe from
potable water supply, approved by
owner, and connect to flush/test
manifold. Route outlet hose or pipe
to sewer, or as directed by owners
representative.
c. Close valve between the circulating
pump (if no valve is included in the
system design, insert a line-blind or
install a blind flange with a drain
valve) discharge and flush/test rig.
Open valve between flush/test manifold and piping system.
d. Using the once-through procedure
(meaning the cleaning fluid is not
re-circulated), and the rate of flow
in Table 4, perform an initial flush
through the system, bypassing the
circulation pump, with a quantity
of potable water equal to not less
than three times that contained in
the system. Use Table 6 to estimate
volume of liquid in the system.
(Note: During the water flush, check
the system for leaks. Verify no leaks
prior to introducing chemical cleaning
solution to the piping system.)
58

3
.455

.386
.345

4
.771

.664
.60

6
1.68

1.51
1.36

2.71
2.61

10

4.31
4.11

12

6.16
5.84

e. Discharge to sewer, or as directed by

owners representative.
f. After completing the initial flush,
drain remaining water in the system. Or, retain water if cleaning
chemicals will be added to the circulating water.
g. Configure valves and hoses to circulate through pump. Connect head
tank, or other source containing
cleaning agent, to connection provided on circulation loop.
h. Fill the system with the pre-measured (indicate preferred cleaning agent and mixing ratio or percentage by volume) and circulate
through the system for 48 h. To
minimize corrosion, if anticipated,
circulate cleaning agent at a lowvelocity rate prescribed by the
cleaning-agent manufacturer.
i. Drain cleaning agent to sewer or
containment, as directed by owner.
j. Reconnect, as in Step a, for the once
through flush/neutralization, and
flush system with potable water
using a quantity not less than three
times that of the system volume.
Since the (name cleaning agent) solution has a neutral pH, the rinse
water will have to be visually examined for clarity. Rinse until clear.
The rinse must be started as quickly
after the cleaning cycle as possible.
If cleaning residue is allowed to dry
on the interior pipe wall, it will be
more difficult to remove by simply
flushing. The final rinse and neutralization must be accomplished
before any possible residue has
time to dry.
k. Test pH for neutralization. Once
neutralization is achieved proceed
to Step l.
l. Remove pump and temporary circulation loop, then configure the system
for leak testing. This may include removal of some components, insertion
of line-blinds, installation of temporary spools pieces and so on.
These three examples should pro-

14

7.34
9.22

16

9.70
9.22

18

12.4
14.5

20

15.2
14.5

24

22.2

vide an idea as to the kind of dialog

that needs to be created in providing
guidance and direction to the contractor responsible for the work. And, as
stated earlier, these procedures, for
the most part, are flexible enough
to accommodate suggested modifications from the contractor.

Edited by Gerald Ondrey

Acknowledgement

The authors deep appreciation again

goes to Earl Lamson, senior project
manager with Eli Lilly and Co., for
taking the time to review these articles. His comments help make this article, and the others, better documents
than they otherwise would have been.
He obliged me by applying the same
skill, intelligence and insight he brings
to everything he does. His comments
kept me concise and on target.

References
1. Huitt, W.H., Piping for Process Plants: The Basics, Chem. Eng. February 2007, pp. 4247.
2. Huitt, W.H., Piping for Process Plants: Flanges,
Chem. Eng. March 2007, pp. 5661.
3. Huitt, W.H., Piping for Process Plants: Design
Elements, Chem. Eng. July 2007, pp. 5057.
4. Huitt, W.H., Piping for Process Plants: Codes
and Fabrication, Chem. Eng. February 2007,
pp. 6876.

Author
W. M. (Bill) Huitt has been
involved in industrial piping design, engineering and
construction since 1965. Positions have included design engineer, piping design instructor, project engineer, project
supervisor, piping department supervisor, engineering
manager and president of W.
M. Huitt Co. (P.O. Box 31154,
St. Louis, MO 63131-0154.
Phone: 314-966-8919; Email: wmhuitt@aol.
com) a piping consulting firm founded in 1987.
His experience covers both the engineering and
construction fields and crosses industrial lines
to include petroleum refining, chemical, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, pulp & paper, nuclear
power, and coal gasification. He has written numerous specifications including engineering and
construction guidelines to ensure that design
and construction comply with code requirements,
owner expectations and good design practices.
Bill is a member of ISPE (International Society
of Pharmaceutical Engineers), CSI (Construction
Specifications Institute) and ASME (American
Society of Mechanical Engineers). He is a contributor to ASME-BPE and sits on two corporate
specification review boards.

Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2008

17_CHE_041508_EP_GSO.indd 58

3/27/08 7:17:16 AM

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Based on the Medipix2 application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), the PIXcel is designed for sensitive, high-resolution x-ray diffraction applications.
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18_CHE_041508_CUS.indd 59

. . . Or with
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The TSA-100 is also capable of forgoing the need for sulfur oxidation by
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Solids Processing
Environmental
Manager

A Checklist for
Safer Chemical
Batch Reactions
A good understanding of the reaction
chemistry is needed for a safe process design
Richard Kwasny , Chilworth Technology Inc.

t is a fact that safety-related incidents do occur in the chemical

process industries (CPI). These
incidents have, in part, led to increased attention to reactive-chemical
issues by industry, government and
other stakeholders. We know that good
safety-management systems take the
reactivity of chemicals as well as the
energetics of both desired and adverse
reactions into consideration.
This article provides a safety checklist that can be used as a guide for the
design of a new process. Alternatively,
it can be used to identify information
gaps when existing processes undergo
periodic review.

Runaway reactions

It is known that in many cases, thermal runaway reactions occur due to

the following factors:
1. Lack of understanding of the process chemistry and energy for the
desired reaction
2. Inadequate heat transfer capacity
at the plant level
3. Insufficient control and inadequate
plant-safety back-up systems, including emergency venting
4. Ineffective plant operational procedures and inadequate training
The reader is encouraged to add
plant-specific items to this list, as
needed. A hazard analysis can then
be used to identify appropriate controls and safeguards to reduce risk. It
is important to note that as a process
undergoes changes, the safety information also needs to be updated. The final
process-safety package should be at
such a level that it can be used for technology-transfer purposes at the R&D
or commercial-production stage by out-

sourcing contractors and by in-house

personnel. When developing safety
documentation, it is important to keep
in mind that it must comply with company policies and procedures as well as
country and local regulations.

Process safety checklist

The following items should be considered in relation to process safety.

Preliminary hazard assessment:
Determine the thermal stability of
all reaction components within the
minimum and maximum process
temperatures attainable under a
worst-case scenario
Identify unwanted interaction between reagents and solvents
Identify potential reaction contaminants that may have an inhibitory
or catalytic effect on the desired
reaction
Quantification of desired reactions:
Determine the heat of reaction and offgas rates for the desired and quench
reactions, including the heat resulting
from accumulation of reagents or slow
forming intermediates
Determine the maximum adiabatic
temperature for the reaction, and
determine the basis of safety relative to the estimated boiling point of
the reaction mixture
Understand the relative rates of all
chemical reactions
Quantification of adverse reactions:
Assess the thermal stability of the
reaction mixture over a wide temperature range
When optimizing the robustness of
the process, consider other reaction
variables, such as pH, concentration, conversion rate, off-gas rate,
stability of starting and product sub-

strates in solution and as a slurry

Consider the potential and impact of
unwanted vapor-phase reactions
Develop a chemical-interaction matrix for materials present in the
reaction mixture, classify the reactivity, and communicate this information to operational personnel
Plant considerations:
Conduct a basic energy balance to
consider the heats during various
additions, heat generated during the
chemical reaction, and the heat removal capability of the plant reactor
system. Remember to include reactor agitation as a source of energy
(~2250 Btu/h/hp)
Consider the impact of possible deviations from the intended reactant
charges and operating conditions
Identify all heat sources connected
to a reaction vessel and assume
the maximum possible worst-case
scenario
Determine the effect of the lowest
possible temperature to which the
reactor heat-transfer fluid could cool
the reaction mixture
Consider the impact of temperature
gradients and other issues, such as
increased viscosity, freezing at reactor walls, fouling, and so on, in
plant-scale equipment
General chemistry and engineering design concepts:
Design reactions that occur fairly
rapidly
If possible, avoid batch reactions
in which all the potential chemical
energy is present at the onset of the
reaction
Use semi-batch processes for exothermic reactions in which the batch
temperature and any off-gassing can

Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2008

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Environmental Manager
be maintained through controlled
addition of the reagent
For highly exothermic reactions,
avoid using temperature control
of the reaction mixture as the only
means for limiting the reaction rate
When scaling up a reaction, account
for the impact of vessel size on heat
generation and heat removal: The
volume of the reaction mixture increases by the cube of the vessel
radius but the heat-transfer area increases by the square of the radius
A comprehensive hazard evaluation should be conducted using appropriate estimation and experimental
techniques to identify potential reac-

tion hazards in materials, as well as

the desired and adverse reactions. We
use estimation techniques, differential
scanning calorimetry (DSC), Carius
Tube, and reaction calorimetry as
needed. Identify any adverse or thermal runaway reactions and, if needed,
characterize them using adiabatic
calorimetry, such as ARC (accelerating rate calorimetry) or an Adiabatic
Dewar Calorimeter. If required, the
vent size can be determined using
Design Institute for Emergency Relief
Systems (DIERS, an AIChE industry
alliance) methodology with data generated using an adiabatic dewar or
Vent Sizing Package (VSP; a special-

ized adiabatic calorimeter that uses

temperature, pressure, and rate data
to allow for sizing emergency vents).
The references given below were used
to develop this article and are an excellent source of information.
n
Edited by Dorothy Lozowski

Author
Richard Kwasny is the associate director of the Process Safety Laboratory at
Chilworth Technology Inc.
(250 Plainsboro Road, Building 7, Plainsboro, N.J. 08536;
Email: rkwasny@chilworth.
com; Phone: 6097994449),
where he has responsibility
for the quality, safety and
productivity of the thermal
hazard laboratory. His expertise encompasses all areas of chemical reaction
hazards and flammability of dusts, vapors and
gases. Kwasny completed his Ph.D. at London
South Bank University. His research developed,
in part, an assessment strategy to allow for the
safe scale up of reduction reactions. Before his
current position, Kwasny headed the Process
Safety & Hazard Identification group for Schering-Ploughs Chemical and Physical Services
Dept. Previously, he managed the Dow Chemical
Reactive Chemicals testing function for Canada.
Kwasny is a member of the ASTM Committee
E27 on hazard potential of chemicals.

References

3. Barton, J. and Rogers, R., Chemical Reaction

Hazards, 2nd ed., Gulf Publishing, 1997.
1. Hendershot, Dennis C., A Checklist for In4. Brethericks Handbook of Reactive Chemical
herently Safer Chemical Reaction Process
Hazards, 6th ed., Butterworth Heinemann,
Design and Operation, Center for Chemical
1999.
Process Safety International Conference and
Workshop on Risk and Reliability, 2002.
5. Guidelines for Chemical Reaction Hazard
Evaluation and Application to Process De2. Kwasny, Richard S., Hazard Assessment
sign, Center for Chemical Process Safety of
Strategies for Reduction Reactions, SouthChem_Eng1-1_177x123_M_April08
07.12.2007
11:33
the AIChE,
1995.Uhr Seite 1
bank University, London, 1999.

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Solids
You
& Your
Processing
Job

employee development:

Getting the Information You Need

Through a 360Feedback Report
Properly implemented, this full-circle review
is a good way for people in management to learn
how they are perceived by team members
above and below them
Christina Robertson
Career Resources Management LLC

Just as an athlete knows he or

she will receive ongoing coaching to
improve performance, an employee
needs to know the organization will
commit to a developmental process.
A 360 feedback report should not be
a one-time event; it should part of an
ongoing, developmental partnership
between the employee and the organization. Jeffrey J. Edson, president/
CEO, MJ Healthcare Solutions, advises organizations to really involve
employees in the process. The longterm outcomes for your organization
will take shape in terms of retention,
higher morale, and quality service.

360 feedback report is a way

for employees to learn how
they are perceived by direct
reports, colleagues, managers, customers, and strategic business partners hence the term 360
because it generates a full circle of
information concerning job performance. In recent years, 360 reports
have provided valuable information
as organizations have become less hierarchical and more complex. In many
companies the number of employees
managed by one manager has increased, and numerous relationships
may be required for successful job
performance. In short, the standard
appraisal given by ones manager may
not have all the information needed to
form a complete picture.
While a 360 feedback process can
be a powerful tool when used correctly
and in the right circumstances, when
used incorrectly or in the wrong situation, it can do more harm than good.
This article presents considerations
and guidelines for the use of this tool.

A report may obtain the following information:

Background/purpose
Number of participants and descriptive demographics
Comparative results from participant groups
Summary of results (strengths and
areas to develop)
Next steps
Developmental activities
Copy of the questionnaire

The benefits of feedback

Who should execute it?

Feedback is based upon the theory

that only when people acknowledge
their present level of functioning are
they able to change and develop. This
is why coaches video tape athletes
to obtain an accurate, realtime picture
of performance. In business organizations, a 360 report may be the best
way to get a complete picture or
at least learn how our performance is
perceived by a number of people.

Contents of the report

Unless a companys human resources

department has internal consultants
who are experienced and skilled in
gathering and reporting 360 data, an
external consultant should be used.
Many managers and human resource
professionals do not have the time,
expertise, or experience to conduct
a 360 process. An external consultant can help the organization determine the best way to collect the data

through customized questionnaires or

interviews, and has the skill to analyze the data and present it in written
and verbal form.
An employee may find it less threatening to discuss results and share
honest reactions with an external consultant. A skilled consultant is able to
present information in a way it will
be heard. Because consultants are
not part of the company, they may be
better able to identify cultural norms,
practices that impact performance and
conflicting information, and discuss potentially threatening information with
the employee all in the context of improving performance. Simply put, using
external consultants to conduct 360
processes can provide the expertise
needed to increase chances for success.

The good: When 360 feedback

is appropriate

In organizations where coaching is

viewed as a way to help employees
develop to their fullest potential, 360
feedback reports may be used as a tool
to support that process. Bart Minsky,
vice president of human resources at
Presbyterian Hospital/Columbia University Medical Center in New York
City says, In our organization, all
newly promoted managers are given
360 feedback in conjunction with
their attendance at our management
development program. Managers and
their bosses receive the results, which
are used for employee development
only. The advantage of this practice
is employees are not targeted as non
performers who need to improve.
Some companies send select employees to leadership programs conducted
by external organizations where 360
feedback data is collected before attending the program. Eileen Sleutaris,
assistant vice president of Pennsylvania Lumbermens Mutual Insurance
Co. in Philadelphia, attended one such
week-long session. Results from confidential 360 questionnaires concern-

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3/27/08 7:25:38 AM

Considerations to Ensure a Successful 360 Feedback Process

Purpose

What is the purpose of the project?

What do you want the project to achieve?
How does it relate to the individuals performance and organizations mission?
How will success of the 360 feedback be measured?

Obtaining buy-in from the employee

What kind of feedback has the individual received prior to this

point?
Is a 360 feedback report appropriate at this juncture?
How should the opportunity be presented to the employee?

Conducting the project

Who will conduct the project?

ing her leadership style and communication skills completed by employees

from her company were presented.
The feedback came back to me in a
series of personalized reports. I worked
with a counselor on an individual level
and with teams. The setting for receiving this feedback was important, as I
was away from the office and able to
focus my full attention. The experience
was truly fulfilling because the feedback was honest and timely and the
people who provided the feedback cared
about what they were doing, she says.

Should an external consultant be used?

Will the feedback be collected by a questionnaire or interviews?
If a questionnaire is used, should it be customized or off the
shelf?
Who should participate?
How many participants should be involved?
How should participants be selected?
What should they be told?
How will participants confidentiality be guarded?

Supporting the employees development

Who should have access to the final report?

How will feedback information be presented to the employee?
What coaching/developmental support will be offered to the
employee?

In complex organizations, 360 feedback may provide the information necessary for an employees development
that may not otherwise be available.
For example, if the employee is at a
different location, a manager may not
have all the information necessary to
help an employee develop. In matrix
organizations where employees may
have reporting relationships to more
than one individual, a 360 feedback
may be a more complete appraisal of
the employees performance.
Sometimes managers receive reports

that an employee needs to improve

relationships with other employees,
divisions, or customers. Rather than
relaying this feedback to the employee
and being in the middle, a manager
can arrange for the employee to get it
directly from the source. If a 360 is
properly conducted, a complete picture
can be provided that presents an employees strengths and developmental
needs in a variety of areas.
One example of a successful use of
360 feedback arose from a coaching
assignment to help a manager pres-

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You & Your Job

ent himself effectively for different
company opportunities after his plant
had closed. His manager, upon learning that employees in different company locations indicated they would
not want to work with him, thought a
360 report would be beneficial.
Because the manager had been rewarded for getting results at a plant
in a remote location, he did not realize his command and control style
alienated employees at other locations
who had a more collaborative management style. Realizing that sharing
feedback results with others in the
company could have an adverse affect
on the managers internal job search,
the human resources department decided that only the individual and the
consultant should have access to the
information. In this situation, the individual was able to use the information for his personal and professional
development without possible risk to
his career.

The bad: When 360 feedback is

not appropriate

While some organizations lead the

way in developing and retaining talent and use 360 feedback tools to this
end, many companies do not. Some
well-meaning companies may even
overuse this tool. Employees may be
asked to complete so many 360 questionnaires that evaluation fatigue
may set in, making the accuracy of
feedback given questionable.
A 360 feedback report should
not be used to solve the problem of
managerial ineptness. Every human
resource manager, if he or she is honest, is able to identify managers in the
organization who do not do a good job
of conducting performance appraisals and presenting ongoing feedback.
Sometimes, it is clear that a manager
is either unable or unwilling to give
a person the information he or she
needs to improve.
If a manager does not have the skill
to present feedback to an employee, a
human resource professional or consultant should work with the manager to develop the ability or courage
(sometimes both), so that employees
will be given the information they
need to succeed. To fail to do this will
simply perpetuate the problem. If a

manager is the problem, a 360 should

be conducted only as a stop gap solution to give the employee the information needed while the manager
gets up to speed in this skill.
An organization should not use a
360 feedback process to gather data
as a means to dismiss someone who is
not meeting performance standards.
If management knows it wants to dismiss an employee, it is better for the
employee and the company to face this
problem honestly in another way.
Using 360 feedback for problem
employees. When retained to work
with executives who are perceived to
have performance issues, it is not uncommon for a manager or human resource professional to request a 360
feedback. This intervention may not
always be advisable and in some cases,
can do more harm than good.
As a consultant, I always ask an organization to assess why it thinks a
360 is needed. In most cases where an
employee needs to improve, a skilled
consultant can work with the organization and the individual to clarify
exactly what needs to change in the
employees performance. If the employee recognizes the need to improve
and is clear on the specifics, a 360
report may provide more information
than necessary.
There are employees who, no matter how skilled their managers may be
in delivering direct and specific feedback, choose not to believe what they
hear. Sometimes accumulated analyses from various sources in written
form present data in such a way that
they are heard. At the very least,
an employee cannot dismiss feedback
from a manager as simply a one-sided,
or biased, view.

The ugly: How 360 feedback

interventions can backfire

A value inherent in the use of a 360

feedback process is that the organization is committed to providing the information and resources an employee
needs to develop. If the organization is
not committed to the developmental
process, it is best not to engage in a
360 exercise.
Consultants should always consider the culture of the organization
when administering 360 feedback.

Circle 35 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-35

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3/20/08 2:02:19 PM

360 Feedback Not for the faint-hearted

You & Your Job

In some organizations, asking employees to provide information concerning another employee may signal
the individual is in trouble. Unless
carefully managed, requesting feedback for an employee can raise questions and doubts concerning that employee and undermine the employees
self-confidence.
One example of a 360 being inappropriately used that did not serve the
individual is that of a longterm director of a company who was no longer
considered to be a fit by the president
and other key leaders. The company
hired an external consultant to interview 16 senior managers concerning
the directors performance and then
present the information to top management and the employee. Not only
was the data painful for the director
to hear, in hindsight, the consultant
realized the feedback was collected to
support the presidents belief that the
employee could no longer contribute to

hen we conduct 360 feedback processes, we warn employees that it is not for the
faint-hearted. While receiving feedback from multiple sources can be a powerful
intervention, it may be devastating to learn we are not perceived the way we think we
are. Because employees can feel very vulnerable during this process, they take a personal and professional risk, trusting that feedback will be a means for individual development. Organizations should return that trust by committing to support the individual
and using 360 feedback for developmental purposes only. If the employees confidence
or relationship with the organization is destroyed as a result of the process, 360 feedback cannot be considered a success. Feedback should be considered the first step of an
ongoing, continual improvement process not as an end in itself. 

the organization. A kinder approach,

one with greater organizational integrity, would have been to be honest with the employee and offer him
a severance package. One can wonder
how 360 feedback processes will be
viewed in the future by employees of
this company.
An example of a 360 feedback report that backfired for the company
involved a mid-level manager whose
advancement at a manufacturing company where she had worked for five
years was blocked. Because the companys human resources department
considered her a valuable employee
and thought that she might lack feedback from her manager, they hired an

external consultant to conduct a 360

feedback report.
As a result of the feedback, the
manager learned that she did not
have the support from her peers and
upper management that she needed to
succeed. While she had recent accomplishments, her colleagues continued
to focus on a failure she had when she
first started with the company. Ultimately, she instead decided to accept
a position in a company that offered
greater chances for advancement for
women one where she could make
a fresh start.
Ideally, this employees manager
would have been able to work with
her to improve her image within the
company. While neither the human resources department nor her manager
expected her to leave the company as
a result of the feedback, it probably
was in the employees professional
best interests that she did.

Edited by Rebekkah Marshall

Author

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Christina Robertson is cofounder of Career Resources

Management LLC (1616 Walnut Street, Suite 1105, Philadelphia, PA 19103; Phone:
215-988-0233; Fax: 215-9880944; Email: chris@careerresourcesmgt.com; Website:
www.careerresourcesmgt.
com) an organizational and
leadership development consulting firm that focuses on
bringing out the best in individuals and organizations. Robertson designs 360 feedback processes to promote employee and organizational
development. She has extensive consulting and
training experience in a variety of areas including executive coaching, leadership development,
focus group facilitation, employee surveys, and
workshop development and facilitation. She has
worked with organizations in the for-profit and
not-for-profit sectors of all sizes ranging from
small businesses to Fortune 500 companies. Her
clients represent a wide range of industries including financial services, insurance, and health
care. She has worked with individuals at all levels from hourly employees to senior executives.
Chris is an Explore Your Future Guide for ComingofAge.org, an online resource that promotes
volunteering, learning, and community leadership for adults age 50 plus. She is the author of
a book for individuals in transition published by
Simon & Schuster. Her formal training includes
a Ph.D. in human science, a M.S. in organizational behavior and counseling psychology, and
a B.S. in English and education. She is the first
person to earn Saybrook Graduate Schools Creativity Certificate and was the recipient of the
Rollo May Scholarship Award.

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Tel: 212.621.4958
Fax: 212.621.4976
email: hhicks@che.com

C L A S S I F I E D A DV E R T I S I N G
T H AT W O R K S

Circle 205 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-205

3/25/08 1:32:15 PM

High Pressure
Silencers
x
x
x
x
x

Simple yet effective diffuser

silencing
Suitable for high pressure, high
temperature steam and gas
Compact size and weight
Non Clogging
Minimum supporting requirement

Model
D800
Silencer

Expect Engineering Excellence

"Loders Croklaan's new

Pulsair equipped state-of-the-art
Palm Oil Refinery Rotterdam,
Netherlands. 2006"

Mixing Solutions for

Multiple Tank
Configurations
Pulsair pneumatic mixers are
the undisputed leader in Process
Control Management. Our
systems are designed to operate on
minimal nitrogen, thus eliminating
temperature fluctuation and specific
gravity stratification in tanks. The
Pulsair System operates multiple
tanks exceeding one million
gallons each or more, with one
programmable controller, creating a
consistent viscosity every time.
For further information, contact

CU Services LLC
725 Parkview Cir, Elk Grove, IL 60007
Ph 847-439-2303 rcronfel@cuservices.net

www.cuservices.net
Circle 206 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-206

425.455.1263
800.582.7797
sales@pulsair.com
www.pulsair.com

Stainless Steel
Membrane Modules
Scepter membrane modules
combine rugged
tubular SS support with a patented titanium
dioxide membrane, providing
superior separation
performance and years of reliable filtration in applications where extreme
process conditions or difficult feed
streams make other methods unsuitable. The tubular membrane
modules have all-welded, no-gasket construction and are available
in horizontal and vertical orientations. Membrane areas are available from 1 to 8000 sq. ft. with
separation ratings of 0.1 and 0.02
microns nominal, and the membranes are suitable for extreme
chemical conditions, pressures,
and temperatures.
Graver Technologies, Inc.
(302) 731-3539 (US)
info@gravertech.com
www.gravertech.com

Circle 207 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-207

Circle 208 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-208

Circle 210 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-210

Circle 211 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-211

Delta Cooling Towers, Inc.

Delta Cooling Towers

manufactures a complete line
of corrosion-proof engineered
plastic cooling towers. The towers incorporate a high efficiency
counter-flow design and carry a
15-year warranty on the casing,
which is molded into a unitary
leak-proof structure of engineered plastic. All models are
factory assembled, simple
to install and nearly
maintenance free.

1-800-289-3358
www.deltacooling.com
sales@deltacooling.com
Circle 209 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-209

21_CHE_0408_Classified.indd 69

69

3/25/08 1:34:44 PM

Intelligen Suite

The Market-Leading Engineering Suite for Modeling, Evaluation,

Scheduling, and Debottlenecking of Single & Multi-Product Facilities

SuperPro

SchedulePro

R e cipe D B
Use SuperPro Designer to model, evaluate, and
debottleneck batch and continuous processes

Tracking of equipment occupancy

in multi-product facilities

Tracking demand for resources

(e.g., labor, materials, utilities, etc.)

Switch to SchedulePro to schedule, model,

and debottleneck multi-product facilities

Inventory tracking for raw materials,

intermediates, products, and wastes

SuperPro Designer is a comprehensive process simulator that facilitates modeling, cost analysis, debottlenecking, cycle time
reduction, and environmental impact assessment of biochemical, specialty chemical, pharmaceutical (bulk & fine), food, consumer
product, mineral processing, water purification, wastewater treatment, and related processes. Its development was initiated at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). SuperPro is already in use at more than 400 companies and 500 universities around
the world (including 18 of the top 20 pharmaceutical companies and 9 of the top 10 biopharmaceutical companies).
SchedulePro is a versatile finite capacity scheduling tool that generates feasible production schedules for multi-product facilities that
do not violate constraints related to the limited availability of facilities, equipment, resources and work areas. It can be used in
conjunction with SuperPro (by importing its recipes) or independently (by creating recipes directly in SchedulePro). Any industry
that manufactures multiple products by sharing production lines and resources can benefit from the use of SchedulePro. Engineering
companies use it as a modeling tool to size utilities for batch plants, identify equipment requirements, reduce cycle times, and
debottleneck facilities.
Circle 240 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-240

Visit our website to download detailed product literature

and functional evaluation versions of our tools
INTELLIGEN, INC. 2326 Morse Avenue Scotch Plains, NJ 07076 USA
Tel: (908) 654-0088 Fax: (908) 654-3866
Email: info@intelligen.com Website: www.intelligen.com
Intelligen also has offices in Europe and representatives in countries around the world

21_CHE_0408_Classified.indd 70

3/25/08 1:34:58 PM

SOFTWARE
CA
Co PE-O
mp PE
lian N
t!
Circle 241 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-241

FlowPhase Inc.
VLEFlash
Now you can quickly
calculate uid properties,
use the results to size
equipment and much
more...

Cost Effective
Engineering Software

Phase Envelopes
2 Phase Hydrocarbon VLE
Dew Point Calculations
Bubble Point Calculations
NIST Database

PH: (403) 250-7522

Fax: (403) 291-9730
To Download a 14 Day Free Trial
Visit our website at www.owphase.com

Circle 242 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-242

HTRI Xchanger Suite an integrated, easy-to-use suite of tools that

delivers accurate design calculations for
shell-and-tube heat exchangers
jacketed-pipe heat exchangers
hairpin heat exchangers
plate-and-frame heat exchangers
spiral plate heat exchangers

fired heaters
air coolers
economizers
tube layouts
vibration analysis

Interfaces with many process simulator and physical property

packages either directly or via CAPE-OPEN.
Heat Transfer Research, Inc.
150 Venture Drive
College Station, Texas 77845, USA

HTRI@HTRI.net
www.HTRI.net

Circle 243 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-243

NEW & USED EQUIPMENT

TOLL SCREENING
CZ
UIF
TDSFFOJOH
TQFDJBMJTUT
r
SFEVDFE
TDSFFOJOH
DPTUT
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NBYJNJ[FE
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BOE
FGGJDJFODZ
r
GSPN

NJDSPOT
UP

NFTI
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GSPN

UP
  
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r

SFDFJWF
UIF
CFOFGJUT
PG
IJHIUFDI
TDSFFOJOH

CFGPSF
ZPV
CVZ
%JTDPWFS
IPX
NVDI
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DBO
CF

JNQSPWFE
VTJOH
PVS
UFDIOPMPHJFT

800AT ELCAN



TBMFT!NJOPYFMDBODPN

www. minox-elcan.com

Circle 244 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-244

PROCESS FILTRATION EQUIPMENT

JWI Filter presses with polypro recessed plates
Sizes available: 2, 3, 5, 12, 25, cu. ft.
Sparkler & Niagara horizontal plate filters,
Model 33D17, 18S23, 1824S, 3348S
Komline 1' x 12' SS Vac. Belt Filter
Nutsche filter, 10 gal, 316 SS, 35 psi
Stainless Steel ERTEL & STAR Filter presses
Star 18" diameter SS plates, 14 chamber, 45 sq. ft.
Netzsch 10 cu. ft. 630 mm, polypro plates
Several small Oberlin belt filters
"WFSZ
'JMUFS
$PNQBOZ
8FTUXPPE
/+
1IPOF




'BY

&NBJM
MBSSZ!BWFSZGJMUFSDPN

www.averyfilter.com

Circle 245 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-245

CENTRIFUGE GEARBOXES

WABASH SELLS & RENTS

Boilers

20,000 - 400,000 #/Hr.

Diesel & Turbine Generators

50 - 25,000 KW

Gears & Turbines

25 - 4000 HP

We stock large inventories of:

Air Pre-Heaters Economizers Deaerators

Pumps Motors Fuel Oil Heating and Pump Sets
Valves Tubes Controls Compressors
Pulverizers Rental Boilers & Generators

24/7 Fast Emergency Service

800-704-2002

Phone: 847-541-5600 Fax: 847-541-1279

www.wabashpower.com

wabash

POWER EQUIPMENT CO.

444 Carpenter Ave., Wheeling, IL 60090

Circle 247 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-247

Circle 246 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-246

SPRING SPECIALS
1 Pint Ross Sanitary Jacketed, Vacuum Double Planetary Mixer, HV- Blades
1 Quart Ross Jacketed, Vacuum Planetary Mixer, S/S
2 Quart Scott Turbon Jacketed, Vacuum Double Planetary Mixer, S/S
0.5 Gallon Ross PDM-1/2 Power Mix, Sanitary Stainless, w/ Discharge Ram
2 gallon Ross Model DS-2 Hydraulic Plate Discharge System
1SH Mikro Pulverizer, Stainless Steel Construction
196- S Quadro CoMill, Sanitary Type 316 Stainless Steel
Frewitt Type MG-633 Oscillating Granulator, 316 Sanitary Stainless Steel
Fryma model MS-18 Coball Mill ,, 2.5 bar int, 2.0 bar jacket
Model W-750-H Greerco Horizontal Colloid Mill, 316 S/S
2 CFM to 1600 CFM Stokes and Kinney Vacuum Pumps (75)
TOO Many Items to ListPlease contact us for more info.

Website: WWW.HPEQUIP.COM
P.O. Box 839; Montville, NJ 07045
Contact Jim Siegel: Jim@hpequip.com
Phone: 973-335-9770; Fax: 973-335-5333
Circle 248 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-248

Parts & Service for: Bird

Alfa-Laval
Sharples

A Revolution in Gear Box Technologies

(515) 266-8225
Fax (515) 266-5676
E-mail: sales@revtechlc.com
Web Site: www.revtechlc.com

Circle 249 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-249

CHEMICAL
CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING
ENGINEERINGWWW.CHE.COM
WWW.CHE.COMAPRIL
APRIL
2008
2008 71
71

21_CHE_0408_Classified.indd 71

3/25/08 1:35:20 PM

NEW & USED EQUIPMENT

HIGH SPEED
DISPERSERS

 
 




  
   

     

World Class Dispersers,

In Stock And Ready To Ship!

 
 














Sizes from 1 HP to 200 HP

Many sizes in stock
All new and fully warranteed
Ross will beat any major
manufacturers quote!


 
     


  


  
 
  
  

1-800-243-ROSS

!!!"#$"%

USA Tel: 631-234-0500 Fax: 631-234-0691

www.dispersers.com




Circle 251 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-251

!"#$$#%! & ' ( !"#$$#%%%"

 
)

Circle 252 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-252

Circle 253 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-253

Filter Presses
Clarifiers
Sand Filters
Tanks Pumps
Filtration
Accessories

WAT E R W O R K S

800.232.9334

219.663.8210

www.airtowater.com
NEW USED SURPLUS

Filtration Equipment

Circle 254 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-254

Advertise in the
Buyers' Guide

Buyers'
Guide 

Contact Helene Hicks

Tel: 212-621-4958
Fax: 212-621-4976
Email: hhicks@che.com

Circle 250 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-250
72

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM APRIL 2008

21_CHE_0408_Classified.indd 72

3/25/08 1:36:03 PM

HEAT EXCHANGERS

FOR

Air Cooled

Liquid Cooled

GASES & LIQUIDS!

Talk Directly with Design Engineers!

Blower Cooling

Vent Condensing

(952) 933-2559 Fax: (952) 933-5647

www.xchanger.com info@xchanger.com

Circle 256 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-256

Circle 257 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-257

HOCKMEYER

Equipment Corporation
A leader in the grinding and
dispersion industries

New & Used Equipment

Dispersers Mills Mixers
Tank & Tote Washers
Particle Size Analysis Vessels

Circle 255 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-255

Circle 258 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-258

Distillation

Visit us at www.hockmeyer.com
or call us at 252-338-4705

Wanted to purchase:
Used Dispersers & Mixers
Circle 259 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-259

Service
Wet Cake or Paste
Custom Drying

Spin Flash Drying: Continuous Drying;

No Post Grinding; Moist Powders; Viscous Gels

General Spray/CPV Drying Services, Inc.

1001 Newark Ave., Elizabeth, NJ 07208

Circle 260 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-260

Ph# 908 353 2477

Fax# 908 353 0060

gsds@optonline.net

cpvdrying@aol.com

Circle 261 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-261

Chemical
Chemical
Engineering
Engineeringwww.che.com
www.che.com APRIL
APRIL
2008
2008 73
73

21_Che_0408_Classified.indd 73

3/25/08 1:36:22 Pm

Recruitment
Chemical Engineer Intern
M-F/8-5/40hr.wk. Collect & analyze data from
reports, maps, drawings, blueprints, tests, & aerial
photographs to plan & design projects; prepares/
checks design computations & quantity estimates;
prepare or modify reports, specifications, plans,
construction schedules, environmental impact
studies, permits & designs for projects; assists designers/technicians to reduce designs to working
drawings; uses computer assisted engineering &
design software & equipment to prepare engineering & design documents; performs occasional
drafting; performs occasional field observations
and data collection assignments. Req: B.S. in
Chemical Engineering.
Submit resume w/ad copy to:
Tom Walgren, Stanley Consultants, Inc.,
225 Iowa Ave., Muscatine, IA 52761.

Circle 262 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-262

Consulting
KnightHawk
Engineering

Advertise
in the Classified

Specialists in design, failure analysis

and troubleshooting of static
and rotating equipment
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Finite Element Analysis
Heat Transfer Analysis
Vessel/Exchanger/Machine Design
Rotor Dynamics/Structural Dynamics
Pelletizing Die Design
Process Simulation
Pipe Stress

www.knighthawk.com
Tel: 281-282-9200
Fax: 281-282-9333

Interested?
For more information on classified
advertising, please contact:

Circle 263 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-263

Circle 264 on p. 76 or go to
adlinks.che.com/7371-264

74

Helene Hicks
Tel:212.621.4958
Fax: 212.621.4976
email: hhicks@che.com

CLASSIFIED ADVERTISING THAT WORKS

Chemical Engineering www.che.com APRIL 2008

21_Che_0408_Classified.indd 74

3/25/08 2:43:35 Pm

Advertisers Index
Advertiser

Page number

Phone number

Reader Service #

Ari-Armaturen
713-947-3622

adlinks.che.com/7371-45

34D-5

adlinks.che.com/7371-43

Axens

7
adlinks.che.com/7371-08

Berndorf Band GmbH & Co 25

1-800-393-8450 adlinks.che.com/7371-19

Beumer Maschinenfabrik
GmbH & Co. KG

Page number

Phone number

Reader Service #

34D-8 * Heinkel Usa

* A-T Controls Group

513-247-5465

Advertiser

11

856-467-3399

adlinks.che.com/7371-37

34D-5

adlinks.che.com/7371-40

Moyno, Incorporated

22

1-877-4UMOYNO adlinks.che.com/7371-17

Muller GmbH

62

49 (0) 7623/969-0 adlinks.che.com/7371-20

adlinks.che.com/7371-12 Osi Software GmbH

34I-8
51
49 6047-9890 adlinks.che.com/7371-52
adlinks.che.com/7371-30
Paratherm Corporation
10

800-645-3050

28

adlinks.che.com/7371-22

BulkFlow Technologies

19

adlinks.che.com/7371-15

Burgmann

34I-4

800-222-3611

adlinks.che.com/7371-56

57
adlinks.che.com/7371-48 * Pneumatic Products
352-873-5783 adlinks.che.com/7371-54
* Cashco Incorporated
27
34D-5,
785-472-4461 adlinks.che.com/7371-21 Rembe GmbH
49-8171-23-0

Safety + Control

* Charles Ross
& Son Company

12

1-800-243-ROSS adlinks.che.com/7371-13

Chemstations, Inc.
713-978-7700

adlinks.che.com/7371-53

Dickow Pump Company

800-880-4442

23

adlinks.che.com/7371-18

Dow High Temp

SECOND
COVER

1-800-447-4369 adlinks.che.com/7371-01

DSM Pharmaceuticals
Incorporated
973-257-8011

55

adlinks.che.com/7371-32

Emerson Process
Management

adlinks.che.com/7371-09

* Endress + Hauser

FOURTH
COVER

888-ENDRESS adlinks.che.com/7371-03

Federation Of Indian
Chambers Of Commerce
And Industry
65
91-11-32910411, 237387760-70

adlinks.che.com/7371-35

Filtersense

32

1-978-927-4304 adlinks.che.com/7371-26

Fisher-Klosterman,
Incoroprated
502-572-4000

34D-3

adlinks.che.com/7371-38

Fixturlaser Ab

34I-2

adlinks.che.com/7371-46

Flexicon Corporation

1-888-353-9426 adlinks.che.com/7371-04

Flottweg GmbH & Co. KG

31

49 8741 301-0 /-300

adlinks.che.com/7371-25

George Fischer Signet,

Incorporation
714-731-8800

34I-8

49 (0) 29 61-74 05-0

adlinks.che.com/7371-41

18 * Samson Ag

6
adlinks.che.com/7371-07

1-800-426-2463 adlinks.che.com/7371-05

Soundplan Llc

32

1-360-432-9840 adlinks.che.com/7371-36

34I-6

Speed Space

64

1-800-418-2666 adlinks.che.com/7371-55

Sri Consulting

35

adlinks.che.com/7371-28

Sri Consulting

adlinks.che.com7371-06

T. D. Williamson,
Incorporated
918-447-5000

20

adlinks.che.com/7371-16

The Western States

Machine Company
513-863-4758

34D-6

adlinks.che.com/7371-42

Tuthill Vacuum &

Blower Systems

42

1-800-825-6937 adlinks.che.com/7371-23

U. S. Water Services

49-2821-892-2102

adlinks.che.com/7371-50

53

adlinks.che.com/7371-31

Sturtevant, Inc.

26

1-781-829-6501 adlinks.che.com/7371-29

Advertisers
Product Showcase. . . . . . 68-69

Advertiser

Computer Software . . . . . . 70-71

FlowPhase Engineering
Software

Consulting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Phone number

Page number
Reader Service #

71

403-250-7522 adlinks.che.com/7371-242

Equipment, Used or
Surplus New for Sale. . . . 71-74

Fluid Imaging Technologies 69

Recruitment. . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

FPC National

Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Advertiser

Page number

Phone number

Reader Service #

ABZ, Incorporated

68

800 747 7401 adlinks.che.com/7371-204

Amistco

73

800 839 6374 adlinks.che.com/7371-260

Applied e-Simulators
Software

71

509-967-5730 adlinks.che.com/7371-241

Avery Filter Co.

71

201-666-9664 adlinks.che.com/7371-245

CU Services LLC

68

847-439-2303 adlinks.che.com/7371-201

Custom Metalcraft, Inc.

73

417 862 0707 adlinks.che.com/7371-258

International Section
* Additional information in
2006 Buyers Guide

* Solutia Therminol

34D-7

1-866-663-7632 adlinks.che.com/7371-44

Watts Regulator

66

adlinks.che.com/7371-34

Westfalia Separator AG
49-2522 77-0

Witzenmann GmbH
49 7231-581-0

34I-3

adlinks.che.com/7371-47

Wyssmont Company
201-947-0324

34D-4

adlinks.che.com/7371-39

Yamatake
Corporation
888-262-4639

THIRD
COVER

adlinks.che.com/7371-02

800 289 3358 adlinks.che.com/7371-209

EcReCon, Inc.

72

856-299-4500 adlinks.che.com/7371-251

EquipNet Inc.

72

888-371-6555 adlinks.che.com/7371-253

207 846 6100 adlinks.che.com/7371-211

74

212-302-1141 adlinks.che.com/7371-262

Frain Group

71

630 629 9900 adlinks.che.com/7371-246

General Spray/CPV
Drying Services, Inc.

73
69

800-249-1990 adlinks.che.com/7371-208

H&P Equipment Co., Inc.

71

973-335-9770 adlinks.che.com/7371-248

Heat Transfer
Research, Inc.

71

979-690-5050 adlinks.che.com/7371-243

HFP Acoustical
Consultants

74

888-789-9400 adlinks.che.com/7371-264

Hockmeyer Equipment Corp. 73

252-338-4705 adlinks.che.com/7371-259

Hunter Lab

68

730 471 6870 adlinks.che.com/7371-202

Indeck

73

847-541-8300 adlinks.che.com/7371-255

Intelligen, Inc.

Phone number

Page number
Reader Service #

Knighthawk Engineering

74

281-282-9200 adlinks.che.com/7371-262

Midwesco

68

800 336 7300 adlinks.che.com/7371-203

Minox/Elcan

71

800-283-5226 adlinks.che.com/7371-244

Outotec Research Oy

72

358 20 529-211 adlinks.che.com/7371-250

Paul Mueller Company

69

1 800 MUELLER adlinks.che.com/7371-210

908-353-2477 adlinks.che.com/7371-261

Graver Technologies, Inc.

Advertiser

70

908-654-0088 adlinks.che.com/7371-240

Plast-O-Matic Valves, Inc.

68

973-256-3000 adlinks.che.com/7371-205

Pulsair Systems, Inc.

69

800 582 7797 adlinks.che.com/7371-207

Rev-Tech

71

515 266 8225 adlinks.che.com/7371-249

Ross, Charles & Son Co.

72

800-243-7677 adlinks.che.com/7371-251

Staneley Consultants
Wabash Power
Equipment Co.

74
71

847-541-5600 adlinks.che.com/7371-247

Water Works

72

800-232-9334 adlinks.che.com/7371-254

The Western States

Machine Co.

73

513-863-4758 adlinks.che.com/7371-257

Woodex Bearing Co., Inc.

68

800 526 8800 adlinks.che.com/7371-201

Xchanger, Inc.

73

952-933-2559 adlinks.che.com/7371-256

Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2008

22_CHE_041508_AD_iND_rS.indd 75

adlinks.che.com/7371-10

Classified Index - April 2008 (212) 621-4958 Fax: (212) 621-4976

Delta Cooling Towers, Inc. 69

49-2522 30-271 adlinks.che.com/7371-51

19
adlinks.che.com/7371-15

Instruments GmbH
& Co. KG

34

41-52 262 50 28 adlinks.che.com/7371-27

Send Advertisements and Box replies to: Helene Hicks, Chemical Engineering, 110 William St., 11th Floor, New York, NY 10038

30
34I-7

adlinks.che.com/7371-14

Solex

Reader Service #

Swagelok Company
15
17

Silverson Machines, Inc.

800-204-6400

Page number

Phone number

See bottom of next page for advertising sales representatives' contact information

adlinks.che.com/7371-24

Haver & Boecker

adlinks.che.com/7371-49

adlinks.che.com/7371-11 Spectro Analytical

Pepperl+Fuchs,
Process Automation 34D-9
Division
34D-10
330-486-0002

Advertiser

34I-5 * Sulzer Chemtech AG

60 * Siemens A&D GC4,

Bioengineering Ag

Brinkmann Instruments

Reader Service #

adlinks.che.com/7371-33 Group Communication

Load Controls, Inc.

888-600-3247

Page number

Phone number

34D-2 Sartorius

Inline Industries
800-568-8998

Advertiser

75

3/25/08 1:17:48 pM

New Product Information

April 2008
JustFAXit! or go to www.che.com/adlinks
Fill out the form and circle or write in the number(s)
below, cut it out, and fax it to 800-571-7730.
Name

Go on the Web and fill out the

online reader service card.
Title

Company
Address
City

State/Province

Zip/Postal Code

Country\

Telephone

Fax

Email

FREEPRODUCT INFO

(please answer all the questions)

YOURINDUSTRY
01 Food &Beverages
02 Wood, Pulp &Paper
03 Inorganic Chemicals
04 Plastics, Synthetic Resins
05 Drugs &Cosmetics
06 Soaps &Detergents
07 Paints &Allied Products
08 Organic Chemicals
09 Agricultural Chemicals
10 Petroleum Refining,
Coal Products
11 Rubber &Misc. Plastics
12 Stone, Clay, Glass, Ceramics
13 Metallurgical &Metal Products

14 Engineering, Design &Construction Firms

15 Engineering/Environmental Services
16 Equipment Manufacturer
17 Energy incl. Co-generation
18 Other
JOBFUNCTION
20 Corporate Management
21 Plant Operations incl. Maintenance
22 Engineering
23 Research &Development
24 Safety &Environmental
26 Other
EMPLOYEESIZE
28 Less than 10 Employees

29
30
31
32
33
34

10 to 49 Employees
50 to 99 Employees
100 to 249 Employees
250 to 499 Employees
500 to 999 Employees
1,000 or more Employees

YOURECOMMEND,
SPECIFY, PURCHASE

(please circle all that apply)

40 Drying Equipment
41 Filtration/Separation Equipment
42 Heat Transfer/Energy Conservation Equipment
43 Instrumentation & Control Systems
44 Mixing, Blending Equipment
45 Motors, Motor Controls
46 Piping, Tubing, Fittings

47

Pollution Control Equipment

&Systems
48 Pumps
49 Safety Equipment &Services
50 Size Reduction &Agglomeration
Equipment
51 Solids Handling Equipment
52 Tanks, Vessels, Reactors
53 Valves
54 Engineering Computers/Software/Peripherals
55 Water Treatment Chemicals
&Equipment
56 Hazardous Waste Management
Systems
57 Chemicals &Raw Materials
58 Materials of Construction
59 Compressors

16

31

46

61

76

91

106 121 136 151 166 181 196 211 226 241 256 271 286 301 316 331 346 361 376 391 406 421 436 451 466 481 496 511 526 541 556 571 586

17

32

47

62

77

92

107 122 137 152 167 182 197 212 227 242 257 272 287 302 317 332 347 362 377 392 407 422 437 452 467 482 497 512 527 542 557 572 587

18

33

48

63

78

93

108 123 138 153 168 183 198 213 228 243 258 273 288 303 318 333 348 363 378 393 408 423 438 453 468 483 498 513 528 543 558 573 588

19

34

49

64

79

94

109 124 139 154 169 184 199 214 229 244 259 274 289 304 319 334 349 364 379 394 409 424 439 454 469 484 499 514 529 544 559 574 589

20

35

50

65

80

95

110 125 140 155 170 185 200 215 230 245 260 275 290 305 320 335 350 365 380 395 410 425 440 455 470 485 500 515 530 545 560 575 590

21

36

51

66

81

96

111 126 141 156 171 186 201 216 231 246 261 276 291 306 321 336 351 366 381 396 411 426 441 456 471 486 501 516 531 546 561 576 591

22

37

52

67

82

97

112 127 142 157 172 187 202 217 232 247 262 277 292 307 322 337 352 367 382 397 412 427 442 457 472 487 502 517 532 547 562 577 592

23

38

53

68

83

98

113 128 143 158 173 188 203 218 233 248 263 278 293 308 323 338 353 368 383 398 413 428 443 458 473 488 503 518 533 548 563 578 593

24

39

54

69

84

99

114 129 144 159 174 189 204 219 234 249 264 279 294 309 324 339 354 369 384 399 414 429 444 459 474 489 504 519 534 549 564 579 594

10

25

40

55

70

85

100 115 130 145 160 175 190 205 220 235 250 265 280 295 310 325 340 355 370 385 400 415 430 445 460 475 490 505 520 535 550 565 580 595

11

26

41

56

71

86

101 116 131 146 161 176 191 206 221 236 251 266 281 296 311 326 341 356 371 386 401 416 431 446 461 476 491 506 521 536 551 566 581 596

12

27

42

57

72

87

102 117 132 147 162 177 192 207 222 237 252 267 282 297 312 327 342 357 372 387 402 417 432 447 462 477 492 507 522 537 552 567 582 597

13

28

43

58

73

88

103 118 133 148 163 178 193 208 223 238 253 268 283 298 313 328 343 358 373 388 403 418 433 448 463 478 493 508 523 538 553 568 583 598

14

29

44

59

74

89

104 119 134 149 164 179 194 209 224 239 254 269 284 299 314 329 344 359 374 389 404 419 434 449 464 479 494 509 524 539 554 569 584 599

15

30

45

60

75

90

105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225 240 255 270 285 300 315 330 345 360 375 390 405 420 435 450 465 480 495 510 525 540 555 570 585 600

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Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2008

22_CHE_031508_AD_iND_rS.indd 76

3/20/08 10:25:47 AM

Economic Indicators

Business News
Mergers and
Acquisitions
Siemens acquires Chemitreat Group to
expand water-treatment technology
March 3, 2008 Siemens announced
that it has acquired the Singapore-based
private limited Chemitreat Group to expand
the water-treatment business in South East
Asia. Chemitreat will become part of Water
Technologies, a business unit of Siemens
Industry Solutions division. With sales of
more than 25 million in 2007, Chemitreat
provides water-treatment technologies and
services in Singapore,Thailand, Malaysia,
Philippines and China.
Sale of polypropylene
compounding activity is complete
February 29, 2008 LyondellBasell
Industries has completed the acquisition
of Solvay Engineered Polymers, Inc.,
a leading supplier of polypropylene
compounds in North America.The
transaction originally announced
in November 2007 was completed
following the relevant regulatory approval.
The combined North American business
will be headed by Steve Dwyer, vice
president of LyondellBasells Automotive
Americas.
Rockwell Automation to acquire
safety and automation business
February 28, 2008 Rockwell Automation,
Inc. has reached a definitive agreement to
acquire the Safety and Automation business of CEDES AG, which is headquartered
in Landquart, Switzerland.This business
unit supplies safety and measuring light
curtains, as well as other optoelectronics
and related accessories.The transaction
is expected to be completed early in the
2nd Q of 2008, subject to customary closing
conditions.Terms of the transaction were
not disclosed.
CECO Environmental
acquires Fisher-Klosterman
February 21, 2008 CECO Environmental
Corp., a provider of air-pollution control
and industrial-ventilation systems, has
agreed to acquire Fisher-Klosterman,
Inc. in a transaction involving cash
and stock.The acquisition of FisherKlosterman, headquartered in Louisville,
Ky., also includes its Buell Division,
located in Pennsylvania and its sales

and manufacturing facility in China.

Fisher-Klostermans businesses consist
of producing equipment utilized for airpollution control and particulate recovery.

Plant Watch
Eastman expands copolyester
capacity in Tennessee
March 13, 2008 Eastman Chemical Co. is
investing in commercial-scale operations
to expand production capacity for its copolyester products at its facility in Kingsport,
Tenn.The expansion project, expected to be
completed by late 2009, includes both the
construction of new manufacturing facilities as well as conversion of some existing
operations.
New copper mine in Brazil
to use ABB systems
March 10, 2008 ABB recently won an order
from Vale (formerly Companhia Vale do Rio
Doce) to deliver a gearless mill drive at a
new copper mine in northern Brazil.The Salobo mine is located in the state of Par, Brazil,
and is operated by a wholly owned subsidiary of Vale. When comissioned in early 2010,
the mine will have an estimated capacity of
100,000 ton/yr of copper.
Grace announces
expansion in Louisiana
March 6, 2008 W. R. Grace & Co. announced plans to increase its manufacturing capacity with the expansion of its
facility in Lake Charles, La.The expansion will
enable increased production of specialty
aluminas, a key raw material in Graces
premium fluid cracking and hydroprocessing catalysts, which are used by petroleum
refineries to produce fuels.The construction
is expected to begin in early 2008 and start
up in 2009.
Mustang to provide design for new
chemical complex in Singapore
March 6, 2008 Mustang Engineering
(Mustang), a subsidiary of international energy services company John Wood Group
PLC , has been authorized by ExxonMobil
Asia Pacific Pte Ltd (ExxonMobil) to proceed
with the detailed engineering design and
site construction management for the
process control of a second steam cracker
complex in Singapore.The project will be
integrated with the existing Singapore site
and will employ ExxonMobils proprietary

technologies.The new petrochemical

project includes a 1-million-ton/yr ethylene
cracker, two 650,000-ton/yr polyethylene
units, a 450,000-ton/yr polypropylene unit,
a 300,000-ton/yr specialty elastomers unit,
an aromatics extraction unit to produce
340,000 ton/yr of benzene and an oxo-alcohol expansion of 125,000 ton/yr. Project
startup is expected in early 2011.
Arkema doubles H2O2
capacity at Leuna
March 5, 2008 Arkema, the worlds third
leading hydrogen peroxide producer, announced plans to double production capacity at its Leuna, Germany, site to 80,000
m.t./yr by mid-2010. This capacity increase
represents a 40-million investment. Following the expansion in 2005 of its production
capacities in North America (increased
by 20,000 m.t./yr), the doubling of capacity at the Shanghai plant, China, due to
come onstream in the summer of 2008,
and the 10% capacity increase at the Jarrie, France, site, Arkemas global hydrogen
peroxide production capacity will reach
440,000 m.t./yr by mid-2010 when the
Leuna expansion becomes operational.
ABB to design a new
fertilizer plant in Chile
February 26, 2008 ABB has won a
contract to design, construct, and provide
automation for a new fertilizer processing
plant in Chile for SQM (Sociedad
Quimica y Minera de Chile). Scheduled
for completion in 2010, the new plant
will be located at Coya Sur, Antofagasta
Region.The plant will produce more than
1,150 m.t./d of potassium nitrate and is
part of SQMs long-term plan to increase
their current specialty fertilizer production
capacity. Potassium nitrate is used to
provide plant nutrition for crops such as
fruits, vegetables, cereals and cotton.
INEOS Polyolefins announces extension
of Grangemouth PP and PE
February 24, 2008 INEOS Polyolefins
announced its intention to invest in
random co-polymer technology on
its liquid pool polypropylene (PP) unit
at Grangemouth, Scotland. By linking
ethylene supply from its crackers to the
PP unit, random co-polymer grades with
a wide range of melt flowrates will be

produced commencing 3rd Q 2008. 


Dorothy Lozowski

For additional news as it develops, please visitwww.che.com

April 2008; VOL. 115; NO. 4
Chemical Engineering copyright @ 2008 (ISSN 0009-2460) is published monthly, with an additional issue in October, by Access Intelligence, LLC, 4 Choke Cherry Road, 2nd
Floor, Rockville, MD, 20850. Chemical Engineering Executive, Editorial, Advertising and Publication Offices: 110 William Street, 11th Floor, New York, NY 10038; Phone: 212-6214674, Fax: 212-621-4694. Subscription rates: $59.00 U.S. and U.S. possessions, Canada, Mexico; $179 International. $20.00 Back issue & Single copy sales. Periodicals postage
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Mail Product Sales Agreement No. 40558009. Return undeliverable Canadian Addresses to: P.O. Box 1632, Windsor, ON N9A7C9.
For more Economic Indicators, See Next Page

23_CHE_041508_EI.indd 77

Chemical Engineering www.che.com April 2008

77

3/20/08 10:20:59 AM

Economic Indicators

2008

2007

DOWNLOAD THE CEPCI TWO WEEKS SOONER AT WWW.CHE.COM/PCI

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PLANT COST INDEX (CEPCI)

(1957-59 = 100)

Jan. '08
Prelim.
530.7
632.7
602.0
609.4
743.8
413.3
854.3
442.2
669.1
314.0
479.1
355.1

CE INDEX

Equipment
Heat exchangers & tanks
Process machinery
Pipe, valves & fittings
Process instruments
Pumps & compressors
Electrical equipment
Structural supports & misc
Construction labor
Buildings
Engineering & supervision

Dec. '07
Final
525.0
623.3
593.6
597.9
727.2
414.4
840.0
436.3
660.8
317.0
477.0
356.2

540

Jan. '07
Final
509.7
602.8
556.9
586.1
724.9
428.3
805.4
419.4
631.3
310.8
471.0
352.0

Annual Index:
2000 = 394.1

525

2001 = 394.3
2002 = 395.6

510

2003 = 402.0
2004 = 444.2

495

2005 = 468.2
2006 = 499.6

480

2007 = 525.4
465

Starting with the April 2007 Final numbers, several of the data series for labor and compressors have been
converted to accommodate series IDs that were discontinued by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

F M A M J

A S O N D

CURRENT BUSINESS INDICATORS

LATEST

CPI output index (2000 = 100)

CPI value of output, $ billions
CPI operating rate, %
Construction cost index (1967 = 100)
Producer prices, industrial chemicals (1982 = 100)
Industrial Production in Manufacturing (2002=100)*
Hourly earnings index, chemical & allied products (1992 = 100)
Productivity index, chemicals & allied products (1992 = 100)

Feb. '08
Jan. '08
Feb. '08

= 108.5
= 1,769.3
= 81.7

Jan. '08
Dec. '07
Jan. '08

=
=
=

108.8
1,766.5
82.0

Dec. '07
Nov. '07
Dec. '07

= 108.4
= 1,783.5
= 81.8

Feb. '07
Jan. '07
Feb. '07

= 107.1
= 1,548.2
=
81.3

Mar. '08
Feb. '08
Feb. '08
Feb. '08
Feb. '08

=
=
=
=
=

Feb. '08
Jan. '08
Feb. '08
Jan. '08
Jan. '08

=
=
=
=
=

753.5
250.3
115.8
142.3
131.9

Jan. '08
Dec. '07
Jan. '08
Dec. '07
Dec. '07

=
=
=
=
=

Mar. '07
Feb. '07
Feb. '07
Feb. '07
Feb. '07

=
=
=
=
=

111

CPI OUTPUT INDEX (2000 = 100)

1850

PREVIOUS

754.9
249.9
115.5
142.2
131.9

CPI OUTPUT VALUE ($ Billions)

85

108

1750

83

105

1650

81

102

1550

79

99

1450

77

96

J A S O N D

753.2
244.4
115.8
142.8
131.0

731.4
212.1
113.6
142.8
134.3

CPI OPERATING RATE (%)

75

1350

J F M A M J

YEAR AGO

J F M A M J

J A S O N D

J F M A M J

J A S O N D

*Due to discontinuance, the Index of Industrial Activity has been replaced by the Industrial Production in Manufacturing index from the U.S. Federal Reserve Board.
Current business indicators provided by DRI-WEFA, Lexington, Mass.

THE ONLINE CEPCI

MARSHALL & SWIFT EQUIPMENT COST INDEX

(1926 = 100)

M & S INDEX
Process industries, average
Cement
Chemicals
Clay products
Glass
Paint
Paper
Petroleum products
Rubber
Related industries
Electrical power
Mining, milling
Refrigeration
Steam power

Annual Index:
2000 = 1,089.0
2001 = 1,093.9

1st Q
2008

4th Q
2007

3rd Q
2007

2nd Q
2007

1st Q
2007

1408.6
1463.2
1448.1
1438.5
1429.1
1359.7
1467.6
1377.7
1555.8
1512.3

1399.2
1452.3
1435.3
1427.9
1415.0
1348.8
1457.1
1369.2
1543.7
1500.1

1393.0
1445.6
1427.5
1421.0
1408.8
1341.8
1451.2
1364.0
1536.2
1494.8

1383.6
1433.5
1417.5
1408.8
1400.4
1331.3
1440.2
1354.0
1521.0
1486.7

1362.7
1410.0
1398.8
1384.9
1378.1
1309.5
1414.2
1331.6
1497.9
1463.1

1380.4
1473.3
1711.9
1426.8

1374.9
1460.8
1698.8
1416.4

1359.0
1453.2
1691.7
1407.4

1340.7
1442.7
1679.3
1394.2

1319.5
1427.7
1648.2
1369.1

2002 = 1,104.2
2003 = 1,123.6

2004 = 1,178.5
2005 = 1,244.5

CEs Online CEPCI provides access to the entire historical CEPCI

database (top). And, instead of
waiting more than two weeks for
the print or online version of the
magazine to arrive, subscribers
to the Online CEPCI can download new data as soon as it is
calculated. Visit www.che.com/
pci to subscribe to the following:

1435
1420
1405
1390
1375
1360
1345
1330
1315
1300
1285
1270
1255

2006 = 1,302.3
2007 = 1,373.3

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

Quarter

Electronic notification of
monthly updates
All annual data archives
(1947 to present) and monthly
data archives (1970 to present)
Option to download data in
Excel format
A selection of helpful
cost-estimation articles
O

78




$)&.*$"-
&/(*/&&3*/(


888$)&$0.

"13*-


23_CHE_041508_EI.indd 78

3/21/08 10:21:53 AM

Circle 02 on p. 76 or go to adlinks.che.com/7371-02

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3/19/08 12:22:05 PM

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Endress 10-06.indd 1

3/19/08 12:29:53 PM