ECE 2306: SURVEYING III

Contents
Computation methods of areas: regular and irregular shapes, planimeter, trapezoidal
and Simpsons methods.
Computation of volumes: prismoidal, mid area methods, end area methods.
Mass haul diagrams: construction, properties and applications.
Applications on adjustment of observations: repeated measurements, leveling
networks, triangulation networks.
Curves: design computations and setting out of horizontal (simple, compound and
transitional) and vertical curves.
Field work

Assessment
CAT 30%
i.
ii.
iii.

Assignment(s) 5%
Test(s) 10%
Practical(s) 15%

Final exams 70%

i.
ii.

5 questions
Question One (compulsory) 30%
Questions Two to Five (any two) 20% each

References
1. J. Uren and W. F. Price; Surveying for Engineers.
2. Bannister and Raymond; Surveying

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ECE 2306: SURVEYING III

COMPUTATION METHODS OF AREAS
Earthworks computation is the estimation of areas and volumes leading to the evaluation of excavation
and embankment requirements in an engineering scheme such as route alignment, reservoirs, tunnels
etc. With the high costs of lands and volumes of material it is vital that the engineer makes an accurate a
measurement as possible of any such quantities involved in a particular project.
Areas enclosed by Regular shapes: Straight Lines
Into this category fall areas enclosed by traverse, triangulation, trilateration or detail survey lines. The
results obtained for such areas will be exact since correct geometric equations and theorems can be
applied.
i)

Areas from triangles

The straight-sided figure can be divided into well-conditioned triangles, the areas of which can be
calculated using one of the following formulae
a) =

= 1 2 ( + + )
b) = 1 2 ( )
c) = 1 2 sin
The area of any straight sided figure can be calculated by splitting it into triangles and summing the
individual areas.
ii) Areas from coordinates
In traverse, triangulation and trilateration calculations, the coordinates of the junctions of the sides of
the straight-sided figure are calculated and it is possible to use them to calculate the area enclosed by
the control network lines. This is achieved using the cross coordinate method. Consider figure below,
which shows a three-sided clockwise control network ABC. The required area = ABC.

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Area of ABC = area of ABQP + area of BCRQ - area of ACRP

(eq 1)

These figures are trapezia for which the area is obtained from
Area of trapezium = (mean height x width) = (sum of the parallel lines height)
Therefore
1
2

Area of ABQP = (1 + 2 ) (2 1 )
Hence equation (1) becomes

= 1 2 1 + 2 2 1 + 1 2 2 + 3 3 2 1 2 1 + 3 (3 1 )
Therefore

2 = 1 2 1 1 + 2 2 2 1 + 2 3 2 2 + 3 3 3 2 1 3
+ 1 1 3 3 + 3 1
Rearranging this gives

2 = (1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1 ) (1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1 )
The similarity between the two brackets should be noted. Although the example given is only for a
three-sided figure, the formula can be applied to a figure containing N sides and the general formula for
such a case is given by
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2 = (1 2 + 2 3 + 3 4 + . + 1 + 1 ) (1 2 + 2 3 + 3 4
+ . + 1 + 1 )
If the figure is numbered in the opposite direction, the signs of the two brackets are reversed.
The cross coordinate method can also be used to calculate the area of irregular cross sections
Example

Given the coordinates of PQRST,

a) Compute the area of the pentagon PQRST using the cross coordinate method.
b) Find the coordinates of Z if the pentagon PQRST was divided equally by a line from R to Z.
Point

mN

mE

P1

418.11

613.26

Q2

523.16

806.71

R3

366.84

942.17

S4

203.18

901.89

T5

259.26

652.08

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Solution
The traverse is lettered and specified in a clockwise direction. Hence, using the clockwise version of the
cross coordinate method gives:

2 = (1 2 + 2 3 + 3 4 + . + 1 + 1 ) (1 2
+ 2 3 + 3 4 + . + 1 + 1 )
2
=

418.11 806.71 + 523.16 942.17 + 366.84 901.89 + 203.18

652.08 + 259.26 613.26

613.26 523.16 + 806.71 366.84 + 942.17 203.18 + 901.89
259.26 + 652.08 418.11
=

1
1 452 532 1 314 662 = 68 935 2
2

Areas Enclosed by Irregular Lines

For such cases only approximate results can be achieved. However, methods are adopted which will give
the best approximations.
i)

Give and Take lines

In this method an irregular-sided figure is divided into triangles or trapezia, the irregular boundaries
being replaced by straight lines such that any small areas excluded from the survey by the lines are
balanced by other small areas outside the survey but included in the survey line.

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The positions of these lines can be estimated by eye on a survey plan. The area is then calculated using
one of the straight-sided methods.
ii) Graphical method
This method involves the use of a transparent overlay of squared paper which is laid over the drawing or
plan. The number of squares and parts of squares which are enclosed by the area is counted and
knowing the plan scale, the area represented by each square is known and hence the total area can be
computed. This can be a very accurate method if a small grid is used.
iii) Mathematical methods
They attempt to calculate the area of an irregular-sided figure. Mathematical methods include
trapezoidal rule and Simpsons rule.
Trapezoidal rule
Figure (a) shows a control network contained inside an area having irregular sides. The shaded area is
that remaining to be calculated after using one of the straight-sided methods to calculate the area
enclosed by the control network lines.
Figure (b) shows an enlargement of a section of figure (a). The offsets 01, O2, O3.08are either measured
directly in the field or scaled from a plan. The trapezoidal rule assumes that if the interval between the
offsets is small, the boundary can be approximated to a straight line between the offsets. Hence, figure
(b) is assumed to be made up of a series of trapezia as shown in figure (c)

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Therefore, in figure (c)

1 =

(1 + 2 )
;
2

2 =

(2 + 3 )

Hence, for N offsets, the total area (A) is given by

(1 + 2 )
(2 + 3 )
(1 + )
+
+ .+

2
2
2

This leads to the general trapezoidal rule shown below

( + + 2(2 + 3 + 4 + + 1 ))
2 1

The trapezoidal rule applies to any number of offsets.

Example
The following offsets 8m apart, were measured at right angles from a traverse line to an irregular
boundary.
0m, 2.3m, 5.5m, 7.9m, 8.6m, 6.9m, 7.3m, 6.2m, 3.1m, 0m
Calculate the area between the traverse line and the irregular boundary using the trapezoidal rule.
Solution

8
0 + 0 + 2 2.3 + 5.5 + 7.9 + 8.6 + 6.9 + 7.3 + 6.2 + 3.1
2
= 4 2 47.8

= 382.4 2

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Simpsons rule
This method assumes that instead of being made up of a series of straight lines, the boundary consists of
a series of parabolic arcs. A more accurate result is obtained since a better approximation of the true
shape of the irregular boundary is achieved.

Simpsons rule considers offsets in sets of three and it can be shown that the area between offset 1 and
3 is given by

A1 + A2 =

L
(O + 4 O2 + O3 )
3 1

Similarly,

A3 + A4 =

L
(O + 4 O4 + O5 )
3 3

Hence in general

+ + 4
3 1

+ 2

However, N MUST be an ODD number for Simpsons rule to apply.

When using Simpsons rule and faced with an even number of offsets, as in figure (d) above, the final
offset must be omitted (for example, 08).The rest of the area is calculated and the last small area is
calculated as a trapezium (that is, using the trapezoidal rule).
Example
Calculate the area between the traverse line and the irregular boundary in the example above using
Simpsons rule. {0 m 2.3 m 5.5 m 7.9 m 8.6 m 6.9 m 7.3 m 6.2 m 3.1 m 0 m}
Solution
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There are an even number of offsets, 10, hence calculate the area between 1 and 9 by Simpsons rule
and the area between 9 and 10 by trapezoidal rule.

19 =

8
3

0 + 3.1 + 4 2.3 + 7.9 + 6.9 + 6.2 + 2 5.5 + 8.6 + 7.3

19 =

8
0 + 3.1 + 4 23.3 + 2 21.4
3

19 =

8
3

139.1 = 370.9 2

910 =

8
3.1 + 0 = 12.4 2
2

Therefore

= 370.9 + 12.4 = 383.3 2

Simpsons rule will give the more accurate result when the boundary is genuinely irregular and the
trapezoidal rule will give the more accurate result when the boundary is almost a series of straight lines.
In general for irregular sided figures, Simpsons rule should be used.

Cross Sectional Areas

Cross sections are drawn for use in volume calculations. The horizontal scale is often different to the
vertical scale, for example, the horizontal scale may be 1 in 200 while the vertical is 1 in 50.
The areas of cut and fill required at each cross section can be calculated in several ways. One being the
planimeter or by use of various formula determined for particular types of cross sections.
CASE I: A sectional drawing of a cutting and fill formed in an area where the existing ground level is
horizontal

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Cross Sectional area = Area of central + Area of two side rectangular portion triangular portion

= 2 + 2

1
= 2 +
2

2 = 2( + )
1 in n is the side slope (1 vertical, n - horizontal,)
B is formation width of road
h - Depth of cutting or height of banking

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But when the ground is in longitudinal slope the height of bank or depth of cutting will be different at
two ends.
CASE II: A cutting with a constant transverse/ground slope where WG is the greater side width , WL is
lesser side width, h is depth of cut from the centre line from existing to proposed level, 1 in n is side
slope, 1 in s is ground or traverse slope.

+
+
+
=

= +
2

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Example
A straight section of a proposed road having a formation width of 7.30m is to be constructed as a cutting
having side slopes of 1 in 2. At one particular cross section, the traverse slope at right angles to the
proposed centre line is 1 in 14 and the depth to the formation level at the centre line is 5.31m. Calculate
the area of this cross section.

14 3.65 + 2 5.31
= 12.49
14 + 2
14 3.65 + 2 5.31
=
= 16.65
14 2
=

1
3.65
= 5.31 +
2
2

3.652
12.49 + 16.65
= 97.30 2
2

CASE III: A cutting with two transverse/ground slopes on either side of the centerline where WG is the
greater side width , WL is lesser side width, h is depth of cut from the centre line from existing to
proposed level, 1 in n is side slope, 1 in s is ground or traverse slope.
CASE IV: Cross sections involving cut and fill
For these types of sections, it is essential that a drawing be produced in order to ascertain which of A1
and A2 is the cut and the fill.

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For sections (a) and (d), the following apply;

1 =

2
1 =
2

2 =

+ 2
2 =
2
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For sections (b) and (c), the following apply;

+
1 =

+ 2
1 =
2

2 =

2
2 =
2

Calculation of volumes
Three major methods are used to compute volume of earthworks:

Cross sections
Spot heights
Contours

Volumes from Cross sections

The quantities of earthwork can be calculated by multiplying the average sectional area with particular
length. The quantities of earthwork can be calculated by using any of the following methods.
1. Mid sectional area method
2. End area method
3. Prismoidal formula
Mid Sectional Area Method
The cross section of road in cutting or in banking is usually in the form of trapezium and quantity or
volume of earthwork may be calculated as
Quantity or volume = sectional area X length

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 = 2 + 2

1
= 2 +
2

= 2 +
When the ground is in longitudinal slope the height of bank or depth of cutting will be different at two
ends.
Let, h1 and h2 be the height of banking or depth of cutting at two ends,
L is the length of the section,
b is the formation width,
1 in n be the side slope
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Then,
Mean height/depth = hm= (h1 + h2)/2
Area of central portion = 2bhm
Area of two triangular sides = nhm2

= 2 +

End Areas Method

This is comparable to the trapezoidal rule for areas. If two cross-sectional areas A1 and A2 are a
horizontal distance d1 apart, the volume contained between them V1 is given by

1 = 1

(1 + 2 )
2

This leads to the general formula for a series of N cross sections.

= 1 + 2 + 3 + + 1

= 1

1 + 2
2 + 3
(3 + 4 )
(1 + )
+ 2
+ 3
+ + 1
2
2
2
2

And if 1 = 2 = 3 = 1 =

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+ + 2(2 + 3 + + 1 )
2 1

Prismoidal Formula
This is comparable to the Simpsons rule for areas. The volume contained between a series of cross
sections a constant distance apart can be approximated to the volume of a prismoid which is a solid
figure with plane parallel ends and plane sides. This is shown in figure below.

It can be shown that for a series of three cross-sections the volume,V1-3, contained between them is
given by

13 =

1 + 42 + 3

If the figure above is extended to include cross-section 4 (A4) and cross-section 5 (A5), the volume from
CS3 to CS5 (V3-5) is given by

35 =

+ 44 + 5
3 3

Therefore, the total volume from CS1 to CS5 (V) is

+ 42 + 23 + 44 + 5
3 1
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This leads to a general formula for N cross-sections, where N MUST be ODD, as follows

+ + 4 + 2
3 1

This is often referred to as Simpsons rule for volumes.

Example:
An embankment of formation width 12 m is to be formed. The formation heights are 3.0 m, 4.5 m and
6.0 m at intervals of 30 m with side slopes of 1 in 2. Calculate the volumes between the end sections.

= 2 +
1 = 3 2 6 + 2 3 = 54
2 = 4.5 2 6 + 2 4.5 = 94.5
3 = 6 2 6 + 2 6 = 144

+ + 2(2 + 3 + + 1 )
2 1

30
54 + 144 + 2(94.5) = 5805 3
2

+ + 4 + 2
3 1
=

30
54 + 144 + 4 (94.5) = 5760 3
3

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Example: Cross-sectional Area and Volume Calculations

The centre line of a proposed road of formation width 12.00 m is to fall at a slope of 1 in 100 from
chainage 50 m to chainage 150 m.
The existing ground levels on the centre line at chainages 50 m, 100 m and 150 m are 71.62 m, 72.34 m
and 69.31 respectively and the ground slopes at 1 in 3 at right angles to the proposed centre line.
If the centre line formation level at chainage 50 m is 71.22 m and side slopes are to be 1 in 1 in cut and 1
in 2 in fill, calculate the volumes of cut and fill between chainages 50 m to 150 m.
Solution
Figure below shows the longitudinal section from chainage 50 m to chainage 150 m. Hence,

100 = 71.22 0.50 = 70.72

150 = 71.22 1.00 = 70.22
The three cross-sections are as shown;

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Since all the cross-sections are part in cut and part in fill the formulae for the cut and fill apply.

50 = 3,

= 6 ,

= 2,

=1

= 71.62 71.22 = +0.40 , ,

+ 2
6 + 3 0.40
= 2 =
=
2
2 31
2
6 3 0.40
= 1 =
=
2
2 32

= .
2

= .

Cross section 100 = 3, = 6 , = 2, = 1

= 72.34 70.72 = +1.62 , ,

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This cross-section is similar to cross-section 50 m, hence again

= 2 =

= 1 =

6 + 3 1.62
2 31

= .

(6 3 1.62)2
= .
2(3 2)

Cross-section 150 m = 3, = 6 , = 2, = 1
= 69.31 70.22 = 0.91 , , .
2

= 2 =

6 3 0.91
=
2( )
2(3 1)
2

+
6 + 3 0.91
= 1 =
=
2( )
2(3 2)

= .

= .

The prismoidal formula can be used to calculate the volumes since the number of cross-sections is odd,
hence

=
=

50
12.96 + 2.67 + 4 29.48
3
50
11.52 + 38.11 + 4 0.65
3

= .
= .

These figures would normally be rounded to at least the nearest cubic meter.
Question
The central heights of the ground above formation at three sections 100 m apart are 10 m, 12 m, 15 m,
and the cross-falls at these sections are respectively 1 in 30, 1 in 40 and 1 in 20. If the formation width is
40 m and sides slope 1 vertical to 2 horizontal, calculate the volume of excavation in the 200-m length.

Prismoidal excess
This is the difference in volume computed using the prismoidal formula and that computed using the
end area formula.

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Example

In order to compare the methods, the volume of the figure above will be computed as follows:
Centre heights: h1=10m, h2 = 20m, hm= 15m
Road widths: b1=b2=bm =20m
Side slopes: 1 in 2 (50%)
Horizontal distance between sections is 30m
The volume is thus as follows:

1 =
2 =

60 + 20
10 = 400 2
2

100 + 20
20 = 1200 2
2

80 + 20
15 = 750 2
2

=
=

30
400 + 1200 + (4 750) = 46,000
3

30
400 + 1200 + (2 750) = 46,500
2

= 46500 46000 = 500 3

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