R es ea rc h es

I S S U E D U N DE R T H E
THE

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OLAF A

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.

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PRE FA CE

S carcely two years have passe d s in c e I publ ishe d in

thi s serie s my A n c i en t C hr on olog y P art I I n that vo l
ume I treate d bibli c al chronol o gy sol ely on the basi s o f
d ates furnishe d by the B ible takin g them at their fa c e
val ue an d without any in quiry either into the a g e of the
d o c ument s in which they Occ urre d or into their histori c ity
I promi s e d then that these questions woul d be taken up
in a futu re vol ume to be calle d S i d e Li g h ts on B i bli c a l
I t has been foun d
Ch ron ol og y T his is that volume
a d visabl e to c o nne it more c l osely t o the Exo d us than
was ori g in al l y purpose d an d con s equentl y the title ha s
been chan g e d the more cl osel y to t the c o ntents
The re c eption o f my former book ha s been mo s t g rati
I n a w o rk of s o br o a d a s c ope an d in a e l d
fyi n g t o me
s o un c ertain an d unexp l ore d it was not to be expecte d
that all my c on c lusions s hou l d meet with unanimou s
approval What I d i d h o pe fo r wa s that c ritics mi ght
reco gni ze the earnestness of purpose which I ha d in pre
s ent in g it an d the g reat care which I ha d taken t o be
accurate an d s c ho l arly in both my view s an d my metho d s
I t i s with the greate s t p l easure that I record that with
two excepti o n s the book wa s re c eive d in that spir it P er
haps the mo s t g rat ifyin g thin g that ha s ever been s aid o f
my w o rk wa s the c riti c i s m of P rofe ss or L ieb l ein of the
University of C hristiania who a l thou g h he d i s a gree d
with me o n so me point s which wa s as I have said to be
expe c te d neverthe l ess was kin d enou g h to say of my

book
The author is a serious an d con s cientious scholar
,

ix

P R E FA CE

who without havin g become partisan in favor of an y one

more or less erroneou s school seeks the truth in sin cerit y

A n d i n d ee d on the C ontinent my bo o k h a s everywhere
met with the k in d est appreciation
I w i sh to recor d my thanks an d appreciation of the
letters wh i ch I have receive d from many of the most
d istin guishe d scholar s in re g ard to my former book
A mon g these have been : P rofessor C H W Johns of
C ambrid ge P rofessors D S M a rg ol iou th an d S R D river
of Oxford D r E A Wallis B u d g e of the B ritish M useum
P rofessor A d Erman of B erlin P rofes s or F rit z H o mmel
of M unich P rofessor P R ost of Koni g sber g ( PL ) P ro
fes s or J A Kn u d tz on of C hristiania P rofessor Ernst
A n d ersson of Upsala P rofessor Knut T a ll qvis t of Helsin g
fors P rofessor L e P R on zeva lle of B eyr outh M F
Th u rea u D an g in of P aris an d P rofessor C F ossey of
the C oll ege d e F rance
I am especia ll y g rateful to
those of this number who have offere d me their su ggestions
M any of m y c o nclusions which s eeme d astonishin g
at the time o f publication have now been generall y
accepte d by the scholarl y worl d I d o not mean to imply
that it was entirely because of m y book that these c o nclu
sions have been reache d I on ly state that scholars have
reache d the same results I t is some gratication to feel
however that I was rst in the el d F or example the
d ate for S arg on of A kkad which I place d c o 2 5 5 0 B C
h a s since been place d b y E d uar d M e y er at the same
d ate The eminent A ss yriolo g ist M Th u rea u D an g in
h a s not onl y g iven the same d ate for the Hammurabi
D ynasty as I d id but h a s also shown that there w a s a
lacuna between this an d the K assite D ynast y an d that
I S phi V l X I I p 49
,

nx ,

R E F A CE

Xi

the S ec o n d D yna s ty was partl y contemporar y with both

o f them both of which concl usions I rea c he d rst P ro
fessor B ennett has likewise accepte d my d ate of Ham
,

mu r a b i

I
.

A s for E g yptian chronolo gy P rofe sso r L ieb l ein has

s hown that D ynastie s V III an d I X were c o ntemporary
just a s I asserte d E d uard M eyer an d B rea s te d have both
corre c te d them s e l ve s in their interpretation of the Turin
pap yr us re g ard in g the succession an d number of kin gs
in D ynasty X I comin g to practically the same conclusions
as I M r Grifth has shown that the rei gn of A men
I sug
h o tep II was very short say three to ve years
g este d three for his in d epen d ent rei gn
These exampl e s may su fce to show that althou gh 1
was workin g on in d epen d ent lines I was still in my former
book well within the boun d s of le g itimate research
I state d in my book that many of the d ates cou l d
o n l y be appr o ximate d L ater d iscoveries have cau s e d
me to mo d ify my opinions in re g ard to s o me of them
These instances wil l be treate d in an appen d ix to this
volume
I n this present volume I have refrain e d from cumber
in g my text with multitu d in ous notes referrin g to in d ivi d ua l
scholars B ut this must not be taken a s evid enc e that I
am n ot acquain te d with the literature that has appeare d
o n this subject The appen d e d bibl io g raphy represents
merely those books which have con s tantl y been at my

han d in the preparation of this vol ume The Hibbard

E g yptian L ibrar y which has been pla c e d at my d isposal

has g iven me a splen d id opportunity to consult all the be s t
work s in all branches of this scien c e I cl aim to be
I E d ( Th N C t u y
p 89
,

xo us

ew

en

x ii

R E FA CE

th o rou ghl y co gni zant of the views of all the more pr o mi

nent writers bearin g upon this work
B ut sometimes n onn n a s n n l od i os a B y brin g in g in a
number of names of scholars whom I hi ghl y respect an d
by whose labors I have greatly prote d but with whom
I feel constraine d to d isa gree some read ers mi ght be le d
N oth in g
to suppose that I w a s critici z in g in d ivid uals
coul d be more forei gn to m y purpose L ike them I am
searchin g for truth an d this present work is merely an
honest an d s incere en d eavor to a d d somethin g to our
knowle d ge of a very important subject I f it be foun d that
I have utterly faile d I shall feel nevertheless that I have
ren d ere d service to the cause of truth b y sh o win g what
can n ot be accepte d I f on the other han d this book con
tain an y thin g of value anythin g worth consid erin g I
trust that the min d s of scholar s will not be s o preju d ice d
as to refuse it their c onsid eration even if this imply as
the acceptan c e of m y theories certainly wil l im pl y a total
reconstru ction of the Evolutionary Hypothesis of mo d e rn
hi gher criticism I t is m y wish that all mi ght be rea d y
an d will in g to look questions such a s are raise d in this
book !square l y in the face
Our purpose shoul d ever
be not the support of a n y theory but solel y the search
Truth wil l in any case prevail
for truth
I t may be surprisin g to some of my read ers that the
Exod us an d not the patriarchal perio d i s treate d rst in
this series The reason for this i s the fact that the d atin g
o f the patriarchs d epen d s quite d en i tely upon the d atin g
of the Exo d us which therefore I have ha d to treat rst
The patriarchal perio d will be the subject of a future
volume
I n treatin g o f the Exod us I have totally i gn ore d the
.

'

R E F A CE

x iii

theory hel d by some ra d ical critics that there never was

a Hebrew exo d us out of E g ypt Althou gh I certainly
a d mit that there was a l an d Mn zn r in P hil istia or southern
P alestine which is a g reat que s tion by itself stil l there
has never been a d vance d a sin gl e scrap of competent
evi d ence in favor of the theory which connects the Exo d us
with that lan d The whol e hyp othesis is a pure a ssu mp
tion lackin g both scientic basis an d common sense

The J er a kh m eel theory which is an out gr owth of this

M n zn r h op oth es is an d a c ord in g to which about tw o third s
of the biblical names of this perio d are wholesale c oru p

tions of the on e word J era kh meel d eserves no notice

The corruptions are not in the B ible but rather in the
min d of the scientist w h o orig in ate d the theor y The

pan B a b yl on i s tic View which sees in all these names

an d events merely sun moon an d z o d iacal motives has
also been d eeme d unworth y of c o n s i d erati o n The
present work seeks to establish the historicity of the
Exo d us out of E gyp t I f that be e s tablishe d all the other
theories d isappear
I n d iscussin g the d ates of the d ocuments I have paid
no attenti o n to the hypothe s is a d vance d by D illm a n n
S chra d er an d others of that s chool namel y that the
P (riestly) d o cument was written in the perio d of the D avid i c
A lthou gh this c o mes surpris
or S o l omonic monarchy
in gly near the d ate which I have myse l f su ggeste d I have
been l oath to u s e the conclu s ions of these s cholars because
they assume that thi s d ocument is the old est With the
Well h a u sen s c ho ol I s till feel constraine d to re g ard P a s
the l atest of the Hexateuchal d o cuments
S everal scholars have lately revol te d a g ain st many
tenets of the hi gher criticism M uch of their feelin g an d
,

'

X iV

R E F A CE

ar gument I accept of course but in no case have I been

able to accept them i n l oto W ith B a en t sc h I a gree that
M oses must have been a h istor i c personalit y I n chaps
i i an d ii i the rea d er w ill n d that m y views often coinci d e
with those of E erd m a n n s althou gh in h is reconstruction
I n d m y self a s far apart from h im a s from the Wellh a u sen
school Orr h a s certainl y ren d ere d great service to the
cause of b i blic a l cr i tic i sm but I cannot help feel in g th a t
he h a s un d erest imate d in several important part iculars
the cr it ical arguments in re gard to contra d ict i ons between
P an d J E an d D A n d as Orr seems unwillin g to a d mit
even the existence of in d epen d ent d ocuments in the
Hexateuch of course I coul d not make any extensive u se
of h i s ar guments Consequentl y a g reement between
m y self an d Orr or E erd ma n n s is lim i te d to some of the
ne gat ive arguments I n m y reconstruction I d are clai m
an ent irel y in d epen d ent line of thou ght both in re gard
to the d ocuments an d in re g ard to the h istor y of the perio d
treate d
P rofessor B urne y of Oxford h a s latel y arg ue d in favor
of the M osaic ori g in of the D ecalo gue H is reconstruction
of rel ig ious con d itions in the per io d of the Ju dg es had in
substance been presente d by m y self a year earlier an d
the present volume is onl y an enlargement of what I then
presente d
P erhaps too some of m y rea d ers ma y be surprise d to
n d that i n the g reat maj orit y of cases I a d opt the rea d in g
of the Greek texts in preference to that of the M assoret ic
Hebrew wh ich is the bas is of our En gli s h text I d o this
because I have become c o nv ince d after m inute stu d y o f
the Greek co d ices that the y are not onl y translations of
an a rchet ype much ol d er a n d more accurate than that from
,

P RE A CE

XV

which ou r tex t has been d erive d but also that represent

in g a s they d o manuscripts over ve hun d re d years ol d er
than an y we have in Hebrew they have escape d centuries
of M assoretic tinkerin g
What is here presente d is the fruit of many years of
thou ght an d labor I have taken care n ot to present
anythin g which has not a bearin g on the question of the
Exo d us The chapters d ealin g with the d ocuments are
necessar y as I thin k will be clear for a basis on which
to stu dy the Exo d us in the later chapters
B efore closin g this preface I wish to thank most s in
c er el y R ev H L C awthorne of C hica g o throu g h whose
earnest e fforts an d interest in this work I w a s enable d to
o btain the services of a secretary in the preparation of
this volume
I wish also to than k two of my pupils for their help
One of these my secretary M r B ernar d I dd in g s B ell
has ha d a lar ge share in the preparation of this volume
not onl y in h is careful work in takin g m y d ictation an d
prepar in g the volume for the press but also in many
valuable su gg estions an d helpful cri ticism which he h a s
o ffere d on questions presente d in the book
M r Walter B lake Williamson the other of these pupils
has prepare d the map un d er m y d irection with a care
which I very much appreciate I n stu dy in g this book
my rea d ers will I believe n d this map useful
Ag ain I take pleasure in record in g my d eep a p p rec i a
tion of the g enerosity an d the interest which a member of
ou r Oriental S ociety has shown b y g uaranteein g a lar g e
part of the cost of publishin g this volume
O L A F A T OFF TE E N
W
N TH
S M NA
C
S pt mb
9 9
'

'

E O L OG I

E S TE R

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AL

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C O N TEN T S
B I B LI O GR

Ab b

P AG E S

HY
i at i o s

I 7

B oo k s
CH APTE R I I N TRO D U C TI O N
D o c u m ts of t h H a t u c h 9 ; T h E o l u t io a y Hy p o t h s i s
; I s p i a t i o of H o ly Sc i p t u s
; C i t i cal R s u l ts
3;
P u p o s of t h H a t u c h
4 ; R c o si d a ti o of t h C it i
cal Hy p o t h s i s 5
CHAP TE R II TH E D ATE OF TH E P D O C U M E N T
A I t al E i d c 7 4
1 G o g a p hi cal C o s i d a ti o s
( a) P s i a
7;
7;
( b)
h
II C h o o l
8 ; (d ) G o m
8 ; ( ) Ti
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9
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t h B i b l i cal C al
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th
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C a ti o S t o y
; ( b) E l o h i m i
;
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5
( ) E 1 E lyo
I V R l i g i ou s I stit u t i o s ( ) Th C t al Sa c t u a y of P
i l i c Sac i c s f P 6 ; ( ) P i sts d
5 ; ( b) T h P
L it s i P 9
V H ist o i cal D t m i a ts of t h D a t f P ( a) P d
d D ut o om y 3 ; ( ) P
d J os iah s
E k i l 3 ; ( b) P
R f o m s 3 ; (d ) P d Ho s a 3 3 ; ( ) P d S o l om o 33 ;
h
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fH
3 9 ; (g ) J h o s h a p h a t 3 9 ; ( h )
3 7 ; ( ) Am o s 3 8 ; ( f ) J h
A sa 4 ; D a i d 4
B E t al E i d c 4 44
( a) T h E l p h a ti P a py i 4 ; ( b) D A dd d t o th C m
pi l d JE D 44
C C o cl u si o
44
CHAP T E R II UNI TY A ND C O N TE N TS OF TH E P D O C U ME NT
I F ag m ts d D oub l ts i P 4 5
d Y ah
h 4 7 ; Ab am
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d I s a l 48
d A b a h a m 4 8 ; Jac o b
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xviii

CO

NT E NT S

III T h Fou C o a ts 4 9
I V T h T T l d th 5
V T h F a m o k of th H a t uc h 5 ; ( a) T h T l d t h
B oo k 5 ; ( b) T h P D o c u m t P o p 5 5
C H APTE R I V TH E L A N G U A G E O F TH E P D O C U M E N T
f th E i l i c Ag
D i al c ts 5 9 ;
N t t h L a g u ag
57; H b
Th D i al c t f L i 6
C H A P TE R V C ON C L US I ON S I N R E G A RD TO TH E P D O C U
M E NT
E a ly D a t
f P 63 ; D o c u m ts f P 63 ; L a g u ag of P 64
C H A PTE R VI TH E D A TE O F TH E D D O C U M E N T
A E t al E i d c 65 69
F i d i g f t h B oo k O f D ut o o my 65 ; T h R fo m f
Jo si a h 6 7 ; D N t W i tt i th Ti m f J o s i ah 68
B I t al E i d c 6988
I D d Jo s i a h s R fo m 69 ; ( ) T h Ch m im 69 ;
A s h a h 7 ; ( ) H i g h P lac s f th
( b) Ha g i g s f
Sa t y s 7 ; (d ) Th P i sts of t h H i g h P lac s 7 ; ( )
M o l c h VV h ip 7 ; (f ) T h H o s s O f t h S 7 ; (g )
H i gh P lac s a J u sal m 7 ; ( h ) T h H i g h P lac f
B t h l 7 ; (i ) W o s h i p a t th To m b st o s f B t h l 7 ;
(j) T a p hi m VV h ip 7
II D
d th
Ag
f J o si a h 7 ; ( a ) C a aa it s
d
A m al k it s 7 ; ( b) M i l it a y S i c 7 ; ( ) Fo i g
K i g i I s a l 7 ; (d ) E s a u 7 ; ( ) A ak i m 7
III D
d th
E a ly H ist o y f I s a l 7 ; ( a ) A m a i a h
7 ; ( b) S o l o m o
74
IV
L
f M o s s a T c h i cal T m f
D 76; ( ) I
th
t i m f J o s h u a 7 8 ; ( b) A t E b al 7 9 ; ( ) J o s h u a s
Fa
ll 7 9 ; (d ) D a i d 8 ; ( ) J ho i a d a 8 ; (f )
H k i a h 8 ; (g ) M a a ss h 8
V D d t h C t al Sa c t ua y 8 ; N M t i o f J u
s al m i D 8 3 ; O t h Sa c t u a i s P m itt d 8 3
VI D
d t h P i sts t h L it s 8 4
V I I F i d i g O f t h D o c u m t 8 5 ; T h D is a pp a a c
f
I ) 8 5 ; Th
R p a i s i t h T m p l 8 6 ; E gy p ti a P
c d ts 8 7
V III C o cl u si o 8 8
C H A P TE R VI I TH E D ATE O F TH E E D O C U M E N T
I T h E Cod P c d s D 89
II
L
f E l o h i m a T c h i cal T m f
E 9 ; I T i m Of
Ho s a 9 ; I T i m f Jo s h ua 9
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I V Th D a t of th E D o c um t 99
V Co cl u s i o 9 9

C H APTE R VII I TH E U NI TY AN D C O N TE NTS OF TH E E

D O C UME NT
I U i t y of t h E D o c um t
I I U it y of t h E C o d
Th S t a t ut s
J ud g
;
; Th
m ts
G al P i st h oo d 3 ; Th L i t i ca l
; Th
P i sth oo d
5
I I I Th H i st o y of t h E Co d
7 ; E a ly E i st c
7;
N
L i t i cal Sac i c s 7 ; E i t h N o th K i g d o m
re

re

ven

v en

ven

P A GE S

a t 9 ; Th F i st Co a t a t
F i st Tab l s of Co a t 9 5 ; Th
9 ; Th
Tab l s of C o a t 9 7 ; Th S c o d Co a t

B ook of

Th e

x ix

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1 0

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1 0

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1 0

o d of Ham m u ab i
; Pat i c id
ua l s
; Q
; Mi s ca i a g
;
; Go i g
; T h f t of A i m al s
3;
4;
3 ; U la w f u l P a st u a g
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C HA P TE R I X TH E R E L ATI O N B E TW E E N TH E E A ND D
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C H APTE R X I I D I FF E RE N C E S B E TW E E N P AND J E D
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D I FF E RE N C E S B E TW E E N P A N D J E D
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TH E L E N G TH O F TH E WA N D E RI N G
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C H A PTE R X VI I D I F F E R E N C E S B E TW E E N P A ND J E D
H O RE B A ND S I N AI
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C HA PTE R X VI I I D I F FE RE N C E S B E TW E E N P A ND J E D
TH E S E TS OF TA B L E S A N D TH E A R KS
I T h T S ts f T a b l s 7 8 ; Ta b l s f Co a t 7 8 ;
T a b l s f T st i m o y 7 8
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D ATE S OF TH E E X O DI
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XXI

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I T h I t i s i c P o ss i b i l it y of T w o E o d i
7 ; I I Th e S im i
l ity Of t h e R ou t es 2 7 3 ; III T h S i m i la i t y of t h L a w
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CO NTE NTS
A PP E N D I X 1

TH E

J E w s AND T H E I R T E MP L E

PAG E S

A T E LE P H A N
2

Bi b l i o g a p h y
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ut i ng P a py us
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9 9 ; C h o o l o g y of t h e B oo k of J u d g s 2 9 9 ; B a b y l o i a
C h o o l o gy 3 3 ; E gy p t i a C h o o l o g y 3 4 ; S y c h o n i st i c
T ab l 3 0 8

A PP E N D I X I I

A N CI E N T

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B I BL I O G RA P H Y
1

A RE = A n c i en t Rec ord s

bb

rev a ti on s

E g yp t, Vols I

V, b y

A V = A u th ori zed Versi on

B A = B ei tra e zu r A ssyri ol o i e
B C = B i bli s c h er C ommen ta r
.

H B rea s ted
'

B E = B a byl on i a n E x p edi ti on of th e Un i vers i ty of P en n syl va n i a

CB S C =Ca mbri dg e B i bl e f or S c h ool s a n d Coll e es
H A T = H a nd leommen ta r zu m Al ten Testa men t
.

H CC = H i s tori c a l a nd Cri ti c a l C ommen ta ry

I CC = Th e I n tern a ti on a l Cri ti c a l C ommen ta r
.

J A = J ourn a l a si a ti que
J B L = J ourn a l of B i bl i c a l Li tera tu re
J H S = J ou rn a l o H ell en i c S tu di es
.

Q J

R = ew i s h
u a r terl y Revi ew
KE H = Ku rzg ef a ss tes ex eg eti s c h es H a n d bu c h
KH C = Ku rzer H a n d -Commen ta r zu m A l ten Tes ta men t

X X = Ku rzg efa s s ter Kommen ta r

L O T = A n I n trod uc ti on to t h e Li tera tu re of th e Old Testa men t, b y
S R D ri v er
.

L X X =S ep tua g i n t, Th e Gr eek Vers i on of th e Ol d Tes ta men t

M A F C = M emoi res pu bli s pa r l es membres d e l a Mi ssi on A rc h eo
.

l o i que F ra n ca i s e a u Ca i re
MD O G = Mi tth eil un g en der D euts c hen O ri en t-Gesell s c h af t
M OS = M i tth eilu n g en a us den ori en ta li sc h en S a mml un g en der Koni g l
M useen zu B erli n
MS I = M on u men ta S a c ra I nedi ta , b y C Tis c h en d orf
MS P = M on u men ta S a c ra et P r ofa na , b y A M Ceria n i
.

'

M VG = Mi tth ei l un g en

der

N CB
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vord era s i a ti s c h en

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Th e N ew Cen tu ry B i bl e

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th e S oc i ety

ua rterly

S ta temen t

B i bl i c a l A rc h a eol o y

L I O G RA PH Y

BIB

RA 0

= Rec u eil d

a r c h ol og i e or i en ta l e

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RE = Rev u e g y ptol og zg u e

R T = Rec uei l d e tr a v a ux rel a tifs a l a p h il ol og i e et a l a rc h ol og i e

ti en n es et a s sy ri en n es
.

'

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S B O T = S a c r ed B ooks of th e Ol d Tes ta men t
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9 5
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893

L eh r buc h d er h i s tori s c h -kri ti s c h en E i n l ei tun

u n cl

b ea rb ei t et

n eu

p oh ryp h i s c h en B itc h er d es A l ten Tes ta

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869

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90 7

th e Old Tes ta men t

90 6

a nd

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Th e B i bl e, I ts O r ig i n a n d N a ture
A K F i s ke
Th e ew i s h S c r i p tures
N ew
.

Gen er a l H i s tori c o-C ri ti c a l I n trod u c ti on to th e

W ett e

W ri g h t

Gen er a l I n tr od u c ti on to th e S tud y

i n d i e ka n on i s c h en

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1

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90 0

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G Ot t i n g en ,
E

I n tr od u c ti on to th e

S R D riv er
.

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Y o rk

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1

8 96

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B i bl i c a l
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90 6
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90 6
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90 4
A n c i en t I s r a el

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L on d on ,

894

90 7

89 5

Gir d les ton e D eu terog ra p h s O xford 1 8 94

R G or d on
E di n b u r g h 1 9 0 7
Th e E a rly Tr a di ti on s of Gen esi s
Gu nk el The Legen d s of Genesi s E n g tra n sl b y W H Ca rru th
C h ic a g o 1 9 0 7
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l i tera tu r
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Wellh a u sen P rol og omen a to th e H i s tory of I s ra el

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W

90 6

H ex a teu c h

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p i ra ti on

L on d on ,1 9 0 4

f th e Old Tes ta men t

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Pr oc k sc h

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York

J J

ns

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89 2 98

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90 5

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Y ork

New

BIB

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Ki rk

90

R L O tt l ey
.

M od er n

Th e

90 4

L on d on ,

th e P rea c h i n g

th e

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C h urc h

L o n d on ,

88 5 - 9 6

th e Ol d Tes ta men t

a nd

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H G reen
.

90 3

New

Wellh a u s en

and

New

S tr u c tur e

A l ttes ta men tli c h e S tu d i en , P a r t s I , I I

G ies sen

Th e I mp reg n a bl e Roc k of H oly S c r i p tu re

Th e H i g h er

Cri ti c i s m of

th e P en ta teu c h

Un i ty of
1

90 3

th e B

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fen s e of
f

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Y ork

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Old Tes ta men t

P h il a d elp h ia ,

90

th e B i bl i c a l Revel a ti on

Y or k

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P h i la

8 96

J M M c M u llen Th e S u p rema c y of th e B i bl e Tor on t o

J O rr Th e B i ble u n d er Tr i a l New Y ork 1 9 0 7
Th e P robl em of th e Ol d Tes ta men t
N ew Y o rk

90 4
Old Tes ta
1

L on d o n ,
.

Th e
.

L on d on ,

89 6

90 8
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E

90

90 6

d elp h i a ,

E d i n b u rg h ,

f Gen esi s

90 2
Ol d Tes ta men t i n th e
,

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C h u rc h

B i s sell

L on d on ,

Th e Rel i g i ou s Va l u e

D E er d m a n s

Cr i ti c i s m a n d

90 7

B a x t er

Y or k
B

90 7
h r i s ti a n
1

th e B i bl e Tru e

n a l l i bl e a n d

V ol s I - I V

Vern on

L on d o n ,

York

New

Y ork

Tes ta men t

90 6
I s h ri s t I
1

90 2
S tu di a B i bl i c a

B erli n ,

Ru l i n g I d ea s i n E a rl y A g es
A s p ec ts of th e Ol d Tes ta men t

R Smit h
1

Ol d Tes ta men t C ri ti c i s m a n d th e C

men t

S a g en d er B i bel

un d

Th e E a rl y N a rr a ti v es

H E Ry l e
G A Sm it h
.

M ozley

90 7
th e Old

Y ork

H M c I n tos h

L on d o n ,

Th e D i vi n e Li bra ry

D i e My th en

N ew

O u r Tong u es

90 6

M c Fa d yen

a ri c k

L on d on ,
P Koc h

L I O G R APH Y

90

Cr i ti c i s m

90 5

90 6

i n N ew Tes ta men t Li g h t

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K A b b ot t E ss a ys on the O ri i n a l Tex ts of th e Ol d
L on d on 1 8 9 1
Tes ta men ts
E G Ken yon
Ou r B i bl e a n d th e A n c i en t M a n uscri pts

89 8

de La

Mi tth ei l u n g en Vols I I V G Ottin g en

L ei p zi g
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a rd e

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er

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.

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90 8

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L on d on ,

871

896

th e Ol d Tes tamen t

a nd

a h re d er

90 7

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L ei

l es mon u men ts g yp ti en s
L ei p z ig , 1 8 75
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.

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.

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th e Ol d Tes ta men t

p ig
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90 7
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from B a bel

8 96

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B a bel

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a nd

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90 3
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.

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.

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.

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C HA P TE R

I n tr od u c ti on

T 0 P ro fe ss or Well h a u sen be l o n g s the d i s tin c tion o f

havin g pointe d o ut that the Hexate u ch is ma d e up o f
f ou r g rea t d oc u men ts an d subsequent s c hol ar s have d eve l
ope d this hyp o the s is an d have en d eav o re d to d i s tin guish
these d ocuments more certainly in the text There is n o w
a g enera l a g reement amon g critical s cholars as to the
extent of these d ocuments althou g h there s till remain
l arg e s c ope an d variety of d i fferent opinion s in re g ar d to
minor d etail s su c h as in a ssi gnin g certain se c tion s t o one
d ocument or to another
,

D o c um en

ts

t h e H exa

of

t eu c h

C ritical schol arship ha s a g ree d to d esi gnate these

d ocuments by the l etters J ( Jahvisti c ) E ( Elohistic ) D
D
euteronomic
an
d
P
P
riestly
(
)
)
(
The d ivi s ion of the text into these d ocuments i s the
resu l t O f the fol l owin g consi d erations :
a
) D ifferen c e s in vocabu l ary an d styl e ;
b ) D oubl ets an d triplets Of texts ;
c
) S everal d iverg ent or s o metimes paral lel l aw c o d es ;
d ) D i fferent hist o rical an d g eo graphical statements ;
e) D i fference s in d ivine name s an d conceptions o f
rel i g ion morals an d ceremonies
The careful s tu d ent of the Ol d Testament cannot help
a c knowle d gi n g that the princip l es on which this D ocu
mentary Hypothesis is built are reasonable an d are not
t o be d isre g ar d e d by anyone who d esires to un d erstan d
,

I O

N T R O D U CTI O N

the sources of the text The process b y which mo d ern

criticism h a s reache d these results h a s been te d ious
M o d ications have been constantl y a d mitte d A n d the y
are still to be expecte d The time h a s not y et come for
u s to put such a comparativel y new an d important theor y
into a stereot ype d form B ut althou gh scholars have
d i ff ere d an d still d o d i ffer on certain d etails it must at
least be a d mitte d that in the Hexateuch w e have several
d ocuments That this number S houl d be conne d to
four is at present the accepte d cree d O f critics The cor
r ec tn es s O f this limitation is however open to g rave s u s
n
i
c
i
o
B
ut
even
thou
g
h
we
ma
y
have
to
a
d
mit
a
lar
g
er
p
number O f d ocuments a s sources Of our text ; still the text
itself bears witness that it i s a compilation ma d e from
several sources
.

Th e E v

o l u t i o a y H yp o th sis
r

B ut mo d ern criticism h a s not been satise d w ith merely

pointin g out the existence of four g reat d ocuments in the
Hexateuch I t h a s also un d ertaken to assert when these
d ocuments themselves w ere written The basis for this
d etermination h a s been sou ght for in the histor y Of I srael
an d each d ocument h a s been tte d into a perio d when
histor y mi ght S eem to w arrant i ts appearance A d ocu
ment representin g S i mpler or more na i ve forms of reli
g ion an d societ y i s place d e a rlier an d one which presents
more complex forms later The O l d er D ocumentar y
Hy pothesis h a s thus been mo d ie d into an Evolutionary
H ypothesis accord in g to which the J d ocument S houl d
represent the reli g ious a n d social con d ition of I srael c a
8 5 0 8 0 0 B C the E d ocument a somewhat later d evelo p
ment s a y c a 8 0 0 7 5 0 B C the D d ocument the con d itions
.

CR ITI CAL R E S ULT S

1 1

s urr o un d in g the reforms Of Josiah 62 1 B C an d the P

d o cument th o se c o n d ition s whi ch prevaile d un d er E z ra

an d N ehemiah an d their promul gati o n Of the b o ok Of

the law in 4 44 B C I n re g ar d to this l a s t h o wever

s cholars d i ffer c onsi d erab l y s o me Of them a ss umin g that
at l east the earl ier se c tion s Of the P d o cument an d other s
that the whole of it d ate from the time o f E z e kie l c a
8
B
an d that E z ra s l aw book repre s ent s o ur wh o l e
C
5 5
P entateuch B ut even ac c ord in g to these men the wh ol e
P entateuch is not thou g ht t o have reache d it s present form
before c a 40 0 B C
A few O f the ra d ical criti c s h ave
not he s itate d to assi gn s ome sections O f Exo d u s t o
even as l ate a s the M accabean p eriod
B ut these
for get that the sections they so d ate were tran sl ate d
,

with the rest of the P entateuch into the Gree k

S eptua gint ab o ut one hun d re d years bef o re the
M accabean perio d an d that they are al so to be
foun d in the S amaritan P entateuch which can hard ly
be of a later d ate than 4 3 2 B C
Whatever we may think about the d ates assi gne d to
these d ocuments we are boun d to reco gni z e as va l i d the
p r inciple un d erlyin g mo d ern critical research that the
Hexateuch is compose d of several d ocuments This
principle seems so evi d ently correct an d so necessary
for g ainin g an un d erstan d in g of thi s p o rtion of the
S criptures that we are constraine d to accept it
,

Cr i i c a l

R es ul t s

B ut the c onclu sions Which mo d ern criticism ha s reache d

by workin g o n this principle may n ot be so certain They
.

IS
O LZ ,

ee

9 8,
0

a
pp

th e e

rn e

st p o t est b y E b

40

42

Ne

st le aga i st th i s ki
n

nd

of c k l ss c i t i c i sm
re

INT RO D U C TI O N

1 2

are summe d up broa d ly speakin g in the two followin g

s tatements :
I
The Hexateuch consists Of four g reat d ocuments
an d four onl y which d ocuments are to be foun d c ompl ete
if only scholarship i s keen enou g h to d etect traces of them
an d to assi g n them to their respective places The u s e of

the wor d d ocument presupposes that we d eal here with

a complete d ocument an d not with mere fra g ments
The D ocumentary Hypothesis stan d s in contrary position
to th e F ra g men ta ry H y pothesis ac c or d in g to which the
P entateuch is compose d Of a number O f fra g ments
2
These d ocuments were compile d at or about the
times given above This presupposes that the in s titu
tions mentione d in these d ocuments an d co d es were co d i
ed perhaps in most cases came into existence r s t
at the time when the particular d ocument containin g the m
w a s written
The peculiarities of lan gua ge in the d ocu
ments are suppose d to reect the lan gua ge Of the various
times in which the y are alle ge d to have been writte n
B y means Of these d ocuments an d their alle ge d d ates
the critical hypothesis ord inaril y un d ertakes to explain
the apparent d i fc ulties inconsistencies contra d iction s
an d peculiarities which are suppose d to exist in the Hexa
teuch There were d i fferent tra d itions s a y the critics
a s a rule lyin g back O f an d lea d in g up to the peculiar
statements foun d in each d ocument When a tra d ition
institution or law promul g ate d in a later d ocument i s
unknown to an earlier d ocument we must assume s a y
the critics that such a particular tra d ition institution or
law has arisen after the earlier d ocument was compile d
I n re g ar d to reli g ious civil an d social institutions w e
must also assume s o the y s a y that those mentione d onl y
,

I N PI RA TI

O N OF

HO LY

S CR I PT URE S

in a later d o c ument an d not in previous d ocuments per

haps even c ontrary t o those mentione d before must have
been in s titute d after the pre c e d in g d ocument s were com
pose d
The D ocumentary Hypothesis place s thu s vi vi d ly befo re
u s the apparent d iscrepan ci es in the d i ff erent d ocuments
an d gives s o me explanation thereof however u n sa tisfa c
t o ry such exp l anation may prove to be ; but it d oes n ot
remov e the d i fculties
contra d ictions or inc o nsistencie s
which seemin gly d o exist I t is therefore no won d er that
man y d evout pers o n s wh o wish to retain a be l ief in the
inspiration an d the inte g rity Of Holy S cripture are Sl ow
to accept the resu l ts of mo d e r n c riticism F or its main
feature seems to be a focusin g of attention upon in c on sis
ten c i es alrea d y quite prominent enou g h to the a d herent
of the ol d er metho d who looks on the Hexateuch or at
l east the P entateu c h a s on e c o ntinuous d ocument
,

I n s p ir a i on

of

H ol y

S c r i p tur es

N ow it is to be a d mitte d that even thou gh in c on sis ten

cies an d contra d i c tions may e xi st in Holy Writ that fact
d oes not n u llif y its inspiration F or inspirati o n is the
self revelation O f Go d thr o u g h the Hol y Ghost to man
an d Hol y Writ is the re c o r d of that self revelation The
fact of that se l f revelati o n in itself even thou gh errors in
d etail may have crept into the recor d there o f i s evi d ent
in the Hexateuch even as mo d ern scholars con c eive it
an d this fact alone i s amply sufcient to establish the truth
S uppose d errors in the Hexateuch are
Of its inspirati o n
not necessarily to be attribute d to an err o neous revelation
but shou l d be attribute d rather to other causes The
man or a g ent to whom a revelation was ori ginally ma d e
,

INT RO D U C TI O N

may we have every ri ght to believe have receive d an d r e

cord e d i t correctl y B ut a revelation may have been ma d e
to two or more in d ivi d uals an d the resultin g accounts
may have been colore d b y their respective viewpoints an d
various mo d es Of expression I t i s not contrary to any
ortho d ox belief in the d octrine Of Plenary I nspiration to
a d mit the human factor in the composition of Holy Writ
I n later perio d s too when the various d ocuments of an
earlier a g e came to be incorporate d into on e it is but
natural that the lapse of centuries S houl d have cause d
more or less confusion R ecord s Of d i fferent events which
were similar ma y easil y have been re g ard e d as but d i ffer
ent account s O f the same event C onversel y d i fferent
accounts Of a sin gle event ma y have become S O separate d
as to have been re gard e d as record s of d istinct events
A ll this is natural in d ee d inevitable if the books of the
Ol d Testament were compile d un d er the inspiration of
Go d the Hol y Ghost solel y for the purpose O f record in g
Go d s revelation of himself
P u p o s of t h H a t eu c h
N ow the Hexateuch in i ts present form bears on its
face the evi d ences O f havin g been compile d for the sole
purpose Of rec o rd in g Go d s d ealin g s with man I t d oes
not assume to be a treatise on histor y geo g raph y bio g
r a h y or an y other science
We
cannot
therefore
expect
p
to n d in it exact scientic terminolo g y an d metho d A
historical an d geo g raphical misun d erstan d in g in our
Hexateuch ma y thus be a d mitte d where the avowe d pur
po s e is solel y to record the tran s actions which have hap
pene d between Go d an d man
I T h th H b t m f th P t a t u c h m a s o i g i all y t ac hi g
ll
th a t i s p
la t i o t m a s c o d d
t h t ac h i g f G o d s s l f
i t h a t b oo k
,

ex

or a

r ew

a r ex c e en c e,
.

er
e

or
n

en

-r

e n

ev e

a n,

re

RE C

O N S I D E RA TI O N OF

T HE

CR ITI CAL

H YP

O THE S I S

S till however after havin g a d mitte d these necessary

d eniti o n s Of the s c ope an d purpose of the Hexateuch
rea d ers Of the B ible wi ll won d er why in a s elf revelation
Of Go d an d o f hi s transa c ti o ns with man
there Shoul d
have been so l itt l e o f histori c al an d g eo grap hi cal corre c t
nes s as m o d ern criti c s apparentl y woul d have u s be l ieve
C o n s ervative rea d ers are be ginnin g to w o n d er if there
may not be some scienti c an d h istorical hypothesi s by
whi c h m o re Of histori c fact may be a d mitte d in the B ibl e
than most mo d ern stu d en ts assume
,

R ec on si d er a ti on

of

th e Cr

i t ic a l

H yp o th es

is

There is the possibil it y that the results reache d by

mo d ern c ritici s m on the general principle O f the evol u
A n d s ure ly the tim e
ti on a r y theory are not l e gi timate
has not yet come when that theory an d its al le ge d results
are so certain that they c an be put int o stereotype d form
That they can be s o put is a d elu sion into which many of
the most d istin guishe d of mo d ern scholars seem to have
The theor y is Of comparatively recent d ate ; an d
f a ll en
the d iver gent opini o ns Of almost all the critical scholar s
o n a very larg e number of points are not especially reas
s urin g t o us an d d o not g ive us perfect cond ence that
a ll questi o ns in re g ar d to the Hexateuch have been for
ever s ettle d I t may be claime d an d with much truth
that these d i fferences are now conne d to o nly the minor
d etai l s but s ome of the d etails on which d i fferences Of
opinion s til l exist are S O important that the whole fabri c
Of the m o d ern critical stru c ture is affecte d thereby
T hi s assumption of perfect certainty on the part of
s ome cr itics i s espe c ially to be d eplore d when we consi d er
the fact that our present kn owle dg e of the Hebrew an d
.

INT RO D U CTI O N

kin d re d lan gua g e s in which the Ol d Testament was

ori ginall y written is as yet very imperfect an d is g rowin g
in fact with each passin g d ay an d when we remember
further that all O f our lower or textual criticism has n o t
as y et enable d u s to d etermine what reall y was the ori ginal
text O f these Hebrew scriptures
A t an y rate the time is not yet past for further inquiry
into the alle ge d results of the Evolutionar y Hypothesis
,

A r e th ere

fou r

on l y

th es e d oc u men ts

mod ern
no

c ri ti c i s

h yp oth es i s

men ts

a re

d oc u men ts i n th e H ex a teu c h ?

h a v e been

hic h

th ems elves

w i ll en a bl e u s

h i s tori c a l ,

th e ti me th ey th ems elves

th e ti mes

at

p os tu la tes for

m g en era lly

w ri tten

s eem

th em ?

Ca n
w

hi ch

th ere

to beli eve th a t th e d oc u

and

th a t th ey w ere w ri tten

to i m l y 9

I n attemptin g
to answer these que s ti o n s let us be gin with the P d ocu
ment an d co d e

at

C H A P TE R II
Th e Da te

th e P Doc u men t

of

A lthou g h some critics are w i ll in g to d ate the P d ocu

ment as far back as 5 8 5 B C m o st Of them are incline d
t o d ate it 4 4 4 B C The y d o this be c ause S O the y say
the in s titutions an d the reli g iou s i d eas therein set forth
are not to be foun d in the history of the Chil d ren Of I srae l
up to that time I f this be S O we must expe c t that the
g eo graphy set forth in P wil l be the g eo graph y known at
that time I f history or chronolo gy is d ealt with i t must
be the history o r chronolo gy k nown at that time I f there
are intimations of the character of Go d or of reli gion or of
re l i giou s institutions these must a ll be such as woul d be
natural to those livin g at that time L et us examine the
biblical record s an d test the P d o c ument an d co d e fr o m
the s e stan d points to see whether or not the facts su b s ta n
ti a te the theor y
This evi d ence we w i ll d ivi d e for convenience into two
sorts : in ternal evi d ence an d external evi d ence
.

N TE R NA L E VI DE N CE
G eo g ra p hi c al Con s i d er a t i o s

of
I
t
s
eems
quite
impossible
that
a
man
in
the
time
)
or more especial l y E z ra himself if he
E z ra (4 44 B
were the author Of the P d ocument coul d have w ritten
a table Of n a tion s particularl y one Of the A r y an nations
without mentionin g the P ersians who were in his d ay rulers
I t is to be remembere d that E z ra himse l f stoo d
O f A sia

I G c ha p
G
5
a

en

1 0

en

OF

T H E D AT E

TH E P D

O CUM E N T

in special favor with the P ersian kin g that N ehemiah

his associate was a special ambassa d or from the P ersian
court an d that they ha d the support O f that court in the
reforms which the y carrie d out The d ocument mentions
M e d ia an d I on ia which were at this time merel y subj ect
nations to the P ersians N ow the P ersian s appear on the
A ssyrian inscriptions as earl y as 8 3 7 B C an d it seems
improbable therefore that this d ocument S houl d have
been Of a much l ater d ate F or if the author knew of
M e d ia which was farther away wh y shoul d he not have

mentione d P ersia which lay near his ow n lan d 2

b ) I n Gen 1 0 :2 2 Elam is d escribe d as a son of S hem
B ut in the time Of E zra every Jew livin g in B abylonia knew
that the Elamites were n ot relate d to the S emites either
ethnically g eo g raphical ly or politically The latest
d iscoveries in S usa have S hown however that prior to
the Hammurabi D ynasty a S emitic people live d in Elam
an d S emitic g overnors rule d in S usa the capital Of Elam
We must then have here a d ocument or a fra g ment em
bo d ie d in the P d ocument which g oes back to a time when
the relations between the S emites an d the S emitic in h a b i
tants of Elam were real or at least well known

c
) I n Gen 1 0 :2 5 on e Of the sons Of Japheth is calle d
Tir a sh
He is un d oubte d l y i d entical with a people calle d
Teres h who appear on the E g yptian monuments in com
pan y with the P hilistines when the y inva d e d P alestine
c a 1 1 80 B
S hortly after this the name d isappears from
C
these monuments We are incline d to i d entif y this Teresh
,

J a va n

S h al m a s II A l 11
bi
85
7
7 3 bi
Th is p o p l h a d a t t hi s ti m a la g u mb f fo ti d c i ti s d t t y
m t i o d Th is p s u pp o s s t h a t a t t h a t t i m
s
c i t y k i g s f th i s
th
o t h P si a h a d al a dy b s tt l d f a l o g p i o d
2

m at P a r -s u -a ,
e

e n

ev en

n e er

er n

er

e r

a re
re

n n a s,

en

een

e n

ne

er o

re

or

1 2 0

er

s,

an

w en

GE

O G RAPHI CAL CO N S I D E RA TI O N S

not o n l y with the bibl ical Tira sh but al s o w ith the E tru s
c an peop l e Of I taly N ow the Etruscan mig ration into
I taly c an har d ly be pla c e d later than 1 1 0 0 B C Th is
ac c ounts f o r its total d isappe arance both from the monu
ment s of E gyp t an d from the narratives of the B ible
A fter 1 1 0 0 B C the Hebrew people d i d not come into
c o nta c t with this nation an d consequently coul d not have
kn o wn O f it
A t l east this porti o n O f the P d ocument
must d epen d upon a written d o c ument which i s not l ater
in ori gin or at l east not very much later than this d ate
d ) I n Gen 1 0 :2 we n d a mention Of Gomer whi c h O f
course is a name for what are g enerally known as the
The A ssyrian for them is Gi mi rra i
Cimeri a n people
N ow these people appear r st on the A ssy rian monuments
in the S arg on peri o d i e c a 7 2 0 B C
A ssyrio l o gists
have assume d since the y have their rst A ssyrian mention
at this d ate that therefore the P d o c ument with its men
tion of them c annot possibly have been written bef o re
t h i s time M o d ern criti c s have s eeme d in cline d to ag ree
with them in this This custom Of d atin g a bibl ical d ocu
ment by the mere mention Of a g eo graphical name on an
A s syrian monument is very precarious Thi s is e specially
true in this case for the political hori z on of the A ssyrian s
up to the time of S arg on was very narrow in d ee d an d
there was no occasion for them to mention the Gimirrai
bef o re his time That the people were known before hi s
time is seen from H o mer s Od ys s ey where we are tol d that
O d ysseus eein g from Troy Visite d the Cimeri a n s I t
d o es not matter much when the O dyss ey wa s actuall y
comp os e d The tra d iti o n embo d ie d in it afr ms the
e x istence o f the Cimeria n s o n the hori z o n of the Greek
pe op l es as early as the F a ll of Troy 1 1 8 3 B C Thus
,

TH E D A T E

20

OF

TH E P D

OCU M E NT

Gomer was known in P alestine at the same time that

T ira s h mentione d above w a s kno w n there
A n d t h is
is the very time when the entrance O f the A ry an race into
A siatic politics commence d to cause immense upheavals
th er e

I
.

II

hr o n o l o g i ca l Co n si d er a t i o

ns

I
n
Gen
:
2 4 ; 8 : 4 are references to the solar y ear
7
3
)
f
1
O
d
ays
equal
to
ve
months
thirt
y
d
a
y
s
each
I
n
0
( 5
)

the exilic an d post exilic perio d s the Jews use d B ab ylonian

chronolo g y base d on the lunar year The u se Of the s olar
year must have en d e d before the Exile The d ate O f
a

the P d ocument must then be earlier than 5 8 7 B C when

the Exile an d the chan g e in the chronolo gical system
commence d
b ) I f the P d ocument an d co d e were compose d in the
exili c or post exilic perio d we shou l d expect that it woul d
use the names Of months that then were usual namel y
the B ab ylonian month names such as N isan I jj ar S ivan
etc B ut the P d ocument d oes not g ive us on e instance
o f the u s e Of these B ab y lonian names
I t has a system
O f i t s own
I t refers to the months as the rst the secon d
the thir d etc N ow we n d that this same system was
in vo gue as earl y a s the establishment of the monarchy
I t is utterl y inconceivable if its ori gin was exilic or post
e xilic that P S houl d S how no trace Of the u s e of the B aby
l on i a n s y stem
c ) A n d further it i s assume d or claime d at least that
the author of P ha d accepte d an d reckone d b y the B a b yl o
nian custom of be g innin g the civic year in the sprin g instea d
O f in the autumn an d that this custom was intro d uce d
amon g the Jews in the exilic perio d B ut if this be true
T fft
A
i t Ch
l g y Pa t I p
9
.

een ,

n c en

ron o o

2 0

O N O L O G I CAL C O N S I D E RA TI O N S

CH R

2 I

the utter absence o f B abylonian month names in P becomes

still more d ifcu l t to explain F urther the Holiness
Cod e whi c h is a part of P contains the law on the F east
of Trumpet s wh ich wa s celebrate d as we k now at the
autu mn al equinox We know also that it was a c elebra
tion Of a Hebrew new y ear I t s eems therefore very
s ing ular that we sho ul d here have a l aw promul g ate d
un d er the E x i l e or afterward establishin g a new year
festival in the autumn when in fact everyone inclu d in g
the pro mu lg ators be g an the y ear in the sprin g an d t h i s
without a S in gl e reference to the B ab ylonian calen d ar then
universall y O bserve d amon g the Jews I n view of these
facts the unpreju d ice d min d can hard l y help a ss umin g
that this law at least was written an d promul g ate d at a
time when the Hebrew year be g an in the autumn i e
l on g before the Exile
6 P
IL
c
f
N
m
5;
( )
Th O l d T st a m t k o s of
d u s s fou cal d a s y st m s :
cal d a i w h i c h t h w o d f m o t h i s y kh
i ti
) Th C
d h
al
y a of 3 5 4 d ay s O ly th of t h m o t h
d ay s )
am s
k o w i t h B i b l Z i E th i m d B l ; b t t h P h o i c i a
i s c i p ti o s h a a dd d s
o th
a m s of m o ths T his sy st m w
d w
a do p t d b y t h a l y H b s tt l s i C a aa
sti ll th of c i al cal d a
i t h ti m of S o l om o ( I K i g s c h a p s 6
D l u g st o y i s a t ac of t h is s y st m
Th u s i f c om p a G
I
th
k
it h
y a d t d ay s acc o d i g t o th
N o a h st ay d i t h
Hb
t t b t
y a acc o d i g t o th G k t t Th s t d a y s
d t h E g yp ti a y a s
Th t
c b t
m a k t h d i ff
th
C a aa i t i c
t ts d o t h fo
all y ag i d i ca ti g t h a t N o a h st ay d i th k a fu ll
y a of 3 65 d ay s
cal d a i w h i c h t h w o d f m o th i s kh d h
b) Th
E g yp ti
I t w a l y a c o sist i g of 5 i t ca l y d ay s d m o ths
d ay s)
Th m o t h s
th fo
ac h of 3 d a y s m a ki g a y a of
3 65 d a y s
i
th
m o th am i s k o w
O l d T st a m t A bi b
m o ab l
O ly
c o s p o di g t o t h E gyp t i a E pi p h i This sy st m u d l i s t h J E D
d
h
o
d
T
w
D
t
6
c od s (E o d
E
]
]
;
;
[
[J
b
s
h
ou
l
d
E
of y a ( E o d
E
o
l
u
t
i
o
of
y
a
o
d
;
]
[J
)
[ ]
t a s la t d b g i i g of y a b ca u s t h w o d y k t o g o ou t i s th
.

ev

a na a n

an

a re

e e

en

ex

er en

ex

ere

e r

an

as

ve

r re

en

as

en

as

"

e r an

on e
n

en

w e

ex

an

e r

wo

e ar

en

e e

r ee

en

re

e r

e ar

r ee,

re, re

n, an

e r

e w een

er a

r ee

or

an

ev en

an

er

an

v,

er

en

e r

rew

r ew

even

r,

e,

an

unar

ve

en

as

on e

so a r

e r,

e r

nn n

r,

e r,

er

a zo

er e

re

en

e
e

1 2

a re

an

r ev

o es

ar

en

n er

or

ev en

r,

en

en

OF TH E P D O CU M E N T

T H E D AT E

2 2

III

) In

atu

Th e N

re a n d

N m es

th e

of

G od

no pious Jew coul d have written Gen

which i s plainl y pol y theistic

L et us make man

in ou r ima g e certainl y implies a re c o gnition of more than

on e Go d
b) A strict monotheistic Jew such as that of the time
2 4 an d
of E zra coul d not have written Gen

where Enoch an d N oah walke d with Elohim i e

ha d d ealin g s with Elohim because the lan gua g e here

use d is as anthropomorphi c as in any J story in the
P entateuch
Even thou g h we a d mit that the c ompiler of P d epen d e d
on earlier tra d itions which ma d e u se of such expressions
as these we cannot a d mit that he woul d consent to pro
A man
mu l g a te views s o ra d ically d i fferent from h is own
a

444 B

t c h i cal t m f t h b g i i g O f s o m d it e p i o d O f ti m I t w s o i g i
ally a pp l i d t o t h
g o d g o i g t f o m hi s b i d al c h a mb i t h m o i g
i
f th daw
I t i s t h fo a cal da i c t m d s h ou l d
(P
b u d st oo d h
i t h is t c h i cal s s
W h e th H b w s a do p t d t hi s
s y st m t h c i i l w y a w c l b a t d i t h fall T h f a st f i ga t h
f a st f t ab acl s ) w t h fo o i g i ally a w y a f sti al
i g ( la t
) T h H b w cal d a i w h i c h t h w o d f m o t h i s kh d h ( 3
I t w a l y a f 3 65 d ay s b g i i g w it h t h
al qu i o
3 d ay s )
d d isti g u is h d t h
mo ths by
u mb i g t h m Th is sy st m is u s d
i P
W h t h is sy st m W i t o d u c d (N m c h a p s 8 9 ; L c h a p
t h a u t u m al qu i o ca m
t h N w y a s D y O f t h E g y p ti
5 d a y s b fo
cal d a t h u s d ; d a w f a st t h a t f t u m p ts w i t o d u c d t o
ma k th b g i
i g O f t h c i i l y a hi l t h F a st f T a b acl s ( i ga t h
i g ) w s k p t a s a s u i al O f t h O l d E gyp t i a
N w y a s f sti al
Th
P s y st m w
N w y a s D y f th H b w
c l b at d a t th
al qu i o
d ca m t m a k t h b g i
i g f th ccl si a sti cal y a
d ) Th
B byl
i
cal d a I t h a d a l u a y a f m o t h s d
i t cala y m o t h E ach m o th h a d a s p a a t a m l i k N isa S i a
E lul
t
T h y a b ga a t t h
al qu i o
i t od uc d amo g
d w
th
H b w s i th
i l i c d p o st i l i c p i o d s Th is s y st m is k o w
th fo i Z c h a i a h N h m i a h E a E st h
A p o c yp h a N t
d th
a t ac f t h is s y st m i s fou d i P
d o c um t of th e
i
y ot h
H at u c h
er

or

e sun -

er

an
n

en

an

n er

e c
e

er e

ex

re

r, w

nn n

en

e e

ex

e v ern

ex

or

ev

es

or

x,

an

n r

as

er

e v ern

er

er n

r o
e,

1 2

as

an

n,

n r

er , a n

an

er

en

n,

an

x, a n

er

zr

e r

an

e e

ne

as

or

re

re

an

rn n

e v ern

or

re

nn n

re,

er

er n

on a n

er e

ne

r e,

e 1

en

as

rv v

as

re

r o

an

r,

nn n

en

so a r

er

er

en

e e

as

en

en

ern

ou

as

e re

er e

ne

e re

er

nn n

n,

TH E

NA T U R E

A ND T H E

NA M E S OF

G OD

wh o wro te the hi s tory of Go d s d ealin g s with man after

the prophecies o f I saiah Jeremiah an d E z ekiel ha d been
procl aime d wou l d certain l y have a d apte d his tra d itional
material to suit th e relig ious beliefs Of hi s time
I t is assume d that the author of P is a strict mon o theist
to whom Go d is the exalte d supra mun d ane bein g O f
wh o m al l anthr o pomorphic expression s are unworthy
We have al rea d y c alle d attenti o n t o the fact that Gen I :2 6
uses Elohim in a pol yt heisti c sense We are willin g t o
a d mit that possibly some Trinity id ea ma y l ie behin d it
but even this i d ea is utterl y forei g n to the time of E z ra
The same u s e Of Elohim in a plural s ense occurs either
explicitly or impl icitl y in Gen
an d
A n d with
these we shou l d c o mpare the Jahvistic sections Of Gen
an d
We cannot be ver y much mistaken if
we say that in the earl ier se c tions of Genesis the biblical
E l oh i m O ften approaches the B abylonian expression

the g reat g o d s
This becomes stil l more
I ld n i Ra buti
apparent when we refer to the expression Ya h w eh E loh i m
ean anythin g
in Gen c hap s 2 an d 3 whi ch can har d ly m

else than Y ahweh Of the Go d s or L ord of the Go d s

A n d this expression occurs a g ain an d a g ain throu ghout
Genesis in both J an d P sections at least if we may rely
upon the evi d ence furnishe d b y the S eptua gint
2 4
We have al s o c all e d attention to Gen
an d
where Enoch an d N oah are said to have transacte d
busin e s s with Elohim The anthropomorphi s m of these
e x pressions is so evid ent that it is hard to see any d ifference
between P an d J the d o cument whi c h critics claim is
the most ant hr opomorphic Of al l S imil ar id eas meet

L i k th B a b y l o i a A
Ha d s ; V d i c B a hm a V i s h u
I

nu,

B el ,

a nd

k Z u s Pos i d o
d V
S h i a ; I c la d i c O d i Vi li
a nd

Ae;

or

th e
n

ree

n,

r, a n

n, a n d
ei

OF

T H E D A TE

THE P D

O CU M E N T

u s once more in P expressions when Go d is s aid to arise

from A braham an d J a c ob
c
S
till
more
si
g
nicant
are
the
references
to
the
cave
)
O f M achpelah
which contain e d the tomb s of the patri

a rc h s
The patriarchs are said to be g athere d to their

fathers when they d ie an d this presupposes s o me s u r

v i v a l of ancestor worship
B ut waivin g for the present the question O f the d ate of
the composition O f P we must at l east a d mit that P con
s ta n tl y uses material d at in g from a tim e when the stri c t
monotheism Of the exil ic an d po s t ex ili c perio d s was
unknown
d ) I n View Of the reli g ious beliefs prevail in g in the time
O f E z ekiel an d from then on d own to that O f E z ra it d oes
not seem probable in fact it seems quite impossible that
a d o c ument shoul d be put forth by men both priests an d
prophets very z ealous in the i r worship which promul gate s
the worship of E l S h a d d a i I t is also almost incre d ible
that it S houl d have been receive d b y a people which ha d
been s o severel y chastene d in the Exile We cannot d en y
that this name was an epithet for Y ahweh ; but the true
Go d is here presente d to the people in a local a spect I n
referrin g to Go d as E l S h a d d a i the author O f P has id en t i
ed h im with a l ocal d ivinity
This is im possible for
E z ra s time for the henotheistic conception certain ly d id
,

G en

G en

9;

32

a m ca m f o m o th Sy i a T h s a m g o d
i t o d uc d
i t o t h E gy p ti a p a th o u d t h a m f S t S d w h i c h s h ou l d p ob
ab l y b p o ou c d S d d i T h c t f t h is o sh i p w i Ta is d
A a is d th go d s t o t m t h a ss hi c h c o c ts h im i th t h w o s h i p
A m o it p o p l of Sy i a th Am o it a m its lf
f Ha d a d f t h A m
h a ss
b i g th O l d
C a aa i t
am f Ch m
3

Th e
e

e n

er

an

u rr u o r

e n

er

er n

was

en er

e o

e o

e n

or

or o r

e-

n r

as

nne

was

e n

an

R E L I G I O U S IN S TITUTI O N S

not l ast lon ger than to the gr eat prophets Of the ei ghth
century
e
) There i s another S im ilar name use d in P in Gen
c hap 1 4 where M e l chiz e d ek is said to worship E l Elyon
who is the local Go d of S al em an d the relig ion i s c ertainly
san c tione d an d c o n s id ere d perfectly proper for A braham
receives a bl essin g from him
Thus in certa in s e c tions of P we n d the rel ig ious views
entirely d issonant with the theolo gy of E zra or E z ekiel
S ometimes Go d is l ooke d at in a polytheistic or at least
possibly a trinitarian way I n other cases he is worshipe d
as a henotheistic o r local g o d un d er special an d local
names I n still other cases the d ocument acquiesces in
ancestor worship an d in other peculiar forms of worship
as for in stance when it intro d uces the rite of circumcision
These sections of the d o cument must ante d ate the perio d
Of the g reat prophets
.

IV

R eli g i ou s

t t u ti on s

I ns i

I
t
is
assume
d
by
mo
d
ern
critics
that
the
D
d
ocu
)
ment is the one which in tro d uces the central sanctuary
an d that althou gh the P d ocument an d co d e d o not men
tion such a sanctuary the y d o presuppose it Erg o say
the critics the P d ocument is later than D I t is to be
d eplore d that critical research un d ertakes to rea d so much
I f the P d ocument
into the B ible that never was there
a

or co d e d oes not mention a s in gle central sanctuary we

shoul d not attribute to it any such in stitution unless we
have further evid ence I f the d o cument d oes not mention
it it may be suppose d that quite possibly it neither knew
of it nor inten d e d to refer to it
,

G en

TH E DAT E

OF

TH E P D

OCUM E NT

On closer examination O f the P co d e th o u gh we n d

that it both knows of an d acquies c es in more than on e
s an c tuary
N ow the P co d e was written in the wil d er
ness of S inai if we may believe its o wn statements an d
there of c ourse the people ha d only one sanctuary the
Tent of M eetin g I n it therefore we coul d hard ly
expect references to more than one sanctuary B ut the
passa ge just allu d e d to implies that in the future more than
on e sanctuar y was to be expecte d
B ut such a thou ght
as this woul d be entirely impo s sibl e in the time of E zra
or even in the time O f E z ekiel
I n P S 4 3 :3 ;
an d 8 4 :1 are references to several

d well in g places Of Y ahwe h

The word for d well in g

place is purel y a P expression B ut the tone Of the

references makes it necessary to believe that in the time
they were written more than on e sanctuary was not only
permitte d but extolle d I ncid entally too it may be
remarke d that none O f these psalms can possibly be
assig ne d on this account to a post exilic d ate
5
b
I
n
assi
g
ni
n
g
the
P
d
ocument
an
d
co
d
e
mo
d
ern
g :)
criticism h a s g iven as its reasons the statement that the
characteristic institutions Of this co d e are not kn own to
the history Of I srae l until the time of E z ra R eferences
to such in stitutions in the poetical books are explaine d
by the assumption that such books belon g to the ex i li c
or p os t ex i li c p eri od s
The chief trouble with this hypoth
esis is the fact that after the time O f E z ra Hebrew history
becomes a blank We kn ow almost noth in g about it
C onsequentl y it can quite easily be claime d thou gh even
more easil y d enie d that several of these P institutions
were never put into e ffect an d that the y represent merely
I L
cf P
Cf P
,

"

ev

RE

L I G I O U S I N S T I T UT I O N S

the pious hopes of the povert y stricken priests of J eru sa

lem hopes which were never to be realiz e d
The case is however; n ot so clear as on a r st glance
it might appear to be The prece d in g history of I srael
is n ot as is claime d entirel y free from reference to these
P in stitutions On the o ther han d we coul d hard l y
expect that some Of them shoul d be s o mentione d M uch
wei ght is attache d to the fact that the in s titutions so promi
nent in P of the sin Off erin g the meal an d peac eO ffer
in g s an d the thank offerin g s althou gh so promin ently
feature d in L ev itic u s are not referre d to in the historical
books I t is claim e d that these sacrices coul d not have
been in existence in the time of these books B ut it must
be observe d in this connection that the laws on these
s acri ces in P were ma d e for pri v a te c a ses The y are all
private sacri ces Even the law in L eviticus on the
holocaust refers to a private sacri c e The y provid e
for an in d ivi d ual makin g a sacrice n ot for a people
A n d therefore we ou ght not to expect that these sacrices
shoul d be mentione d in the historical books There were
other sacrices of a public nature an d the law for them is
to be foun d in Num chap 2 8 I n this place the P co d e
connes itself to the holocaust with re g ulations as to
Off erin g it on ever y week d ay on the S abbath an d on
the new moons The O fferin g of p u bli c holocausts is
however not unknown to the earlier history of I srae l
which refers frequently both to public holocausts an d to
public peace offerin g s D euteronom y also le g islates about
these two sacrices I saiah knows not onl y of the great
feasts but also of oblations incense new moons solemn
convocations an d callin g O f assemblies al l of them P
c hap
I sa
Isa
L
L
chap s 5
-

ev

2-

ev

T H E D AT E

OF

THE P D O

C U M E NT

institutions which on the assumption of the criti c s

S houl d be unkn own to his time B ut hi s references t o
them in d icate a re gular observan c e an d presume a co d i
ed law
B ut these institutions of which we have seen tra c es in
the time of I saiah are visible throu gh all of Hebrew history
The mea l oeri n g for instance is mentione d at lea s t
1 n Ju d g
2 3 ; I Ki n g s
the
time
of
S
olomon
(
);
II K in g s
1
A
mos
2
Zeph
:
1 0
;
;
5
5
3
Of course no one can d ispute the authority of A mo s at
least The p ea c e oeri n g is n ot only known to E an d D
but is mentione d in all the historical books an d in A mos
who speaks of it as a re g ular sacrice The th a n k oeri n g
is also well kno w n to A mos
The trespass offerin g is
mentione d in I S am
I n c en s e was a part o f Eli s wor
ship S olomon o ff ere d it also A n d it was re g ularl y use d
in the times of I saiah an d Jeremiah C allin g of assem
blies is testie d to by I saiah
The n ew moon f es tiva ls
were celebrate d r eg u l a rly in the time of Elisha Hosea
5
A mos I saiah an d E z ekiel
M any critics are willin g to a d mit that these customs
may perhaps have existe d but the y qualify their a d mission
by sa y in g that there were no co d ie d laws re g ulatin g them
B ut anyone who reco gni z es the truth that in all other lan d s
the temple rituals were carefull y re gulate d b y ceremonia l
co d es n d s it har d to believe that the Hebrew temple
ritual was any exception to the rule B ut after all we
are not d ealin g w i th the question o f co d es just here We
are merely controvert in g that argument which sa y s that
the absence of these institutions before the Exile an d their
,

Amos
Amo s

4 :5

I Sa m

1 3a

4, 8,

E ze

3, 6

R E LI G I O US

U ONS

I N TI T T I

presen c e in P is g oo d reason for d atin g the latter d urin g

or after the Exil e We have felt constrain e d to d e cl ine
the c onclusion The rst premise is a mere assumption
an d one contrary to the evid ence which the B ible itself
furnishes
c
) M uch stress ha s been lai d upon the d iff erent ways
in which the D an d P co d e s re g ar d the priests an d L evites
I t is un d oubte d l y true that the D d ocument represents a ll
L evites as priests wh ile the P d ocument an d co d e reco g
ni z e as priest s o nl y the sons of A aron an d re g ard the
L evites generally as belon g in g to an inferior ord er
M o d ern criticism seeks to exp lain the d iscrepancy by
assum in g that a d e gra d ation of id olatrous priests into
L evites took place after D was publishe d in 62 1
C ritics
seek to base this d e gra d ation on the co d e O f E z ekiel
where E z ek iel su ggests that onl y priests comin g from

Zad ok ( sons of Za d ok ) shoul d be permitte d to offer

sacri ces in the temp l e an d that a ll the other L evites
shoul d perform the menial o fces in the temple
The theor y seems plausible but is so o nl y on the
surface F or one thin g the P co d e an d d o c ument d o n ot

know of sons of Zad ok ; the y speak of sons of A aro n

A n d these terms cannot be mad e equal F urther if the
d e grad ation of the L evites was base d on E z ek

its rst promul g ation was O f course ma d e at the great

F east of T a b ern a c l es in 44 4 B C when E zra read hi s
law book to the people I S it not somewhat remarkable
that all the peop l e inclu d in g the L evites themse l ves
a c cepte d these new l aws with shouts of joy an d that n ot
o ne sin gle murmur of O bjection was ma d e by those who
now heard that they were d e g ra d e d from prie s ts into mere
IE k

ze

T H E D AT E

0
3

OF

TH E P D

O CU M E N T

temple menials ? Up to the arrival of N ehemiah E z ra

ha d not been much in the favor Of the people but he ha d
d one nothin g toward d e g ra d in g the priests He ha d not
even mentione d anythin g of the kin d A n d are we to
believe that now when he puts forth a law book in which
a ver y large proport i on of h i s own L evitical tribesmen
are d e g ra d e d this act establishes him rml y in their g oo d
graces ? A n d woul d we not expect that this stupen d ous
chan ge in priestly arran gements mi ght h a ve some e ffect
upon the people who now hear of it for the rst time ?
S til l they d isplay not a trace of surprise The y take it
quite a s a matter of course They are highly an d unani
That this d e g ra d ation took place in
mou sl y satise d
E zra s time i s to the hi ghest d e g ree improbable
E ze
kiel s su ggestion that the h igh priesthoo d be conne d to
the sons of Za d ok ma y have been carrie d out b y E z ra
but this much is certain that the P co d e knows not one
thin g about it I n the later chapter on the priesthoo d s
we S hall consid er this more fully
,

H i st o i ca l D t
r

e er

m in

a ts of th
n

at

a d mitte d b y a larg e number of conservative

critics that E z ekie l w a s acquainte d with the Hol iness C o d e
in the form that we now have it This means then that
in 5 8 5 B C at least the followin g institutions were known
an d in operation : the A aronic priesthoo d the hig h
priest the s in an d trespass O ffer in g s the D ay of A tone
6
ment the three great festivals the F east of T ru mp ets
8
the O il for the lamps the shewbread s the sabbatical
a

is

I
t
)

I L ev

L ev

L ev

c ha ps

7,

2 1

L ev

L ev

L ev

2 2
-

32

44

;
;

L ev

L ev

L ev

HI S T OR I CAL
Of

D E T E RM I NA NT

Jubil ee ,

S OF

TH E DATE

31

the year
an d L evitical cities
An d
further this means t h at these l aws must have been in
operati o n before the Exil e be g an
b) L eviticus c ontain s a law on cl ean an d unclean ani
mals
The same law is foun d in D euteronomy 5 The
verbal a gree ment an d th e or d er O f enumeration O f the
an imals is so clo s ely paral l e l that the two co d es must have
known of on e another in this point at l east an d the on e
must have borrowe d from the other I t mi ght perhaps be
assume d that both ha d borrowe d from a common source
B ut the l an g ua g e is not D euteronomic but priestly
M ost critics a d mit that in this case D must have borrowe d
from P This means then that a part of P existe d in its
present form before D euteronomy was publishe d or at
least in the same tim e ; an d as the promul g ation of D euter
2 1 B C
on om
cannot
be
place
d
l
ater
than
6
at least this
y
chapter of the P co d e must be earlier than that d ate An d
a s this l aw belon g s not to the Ho l in e s s C o d e but to those
g eneral l aws of P which are assum e d to be the l ater strata
of that co d e we conclu d e that n ot only the Hol iness C o d e

but the whole P c od e probably most probably existe d

before 62 1 B C
The connection between the D an d P co d es is further
emphasi z e d by a number O f institutions sim ilar in both
6
7
co d es : the year of re l ea s e an d the sabbatical year
8
9
uncleanness an d ceremonial impurity the law s on l ep
the laws on incest an d the laws in re gard to the
ro sy

L evite s

I L 5: 7
chap 5
L
L
9
D ut
D ut
L
L
ch ap 5
D ut
ff
L
33
D ut
c hap s 3 4
L
if
D ut
N m
D ut
L
c haps 8
r,
a
e
y

I o

I O

I I

ev

ev

ev

ev

ev

ev

2 0

ev

1 0

ev

2 0

I 2

OF

TH E DAT E

P D OCU M E NT

TH E

c
a
2 1 B C
That
the
P
co
d
e
nown
can
be
w
a
s
k
6
)
further d emon s trate d an d this time to a certainty I t i s
a d mitte d on all han d s that Josiah s reform s were carrie d
ou t after the B ook of D euteronomy was foun d in the
temple in 62 1 B C I t cannot be d enie d that these
reforms were calle d forth by the B ook of D euteronomy
B ut it is mislea d in g to claim that all of his reforms were
base d solely on that book The followin g facts shoul d be
taken into consid eration :

1
Josiah broke d own the hi gh places of the s a tyr s
The law on satyr worship is foun d on ly in the P co d e
2
When Josiah d estroye d the hi gh p l aces of Ju d ah

their priests were not permitte d to serve at the altar in

Jerusalem B ut he permitte d them to receive the ir por
tion of the unleavene d brea d of the temple
The law
on th e priest s portion of the unleavene d brea d is foun d
on ly in the P co d e
5

Josiah
d
estro
y
e
d
the
hi
g
h
places
f
Ju
d
ah
Jeru
o
3
6
7
salem an d B ethel
B ut D euteron o my has no law
whatever on hi gh places an d the word ( in this technical
sense ) d oes not occur in a sin gle instance in the whole
D co d e The P co d e however has a law forbi dd in g
8
them
4 Josiah put away those who ha d familiar spirits
an d the wi z ard s These are the onl y two kin d s of witch
craft mentione d in the reform
The P co d e has a law
conne d to these two kin d s of witchcraft
I t i s true that
I II K i g s
a d s ga t s b t t h s a m o d it h
Th H b
d i
t p o i ts m a s
saty s
o sh i p
y c o mm o th
d a s s aty
t t s h ou l d b s o p o i t d
L
II K i g s
L
II K i g s
II K i g s
I I K i gs
9
L
II K i g s
8
L
c

1 0

er en

e n

ex

ev

n e

ev

re

r -w

an

e w

w a s v er

ev

ev

n,

rew

S O R I CA L

HI T

D E TE R M I N A N T

S OF

T H E D AT E

33

D eutero nomy has a law o n witch c raft but it mentions

not le s s than ei ght d ifferent kin d s The word i n g in II
Ki n g s most naturally id enties the reform with the law
in L eviticus
w or h i
Josiah
forba
d
e
M
o
l
e
c
h
M
o
l
ech
is
s
n ot
5
p
mentione d in D B ut the P c o d e ha s two laws forbid d in g
his worship ?
d ) We h a ve alrea d y c all e d attention to the reference
by I saiah to certain in s titutions of the P co d e re gularly
O bserve d in his time I t is then in terestin g to notice that
Hosea al s o puts i nto the mouth of Y ahweh the word s

A lthou gh I write for him my law in myriad s of precepts

This in d icates that the written law of Y ahweh existe d
in the time of Hosea (c a 7 3 0 B
4
e
i
n
A
ccor
d
in
g
to
I
K
g
s
S
olomon
O
f
fere
d
a
meal
)
Offerin g at the c o n s ecration of the temple The meal
5
Offerin g is an in s titution of the P co d e an d is foun d on ly
in that co d e
Thi s carrie s u s back t o the time of the unite d
kin gd om (c a 9 60 B
6
f) I n I S amuel we read that before S au l visite d the
witch at En d or he ha d put away all those wh o ha d fam iliar
Spirits A s it evid entl y was an in novation on his part t o
d o this we cannot suppose that he woul d have d are d to
take s o im portant a step unless he had behin d him a l aw
reco gni z e d as valid amon g his people N ow the E co d e
7
has a s in gle law on sor c ery
A s for D the passa g e
in I S amue l betrays no afn ity either in th ou ght or in
l an gua ge with it B ut I S amuel d oe s c ome very cl o s e
in d ee d to the pr o vi s ions Of the l aw re gard in g witch c raft
,

I II K i g s

L ev

Hos

I Ki g s
chap
L

ev

IS m
E od
a

T H E D AT E

34

in P where

OF

THE P D

OC UME NT

as we have s een o nly two kin d s O f witche s

are forbidd en those havin g famil iar spirits an d wi z ar d s
The con d itions of the time as we know from contemporary
history so stron gly favore d astrolo gy an d a ll kin d s of
witchcraft that S aul woul d not have d are d un d ertake his
reform except with the explicit support of a we l l know n
law An d the law i n this case coul d o nly be the one
foun d in what we now call the P co d e
f
r
Gen
says
that
ei
g
ht
kin
g
s
o
E
d
om
u
l
e
d
g)
before there rei gne d one in I srael This g ives a termi n u s
t
u o for this P portion in
ermi n u s
Genesis
This
a
q
is the reig n of S aul the rst kin g of I srael (c a 1 0 5 0

I f Gen 3 6 :3 1 39 which g ives the histor y of the

B
kin g s of E d om was wr itten in the time of E z ra or of
E z ekiel it is impossible to explain wh y o nly ei ght E d omite
king s shoul d be mentione d an d this histor y en d abruptly
with Ha d ar I n the case of the rst seven kin g s it is
s tate d that ea c h one of them d ie d but no such remark
is a dd e d about Ha d ar The only le g itimate inference
is that this history of E d om was wr itten when Ha d ar was
yet rei gnin g either before or in the earl y part of S aul s
r D avi d s
rei
g
n
B
ut
there
is
no
reason
why
the
P
o
(
)
co d es sh o ul d not have existe d before the P d ocument an d
no reason why thi s statement shoul d not be re g ard e d as a
re d actorial note
I

L w of Y a h w h
VI
Thus far we have foun d in s tances throu ghout the his
tor ic a l books in d icatin g that the laws o f the P co d e were
in operation as far back as the time o f S aul We have

f or

L ev

I t s h ou l d b o t d h o w
I s a l h i c h ou l d p ut t h
e n

eve r,
e

th a t

th e

ter mi n u s

fo t y s
r

kh

r ee
-

even

a d s J u s al
y a s fa t h

er e re
e

er

er o n

LAW O F

YAHWE H

s een that reforms were carrie d

35

on the basi s of this

co d e an d that in the nature of the case such reforms must
have been base d on co d ie d l aws since the pra c tice s that
were reforme d were the thi n g s that naturally reste d upon
tra d itions A refo r m is then s omethin g new an d pre
s uppose s not a tra d ition b u t a d e n ite law which enabl es
a ruler or a priesthoo d t o overrule tra d itions an d brin g in
a new ord er of thin g s A s surely as the reforms of Josiah
were base d upon writte n laws so were the reforms of
He z ekiah Jehoshaphat an d S aul base d upon written
laws law s which the people must have boun d themselves
to obey A t this late d a y it cannot possibly be objecte d
that wr itten laws were n ot possible at so ea rl y a d ate
The A marna l etters ( 1 4 0 0 B C ) are more than enou gh
evid ence for the universal use of wr itin g at that time
Writin g in the time of S aul must have been as common
as in the time of Josiah
The B ibl e furnishes however evid ence that the P
cod e existe d in wr itten form l o n g before the time of
E z ekie l :

a ) I n II Ch r on
we rea d He [ He z ekiah] appointe d
also the kin g s portion of his substance for the burnt
o ff erin g s to wit for the mornin g an d evenin g burnt offer
in gs an d the burnt off erin g s for the S abbaths an d for
the N ew moons an d for the set feasts as it is written in
M oreover he comman d e d the pe o
th e L a w of Y a h w eh
ple that d welt in Jerusalem to g ive the portion of the
priests an d the L evites that they mi ght g ive themselves

to th e L a w of Y a h w eh
Here we have two referen c es to th e La w of Ya h w eh
A n d it is O bviou s that here the phrase is a technic al term
I II Ch o
4
ou t

'

36

T H E D AT E

OF

TH E P D

O CU M E N T

for a law that was written What law coul d this have

been ? The mention of priests an d L evites points t o

the P co d e S o d o es the mention of the mornin g an d
evenin g burnt O fferin g s the S abbaths the N ew moons
an d the set festivals I n fact the whole passa ge betrays
evid ences of the lan gua g e an d institutions of P R efer
rin g then back to the P co d e we n d that the rst refer
ence of our quotation g ives the substance of the law in
N um chap 2 8 N o simil ar l aw is foun d elsewhere
in the Hexateuch The s econ d reference refers us t o

N or is this law foun d e l sewhere in the

N um
24
Hexateuch The term La w of Y a h w eh may then be
assume d to be the technical term for the P co d e in the
time of He z ekiah
The O bjection that this passag e is foun d in C hronicl es
which came from prie s tly han d s cannot be much re g ard e d
for it is impossible to Show that the matter referre d to is
not historicall y true A n d furthermore we S hall pres
ently Show that the same technical term is use d in the
same sense by other authors of whom no on e woul d d ream
M ore
O f sayin g that the y belon g e d to the priestl y school
over i h this passa g e we have the conrmatory evid ence

which says O f He z ekiah that he kept (or

of K in g s
enforce d ) the comman d ments which Y ahweh comman d e d

M oses
The lan gua ge here poin ts to the P co d e

b ) I n II C hronicles we read N ow the rest of the act s

of Josiah an d h is g oo d d ee d s accord in g to that which is
w ri tten i n th e L a w of Y a h w eh an d his acts rst an d last
the y are written in the B ook of the K in g s of I srael an d

Ju d ah
A gain we d eal with the same technical term th e L a w
I 1 1 K i gs
II C h o
7
.

L AW

O F YAHW E H

37

The expression
g oo d d ee d s or bene
f

factio ns pre s ents to us unmistakabl y the lan gua ge an d

spirit of the P c o d e We notice d above that the reforms
Of Jo s iah were base d both on the D an d P co d e s
We
kn o w that the D c o d e existe d then in written form What
m o re l ikely than that the P co d e d id also ?
c
) Jeremiah was a contemporary of Josiah He refers
al so to this l aw th e L a w of Y a h w eh althou gh he accuses
the scribes Of makin g chan ges in it even at that early
t ime The c harge wa s un d oubte d ly well foun d e d an d
i s one which shou l d be constantly remembere d in c on s id
erin g the manuscripts trans cribe d by the scribes from
He sa y s How d o ye sa y We are wise
60 0 B C onwar d
an d th e L a w of Y a h w eh is with us ? B ut behol d the

false pen of the scribe s hath wrou g ht fa l sely

Wil ful corruptions of the text then d ate back at lea s t
to the d ays of Jeremiah !
d ) We notice d above that the P co d e was known by
the technical term La w of Y a h w eh in the time of He z e
kiah This of course i s the time O f I saiah An d he

B ecause
too kn ew of th e L a w of Y a h w eh He sa y s
they have rej ecte d th e L a w of Y a h w eh of H os ts an d

Y a h w eh
d espise d the word of the Holy One of I srael
o H os ts belon g s to the lan gua g e of P an d H oly O n e of
f
I s ra el whil e characteristic of I saiah has for its basis too
the lan gu a g e of the P co d e especially that of the Holin ess
C ode

A g ain he says
F or it is a rebellious people l y in g

c hild ren c hil d ren that will n ot hear th e L a w of Y a h w eh

A n d in another place
S eek y e out of th e B ook of
o

Y a h w eh

Y a h w eh

IJ

er

4
.

2
.

I sa

5 :2 4 b

I sa

I sa

38

TH E

D AT E OF

THE P D

O CUM E N T

Here is an explicit reference to a B ook of Y a h w eh

which must have been well known to the people I t
occurs in a prophecy in which I saiah pre d icts the d oom
of E d om for its unkin d l iness towar d I srael
The prophet
d esires to cal l the people s attention to the fact that E d om
had alwa y s been treacherous to the chil d ren of I srael an d
he g ives for proof a reference to th e B ook of Y a h w eh I t is
in the P d oc u m en t that we n d pr o of of I saiah s veracit y
Th e B ook of Y a h w eh then it woul d seem is the P co d e
an d d ocument an d i s i d entical with th e L a w of Y a h w eh
except that we here n d it referre d to as a book whil e
the C hronicler merely says that it was w ri tten The

Hebrew word for book S ep h er means a complete in d e

pen d ent treatise I t is possible that th e L a w of Y a h w eh
in th e B ook of Y a h w eh was merely the P co d e of o u r
Exo d us N umbers but it i s not improbable that at this
time the P sections of Genesis alrea d y belon ge d to it
e
The
home
of
A
mos
was
south
of
Jerusalem
There
)
fore if the P co d e which evi d entl y belon ge d to the priests
in Jerusalem existe d in his time he woul d probabl y know
o f it
He prophesie d in B ethel a city of the N orthern
Kin gd om where we woul d not expect to n d traces of
the P co d e N or d oes A mos allu d e to it save in a S in gle
para graph which si gnicantl y enou gh is h is oracle

a g ainst Jerusalem where he sa y s Thus sa y s Y ahweh

F or three trans gression s Of Ju d ah yea for four I will not
turn it away but because they have rejecte d th e L a w of
Y a h w eh an d have not kept h i s statutes an d their lies
have cause d them to err after the which their fathers d id

walk
I s it not sig nicant that of all h i s oracles A mos shoul d
IN m
A mo s
.

2 1

L AW

OF YAHWE H

39

make mention of th e La w of Y a h w eh onl y in that a gainst

Ju d ah ? We are almost force d to ad mit as a lo g ical
consequence that th e La w of Y a h w eh is a technical
term for a law book existin g in Ju d ah an d Jerusal em an d
that this book existe d there in the time of A m
os
II K in g s refers us a g a in to th e L a w of Y a h w eh

B ut Jehu took no hee d to walk in th e L a w of Y a h w eh

the Go d O f I srael with all his heart ; he d eparte d not from

the sins of Jeroboam wherewith he ma d e I srael to s in

Here it is n ot the C hronicler but the D euteronomi c
compil er of Kin g s who uses this term th e La w of Y a h w eh
N ow Jehu was in the N orthern Kin gd om an d therefore
if we have been correct in ou r c on c liI sion s n ot un d er
B ut the e d itor livin g in Jerusalem
th e L a w of Y a h w eh
ju dge d him to have been a ba d kin g simply be c ause he
d id not accept the law book of Ju d ah A t any rate the
term is not one coin e d by the late C hronic l er
f
Goin
g
back
o
the
t
i
me
o
Jehoshaphat we read
t
g)

a g ain A n d the y tau ght in Ju d ah havin g the book of

th e L a w of Y a h w eh with them ; an d they went about
throu ghout all the cities of Ju d ah an d tau ght amon g the

peopl e

The reference is to L evites wh o are teachin g the

book of th e L a w of Y a h w eh A n d here we g et the wel

come information which we anticipate d when exam in i n g

the passa g e from I saiah that the B ook of Y ahweh

was the book of th e L a w of Ya h w eh Now this teach

in g be g an in the thir d year of Jehoshaphat (8 7 3 B
We must a d mit that the term th e L a w of Y a h w eh seems
to be a technical term with the same meanin g as in other
pa s sag es in C hronic l es
I I I Ki gs
I I Ch o
,

TH E

40

D AT E OF

THE P D

O CUM E NT

I t is of great importan c e that we here n d the L evite s

ou t on missionary work in tro d ucin g th e L a w of Y a h w eh
,

to the people Of the cities of Ju d ah This preachin g pre

supposes two thin g s : rst that before this time it had not
been we l l known outsid e of Jerusalem proper an d secon d
that the A aronic priesthoo d whose co d e this w a s were
now in the ascen d ancy ea g er to propa g ate the peculiar
tenets of their cree d
h ) A sa father o f Jehoshaphat was equal ly a z ealous

supporter of the P co d e We rea d A n d he [A sa] c o m

m a n d ed to seek Y ahweh the Go d of their fathers an d

to d o the law an d the c omm a n d men ts

A n d a g a in

N ow for a l on g time I srael ha d been without the true

G od an d without a teachin g priest an d without Torah ?

The
teachin g priest
law
comman d ments
are all well known expre s sions of the P co d e Tora h

may mean teachin g as so many mo d ern scholars wou l d

have us believe an d in many cases it un d oubte d ly d oes
mean this ; but when it is u se d in a technical sense as it evi
d en tl y is here it can refer onl y to a c ollection of ora c les or
l aws F urthermore we must assume from the nature of the
case that it was in written form We have no warrant for
the assumption that Tora h may mean an oral trad ition
when use d in a technical sense I f the P d ocument was
a s we have seen in book form in the time of Jehoshaphat
it woul d be unwarrante d to assume that it w a s only oral
tra d ition in the time of his imme d iate pre d ecessor A sa
The d yin g D avid prays for his s on S olomon sa y in g

Onl y Y ahweh g ive thee d iscretion an d un d erstan d in g

an d g ive thee char g e concernin g I srael ; that s o thou

mayest keep th e L a w of Y a h w eh thy Go d

I I I Ch o
II C h o
I Ch o
.

L AW

OF YAHWE H

41

The phra s e Y ahweh th y G od l ooks D euteronomi c

at rst glance an d we mi ght suppose that pos s ibl y the
reference was t o the D c o d e ; but this co d e is never else

where referre d to as th e L a w of Y a h w eh
Thi s refer
ence may n o t be pre ss e d as a certain reference to the P
co d e but thi s s eems the most likely e x planation B ut
we have another instance rec o rd e d in re g ar d to D avi d
I n this other case D avi d assi gn s d ifferent ord ers of priest s
to the d ifferent sanctuaries : A s aph an d hi s brethren to
mini s ter before the A rk Of the C ovenant of Y ahweh in
Jerusalem as every d ay s work require d an d Zad ok the
p riest an d his brethren before the Tabernacle of Y ahweh

in the hi gh place at Gibeon these latter to Offer h u m t

O fferin g s mornin g an d evenin g even accor d in g to all that
is written in th e L a w of Y a h w eh whi c h he comman d e d

unto I srael
This passa g e is of the utmost im portance if we d es ire
to un d erstan d the relig ious situation of the time Here
we have the A rk of the C ovenant with a certain priesthoo d
set up in Jerusalem an d the Tabernacle of Y ahweh with
another priesthoo d s et up in Gibeon The Ark of the
C ovenant is peculiarly the exp ression of the E an d D
co d es wh ile the Tabernacle of Y ahweh is peculiar to the
P co d e I n this passa g e they are plain l y d istinct M ore
over the ceremonies before the A rk of the C ovenant are
simple an d un d ene d just as the D co d e leaves them
The ceremonies before the Tabernacle of Y ahweh on
the other han d are those d ene d in the P co d e
An d
before this Taberna cle it is explicitly state d the d ail y

m o rnin g an d even in g holocausts were o ffere d accord in g

F urther
to all that is w ritten in th e L a w of Y a h w eh
N m chap 8
I C h o 6 :3 7 4
,

OF

T H E D AT E

42

TH E P D

OCU ME NT

more it is said that this law was in w ri tten form in the

time of D avid We must un d erstan d that th e L a w of
Y a h w eh here as e l sewhere means the P c o d e
We foun d above that S aul carrie d ou t reforms base d
upon the P co d e A n d here we n d that thi s co d e exist s
in written form a few years after S aul s d eath The
ori g in Of the book of the P co d e can hard l y be place d later
than the rei gn of S aul On the other han d we have n o
warrant whatever d erivable from the B ible for placin g
the co d ication of the laws of P ver y much earlier I t i s
true that there i s a reference to th e L a w of Y a h w eh in
Exo d
but critical schol a rs seem to prefer that thi s
an d the prece d in g verses be assigne d to the D d o c ument
an d it i s thou ght that these verses have straye d in in quite
lonel y fashion amon g P an d J sections The passa ge
has probably been misplace d
There are three more references to th e La w of Y a h w eh
in E zra in N ehemiah an d in D aniel
These however
are quite late an d are of no u se therefore in d etermin in g
the termi n u s a qu o for P What we have already S hown
i s we think superabun d ant evi d ence that th e L a w of
Y a h w eh i s the technical term for the P co d e an d d ocument
an d that that co d e an d d ocument existe d in written form
a book as earl y as the time of D avid an d most probabl y
in the d ays of S aul
,

E XTE R N A L E VI D E N

CE

n ternal evi d ence we are now able to a dd

To
this
i
)
some of an external sort I n 1 90 7 D r Ru b en s oh n d is
covere d a t Elephantine three d ocuments written in 4 0 8
B C b y a certain J ed On ia h a priest o f the temple of Y a h
E a
N h
D

zr

an

EX

TE R NAL

EV

I D E N CE

43

in the city o f E l ephantine in southern E gypt One

of these d o cuments is a letter or the copy of a letter
a dd resse d t o the g overnor of Jerusalem askin g his per
mission to rebuil d the Jewish temple in Elephantine I n
this letter it is s tate d that this temple ha d existe d when
C ambyses came to E gypt to conquer it in 5 2 5 B c I t
a dd s that when C ambyses d estroye d all the temp l e s of
E gyp t he left thi s on e alone s tan d in g The temple later
on throu gh the inuence of E gyptian pri ests ha d been
d estroye d The Jews n ow wishe d to have it rebu ilt
I n this l etter there are several remarkable statement s in
re g ar d to the temple ritual by which it is plain that the
services were con d ucte d accor d in g to the elaborate ritual
of the P co d e
R eferences are ma d e especially to the
burnin g of incense holocausts an d meal sa c r i c es The
tone of the whole letter in d icates that these servi c es ha d
been carrie d on ever since the temple had been foun d e d
N ow it wa s existin g in 5 2 5 B C an d the probabil ity
is that it ha d existe d a lon g tim e before that I s a ia h

speaks about a pillar of Y ahweh on the bord er of E g ypt

an d of worship in the C anaanite ton gue ( Galil ean A ramaic )
F our of these places are mentione d
in ve cities of E g ypt
b y Jeremiah an d the fth city ma y perhaps have been
Elephantine I f the temple was foun d e d in the time of
I saiah (c a 70 0 B C ) it was probably b y fu g itives from
Galilee ee in g after the conquest of Zebulun an d N aphtali
by Tig l a th p il eser I V This is perhaps the most probable
d ate for the be g innin g O f Jewish services in E gypt We
have here then a welcome testimony to worship with a
P ritual in pre J osia n ic tim es
w eb

I I sa
3

2
.

Fo r th e

c o t ts of th
n en

l p h a ti
e

ne

J er

l tt
e

er, s ee

A pp d i I
en

OF

T H E D AT E

44

THE P D

OCU ME NT

b ) The D ocumentary Hypothesis assumes that the P

d ocument an d c o d e is later than D an d that the comp il a
tion of the four d ocuments J E D an d P took place in
the time of E z ra Is it n ot stran g e that in this compil ation
no notice is taken O f D euteronomy ? The rst four books
with hard ly a trace
of the Hexateuch are closel y fuse d
of D euteronomy which latter is hun g on to the complete d
J E F d ocument in such a manner that the Greek title

the S econ d L aw o r D euteronom y becomes especially

ttin g The fact that J E an d P are combine d an d D
a dd e d to the result seems to poin t to a d ate for the com
i
il
on of the J E F d ocuments before the D d ocument
a
t
p
was d iscovere d in 62 1 B C A n d if at that time P was
combine d an d sometimes fuse d with J an d E it must O f
course have existe d at that time
,

C C O N CL U S I O N
.

I n View of all these consi d erations it seems almost

impossible to a g ree with those a d vocates of the D ocu
mentar y Hypothesis who assig n the P d ocument to the
time of E z ra or in d ee d to any late d ate The evid ence
on the contrar y all seems to point unmistakably to a very
early d ate most probably to about the time of S amuel
S aul an d D avi d
.

C H A P TE R III
Th e Un i ty

and

Con ten ts

th e P Doc u men t

of

FR A G M E N T S A ND D O U B L E TS

The P d o c ument shoul d accord in g to the D o cumentary

Hypothesis be one complete d o c ument S till it g ives
in many p l a c es
no c omplete s tory whatever F or
in s tance :
a ) Gen
mu s t be place d imme d iately after Gen
in ord er to g ive it an y meanin g that is rea s onable
The P re d act o r is thus c h ar ge d with a wil ful mutilation
of the d ocument B ut even if thi s be a d mitte d P has no
st o ry of the overthrow of S o d om an d Gen
pre
suppo s es su c h a story in the d ocument This s tory must
have been omitte d from the P narrative when that narra
tive was inc o rp o rate d in t o the Hexateuch
2 0
2 6c cannot be un d erst o o d by them
b ) Gen
s e l ves becau s e the P d o c ument n o where tells Oi the birth
O f Esau an d Jacob
c
P
d
oes
not
know
that
Jacob
ever
came
to
L
aban
)
S till it is said it i nforms us that L aban g ave Zilpah as
han d maid to L eah that he g ave R achel to Jacob as wife
an d B ilhah a s han d maid to R achel B ut the d ocument
n o where tells u s that L eah was the wife of Jacob These
two verse s d o not t to gether nor d o they g ive the same
meanin g
o therwise
d ) I t is i mpo s sible to un d erstan d Gen
than that D inah is a d au ghter of B ilh ah if we rea d the
P d o cument b y itself ; but when we rea d the pas s ag e a s a
,

G en

2
.

45

G en

9 :2 8 b,

46

TH E

UN I T Y

A ND

CO NT E NT S OF

THE P D

O C U M E NT

whole as it stan d s in the B ible she appears to be the d a u g h

ter O f L eah The best way to explain this is on the hypoth
esis that that portion of the P d ocument which d ealt with
L eah has been lost
1 8 b d oes not t to g ether with Gen
e) Gen 3 1
which prece d es it imme d iatel y in the P d ocument s o
,

ca

ed

Gen 3 7 :2 a shows no connection with Gen 4 1 :4 6

which is suppose d to follow it in the d ocument
:
1
Gen
1
cannot
be
un
d
erstoo
d
without
the
4
g)
7 5
prece d in g histor y of Joseph in E g ypt which however
is not to be foun d in this d ocument

1 4
Gen
an d
cannot all have
come from the same d ocument M o d ern criticism assi gn s
these sections d ealin g with the g enealo gy of Esau al l to
the P d ocument neverthele ss A s they contrad ict on e
another an d as the same author shoul d hard ly have felt
the nee d of recor d in g the genealo gy three times in three
d ifferent wa y s such an assi g nment seems very improbable
if there be but o ne P d ocument
L ev chaps 1 8 an d 2 0 contain similar l aws on the
same subject but in d etail quite d ivergent I t is not easy
to s ee how these laws c oul d both have been promul g ate d
at the same time an d bel on g to the same d o cument
N or is it easy to see why the same co d e shoul d con
tain such a larg e number of l aws on the S abbath

I n L ev 1 3 6 :7 is a co d e d ealin g with the sacrices

:
n
the
sam
e
co
d
e
is
g
iven
a
g
ai
coverin
g
I n L ev
4
3
7
the same g roun d
These examples coul d be multip l ie d many times over
but they are su fcient to S how : r s t that the P d ocument
as we have it now is not complete ; se c on d that there must
.

CHA N G E

OF

NA M E S

47

have been more than one P d ocument or several d ocu

ments sim ilar in lan gu ag e an d content s from which the
P d o cument wa s ma d e up S everal portion s of this P
d ocument were then left out when it was compile d with
the other d o c uments wherever these other d ocument s
pre s ente d the m o re comp l ete story on a g iven po int
,

II

CHA N G E

OF

N A ME S

I t is assume d on the basi s of Exo d 6 :2 that when Go d

reveal e d himse l f in a the ophan y un d er a new name that
new name sh o u l d constant l y be applie d to him until
another new name wa s g iven Now in Gen
Go d
.

reveale d himself to A braham an d announce d that his

name was E l S h a d d a i The si gnicance of this name
forme d the basis for the covenant of circumcision which
El Sh a d d a i
wa s then comman d e d Ag ain in Exo d
appeare d to M oses an d tol d him that he ha d reveale d
himself to the P atriarch s un d er the name of El S h a d d a i
but that his real name was Y ahweh ; an d he further tol d
him that this was to be his everlastin g name The P
d o cument consequently uses Y ahweh after Exo d
B ut how d oes this correspon d to Gen
Exo d
We wou ld certainly expect that the P d ocument shoul d
here constantl y use E l S h a d d a i B ut we n d on ex a m i
nation that this is n ot the case On the contrary this
name is use d only four t im es
Otherwise the name
use d is Elohim in exactly the same way that it was use d
of him before the theophany of the seventeenth chapter
This O bservation is of importance for a better un d er
stan d in g Oi the P d ocument in Genesis Either ou r in ter
o
f
Exo
d
is
faulty
or else there are severa l
i
r
a
o
n
e
t
t
p
-

IG

en

CO NT E NT S OF

TH E UN I T Y A ND

48

TH E P D

OCUM E NT

P d ocuments in Genesis onl y on e of which knows of the

E l S h a d d a i theophany
We shall presently s ee that the
l atter assumption is quite probable
This chan g e of name applies not only to Go d but also
to some of the patriarchs A bram s name was chan ge d
to A b r a h a m an d we n d that from this time on this
patriarch is known by this name Jacob s name too
was chan ge d to I srael Genesis g ives a d ouble acco unt
of this I n the J d ocument t hi s patriarch is kn o w n from
this time on b y the latter name
The P d ocument is
g enerall y suppose d to re l ate the same event ; but here
we n d a s a matter of fact not a sin gle instance after
the chan ge of name of the u s e of the name I srael Again
we ma y suppose th at we have two P d ocuments to d eal
with the one of which knows of the chan ge the other of
which d oes not We must not in this connection lose
si ght of the fact that in ancient time s the bestowin g of a
new name connote d elevation to a hi gher o fce On the
E g yptian monuments we n d not on l y that a k in g at his

coronation receive d a th r on e name but also that in d i

v id u a l s
when they were taken into favor by the kin g

receive d a secon d or beautiful name A glance at

E gyptian inscriptions will inform u s that kin g s sometimes
call themselves by their throne names sometimes b y
their birth names an d that the y are S O a dd resse d by
others F avore d in d ivi d uals also coul d be a dd resse d either
b y their birth names or by their beautiful names Thus
we mi ght assume that the J d ocument uses the beautiful
name or the throne name perhaps if I srael is to be
re g ar d e d a s a kin g whil e the P d oc u men t uses the birth
name
,

'

IG

en

2
.

G en

G en

FO UR CO VE NAN T S

TH E

49

Thu s we may a d m
it that in the case of Jacob I srael
there was but on e P d ocument S till however the d if
c u l ty with the names E l S h a dd a i an d Y ahweh is such that
we are almo s t force d to assume two P d ocuments I t
seems improbable that the Hebrew text the S amaritan
text an d the S eptua g int version S houl d all have un d erg one
such wholesale corruption that the name E l S h a d d a i
shoul d be chan g e d to E l ohim in ever y case in P from Gen
to Exo d
with only the four exceptions note d
above
-

III

TH E F O U R

C O VE N A N T S

When the D evelopment Hypothesis was rst ad vance d

Well h a u sen assume d that the P d ocument was arran ge d
accord in g to four great covenants one in Gen chap 1 a
s econ d in Gen chap 9 a thir d in Gen chap 1 7 an d a
fourth at S inai ( Exo d chap
There is however no
covenant at all in Gen chap 1
There cou ld n ot be
for there was neither a theophan y n or a d ivine promise
There is no mention in the chapter of anythin g resemblin g
a covenant N or is there any the ophany record e d in Gen
chap 9 F urther it seems ver y uncertain that there is
any covenant at S inai record e d in the P d ocument J an d
P are here hopelessly fuse d an d it seems more than prob
able that the covenant was a part of J I f so there was no
P covenant at S inai an d L ev
which coul d be the
only reference app l icable here refers to a covenant to
come in the future F urthermore if a new covenant was
vouchsafe d at this time it shoul d have been mentione d
where Y ahweh reveale d his new name to
in Exo d
M oses M ost mo d ern critics in view of all these facts
have g iven up the i d ea that P is base d on four covenants
,

UN I TY

TH E

A ND C

IV

O NTE NT S OF

TH E P D

OCU M E NT

TH E T E N T O L E D O T H

M ore important is the assumption that the P d ocument

shoul d consist of ten tol ed oth each intro d uce d by the for

mula These are the generations Of

The word

g enerations correspon d s somewhat to our

toled oth or
id ea O f historical record s or g enealo g ies an d the formula
d oes occur ten times in Genesis B ut it is important to
note that it d oes not occur elsewhere in the book s of the
Hexateuch Of equal importance is the fact that the
histories O f A braham Joseph an d M oses the most im
portant pers o na g e s mentione d in the P d ocument are
none of them intro d uce d b y this formula I t has been
assume d that in P this formula stoo d at the be g innin g
of the histor y of each patriarch or else as a titl e over each
section of the d ocument B ut the formula is n ot foun d in
Gen
in intro d ucin g that section which tells of the cre
ation
This omission is si gnicant
M o d ern criticism
assumes that it has been misplace d by a l ater re d actor an d
put at the be g inn in g of the P arad ise stor y in Gen
a
stor y which belon g s to the J d ocument The case is not so
simple however The S eptua g int rea d s in this latter pla c e

This is th e book of the generation of Heaven an d Earth

The word book presupposes that we d eal here with an

in d epen d ent d ocument a volume by itself The Hebrew

wor d s ep h er A ssyrian s h i p ru En glish book can only

be s o use d The most l ikel y explanation i s that the P
d ocument d i d have a P ara d ise stor y of which this was
the superscription which was crow d e d out b y the J stor y
o f the P ara d ise when the P an d J d ocuments were in later
times combine d The supers c ription of the ol d P story
therefore now stan d s over the J stor y I f this be so o f
,

T H E T E N T O L E D O TH

c our s e it was not transferre d from Gen

51

where by the

way it d oes not t

The se c on d tol ed oth section is to be foun d in Gen
chap 5
Here the formula rea d s even in Hebrew

This i s th e book of the generations of A d am

Ag ain

we remark the wor d s ep h er as evi d ence that on c e this s ec

tion was an in d epen d ent work We c an no lon ger speak
o f the P d o cument but rather of the P d ocuments or the
P fra gments
I n the case of the history of Jacob the toled oth formula
appears only when the patriarch i s Ol d when all his chil
d ren have been born an d when over hal f of his histor y
ha s alrea d y been g iven
No satisfactory explanation
of this phenomenon has a s yet appeare d One w o ul d
l y expect the formula to appear where the story
c ert a m
o f Jacob be g ins
The tol ed oth section intro d ucin g the g enealo gy of the
3
son s o f S hem cannot possibly be a contin uation of that
tol edoth se c tion which intro d uces the son s of N oah
5
because the sons of S hem have alrea d y been g iven
If
the latter genealo g y belon g s to the toled oth of the sons of
N oah then the P d ocument has a useless repetition which
is entir ely contrary to the theory accord in g to which P is
generally suppose d to have been compose d N ot more
than one Of these genealo g ies of S hem can have belon ge d
to the toled oth sections Either the g enealog y g iven amon g
the sons of N oah is not a part of the P d ocument or else
there was a P d ocument o utsid e of the tol ed oth book A s
the se c tion un d er d iscussion is evid en tl y to be i d entie d with
the P st yl e the latter alternative seem s the more probabl e
,

G en

G en

G en .

G en

G en

31

TH E

UN I T Y

AN D C

O N TE NT S OF

THE P D

OCU M E NT

T H E F RAM E W O R K O F T H E H E XA T E U CH

generall y assume d that the P d ocument forms the

framework of the Hexateuch This is but partly correct
I n the book of Joshua the P sections are so few an d s o
insi gn icant that the y cannot possibl y be re gar d e d as
form in g the framework of the book I n Exo d us an d
N umbers the P sections are more prom inent ; but most
mo d ern critics a d mit that even here P d oes not supply
the framework There remains then Genesis ; an d here
it is evid ent that P is the framework into which the other
s ections those of J an d E have been tte d
B ut it is in this same book of Genesis that we n d a
number o f tol ed oth sections I t seems therefore that it is
not the whole P d ocument but merely the tol ed oth secti o ns
that furnish the framework for this book

We come now to the important question Were these

tol ed oth sections ori gi nally a p a r t of what we call the P

d ocument ?
The answer is N O
L et us see why
It

is

Th e Tol ed o th

B oo k

Wherever we meet in Genesis with the formula These

are the g eneration s of we n d a peculiarity of lan gua ge

that is only rarely to be O bserve d elsewhere in P I t is
positively to be a frme d that the toled oth sections d o belon g
to the P or L evitical st yle of writin g B ut their v oc a b u
lar y phraseolo g y an d historical viewpo int S how a marke d
d ivergence from the rest of P A n d on close examination
we n d a d ifference in reli g ious conceptions between the
tol ed oth sect i ons an d other P sections even others containe d
in the same book Genes i s The tol ed oth sections or let
u s call them for the present the tol ed oth B ook pay
,

TH E T

O L E D OTH B OO K

53

minute attention to c hronolo g ic al d ates of a genealo g ical

sort of which none is to be foun d in other P sections
B oth the J an d P d o c uments d o g ive genealo g ies but they

are al ways intro d uce d with the formula These are the

names of or These are the sons of ; an d nowhere in

them d o we n d the expressio n The s e are the generation s

of
The style an d lan gua ge of P is a d mitte d ly so pecu l iar
an d offers such a marke d contrast to the l an gua ge of other
se c tions of the Hexateuch that there can hard l y be much
well foun d e d d oubt as to what are an d what are not P
se c tions B ut even in the P d ocument we n d d ifferen
t ia tion s of lan g ua g e an d style which can har d l y be
accounte d for on any other hypothesis than the on e which
ascribes ou r P d ocument to at least two d ifferent sources
I n the toled oth B o o k for in stance we n d expressions like

establish a covenant here a technical term wh ile in

the other sections of the P d ocument we meet with the

formula g ive a covenant

I n the tol ed oth B ook we meet

the word reku s h substance an d if we ma y trust the

S eptua g int this word was not use d outsid e that b ook
The d if ferentiation is apparent in word s use d both in the
tol ed oth B ook an d in other sections O f P but wi th d ifferent
meanin g s Thus in the tol ed oth B ook the Hebrew word

wh ile everywhere else in P it is

h a bod si gnies honor
the tech nical term for the presence of Y ahweh an d is
3

ren d ere d in o ur version s glory

Ag ain the toled oth
,

I n G en

N um

re

rre

re u s

G en

Th e

lsmp ert y

u eh

re

ere

G k
r ee

is

p os kev e

and

Wh t h s p a ssag s h a b
outs i d of t h t l d th s c t i o s
en

ve

e e

o e o

een

J d o c um t u s s th s am
en

th e

h i c h p s u pp o s H b w mi g
c o c t d th e w o d k h o cc u s o w h

kten e,

e w

od
r

( G en

in th e

s en se o f

UN I TY

THE

54

AND

CO N TE N T S OF

TH E P D

O CU M E N T

B ook uses for han d mai d the Hebrew s h i p h c h a h in

a g reement with J
The P d ocument outsid e these sec
in a g reement with the E an d
tions however uses a ma h
D d ocuments M any other instances of these lin g uistic
d ifferences between the tol ed oth B ook an d the rest of P
might be note d P erhaps on e of the others worth par
t ic u l a r mention is the use of Elohim which i s use d in a
plural sense frequentl y (perhaps always ) in the toled oth
B ook but alwa y s in the s in g ular in the rest of the d ocument
We mentione d above that the P d ocument contains two
or three contra d ictory statements in re g ard to Esau s
wives
The style of the sections where these are g iven
is a d mitte d ly that of P B ut Well h a u sen himself ha s
a d mitte d that if the D ocumentar y Hyp othesis be correct
not more than one of these statements can ri ghtl y belon g
to P The wa y out of the d ilemma i s to assi gn the latter

of these statements to the tol ed oth B ook with which it

5
a g rees in lan gua ge an d the former to the P d ocument
proper
I n a similar manner the two g enealo g ies of S hem in
Gen chaps 1 0 an d 1 1 can be d ispose d of I n Gen
chap 1 1 we have the lan g ua ge an d characteristic formula
of the toled oth B ook I n Gen chap 1 0 the st yle is that
of the P d ocument proper
L ikewise the genealo g ies of the sons of Jacob who
6
went d own to E gypt are to be explaine d The former
of these with it s reference to F a dd an A ram betra y s the
lan gua g e of the P d ocument proper ; the latter althou gh
I Th o ly c p ti o is L
hi c h i o t h
s p c ts a p
li ly a c i t la g u ag
.

ar

L ev

en

ex

44

G en

G en

ev

er re

ec u

er s

1
1

G en

G en

5; Ex

od

P D O C UME NT P RO PE R

THE

55

it ha s not the characteri s tic formu l a O f the tol ed oth B ook

neverthe l ess belon g s to it
I t certain l y seem s p l ain that there is n ot much internal
unity between the tol ed oth sections an d the rest of P
The l an gua ge of the tol ed oth B ook an d its relig ious
view s as well a s its historical an d archaeol o g ical notes
mark it as O ld er in ori g in than the rest of P an d show it t o
have more a f nity to the a g e an d con d ition s of l ife s et
forth in the J d ocument
This tol ed oth B ook s eem s orig in all y to have been c om
pose d of a number of d ocuments stil l d istin guishabl e by

the referen c es to the book of g enerations This

bein g so O f these d ocuments where this phrase occur s in
superscription it is perhaps n ot unfair to assume that all
the tol ed oth sections were ori g in all y in d epen d ent d ocu
ments A n d we may even as sume that when these d ocu
ment s were compil e d in to one book the tol ed oth B ook

this resultant d ocument containe d the g enerations of

A braham M oses an d Joseph as wel l as those which we
still have sections which were l ater crowd e d ou t when
n e d with it
an
d
P
proper
were
combi
J
,

Th e P D

cu

m en t Pr o p er

The sections of the P d ocument which remain after

the removal of the toled oth B ook S how an unmistakable
unity of thou ght an d a greement in lan g ua ge The y c on
tain al so most of the laws O f the P co d e These laws
in their present form are in the lan g ua g e of the P d ocu
Th la t st a tt m p t of t h c i t i c s t o s ca p t h di f c u l t i s i P i s t h i
th o y th a t P i s t h p o d u c t of a s c h oo l d t of
a u t h o Thi s si m p l y
go s t o s h o h w i a d qua t th D o c um t a y H yp oth si s i i ts fu l ss h a s
m
m
o
t
o
I
t
al
s
o
sh
o
s
f
f
o
s
tt
l
d
all
t
h
s
a
tt
s
b
h
w
p
.

e r

ven
2

G en

an

no

en

ar

an

e e

e r

ne

er

a re

se c tions O f them especially the S O calle d statute s an d

parts O f the Holiness C o d e seem to have been on l y ol d er
laws probably pre A aronic which were recast tte d into
the lan gua g e of the P people an d embo d ie d in the P
d ocument
We have referre d to th e book of th e L a w of Y a h w eh
an d we foun d that it wa s the te c hnical term for the P co d e
Thi s co d e wa s at some time c o mbine d with the P d o cu
ment an d with the tol ed oth B ook The resultin g complex

then ma d e up of three orig inal s at l ea s t i s our P d o cu

ment so c alle d
-

. .

C HA P TE R
Th e La n g u a g e

IV

th e P Doc u m en t

of

S ome further c onsid erat ion must here be paid to the

l an g uag e of the P d o cument or d o cument s
I t is assume d by many critic s that P is a prod u c t of
the a ge of E z ra even thou gh parts o f it may g o back to
as early as the a ge of E z ekiel
B ut if P ha d been written
at that time it woul d sure l y represent the l an g ua g e of
E zra s a g e Wh il e there are a number of similarities in
vocabular y phraseolo g y an d thou ght between P an d
E z ekie l s imilarities which the critics have greatl y mag ni
ed it shoul d not be for g o tten that there are almost as
l arg e a number of d issimil arities between them The
l an gua ge Of E z ekiel is ru gg e d an d bear s everywhere the
imprint of the exil ic perio d M alachi be l on g s to the time
O f E z ra
an d his s tyle too shows af n ity with the d i sin
The
teg r a t ed lan g ua g e which came in w ith the Exile
books of E z ra an d N ehemiah probabl y written a hun d re d
years later but still the pro d uct of the post exil ic period
a d d the ir witness to this d isinte g ration B ut when we
turn to the P d ocument an d co d e not a trace of this d is
in te g ration is to be foun d The vocabular y is in some
respects s imil ar to that of E z ekiel an d M alachi B ut
the d ocument moves in precise an d stately expressions
The st yle is pure The forms use d are correct Here
an d there are preserve d ar c haisms Not a sin gle hint of
exilic or post exil ic d isin te g ration meet s our eye P
be l on g s to an a ge Of a purer lan gua ge
I Att t i o h a s b call d t o th a pp a t a g m t i th ough t d
d P
E ki l
p ss i o b t w
.

en

ex

re

een

ze

een

an

57

r en

r ee

en

an

58

LA N G UA G E OF

TH E

TH E P D

O CU M E N T

S till we must account in some way for the extreme

d ifference in style an d vocabulary between P an d D I f
we assume that the d ates usually assi gne d by the critics
for these d ocuments are correct how can we account for
such an enormous chan g e in lan gua g e between 62 1 B C
when it is said D was rst promul g ate d an d 5 8 5 B C
when E z ekiel be g an to prophes y an d the Holiness C o d e
at l east was in existence ? We woul d have here a phe
n om en on with har d ly a parallel in the histor y o f lan gua g e
at l east so far as S emitic philolo g y can off er us comparative
criteria B ut a far easier an d a far more probable exp l a
nation of the d ifferences between the co d es is possible
U suall y these d ocuments are assume d to reect d i ffer
ent sta ges in the life O f the Hebrews Each sta ge is su p
pose d to have pro d uce d its peculiar d ocument with its
peculiar style vocabulary etc This principle may in
itself be soun d B ut it is most unsoun d to d e d uce from
these premises the d ates of compilation of an y Of these
d ocuments sa y of D an d P because there is not at our
d isposal any external literary stan d ar d by which we can
d etermine their respective a g es There are no r ema in s
of the Hebrew ton gue outsid e O f the Ol d Te s tament
We have no other l i terature with which we c an compare
any of the d ocuments an d s o establish a termi n u s a qu o
for its d ate
B ecause of this lack the critics have employe d analo g y
an d have constructe d a scheme for the d evelopment of
the Hebrew lan gua g e accord in g to which they pass ju d g
ment upon the respective a ges of the various d ocuments
I T h S i loa h i sc i p t i o da t i g f om 7
i s t sh o t t b f
C
i sc i pt i o s
f o m th i l i c d p o st
O th
y a pp c i ab l h l p t o u s
i l i c p i o d s T h M s a i s c i p ti o i s i t h d i al c t of M o ab d th fo
ca o t h l p u s
.

an

re

ex

er

nn

n,

er

ca

0 0

a re

oo

e o

an

e ex
,

an

er e

re

H E B RE W

D I AL E C T S

59

This sc heme may seem attractive but it is none the l ess

ba se d purely upon suppo s ition
,

He

Di a l ec

r ew

ts

I t is far s impler an d more probabl e to suppose that

these variou s d o cument s d iffer in l an gua ge an d styl e n o t
bec ause they represent d ifferent perio d s O f d evelopment
but bec ause th ey rep res en t di ff eren t c on tempor a ry or n ea rly
c on temp ora r
These d iale c t s may have been
y di a l ec ts
spoken by nei g hbo rin g pe o ples at the same time an d the
l an gua g e of o ne d ialect may have pro gre s se d or d ecaye d
rapi d l y Therefo re they may vary g reatly fro m on e
another Thi s principle of d ialects is so wel l known an d
establishe d b y comparative philol o gy with such certainty
that there can b e no d ispute conce r nin g it S uch pheno
mena mark the history of ever y c ultivate d lan gua ge of
the globe I t was so in Gree c e an d R ome I t is S O to d ay

in En glan d I tal y Germany an d S we d en even in the

U nite d S tates
The mo d ern A rabi c d ial e c t s S how that
the s ame principle applies amon g the S emites An d that
d ialects were in use amon g the Hebrews we know from
,

the fact that in ancient times the Ephraimitic pronuncia

tion d iffere d from that of the Gil ea d ites Th e Gilea d ites
sai d S hibboleth the Ephraimites sai d S ib b ol eth
Thi s
c han ge from s h to s is common between the B abylonian
an d the A ssyrian an d between the Hebrew an d the A rabic
I t in d icates that d ial ectic d ifferences existe d between the
east J ord a n ic tribes an d the tribe of Ephraim
F urther it can be shown that some o f the tribes use d
Hebrew word s in quite d iff erent senses from tho se g iven
them by other tribes Thus e g I s h bosh eth an d M ep h i
bos h eth in the B enj amin ite d ial ect correspon d to I s h ba a l
J udg s

60

LAN G UA G E OF

TH E

THE P D

OCUME NT

an d M eri ba a l in the Jerusalemite d ialect A lthou gh

B os h eth means otherwise

shame
or
confu s ion
amon g the B enj aminites it was u s e d for B a a l meanin g

l or d or m a s ter
A g ain we know of a Galilean d ialect at the time O f
C hrist
This d ial ect existe d in all probabil ity from
3
very early times The S on g of D eborah the B ook of
Jonah an d the S on g of S on g s are all of G a l il ea n or ig in
an d the peculiarities O f style in them S houl d be explaine d
rather than as
a s peculiarities of the Galil ean d ialect

A ramaism s
Their u se of s h for the relative pronoun
in stea d of the Hebrew a s h er is not an A ramaism at all
The A ramaic uses invariabl y d for the relative The
s h S hows relationship with the P hoenician s or a s s e an d
is d oubtless a mark Of the ancient Galilean d ialect
I t i s therefore more than possible that a certain d ocu
ment ma y have been the property of some on e tribe speak
in g its own d ialect
The peculiarities Of vocabulary an d
st yle of a d ocument ma y then be ascribe d to the peculiar
d ialect of the tribe which owne d it A n d if this is the cas e
-

we

h a v e i n th e l a n g u a g e of th e d oc u men ts

mp a r a ti v e

th e

n o c ri teri on w

th os e d ocu men ts

ha t

The
f
i
d i fferences in lan gua g e an d expression between the D an d
P d ocuments then furnish absolutely no evi d ence in
re gard to the d ate of the P d ocument

ev er

co

a g es

i al ec t of

Lev

To what d ialect are we to assi g n P ? The d ocument

an d co d e is a pro d uct of the A aronic priesthoo d The
lan gua ge therefore is naturall y the lan gua ge of the priests
I Cf I S m
h th s am o d is u s d b y Sa u l t h B ja m i it
Ma k
Lu k
A c ts
J udg s c ha p 5
.

er e

e w

en

L CT OF L E VI

61

DIA E

N ow the A aronic priests form a clan of the tribe of L evi

The lan gua g e of the P co d e then it wou l d seem is that
of the tribe of L evi The lan gua ge of the T Ol ed oth B ook
is closely relate d to that of the P d ocument proper an d is
therefore als o to be assi gne d to the tribe of L evi I ts
minor d ifferen c es from the rest of P in d icate onl y a d iffer
ent a ge in the d evelopment of the d ialect I n this case we
mu s t assume that it is the ol d er of the two The prophet
E z ekiel was also a priest perhaps O f the Zad okite family
His lan gua g e woul d then be that of the L evitical tribe
This explain s su fciently the connection an d sim ilarity
between his prophecies an d the P d ocument The d iffer
by
en c es between them are equally well accounte d for
the assumption that E z ekiel s lan g ua ge shows a later an d
more d isinte grate d sta ge in the d evelopment of the L eviti
c al d ialect E z ra an d M alachi belon ge d to this same
tribe of L evi an d both their afn ity with the P lan gua ge
an d their evid ences of d isinte gration receive a d equate
explanation
I f this as s ig nin g of the P d ocument to the d ialect of
L evi is correct other phenomena of this d ocument can
more easily be e x plaine d The reli g ious in stitution s
for in stance mentione d in the P co d e may then rest on
the tra d itions O f the tribe of L evi an d the P co d e ma y be
looke d upon as the pro d uct of the reli g ious d eve l opment
of that tribe A s the L evites in D an d the sons of A aron
with L evites in P were put in char ge of the worship an d
the sanctuar y we woul d expe c t that the tra d itions an d
laws of the tribe o f L evi woul d exert a most pronounce d
inuence upon the thou ght an d l iterature of all Hebrew
tribes that c ame to wor ship at the sanctuaries where they
o f ciate d
.

62

THE

L AN G UA G E OF

TH E P D

OCU M E NT

I n view of al l these facts the most reasonable way t o

account for the lin guistic peculiarities of the P d ocument

i s to ass i gn the d ocument to the d ial ect an d to the relig ious
conceptions not of the exilic the post exil ic or any other
perio d but rather of a particular tribe the tribe of L evi
-

C HA P TE R

Con c l us i on s i n Reg a r d to th e P Doc u men t

I n View o f the facts that we have a dd uce d in the three

previous chapter s the followin g concl usi o ns in re g ar d t o
the P d ocument have been d e d uce d :
,

E a r y Da

t e of

I n re g ard to the d ocument s d ate we have foun d that

o
o
it cannot be as s i gne d either t the exil ic r the post exil ic
perio d s that it was in part the basi s of the reform of
Josiah 62 1 B C that it was appeale d to in the tim e o f
He z ekiah c a 7 0 0 B C an d was we l l known to the pro
h
o
f
that
time
A
mos
an
d
I
saiah
that
it
was
the
basis
e
t
s
p
of a missionary propa g an d a b y the L evites in the time of
Jehoshaphat c a 8 73 B C that it was well known to his
father A sa that S olomon an d even D avi d worshipe d on
the basis O f its ritual an d n ally that S aul carrie d ou t a
reform on the basis of its l aws The conclusion seeme d
inevitable that the P d ocument an d co d e existe d in a
written form as earl y as the time of S aul an d S amuel

o um e

n t s of

We have further poin te d ou t that the P d ocument as

embo d ie d in our Hexateu c h has no claim to be re g ard e d
L

either as comp l ete or as a u n it a d mittin g that the D ocu

mentary Hypothesis is correct Here an d there it is only
fra gmentar y an d so fra gmentary that it g ives no sense
if rea d by itself We foun d that it c o ntains d oublets in
the g enealo g ies of the sons of S hem an d of the sons of
,

63

64

CO

N CL U S I O N S

IN

R E G AR D

T O THE

P D O CUM E NT

Jac o b an d in it s statements re g ard in g the wives of Esau

Our conclusion from these premises was that the P d ocu
ment a s we have it is onl y a collection of fra g ments A
consid eration of the T ol ed oth B ook with its d istin guishin g
marks conrme d us in this conclusion
,

L a g u a g of
n

A gain in consid erin g the lan g ua g e of the d ocument

we foun d that certain sect i ons d iffere d in vocabulary an d
phraseolo g y as well a s in characteristic formulas from
other portions
We s a w that this phenomenon ran
throu gh all of Genesis an d parts of Exo d us an d L eviticus
A nal yz in g these sections we foun d that we ha d in them
fra gments of an Old T ol ed oth B ook an d that in a d d ition
to this there was in P another d ocument kn own in the Ol d
Testament as the B ook of th e L a w of Y a h w eh or more
briey as the L a w of Y a h w eh We consi d ere d further
the peculiarities of the T ol ed oth B ook an d of this other
d ocument or d ocuments comparin g them with the later
priestl y writin g s an d this le d us to conclu d e that these p e
c u l ia r i t ies pointe d to a literar y pro d uct o f the tribe of L evi
written in that tribe s d ialect an d further that the l aws
an d i nstitutions of our P collections were the property
an d were base d upon the tra d itions of the people of the
tribe of L evi F rom all these consid erations we conclu
d e d that the peculiarities of the P d ocument coul d best
be accounte d for b y assi gnin g them not to the exilic or
post exil ic perio d s but to this particular tribe Of L evi
,

C HA P TE R
Th e Da te
A

VI

th e D Doc u men t

of

E X T E R NAL E V I D E N C E

C ritical schol ars who be l ieve in the D eve l opment

Hypothesis an d several s ch olars Of the o l d scho o l a gree
that the B ook of D euteronomy was the law book foun d in

6
2
2
62 1 B C
the eighteenth year of Josiah
I t is a part
of the C ritical Hypothesis that the D d ocument is ol d er
than the P d ocument An d all internal evid en c e seems
I n re g ar d to the d ate for D just g iven
to point that wa y
however we must remember that the B ible states not that
D wa s then compose d but mere l y that then the b o ok was

foun d in the
,

F in d

in g

th e

of

B oo k of

ut o

De

er

n om y

B efore enterin g upon the questi o n of the real d ate of

D let us brie y review the stor y of the n d in g of the B ook
of the L aw of M oses in the temple in the ei ghteenth year
of Josiah
I t seems that Kin g Josiah ha d ord ere d s ome repairs Of
the temp l e to be carrie d out un d er the d irection of Hilkiah
the hi gh priest One d ay the kin g sent his scribe S haphan
with an ord er to Hilkiah to count the money that had been
taken in at the d oors Of the temple an d to pay it over to
the workmen name ly the c arpenters buil d ers an d
masons an d t o buy t o o timbers an d hewn st o nes with
,

II

l i gi o i st i t u ti o s t b t t c ss a i l y
d th B oo k h o
i s s m i g ly a s o l d a s D
II K i g s

To l e

re

n,

w ev er ,

ee

e c

no

ne e
.

65

in

la gu ag
n

Th e

66

TH E D A TE

OF

TH E D D

O CU ME NT

whi ch to repair the breaches Of the temp l e I t wo u l d

seem therefore that the repa irs were alrea d y un d er way
C erta inl y the workmen ha d to be pai d When S haphan
came to the temple Hil kiah informe d h i m in the followin g

word s I have fo u n d the B ook of the L aw in the house

of G od
Hilki ah then g ave the book to S haphan an d
he rea d it On h i s return to the palace S haphan to l d
the ki n g of h is d is c overy an d rea d the bo o k before hi m
When the kin g ha d hear d the word s of the book he rent
h i s clothes an d or d ere d Hilk iah an d S haphan an d tw o
other men to g o an d inquir e from Y ahweh in re gar d to
the contents of the book These men went to the prophet
ess Hu l d a an d comm une d with her S he answere d an d

tol d them Thus says Y ahweh B ehol d I w ill brin g e v il

upon this place an d upon the in h abitants thereof even
all the word s of the book which the kin g of Ju d ah h a s rea d :
because they have forsaken me an d have burne d in cen s e
unto other g o d s that the y mi ght provoke me to an g er with
Wh en the kin g heard the
a ll the work O f their
answer from the prophetess he gathere d the el d ers of
Ju d ah an d of Jerusalem to the temple an d rea d there in

their ears a ll the word s of the B ook Of the C ovenant

which was foun d in the house of Y ahweh

The B ook

of Kin g s then continues sayin g An d l ike unto hi m th ere

w a s no kin g before him that turn e d to Y ahweh with a ll
h i s heart an d with a ll h i s soul an d with a ll hi s mi g ht

accord in g to all the L aw Of M oses

This book thus foun d i s referre d to a s the B ook of
5
th e Cov en a n t an d the L a w of M os es
I n the reform s by
I I I K i g s :8
II K i gs
II K i g s
II K i g s
D cal o g u ( D u t
T
S call d b ca u s i t c o t a i d th
c ha p
.

2 2

ne

en

or

RE F OR

MS O F J O S I AH

67

hi m

un d ertaken it is fair to as sum e that J o siah was g ui d e d

by th e B ook of D euteronomy for there are spec ic refer
en c es in th i s bo o k on w hi ch he c o u l d have base d hi s
reform s
II R fo rms of J o i h
a
r
Josiah
d
e
s
troye
d
a
ll
the
vess
ls
ma
d
e
the wor
e
f
o
)
shi p of the host of H ea v en
The l aw forbi dd in g thi s
worshi p is fou n d in D eut
b ) He d estro ye d the Asherah in th e hou se of Y ahweh
The l aw on A sherah worshi p is foun d in D eut
2 2
3
c ) Josiah broke d own the house of d e v
otees
The
law on d evotees is foun d in D eut
A ttention has O ften been dr awn by the criti cal scholars

to the fact that Josiah d estro y e d the hi gh place s of

Ju d ah
N ow it is tr ue that D eut chap 1 2 forbi d s
i d ola try but to be precise we must O bserve that in thi s

chapter th e word hi g h place d oes n ot oc c ur N or d oe s

it o c cur in any other pla c e in D euteronomy A s we s tate d
abo ve th e law on hi gh places is in L evi ticus
I t h as a l s o been empha s iz e d by mo d ern critics that

5
Josiah refers to th e abo min ations of Ju d ah an d that
this is pecul iarl y a D euteronomic expression They
have thereby attempte d to S how that D euteronomy exclu
N ow it is
s ivel y was th e bas i s of the reform of Jo s iah

true that the word abo mination occur s some ei ghteen

times in D euteronomy an d some sixteen times in the
o ri gin al c od e of D euteron o my but it mu s t n o t b e forg otten
that the P co d e in Leviti c us u s es th e same term n ot l ess
The term is not therefore exclusively
t han s ix ti mes
the property of D euteronomy I t is impos s ible to ba s e
a n y ar gu ment on thi s term
I I Ki g
I I Ki gs
I I Ki g
11 Ki g
n Ki g
,

s a

'

n s

68

OF

T H E D AT E

TH E

O C U ME N T

A s a matter of fact as we have alrea d y seen J os iah s

reforms were base d in the g reater number of c a s e s on
laws foun d not in D but in P N everthe l e s s the fact
remains that in certain of his reform s he enforc e d law s
foun d solely in D euteronomy F rom this we must con
elu d e that D i s at least as Ol d as h i s time

III

D No t

W i tt
r

en

in

Ti m e of J o s i a h

B ut mo d ern critics g o farther than this an d assume that

the book was w ri tten at this time or at the earlie s t in the
time of M anasse h or possibly He z ekiah B ut there is
no reason to believe that such a book shoul d have been
compose d in the times of the i d ol atrous M anasseh I t is
equall y improbable that it w a s compose d in the time of
He zekiah F or why Shoul d a man g o to the trouble t o
write a book onl y to lay it away in a corner of the temple
where perhaps it mi ght b y chance be foun d a century
after it was written ? There remains then to be c o n
s id er ed the hypothesis that it was compose d in the t ime
of Josiah at the time of i t s suppose d d iscovery
There is not a s in gle statement in the B ible that can
be use d as the basis for such a belief I n d ee d such a
hypothe s is is at complete variance with the facts as there
s et forth un l ess we are to suppose that Hilkiah or some
of his frien d s d eliberately for ge d the book an d that this
fact was completely unknown in d ee d un suspecte d
both by the kin g an d b y the author of the B ook of
,

true that we are tol d b y many critics that for a

man to write a book himself an d then t o claim that it was
written b y an ancient author somewhat in the fashion of
the author of the B ook of M ormon woul d not have been
It

is

D AND

J O SLAH

R E F OR M

69

consid ere d d i shonorabl e in tho s e d ays as it is in ours

B ut those who a d vance these View s have yet to a dd uce an
instan c e from the re c ord s of ancient times of such an
imp o sture bein g perpetrate d an d the action be in g justi e d
The as sumption has orig inate d s o lely in their imag in ations
I t is absur d to c laim that the author of D euteronomy that
b o ok of hi ghly exal te d moral c l aims coul d have l ent him
se l f to such d ishonesty
F urtherm o re is it not remarkabl e that K in g Josiah
the scribe S haphan an d the prophetess Hu ld a coul d all
of them have been s o completely d eceive d as to bel ieve
an d claim that this was in very truth the L aw of M oses
which the pre d ecessors Of the kin g ha d d isobeye d ? I t i s
im possibl e to believe that su c h a b o ok woul d have been
accepte d without the most severe s c ru tiny by both the
civil an d the ecclesiastical authorities A n d yet they al l
pronounce d it a genu ine d iscovery of an O l d er law The
imposture hypothe s i s is in the hi ghest d e gree improbable
when examine d with the usual care u se d in historical
inve s tig ation
,

I
I

N TE R N AL E VI D E N C E
D a n d J os i a h s R ef o rm

I n the concl usion just rea c he d that the D co d e was

n ot wr itten in Josiah s time we are s upporte d by the inter
nal evi d ence F or if it ha d been there woul d have been
c ontaine d in it laws d esi g ne d to t the con d ition s p reval ent
,

in that time This is not the case in at least the followin g

instance s :
a ) Josiah d epose d the i d olatrous priest s k nown by the
name of Ch ema ri m
These priest s were known as early
II K i gs
.

OF

TH E DAT E

70

TH E D D

OCUM E NT

as the d ay s of H osea an d ha d been ord ain e d by the

kin g s of Ju d ah B ut D euteronomy d oe s n ot kn o w of
the exi s tence of any suc h sort of priests althou gh it
take s g reat pains t o enumerate d ifferent kin d s of
i d olatrous priests
b) Josiah d rove ou t the w o men that wove han g in g s
B ut D euteronomy d oes not know of the
for A sherah
existence of a n y such w o men
3
c
) Josiah broke d own the hi gh places of the satyr s
B ut D euteronomy ha s no l aw on s atyr worship
P as

we have seen is the o nly co d e which mentions i t

d ) Josiah permitte d the prie s ts of the hi gh pla c es of
Ju d ah to g et their portion of un l eavene d brea d from the
5
temple in Jerusale 1n
The law on this too i s fou n d n ot
6
in D but on l y in P

e
Josiah
forba
d
e
M
olech
worship
D
euteronomy
)
d oes not mention M olech once althou gh it forbi d s passin g
8
chil d ren throu gh the re
I t is the P co d e which men
9
tions M olech an d forbi d s his worship
f ) Josiah took away the horses Of the S un which the
D euteronomy has no law on
kin g s of Ju d ah ha d g iven
the subject
g ) The hi gh places near b y Jerusalem d e d icate d by
S olomon to A sht o reth C hemosh an d M ilcom were
d estro y e d b y J os ia h
These g o d s are n ot mentione d
in D euteronomy
h ) Josiah d estr o ye d the h igh place at B ethel bu ilt by
I I I K i gs
II K i g s
Cf Z p h
II K i g s
h
sh ou l d a d s a t y s i st a d of ga t s Th
c h a g i o l s o l y a l i g h t al t a ti o i p u c t u a t i g t h M a ss o t i c t t
I I K i gs
I I Ki gs
L
II II K i g s
II K i g s
D t
I

I o

I I

nv

ev

ve

re

er

L ev

er e w e

ff

L ev

re

en

8 :2 1 ;

ff

ex

J OS IA H

AND T H E A G E O F

71

Jeroboam I
As we have seen D euteronomy has no
law on high places
i ) Josiah d el ed the sepulchres at B ethel where the
Northern Kingdom had o ffered an c estor worship at the
gravestones
Deuteronomy does not prohibit or even
mention ancestor worship
3
Deuter
j) Josiah forbade the Teraphim worship
on omy knows nothin g of Teraphim
I

II

Dja n d t h e A g e

J o si a h

of

Furthermore Deuteronomy does contain laws whi c h

could not have applied to the time of Josiah laws of which
he took absolutely no notice
a
There
is
in
Deuteronomy
an
injunction
to
destroy
)
4
s
i
B u t neither of these
C anaanites and A m a lek tes
nations existe d in the time of Josiah nor had they existed
for thr ee hundred years before him
6
6) Deuteronomy has precise rules for military service
7
for besie g in g forei gn cities and for the arrangement of
8
the c amp all of them utterly unsuita ble for the time of
Josiah
c
D
euteronomy
warns
the
Israelites
a
g
ainst
choosing
)
9
a forei gner for their king
This would be to say the
least needless when the house of David to whi ch Josiah
belonge d had reigned almost four hundred years
d ) Deuteronomy cultivates a warm friendship for
It does not mention Edom once Now Edom
E sa u
I II Kin gs
D ut
9

D ut
I I Kin g s
9
5 9
4
D ut
II Kin g s
D ut
6
D t
8
;
D ut
8
D ut
9
I I I t m ntions E d om it on c ( 3 : whi ch shows th at th E dom it s w r
th n nt rin g M ount S ir b ut h a d not y t d isp oss ss d E s a u of his l a n d
,

I o

2 0

en

-1

2 0 2

20

e
.

e e

TH E

72

DAT E OF

D D O CU M E N T

TH E

ha d driven away Esau long before Josiah s time In his

time the prophet Jeremiah denounces Edom as do O ba
diah Joel and Isaiah
And even if as some suppose
Edom and Esau are to be considered as two names for
one people there was not a people more hated in Ju d ah
in Josiah s time than were the E d omites
e
n s the Israelites to destroy the
D
euteronomy
enjoi
)
5
Anakim
Joshua and C ale b reall y destro yed them
The y are not kn own to have existed from that time onward
O n the contrary D euteronom y does not once mention the
P hil istines who for 4 5 0 years before Josiah had been
harassing the Israelites an d who were still a thorn in their
side
In these rst two sections of the in ternal evidence we
have seen that Deuteronom y a g rees neither in what it
does contain nor in what it does not contain with the con
As the book could
d it ion s prevalent in the time of Josiah
not have been written later than his time we must look
farther back to discover its ori g in

III

and

arl y H istor y of I sra l

e

Some conservative mo d ern critics con c ede that the

institutions and the laws contain e d in our D euteronomy
may have existed for some time before the age of Josiah
but the y ma intain that these laws were not co d ied until
his time We can n d stron g evidence however to the
contrary

a
In
II
Kin
g
s
we
read
the
children
of
the
B
u
t
)
murderers he (Amaziah ) put not to death : according to
that which is written in the B ook of the L a w of Moses as
D ut
;
J
Jo l
Josh
;
5
I sa
6

er

1 1

2 2

2 1

D A ND E AR L Y

H I S T ORY

OF

I SRA E L

73

Yahweh commanded sayin g The fathers shall not be put

to death for the c hildren nor the ch ildren be put to death

for the fathers ; b ut every man shall die for his ow n s in

The last part of this passage is an exa c t quotation from
Deuteronomy
The passage has been explained as a late
addition to the B oo k of Kin gs b y the Deuteronomic editor
B u t the fa c t remains that A maziah did not put the children
of the murderers to death which was contrary to the u sual
procedure in those times He must therefore have had
a law which restrained him All traditions would have
encoura ged hi m to ki ll them Furthermore the editor of
Kin gs claims that Amaziah followed the written l a w of
the B ook of Moses . If such a boo k did not exist in the
time of Amaziah our author of Kin gs has told a plain
untruth
That he has done so remains to be proved
The author of Kings refers again and a g ain to a number
of b ooks or do c uments which he used in comp iling his
history of the kings of Judah and Israel No one has as
yet been able to show that he falsied his material What
errors there are seem to have been in his sour c es Nor
has it been shown that these source d ocuments were non
existent Fair min d ed scholarship accepts their existence
in his time and ackn owled ges that he made use of them
Now this B ook of the L a w of Moses was really one of these
documents an d we have no reason to doubt that the author
is correct here as in other places in his statement of the
source of his quotation
The authenticity of this passa g e is ma d e still more plain
however when we compare it with the B ook of C hroni c les
We know that the source used by the author of the B ook
of Kin gs for the rei gn of A maziah was a book called Th e
D ut
,

,
.

DAT E OF

74

THE

C h ron i c l es

t
h
e
i
n
s
K
f
g

D D O CU M E N T

THE

fJ

u da h

The B oo k of C hronicles
for this same period uses another authority namely Th e
B ook of th e Ki n g s of J u d a h a n d I s ra el
Yet the statement
in C hronicles is identical with that quoted from Ki ngs
and here a g ain there is the reference to the law in the B ook
of Moses C riti c s are agreed in say ing that the editor
of C hronicles neither had Deuteronomic tendencies nor
used Deuteronomic materials We have then in C hron
ic l es true corroboration of Kin gs in the statement that
Amaziah refrained from kil lin g the children of the mur
d erer s be c ause of a written law a law which we know to
be containe d only in D euteronomic legislation
In I Ki n g s chap 8 we have the pra y er which Solo
mon o ffere d at the consecration of the temple It not
only breathes the spirit of Deuteronomy throu g h and
through but its ver y phraseolo gy from verse to verse is
that of Deuteronomy C ompare the characteristic phrases
in the follow in g for example :
I K i n gs
a n d D eu t 8 :1 8 ;
o

c ha p

II Kin g s
is not our Book of
O f c ours t h C hroni c l s r f rr d to in II Kin g s
C hroni c l s nor is t h Boo k of Kin g s r f rr d to in C hroni c l s our b oo k of
th a t nam Both r f r nc s to a rli r d oc u m nts us d by t h authors S
II C hron
II C hron
I

e e

e e

e e e

a re

ee

D AN D E ARL Y H I S T ORY
I Ki n g s

and

D eu t

I S RA E L

or

75

7 3 2 :2 3 ;

331 4

cc

M o d ern critics assume of c ourse that the Deuteron

om ic author of our Kin g s modeled this beautiful prayer as
he wished accordin g to the tenets of the Deuteronomic
,

code and that it is not at all the one which Solomon

really o ffere d
O f course Solomon must have o ffered
some prayer at the c onsecration of the temple A g ain
the char ge brou ght a g ain st the author of Kin g s is one of
falsif y ing records B u t in this case as in the one just
discussed the fallac y of such a char g e becomes apparent
when we compare the record of the event conta ined in
C hronicles In II C hron chap 6 the same prayer is
given as is contain ed in I Ki n g s chap 8 exa c tly the same
not only in thought but even in mode of expression
Again we must emphasize the fact that the author of
C hronicles is not accuse d of havin g had D euteronomic
leanin g s Now the author of Ki ngs g ives as his authorit y
in compil in g his history of Solomon Th e B ook of th e A c ts
of S ol omon
T h e author of C hronicles g ives as his
authorities for the same perio d the followin g : Th e H i s tory
of N a th a n th e P rop h et Th e P r op h ec y of A hi ja h th e S h i
If then from
l on i te and Th e Vi s i on s of I dd o th e S eer
his source the author of Kin g s derive d a prayer of Solomon
,

Th r
a f uni m p ortant d i ff r nc s suc h a s th om ission of an
an d or of a n arti c l b ut th r
non whi c h woul d not b natural b tw n
two c op i s m a d b y d i ff r nt h a n d s from
a n d t h s am ori g inal
I Kin g s
II Chron
1

e e a re

e e

e e a re

e,

ew

e e

on e
3

ee

6
7

TH E

DAT E OF

TH E

D DO CU

ME N T

exactl y the same even in lan g uage as that d erived by the

e d itor of C hronicles from his three quite d ifferent sources
it seems in d isputable that this pra yer given b y both is the
pro d uct of neither but that it is d erive d from contemporar y
record s ma d e at the time the pra yer was delivere d in other
word s that it is actuall y the pra yer which Solomon
o ff ere d
B u t there are some critic s who maintain that this prayer
was merel y the pro d uct of certain Deuteronomic ten d en
cies or tra d itions which were in d eed current in Solomon s
time but which were not wr itten down unt il the time of
Josiah How though can those who hold this view
exp lain the fact that this prayer of Solomon exhibits not
only the thou ght but also the lan gua ge of that written
Deuteronomy which we know ?
B ack in Solomon s time then the code of D euteronomy
certainl y seems to have been extant an d that in a written
d enite form
,

IV

Law of Mos s

We have alrea d y notice d that in II Kin g s 2 3 :2 5 there is

a reference to the L a w of M os es We found as in d eed is
a d mitte d b y ever y one that the phrase there referre d to
D euteronom y w hich was suppose d to have been foun d in
the tem p le just at that time A g ain in both Kin g s an d
C hronicles we foun d that Amaziah s sparin g of the chil d ren
of the murd erers was d ue to a law containe d in the B ook
o th e L a w o M os es
An d in this case too we foun d that
f
f
the r eference was to D euteronom y T hese facts point
to a belief that the B oole of th e L a w of M os es was the tech
n ic a l term for D euteronom y
L et us see what other
references there are which point the same wa y
.

'

L AW O F

MOS E S

77

First in the B ook of Deuteronom y itself we read

B eyond Jordan in the land of Moab be g an Moses to

declare this law and again

And this is the law which
M oses set before the children of Israel ; these are the
testimonies and the statutes an d the jud gments which
Moses spake unto the children of Israel when the y came
forth out of Egypt b eyond Jordan in th e valley over

a g ainst B eth P eor

These words are taken from th e
introduction to the code In chap 2 8 which is the con
elusion of the code and an inseparable part of the same

we rea d
If thou wil t not observe to do all the words of

this law th a t a re w ri tten i n thi s book and a g ain

Also
ever y sickness and every plag ue which is not w ri tten i n
th e book of th i s l a w them wil l Yahweh b rin g upon thee

until thou be destroyed

Here then Moses asserts
that he him self has writt en this book for as the in trod u c
tion tell s us all these are the words which Moses purports
to speak
C haps 2 9 3 1 are not a portion of the original D c ode
but are c ontemporary with it and may possibl y be sup
5
pose d to have been written b y Joshua Here we rea d

These are the words of the covenant which Yahweh

commanded Moses to make with the children of Israel
in the land of Moab besides the covenant which he ma d e

with them in Horeb

The author then cont inues and
6
says
An d Moses wrote this law and delivered it unto
the priests the sons of L evi which bare the Ar k of the

C ovenant of Yahweh an d unto all the el d ers of Israel

And a g ain
And it came to pass when Moses had made
1

I D eut
2

D en t

D en t

ut
ut

De

De

6
.

ut

De

D en t

-2

78

TH E D

AT E OF

THE D

DO CU M E N T

an en d of writin g the word s of this law in a book until

the y were nishe d that Moses comman d e d the L evites
which bare the Ark of the Covenant of Yahweh sa y in g
T ake this book of the law an d put it b y the S id e of the
Covenant of Yahweh y our Go d that it ma y be there for

a witness a gainst thee

We can easil y see how from
these p assa ges in D euteronom y the name L a w of M os es
might easil y and naturall y come into use as the title of
the w ork T his is especiall y true when we consi d er that
in no other co d e is Moses put forward as the author of
the law book In other codes we are told either that
Yahweh himself wrote the laws or that Moses proclaimed
them in Yahweh s name B u t in D we are specicall y
informe d that Moses himself wrote an d promul g ated
them What more natural therefore than that the tech
n i c a l term L a w of M os es shoul d have been applied to the
D co d e just as we foun d La w of Y a h w eh to be the technical
term for the P co d e ?
B u t b y further references this assumption can almost
certainl y be prove d
a
8
In
Josh
we
are
tol
d
that
Yahweh
committe
d
)
to Joshua the charge of bein g the successor of Moses with

the word s
O nl y be stron g and ver y coura geous to
observe to d o accord in g to all the law which Moses m y
servant comman d e d thee : turn not from it to the ri ght
han d or to the left that thou ma yest d eal wisel y whither
soever thou goest This book of the law shall not d epart
out of th y mouth but thou shalt me d itate therein da y an d
ni ght that thou ma yest observe to d o accor d in g to all that

is written therein
Here w e n d that Joshua received
in char ge a written book calle d the B ook of th e L a w of
which Moses not Yah w eh is g iven as the author
,

L AW o r

MOS E S

79

b)

When Joshua had nished the subjection of the

eastern part of the land he gathered the tribes of Israel

to Mount Ebal and th ere

Joshua built an altar unto
Yahweh the God of Israel in Mount Ebal as Moses
the servant of Yahweh commanded the c hildren of Israel
as it is written in the B ook of th e La w of M os es an altar
of unhewn stones upon which no man ha d lif ted up any
ir on : and they o ffered thereon burnt o ffer ings unto
Yahweh and sacriced peace o fferin gs And he wrote
there upo n the stones a copy of the La w of M os es which

he wrote in the presence of the c hildren of Israel

The
law mentioned as bein g written in the B ook of th e L a w of
M os es is found exclusively in Deut 2 7 :5 8 where we read

that Moses said

And there shalt thou buil d an altar
unto Yahweh thy God an altar of stones : thou shalt lift
up no ir on upon them Thou shalt build the altar of
Yahweh th y God of unhewn stone ; and thou shalt o ffer
burnt o fferings thereon unto Yahweh thy God and thou
shalt sacrice pea c e o fferin gs and shalt eat there ; and
thou shalt rejoice before Yahweh thy God An d thou
shalt write upon the stones all the words of this law very

pla inly
Here we have then a reference to the B ook of
th e L a w of M os es which pla i nly is a reference to the D eu
t er on om ic le g islation

When
Joshua
b
ade
farewell
to
his
people
he
said
c
)

I Josh
3
S om c riti c s
in c lin d to r gard D ut c ha p 7 on whi c h this p ass ag
in Joshu a is so vi d ntly b as d a s not an int g ral pa rt of t h D c o d T h
o bj c tion is b as d m a inly on th b l ssin g s an d c ursin g s c ont a in d in it But
this is a m istak n notion for th C o d of Ham m urab i h a s shown us th a t b l ssin g s
an d c urs s w r an int gr a l p art of an c i nt c o d s as a p rop r aff rmation of
th ir t n ts T h b l ssin g s an d c urs s in this c h ap t r in D ut ronomy
a
n c ss a ry pa rt of th c on c lusion of th D c o d j ust as th thr a ts in L viti c us
( c h ap 6) b lon g to t h c on c lusion of t h P c o d
Josh
,

a re

e e

e e

e,

a re

80

D AT E

T HE

o r TH E

D DO CU M E N T

be ver y coura geous to keep and to do all that

is written in the B ook of th e L a w of M os es that ye turn

not asid e therefrom to the ri ght han d or to the left

Althou gh there is nothin g in this passa ge to point out what
book it is that is known by this name the S imilarit y in
phraseolo gy between this and the passa ge from Joshu a
just cite d above makes the assumption justiable that
what is referre d to here is the same as that referre d to in
other parts of Joshua i e the D document
d ) The d y in g D avi d char g e d his son Solomon sayin g

B e thou strong therefore and show thyself a man ; and

keep the charge of Yahweh thy Go d to walk in his wa y s
to keep his statutes his comman d ments an d his judg
ments an d his testimonies accord in g to that which is
written in the L a w of M os es that thou ma y est d eal wisely
in all that thou doest and whithersoever thou turnest

T h e tone of this passa g e is d ecide d l y Deuter

th y self
o n o m ic
and resembles closel y our quotation above from
Joshua 1 :7 It is worth remarkin g that the pra yer which
Solomon made when he came to d e d icate his temple was
as we have seen entirel y D euteronomic
Davi d then
knew of a written L a w of M os es an d when he spoke of it
use d d enitel y D euteronomic lan gua g e
e) In II C hron
we have another reference to

the L a w of M os es
An d Jehoiada appo inte d the o fces
of the house of Yahweh un d er the han d of th e p ri es ts th e
L ev i tes whom D avi d ha d d istributed in the house of
Yahweh to o ffer the burnt o fferin g s of Yahweh as it is
written in the L a w of M os es with rejoic ing and with s in g

in g accord in g to the ord er of D avid

T h e expression

the priests the L evites is Deuteronomic and not priestly

I I Kin g s
3
Therefore

LAW OF MOS E S

81

as we mi ght naturall y expect in C hronicles the pro d uct

of the priestly school An d these priests the L evites are

denitely said to be fulllin g their functions as it is written

in the La w of M
The i d entication of Deuteronom y
with the L a w of M os es seems to be plain here too in the
rei gn of Joash at the t ime w h en he became kin g 8 3 7 B C
l
Something
simi
ar seems to be implied in II C hron
i)
where at the great P assover of Hezekiah the order

of the priests is again referred to as be in g accordin g to

Th e or d er
the La w of M os es
refers of course to
the arrangement made b y David who d ivi d e d the priests
into classes when he established his worship of Yahweh
a worship which as we have seen above seem s to have
been on a Deuteronomic basis or at least worship around

the Ar k of the C ovenant an ark which as will be fully

S hown later belon ged to the D code
L
a w of M os es are to be
Further
references
to
the
g)
found in II Kings 2 1 :8 (the time of Manasseh ) Ezra 3 :2 ;
1 3
Nehemiah
Daniel
Malachi

admonishes the people Remember ye the L a w of M oses

my servant which I commanded unto him in Horeb for

A law referred
a ll Israel even statutes an d ju d g men t s
t o Horeb would at rst glance seem to be E but the term

statutes a n d jju d g m en ts must refer to D

As late as
the time of Malachi therefore the term La w of M oses
seems to refer to Deuteronomy
We have thus seen that probably in the time of Malachi
and certain ly in the times of Josiah Amaziah Joash
Jehoiada
Solomon
David
and
Joshua
that
is
to
say
(
)
In every reference to the L a w of Moses where anything
,

I Ma l

4 :4

r f rs x c lusiv ly to
ut c h ap 5
v nts b tw n H or b an d M oab
2

e e

De

ee

1 1

e e

th e

l g isl ation at Hor b an d

e

th e

82

DAT E OF

TH E

THE

D D O CUM E N T

at all is implied as to what is meant there is implied that

the law which we call the D co d e is meant
It seems in
the hi ghest d egree probable that such a book d id exist
from the time of Joshua down And if it existe d this
earl y as the evid ence persua d es us to a d mit there is no
reason to d oubt that Moses wrote the D co d e at the cove
nant in the lan d of Moab just as Deuteronom y itself
asserts
In concludin g this section in regard to the L a w of M os es
just one other fact needs to be observed The D co d e

And it S hall be when he [the kin g] sitteth upon

or d a in s
the throne of his kingdom that he shal l write him a copy
of this law in a book out of that which is before the priests
the L evites : and it S hall be with him and he shall read
in it all the d a y s of his life that he ma y learn to fear
Yahweh his God to keep all the word s of this law and

these statutes to do them

This explicit or d er to write
a cop y of the law in a book implies that the law existed
in co d ied form for a c opy coul d not be ma d e of mere
traditions If we now turn to the historical books we
nd that this law was strictly obe y e d when Israel came
to choose a kin g As soon as Saul was chosen and Samuel
had consecrated him Samuel tol d the people God s
ordinance for the k ingdom and wrote it down in a book
which was laid up before Yahweh
V D d th C ntral S an c tuar y
A g ain st all these facts which seem to ar g ue for an early
date for D critics a d vance the plea that D must be late
D ut
9
IS m
I nst ad of s ay in g with D D riv r (L O T p
th a t
th
Law of t h Kin gd o m ( D ut
) is c olor d b y r m inis c n c s of t h
m on a rc h y of S olo m on it is qu a ll y p ossi b l to s a y th a t t h m on a rc h y of S olo m on
r c ts t h Law in D ut rono m y
,

an

D AND

C E N T RAL SAN C T UARY

TH E

83

because it is the only c ode which teaches a central sanc

tu a ry
by whi c h phrase they mean a single sanctuary
The arg ument is that since up to the t ime of Josiah there
were many san c tuaries and it was he who abolished them
all save the one at Jerusalem D could not have been in
e ffe c t before his time Th is arg ument is b ased upon the

n
substitution in the mi ds of the critics of Jerusalem

for the phrase in Deuteronomy the pla c e for the dwelling

of my name
This argument seems at rst glance very
plausible but it is not nearly so strong when examined
c arefully
Fir st of all we must o b serve that not in one S in gle
instance does Deuteronomy mention Jerusalem and the
implication that it means Jerusalem is a read ing in to the
B i b le of a personal opin ion merely
It does speak again
and again about the pla c e which Yahweh shall choose
for causing his name to dwell in B u t that pla c e may be
anywhere A nd as we know it was moved about to
d ifferent pla c es up to the time of D avid In the time of
the Judges the prin cipal sanctuary certain ly move d about
from place to place Yahweh s oracle to Nathan the
prophet c learly shows that this was the c a s e
Furthermore D eu teron omy d oes n ot p roh i bi t oth er
This statement may appear startl in g but
s a n c tu a ri es
it is nevertheless true It ordain s that there shall be
only one place for h i s n a me to dw ell and that is all A nd
this phrase is a technical term for Yahweh s presence at
the central sanctuary It does not prohibit other places

and altars for sacrices so long as those sa c ri c es are

made to Yahweh Deuteronomy may be searched from
o n e end to the other without nd ing a sin gle prohibition
I I Chron
6; II S m 7 :5 7
,

84

THE D

AT E OF

TH E D

DO CU M E N T

denunciation or even reproof of altars of this sort O n

the contrar y Deuteronom y in the code itself ord ers the
people to go to Ebal an d ratif y the covenant mad e in Horeb
an d Moab An d in Joshua w e rea d that Joshua carried
out this comman d b y buildin g an altar to Yahweh and
sacricin g thereon and writin g the law of Deuteronom y
upon twelve stones place d aroun d the altar T hus we
see that D d eliberatel y or d aine d at least one altar of sacri
c e apart from Jerusalem or the ark
Th e twelfth is the g reat chapter i n Deuteronomy for
bidd in g i d olatry an d it is on this chapter chie y that critics

base their contention about the sin gle central sanctuar y

of the D co d e
B u t in this very chapter in vss 1 5 an d
2 1 we n d permission g iven for the killin g of animals out
sid e the sanctuar y At rst glance it mi ght appear that
this killing was just ord in ary slau ghterin g B u t the
Hebrew wor d here is za ba c h which never has meant an d
never can mean an y thin g else but a sacrice Th e
Revisers have thus ma d e themselves liable to the charge
either of wilful misrepresentation or of almost unpardon

able i gnorance in translatin g this wor d with kill merel y

because in both these verses we are d eal in g with sacrices
an d sacricin g T hus we see that even in the ver y pas
sa ge most cite d a g ain st other altars than that of Jerusalem
Deuteronom y permits sacricin g to Yahweh at any and
every p lace in which his people see t to do it
D
P ri sts th L vit s
VI
d th
It is further objecte d by critics that a date as early as
we have postulate d for D is impossible because in the early
histor y of Israel an y bo d y was permitte d to o ffer sacrice
while the D co d e connes the sacricing to the priests
D ut
3
.

an

F I ND I N G OF

THE

D DO CU M E N T

85

the L evites O f course it is true that D prescribes a

L evitical priesthood that it inclu d es as priests the sons
of L evi and that these sons of L evi are to be id entied
with the whole tribe of L evi
B u t here a g ain critics
have been read ing into the B ible somethin g which it d oes
not contain D eu teron omy n ow h ere c on n es th e ri g h t to
sa c ri c e to member s of th e tr i be o L ev i
All
that
Deuter
f
on omy does insist upon is that the L evites shall serve at
that san c tuary where the Ark of the C ovenant is or to

use the technical term the place where Yahweh s name

is dwellin g
.

'

V II

F in d in g of

th e D D

o c um nt
e

We have seen that there is ever y reason for believin g

and none for d isbelieving that the D document ori ginated
at a ver y early d ate and that the d o c ument was kn own
right do w n through Hebrew history at least down to the
time of Hezekiah What then was meant b y the state

ment that the book was found in the temple in the

eighteenth y ear of Josiah ? The word for n d ma za

points to a discover y not by any means to an invention
The book seemingly had been unkn own to Josiah up to
the time of its d iscovery Shaphan Hilkiah an d Hulda
seem all of them to have been equal l y surprise d when the y
saw it An d indeed we cannot expect that it shoul d have
been otherwise Th e historical books show no trace of
it S ince the time of Hezekiah nearly a centur y before
Now it will be remembered that when we were d iscussin g
the P code we noticed that in the time of Jehoshaphat
8 7 3 B C the L evites went throu gh the cities of Ju d ah on
I D ut
D ut
F or th d istin c tion b tw n th D t rm th p ri sts t h L vit s a n d
b low p 9 5
t h P t rm
th p ri sts an d L vit s

ee
e

s ee

86

TH E

D ATE

O F TH E

D DO CU M E N T

missionary work to teach the L a w of Ya h w eh i e the

P code May we not see in this an or g anized eff ort on
the part of the Aaronic or P priesthoo d to undermine the
D code in favor of that more particularly its own ? If this
u
be so it is not hard to ima g ine a gradual d ecrease in in
ence on the part of the D code until some time in the
rei gn of the idolatrous Manasseh c a 68 5 B C it sank
entirel y into disuse an d nally disappeared from the c om
mon knowled ge of the people
At the same time we Shoul d expe c t that there would be a
cop y of this important law in the oracle place of the tem
ple Here only the high priest coul d enter and that only
on c e in ea c h year with the bloo d that was to be sprin kled
on the ark This oracle place was completely d ark The
hi gh priest coul d see noth in g insid e it nor coul d he touch
an y thing there We have notice d above that in D itself
there is an order that a cop y of it be lai d up before Yahweh
at the S id e of the Ark This cop y mi g ht very well then
be in the oracle place in Josiah s time an d have been there
since Solomon bu ilt the temple For we have no good
reason to d oubt that Solomon complie d with the law and
placed the cop y there as it require d It ma y have been
quietl y restin g there those 3 4 0 ye a rs while the people
an d even the hi gh priest himself may have been in these
later times utterl y i gnorant of its existence
Now there were masons carpenters and bu il d ers
makin g extensive repairs of the breaches of the temple
It is not too much to assume that these repairs exten d ed
to the oracle place We are tol d in d ee d that the repairs

were to breaches in the house i e in the temple buil d

in g proper consistin g of the hol y place an d the oracle
place Since we have no reason to assume that the repairs
.

F IND I N G OF

D D O CUM E N T

TH E

87

extended over the two thirds of the house devoted to the

holy place but not to the other thir d the oracle place we
have indeed ever y reason to assume that the repairs d id
extend to the latter It is only natural that while this wor k
was goin g on the boo k should have b een found and turned
over to the high priest
N a ville has lately suggested that the b oo k may have
b een found b y the workmen under the walls of the temple
He calls attention to the fact that in several temples of
Egypt deposition do cuments have been found which had
been pla c ed there when the temples were buil t When
su c h temples were repaired these d ocuments were taken
out augmente d with additions re g arding the repairs and
then laid bac k in their places in the foundations He
suggests that Deuteronomy ma y have been found in this
manner
P rofessor Grimme usin g Na vi lle s suggestion as a
basis b elieves that there is a statement in the code itself
to that e ffect His v iew seems very plausi ble
It is not
ne c essary that the book should have been laid in the wall
or in the cornerstone however His argument applies
equally well if it had b een hidden away in the oracle place
The passage which Grimme cites reads That which was
hidden away unto Yahweh our God and which has bee n
revealed to us and to our children forever that we may
3
do all the works of this law
The D c ode proper ends with the twenty eighth chapter
The next chapter is dou b tless a later addition Whether
it was made by Joshua or by some other person is hard to
-

I P S B A Vol XX I X pp
.

O LZ ,

ut

De

90

7,

pp

6 1 0 -1 5 ;

4 2

90

8,

pp

889 3

88

DAT E OF

TH E

THE

D DO CU M E N T

de c ide B u t in thou ght an d langua ge it corresponds ver y

closely with the code itself It was probably there whe n
the book was discovere d in Josiah s time This verse
which Grimme notes may then have been added at the
time the book was d iscovered
.

V III

fa c ts i n

A ll th es e
on ly

th e

hi c h

ti me

ev id en c e,

ha t

ms

os h u a ,

p roba ble
I Th c ont nts of

n ot

s ee

to th e

we

both i n tern a l

h a v e d etermi n ed

we

r el a ti on

c orr obora te w

to

on c lusion

n di n g o

th e d oc u men t

c on c l u d ed

from th e res t

h a ve

a n d ex tern a l

na

mely ,

on ly

at

Th e

ea rly

d a te

a s ea rly a s

l ea s t

p la u si ble

bu t

th e

ex tr emely

v rs s m to p oint to this m a nin g rath r th a n to

of th R V tra nsl ation Th s c r t thin g s b lon g unto
t h r a th r p ointl ss
th
L ord our G o d : b ut t h thin g s whi c h
r v a l d b lon g to us an d to our
c hil d r n for v r that
m y d o a ll t h work s of this l a w
T his pa ssag
thus tra nsl at d shows no log i c al c onn c tion ith r with t h p r c d in g or ith
th
followin g c hap t rs
e

th e

on e

ee

e e
e

we

a re

e e

e,

e e

C HA P TER VII
Th e Da te

th e E Doc u men t

of

o
rec ed es D
Almost a ll modern critics admit that the E document
precedes the D document in date Indeed it is a part of
the C ritical Hypothesis that this should b e so for the laws
and institutions of the E code seem at rst glance to
belong to quite a primitive state of so c iety and to be both
fewer in number and less min ute than those of D The
argument is well ta ken E is older than D Now we
found above that D is to b e dated from the legislation in
Moab The B ible asserts that the E code was g iven
fort y years before that at Horeb M a y this statement
b e accepted ?
It may be objected that this time is too short to allow
for a chan g e in culture so great as that shown by a com
B u t two answers may b e
parison of the two codes
advanced to meet this objection :
a
First
it
is
not
certain
that
we
have
the
whole
E
code
)
in our Hexateuch tod a y
Further the J code if there
be one claims to b elong to the same time and occasion
but it is o nl y one six th the len g th of the E co d e as it now
stands We cannot therefore certainly say that the E
c ode as it was ori g inall y was either mu c h S horter or mu c h
S impler than the D code
b) S e c ond even under the C ritical H yp othesis there is
assumed only a little more than a century between these
two co d es I f such a change could have ta ken pla c e in
I I n E xo d c hap s 3
I

Th e E C d e P

2 1

89

TH E

0
9

DAT E OF

THE E

DO CUM E N T

so short a time in the later monarchy with its settled state

of society how much easier would have been such a chan ge
and how much quicker in the years between the legisla
tions of Horeb and M oab d urin g which time we have
the graphic stor y of not less than four rebellions numerou s
trials and the unparallele d trainin g of a stubborn and
stiff necke d people
When we have a d mitted then that our date for E
d epends upon our date for D it might seem as if there
were nothing further to say on the d ate of this document
an d code B u t there are some few points that need to
be touched on
Law of E loh im
11
We have already seen that the B ible has technical
terms for the D an d P co d es We have observed that the
L a w of Y a h w eh meant P and that the L a w of M oses
meant D Similarl y we mi ght expect that the E code also
woul d have a technical term to d enote it Is this the case ?
Mo d ern critics claim that the E co d e had its origin in
the Northern Kin gd om An d whether or not it arose
there there can be little d oubt that that was where it was
more particularl y in forc e Now Hosea was a prophet
to the Northern Kin gd om and when he reprove d the
people of Samaria he d i d it in the follow in g lan guage :

M y people are d estro y e d for lack of kn owle d ge ; because

thou hast rejected knowled ge I will also reject thee that
thou shalt be no priest to me ; seein g that thou hast for
gotten the L a w of th y God [E l oh i m] I also will for get th y

chil d ren ?
Here we have a reference to a L a w of G od
or E loh i m This law must have been one known to the
people else Hosea coul d not ver y well have cited it in
H os
,

TH E

BO O K O F

TH E C O VE

NANT

rebuking them Now the E do c ument contain s a code

which mi ght very well have been in operation in S amaria
w ith its low ideas of Yahweh
At this time it seems that
even the simple laws of the c ode which had been in e ffe c t
were set aside for idolatrous practices The prophet
therefore rebuke d the people for havin g no knowled g e
i e of Yahweh as presented in this simple code because

they had forgotten t h e L a w of E lohi m

In Joshua we read
An d Joshua wrote these word s
in the B ook of th e L a w of E l oh i m; an d he took a great
stone and set it up there under the oa k that was b y the
sanctuary of Yah weh And Joshua said unto all the peo
ple B ehold this stone shall be a witness a g ain st us ; for
it has heard all the words of Yahweh which He spake
unto us : it shall be therefore a witness a gain st you lest

ye den y y our God

The word s referred to were the
parting address of Joshua to Israel by the sanctuary of
S hiloh where Joshu a an d the people made a covenant
with Yahweh that they should be his people and worship
him onl y When the people had a greed to this Joshua
informed them that he woul d write their words an d answers
in the L a w of E l oh i m to be a witness against them forever
There was then a L a w of E loh i m in existence at this
time and it must have been in co d ie d form capable of
receivin g an a d d ition else Joshua could not have added
i n w ri ti n g the covenant a g reement
.

III

Th e

Boo k of th

ov

en a n

We have now seen that there was pro b ably a L a w of

E l oh i m kn own in the time of Joshua at the t ime when he
made the covenant at Shiloh and that this law was in
I Josh
p 3
S
7
,

ee

DAT E OF

TH E

D O CUM E N T

TH E E

written form and so capable of receiving written add itions

We wil l now see that at least a portion of the co d e was in
written form before the covenant at Shiloh
In Exo d
we have a reference to the B ook of th e

Coven a n t: An d he took the B ook of th e C oven a n t and

read in the au d ience of the people : an d the y said All that

Yahweh has spoken wil l we d o and be obe d ient

It is
to be note d that this d ocument is a book an d therefore
in written form L et us now inquire what this B ook of
th e C oven a n t containe d
Modern critics a g ree that the B ook of th e C oven a n t
contained Exod 2 1 I 2 3 :1 9 i e the judgments at
Horeb T his they call the Grea ter B ook of th e C oven a n t
while Exod
2 6 they call the L es s er B ook of th e
This is a rea d in g into the B ible which cannot
C oven a n t
be a d mitte d Th e laws in Exod chap 3 4 are not an d
never have been a part of the B ook of th e Cov en a n t We
have onl y one B ook of th e Coven a n t In or d er to d eter
min e just what was its original extent let us review briey
the histor y of the theophanies at Horeb
In Exo d 1 9 :3 we are tol d that Moses went up unto
Go d an d that Yahweh calle d to him out of the mountain
We nd afterward that this mountain is Mount Horeb
Go d at this time comman d e d Moses to speak to the ch il
dren of Israel an d remin d them how he had brou ght
them out of E g ypt an d promised that if they woul d keep
his commandments the k in gd om of Israel shoul d become
a kin gd om of priests an d a hol y nation Th e covenant
m en tion ed is of course the covenant which Yahweh is
about to establish with the people Moses then came
down from the mountain c alle d for the el d ers of the people
I E xo d
.

CO VE NANT

TH E B OO K O F TH E

93

an d set before them the word s of Yahweh i e that he

intended to ma ke a covenant with them The people
answered that all that Yahweh had said they would do
Moses then returned to the mountain and reported the
word s of the people to Yahweh
Yahweh then in formed Moses that he was g oin g to
appear in a thi c k cloud and himself speak to the people
He therefore ordered Moses down from the mountain
to sanctify the people that they might be ready by the
third d ay on which Yahweh was going to speak from the
mount O n the third day Yahweh appeared on the moun
tain and called Moses up to him There he gave in stru c
tions that bounds should be set around the mountain so
that the people should not come near it Moses objecte d
because he ha d already taken these pre c autions but Yah
weh ordere d him do w n just the same telling him that he
and Aaron should c ome up afterward
When M oses had come down to the people God spa ke
to them th e Word s i e the ten commandments contain ed

in Exo d 2 0 :2 1 7
The people heard the voi c e saw the
lightnings trembled an d asked Moses that he an d not
3
God might speak with them that they mi g ht not die
The Ten Words or c omm a n d en ts then are represented
as be ing not the words of Moses or the words of God as
delivered throu gh Moses but the wor d s of God himself
which he spoke with his ow n voi c e to the Israelites from
Horeb
At this request of the people Moses went up once more
into the mountain and drew near the thick darkness where
God was while the people all drew away from the mount
Yahweh then spoke to Moses the words contain ed in
I E xo d
E xo d
E xo d
E xo d
,

DAT E OF

THE

94

DO C UM E N T

TH E E

Exod 2 0 :2 2 b 2 6 Then he comman d e d the ju d gments

contain ed in Exo d
Yahweh then contin
ue d to speak to Moses informin g him how he would sen d
an angel before them to brin g them in to the lan d of C an
aan When these word s ha d been spoken Yahweh told
Moses that he Aaron Na d ab Abih u an d sevent y of the
el d ers of Israel shoul d come up to the mountain but that

onl y Moses shoul d come near unto Yahweh

Moses
then came d own an d told the people all the words of Yah
weh an d all the jud gments : an d all the people answered
with one voice and said All the words which Yahweh
has spoken will we d o An d Moses wrote all the words
of Yahweh an d rose up early in the morn in g and buil d ed
an altar un d er the mount an d twelve stones accor d in g

to the twelve tribes of Israel

All the words of Yahweh must inclu d e all that

Yahweh had S poken to the people (Exo d 2 0 2 2
but
2
1
1
not the ju d gments in Exo d
Havin g writ
3 9
ten down these things Moses sent his o fcers who pre
pared for a sacrice
At this sacrice the y took half of the blood an d
sprin kled it upon the altar Then Moses rea d the B ook
o
h
e C ov en a n t in the ears of the people
i n they
Aga
t
f

answered All that Yahweh has spoken we will d o and

be obe d ient
Thereupon Moses took the other half
of the bloo d an d sprin kled it on the people and said

B ehol d the blood of the covenant which Yahweh has

5
ma d e with y ou concernin g all these wor d s
T h e cove
nant at Horeb was thus marke d b y a sacrice at which
the people formall y accepte d the Cov en a n t B ook

I E xod
E xo d
E xo d
4
33
E xo d
E xo d

TH E B

OO K O F

TH E

CO VE NA NT

95

Moses Aaron and the seventy elders then presented

themselves unto the God of Israel on the mount , and
there they beheld God and did eat and drin k
The
c ovenant sa c ri c e was thus continued in the very presence
of God
The B ook of th e Coven a n t was so c alled bec ause it con
ta in ed the covenant b etween God and the people and this

covenant is contain ed in the ten word s i e the Deca

lo g ue The B ook of th e Coven a n t is then an exact paral lel
to the Ta bl es of Coven a n t which as we know contained

only the ten words

The d iff erence in name refers
then to the d ifferent k in ds of material on which the cove

nant words were recorded B e ing called a

book
the covenant words must have been written down b y
Moses exa c tl y as the B ible itself asserts

Jud g ments is a te c hni c al term for civil law The

analogy of usage at this time as eviden c ed by the C ode
of Hammura b i in B abylonia and the L aws of H a remh a b
in Egypt b oth of which were Civil la w c od es requ ires

us to assume that the judgments in Exod chap 2 1 2 3

must have been written an d thus made a c cessible not only
to the people but for the judges that had b een appointed
a few days before
When the covenant was thus consummated God ordered
Moses to come up into the mountain to re c eive tables of

stone and the law and the c ommandment

We have
here new terms and we have no right to assume that these
new revelations have anythin g to do either with the words

of Go d to Moses or with the jud gments

They are
techn ical terms for various laws which Yahweh no w was
a bout to g ive
I E xo d
E xo d
E xo d
,

6
9

THE

DAT E OF

TH E E

DO CU M E N T

M oses and Joshua his minister then went up as com

ma n d ed and Go d wrote on the tables
M oses sta y e d this
time upon the mountain for fort y da y s and forty ni ghts
S ud d enl y Moses was or d ere d b y God to go down for the
people had made a calf and were worshipin g it
Moses
an d Joshua therefore descen d e d an d when Moses foun d
out what the people had done in an ger he broke the two
tables Moses rushe d to the people and ndin g them in
rebellion he placed himself in the g ate of the camp an d

sai d Whoso is on Yahweh s side unto me l

The sons of L evi imme d iately left the rebellious hosts
,

and joined him Moses ordered them to take swords and

restore order in the camp

After a heavy slau ghter
peace was restored The members of the faithful tribe
of L evi were ordered to consecrate themselves and when
the y had been blesse d Moses returned to the mountain
to interce d e for the people
Yahweh was angr y but he nally accede d to Moses
request an d followed him to his tent which is now calle d
the Tent of Meetin g outsi d e the camp Yahweh ordere d
Moses to hew two more tables like unto the rst ones
with the promise that he would write on them the wor d s
which the rst ones had contained
T h e n ext mornin g
M oses presented himself y et a gain on the mountain and
a gain sta y e d forty days fastin g He pleaded that Yahweh
would pard on the iniquit y an d the sin and take the people

for his inheritance

Yahweh a g ree d to this an d sai d

B ehol d I am makin g a covenant : before all thy people

I will do marvels such as have not been created in all the
earth nor in any nation : and all the people among which
I E xod
E xo d
E xo d
E xo d
E xo d
.

BOO K

TH E

O F TH E C O VE

NANT

97

thou art S hall see t he work of Yahweh for it is a terrible

thin g that I do with thee O bserve that whi c h I command
thee this day : behold I drive out before thee the Amorite
and the C ana a nite and the Hittite and the P erizzite an d
the Hivite and the
There follows a se c tion

of commandments a n d th en the text c ontin ues And

Yahweh said unto Moses Write thou these words : for
after the tenor of these words I have made a covenant with
thee an d with Israel An d he was there with Yahweh
forty da y s and forty ni g hts ; he did neither eat bread nor
drink water A nd he wrote upon the tables the words of
the covenant the Ten
We thus see that there was a se c ond covenant made at
Horeb but that we have no record of the second covenant
possess ing anything like a C ovenant B ook Yahweh ha d

promised Moses tables of stone and the law and

4
the comman d ments
From Exod chap 3 4 we found

that M oses received the two tables inscribed with the

Ten Words an d also some commandments contained

in Exod
2 6
As for the law the word used

means also in struction and we have an in struction

,

I E xo d

6
xo d
E xo d
F rom th acc ount g iv n in D ut ronom y
k now
8
that th word s s p o k n at M ount Hor b by Yahw h i
th
T
Wor d s
:
( E xo d
7 ) w r i d nti ca l with t h wor d s writt n on t h two ta b l s ( E xo d
I n D ut
r a d Th s word s Y a hw h sp ak unto all your
34 :
ass m b ly in th m ount out of th m i d st of th of t h c lou d an d of th
thi ck d a rkn ss with a g r at voi c : an d H a dd d no m or
F rom D ut
w
know th at th s tab l s w r c all d th Tab l s of th C ov nant : Wh n I
was gon u p into th m ount to r c iv th t ab l s of ston v n th Tab l s of
th
C ov n a nt th n I ab o d in t h m ount fort y d ay s an d fort y ni ghts ; I d i d
n ith r t b r a d nor d ri k wat r Th l ast c laus i d nti s th s tab l s
with M os s la st visit to th m ount a in (E xo d
F or furth r r f r n c s
on th Tab l s of th Cov nant c f D ut
5
7;
5
E xo d
3

1 1

2 -1

2 0

ea

r e,

e, e e

en

e e

e e

we

e e

e e

we

e e

e e

1 1

e e e

e
e

8
9

THE D

AT E OF

TH E E

D O CU M E N T

1 1
given in Exod
quote d above The law
an d the comman d ment are then the recor d s contained

2 6 to g ether with the T en Words which

in Exo d
a re not repeated here because they evidently were i d entical
with those spoken b y Yahweh himself and recorded in
Exo d chap 2 0
Accor d in g to Exod
Yahweh commanded Moses

to write d own all these word s which ma y refer onl y to

the law and the comman d ments

We have no reason
to assume that Moses d i d not comply with this command
T h e laws of Exo d chap 3 4 were then written down
Thus after this lon g divergence into the records of the
Horeb covenants we see that there existe d a book called
the B ook of th e Cov en a n t conta inin g Exod 2 0 :2 1 7

which was made at Horeb an d also ju dgments ( Exod

an d a law an d a commandment written at the
2 1
2 6
same place conta ining Exod
T h e E co d e
must then have containe d both the Cov en a n t B ook and
the laws in Exod chaps 2 1 2 3 an d 3 4 the last of which
is so generall y consi d ered as a J code
B u t however this may be there can be no doubt that
the C ovenant B ook (Exod 2 0 :2 1 7 ) is a portion of the E
document This document generall y addresses God
under the name of Elohim an d woul d quite naturally be
therefore a part of the L a w of E l oh i m We have seen
before that the L a w of Y a h w eh is the P code g iven at
Sinai an d likewise that the L a w of M oses is the D code
given in Moab We shall therefore probably be not far
wron g in assumin g that the L a w of E l oh i m is the E co d e
g iven at Horeb
.

I T h c onfusion of

n a m s S inai an d Hor b in E xo d c h ap s
of J took p l ac wh n J a n d P w r c om b in d S p 3 8
e

th e

e e

ee

9,

4, 3 4

C ON C L U S I ON
IV

D a te

of

99

th e E Doc umen

We believe therefore that the E code extends back

in written form to the covenant at Horeb
The question
then remains as to whether an y of the do c ument outside
of the c ode existed at that early time In Exod

we read A nd Y ahweh said unto M oses Write this for

a memorial in a book and rehearse it in the ears of Joshua :
that I will utterly blot out the remem b rance of Amalek

from under heaven

The passage refers to the war with Amalek in Rephidim

i
1
and the a c count of that war is g ven in Exod 7 8 1 6 It
would seem then ta k ing the internal evidence of the docu
ment itself that at least this much of the E document was
written down in a book as early as the events in Horeb
,

Con c

lusio n

We have seen that there existed in the time of Hosea

at least in the Northern Kin gd om a c ode called the La w
of E l ohi m
Again we found this same te c hnical term
used as early as the time of Joshua an d used in a way that
denoted a code As the Hexateuch has only three c odes
and two of them have already been ident ied we sugg ested
that this L a w of E loh i m was the techn ical term for the
only other one the E c ode
We found further that a
part of the E co d e was known as the B ook of th e Coven a n t
and that this in cluded the rst legislation at Hore b

This was called a book and had therefore been written

down We found too that the later legislation at Horeb
was also wr itten down It seemed obvious then that
the part of th e E code whi c h we now have existed in
written form as far bac k as the t ime of the Hore b c ovenant
We found too that at least one part of the E do c ument

,
.

TH E

1 0 0

DAT E OF

THE E

DO CU M E N T

outside the code seems to have existe d in written form from

the same time as the co d e We shall probably not err very
g ravely in conclud ing that the whole E d o c ument with
the co d e existe d from a ver y early age not later than the
time of Joshua This last we conclu d e d because the
document was capable of receiving an ad d iti on in his time
at the covenant at S hiloh
.

C HA P TER VIII
Th e Un i ty

Con t en ts

and

th e E Doc u men t

o m ent
The D ocumentary Theor y presupposes as in the ease of
P that the Hexateuch contains a c omplete E document if
only we are a b le correctly to disengage it from the other
material It is held however b y most critics that no
c ertain traces of E are to be found earlier than Genesis
c hap
It is evident though that we have no c omplete
history in the E document even from the t ime of A braham
to that of Joshua which is the period that E is g eneral ly
supposed to cover If we d id not have the history of the
J d ocument and the Tol ed oth B ook of P the E document
would be mere fragments often utterly unintelligi ble
This applies especially to the Exodus story It is not to
b e denied that there was once a complete E document
although of it we have only fra g ments preserved in our
Hexateuch
II U nit y of th E Co d
B u t it is not onl y the document that is fra g mentary
The code is undoubtedly fra gmentary too In Exod

2 6 we read
There he (Yahweh) ma d e for them a
s ta tu te and an ordi n a n c e and there he prove d them ; and
he said If thou w ilt dil igently hear ken unto the voi c e of
Yahweh thy Go d and wil t do that which is right in his
eyes and wil t give ear to his c ommandments and keep
a ll his statutes I wil l put none of the d iseases upon thee
which I have put upon the Egyptians : for I am Yahweh
I S om c riti c s thi k that a f v rs s in c hap 5 an d c h ap 6 b lon g to it
I

U nit y of

of

th e E D

cu

ew

U N IT Y AND C ON T E N T S OF

TH E

1 0 2

D O CUM E N T

THE E

that healeth thee

The passa g e belongs to E It refer s
to the incident of the sweetening of the bitter waters at

M arah Now a statute was g iven to the people at

Marah and a statute means originall y in Hebrew

something en g raved either on stone or on metal A

statute cannot be a mere oral law ; it must be a written

law T h e term statute became technicalized in the O l d

Testament an d meant a canonical or church l a w

In contrast with the statutes are the ju d gments a

term which denotes a code of civil an d criminal

Now the E co d e contains several judgmen ts but not a

sin gle statute although as we have seen a statute was

given at Marah
A d a y or two later when the people were encamped
at Rephidim at the foot of Mount Horeb Moses received
a visit from his father in law Jethro This happene d
before the le g islation at Horeb took place O f this V isit
we read that Moses was sittin g an d ju dg in g the people
I T h followin g l aws in th H xat uc h
ca ll d st a tut s : D y of
A ton m nt L
s ac ri c s to h go a ts L
3
34 ;
sh af of tf it L
P nt c ost L
F stiv a l of Booths or
Tab rn ac l s L
sh w b r ad s L
of th silv r trum p ts
t h tith
wa t r of s pa ration N m 9 : ; vows
N m
N m
N m
p uri ca tion of spoil N m
P a ssov r E xo d
th
ff ;
th
l am p E xo d
t h b r c h s of t h p ri st
; L
E xo d
th
h a v o ff rin g E xo d 9 8 ;
4 3 ; t h p ri sthoo d E xo d
N m
fa t of b loo d L
s ac ri c s
9 ; t h l a v r E xo d
at c ons c ration of p ri sts L
w a v off rin g L
th
:3
5 ; an d t h t m p ra n c of t h p ri st L

T h only p l ac wh r t h t r m
j udgm nts is us d a s t h titl of pa r
ti
l
l aws is in E xo d : wh r it is in t h su p rsc ri p tion to th l aws c on
t i
d in E xo d
T h t rm
j u dgm nts c orr s pon d s x ac tly to
3:9
i t us d in t h C o d of Ha mm ur ab i ( c ol 4
th t r m d
l
a s t h t c hni ca l
t rm of th a t c o d I n B aby loni a n th word d am m a nin g to j u dg c orr
d with t h H b r w s p h t
F ro m t h C o d of Ha mm urab i
know
p
th at su c h c o d s d i d xist in writt n form T h H b r w wor d i i
j udg
p t
m nt
m ust b si m il a rl y un d rstoo d
.

ev

rs

s,

ru

ev

ev

a ne

an

2 1

e e

'

ev

e,

we

e,

ev

2 2 1

e-

ee

on

ev

ev

e e

cu ar

u se

ev

ev

e-

2 1

ev

ev

1 0

a re

e,

rrz

UN I T Y OF

C OD E

TH E E

1 0

who were com ing in large numbers to plead their cases

before him Jethro asked Moses why he was d oin g all

this jud g ing himself

And Moses said unto his father

in law B e c ause the people come unto me to inquire of

God : when they have a matter they come unto me ; and
I judge between a man and his neigh b or and I make them
know the statutes of Elohim and his
Then
Jethro c ounseled M oses to become only the supreme jus
tice ta kin g the cases before God and to appoint other

judges to be a court of r st in stance : B e thou for the

people as Elohim and brin g thou the causes unto Elohim :
and thou shalt teach them the statutes and the laws and
shalt shew them the wa y wherein they must walk and the
work that they must
How coul d he teach them

statutes if he had none to teach ? How coul d the

judges of these lower courts deci d e if they had no basis
for mak ing decisions ? It is necessary to hold well in m ind

the fact that a statute means somethin g engraved

The answer to these questions is plain when we consider

what was stated above that a statute had been given

two days before at M arah An d still our E code has not

one trace of a statute for its jud g ments on the festi

vals in Exo d 2 3 :1 4 1 7 b elon g to c ivil and not at all to

canoni c al regulations
How can su c h a disappearance be accounted for ? L et
us see
ral P ri h d
Th G

After these statutes had been delivered on the rst

day that God stood on the mountain he said to Moses

Now therefore if ye will obey my voi c e indeed and

keep my covenant then ye S hall be a peculiar treasure
I E xod
E xo d
6
.

es t

en e

oo

20

1 0

UN I T Y AND C ON T E N T S OF

THE

TH E E

D O CUM E N T

unto me a b ove all peoples : for all the earth i s m i ne : and

ye S hall be unto me a ki n g d om of p ri es ts and an holy
Whether the statutes alrea d y given were to
this e ffect or whether there were other statutes given three
da y s later we can never know ; but it seems certain at
an y rate that a statute was g iven to this e ffect
It was
c ertainl y the intention to make the whole nation a priest
hoo d and every man a priest Yahweh based this remark
able statement on the condition that the people shoul d keep
his covenant which he was about to make with them The
covenant was established the people a c cept in g all the c on

d ition s of Yahweh : All that Yahweh hath spoken we

will
T hen Moses told the people all the word s and
the judgments of Yahweh after the y themselves had heard
him proclaim the Ten Words and the people again

answered an d sai d with one voice All the words which

Yahweh hath spoken we will do

The people thus
complied with the conditions of Yahweh The C ovenant
was establishe d ; the word s an d the ju d gments were given
to them as their law The whole people thus became a
priesthoo d appointed b y Yahweh himself and ever y
Israelite or at least ever y rstborn Israelite of the Assem
bl y not only had a right but was d e fa c to constituted b y
Yahweh himself to perform priestly functions C on

sequently we read And Moses rose up early in the morn

in g an d builde d an altar un d er the mount an d twelve
stones [ so the L XX but the Hebrew has
accord
in g to the twelve tribes of Israel
An d he sent y oung men
of the chil d ren of Israel which o ffered burnt o ffer in g s and
,

I E xod
2

I f this b d ni d it is c rt a in a t l a st th a t G o d p roc l a i m d it to
E xo d
E xo d
e

M os es

U N I T Y OF

TH E E

C OD E

1 0

sa c r i ced pea c e o fferin g s of oxen to Y a h w eh

These
young men were not L evites nor were they heads of their
fathers houses but were evidently picked one out of each
tribe The twelve stones were in this case as so often
else sacricial places corresponding to the later high
pla c es A general priesthood c onsisting of all Israel
was thus inau g urated
Th L i t i al P ri
th d
When this covenant was established M oses Aaron
Nadab and A bih u and seventy eld ers went up into the
mount and Moses staid there forty days Aaron and
the elders returned In the meantime the people fell
away in to idolatry requestin g that Aaron would ma k e
them a g olden calf to worship Aaron complied with the
request an d this gave Yahweh occasion to tell Moses to
go d own to the people When Moses came down he
found the people in revolt
He then stood in the g ate
of the camp an d c alle d for volunteers The sons of L evi
presented themselves unto him M oses ordered them
to go out into the camp and put down the re b ellion They

di d so slaying some
men
Moses then turned
to the L evites (for it is to them he is speaking in this pas

sage )
and Moses said C onse c rate yourselves today
to Yahweh yea every man against his son and a g ainst
his brother ; that he may b estow upon you a blessing

this day
T his passage is not translated perfectly either in the

A V or in the R V The LXX reads Fill your hands

this day to Yahweh every one against his son and against

his brother that a blessing may be bestowed upon you

I Ed
thr c lans
O p rha p s b tt r
5
E xo d
E xo d

ev

es

oo

ee

1 0

UN IT Y AND C ON T E N T S OF

TH E

THE E

D O CUM E N T

This is not only the Greek but it is a perfect translation

of the Hebrew text as we have it in the Massoretic version

today Now ll the hands is in Hebrew a technical

term for ordain to the priesthood

U p to this time
all the people had been priests but now after the rebellion
with its worship of the g ol d en calf the people had for
fei ted their priesthoo d in the eyes of M oses
The tribe
of L evi alone had turned to the side of Yahweh an d fou ght
for him As a reward Moses at that time constituted
the whole tribe of L evi as the priesthood of Yahweh to
take the place of that of all the people now forfeite d It
is worth noticin g that Moses did this without any express
command from Yahweh We have therefore now two
i d eas of the priesthoo d one base d on the covenant at
Horeb consistin g of all the people the other consistin g
of the L evites exclusivel y constituted by Moses at this
time The rst priesthoo d is that of the E code ; the
second that of the D code !
Th e L evitical priests thus result i ng received fort y

years later numerous statutes re g ulatin g their ritual

which are embo d ied in our Deuteronomy When the
ol d E co d e c ame to be compile d with the other c odes in

later centuries its statutes provi d in g as they must have

d one for a general priesthood were so radicall y d ifferent

from the statutes of the other co d es that they were

omitte d from the comp ilation This seems a probable

explanation of how the statutes came to be missin g

from the E code as it is today in our Hexateuch

At an y rate as we have seen there were statutes

in the original code an d these statutes have since dis

appeare d T h e E co d e then as it stands today is not a
complete co d e ; it is fragmentar y
,

H I S T ORY OF

TH E

III

Th e H i s

T HE E

tor y of

C OD E

1 0

th e E C d e

The point made above that the E co d e provided for a

priesthood which c onsisted of all Israel has a very great
and important b earing on two things : rst on the c on
tention of many critics by which they seek to show that a ll
codes and the E code among them were late ; and second
on the restoration of the history of the E c ode
a
n tain ed by critics that neither the E c ode
It
is
mai
)
nor any other code was in operation before 80 0 B C or
perhaps even 7 5 0 B C or 70 0 B C because the history
of Israel does not S how us any tra c es of the operation of
any c ode b efore this time In proof of this it is asserted
b y the criti c s that up to the time of 9 5 0 B C at least
sa c rices were made in diff erent pla c es in Israel by men
who were neither priests nor L evites and that moreover
not a s ingle protest was made a g ainst it The authors
of Jud ges S amuel and Ki ngs record such in stances as
commonplace matters of fact S uch a c tions the critics
claim are contrary to the c odes Therefore when such
things were allowed the codes could not have existed
B u t as we have seen above such a practice is n ot in con
tr a d i c ti on to a ll the codes ; it is in exact ac cor d ance with
the E code B y the simple hypothesis that each of the
non L evites who sacrice d was a follower of the E code
which as we have seen ordained him a sacri c ing priest
we solve the dif culty and remove the for c e of the argu
ment The E code provides th a t ev er y I s ra eli te i s a
,

p ri es t

na

a nd

ev er y

pl a c e

me to be r emember ed i s
b) B u t
I

xo d
E xo d

2 0

Y a h w eh h a s

l eg i ti ma te pl a c e

hi s

c a u s ed

w ors h i

f
let us examin e these various instances of non

w h er e

:2 4

1 0

UN IT Y AND C ON T E N T S OF

TH E

L evitical

TH E E

D O CU M E N T

sacrices and so g ain the outlines of the history

of the E co d e

1
2 6 we are told that Gideon
In Judg
a man
of the tribe of Manasseh o ffered a sacrice un d er the oak

i n O phrah in the presence of the

an gel of Yahweh
who not only permitte d it but receive d it favorably O f
course Gideon was not a L evite In the tribe of Manasseh
then it would seem that the E code was observe d c a
1 30 0 B C
2
In Jud g
39 J ep h th a o ffered a sacrice even

of his daughter Now J ep h th a was a Gil eadite prob

ably of the tribe of E a sterm M a n a ss eh certai nly not of the
tribe of L evi A g ain we nd that in the east J ord a n ic
territory non L evites ma d e sacrices with the full approval
O f their people
The E co d e must have been in force
there c a 1 2 1 0 B C
we read of Manoah the father of
3 In Ju d g
Samson of the tribe of Dan He too o ffere d a sacrice
to Yahweh althou gh not a L evite In the tribe of D a n
too the E code seems to have been observed c a 1 1 5 0 B C
4 In I Sam 6 :1 4 the people of B eth Shemesh o ffered
up kine for a burnt o ffering to Yahweh T he y belonged
to the tribe of Ju d ah T hey d id this moreover although
there were L evites present han d ling the ark At least
this portion of the tribe of Judah seems to have observed
the E code c a 1 0 75 B C
O
f
Saul
it
is
recor
d
e
d
in
I
Sam
f
that
he
5
built an altar to Yahweh around which both he an d all
the people slew sheep an d oxen in a great propitiation
sacrice
Now Saul was a B enj aminite In B enjamin
I This s ac ri c w as r a lly a com p rom is of t h E a n d P c o d s E p
m i t ted S a ul a n d a ll t h p o p l to s ac ri c b ut P r stri c t d th m fro m a tin g
T his shows a g a in S a ul s a nxi t y for t h P c o d
t h sh with t h b loo d
,

e,

er

THE

H I S T O RY

CO D E

O F THE E

1 0

too the E code seems to have b een reco gnized c a 1 0 2 5

B C
we read that it was the custom of the
6 In I Sam
famil y of D avid to o ffer a yearly sacrice at B ethlehem
David and all his family belonged to the tribe of Judah
This was about the same time as Saul s great sacri c e
noted above c a 1 0 2 5 B C

This
was
no
n
v
l
t
f
or
D
avid
In
II
S
am
o
e
7
y
1 8 we nd Davi d sacricin g oxen and fatlin g s as burnt
o fferings and peace sa c ri c es when the ar k was b rou ght
to Jerusalem And again in II Sam
we n d
Davi d buildin g an altar in Jerusalem where he o ffered
burn to fferin g s and peace offerings In this case thou gh
it must be admitted that possibl y there were L evites pres
ent who offered the sacrices at the command of the k ing
This was c a 9 75 B C
8 In I Kin g s I :9 we nd a preten d er to the throne a son
of David o ffering oxen and fatlings by the stone of Zohe
leth He too was of c ourse of the tri b e of Judah In
this case however it may have been the L evites who
sacriced at the preten d er s comman d This was in
1 B C
97
f
About
the
same
year
S
olomon
o
fered sacrices at
9
Gibeon as is recorded in I Kin gs
And a g ain he
o ffered sacrices at the c onsecration of the temple as we
know from I Ki n gs
In both these cases though
the possibility of L evitical sacrices must be a d mitted
This was in 9 60 B C
These instances of non L evitical sacrice c over the
entire period from Judges down to the kingd om of Solo
mon They c ome from north south east and west
Nowhere are the practices c ondemned O n the contrary
,

UN I T Y AND C ON T E N T S OF

THE

1 1 0

THE E

D O CU M E N T

they seem in man y cases to have the d ivine approval

Now these practices are authorized in the E co d e It
would seem then that d urin g this perio d the E code was
the one in use at least amon g the majorit y of the people
B u t we are able to carr y the histor y of the E code not
only up to the monarchy but also on from the d ivision of
the kingd om after the death of Solomon Jeroboam was
the rst kin g of the Northern Kin gd om O ne of the
char ges brou ght a gainst him b y the late Deuteronomic

e d itor of Kin g s is that he made priests from amon g all

the people which were not of the sons of
This
is as we have seen only in strict accord with the provisions
of the Horeb c ovenant as recorde d in the E code
At the same time that this was goin g on in the Northern
Kin gdom we well know the history of the Southern Kin g
d om U n d er Rehoboam their rst kin g they fell into
idolatry from which the y were restored in the time of Asa
and Jehoshaphat These kings gave their preference to
the Aaronic priesthood an d therefore the P code
It would seem then that after the separation of the k ing
doms the E co d e foun d its home in the Northern Kingdom
while it was ne glected in favor of the P code in the S outhern
Kin gdom
.

IV

Th e E C d e

a nd

th e C d e

of H a m m
urab i

Another thin g worth noticing about the E code is its

remarkable similarity to the C o d e of Hammurabi
Of
all the Hebrew codes the E c ode is the only one which
can be d irectly connected with the Hammurabi law book
T h e followin g instances wil l make quite plain the con
n ec ti on between the two :
I I Kings::3
.

1 2

C OD E AND

T HE E

T HE

Cd

Cd

P a tri c i d e
1

H mmu

o e of

o e

xo d 2 : 5 :An d h e that smiteth

hi s fath er or his moth r S ha ll surely
b e p ut to death
E

C OD E OF HAMM U RA B I

95

If a

th eyz
s h a ll

r bi
a

stri ke

s on

I I I

fath er

h is

c ut off hi s n gers

Ma n s tea li n g

that steal eth

a ma an d sell eth hi m or if h e b e
foun d in hi s han d h e s hall surely
b e p u t to d ath
E

xo d

An d h e

n,

h o is

death

steal a man s son

a mi nor h e shall b e p ut to

I f

ma n

harb or in hi s house
a m ale or f mal e s l ave who h a s ed
fro m th e p ala ce or from a freeman
an d d o not b rin g hi m forth at th e
ca ll of th c omman dant th e ow er
of that hous e shal l b e p ut to d ath
hi
s
I
f
h
d
tain
that
slav
e
in
e
e
9
house an d l ater that s l av e b e foun d
in h is p ossession that ma shall
to death
b p tZ
1

If a

ma n
e

u a rr els

xo d
1 9 : A n d i f men
c onten d an d o e sm it th th e oth er
w i th a ston e or with h i s s t an d
h e di e not b ut k e p hi s b ed ; i f h
r i se a g ain
an d wa l k a b roa d u p on
hi s s ta ff th en sha ll h e that s m ote
hi m b e q uit : onl y h e S hal l p a y for
th l oss of hi s ti me an d sha l l c aus
hi m to b e thorou ghl y h eal ed
E

I f a ma n :
s tri ke ano th er ma n
in a q uarrel an d woun d hi m h e
shall swear I stru ck hi m wi thout

intent an d h e shal l b e resp onsi ble

for th e p h y si cian
2 0

Mi sc a rr i a g e

xo d
3 : A n d if men
( st rive to geth er a n d ) hurt a wo man
wi th c hi ld so that h r frui t d p art
an d yet no mis c hi ef follow : h S hal l
b e surely n ed a cc ordi n g a s th e
woman s husb an d shall l a y u p on
hi m ; an d h e shal l p a y a s th e ju dges
d et rmi n
B t if an y mis c hi ef
fol l ow th en thou shal t giv e l ife for
E

st i k a man s
d au ghter an d b rin g a b out a mis
c arria ge h e shal l p ay ten S h k els
of S i l ver for h e mis ca rria ge
I f that woman di e th ey sha ll
0
p ut h is d au ghter to dea th
I f throu gh a str o k h e
2 1
b rin g a b out a mi s ca rria ge to th e
d au ghter of a freeman h shall p ay
e S h ek el s of si l v er
20

If a

ma n

2 1

e,

I 1 2

TH E

U N IT Y AND C ON T E N T S OF
E

Cd

DO CU M E N T

THE E

C d f Hamm rab i
I f th wo man di h e shal l
p ay on e half mana of silver
3 I f h e st i k th e f m a l e slav
of a m an d b in g a b out a mis
c arria g h shall p ay tw o S h ek els
of silv r
4 I f that f mal slav e di e h
shall p ay o thi rd mana of silver

o e

o e o

2 1 2

e,

2 1

an,

e,

2 1

n e-

xo d
5 : E ye for ye
too th for tooth han d for han d foot
for foot b urnin g for b urnin g woun d
for woun d stri pe for stri pe
E

If a

96

of anoth r
e

e
.

ma n

ma n ,

destro y th e eye
th ey shal l destro y

I f on e b rea k a man s b on e
th ey sha ll b rea k his b on e
1 98
I f on e d estro y th e eye of a
freem an or b rea k th e b on e of a
freeman h e shall p ay on e mana of
1

97

99

If

man s

man s

destro y th e eye of a
or b rea k a b on e of a
h e shall p ay on e half

on e

slav
slav e
his p i c
I f a ma k no ck out th tooth
of a m of h is own ran k th ey shall
k no ck out his tooth
I f e k no c k out a tooth of a
fr man h e S hal l p ay o thi rd
mana of silv r

e,

20 0

an

2 0 1

on

ee

n e-

xo d
A n d if an ox S hal l
gor a m n or a wo man that th y
di e th ox shall b surel y ston d
an d his sh shal l not b at n ; b ut
th e own r of th ox shal l b qui t
E xo d
B t if th ox w re
wont to gor in ti m past an d it
has b en t sti d to his ow er
an d h hath not k ep t h im in b ut h
E

e e

wh n passin g
throu gh th e str et g or a ma
an d b rin gs a b out his d ath that c ase
has no penalty
I f a man s ox w re wont to
5
gor an d th y hav t sti d to
h i m his ha b it of g orin g an d h e have
not p rot c t d his horns or hav
not ti d h im u p
2

50

I f an ox
e

n,

e,

C OD E

TH E E

AN D TH E

C OD E OF HA M M U RA B I

Cd

o e

ha th k i ll ed a m or a woman
th e ox shall b e ston ed ; a d hi s ow er
also shall b e p ut to death
I f th ere b e l ai d
E xo d
on h im a ransom th en h e shall give
for th e red mp tion of h is l ife what
soev er is l ai d u p on h im
E xo d
Wh th er h e hav e
gored a s or hav e gor d a d a g h
a cc or d in g to thi s ju d gment shall
t
it b d on e un to him
E xo d
I f th ox gore a
ma servant or a m ai d s ervant h e
sha ll give un to th eir master thi rty
S hekels of silver an d th e ox sha ll
b e ston ed
an

od e of

1 1

Ha mmura i

on ,

an d that ox gore th e son of a ma

an d b rin g a b out hi s dea th h shall
p ay on half mana of s ily
I f it b e th s rvant of a m
5
h e s hall p a y o e thir d mana of S i l ve r

n,

er,

e-

n-

er

an,

Th eft

f a n i ma ls

xo d
I f a ma n shall steal
an ox or a sh eep an d k i l l i t or sell
i t h e shall p ay e ox en for an ox
an d four sheep for a sh eep
E

I f a ma n steal ox or sh eep a ss
or p i g or b oat if it b e from Go d
or pala ce h e sha ll restore thi rty
fo ld i i it b e from a freeman h e
shall ren der tenfo ld I f th e thi ef
have no thi n g wh erewith to pay h e
shal l b e p ut to death
8

B urg l a ry

xo d
I f th e thi ef b fou n d
b reak in g in an d b e s m itten that h e
die th ere sha ll b e no b loo d gui lti n ess
for him
E

I f a ma n p ra cti ce b ri gan da ge
an d b e ca p tured that ma n shall b e
p ut to dea th
2 2

Un la w fu l p a s tura g e

xo d
I f a ma shal l c ause
a el d or vin eyar d to b e eat n an d
sha ll let h is b east l oose an d it f ed
in anoth er man s l d of th e best
of his own l d an d of th b est of
E

I E quals } m ana b ut
a

th e

valu of th
e

I f after
,

th e

P ho ni c i a n man a equals 3 of a Baby lo i an an d

p nalty is th erefor i denti c al in th e two laws
,

sh eep hav e gon e

u p from th e mea d ow an d have
c row d d th ir way out of th e gate
into th p u bl i c c ommon th e sh p
h er d t m th sheep into th e ld
58

th e

1 1

U N IT Y AND C ON T E N T S OF

TH E

C d f Hamm ab i
an d p astur th sh p on th ld
th l d
th sh ep h r d shall ov rs
on w hi c h h e pastures an d at th e
ti m of harv st h e shall m asure
out sixty Gu of g rain p te
to th own er of th eld
G

Cd

ur

o e o

o e

his own vin y ard shall

r p aration

he m

D O CU M E N T

TH E E

ak

ee

ee

an

er

D ep os i t

xo d
I f a ma shall d l iv r
un to his n i gh b or mon y or stu ff
to k p an d it b stol n out of th
man s hous if th thi f b e foun d
h shall p ay d ou b l e
I f th e th i f b not
E xo d
foun d th en th master of th house
shall c o me n ear u nto Go d ( to s )
wheth r h have not p ut his han d
un to h is n i gh b or s goo d s
E

e,

su ff r loss in c o mmon wi th th
o w n er of th hous th ow er of
th e house who h a s b e n n g li gent
an d has lost what w a s giv en to h im
on d p osit shall mak e g oo d ( th
l oss) an d S hall r stor ( it) to th
own er of th e goo ds Th e ow r of
hous shal l institute a s ar c h
th
for what has b en lost an d tak e it
fro m th thi ef
he

ee

e,

1 2

ee

I f a m a n giv e an y thin g of
hi s on dep osit an d at th e p la c e of
dep osit eith er by b urg lary or p i l la ge

ne

S tora g e

xo d
F or v ry matt r
of tres pass wh eth er i t b for ox
for ass for sh eep for rai ment (or)
for an y m ann er of l ost thin g wh ereof
saith This is it th e c aus of
b oth p arti s shall c o me b for Go d ;
h who m Go d shall c on d m n sha ll
p ay d ou b l unto h is n i gh b or
E

If a

ma n

on e

stor his g rain in

b ins in th hous of anoth r an d an
a cci d nt happen to th e g ranary
or th e own r of th e hous o p n a
b in an d tak e g rain or i f h e rais e
a dis pute a b out th a mo nt of g rain
whi c h was stored in hi s hous th e
own r of th g rain shal l d c l are h is
g rain befor Go d an d th own er of
th e hous e shall d ou b l th e a m o nt
of th g rain whi c h h too k an d
r stor it to th e own r of th g rain
1 20

e e

e,

H erdi n g

xo d
I f a ma d eliv r
unto his n i gh b or an ass or an ox
or a sh eep or an y b ast to k p
an d it di or b hurt or b e d riv n
E

e,

ee

los an ox or sh ep
whi c h is given to h im h shal l
r stor to th ir own r ox for ox
sh e p for sh eep
2

63

If

he

C OD E AND

T HE E

THE

Cd
away no ma n se in g it 1 th e
oath of Yahweh shall b between
them b o th wh eth er h e hath not p ut
h is han d unto hi s n ei gh b or s goo d s ;
an d th e own er th ereof shal l a ccep t
it an d h e shal l not mak e restitution
1 2
B t if i t b e sto l en fro m him h e
sha ll make resti tution u nto th
own er th ereof 3 I f it b e torn in
p ieces let h im b rin g it for wi tn ess ;
h e shall not m a k e goo d what w a s
torn
E xo d
An d if a ma n b or
row au ght of h is n ei gh b or an d i t
b hurt or di e th e o w n e r th reof
n ot b in g wi th i t
h e sha ll surel y
ma k e res ti tution
5 I f th e o w n r
thereof b e with it h e shal l not ma ke
it goo d : if i t b e an h ired thin g i t
c ometh into i ts hi re
E

o e

e-

C OD E OF HAMM U RA B I

1 1

C d f H mm ab i
66 I f a visitation of Go d ha ppen
to a fol d or a lion ki ll th e sh ep h r d
shall decl are hi ms l f inno cent befor
Go d an d th e ow n er of th e fold shall
su ffer th e d ama g ( c f
2 45
I f a ma n hire an ox an d
ca use i ts dea th throu gh n eglec t
or ab use h e shal l restore an ox of
eq ua l va l u e to th e own er of th e o
o e o

ur

S orc ery

od
Thou sha l t not
s u ff er a s or cer ess to l iv e
Ex

I f a ma n
a ma n wi th
s or ce r y an d c annot p rov e i t h e who
is c harged w i th sor ce ry s ha ll g o to
th e riv e r ; into th e li v er h e sha ll
throw hi msel f An d if th e riv er
ov erc ome hi m th e a ccus er shall
ta ke unto hi msel f hi s h ouse I f th e
2

v er S how th e ma n to b e inno cent

an d h e c ome forth un ha rmed h e
who c harged hi m wi th sorce y s ha ll
b e p ut to death
He who threw
hi mself into th e riv r shal l tak e to
hi msel f th e hous e of h is a cc us er
ri

P erju ry

xo d
Thou sha l t not ta ke
u p a fa l s e rep o rt : p ut not thin e
h an d wi th th e wi c k ed to b e an u m
E

in a ca se bear fal s e
w i tn ess
or d o not establish th e
testi mon y tha t h e h a s given if that
3

If a

ma n ,

1 1

TH E

U N IT Y AND C ON T E N T S OF

Cd
ri ghteous witn ss
Thou shalt
not follow a m ul ti tu d e to d o vil ;
n ith r shalt thou b ar witn ess in
a c ause to tu rn asi d aft r a multi
tu d to wrest ju dgm nt ; 3 n ith r
shalt thou favor a p oor m in his
caus
E

C d f Hamm rab i
c as b a c ase invo l vin g lif that
m
shal l b p ut to d ath

o e

o e o

e,

an

DO CU M E N T

TH E E

an

B ri bery

xo d 3 :6: Thou shalt not wr st

ju d gment of th y p oor in his
th
c ause 7 K p th far fro m a
false matter ; an d th inno c nt an d
ri ghteous slay thou not ; for I wi l l
not justify th wi ck d 8 A n d thou
shalt tak no gift : for a gift b lin d th
th m that hav e si ght an d pe vert th
th e c aus e of th e ri ght ous
E

I f a ma n b ear witn ess for g rain

or mon ey h e shall hi mself b ear
th e p enalty i mp os e d in that cas e
5 I f a ju d ge p ronoun ce a ju dgment
ren der a dec ision deli v er a verdi c t
d ul y si gn ed an d s eal ed an d after
war d alter his ju d gment th ey shall
ca ll that ju dge to a cc ount for th e
alteration of th e j u d gment whi c h
h e ha d p ronoun c ed an d h e shall
p ay twelve fol d th e penalty w h i c h
was in sai d ju d gment ; an d in th e
assemb l y th ey shal l ex pel h im from
his seat of j u d gment an d h e shal l
retu rn an d with th e ju dges in a

ee

ee

c as

he

shall not ta k

h is

s at
e

The simil arit y between the two codes whi c h the

examples g iven above serve to illustrate has been notice d
by man y scholars an d some of them have consequently
d rawn the conclusion that the E co d e was based on the
C o d e of Hammurabi an d that therefore the time when
the former code was written must have been a time when
This
B ab ylonian inuence exerte d itself in P alest ine
ar g ument it may be remarked g oes a g ainst the d ate
usually assi g ned by critics to this co d e For if the E co d e
were written in the ei ghth century B ab ylonian law co d es
coul d have inuence d it little if at all At that time B aby
lonia was a ver y weak state and the history of Israel at
,

CO N C L U S I O N

1 1

that time shows how im possible any considerable B aby

lonian inuence could have been
B u t we have venture d to claim that the E code was
delivered at Horeb in the time of Moses sometime in
the fteenth century At this time there was a close
c onne c tion between B abyl onia then in great power and
Egypt which the Israelites had so lately left and from which
Moses had received his education Intermarriages had
taken place between the two royal houses
C aravans
were constantly passing from the one land to the other
A B a bylonian inuen c e upon the E code would at this
time have been quite possible
B u t in spite of the many similarities between the two
codes it is true that there are d ifferences These are
a cc ounted for b y two th ings : ( 1 ) O ver seven hundred
years had elapsed since the time when the C ode of Ham
mu ra b i as we have it toda y had b een published in B aby
lonia durin g which time as we know it had been modied
even in B abylonia itself ; ( 2 ) in promulgatin g a B a bylonian
c ode amon g the Hebrews it was of course ne c essary so to
mo d ify it as to t the surround ing conditions and the
He b rew temperament
.

on c lusi o

We have seen in this Chapter that the E document is

not a do c ument but a colle c tion of fra gments of what was
once a document ; that the c ode too is not a c omplete
code but also fragmentary and especially wantin g in the

statutes which on c e belonged to it but which have been

lost ; that the E c od e p rovid ed for a non L eviti c al priest
I Cf K d t D i E l A m T f l Nos 4
I bi d No 8 11
4
,

'

zo n ,

nu

1 1.

a rn a -

a e n,

1 -1

1 1

TH E

U N IT Y AND C ON T E N T S OF

TH E E

D O C UM E N T

hood ; that in the period of the judges and the early mon
archy the presen c e of this non L evitical priesthood shows
the general use of the E co d e all over Israel ; that it is
probable that at the d ivision of the kin gdom the E code
with its non L eviti c al priesthood became peculiarl y the
law of the Northern Kingdom ; an d that the E c ode shows
a remarkable simil arity to the C ode of Hammurabi In
all of these th in g s we can nd no contradiction but on
the c ontrary conrmation of the theory reached in the
last chapter that the E document is to be assigned to a
date much earlier than that generally given by the c ritics
and that quite proba bly it belon g s to the time when it
purports to have been delivered namely the stop at Horeb
when Moses and the people received it at Yahweh s hands
-

C HA P TER I X
Th e R el a ti on B etw een th e E

D Doc u men t s

and

Everyone admits that D is later than and dependent

upon E O ur analysis has shown that it is later nor can
it be denied that it is dependent upon it B u t the inter
relations oi the two are worth y of more than a merely
passing reference
The B i ble itself g ives the reason for the S imilarity
b etween the two when it sa y s that D was promul gated in
the land of Moab forty years after E had been g iven in
the Horeb mountain an d to the same people Moses and
Joshua are represented as acting to gether in b oth cases
We saw in the last chapter that after the rebellion at
Hore b had been put down there were two priesthoods
one authorized by the c ode and c onsisting of all the sons
of Israel the other authorized by Moses and consist ing
o nl y of the tribe of L evi whi c h he wished to reward B u t
d id the new order take e ffe c t immediately and over the
whole arm y ?
.

llion at

Th e R eb e

Ka d e h

S hortly after the events at Horeb the assembl y started

on its northward mar c h After a short stay in Hazeroth
the assem bly reached Kadesh -barnea Here Yahweh
c ommanded M oses to send out twelve S pies to search the
lan d and Moses a cc ordingly appo inted one from each
tribe among them C ale b and Joshua
I This appointm nt of th s p i s is g n rally assi gn d to P althou gh th
c riti c s th m s lv s
not ag r d I f it b P it b long s to th ol d r T l d th
Book or ls it is a P r d ac tion of an ol d r d o c um nt
.

a re

ee

e e
e

1 1

o e

R E LAT I ON

1 20

BE

TWE E N

AND D D O CU M E N T S

These S pies went as far as the valley of Escol and after

forty days returned Ten of them g ave a most d isc ou ra g
ing report whil e C aleb and Joshua tried to encourage
the people to g o in and to take the lan d The assembly
however murmured and was d issatised Yahweh
enra ged or d ered Moses to tell the people to stay in the
wilderness for forty y ears until those who had murmured
were d ead
When Moses promul g ated this comman d ment of Yah

weh a g reat rebellion broke out

The y rose up early
in the mornin g and got them up to the top of the mounta i n
sa y in g L o we be here an d will g o up unto the place

which Yahweh has promised for we have s in n ed

Moses tried to persuade them to desist from this un d er

B u t the y presume d to g o up to the

taking but in vain
top of the mountain ; nevertheless the ark of the covenant
of Yahweh an d Moses departed not out of the
Th us w e s ee th a t th ere w ere n ow tw o c a mp s of th e c h i l
d ren of I s ra el on e w h i c h w en t u p i n to th e h i g h la n d s th e
oth er w h i c h rema i n ed a t Ka d es h w i th M os es a n d th e a r k
Th ese tw o p a r ti es w ere n ever en ti rely r e joi n ed d u ri n g th e
,

en ti re

forty yea rs

betw een th i s
Th e

and

th e

c onqu es t

F irst Conqu est

The part y which went up into the hi ghlands su ffered

a crushing defeat at the hands of the Amalekites and

C anaanites
They were not however d estro y ed but
nally mad e a second stan d at Z ep h a t where they routed
the C anaanites and in memor y of their victor y called
the place Hormah
This story is a g ain g iven in Judg
as a part of the story of the conquest of C anaan
IN m
Th
i h a d b n th ir not goin g u p wh n ord r d to d o so
.

Num

e S n

ee

N um

e e

Nu m

3;

TH E

FI R S T C ON QU E S T

It is signicant that it is
no

a c on qu es t

in

1 2 1

w hi c h

os h u a

ta kes

p a rt

It is to be noted that it is Judah and a part of Simeon

which make this c onquest in the Judges story
The
punishment re c eived at the hands of the C anaanites was
su fcient to send many of the re b els c rin ging b ack to Moses
at Kadesh
We
J ud a h h ow ever di d n ot c ome ba c k
conclude this from at least two cir cumstan c es
In the rst place M oses when bless ing the people in
Moab at the slopes of P isgah prayed to Yahweh in the

followin g words Hear Yahweh the voice of Judah and

brin g him in unto his people : with his hands he contended
for hi m self ; and thou shalt be an help against his a d ver
This Shows that at the death of Moses Ju d ah
was still separated from his brethren
In the second place after Joshua had conquered a
portion of C anaan written the laws at Shechem and

located the Ar k of the C ovenant at Gilgal then the chil

dren of Judah drew nigh unto Joshua in Gil g al :and C aleb
the son of Jephunneh the Ken izzite said unto him T hou
knowest the thing that Yahweh spake unto Moses the
man of God concernin g thee and concerning me in

Kadesh barnea
In the history as told by the E docu
ment C aleb son of Jephunneh does not appear once
between Kadesh barnea and this present oc c asion Here
at last in Gilgal accordin g to E the prayer of Moses is
ful l led and Judah aga in takes its pla c e in the confederacy
of the tribes In the meantime apparentl y the tribe
had been livin g a free booter life in the mountainous wilds
of Ju d aea
.

I D ut
e

ut

De

46

J osh

R E LAT I ON

1 2 2

BE

TWE E N

AND D D O CUM E N T S

B ut

was Judah the only tribe which seceded at Kadesh

and did not return ?

In Ju d g 1 2 2 2 6 is a stor y a bout the house of Joseph

which went up and occupied B ethel It has been assumed
that this house of Joseph was merely another name for
the tribes Of Ephraim and Manasseh
S ome have
inclu d e d B enjamin in it bas in g this upon I Sam
In the time of David it is true that the name was applied
to these three tribes B u t origin all y the house of Joseph
seems to have o ccupied middle P alestin e b efore the tribes
of Ephraim and Manasseh had come in to the country
at all This is quite the simplest way to explain Ju d g
Chap 1 where Ephraim and Manasseh an d their c onquests
are mentioned d irectl y after those of this house of Joseph
We see that the house of Joseph conquered B ethel
And from Judg
3 5 we learn that when the Danites
had been driven away by the Amorites the house of Joseph
came and subdued the conquerors an d made them tribu
tary These two are the only mentions of an y conquests
on the part of the house of Joseph
Th e conquests made by Ephraim and the half tribe
of Manasseh are tol d of however not only in Jud g
chap 1 but also in Josh chaps 1 6 1 7 The same is
true of Zebulon Asher N a p h ta l i and Dan which are told

that
of in Josh chap 1 9 We are told in Jud g
4
3
none of these six tribes was able to e ffect a settlement at
this time in C anaan O n the other hand both Judah and
this house of Joseph are said to have e ffecte d settlements
an d to have main tained stron g positions
What then is more reasonable to suppose than that this
house of Joseph like the tribe of Judah was a Hebrew
I T h Ju dg s acc ount is th only acc ount of this c onqu st in th Bi b l
.

TH E

F I RS T C ON QU E ST

1 2

tribe long established an d thorou ghl y at home in C anaan

some time before Joshua and his invadin g c onfe d erac y
appeared on the scene ? A nd if this be true what can
be more likely than that it too was a tribe which sece d ed
at Kadesh barnea not to rejoin the confederacy until after
the c onquest of C anaan had be g un ?
From the account in Numbers we are not able to say
just what tribes seceded at Kadesh All we can say is
that of those which did secede some stra gglers came bac k
after the battles with Amalek and C anaan
That any
whole tribe came back we have no record
If however
n o whole tribe did c ome back we must suppose that the
remnants of the old tribes would reorganize on the basis
of the old tribal l ines an d resume their place in the con
fe d eracy We must also suppose that the portions whi c h
had left would do the same thing in the lands whither
they had g one Thus it is perfectl y possible that after
Kadesh there should have been the same number of tri b es
about Moses as before while at the same time there were
Hebrew tribes bearin g the same names in P alestin e
whither the rebels had ed
D oes not this throw some light upon that d if cult
passa ge Ju dg 1 1 2 :5 ? This portion of Ju dges is
concede d b y scholars to be of a different source than the
rest of the book It describes several conquests namely
those of Judah Simeon B enjamin the house of Joseph
Western Manasseh Ephraim Zebulon Asher Naphtali
and Dan With what period of time does this passage deal
It has been assumed that the reference corresponds to

Th e
Josh chaps 7 2 1
B u t this cannot be admitted
,

IA

this
l arn from
c ontain d in Num b rs
nd

we

ut

De

No

ntion of any r turn is

me

1 2

R E LAT I ON

BE

TWE E N

AND D D O CU M E N T S

history in the two passages is vitally different

In Jud ges
in the rst place Joshua is not mentioned He does not
appear
Secondly in Judges the six tri b es Manasseh
Ephra im Zebulon Asher Naphtali and D an do not
e ffect a settlement In Joshua on the other hand these
same tribes d o e ffect a settlement
It is far more reasonable to suppose that the two pas
sa g es refer to quite d ifferent events and to quite d ifferent
periods What can be more likely than that i n J u dg es w e
d ea l w i th a ttemp ts a t s ettlemen t on th e p a rt of th os e p orti on s
of th e tri bes w h i c h h a d s ec ed ed a t Ka d es h a n d g on e n or th
w h i l e i n J os h u a w e h a ve th e r ec or d of th e l a ter a n d mor e
e ec ti v e s ettl emen ts ma d e by th os e p or ti on s of th e s a me
ff
tri bes w h i c h h a d r ema i n ed a t Ka d es h u n d er M os es
.

9
c
u
d
a
n
e
i
g
.

We left Moses and the Ark of the C ovenant at Kadesh

barnea L et us go bac k for a whil e and follow the a d v en
tures of those with him We are still in the rst y ear of
the wan d erin g at least so far as E tells us We kn ow
that neither Judah nor the house of Joseph is lon g er with
him B oth have g one north and have settled in P alestine
O f the other six tribes mentioned in Jud g chap 1 por
tions at least remain around Moses holdin g the old places
in the confederac y of the tribes The three so c alled

east J or d a n ic tribes
Reuben Gad and Manasseh
s ince the y are not mentioned in Ju d g chap 1 at all seem
to have remained intact at the secession and to have con

t in u ed with Moses
I T h m ntion of his nam in Ju dg s is of c ours d to a r d ac tor
who wish d to c onn c t Judg s with th p r c d in g b ook T his is c onc d d
b y all
Josh c h ap s 6 7 9
Th om ission s m s un x p laina b l on an y oth r th ory
.

ue

e,

e e

e e

ee

F I RS T C ON QU E S T

THE

1 2

And it is these three last mentioned tribes whi c h play

-

the most important part after Kadesh The next event

told of in E is the re b ellion of D a th a n an d A b ir am which
happened at Kadesh after the great in surre c tion but
before the army had moved on B oth D athan and
Abiram the leaders in this re b ellion are Reubenites
After this ex c ept for a brief notice of the death of

Miriam we have in E a b lank of thirty eight years

When the curta in again rises we n d the people in the
land of Moa b Here we have the g reat b a ttl es a g a in s t
S ihon k ing of the Amorites and O g kin g of B ashan
B oth of these the Israelites under Moses slew and con
s c a ted the i r lands
Then follows the in cident of B alaam
and his prophecies as a result of whi c h B alak king of
the M oa b ites left the Israelites 1n undisputed possession
of the lands whi c h they had c onquered
The Israelites were then a b idin g on the border of Moab
in S hittim There they committed a sin by jo inin g them
.

'

I n N m c hap 6 is r c ord d a num b rin g of th p op l in M oab

This is th s c on d n mb rin g known in t h Book of Num b rs t h rst
num b rin g s
( N m c ha p ) havin g t ak n p la c at Ka d sh Both of th s
allott d to th P do c um nt b y m ost c riti c s Th rst un d ou b t d ly d o s
b lon g th r But th s c on d num b rin g t h
h r in M o ab althoug h
vi d ntly d it d b y a P r d ac tor show s u m istakab l trac s of a n E ori g inal
Not only d o w hav h r th nam s of D ath a n A b iram E liab a n d M iriam
whi c h
c rtainly E nam s b ut th ab rup t b g innin g of N
shows
that th P d itor us d a d o c um nt Of anoth r sourc W ithout goin g fa rth r
into a d isc ussion of th ling uisti c m a rk s of this s c tion w c an say th a t it is
vi d nt that w hav h r an ol d r sourc whi c h k w of a num b rin g in
l a n d of M oab O transl a tion num b ring of th H b r w p q d is
th
how v r i a d quat T h wor d r ally m ans m ust rin g
nrollin g or
pa ssin g in r vi w I t is a m ilit a ry t rm This m ust rin g c an i m p l y only
th a t a p op l a c om pa ny of sol d i r h r w r j oin d to M os s a rm y i
m ust r d in
I n this m ust rin g w r p op l s from a ll tri b s T h s w r
p rob ab ly d s rt rs from oth r a lli d tri b s roun d ab out from thos p ortions
p ossi b ly of t h tri b s whi c h ha d d s rt d at Ka d sh A t an y rat th y w r
sur ly of H b r w d sc nt
I

e on e

e e

e e

e s,

e e

e e

e e

e e

e,

e e

ne

ur

urn

e e

e e

e e

e e

a re

e e

a re

e e

e e
,

e e

1 2

R E LAT I ON

BE

TW E E N

AND

D O CU M E N T S

selves to B aal P e e r the g od of the mountain of P eor For

this the y were a ficted with a pla gue B u t the o ffenders
were promptl y punishe d an d the plague was sta y ed
It was at this po int that Moses allotted the lands con
quere d from Sihon an d O g I t i s s i g n i c a n t th a t h e g a ve
-

th em to th e th ree tri bes w hi c h

ha d

pp a ren tly

i n ta c t w i th h i m, n a mely Reu ben , Ga d , a n d E a s tern

ma i n ed

re

M a n a s s eh

He d id this with the proviso that the men of these tribes

shoul d accompan y their brethren of the other tribes over
the Jordan and assist them to conquer the west J ord a n ic
lands With these wor d s ends the E document in the
P entateuch We have no more of it until we get to the
B ook of Joshua
Th Cov enant in Moa b
The history between the allotment of the lands and
the march over the Jordan is g iven in the D d ocument
From this we learn that Moses delivered a new law
the law of Deuteronom y and die d In this new code the
priesthoo d was denitely conned to the tribe of L evi
all of whom were ma d e priests Thus we see that the
decision ma d e by Moses after the rebellion at Horeb had
durin g the forty y ears of wan d ering become so en g rafte d
into the lives of the people that now it could be inclu d ed
even in their o fcial law book T his be c omes easier of
explanation when we consider that a g reat portion of the
tribes to whom the E code had been g iven ha d left Moses
at Ka d esh and that the remain d er had been overawe d
both b y the awful catastrophe to D athan an d Abiram
when the y had venture d to question Moses authority
and b y his great victor ies over Sihon an d O g In the
people s e y es Moses had become the mouthpiece of Go d
-

Num

TH E S

T AY

G I L GAL

AT

1 2

A nd so they were now wil ling to ac c ept without question

the new code given in Moab

In essentials outside of the question of the priesthood
it differs little from the E c ode It simply amplies and
interprets it from a humanitarian V iewpoint and does it
so beautifully that D has become the model for the codes
of the c ivil ized world And even in regard to the priest
hood the ol d custom of the E c ode does not entirely dis
appear For it I s only the holo c austs that are restricted

to the priests the L evites ; the other sacrices i e the

pea c e o fferings are stil l to be o ffered by any of the people
The D code becomes then the code of Joshua and of
the people who c rosse d the Jord an with him That this
i s true is shown by the fact that the E passages in Joshua
breathe the spirit of the D document
.

ta y at G il g a l
The rst halt ing pla c e after the crossin g of the Jordan
was at Gil g al a city between that river and Jericho
Th e S

IAf

xam p l s m y suf c : H is G o d in Josh

a n d D ut 4 :3 9 ;
L iving G o d in Josh
a n d D ut
Lor d of a ll th arth
th
in Josh
an d D ut
s v n p o p l s in Josh
an d D ut
th
in tim to c om in Josh
an d D ut 6 : M or i m p ort ant
is th fac t th a t t h p unishm nt of A c han for st ali n g th d vot d thin gs at
J ri c ho was ba s d on a l a w foun d in D ut ronom y Cf Josh
a n d D ut

ew e

2 1

3 :1 7

20

e e

e e

e,

Joshua was h r c omm an d d to c irc um c is t h p op l Th t xt h r

shows th a t
d alin g with th fusion of two acc ounts I n Josh 5 : w
r ad A t th at ti m Yahw h sai d unto Joshu a M ak th kniv s of int an d
c irc umc is g i th c hil d r n of I sra l th
d ti m
A w hav not h ar d of
a c irc um c ision th word s aga in an d th s c on d ti m d s rv noti c T h
ori g in a l acc ount or acc ounts m ust hav c ont a in d a d istin c t r c or d of two v nts
d alin g with c irc u m c ision of I sra lit s in G ilg a l Th t xt a s it stan d s not only
is an ni gma to us b ut w a s so to th D r d c tor who a dd d vss 47 att mp t
in g to xp lain th pa ssag b y s ay in g that c irc um c ision ha d not b n p rac ti c d
in th wild rn ss But this d o s not xp l in why th t xt says that t h op ra
tion w a s p rform d
d ti m
Th
rst c irc um c ision m ust of c ours
2

e e

w e a re

ea

a n

s ec on

e a

e e
e

e e

e e

ee

ee

e s ec on

e,

1 2

R E LAT I ON

BE

TWE E N

AND D DO CUM E N T S

At this point it is necessary to notice a remarkable passage

in Ju d g
Here we are told that a messenger of
5
Yahweh came up from Gil gal to B ochim at B ethel He
reprimanded the inhabitants of B ochim for havin g vio
late d the laws containe d in the E code regard ing the
destruction of heathen worship T his move d the people
so much that the y be g an to weep and then the y made a
sacrice to Yahweh In doin g this the y acte d it may be
remarke d accordin g to the E and not accordin g to the
D co d e How is this passa g e to be explained ?
First of all it is to be remembered that we left the

house of Joseph at B ethel They of course had never

received the D code An d this messen ger is represented
as speakin g to a Hebrew people one under the E and not
the D code an d one which lived in B ethel What can be

more reasonable than to suppose that it is to this house

of Joseph that the messen g er spoke ?

T here is nothin g in the Hebrew to indicate that this

messen ger of Yahweh was Yahweh himself or in d ee d

a supernatural bein g at all He may have been for all
we are tol d a mere man actin g in the name of Yahweh
He may have been sent from Joshua s arm y to this near
kin d re d people He ma y have been Joshua himself
The sacrice implies that there was some a greement
ma d e between this messen g er and the people of B ochim
Wh y not suppose that this agreement was an alliance
between the people at B ethel an d Joshua s army ?
It is to be noted that whil e these people d id make some
hav b n of th p o p l s who h a d j oin d M os s a rmy Now of c ours p op l
cannot b c irc u m c is d twi c T h r for sin c th r
two g r a t c irc um c isions
i m p li d in t h t xt th r woul d s m c rt a inly to h a v b n a noth r acc ssion
of
p op l to t h I sra lit a rmy
I T his alli anc n atura lly xp l a ins th s c on d c irc u m c ision at G ilgal

ee

n ew

n ew

e e

e e

e,

ee

e,

e e a re
e

ee

TH E

S E C OND C ON QU E S T

1 2

sort of an agreement with the messen g er of Yahweh

they d id n ot abandon their E Code sa c rices If our sup
position be c orrect then we have a portion of the Israelite
army whi c h was not under the D code at all but whic h
nevertheless w as in a c tive alliance with that portion which
was
,

Th e S ec

on d Conqu st
e

From Gilgal the arm y started out to conquer the land

The sequence of events in this conquest is perfectly plain
thr ough the conquest of Jericho and Ai the alliance with
Gibeon and the war with the ve kin g s headed by the
Ki ng of Jerusalem From this place on everyone agrees
that we have onl y fra g ments and those not placed in
Chronological order
For example the war a gainst Jabin

i
n
1 5
of Hazor recorde d
Josh
belon g s to the close
of Joshua s life whil e the meetin g with C aleb and the
c onquest of the south country are d ated in the f th year
after the crossin g of the Jor d an The conquest of mid dle
P alestine is not mentione d at all in the B ook of Joshua
Still it must have taken place because Joshua went up
to M ount Ebal and erected there the altar and the twelve
stones There his people ratied an d accepted the D

co d e
This event took place before he met C aleb C on
sequentl y we are able to d ate the conquest of mid d le
P alestin e at some t ime before the fth y ear of the conquest
D irectl y after this conquest of midd le P alestine and
before the meetin g with C aleb the Ark of the C ovenant
was settled in Gil gal O f course this Gil gal cannot be
the one between the Jor d an an d Jericho It is d oubtless
the one in E p h r a im sou th ea st of Shiloh an d north of B ethel

I Josh
Josh
Josh
35
.

R E LAT I ON

BE

TW E E N

E A ND

O CU M E N T S

This Gil gal is a central place an d was well a d apted for

a base for the operations of Joshua Further it belon ged
to the territor y of Joshua s ow n tribe Ep hraim
.

Th e

R union of Joshua

a nd

al b

Here in the fth y ear of the conquest Joshua received

Now
Caleb son of Jephun n eh an d the tribe of Judah
as we have observe d this is the rst mention of C aleb
since the secession at Ka d esh \Vh a t more natural then
than that C aleb s ver y r st words shoul d have referred

to this event of fort y ve y ears a g o ?

Then the children
of Ju d ah d rew ni gh to Joshua in Gil gal an d C aleb the
son of Jephunneh the Ken izz ite sai d unto him Thou
knowest the thin g that Yahweh said unto Moses the man
of Go d concern in g me an d concernin g thee in Ka d esh
barnea Forty y ears ol d was I when Moses the servant
of Yahweh sent me from Ka d esh barnea to sp y out the
lan d ; an d I brou ght him w ord a g a i n as it was in m y heart
Nevertheless m y brethren that w ent up with me ma d e the
heart of the people melt : but I wholl y followe d Yahweh
m y Go d An d Moses sware on that d a y sa y ing Surel y
the lan d whereon th y foot has tro dd en shall be an inherit
ance to thee an d to thy chil d ren forever because thou
hast wholl y followe d Yahweh m y God An d now behold
Yahweh has kept me alive as he spake these fort y an d
ve years from the time that Yah w eh spake this wor d
unto Moses while Israel walke d in the w il d erness : and
now 10 I am this da y fourscore an d ve y ears ol d As
yet I am as stron g this d a y as I was in the d a y that Moses
sent me : as m y stren g th was then even so is my stren g th
now for war an d to go out an d to come in Now there
fore g ive me this mounta in whereof Ya hweh spake in that
,

WAR WI TH J AB IN

T HE

31

day ; for thou heardest in that day how the Anakim were
there and cities g reat and fen c e d ; it may be that Yahweh
will be w ith me an d I shal l drive them out as Yahweh
spa k e And Joshua blessed him and he gave Hebron
unto C ale b the son of J ep h u n n a h for an
The passage has been worth quoting in full It is
very evi dently just the speech that a man would make

who while Israel walked in the wilde rness had b een

living apart from Joshua He now reminds Joshua his
old friend of events in which forty ve years before they
had borne their part together c allin g his attention even
to small details He asks Joshua to assist him in keeping
possession of the land granted him so many years before
b y Moses An d Joshua touched an d perhaps only too
willin g to concil iate this powerful tribe of Judah and to
amal gamate it in to his ow n confedera c y consents and
r mission to o cc up y Hebron
rants
him
pe
No mention is
g
made however at this t ime of Judah s a cc eptin g the D
c ode It is to be su p p osed that the tribe still retained the E
c ode with which it had se c ede d at Kadesh
,

Th e

Wa r

ith Jab in

After this we know that Joshua went on conquerin g

lan d after land until nally he succeeded in overc om ing
Ja b in king of Hazor In this c onquest Joshua is rep re
sented as meetin g his enemy in northern P alestine
B u t we know that he
near the waters of Merom
was not alone in this war Another army of Israelites
under the c ommand of Deborah and B ara k met anothe r
army of this k ing Ja b in of Hazor under the c ommand of

his general S isera in the valley of Jezreel

In both b attles

I Josh
Ju dg
Josh
6
3
,

R E LAT I ON

TWE E N

BE

AND D D O CU M E N T S

that in the north an d that in the south the hosts of Israel

were successful and Jabin was utterl y routed
It is to be note d that in this secon d arm y under
Deborah an d B arak there were not complete tribes but

onl y remnants of tribes These remnants moreover

were of Ephraim B enjamin Machir (a clan of Manasseh )
Zebulon Issachar an d N a p h ta l i Moreover in the Song
of Deborah Dan an d Asher are reproached for not com ing
up to help in the battle Now all of these tribes with the
exception of Issachar are mentioned in that passa g e in
Judges which as we have seen probably refers to P ales
tinian conquests after Kad esh but before the arrival of
Joshua Does not the sug gestion naturall y follow that
most of the arm y of Deborah an d B arak may have con
siste d of those Hebrew peoples which ha d been in the land
before Joshua came ?
Th
Cov nant in S hiloh
This war with Jabin of Hazor complete d the conquest
of C anaan It woul d be the most natural thing in the
worl d if after such an event the various Hebrew peoples
of the lan d shoul d meet together to form a more perfect
coalition both political an d reli g ious Th e next thing
we n d in the E d ocument is that such a meetin g actually

d i d take pla c e
The people met to g ether at Shiloh

which was an ol d sanctuar y an d at this time had a temple

I Judg
Josh
3
Josh
I t is tru that t h H b r w t xt s ay s S h c h m But
5
a ll th ol d G r k t xts g iv S hiloh a n d a s th y
hun d r d s of y a rs ol d r
th a n our H b r w th y
in a m att r li k this to b a cc pt d W ca n
j ust wh n th c orrup tion a ros in t h H b r w t xt for t h v rsion of L uc i a n
whi c h m y go back to a t xt as l as th ti m of C hrist is t h rst to h a v
S h c h m i this p l ac T h Sy ri ac P shitt a of t h s a m p rio d as t h L i i
t xt a lso g iv s t h la t r r a d in g
Josh 4 : 6
,

ee

a te

a r e,

2a

a re

s ee
,

uc a n c

C O V E NAN T I N S H I LO H

TH E

33

Here Joshua g athered together all the tribes of Israel

and re c ited for them their history from the departure of
Abraham from the old Hebrew home in Eber h a n n a h a r
telling of Abraham s conversion to the Yahweh worship
his settlement in the land of C anaan his descendants
Isaa c Ja c ob and Esau Esau s taking possession of Se ir
and how Jacob and his children went down into Egypt
Then he tol d how God sent Moses an d Aaron who plag ued
Egypt and at last brought their fathers out of the land of
bondage He re c ounted how they came to the Red S ea
where Yahweh saved them He then remin ded them of
the events of the conquest of the east J ord a n ic lands of
the capturin g of Jericho and n all y of the sub d uin g of
the C anaanitic peoples
He then d emanded of the people whether they would
serve Yahweh or some heathen God Now we have no
intim ation of any lapse from faith on the part of the people
who c ame in with Joshua B u t we have seen that the
people of B ochim had lapsed from their faith and that
these people were pro b abl y amo ng the seceders at Ka d esh
If this were true of one of the sece d in g tribes it may well
have been true of the others
If this be true it gives

additional po int to Joshua s cry

As for me and my

h ous e we will serve Yahweh !

The people with one accord accepted Yahweh s reli
gion and a greed to turn from their heathen gods Joshua

and the people thereupon made a covenant to that e ffect

Then we read that Joshua set them a statute and an

ordinance in Shiloh Now a statute as we have seen

is a reli g ious or ceremonial law The wor d ordin ance

here is not a correct translation The original is mi s h p a t
I Ju dg 5
Josh
Cf Ju dg
3
,

R E LAT I ON

34

BE

TWE E N

AND D D O CU M E N T S

meanin g a ju dgment or a Civil law Joshua wrote

these thou gh not in the B ook of the L a w of Moses i e
Deuteronom y but in the B ook of the L a w of Elohim
i e the E co d e
It is eas y to see wh y this should have been the case
for it is har d to believe that the tribes which sece d e d at
Ka d esh woul d ever have a g ree d at this time to accept the
D co d e which ha d been g iven lon g after the y ha d left
the tribes in the wil d erness and which ha d thus been g iven
to onl y a portion of the orig inal confe d eration
Th e E co d e then became the law for all the confed
er a ted peoples which made the covenant at S hiloh
an d
it remaine d so at least for the rest of the period of the
judges as was observe d in our consideration of the non
L evitical sacrices
The D code was for the time dis
car d ed It remain e d written on the stones at the moun
tain of Ebal and certainly other Copies of it were in exist
ence but for the people as a whole it fell into d isuse at
least for the time bein g
Con c lusion
We have now brou ght d own the histor y of the E an d D
co d es from the leavin g of E g ypt to the death of Joshua
We have seen that for a lar g e portion of the people
those who sece d e d at Ka d esh the E co d e was the onl y
code acknowled ge d in this perio d and that it was to the
other portion onl y those who remaine d w ith Moses
that the D co d e was g iven L astl y we have seen that
after the conquest of C anaan when all the tribes were
reunite d it was on the basis of E an d not of D an d that D
sank into d isuse throu ghout the perio d of the jud ges
d urin g which time the E code non L evitical sacrices
inclu d e d was in force amon g the people
.

C HA P TER X
of

Th e La n g u a g e

th e E

D Doc u men ts

a nd

The E sections of the Hexateu c h have a distin c t voca

We have postulated for the P document a P or
b u l a ry
L evitical dialect
The arguments then given for the
existence of a d iale c t pe c uliar to the tribe of L evi will
serve equally well here for the language of E We nd
that Joshua who had mu c h to do with the E c ode was
of the tribe of Ephraim Th e code was nally ratied
in Shiloh which was in the territory of Ephraim In the
E sections of Genesis and Joshua particular attention is
paid to the enumeration of the cities of Ephraim After the
split of the kingd om as we have seen the E code was in
force in the Northern Kin gdom and especially in Ephraim
These facts all poin t to one con clusion namely that the
langua ge of the E code was the tribal dialect of the tribe
of Ephraim
Not only is the D code based upon the E co d e but its
I S om s c tions of th E d oc um nt not so d istin c t in lan gu g as c ritica l
s c holars g n rally assum wh n th y assi gn th m to E T his app li s sp c i a lly

to G n sis g G
8;
6
th
34 ;
3;
33 ;
E
ti
of c h ap 3 7 ;
4 ;
;
I t app li s also to Joshu 4 :3 b 3 3 I n non of th s s c tions is s carc ly a
wor d that is not foun d in th lat r P d oc um nt an d c o d although som of
th
wor d s m y not b so c omm on in P as in E I t is how v r vi d nt th a t
this E l a n guag w a s k now n to P Th r s m s to b no c og nt r ason th r
for wh y th s
c all d E s c tions houl d not b as c ri b d to P I f th y
to b c all d E th y ou ght at l a st to b s pa rat d from th a rly E an d c all d
E s c tions
A
xc p tion to this m ust b ma d in th c as of thr word s :
th
word for p ray in G
wor d for on acc ount of in
th
G
an d th word for d r am in G
Th s
6
thr wor d s alon of c ours
not nough to s p arat th s do c um nts from
t h lat P or from t h lat E d oc um nt
.

e e

sec

en

en

e e

en

e,

e, a r e

3S

e e

a re

e e

ee

en

e e

ee

e,

e e

ee

2 1

e e so -

e,

-2 1

-1

on s

a re

e e

e e

36

THE

LAN G UA G E OF

THE E

AND D D O CU M E N T S

langua g e too comes nearest to that of E We found that

the D co d e was nally recor d ed on the stones at Ebal and
Gerizim i e at Shechem May not the langua ge of D
be a local variation of the Ephraimite dialect peculiar
to the Shechem region ?
,

C HA P TER X I
Doc u men t

Th e

It may be that there is no J c ode in the Hexateu c h but

onl y fragments of a J do c ument The sections which
have been ordin aril y considered as ma k ing up that code
Exod c hap 3 4 really seem to b elong as we have seen
to the E code It is perfe c tly possi ble that there was a J
c o d e origi nally b ut that it was so simil ar to the E c ode
that it was dropped in favor of the latter at the time of the
compil ation What little there is to be said about the
i
r
:
document
may
be
divided
nto
th
ee
heads
date
unity
J
an d language
D at e
I
M odern critics generall y assign the J document to c a

8 5 0 80 0 B C
It may they say have been a century
earlier than this It cannot however so they Claim have
pre c eded the t ime of D avid because there is in a J section

1 5
in Num
a quotation from the B oo k of the

Wars of Yahweh and in the B ook of S amuel there is a

quotation from the same b oo k regardin g D avid B u t
this is reall y not c onclusive for this quotation may have

been added from the B oo k of the Wars of Yahweh at

the t ime when the documents were combin ed There is
no reason why J c annot be as early as E namely the time
of the C ovenant at Horeb There is noth ing to S how that
it is earlier or later
II
U it y
It cannot b e denied that there was an original J do cu
ment but from the remains whi c h we have of that do c u
,

S7

38

TH E

D O CUM E NT

ment in our Hexateuch we are forced to sa y the same thin g

of it as we have alread y sai d of E and P namely that there
have been only fra g ments preserved to us It is a d mitted
on all hands that in l ar g e sections of Genesis Exodus
Numbers and Joshua J and E have been so fuse d to g ether
that it is now impossible ever to d ivi d e them Nor is this
necessary for J an d E relate the same histor y and the same
events An y attempt completel y to d ivi d e these docu
ments can onl y be for the satisfaction of a literar y curiosit y
It is a fact of greater importance that we n d J fused
with later P passa g es and borrowing from P e g when J
in Exod chaps 1 9 2 4 3 4 uses S inai for Horeb It will be
shown in a later chapter that these two mountains are not
i d entical an d cannot be considere d as one T h e occur
rence of S inai in a J document can be explaine d onl y on
the supposition that the priestl y redactor in compil ing
sections
with
P
assumed
that
an
y
reference
in
J
J to the
mountain of the law g iving must be to the Sinai of the P
document O ther cases of the same sort but of less
importance w ill be note d below
,

III

L an g ua g

First of all the lan gua ge is the dialect of Ju d ah We

have alrea d y seen that P represents the d ialect of L evi
and E and D the d ialect of Ephraim J centers itself
aroun d places in Judah especiall y aroun d Hebron T hat
City was the rst capital of David
C aleb prince of Judah
received it as his inheritance and capital At a later tim e
it was grante d to Aaron s family as a L evitical cit y T his
last fact ma y account for a compilation of J an d R in
Hebron an d a fusion of those documents B esides all this
the lan gua g e is so d istinct that it seems certainl y a tribal
.

D IAL E C T I C AL D E N O TATI O N S

diale c t We c annot go far wrong

the tri b al diale c t of Judah
.

WOR D S

OF

in

39

assumin g it to b e

T h e di f c u l t y t h a t t h e

s tu

dy

of

th e

Heb rew

l a n gu a ge

offer s

to

ll k n ow n T h e exp la n a ti on of t hi s di f c u l t y i s n ot
t o b e f ou n d i n i t s p ec u li a r a lph a b et b ec a u s e t h a t i s s oon ma s tered
exi on of t h e w ord s n or in t h e s y n ta x i n
N or i s it t o b e f ou n d in t h e
b oth w hi c h res p ec ts th e Heb rew i s fa r sim p l er t h a n ei th er G reek or
L a ti n Nor d oes H eb rew p osses s a l a rge voc a b u l a ry Th e rea l
di f c u l t y lies in t h e m a n y a n d va ri ed m ea ni n g s th a t Heb rew w or d s
p osses s
i eu l ty revea l s th e fa c t t h a t i t a ri ses from
A c l ose s tu d y of t hi s di
t h e fu si on in t o on e b ook of t h e l i ter a ry p ro d u c ts of m a n y a n d va ri ed
di a l ec ts Th i s i s th e c a se n ot on ly in th e Hex a teu c h b u t in m os t of
t h e h i s tori c a l b oo k s es p ec ia lly i n J u dg es S a mu el Ki n g s a n d Ch r on
i c les w hi c h w e k n ow w ere c om p i l ed fr om a l a rg e n u m b er of ori g in a l
d o c um en ts I t i s a l so th e c a se in som e of t h e p rop h et s I sa ia h a n d
Zec h a ri a h es p ec i a lly
P rover b s a n d P sa lm s b el on g to th e sa me c l a ss
T h ey a re c om p i l ed from a l a r g e n um b er of d oc u m en t s w h i c h o rig i
n a ted i n sev era l tri b es a n d w hi c h b ea r t h erefore t h e di a l ec ti c
p ec u
li a ri ties p er ta in i n g t o t h ose tri b es
B y c a l li n g a tten tion t o t h ese di a lec ti c p ec u li a ri ties w e d o n ot d es i re
t o b e c on stru ed a s d en yin g t h e c on ti n u ou s d ev el o p m en t of t h e Heb rew
l a n g ua g e B u t t h i s la w of d evel op m en t m a y b e ex ten d ed to di a l ec ts
a s w ell
T h e stu dy of t h ese li n g u i stic p ec u li a ri ti es in t h e H exa teu c h s eem s
t o revea l t h e fo ll ow i n g fa c ts :
b egi n n ers

is

we

Dia l ec ti c l D en o

ta ti

on s

of

Wo rd s

d h a s often sev era l d en ota ti on s ea c h of w h i c h

b el on g s to a di ff eren t tri b e ; a s e g :

I n J u d a h ( J a n d t h e T ol ed ot h B oo k ) i t si gn i es t h i g h
Y a rek
I S ome sec tions of th e J doc um ent in G enesis d ie from th e oth er J s ec
tions in m uc h th e same way that w e saw p revailin g in th E d o c um ent A s
th ese sec tions however c ontain th e n ame of Yahw h they m ust c om from
a J sourc e b ut b elon g to lat er strata of t h e J lit erature
A sin gl e H eb rew

w or

TH E

40

u
p
h
isti
c
e
m
(

D O CUM E NT

a n t si d e
I n L evi i t d en o t ed b a se
s eat
s t an d a r d
or
or
P aga d
I n J u d ah i t m ean t p a y a tten t ion to
att en d to
o b s er v e ;
i n E p hra im visi t
vi sit u p on
p u ni s h ; i n L e v i

a pp oi n t
p a s s i n r evi ew
m u st er
M i n ha
I n E p hrai m i t s i g n i ed p r es ent i n J u d ah o eri n g ;
i n L evi
m ea l off er in g
e

In

f or membr u m

B en j mi n i t m e

of Wor d s
W o r d s c om m o n to a ll t h e t ri b es a r e m o d ied in t h ei r d en o tat i on s
i n t h e c ou rs e of t h e d ev el op m en t of t h e l a n g u a ge ; e g :
E a td t
I n J E D i t equ a l s s in ; i n P s in a n d s in off eri n g
sa n c t u a ry ; i n P p l a c e
M a qd m I n J E D
k in d r ed ( G r eek
M i Sp e a h I n J u d ah (J a n d
y
);
i n L evi
c l a n ( Gr eek v )
Y a ra i
I n E p hra im
ta k e p os ses si on of
d ri v e ou t i n
L ev i ( P
i n h eri t
A ha z
I n E p hra im ( E J
i n L evi
t o p os s es s
s ei z e ;
M i l p a t I n P an d J E D ju dgm en t ; in P
c er e
m a n n er
II

Mo d i c ations

of

Meanin g

o vv

eva a

m on y

III Tri b al Vo c ab ular y

i n a n u m b er of c a s es i ts ow n p ec u li a r w o r d t o
i d ea ; 6 g :

I n J u d ah ( J an d
t i p h ha h
i n E p hra im a n d
.

a c h t ri b e h a s
ex p r ess a c om m on
E

H a n dm a d

L evi

E
( ),

R a im en t
sa l

ma h

ma h

I n J u d a h an d L evi (J

a n d s i ml a h

a nd

P)

beg ed;

i n E p h r a im

I
I n J E D P a n oki ; i n P a n i

P rin c e
I n J E D f a r; i n P n a i i

T ri b e
I n J E D t ebet (a s a l s o i n P i n t h e s en s e o f a s u b d i vi si on
of a t ri b e) ; i n P ma tte

D w ell
I n J y a i a b; i n D
i n P Sa ka n

Thi g h (eu p h em isti c ) I n J ya rek; i n P h a l a s a yi m

I E xod

Judg

2 1

C HA P TER X II
Di ff er en c es B etw een

and

JE D

Th e S ettl emen t s i n

E g yp t

Most critics claim of course that the discrepancies

between the four documents are due to their bein g variants
of one and the same story due to d ifferent tra d itions
While this is doubtless su fcient explanation of such d iffer
en c es as exist between J E and D it will not at all suf ce
to explain those between P an d the other thr ee documents
In a comparison of these four documents such as we are
about to un d ertake it is impossible to commence before
the thirt y nin th chapter of Genesis because the D docu
ment begins properl y onl y with the settlement in Egypt
C omparisons of the thr ee documents visible before that
tim e are not to be a part of this stud y which from this
point on will deal more parti c ularly with the events of the
Exo d us and the conquest of C anaan
The d ifferences between what we may assume to be the
composite narrative of J E D and the narrative of P are of
such a ra d ical nature as to deman d careful consideration
Some of the discrepancies are due doubtless to errors
and interpolations which have crept in to the modern
Hebrew Massoretic text durin g the ages This ma y be
seen clearly when comparisons are made with the ancient
versions such as the LX X the S yr iac an d the Aramaic
translations B u t even this is not su fcient to explain
the greater number of discrepan c ies L et us see what
some of these d iff erences are And rst of all let us
examine the ac c ounts of the settlements in E g ypt
,

41

S E TT L E M E N T S I N

TH E

42

GYP T

These are g iven in Gen

It is almost
impossible to accept our Hebrew text as it stan d s Q
uite
evid entl y there have been corruptions The most accurate
text which lower criticism is able to a fford us is based
chie y on the L X X For the sake of convenience the
two accounts accor d in g to d ivisions of this re c onstructed
text are here presente d sid e by side
.

A n d h e s en t
J u dah b fore th em unto J osep h
into th e l an d of Ra a mses
G en

A n d J osep h ma de r a d y hi s
c hariots an d w nt u p to me t I srael
his fath er t H
p li s ; an d h e
p res nt d hi ms lf unto h im an d fell
on his n ck an d w p t on hi s n ec k a
goo d whi l 3 A n d I sra l sai d
unto J os p h N ow l t m di S in ce
I hav e s en th y fa c that thou art
A d J os p h sai d
yet aliv
3
unto hi s b r thren an d un to his
fath r s hous I wi l l g o u p an d Wi l l
t l l P haraoh an d wi ll sa y unto hi m
My b r thr n an d m y fathe r s hous
whi c h w er e in th l an d of C anaan
a
c o me unto m ; 3 2 an d th
me a e sh ep h r ds for th y hav
b en keep rs of c attl ; an d th y
hav b rou ght th i r o c k s an d th i r
herd s an d all that th y hav e 33
An d i t shall c o me to p ass when
P haraoh shall c all y ou an d shal l
s y
What is y our o c c u p ation ?
3 4 that ye shall s a y Th y s r van ts
have b en k pers of c attl fro m
our y outh v n until now b oth w e
an d our fath rs : that ye ma y d wel l
in th lan d of Gosh n of A a bi a ; for
2

eroo- o

e,

e,

e,

e,

re

ee

e,

e e

THE

S E TT L E M E N T S I N

G YP T

43

v ry shep her d i s an a b o mina ti o n

Then
u nto th e E g y p tians
J osep h went in an d to ld P haraoh
an d sai d My fa th er an d my b reth
ren an d th ei r o c k s an d t h i r h e r d s
an d all th at they have a e c ome ou t
l an d of C anaan ; an d beho ld
of th
they a e in th e l an d of Gosh en
2 A n d fro m a mon g hi s b rethr n h e
an d p resented th m
too k ve me
u nto P haraoh
3 A n d P haroah
s ai d unto th e b r ethren of J s ep h
What i s y our o ccu pa tion ? An d
they s ai d un to P haraoh Th y s er
b oth w an d
v an ts a e sh ep h r ds
ou r fa th ers
4 An d th ey sai d unto
P h araoh To s ojourn in th e l an d
a re w e c o me for th e r e i s no p astu re
for th y servant s o c ks ; for th e
famin e is s ore in th e l an d of C anaan :
n ow
th erefore w e p ra y th ee let
th y serva n ts d w ell in th e l an d o f
Goshen 5 An d P haraoh s ai d un
to J os ep h I th e l an d of Goshen l et
th em d well ; an d i f thou k now s t
an y a b l e me amon g them th en
mak e th em rul ers ov er my c att le
e e

n,

J a c o b an d hi s s on s c ame
into E gyp t to J o sep h An d P ha
raoh
th e k in g of E gyp t h ear d
( thereof) An d P haraoh s p a k e un
to J osep h sa yin g Th y fa th er an d
th y b rethren a re c o me un to th ee ;
behold th e l an d of E g yp t is befo re
thee ; in th e b est of th e l an d ma k e
th y fath er an d th y b reth ren to
d well 7 An d J osep h b rou g h t in
6 An d
.

I Co dex

Jos ph
e

l xa n d rinus
e

( G re k) r a d
e

s,

An d

P haraoh went in an d tol d

S E TT L E M E N T S I N

TH E

44

GYP T
P

J a c o b hi s fath er an d s et hi m before
P haraoh : an d J a c o b b l ess ed P ha
raoh 8 A n d P haraoh sai d unto
J a c o b How man y a re th e d ay s of
th e y ears of th y life ? 9 A n d
J a c o b sai d unto P haraoh
,

years of m y p i l
i
ri
a
g
an
hun
d
r
d
an
d
th
r ty
m
e
a
r
e
e
g
years ;
Th e

d ay s of

th e

F ew

of th

b ut th ey hav e not attain ed unto th e

d ay s of th e years of th e life of my
fath ers in th e d ays of their p i l

an d vil hav b en
y ars of my l if

th e

d ay s

A n d J a c o b b l ess d P haraoh
an d w ent out fro m th p res n c of
A d J os p h p l a ced
P haraoh
h is fath er an d his b r thren in th
lan d of E gyp t i th e bes t l d in
l an d of R aa ms s s P haraoh
th
ha d c omman ded
10

1 1

an

A n d J os p h nou rish d h is
fath er an d his b rethr n an d all hi s
fath r s hous hol d wi th b rea d c
c ordi n g to th ir fa mi li s
1 2

These then are the stories of the settlement in E gyp t

According to J and its kindred documents Israel an d his
sons were settle d in the lan d of Goshen In P the settle
ment of Jacob is conne d to the lan d of Raamses T hese
two districts are not b y an y means the same
,

La d of Gosh n
Goshen was the capital of the twentieth nome of Egypt
Arabia and was that p ar t of the Delta east of the Nile
I This pas ag whil P in c h arac t r vi d ntly b longs to th T l d th Book
b caus of th xac tn ss of t h d a t a n d its qu a int l an g ua g W h a v shown
ab ov th a t this book is a n a rly d oc u m nt
n

e e

e,

o e o
e

LAN D OF RAA M S E S

45

and bordering on it i e the d istrict in the vicin ity of

B elbeis Saft el Henneh and Abu Hamad
.

La n d

R a a m s es

of

in P it is not in Goshen but in the land of Raam

ses that the people are settle d

The land of Raamses
of course means the land around the city of Raamses

just as the land of Goshen means the land around the

city of Goshen We know that Ramses II b uilt a City
name d after himself
This city was re built by Ramses
III thou g h it was still called after the name of the former

buil der
P etrie has advanced the su ggestion that this
city of Raamses was located at the mo d ern Tel el Rota
b ieh but his suggestion seems to be on not very su fcient
grounds In the manuscript of G a mu rrin i a pious woman
relates that she left H er oo polis to g o to Goshen which
was sixteen miles away and that on her journey S h e passed
I P ( ) S p d was th a nc i nt nam of t h mod rn S aft l H nn h an d
w a s th ol d c ap it a l of th nom of A r ab i a Cf N i ll S f t l H
h p 5
I n C o p ti c G osh n LXX G m is ca ll d K whi c h th G r k s r n d r d P h
P h is t h d nit arti c l
La tin P h
is an a bb r via
K
K or K
tion of K m whi c h latt r is foun d in E gy p ti a n insc ri p tions G m an d
K m
of c ours v a ri a nts of t h s am n am C ons qu ntly G h
or K m or G m is th c it y lan d of K m k nown in th m onum nts i
M or ov r in t h A ra b i c v rsion of S d i h
t h c a p ital of th tw nti th no m

loc at s at A b b h in th
G
G osh n is r n d r d S a d ir whi c h Q t m
r g ion of t h m o d rn S f t l H nn h With this A b S ai d ag r s M i i
stat s that B lb is is in this lan d
T h c it y of R am s s II xi st d in t h tw nt y t y a r of that k in g for th
am bassa dors of th H ittit kin g w r r c iv d b y h im th r in th at y ar Cf

L p sius D kmal III p l 4 6 l

T xt
A cc or d in g to L p sius D kmal
P art I V p l 4 9 this c ity H ous of Ra m s s (I H M i m
wa s aga in
r f rr d to in Ram s s I I tw nty ninth y ar
R m s s III st at s in P apy rus Ha rris p l 6 l
I r b uilt th gr a t t m p l
(an d) l ab oriously nlarg d t h s am in th H ous of S t kh of Ram s s ( II )
B ut

e r

usa ,

es e

ese

e e

es e

os

en ,

aa

e e

a se

ee

ac r z

e,

a nd

s r a el i te

C i ti es ,

er ,

en

on

er a

e e

- rs

Cf H y ks os

M er ia mon

ere

e e

er ,

e e

u a re

en ne

en

e e

usa

es e

ee

os

a on ,

es e

e,

av

os ,

e,

a r e,

es e

a cu sa

es e

u e

e,

LAND OF RA AMS E S

47

through the city of Raamses whi c h was four miles from

Goshen the c apital of Ara b ia This would correspon d
to the lo c ation of the modern Tel el Ke b ir a great mound
which has not yet b een explored Here we feel in clined

to lo c ate the city and land of Raamses This lo c ation

would tally perfectly with all the data in the monuments
the Classi c al authors and the B ible If this prove to b e
corre c t the city of Raamses must have belonged to the
Nome of the East the eighth nome of L ower Egypt the
capital of whi c h was Pithom A t any rate Raamses is
not the same as Goshen
Now if as we have seen good reason for believing the
do c uments were composed within forty or fty years
after the leavin g of Egypt it is hard to believe that their
authors S hould have b een so c onfused and so forgetful
that they confounded two c ity lands so distin c t and sepa
rate as Goshen and Raamses and were ig norant as to
which was really the Israelite ha b itat when in Egypt
There suggests itself at on c e the hypotheti c al question
,

Were th ere tw o ex odi

G os h en

m Ra a ms es

on e ro

and

th e oth er

from

C HA P T ER X III
Di ff er en c es B etw een P

JED

and

Th e S ervit u d es i n

E g yp t

In the stor y of the oppression the followin g sections

P
:
r
1
b
1
S houl d be assi g ne d to
Exo d
2 5
4;
Th e other sections of the ve rst chapters of Exo d us
belon g to J E
In the J E account there are taskmasters appointe d over
the Israelites an d these force them to d o el d labor an d
to make bricks without straw In the P d ocument the y
are force d to d o a simil ar kind of serf labor but there is
nothin g mentioned of anythin g like makin g bricks without
straw Th e P account further mentions which is not
touche d on in J E that the y built store cities for P haraoh
P ithom and Raamses
Now the store Cit y of P ithom
has been discovered b y N a v ill e at the modern Tel el

M a s kh u ta h
It is a cit y which althou g h dating from
earl y times was reall y buil t b y Ramses II and rebuil t b y
,

I This s c tion whil

e

P in c h a rac t r b lon gs to
e

Boo k :

t h e T o led o t h

s ee

ab ov pp 5 4 f
E xo d
: b
P ithom ori g in a lly P ( ) T m or P ( ) A tum m a nin g H ous of T m
or Hous of A tum th ity of t h sun go d T m or A tu m who w a s t h p r d
c ssor of R t h sun go d of H lio p olis wa s t h cap it a l of t h i ghth nom of
Low r E gy pt t h c ivil n a m of whi c h w a s t h E a st rn Nom I n l a t r ti m s
no m wa s also ca ll d t h H p lit
O th
ast rn bor d r of this
th
nom wa s a c ity a n d a l a n d ca ll d S ucc oth t h a nc i nt n am of whi c h w a s D oor
of th E a st This ity wa s locat d on t h north rn d of Lak T i m s ah
N i l l h a s i d nti d P itho m a n d S u cc oth b ut on i
f
C roc o d il Lak
c i nt g roun d s S ucc oth wa s s v ra l m il s a st of P itho m Nor d i d Lak T im
s ah on whi c h S ucc oth wa s situ a t d xt n d w st a s fa r P itho m in t h N i
T h m a rsh l a n d to t h
a st of P ithom w a s in th ti m of M
t h D y n a st y
t
e,

1 1

e r

een

e e

48

en

nsu

e e

e e

av

an

eroo

e e

e r

e C

e,

as

ne

er

S E R V ITUD E S

TH E

G Y PT

IN E

49

Ramses III There is nothin g to S how that the b ricks

of the city were made without straw
Raamses we have
already lo c ated at the mo d ern Tel el Kebir
To these
m
m
c
all
d
P
ools
of
P
itho
b
ut
this
was
a
r
g
ion
quit
d
istin
c
t
fro
T
h
h
t
p
Lak T i msah
p olis th Roman E is i d nti c al with
N i l l assu m s also t hat H
P ithom b c aus th R d S is c a ll d th H p lit G u lf A d in d d
in th Bohairi c v rsion H
p olis is r n d r d P ithom not b caus th y w r
i d nti c al b ut b ca us P ithom w a s th cap ital of th nom I t is c rtain that
p olis was lo cat d on th shor ( l m ) of that g ulf But it is not p ro b
H
ab l th a t th gulf xt n d d p to P ithom a t this ti m P tol m y th geo graph r
ass rts twi c th a t E was only
sixth of a d gr from th h a d or upp r d
of th A rab i a n G ulf P liny an d S tra b o a ss rt li k wis that H
p olis was
loca t d on th A rab ian G ulf But wh n P tol my d u g his soft w at r c anal
c onn c tin g th Nil with t h E ast rn Nom it pa ss d b y A rsino a n d still was
not c onn c t d wi th t h Bitt r Lak s This m ak s it i m p ossi b l th a t t h A rab ian
G ulf shoul d h a v xt n d d to P ithom in t h ti m of P tol my F urth m or
d st a dia from M ount C i
H ro dotus says that it wa s
th d
A
m ust a dm it that H ro d otus us d t h short r st a d iu m ( nin t y i ght m t rs) his
stat m nt p lac s th h a d of th A rab ian G ulf n ar th north rn d of th p r s
H r th n H
p olis was loc at d I t w a s h r acc or d in g
t Bitt r L ak s
to th J E d o c um nt that Jos p h m t his fath r wh n h c am into E gy pt I t is
of g at im portanc that b a r in m in d that t h A rab ian G u lf xt n d d u p to
this p oint an d inc lu d d t h Bitt r Lak s whi c h at this ti m str t c h d a littl
farth r north than th y do at p r s nt
I I t is int r stin g to not th at in t h A rab i c v rsion of S d i h G th
lan d of Raam s s in G
a n d t h c ity of Raam s s in E xo d
r n d r d as th W ll of th S un ( A i
Now th E g yp ti a n m onum nts
k ow of a ca n a l c all d Wat r of R or Wa t r of th S un T h am
i mp li s that it m y h a v run c los b y th c ity of H lio p olis This ca nal is not
kno n b for t h l v nth y ar of Ra m s s III wh n h sl w t h L i by a n arm y
on its ban ks Th s am c an a l is a ga in m ntion d b y th s am ki n g in P apy rus
Ha ris ( p l
l 8 a nd p l 6 1
T hi s ca n a l ca n b nothin g ls th a n th
ol d c an a l of Wa dy T mi l t wh r l at ly th I h m li h C an a l was d u g I t st a rt d
n r Cairo p ass d H lio p olis North rn H liop olis an d B lb is turn d w stward
at Ab b h pass d !Raam s s (T l l K b ir) T l l R t b i h P ithom (T l l
M kh t h ) an d
ow d into Lak Tim h a t it north rn d Th Wat r
of th S un thus ow d through all th l a n d wh r in P n d trac s of th
H b r w s ttl m nts Furth rm or this ca nal supp li d wat r for all of t h E ast
Nom whi c h Ram s s II r c l a i m d for c ultivation a n d in whi c h h b uilt his
m a g ni c nt c iti s m ntion d i P c iti s whi c h w r a ft rwar d r b uilt b y Ram s s
III ost nsi b ly b c aus th y had b n d stroy d in th p rio d of anarc h y whi c h
int rv n d b tw n t h Nin t nth an d T w nti th dy nasti s
.

ne

eroo -

eroo -

eroo -

e e

en

we

e e

1 0

ea

a se

u a

er n

e e

e -

ee

e -

en

we

e e

e e

o a

sa

e n

a re

a on

ee

e ee

e,

e e

aa

2 a,

e e,

e e e e

en

s we

e e

e,

en

er

e e

e e

e,

re

eroo -

er oo -

a s us

en

e e

u sa n

on e

e,

e e

ee

ee

o n e-

an

c us

e e

as

ero o

ro

ro,

ea

av

S E RV IT U D E S IN

T HE

50

GYP T

the L XX add s the name of O n or Heliopolis This of

course cannot be the old city of Heliopolis the history of
which g oes back to the t ime of the Fifth Dynasty It
must be the northern Heliopolis mo d ern T el el J eh u d ieh
the Roman Vicus J u d a eoru m
At the time these c ities
were bein g buil t there is not a mention in the monuments
of Goshen except in the geographical lists It seems to
have been favore d neither by Ramses II nor by Ramses
III Merneptah seems to allude to it onl y to say that it
had been abandoned since the time of the an c estors and
given up to pasturage This implies of course that on c e
in the past it had been a c ultivate d land
The period of the servitude in E g ypt then as kno w n
to the author of the P d ocument can clearly be determined
The people settle d in the land of Raamses and helped
build the cities of Raamses an d P ithom B efore the
reign of Ramses II no land of Raamses existed for it
was he who reclaimed the lan d from the swamps And
it was Ramses III who rebuil t these cities so the monu
ments clearl y say an d he did it with serf labor from Asia !
And of course if the y settled in Ramses I I S rei g n he
c ould hardl y have been the P haraoh of the oppression
This P haraoh must have been Ramses III The d ate of
the servitude then accordin g to the evidence derived from
P itself seems to have been the rei g n of Ramses III i e
1 1 81
1 1 50
B C
I W k now from P apy rus Harris ( p l 9 ll 8 ) th a t Rams s III b ui lt a
t m p l in t h Hous of R on th north of H lio p olis T his north rn H lio
p olis is not k nown on t h m onum nts b for th r i g n of this k in g a lthough it
still xist d in th ti m of S h h k I ( L p sius D km l I I I 5 3 l
This c ity h a s b n i d nti d with t h m o d rn T l l J h d i h th Ro m a n
Vi c us J d
m n ar B l b is
This Vi c us J d
m is not to b c onfus d
m th
with anoth r T l l J h d i h whi c h in Latin is ca ll d S
V t
p l ac wh r O ni a s b uilt his t mp l
I t h Nin t nth a n d Tw nti th dy nasti s
.

a eoru

ee

e e

e ee

a er ,

a eo r u

en

on

es

1 2

a,

1 2

c en a e

e era n o r u

S E RV IT UD E S IN

TH E

52

GYPT

B ut

what of the oppression in the J E d ocument ? In

it there is no mention of the buil d in g of these g reat store
Now if as we have seen
Cities of Raamses an d P ithom
from our d atin g of the documents there is no reason to
doubt that J E was written fort y y ears after the d eparture
from E g ypt or less can it be suppose d that in this very
short t ime all memory of the slavin g on these cities in
which the people ha d su ffered so g r iev ou sl y shoul d have
utterl y perishe d from the mind of the J E author ? It
seems fa ir and conservative to assume that the people
among whom the J E d ocument arose ha d ha d no connec
tion whatever with the store cities of P ithom and Raamses
Furthermore if the J E exo d us came from the lan d of
Goshen as it d id it must have passe d b y these cities on
the way to the Re d Sea i f th ey w ere th en ex i s ten t B u t
althou gh we have full mention of the cities the y passed
from the Re d Sea to Horeb there is no mention at all of
an y cities before the Red Sea Does it not seem likely
then that the Exodus tol d of in J E must have taken place
at a time before these Cities were buil t when the later

lan d of Raamses was a waste marsh unin habite d ?

An d this probable conclusion is ma d e practically certain

by the remar k in Exo d

B u t God le d the people
about by th e w a y of th e w i l d ern ess unto the Re d
We are force d then from evid ence furnishe d b y J E to
date the servitu d e an d exo d us of which it tells before the
time of Ramses II who reclaime d the wil d erness and
bu ilt the cities
.

I I n R V this phras is r n d r d
.

a n ith r

by t h e R ed S ea

R ed S ea

Th e

H br w
e

ma y

I t ca nnot b by th R ed
Th
S
LXX th Ta rg um O k l t h Sy ri ac v rsion a n d t h A rab i c
Th
v rsion a ll unit i r n d rin g it t t h R d S
in acc urat Vulg at
alon outsi d of t h E ng lish v rsions r n d rs it by
me

ea

t h e R ed

e,

to t h e
n

S ea

or

e e

e os,

ea

C H A P TER X IV
Di eren c es B etw een P

and

JED

Th

G oi n g ou t f r om

E g yp t

Even if we felt in cl ined to thin k that the exodus of P

were not d ifferent from that of JED in tim e we would nd
it hard to believe that they were not d i eren t in lo c ality
and route
A g ain we place the two a cc ounts of the route out of
E g ypt in parallel c olumns :
,

JE

xo d
An d th e ch i ld ren
of I srael journ eyed fro m R aamses
to S u cc oth ;
E

( Th ey
cl ans)

r ) a b out
( or 60 0
on foot tha t were me b e
si des chi l d r n 38 an d a mi xed
m u l ti tu d w ent u p al so with th em ;
an d o ck s an d h er ds ev n v ery
mu c h c attl e
An d i t c ame to p ass
when P haraoh ha d l et th e peo ple go
that Go d l d th em not by th e way
of th egjl d of th e P hi l is tines a l
th u g hii th a t w a s n ear ;
for Go d
s a id f
} es t pera dv nture th peo p l e
repent wh n th ey see war an d th ey
retu rn to E gyp t ; 1 8 b ut Go d led
th peo p l e a b out by th e wa y of th e
Wi ldern ess to th e Red S ea : an d
th e c hi ld r n of I srael w en t u p armed
out of th e l an d of E gyp t
we e

n,

an

th ey too k t h eir journ ey

fro m S u cc o th an d en ca mped in
E tha m in th e edge of th e wi lde es s
20

An d

S3

rn

THE

54

G O I N G O U T FROM
-

G YP T
P

JE

A n d Yahw h w en t b fore
th em by d ay in a pi ll ar of c l ou d
to l a d them th way ; an d by ni ght
i n a p i l lar of to give th m li ght ;
that th y mi ght go by d ay an d by
i g ht
2 1

re,

A n d Yahweh s pa ke un to
M os es sa yin g
S pea k unto th e
Chil d r en of I sra l
that th y turn
b a ck an d en ca mp before P i Hahi
roth betw e n M i gdo l an d th S a
before B aal Z p hon ; ov r a gainst
i t shal l y en c a mp by th e S
3
An d P haraoh wi ll sa y of th e c hi ld ren
of I srael Th y a e ntan gl d in th e
l an d ; th e wi l dern ess h a s shut them
in 4 A n d I w i ll ma k e stron g
P haraoh s heart an d h shall fo l
l ow after ; a n d I wi l l g et m hono r
u pon P haraoh an d u p on a ll hi s
host an d th e E gy p tians shal l k now
that I a m Yahweh A d th y
di d s o
,

ea

A n d i t w a s to ld th k in g of
E gyp t that th e p o p l e w e re d ;
an d th e h eart of P haraoh an d of hi s
s ervan ts w a s c han ged towar d th e
peo p l an d th ey sai d What i s this
w e hav e d on e
that w hav let
I sra l g o fro m s rvin g us ? 6 A n d
h e ma de rea d y hi s c hariot an d too k
hi s peo p l e wi th hi m : 7 an d h e too k
6
c hos en c ha riots
5

e,

0 0

An d Y ahw eh ma d stron g th e
h art of P haraoh k in g of E gyp t
an d h e p ursu d after th e c hi ld ren
of I srael : for th e c hil d ren of I srael
w ent out with an hi g h han d 9
A n d th E gy p tians p ursued after
them all th e hors es an d c hariots
8

G OI N G OUT F RO M

TH E

E GY

PT

55

JE

of P haraoh an d h i s horsemen an d
his a rmy ; an d h ove rtoo k th em
en ca mp in g by th e S ea
besi de P i
Ha hi ro th
B aa l Zep hon
,

An d when P haraoh d rew

i g h th e c hi ld ren of I srael l ifted
u p th i r ey s an d beho ld the
E gyp ti ans m ar c h ed aft r th em ; an d
they w re sore afrai d : an d th e
chi ld ren of I sra l c ri ed out unto
Yahw eh
An d th y sai d un to
M oses B ecause there w r no g raves
in E gy p t hast thou tak en u s to di e
in th wi ldern ss Wher for hast
thou dea l t thus wi th us to b rin g us
10

1 1

e e

forth

ou t o

yp t ?

An d

Yahw h sai d un to M os s Wh ere

fore c ri est thou unto me ?
e

S pea k un to th c hi ld ren of I srael

that th ey go forwar d
e

(An d )

lift thou u p

th y

ro d ;

stret c h out th y han d ov er th e

S e an d d ivi de i t an d th e c hi ld ren
of I srael shal l go into th e mi d st of
S
on d ry g roun d 7 An d
th
I b ho ld I wi l l ma ke stron g th e
hear ts of th E gyp ti ans an d th y
shall go in after th m : an d I wi ll
g t m honor u p on P haraoh an d
u p on all hi s host u p on his c hariots
an d u p on hi s horsemen
An d
a

ea

an g l of Go d whi c h
w ent befor th e ca mp of I srael
remov d an d w en t b ehin d th em ;
an d th p i ll ar of cl ou d r mov ed
fro m before th em an d stoo d behin d
th m ; 2 an d i t c a me betw een
th e ca mp of E gy p t an d th e c a mp
of I srael ; an d th ere w a s th e cl ou d
an d th e da rk n ess yet gav e i t li ght
1

An d th e

56

TH E

G O I N G O UT F RO M

GYP T
P

JE

by ni ght :an d th e on e c a me not n ear

th e oth er a ll th e ni g ht
,

M oses stret c h ed out hi s

han d ov r th S a an d Yahw h
c aus d th e S to g o b a ck by a
stron g ast win d all th ni ght an d
m a d th S a d ry lan d an d th e
waters w re divi ded
A n d th e
c hil d ren of I sra l w n t into th e
mi d st of th S ea u p on th d ry
g ro u n d : an d th wat rs w r a wal l
unto th m on their ri ght han d an d
on th eir left 3 A n d th e E gyp
tians p ursu d an d w en t in aft r
th em into th e mi d st of th S ea a ll
P haraoh s hors s h is c hariots an d
h is hors emen
2 1

An d
e

ea

2 2

e e

"

An d it c ame to pass in th e
mornin g wat c h that Yahw h l oo k ed
forth u p on th host of th e E gyp tians
throu gh th e p i l lar of e an d of
c l ou d an d di s c om ted th host of
th E gy p tians
5 A n d h b oun d
thei r c hariot wh ls an d ma d th em
to d riv h avil y : s that th e E gyp
t ians sai d L t us fro m th fa ce
of I srael ; for Yahweh g h teth for
th em a gainst th E g yp tians
e

ee

ee

A n d Yahweh sai d un to
M os s S tret c h out th y han d ov e r
th e S ea that th wate rs ma y c o me
a gain u p on th e E gy p tians u p on
their c hariots an d u p on th ir hors
m n
7 An d M os s stre t c hed
forth his han d over th e S ea
2

An d th e S
wh n th e

retu rn ed to i ts stren g th
mornin g a pp ar d ; an d
E g y p tians
th
ag ainst i t ;
ed
an d Yahw h ov rthr w th e E g yp
tians in th mi d st of th e S a
ea

TH E

G OI N G

O UT F R O M E G YP T

57

JE

an d th e w aters re turn ed an d
c ov ered th e ch ariots an d th e ho rse
men ev en a ll th e host of P haraoh
that wen t in after th m into th e
S ea ; th ere r emain ed not s o mu c h
a s one of th em
29
B u t th c hi l
d ren of I sra l wa l ked u p on d ry
l an d in th e mi ds t of th e S a ; an d
th e wat e rs w ere a wa ll un to th em
on th eir ri g ht han d an d on th eir l eft
2

Thus Yahweh s aved Israel

t hat d a y
u t of th e han d of th e
E gyp tians an d I srael s a w th e E gyp
tians d a d u p on th sea shore 3
An d I srael s a w th e g reat wor k w hi c h
Yahw h di d u pon th e E g yp tian s
an d th peo ple feared Yahw h an d
th ey bel i ev ed in Y ahw eh an d in his
s ervan t M o ses
An d M oses led Is rael
onwar d fro m th e Red S ea
30

h ey went out in to th e w i lder

n ess of S hur ; an d th ey w en t three
d ay s in th e w i ldern ess an d foun d
no water

An d t

Another a cc ount of the P journeyin g at this tim e is

given in Num 3 3 :5 8c : And the children of Israel

journeyed from Raamses and pit c hed in S uc c oth They
journeyed from S uc c oth and pit c hed in Etham whi c h is
in the edge of the wil derness And they journeyed from
Etham and turned unto P i Ha h ir oth which is before
B aal Zephon : and they pitched before Migdol
And
they journeyed from b efore H a h iroth and passed throu g h
the midst of the S ea into the wilderness : and they went

three days journey in to the wil derness of Etham

-

58

G O IN G

TH E

F RO M

O UT

E GY

PT

P R out e

Th e

In the P account the Israelites after havin g left

Egyptian territor y came to the Sea

In no place I n P

is this calle d the Re d Sea

When we attempt to i d entif y

it with the Re d Sea we are rea d in g in to the P account

somethin g not contain e d there Now from both the

Hebrew an d the Greek usa g es the Sea without further

limitation can mean onl y the Me d iterranean Sea

An d the P d ocument g ives evid ence that this is the meanin g
here
When the Israelites had come to Succoth the y were
tol d to tu rn an d g o to Pi H a h iroth between B aal Zephon
an d Mi gdol Now Succoth was on the northern end of
L ake Timsah an d was locate d where now stan d s the
vil la ge of I s h ma il ieh From L ake T im s a h to L ake
B alah there was a l ine of E g yptian fortresses calle d in the

an d in Hebrew Shur (the Wall

i nscriptions the Wall

of E g ypt ) At the northern en d of this wall was a great

fortress calle d in the i nscriptions T haru which is an

exact equivalent of Shur bein g the wall or fortress

e
c
e
l
l
e
n
c
e
kh
e
t
e
x
a
r
The
word
in
E
g
yptian
for
fortress
is
m
p
When therefore
T his is ren d ered in Hebrew eth a m

the B ible speaks of the wil d erness of Etham it means

the wilderness of the fort

This w il d erness is then

the same as that calle d the wil d erness of Shur as

indee d becomes quite plain when we compare with Exo d
Now we kn ow from a number of other references
in the B ible that Shur was the wil d erness to the east of
the E gyptian border between L ake Timsah an d the Me d i
,

I E xo d

th e

H br w
e

G en

N um

a le

ph

Cf

Bru gsc h

gy p ti an kh c orr sp on d s som ti m s tO
p 64 7

E
7, 8
D i c t G eog
.

I Sa m

PI

HA H I RO TH

59

terranean If then the c hildren of Israel passed through

this wil d erness when they turne d it must have been to
the north from S u c cot h i e north from L ak e T irn s a h
From the ins c riptions of M erneptah we kn ow that the
fortress of S uc c oth was very stron g It is then easil y seen
that the turn to the north was made to avoid this powerful
obstacle in the way B u t the fortress of Tharu or Etham
was even stronger and so they had to contin ue their mar c h
yet farther to the north
They could not safely g et
between the fortresses because the district between them
was ver y thoroughl y patrolled This we know because
the commanders of the fortresses were required to sen d
daily reports to P haraoh of all who went into Or out of
Egypt at and around their posts
.

P i-H a h i roth

C ontinuin g northward ,they encamped at P i H a h ir oth

between B aal Zephon and Mi gdol Fortunately we are
quite able to locate these three places P i Ha h iroth

means mouth of the hi roth

and this wor d H i r oth

Greek ei roth means lagoons

As B rugsch has shown
this can refer properly only to the lagoons of the Delta
and in our account can mean only the la goons of L ake

Men za l eh The mouth of the lagoons would then be

the pla c e where L ake Men z a l eh c onnects with L ake B alah
B etween these two lakes there is now dr y land except for
the articial slip which starts the Suez C anal B u t for
merl y they were connected by shallow water as geologists
have b een able to determine
This place is indeed
between Mi gdol which lay to the east an d B aal Zephon
which la y to the west
I Cf A RE Vol III pp 7 7

60

TH E

G O IN G O U T FROM E G YP T
-

Mi g d o l

Migdol means in Hebrew fortress and it has been

supposed by some that the M igdol mentioned here may
have been any Eg yptian fortress B u t this is not the c ase
There was a fortress evidently foun d e d by S emites to
the east of P i Ha h iro th When it was taken over by the

Egyptians they retain e d the Hebrew word for fortress

by which it was called as its proper name T hus M ig d ol
to the Eg yptians meant not any fortress but this p a rtic u
lar fortress B oth Ezekiel an d Jeremiah mention M igdol
in such a way as to imply not only that it was a denite
place but also that it was the rst Egyptian city to be met
on a journey in to that countr y
In the classical refer
en c es
we may call attention especially to the itin erary
of Antoninus which says that M a g d ol u m was twelve
B ir M aqtal is its
Roman miles south of Pel u s iu m
modern name It is situated twent y three miles northeast
of I sh m a il ieh in the desert Some scholars anxious to
locate the Exodus in the south say that there ma y have
been a Migdol near Suez In this re g ard it is ne c essary
to remember that there never has been the slightest scrap
of evidence ad vanced in support of this supposition It
is an assumption pure and simple From all the excava
tions in the D elta and in other places in Egypt and from
all the i ns c rip tions so far found not one statement not
one intimation has been discovered of any Migdol near
Suez or an y where else for that matter except south of
P el u s iu m and east of P i H a h ir oth
And this lo c ation
answers every requirement b oth of the B ible and of the
inscrip tions
I Ez k
J
A S r ap io P l i
m p m LX T h
b i V III S il XX V III M a gd olo
X II P l i X II
,

er

e us o

e us o

au

as o

62

G O IN G O UT FRO M

TH E

G Y PT

Baal Z p hon
The name B aal Zephon has never been d iscovere d
exactl y as it stands in the E g yptian inscriptions The

B u t we know
name means L ord of the Northland
that Ramses III bu ilt a Cit y in the northeastern Delta

which he called after his name an d d e d icate d to Amon

T his name Zephon is Chan g ed b y
of the
Ezekiel an d Jeremiah to T ahpanhes
T his is i d entical
with the name the Greeks g ave to the cit y of Amon of the

n
D
a
h
a
i
Northland i e x
the mo d ern Tel el D efen n eh
p

This Cit y P etrie has excavate d

We know its exact
location and that it was foun d e d b y Ramses III It is
a few mil es to the west of where the Suez C anal be g ins
i e a few mil es to the west of where we have locate d
P i H a h ir o th
An examination of the map wil l S how that the onl y
place where the Hebrews coul d hope to penetrate the
natural an d articial fortications on the bor d er of E g ypt
an d so pass out into the desert was across the shallow waters
between L ake B alah an d L ake M en z a l eh An d it is not
at all unlikely that a stron g eastern win d coul d so have
d riven back the waters from this narrow strip that the
place would have become passable The two lakes
B alah and M en z a l eh would then have been the two

metaphorical walls of water on either side of the bib

Furthermore L ake M en za l eh is really
l i c a l account
I P apy rus Ha rris P I l
Cf P l 8 11
8
Ez k
8 9;
H b r w t d oft n
J
b c om s t or d in G r k Cf H b r w Z
a n d G r k T i Cf a g a in
Ty phon th G o d of A va ris t h Hyksos stron ghol d
e

er

ee

O n th e

a nn s

sa

ee

oth r h a n d a n ast rn win d on t h

th a n d i m inish th w at r a t its north a st rn d
woul d hav j ust th ff c t d sir d
4

oa n

Ta n i s I I

Cf

1 2

1 0

e e

en

woul d rath r in c r a s
a st rn win d on M l h

R ed S ea
An

en za e

64

G O I N G -O UT FROM

TH E

GY P T

not a lake at all b ut a b ay an arm of the Mediterranean

and it therefore is quite properly called th e S ea

Fin all y that this was the route of the P ac c ount is made the

more plain by the statement that after leavin g the S ea

they came in to the wilderness of Shur which is as we have
seen to b e foun d in this localit y an d nowhere else
Th J E D Rout
The JED ac c ount on the other hand places the goin g
out quite de nitely at the Re d Sea An d furthermore
the J E D account nowhere states that there was any pas
sage through the S ea The easiest explanation oi the
JED ac c ount which ma y again be referred to in the
parallel colu mns is this The Egyptians pursuin g the
Hebrews followed them out over the sand and mud ats
un c overed by the e b b ing tide where the sand was m oist
and the Chariots drove heavil y so that they could make
little pro gress There ni ghtfall overtook them Toward
morning the tide rapid l y returned and although they
ed overwhelmed them in the sea And the He b rews
saw the i r bodies washed up on the shore There is no
supernatural phenomenon necessarily implied
This Re d Sea of JED cannot be placed in the north

any more than the Sea of P c an be placed in the south

It is of course a mistake to place the Re d S ea so far to
the south as Suez for H eroo polis is mentione d as being
on its shores and we know that this Cit y was north of
what we now know as the B itter L akes B u t though it
extende d this far north it c an never be confounded with
the Great Sea or with L ake M en za l eh
O nl y on the hypothesis of two ex od i one to the south
the other to the north d o the two accounts of the route
out of E gyp t become explainable
,

C HA P T ER
Di ffer en c es B et w een P

XV

E
D
J

and

Th e R ou t es

of

th e

E x od u s

From the JED d ocuments we must route th e journe y

of the Israelites as follows : ( 1 ) Red Sea ; ( 2 ) Marah ;
Elim
Rephi
d
im
Horeb
6
Taberah
4
;
;
;
;
(3)
( )
(5 )
( )
i
K
( 7 ) b roth H a tta v a h ; ( 8 ) Hazeroth ; (9 ) Ka d esh barnea ;
1 0
E
z
i
o
n
1 1
B
1
2
Gaber
eeroth
bene
jaakan
;
;
( )
( )
( )
M os era h ; ( 1 3 ) Gud godah ; ( 1 4 ) J oth b a th a ; ( 1 5 ) Zare d ;
1 6
1
Arnon
1
B
eer
8
Mattanah
1
Nahaliel
;
;
;
;
( )
( 7)
( )
( 9)
2 0
( ) B amoth ; ( 2 1 ) P is gah ; ( 2 2 ) Heshbon ; ( 2 3 ) Jaazer ;
2 4
2 )
2
Ke
d
emoth
Jahaz
E
d
rei
eth
2
B
6
;
;
;
( )
( 5
( )
( 7)
P eor ; ( 2 8 ) Shittim in Moab
From the P document we d erive the follow in g route :
1
Raamses
2
Succoth
e
dg
e
of
Etham
P
i
4
; ( )
; (3)
; ( )
( )
H a h ir o th ; ( 5 ) the Sea ; (6) the W il d erness of Shur ; ( 7 )
Elim ; (8 ) the Re d Sea ; (9 ) the Wil d erness of Sin ; ( 1 0 )
the Wil d erness of Sinai ; ( I I ) Sinai ; ( 1 2 ) the Wil d erness
of P aran ; ( 1 3 ) the Wil d erness of Zin ; ( 1 4 ) Meribah ;
1
1 6
1
1 8
Ka
d
esh
barnea
O
both
I
H
r
e
e
;
;
;
5
7
( )
( )
( )
( ) jj
Abarim ; ( 1 9 ) Zared ; ( 2 0 ) Plains of Moab ; ( 2 1 ) Mount
Nebo
In these two routes there are onl y three places after
E g ypt Wa s left behin d that are the same : Ka d esh barnea
Elim an d Zare d
O f these Ka d esh barn ea is the g atewa y for entrance
into Canaan from the south an d an y lar ge number of
people that wishe d to enter Canaan between the P hil istine
I H r G ulf of A qabah
-

e e

66

T HE

RO UT E S OF

TH E E X

OD U S

67

countr y and Mount S eir would n d this spot the only

convenient pla c e to penetrate
Th e second name El i m is one that occurs as the d es ig
nation of several places in P alest ine The word is a

plural form and means trees especially oaks or tere

In the itinerary accord in g to J E Elim is placed
b in th s
between Marah and Rephidim It h ad twelve wells of
water and three score and ten palms These trees were
undoubte d l y regarded as sacred an d had given their
name to the place P robabl y it is to be identi ed with the
modern Wad y G h a ra n d el st ill known for its good water
and its palm trees The Elim of P on the other hand
can hardly be re g ard e d as the same place There was a
place calle d by the fem i nin e form E l a th on the E l ea n itic
Gulf which seems to t well into the route as given in
this document
Zared the thir d point of a g reement is a brook or valley
runnin g westward into the Dead S ea thr ough the land of
Edom An y arm y enterin g the east J ord a n ic lan d from
the south would have to cross this brook It b y no means
follows that in the two ac c ounts the crossin gs were at
the same place In other words Zared is really not a
poin t of a g reement at all
In fact from the routes
I I nst a d of th m asc ulin E li m oft n hav th f m inin E l th Th
form s
us d int rc han g ab ly
E xo d
E xo d
II Kin gs
a n d II C hron 6 : I n a ll thr p l ac s th
Cf D ut
inst a d of E l th I n th two last inst a nc s h a v
G r k r a d s A i l m or A i l
a G r k form a g r in g with th H b r w p lural E li m I n th rst is us d th
A ra b i c m as c ulin p lural A i l
Th E l
it i gulf h a s r c iv d its n a m from
this A rab i c form Th pass a g s c it d show th a t th nam c oul d b giv n ith r
as a m asc ulin or as a f m inin P li ny locat s th p lac t m il s ast of P tr a
an d 5 m il s south a st of G a za ( P liny V 5
I t is i d nti ca l with
El P
in G
J rom an d E us b ius k now it by th nam of A il m
(th b i b li c al E l i m)
.

a re

we

ee

ee

on ,

an

ee

a ra n

en

ee

ea n

e e

1 1

en

we

68

TH E

RO UT E S OF

THE EX

OD U S

des c ribed it seems very unlikely that the two armies did
cross the brook at the same spot for in P the route is far
to the west of that in JED
The other names of stoppin g places are entirely d iffer
ent It is a hopeless task to seek to identify them We are
not warranted in assumin g that they describe the same
route S uch an assumption cannot be all owed at all
for some of the principal names can be identied today
and the routes lie far apart
,

C HA P TER X VI
Di eren c es B etw een P

JED

and

Th e Len g th

Wa n d eri n g

of

th e

In the P a cc ount the avail able data for time c onsumed

in wandering through the wilderness are as follows :
1
i
The
c
ongregation
of
the
ch
ldren
of
Israel
left
Raam
( )
ses on the day after the P assover i e on the f teenth day
of the r st month of the r st year The next day they
mar c hed from Su c coth to Etham and the next from
2
Etham to P i Ha h iroth
They
then
spent
three
days
( )
in the wil d erness of Shur without nding water
(3)
They arrived in the Wilderness of S in on the f teenth day

of the second month

They
reached
the
wilderness
4
( )
4
of Sinai in the third month
The day has fallen out of
the text but tradition has it that it was on the Day of
P ente c ost fty days after the P assover the f th day of the
thir d month ( 5 ) This is made the more probable by the
next d ate Moses was called up in to the mountain on
5
the seventh day which would be the last day of the P ente
6
costal festival (6) Moses spent forty da y s on the mount
This brin g s us to the twenty second day of the fourth
month ( 7 ) The ord inan c e regarding the P assover was

promulgated in the rst month of the second year

( 8)
The people were mustered in the wil derness of S inai on
I E xo d
E xo d 5 :
A cc or d in g to N m 3 3 :8 this wil d rn ss is c all d t h W il d r
n ss of E tham
E xo d
E xo d
E xo d
This woul d th n b th tw lfth d ay of th thir d month
E xo d
6
N m
.

2 2

69

TH E

70

L E N GT H OF

TH E

W AND E R I N G

the r st day of the secon d month of the second year

The tabernacle ha d been ma d e an d was now being put up
(9 ) The journey from Sin ai to the wilderness of P aran
began on the twentieth d a y of the second month of the
1 0
second y ear
The
spies
were
sent
from
the
Wil
d
er
( )
ness of P aran to spy out the lan d as far as the P ass of

Hamath
After their return the con g re gation journe y e d
an d arrive d in the wil d erness of Zin in the rst month
The y ear has here fallen out but the event is so closel y
connected with what has just g one before that the in ference
cannot but be that we now start the thir d year of the wand
d er in g After this t ime no more dates are g iven in P
except that the people mourned thirt y days for Aaron in
5
Mount H er and that the y wept a similar period for Moses
6
in the plains of Moab
A S no new year is g iven in P an d
as we remember the carefulness of the author in record
in g d ates we must assume that the arrival in the pla ins of
Moab took place in the same year i e the thir d There
is absolutel y nothing in P to in d icate that the j ourney
from E g ypt to Canaan took more than three years B u t
even though some may be in clined to doubt the certa inty of
this conclusion there is no room for doubt in re gar d to
the P chronolo g y of the Exodus up to the arrival in the
wil derness of Zin
Now what is true of the chronolo g y of the JED
account
I
The
people
left
E
g
y
t
on
the
day
of
the
( )
p
7
month Abib ( 2 ) Durin g the ni ght of that same d ay they
passed the Red Sea ( 3 ) O utside of Egypt the rst stop

IN
2

N um

Nu m

:1

Nu m

N um

De

ut

xo d

L E N GTH OF

TH E

TH E

WAND E R I N G

71

pin g place was Marah The se c ond was Elim

Th e
T hey were now at the foot of
thir d was Rephidim
Mount Horeb We know this because whil e they were
at Rephidim Moses was ordered to smite the rock of Hore b

in order to get water for the people

The journe y up
to this point would seem to have oc c upied three days It
wil l be remembered that when Yahweh appeared to M oses
for the rst time the theophany took pla c e at this same
Mount Horeb
There God commanded him saying

When thou hast brought forth the people out of Egypt

5
ye shall serve God upon this mountain
The rst obj e c t
ive point of the march then woul d be this mounta in in obe
d ien c e to this command
An d further when God com

ma n d ed Moses to bring the people out he sai d to h im A n d

thou shalt go thou a nd the elders of Israel unto the king of
E g ypt and ye shall say unto him Yahweh the God of the
Hebrews has met with us : an d now let us go we pray

thee th ree d a ys jou rn ey i n to th e w i ld ern es s that we may

6
sacrice unto Yahweh our Go d
And a g ain we read
that when Moses d id appear before P haraoh that was the
7
request he made
It would seem then that the distance
from Egypt to the appointed place of sacri c e Horeb
was three days journe y ; and we have found that Rep h i
dim at the foot of Horeb was the third station on the way
The stations so far then woul d seem each to have marked
When
the
people
ha
d
left
Rephidim
a day s journey
5)
they were attacked b y the A malekites After the battle
Jethro vi sited Moses and o ffered a holocaust and a sacrice
at which Aaron and all the el d ers of Israel came to eat

I E xo d
2

xo d
E xo d

6
.

xo d
E xo d
E xo d
E

xo d

L E N GT H OF

THE

72

WAND E R IN G

THE

bread with him The next da y M oses spent jud g in g the

people It is of course possible that these events took
more than t h ree da y s but there is no in d ication to that
e ffect in the context The people were now encamped
before the M ount of Yahweh i e Horeb and had been
on the wa y s i x d a y s in a ll (6) The third da y Yahweh
spoke to the people
( 7 ) Then Moses an d the twelve
chosen men performed the sacrice in Horeb
N ex t
d a y Moses Aaron Na d ab Abihu and the el d ers
went up into the mountain
Moses stayed there forty
5
da y s
He then returned from the mount put d own the
6
rebellion an d consecrate d the L evites
He then returned

8
to the mount an d staye d another fort y d ays
( ) The
people then marche d t hr ee days from the Mount of Yah
8
weh
The stations are mentioned as T a b era h Ki b roth
H a tta v a h an d Hazeroth
This g oes to substantiate
our contention that in this narrative a single station means
normall y a s ingle day s journey (9 ) O n account of
Miriam s lepros y the people stayed for seven da y s at
Hazeroth
( 1 0 ) It was eleven d a y s journe y from Horeb
to Ka d esh barnea
As Hazeroth most probably belon ge d
to the Horeb mountain cha in this period is probabl y
the time consumed from Hazeroth to Kadesh Num
1
8
33
3 0 seems to in d icate that there were twelve stations
from Hazeroth to Moseroth but as we are not absolutely
certain in identif yin g the names of the stations in that
l ist an d as it was ma d e up from the combin ed E an d P
.

I E xo d
2

3
4

xo d
E xo d
E xo d
E xo d
E

6
.

8
.

1 1

ut

5 ; De
a

1 1

I 0
.

xo d
E xo d
E

30

N um
N um
De

ut

TH E

L E N GT H O F

TH E

WAND E R IN G

73

lists at a late tim e it is of minor value ( 1 1 ) O n arrivin g

at Kadesh the twelve spies were sent to Escol The y
returned after forty da y s ( 1 2 ) When the spies made their
report the re bell ion of Kadesh too k pla c e and in punish
ment for it the people were c ondemned to a forty y ears
wandering in the wilderness U p to this time the period

which had elapsed was about 1 8 3 1 9 0 days i e about

half a year

The forty years wandering belon g s to this JED story

It occurs in E sections ; in Num

34 ;
and Josh
D knows of nothin g else than a
fort y years wanderin g
O f the prophets o nl y Amos

refers to it and he was the prophet of the Northern Ki ng

dom whose peculiar property after the division of the
ki n gdom the E code was In P S
there is also a
reference to it And these are all the referen c es to such
a wandering that there are in the O ld Testament Kn owl
edge of such an event is conn ed to the JED a cc ount
The P account and its followers in their writin gs im ply
a thr ee years wandering and no more
It is as impossible to reconcile the two c h ron ol og res
of the wan d erin g as it is to identify the two geographies
.

3
4

N um

s c tion r dac t d by P
A E st t m nt r c or d d b y a P
D ut
4;
Am os
A

ed

itor

C HA P TER
Di ff er en c es B etw een P

and

XVII

JED

H or eb

an

d S in a i

Are Horeb an d Sinai m erel y d ifferent names for the

same place ?
We have alrea d y seen that in the JED account it took
the people three d ays to march from E g ypt to Horeb
where the D ecalo gue the g ivin g of the E code and the
institution of the L evitical priesthood all took place We
have also seen that in the P a c count it took at least forty
ve da y s for the people to journey from E g ypt to S inai
where the Testimonies were g iven the P code delivered
an d the Aaronic p riesthoo d institute d
,

H or b
e

Mount Horeb must then be sou g ht in the immediate

nei ghborhood of the Re d Sea Tra d ition has pointed
out the Sinaitic peninsula and especiall y Mount Serbal
as the place where the D ecalo gue was g iven an d the theo
phan y seen a mount st ill calle d b y the Arabs E t T u r

the Mount the name being an exact equivalent for the

Hebrew zu r used for Mount Horeb in the JED account
In the fth centur y A D the C hristian monks were d riven
from their monastery on Mount Serbal an d received
a new monastic home from Justinian in Gebel Musa a
peak to the south of Serbal Th e monks now statione d
on Gebel Musa claim that this is the mount where the
Decalo g ue was g iven ; but their contention has no supp ort
from the ol d tra d ition Mount Serbal has been single d
out as the true mount by Jewish Mohamme d an an d
.

'

74

H OR E B

75

C hristian tra d ition It was a sacred mountain far back

P il grima ges were made to it by
in ante C hristian tim es
the people l ivin g nearby as the N a b a th ea n In scr i ptions
from the mount itself plainly testify At the north end of
it lyi n g at its foot stret c hes the beautiful valley or Wady
Firan which would b e the b iblical Rephid im A short
distan c e to the north of this wady is S er but el Kh adem
where P etrie in 1 9 0 6 excavated and des c ribed the great
temple buil t by Q
ueen Hatshepsut which perhaps
became the model for the Jewish temple i d ea It is the
o nl y temple yet excavated whi c h is lik e the Hebrew tem
ples There there were altars for holocausts and sacrices
otherwise scar c ely known to Egyptian temples but well
kno w n to Hebrew rituals
There P etrie dis c overed a
n u m ber of cow images from seein g which the people may
have been inspir ed with their desir e for the golden calf
The location of M ount S erbal ts perfe c tly the distance
which could have been traversed in three days from Egypt
The bi blical Marah with its bitter waters would be the
present A yn Musa with its sweet and bitter sprin gs
It lies a little to the south of the present Suez If the
E exodus too k pla c e to the south of L ake Tim sah it would
then be just a day s journey from the passa g e of the Red
S ea to this Ayn Musa Another d a y woul d bring the
army to Wady G h a ra n d el which we feel inclin ed to
identif y wi th Elim still noted for its trees and good
water A short journe y of half a day would brin g them
from there to Wady Firan or Re p hidim on the north
side of Mount S erbal We S hall not go far wrong if
we identify Horeb with M ount Serbal even as tradition
urges us
I P tri S i i
.

e,

na

H OR E B

76

A ND S I

NA I

S inai
AS

for Sin ai we have alrea d y notice d that it took

forty v e or perhaps ft y d ays for the arm y to reach it
from Raamses Al thou gh we ma y a d mit th at some time
was spent rest in g at Elim or Elath nevertheless it is plain
that we deal here with a mounta in at a cons i d erable dis
tance from E g ypt an d not as was Horeb at a distance
of three d a y s onl y
T w e passages in the O ld T estament give clues as to

the location of S inai In Deut

we rea d Yahweh
came from S inai and rose from Seir unto them ; he sh i ned
forth from Mount P aran an d the y came from the m yriads

of Ka d esh : at his ri g ht hand was a re a law unto them

A g ain we read in Judg

Yahweh
when
thou
5
wentest forth out of Seir when thou marche d st out of the
el d of E d om the earth tremble d the heavens also
d ropped yea the Clouds dropped water The mountain
quake d at the presence of Yahweh even you Sinai at

the presence of Yahweh the God of Israel

In both
passa g es Mount Seir and Mount Sinai are equalize d
The parallelism peculiar to Hebrew verse presupposes
that in these passa ges Seir an d S i nai are to be re g ard ed
as one Sinai is brou ght into connection with the elds
of E d om Ancient tra d ition has here located Sin ai
An d while this tradition has pointed out Mount Seir
as Sin ai it has never identie d it with Horeb When
all these facts are taken into consideration the location
of S inai as a peak of Mount Seir is not onl y possible but
probable
,

I T h wild rn ss of S in a n d

wil d rn ss of S in a i
o a s s of t h
th
A raba h b tw n t h S ir r a n g s fro m E i
Gab r to P tra T h wild rn ss
of Zin is th o asis of Ka d sh a n d th wil d rn ss of P a ra n is t h g r a t p l at a u
e

ee

th e

z on -

a re

S INA I

77

It seems conclu sive then that Horeb and S inai

were two distin c t and separate d places
,

south of Ka d sh w st of S ir north of T ih ( north rn m ountain ran g of th

S in iti c p ninsul a) an d ast of th W il d rn ss of S hur
M i d i a n was t h lan d on t h w st rn or southw st rn slo p s of M ount S ir
M a d i a n ( G r k M d i m ) w a s t h l a n d on t h w st rn shor of t h G ulf of
A q ab ah
Th A m al k it s liv d in t h wil d rn ss of P aran w st of M i d i a n
Wh il r a din g p ag p roof t h author r c iv d t h l a st inst a lm nt of R
W ill s a rti c l L s j our d I elit
d e t t l S inai d a ns l a r l a tion
p ri m itiv l l ti d t xt b i b li qu t l a tr a di tion hristi a no m o d rn
d
July 9 9 pp 3
T h author c annot b ut a d m ir
Et d J i
(R
M W ill s so li d a r gu m nts for loca tin g S in a i in t h l a n d of E d o m His riti
i m of som wil d ca t th ori s of r a d i ca l c riti c s is a lso to t h p oint a n d w ll
t ak n But wh n M W ill p roc d s to i d ntify Hor b an d S inai lo c ati n g it in
E d om b y tot a ll y d is c ountin g t h valu of t h whol E D o c m nt on this p oint
h a v in it only a
r m in d r of th n a rrow li m it ations within whi c h m o d rn
b i b li ca l s c i n c l ab ors Wh n fac ts d o not t th o i s throw t h fac ts a w ay
Now if any thin g is c rt a in it is th f ac t th a t in th J E D oc um nt H or b or
M ount of G d was situ at d a t t h di stan c of thr
day s j ourn y from
G osh n But it is b l t ly i m p ossi b l for a n y a rm y of
m
( or
n c um b r d b y wom n c hil d r n an d c attl to m arc h from G osh n in E g y p t to
M ount S ir in E d om in thr d ay s
e

ee

es

ev o u

on

s er

so u e

ee

ee

en

e,

e r e

ee

e e

n ew

es a u

s ra

e e

u ves ,

es

we

c s

es

ev u e

e,

e,

C HA P TER X VIII
Di ffer en c es B etw een P

JED

and

Th e S et s

of

Ta b l es

th e A rk s

and

Th e Tw o

S ets of Tab l es

At Horeb Go d g ave Moses two Tables of C ovenant

These were broken by Moses when he saw that the people
B u t he was ordered
were worship ing the gol d en calf

to prepare new tables an d on these God wrote the words

of the covenant
the Ten Word s
Deuteronomy

knows of no other tables save these of the C ovenant

When Solomon buil t his temple he place d in it these

same Tables of the C ovenant

There was nothin g in
the ark save the two tables of stone which Moses put
there at Horeb where Yahweh ma d e a covenant with the
chil d ren of Israel when the y came out of the land of
6
T h e priestl y writer of C hronicles records the
Egypt
7
same fact
At Sinai on the other hand in the P a cc ount Moses

receive d two Tables of Testimony

An d Moses tu rned
and went d own from the mountain with the two tables
of the testimon y in his hand ; tables that were written
on both their sid es ; on the one side an d on the other were
8
they written
Are these T ables of Testimony identical
with the T ables of C ovenant ? We know that the latter
containe d the Decalo g ue B u t there is no hint anywhere

I E xo d
2

xo d
D ut
I Kings
E

1 0

1 1

xo d
E xo d

5,

II Chron
1

7;

5 :1 0

78

1 0 21

8
.

xo d

TH E

TW O S E T S OF T AB L E S

79

in P of the promulgation of an y decalog u e Further it is

explicitl y stated that the Tables of Testimony were written
on both sides which would presupp ose quite an extende d
document It would hardly b e necessary to use so much
spa c e for the short Ten Words Furthermore the Tables

of Testimon y must of course have contain ed testi

monies
The wor d is a technical one denotin g the
theophan y of Yahweh at a g iven place The Tables of
Testimon y would therefore d eal with Yahweh s theo
phany or more p a rticularly with the place where he
would appear Now immediately after the return of
Moses from the mount with these t a b les we have a
minute description of the pattern of the tabernacle which
M oses bu ilt and in which Yahweh dwelt
Moreover
we nd that the instructions concerning the build in g of
the tabernacle had been given to Moses while on the

mount
This se c tion of instru c tions ends with these

remarkable words And he gave unto Moses when he

had made an end of co mmuning with him on Mount
S inai the two tables of the testimony tables of stone
4
written with the n ger of God
The inference is that
God s communication to Moses on the mount was recorded

in these tables the testimonies of which were the ordi

nances on the taberna c le and the priesthood From a
c onsideration of the P code itself (the onl y way we have
a right to consider the code historicall y) this is the only
inference which can be draw n
The tables delivered at Sinai then and those given at
Hore b appear to have been two d iff erent th ings
I E xo d
E xo d 3 5 4 :
38
E xo d
E xo d
.

21

80

S E T S OF TA B L E S

TH E

AR K S

A ND T H E

Th e Tw o A

rk s

In Deut
8 Moses relates that he was d irected
at Horeb to make not onl y the two tables of stone but
also an ark He ma d e it of acacia wood an d put in to it
the T ables of the T en Words elsewhere kn own as the
T his ark from that t i me onwar d
T ables of C ovenant
was known as the Ark of the C ovenant
This became
its usual name evidently because the Tables of C ovenant
were insid e it
In the P co d e on the other han d we read that Moses
was or d ere d at Sinai to make an Ark of the Testimon y

and that he d id so
It is to be assume d that this name
was derived from the fact that the Tables of Testimony
were kept within it
The h ypothesis may be advance d that these two arks
were reall y one an d the same B u t this is d ifcult to
believe in V iew of their subsequent history L et u s
observe this briey

H istor y of t h A k of t h Cov nant

In the rst place in the march throu gh the wilderness
accord in g to the E document the Ark of the C ovenant
was carrie d i n fr on t of the army while in the P d ocument
we constantl y read that the Ark of the T estimony was

Wh y the d ifference ?
b orne i n th e mi d s t of t h e host
When accord in g to E the people broke up camp and
set forth from Horeb the Ark of the C ovenant went before
them an d at the secession at Ka d esh it remain ed with
6
Moses b y the camp
It was st ill with Moses and his
I D ut
6;
E xo d
;
34 ;
E xo d
; N m
5
Th e

2 1

E g
.

2 2

N um

2 0

2 1

E g
.

N um

6
.

N um

H I S T ORY OF

TH E

TH E

AR K OF

TH E

C O V E NAN T

81

people the priests the L evites bearing it when Moses

delivered the D code in Moab
When Joshua passe d
over the Jordan with his army the Ar k of the C ovenant
was carried over before them until they reached the midst
of the river where it was hel d until the army had passed
over
When Jericho was captured the Ark of the C ove
nant was carrie d by the priests before the army in the

march arou nd the city

It remained with the camp at
4
Jericho unt il the whole arm y went up to take Ai
When
Joshua and his people went up to Ebal and Gerizim to
read and record the D code the Ark of the C ovenant was

with them
From I C hron 1 7 :5 6 we learn that th e Ark of the

C ovenant was not place d in any permanent house of its

own at this t ime but that it was continuall y move d about
from sanctuary to sanctuary and from tent to tent We
kn ow of the followin g stations where it was placed at
7
dif ferent times : B ethel ; Shil t
i
n
the
time
of
Eli
);
(

the battle of Eben e zer ; in the hand s of the P hilistine s

A shd od in the temple of the P hilistine g od

B eth S h em es h
( where it was re stored
5

to the Hebrew people ) ; Kirjath Jearim ; the house of

O bed Ed om ( whither D a v id removed it ) Jerusalem the
C ity of D avid at the thre sh ing oor of Araunah or
,

I D ut
e

5,

Josh c hap s 3

Josh
3
Josh
Josh
I Chron
Ju dg
IS m

II S m
.

I 0

1 2

; II S m
I C hron
2

9;
1

m 4 :5

IS m
IS m
IS m
I C hron

I 2

I Sam

I I

IS
IS
IS

5,

8,

82

S E T S OF T A B L E S AND

TH E

AR K S

TH E

O rnan ; the temple at Jeru salem (whither S olomon re

move d
In every one of the se case s it is the Ark of
the C ovenant not the Ark of the T e stimony with which
we are dealin g It was this same Ark of the C ovenant
which after all the se wanderin g s nally found rest in
the position of honor in the temple of Jerusalem
,

Th e

H istor y of th

Ark

of th T stim on y
e

Meanwhile the Ark of the Testimony ha d a very differ

ent history
In Num 4 :5 the ordinance is g iven for the service of
the L evites in taking care of the Ark of the Testimony and
in Num
9 we are tol d that Yahweh spoke to Moses
from upon this ark In Josh 4 :1 6 we are told that this
ar k was carrie d up from the Jor d an when the P people
entere d C anaan Here all mention of the Ark of the
Testimony en d s in the O ld Testament
Instea d there are frequent mentions of the Tent of
Testimon y an d the T abernacle of T estimony in which
the Ark of the Tes timon y was lo d ged And instead of
the lan g ua ge Tent of T estimony we have in a large
number of places the term Tent of Meeting B u t this
latter term is not to be found in the Greek which trans
lates the places where the Hebrew has it with the term
Tent of T estimony An d in this the Greek is probably
c orrect In three places the term is use d for the tent in
which the Ark of the C ovenant was kept B u t in P the
term in the ori g inal is di fferent the word bein g mi s h ka n

B y these
meaning tabernacle or d wellin g place

I II S m
I
K
in
g
s
I
hron
C
7;
Z
II C hron :4
1 Kin g s
8 ; II C hron
;
9 ; I C hron
.

41 ;

-1 0

H I S T ORY OF

TH E

AR K OF

TH E

TH E

T E S T I M ONY

83

terms we are able to trace the histor y of the Ark of the

Testimony

Now we read in Josh

An d the whole c ongre
of
the
i
n
Children of Israel assembled themselves
o
a
t
g
to g ether at S hil oh and set up the tent of meeting there

and the land was subdued before them

The words

congregation and tent of meet in g are expressions of

the P do c ument We nd then that when the c onquest
of C anaan descri b ed in P was over the tent of meet ing
was set up at S hiloh From Judg chap 2 1 and from I
Sam chaps 1 4 we know that there was a temple or
house of Yahweh in this place Even though this temple
may have been in Shiloh before the T ent of Meeting was
set up there we are not debarre d from believing that the
Tent of Meeting was placed there as well It is to be
noted however that nothin g is said in this passa g e a b out
the holocaust altar In I Sam
there is another
reference to the Tent of Meetin g In Shil oh It is true
as has often been po inted out that this statement is lack
in g in the Vati c an c odex of the Greek This though
does not necessaril y mean that the st atement contained
in the Hebrew and the Alexan d rian codex is in correct
B u t even in these nothing is sai d about the holocaust altar
All we know is that at the end of the conquest the Tent
of M eeting was at S hiloh an d too in the time of Eli

The altar of the holocaust the Altar of Yahweh as it

is called may not however have b een set up there There
are indi c ations that it was placed among the Gibeonites
L ater in I S am
we are told that the Ark of God
was at that time in Gibeah
The Ark of God referred
I Th G r k in this p assag it is tru r a ds p ho d inst a d of ark b ut
b oth r a di n gs shoul d b a d m itt d for wh r th ark w as th r naturally an p ho d
woul d b a lso
.

e,

ee

e,

e e

e e

84

S E T S OF T A B L E S

THE

AR K S

AN D TH E

to here can be only the Ark of the Testimony because we

kn ow that the other ark the Ark of the C ovenant was at
that time in Kirjath Jearim Gibeah an d Gibeon are
probabl y the same place the mo d ern Jeba
In Gibeah
Gibeon therefore we n d under the priestl y care of Ahi
jah g reat g ran d son of Eli the Ark of G od i e the Ar k
of the T estimon y
When D avid arran ge d the courses of the priesthood

he ord aine d as follows : And Za d ok the priest and his

brethr en the priests before the tabernacle of Yahweh
in the high place that was at Gibeon to o ffer burnt o ffer
in g s unto Yahweh upon the altar of burnt o ffering con
tin u a ll y morning and evenin g even according to all that
is written in the L a w of Yahweh which he commande d
unto
Here then we have an exp licit reference
which states that the Tabernacle of Yahweh as well as
the altar of burnt o fferin gs was located in Gibeon
And this i s ampl y substantiate d by the later history of
David an d Solomon
When D avi d had numbered the people hi s act dis
,

I n t h O ld T st am nt
hav thr loca l n am s G ba G i b ah an d
G i b on whi c h
oft n c o f oun d d G i b a h an d G i b on w r loc at d los
by
anoth r p ossi b ly w r th s am p l ac G i b ah d notin g th hill to p
an d G i b on t h c ity on t h slop s of it S aul is s a i d to hav r si d d a t all thr
p l ac s ( I S m
I Chron
T h p l ac is ca ll d
35 ;
G i b ah of S a ul ( I S m
a n d ag a in G ba of E lohi m ( I S m : Ahi jah
son of Ah itu b g r a t g ra n d son of E li h a d a n p ho d th r whi c h h a s a p ri st
c onsult d ( I S m 4 : I t was in G i b ah th a t S a ul b uilt a n a lt a r to Ya hw h
b ut G i b on h a d a ston a n d t h p ro bab ility is th a t this w a s t h
(I S m
alt a r whi c h S aul c ons c ra t d ( II S m : Whil G i b ah was S a ul s cap ital
G i b on is r f rr d to a s t h cap it a l of I h b h th his son ( II S m :
Wh n D a vi d x c ut d t h s v n sons of S a ul in G i b a h t h G r k r a d s G i b on
Without d ny in g th at th r m y h a v b n a G ba or G i b a h
( II S m
fa rth r w st th m o d rn Ji b it s m s c rt a in th a t t h G i b ah G i b on a n d G ba
of S aul a n d his sons w r b ut d i t n a m s for th sa m p l ac
I C hron
4
I

a re

one

1 0

e e,

e,

e e

ee

e e

e e

e,

ee

e e

we

e e

e e

os

2 0

1 2

ee

ee

e e

ee

er en

TH E

H I S T ORY OF

TH E

AR K OF

THE

T E S T I M ONY

85

pleased Yahweh and an angel with sword drawn appeared

before hi m in the t hr eshi ng

Thi s
oor of Araunah
angel prevented Da vi d from goin g to Gibeon to make
sacri c es there B ecause of thi s David bought the pla c e
where the angel had stood and consecrated there an altar

of burnt offering for Israel

A t that time when David
oor
saw that Yahweh had answered hi m in the thr esh ing
of O m an the Jebusite then he sa c ri c ed there For the
Tabernacle of Yahweh which Moses made in the wi lder
ness and the altar of burnt off ering were at that time at
Gibeon B u t D avid could not g o before it to in quire of
God for he was afraid because of the sword of the angel
of Yahweh Then Davi d said Thi s is the house of the
L ord God and this is the altar of burnt o fferin g s for
We have thus two altars of burnt offerings
one at Gibeon and the other in Jerusalem The latter
statement is veried by II Sam 2 4 :2 5 We have also a
Tabernacle of Yahweh in Gibeon at the same tim e that
the Ark of the C ovenant rested in the City of David in
Jerusalem in a dwell in g place which D avid ma d e espe
Ci a l l y for it
That there was one Ar k that of the Testimony with
its tent and altar at Gi b eon whil e another that of the
C ovenant with its tent and altar was placed in Jerusalem
is plain from an incident in Solomon s rei gn In I Kin gs
we
are
told
that
when
he
became
k
i
n
g
he
left
the
5

city of Jerusalem and went up to Gibeon to sacrice

there ; for that was the great high pla c e A thousand
b urnt o ff erings did Solomon o ffer upon that altar In
Gi b eon Yahweh appeared to Solomon in a dream by
,

I II S
2

1 C

I Chron

hron

86

TH E

S E T S OF TA B L E S

AR K S

AN D TH E

ni ght
Then follows the story of Solomon s dream an d

the g ift of wisdom Then we rea d An d Solomon awoke

an d behold it was a d ream an d he came to Jerusalem
and stoo d before the Ark of the C ovenant of Yahweh
an d o ffered peace o fferings and ma d e a feast to all his

servants
T his account is also containe d a little more full y in

C hronicles
So Solomon an d all the con gre gation
with him went to the high place at Gibeon ; for there
was the Ten t of M eeti n g of God which Moses the servant
of Yahweh ha d ma d e in the wil d erness B u t the A r k
of G od David ha d brou g ht up from Kirj ath Jearim to
the place that Davi d ha d prepare d for it : for he had
pitche d a tent for it at Jerusalem Moreover the brazen
altar that B eza l el the son of U ri the son of Hur ha d

ma d e was there before the T abernacle of Yahweh : and

Solomon an d the congre gation sou ght unto it An d
Solomon went up thither to the brazen altar before Yah
weh which was at the Ten t of M eeti n g an d o ffere d a

thousand holocausts upon it

T hen follows the same

account of the d ream an d of the return to Jerusalem

The historicit y of this account in C hronicles has been
doubte d on the plea that the author was of the late priestl y
school an d so untru stworth y B u t this can har d l y be
maintained in the face of the fact that the author of Kin g s
a man of the Deuteronomic school an d usin g quite d iffer
ent sources g ives u s su bstantiall y the same account
The passa ge is valuable for it g ives u s quite plainl y
the information that in Solomon s time there were two
arks We are tol d that the Ark of the C ovenant was in

I I Kings
2

II C

hron

in G i b on
C hron

H I S T ORY OF

THE

TH E

AR K OF

T E S T I MONY

TH E

87

Jeru sa lem Yet we are informed that the brazen altar

at Gibeon was before Yahweh a phrase which c an

mean and does mean only before the Ark of Yahweh

As we know of only two ar k s among the Hebrews and
as the Ark of the C ovenant was at Jeru salem and as there
was evi dently another one at Gibeon this latter must have
b een the Ark of the Test i mony And this is made the

more certain b y the use of the word ta b ernacle in the

passage a wor d found only in P the document wherein
this latter a rk was given to the Hebrews
Wh en Solomon built his temple it was the Ar k of the
C ovenant whi ch he placed there
It is expli c itl y stated

that there was nothin g in the Ar k save the two tables

of stone which Moses put there at Horeb when Yahweh
made a covenant with the c hildren of Israel when they
came out of the l and of Egypt
Nothing is mentioned
of the Ark of the Testim ony at the conse c ration of this
temple What was the further history of this latter ar k
is not pertin ent to this present in quiry P erhaps it may
be taken up in some later stu d y
.

Th e
A rk

poi n t w h i c h

th e C oven a n t

d i fferen t th i n g s ,
be c on s i d er ed

n ot

we

ff

h a ve en d ea v or ed to

and

w i th tw o
as

I I Kings
2

I Kin gs

th e Tes ti mon y

a re

di fferen t hi s tori es , th a t th ey

i d en ti c a l ,

g rea t di er en c es betw een

E x od us of P
.

th e A r k

p rove i s th a t th e

and

th a t th ey

th e E x odu s

tw o

ca n

f orm on e of th e
J ED

and

th e

C HA P TER X I X
Di ff er en c es

B et w een P

a nd

H or eb

E
D
J

and

Th e Leg i s l a ti ons

at

S in a i

If now we turn to the laws promul g ated at Horeb and

Sinai i e the laws of the E an d P c o d es we n d not only
a great diff erence in phraseolo g y which might be
accounte d for as the result of varying traditions but a
great d ifference in content The ena c tments are often
so contradictory so divergent in tone purpose an d word
in g that it seems impossible that more than one of the
codes could have been given or ac c epted at one tim e
I Laws of P Contrar y to Laws of E
First of all let us compare some of the laws which di ffer
from one another :
a
In
regard
to
the
place
of
sacrice
the
E
code
ordains
)

An altar of earth thou shalt make unto me an d shalt

sacrice thereon th y burnt o ff erin g s and thy peace o ffer

in g s thy sheep and thine oxen : in every place where I
cause my name to be remembered I wil l c ome unto thee

and I wil l bless

The P co d e sa y s An d thou
shalt say unto them Whatsoever man there be of the house
of Israel or of the stran g ers that sojourn among them
that o ffers a burnt o fferin g or sacrice an d bringeth it
not unto the d oor of the tent of meeting to sacrice it
unto Yahweh even that man S hall be cut off from his
,

laws are so entirel y contrar y to each other that it

seems almost impossible that they are variants of one
E xo d
L
9
T hese
I

88

ev

LAW S OF P C ON T RA RY T O LAW S OF

89

ori ginal commandment Even thou g h we may be will in g

to admit that the P law refers to the wandering in the
wilderness an d the E law to c onditions after the settle
ment the laws c annot have developed out of one original
c ommon to both
b) The E law on He b rew slaves d iffers so radically
from the P law on the same subject that it is hard to see
how they could on c e have been the same

c
In
E
any
sanctuary
or
altar
is
acceptable
)

as an asylum but in P c erta i n cities are appointed for

that pu rpose

d ) Th e law in E on so rcery
is quite d ifferent from

those in P
7
e) The o fferin g s in the E co d e belo ng to Yahweh
but
8
in P they are handed over to Aaron
In
E
every
Israelite
is
forbidden
to
eat
the
esh
of
f)
an animal that has been torn S uch esh must be thro w n
B u t in P the Israelite is permitted to
to the dogs
eat such esh but it is provided that if he does he S hall
be ceremonially unclean until
O
ther
laws
like
those
on
the
Sabbath
and
the
P
ass
g)
over show the same marked d ifferentiation
It is argued that discrepancies and c ontradictions
su c h as these are to be accounted for by the lapse of time
between 80 0 and 44 4 when the two co d es are said to have
been promulgated B u t that hypothesis is impossible
to us who have seen that both these codes were in opera
tion at least three hundred years earlier than either of
I E xod
L
7
9 : 6b 3 ;
6
L
E xo d
:9 ;
4
3 :9
E xo d
N m
4
3

xo
d
N m
E
9
W L
E xo d
cf L
.

ev

1 1

ev

1
.

2 2

ev

ev

L E G I SLAT I ONS AT H OR E B

THE

0
9

A ND

S I NA I

these dates an d have concluded that they were most

probabl y promul gate d d urin g the wan d erin g s in the wild
It would seem then
ern es s even as they themselves sa y
that the le g islations of Horeb and S inai were two d ifferent
thin g s
II P Laws not Foun d in E
A d mittin g the fallacy of the arg ument from silence
it is nevertheless worth notin g that P has a lar g e number
of laws not found in E We have shown above that E

has lost its statutes or ritual laws an d so a comparison

of the codes in this realm c annot be un d ertaken B u t

even the jud g ments or civil laws are foun d to be less

complete in E than in P
For instance althou g h the E d ocument knows that
Moses hand became leprous an d that Miriam was so
smitten with the d isease that the camp was d elaye d for
seven d a y s still E has no law on leprosy ; but P has a

very complete law coverin g the subject

E has no law on Nazirites but P d enes that or d er

minutel y P has laws too on clean an d unclean animal s

on d isgurement in mournin g tithes m a zz eb a s and

8
stones ri g hts an d revenues of the tribe of L evi Molech
admixtures overstepping the boundaries of
w or s h ip

nature
tassels
incest
cleanliness in
8
7
ea n in g s
l
just
weights
etc
of
none
g
of which we have a trace in E
I Pp
L
6
3
5
,

I o

1 0 1

Num

L ev

Nu m

L ev

L ev

1 0

1 0

I 0

II L

c h ap s

2 1

3,

I 2
.

47

L ev

L ev

6 :1 a

2 0

Num

41

L ev

Num

N um

L ev

L ev

3 4 ; N um

L ev

ev

L ev

ev

I
.

1 0

36

S I M ILAR LAW S I N

AND

91

III La w s of E t i P
O n the other han d E has the Decalogue of whi ch P
has not a trace This law was su c h an important factor
in the life of the Jews that it is hard to see how P could have
omitte d it from the code if the c ode were the same as that
of Horeb
In like manner E has laws on seethin g a kid in mother s

milk strayin g animals sedu c tion pledges and man

stealin g of none of whi c h P shows any tra c e S ome of

these laws we have alread y found to be ver y old as old
as the C ode of Hammurabi B u t why should they be
left out of P otherw ise so cir c umstantial and full whi c h
so often repeats one law over and over ?
IV
S imil a r L w s i E
d P
It is also true that there are a nu mber of laws in which
E and P a gree and where P c ertainl y seems to re c ord the
same legislation as E does C ompare e g the laws on

9
idolatry manslau g hter c urs ing of parents l ex ta li on i s

lyin g with
strangers
usury
the

sabbati c al year
ann ual
an d the Feast
of Unl eavene d B rea d
I E xo d 3 : 9 b ; f 3 4 : 6b
E xo d
7
E xo d
E xo d
5
E xo d
7
E xo d
(E ) ;
( J) ; L
(E ) ;
( P)
E xo d
b ( P) ; N m
(E ) ; L
( P)
3 E xo d
(E ) ; L
( P)
E xo d
5 (E ) ; L
( P)
E xo d
(E ) ; L
(P)
( P) ;
I I E xo d
(E ) ;
(E ) ; L
( P)
E xo d
3 7 ( P)
(E ) ; L
E xo d
6 (P)
3 (E ) ; L

E xo d
E
L
( );
7 ( P)

E xo d
c hap 3 ( P) ;
E
:
b
8
7 ( ) ; 34
5 ( J) ; L
c hap s 8 9 ( P )
E xo d
(J) ; L
(E ) ;
( P)
no

an

ev

z1

ev

ev

ev

2 0

ev

1 1

ev

ev

I 2

ev

ev

2 2

ev

ev

THE

2
9

L E G I SLAT I ONS AT H OR E B AND S I NA I

we have pointed out above that some of the laws

of P have both the vie w point and language of the Tol ed oth
B oo k and if we assign that book to the period of the J E
code or codes we may well assume that there were older
P laws whi c h indee d were promul gated at Horeb and
which descended through certain L evitical clans (the
M osaic ) and were nally merged with the Aaroni c laws
of S inai
B ut

C HA P TER XX
B etw een P

Differen c es

a nd

E
D
J

Th e P ri es t h ood s

To b e able to c onclude that a man was a priest it is

not ne c essary to rely alone on the fa c t that he was called
a priest If we n d him performing the acts of a priest
we may safely c onclude that he was one
Now in the E code there are mentioned two men Moses
and Aaron The latter is neither c alled a priest n or do
We nd him performin g any priestly acts except in the
worship of the golden calf which was admittedly illegal
B u t we do n d that Moses th ough not c all ed a priest
does perform priestly acts For instan c e it is he not
Aaron who offers s a c ric es ; it is he who in quires from
Yahweh ; it is he who in ter c edes for Miriam in her lep

rosy as well as a t other times ; all of these were priestly

acts That they were all the priestly a c ts of the E code we
c annot say be c ause as we have seen the ritual laws of this
c ode have been lost This much however is c ertain ly
true that in E it is Moses not A aron who acts as the
priest An d the same thing is true of D and J Inci
d entally it may be interest ing to note that in this tradition
Aaron is the youn g er brother of Moses
In the P c ode on the contrary Aaron is the eld er
brother of Moses
Moses ordains him to the priest
hood whereupon Moses c eases to perform priestly fun c
tions Aaron from this time onward is the priest And
not only does he perform the priestly acts but from the
E xo d
8
N m

E xo d
E g E xo d
34
.

-1 1

93

TH E

94

P R I E S TH OODS

time of his or d ination onward he is spoken of as the

priest an d his sons an d successors are calle d the sons

of Aaron the priests

T his is plainl y a ver y d ifferent
state of a ffairs from that we foun d existin g in JED
P ossibl y this by itself mi ght be explained as a mere
d ifference in tra d ition If thou gh we were to n d that
there were two d istinct priesthoods amon g the Hebrews
in later generations it woul d throw con rmatory li g ht
upon the hypothesis that it is a difference in fact and
not in mere tra d ition that exists between the two stories
An d since we have alread y found so many differences
between them which can hardl y be explained as d ue to
mere varyin g traditions the search for such distinct
priesthoods is quite le g itimate What then d o we n d
to be true of the priesthood in later generations ?
,

"

P ri est

"
,

a T c hni c al T rm in P
e

First of all we wish to emphasize as has alrea d y been

note d that in the P d ocument the title the priest is

a fxed to Aaron s name and this so uniforml y that it
becomes almost a part of the name itself Further when
Aaron dies and Eleazar his son is orda ined to the high

priesthoo d to his name also the title of the priest is a f

xed And this name as a title we n d never used in JED
In E of c ourse all the people are spoken of as priests when
they perform priestly acts and in D all the L evites are so
spo ken of when performing their o fcial d uties ; but the
name is n ot used as the title of any one man When
then in later periods we n d men bearin g this title a fx ed
to their names it is only natural to associate them with
the priesthood of which Aaron was the founder
In the P d ocument an d code we n d a g ain and a g ain

ARLY H I S T ORY OF

AARON I C P R I E S T H OOD

THE

95

in vital conne c tion with this Aaronic priesthoo d the

expression priests a n d L evites

It is in d ee d so common
that whenever we n d the expression we are safe in assum
in g that the passage has at least been inuenced by a P
author or editor In the D code we nd the expression

the priests the L evite s i e

the L evi ti c al priests
When we n d this phrase we may with equal certainty
assume a D author or editor It has long been felt that
the two expressions are by no means s ynonymous and
that in all probability they stand for quite d i eren t ideas
and institutions We have already seen how the L eviti c al
priesthood in D had its origin an d development It is
now to be our attempt to tra c e the origin an d development
of the Aaronic priesthoo d in its triple order of high priest
priest and L evite
E a l y H i st o r y of t h e A ar o i P i est h oo d
A c c ordin g to the P document the army that left Egypt
seems to have been exceedingly small In fact we do not
know of how many men it was composed be c ause the
second half of Exod 1 2 :3 7 belongs apparently to E
There it is stated that there were about six hundred c lans

on foot but the expression about betrays no connection

with those of the early c ompiler of P We are therefore
left entir ely without data in regard to the size of the P
a r my We do know that there were three tribes rep re
sented in this exodus Reuben S imeon and L evi It is
possible that these made up the great bul k of the army
We need not however understand this passage as imply
in g that all the people of these tribes at this tim e came out
of Egypt The P editor takes great pai ns to enumerate
just what fam ilies of ea c h of them had been in Egypt O f
6
E xo d
,

n c

96

P R I E STH OO D S

THE

the tri b e of L evi there had been only three famil ies Ger
shom Kohath and Merari O f these Gershom and
M erari ha d but two clans each The famil y of Kohath
had four the oldest of which was Amram To this clan
of Amram belon ged Aaron an d Moses the latter of whom
became the leader of the people whil e the former was
c hosen to head their priesthoo d
Aaron had four sons : Na d ab Abihu Eleazar and
Ithamar The P editor an d later P wr iters inclu d ing
the C hronicler say that both Na d ab and Abihu died
early in life It mi ght even possibly be supposed that
these two were not the sons of Aaron according to P at all
The J E do c ument mentions them as sons of its Aaron but
knows nothing of either Eleazar or Ithamar
It was this people that came to Sinai and received the
ordinan c e to buil d the Ark and Tent of the Testimony
Aaron was appointed hi gh priest an d placed in charge
of the worship which was con d ucted in that tent His
two sons Eleazar an d Ithamar but no other L evites were
appointed to the secon d or d er the priesthoo d with a
ri ght for the rstborn of suc c ession to the high priesthoo d
The L evites as a whole were given the meni al o fces
connected with keeping up the worship
In the secon d year of the Exodus then according to P
the hierarch y of the A aronic priesthood consisted of one
hi gh priest Aaron two priests Eleazar an d Ithamar an d
a few L evites from the other nine L evitical Clans We
kn ow that the L eviti c al clans of Izhar and U zziel had
onl y three members each Thirt y L evites woul d then be a
fair estimate of the number of the third order this bein g
probabl y about as many L evites as there were in the
arm y Th e d imensions of the court around the Tent of
,

TH E

M US TE R IN G

AT S

INA I

97

M eetin g 5 0 X 1 0 0 c ubits presuppose that there was a very

small number of people to b e ministered to A chur c h
80 X 1 60 feet would hardly hold more than say ,
people after allowan c e was made for the b razen altar and
for the Tent of Meeting Thr ee priests could very well
have handled the services for a c ongregation of such a
size and thirty Od d L evites c ould easil y have ta ken c are
of the tent and its furniture
,

Th e

Mus t eri n g

at

S in a i

Just after the ord ination of A aron and his sons and
when the Tent of Meetin g had been reared in the w ilder
ness of S in ai Yahweh or d ered Moses to take the sum of
the congre g ation of the children of Israel Aaron and

Moses c omplied
This num b ering was not a mere

numbering but as the Hebrew word invaria bly means

a mustering in of an army S in ce there would have

b een no point in mustering in an army already in active
service there must have been new forces to be enrolled
In other words Moses army must have been augmented
at this time
From when c e di d these new troops come ? We c an
of c ourse state that the y were Hebrews and that the y
b elonged to eleven tribes of the c hil dren of Israel How
many of them c ame ? We must of c ourse dis c ard at the
outset the absurd statement of the P compiler that there
were
P etrie has S hown satisfactorily that the

w ord translated
thousands should here be rendered

a s in many other places it is

clans or tents
A cc ord
ing to this undoubtedly the corre c t exegesis all the people
n ow
num bered 5 9 8 c lans or
soldiers In the
,

I Num c hap
.

S i na i ,

pp

2 0

98

P R I E S TH OO D S

TH E

original P document it stated how many clans an d how

many ghtin g men each tribe ha d furnished The com

piler takin g the word a l a p h clan in its other meanin g

thousand ad d ed the number of thousands and the

original number of men to gether an d g ot 60 3 5

Amon g these tribes which were mustere d in were

some L evites fu g itives we conceive from P alestin e
The y were not numerous enough to make up a tribe and

so when the other tribes were numbere d they were

not include d
B u t later on the L evites had so increased

that they could be mustered in

Then they inclu d ed
2 1 clans
1
0
persons
0
3
.

Th e

l l ion of Korah

eb e

These L evites we assume ha d a here d itary ri ght to the

priesthoo d B u t when the y placed themselves un d er
Moses they were put in the char ge of Aaron an d his sons
the priests on a stan d in g equal to that of the L evites who
ha d been in the arm y from the beginn in g Thus they were
still concerne d with the worship but were re d uce d from
the i r strictl y priestly funct ions At rst the y seeme d
content to acquiesce in this arran gement apparentl y
satise d to receive the protection which Moses an d his
arm y aff orde d them B u t this state of content d i d not
last long an d soon there were murmurs because they ha d
been re d u c ed to their menial position This d iscontent
was hea d ed b y one Korah a L evite He approache d

Moses an d Aaron sayin g Ye take too much upon you

seein g all the con g re gation is hol y ever y one of them an d
I T h fac t is that in th old r b ook s of t h Bi b l nu m b rs of p op l
v ry wh r s p ok n of by t h
of th word m anin g c l a ns inst a d of
thous a n d s
N m
N m c h ap s
.

e e

use

e a re

TH E

M U S T E R IN GI N O F L E V IT E S

99

Yahweh is among them Wherefore then lift ye up

yourselves a b ove the assembly of Yahweh
Now as we have seen this conception of the entire
people as a consecrated priesthood was a part of the E
idea C onsequently this demand of Korah and the two
hundred and fty princes who were with him may be
explained as nothing more than a demand that the nation
revert to a r eg ime previousl y in force and under which the
people or a considerable portion of them had long been
livin g Now when we remember that there was no S ign
of such murmuring until after the mustering in what is
more natural than to suppose that these ideas were p rop a
gate d by the new portions of Moses troops an d therefore
that these re c ruits came from people then living under the
E code ?
The d emand was refused by Moses and the resulting
rebellion was put down Korah and his company at
length perishe d in a pla gue Thereafter the L evites fell
back unquestioningly into that place to which M oses wished
to relegate them They became the temple servants
under the control of the Aaronic priesthood so lately

established at S inai They were join ed to the Aaronic

priesthood
Th e Must er i g i of L vi t s
.

It is not to b e assumed that all L evites then e x istin g

joined Moses and Aaron in the wil derness of S inai and
were thus reduced to this lower g rade of ministrations
We mentioned a b ove that when the eleven tribes were
mustered in there were few L evites among them Shortly
after these L evites were enrolled They had grown to
.

IN

um

6 3b

8 :2

Th e

wor d

n il w a h

is a p un on th nam
e

e L ev i

THE

2 0 0

P R I E S TH OODS

the number of 2 1 families

persons
These L evites
were enrolled from a month Ol d and upward They were
accepted to redeem the rstborn of the other tribes from
servin g at the Tent of Meetin g
A few d ays later there was a new musterin g of L evites

Here the text uses the wor d for muster i nstead of the

phrase enroll by numberin g with which we have been

dealing T his time the mustering is concerned with men
from thir ty to fty years of age and is evi d ently for military
purp oses They comprise at this time seven clans
sol d iers The difference between the numbers of the

L evites here and at the previous numberin g is remark

able The great in crease Ca n be accounte d for only if we
assume that between the two there was another large
i ncrease of Moses for c es
B u t large as is this number of L evites who joined
Moses an d Aaron at S inai we stil l have every reason to
suppose that the g reater portion of the L evitical tribe st ill
remain e d in P alestine never accepted the S inaitic co d e
and therefore still remained L evitical priests We have
no reason to assume that all the tribe of L evi ever accepted
the P c ode
After the rebellion of Korah the P document g ives but
a scanty recor d of the proceedin g s in the wilderness until
the people left the plains of Moab The only exception
to the general Sil ence is the record of the death of Aaron
the priest at Mount H OT an d the investiture of Eleazar

the priest as high priest in his father s stead

In the

IN

43

un d rly in g i d a of t h univ rs a l p ri sthoo d in E p r su pp os s th a t t h

rst b orn son of ac h fa m ily is to b r g a rd d as t h p ri st of that f am ily
2

Th e

um

48

Num

AARON I C P R I E S TH OOD IN J OS H UA AND J UD GE S

2 0 1

plain s of M oa b this Eleazar the priest led the princes of

the c ongregation and the army in the war agai nst the

M idianites S in c e we saw that the L evites were mus

we would naturally expe c t to nd them doin g
tered
military servi c e ; and here we n d the leader of the A aroni c
L evitical priesthood in truth the leader of the army
.

Th e A a ron i c Pr i es h ood in

J osh u a

and

J u d g es

In the early part of the B oo k of Joshua we have onl y a

frag ment of the P document enough to in di c ate that the
Ar k of the Test i mony c arried by the priests passed over
the Jordan with the army and that the people en c amped
and celebrated the P assover This encampment too k
place on the tenth day of the rst month in as far as we
know the fourth year of the wanderin g L ater in Joshua
we have an account of the alliance of this people with the
Gi b eonites b y which these Gibeonites became hewers
of wood and drawers of water to a ll the c on gregation
The latter part of Joshua describes the division of the land
under the oversi ght of Eleazar the priest and Joshua
son of Nun Just as Aaron is so often mentioned in the
P document before Moses so now we n d that Eleazar
the priest seems to ta k e precedence over the c ivil governor
Then we are tol d that the whole congregation of the chil
dren of Israel assembled themselves together at Shiloh

and set up the Tent of Meet in g there

In an addition

to the B ook of Joshua we are informed that Eleazar

th e son of Aaron died ; and they buried him in the hill
of P hin ehas his son which was g iven him in the hill
c ountry of
,

IN
2

Josh

c hap s

9 :1 5 b,

3, 4

2 1
7

Josh
Josh

P R I E S TH OO D S

TH E

2 0 2

The B ook of Jud ges g ives us onl y a few traces of the

i nstitutions of the P co d e and those all in the latter part
At the time of the war a g ainst the B enj amin ites at Gibeah
we are tol d P hin ehas the son of Eleazar the son of Aaron
stood before the Ark of Go d at B ethel
Th H i g h -P ri sthoo d of E l i
The rst four Chapters of I Samuel g ive us the histor y
of Eli and his two sons P hinehas an d Hophni This
Hophni is unknown save in these chapters
Eli also
is unknown outside of them except in I Sam 1 4 :3 where
P hinehas is again named as the son of Eli the priest and
in I Kin g s 2 : 2 7 where Solomon d eposed Abiathar an d
thereby cut off the house of Eli from bein g priests The
reason for this deposition was that the y ha d g reatly
abused the o fce an d had thereb y provoked the an g er of
Yahweh a g ainst the whole house
Th H i g h P i sts
Who is this Eli ? The B ook of C hronicles knows noth
ing of him We have three lists of the hi gh priests in
Jerusalem : one in I C hron 6 :5 0 5 3 ; another in I C hron
Th e lists b y no means
6 :3 1 5 ; an d a thir d in Ezra 7 :1 5
a gree an d there is a serious question as to whether an y
of them is worthy of our entire reliance B u t i n n on e of
th em d oes th e n a me of E l i a pp ea r
Th e lists are as follows :

E ZRA
I C HR ON
I C H R ON
5
5
53
Aaron
A aron
A aron
E l a z ar
E l a z ar
E l ea z ar
P hin has
P h in has
P hin has
A b ishua
A b ishua
A b ishua
I Judg
p ho d inst ad of a rk Both a g r
Th G r k s a y s
that P hin has was th r in B th l at th a t ti m
,

'

r e

I Sa m

e e

ee

1 1

ee

H I G H P RIE STS

TH E

IC

H RO N

I C E RON
B uk k i

6 :5 0 5 3

2 0

A 7:

6 :3 1 5

E ZR

1 5

u kk i
U zzi

U zzi

u kk i
Uzz i

Ze ra ia h

Zer a i a h

Ze ra i a h

M raioth
Amariah

M raioth
Amariah ( I )
Ahi tu b (I )
Za d o k ( I)
A hi maaz
Azariah ( I)
J ohanan
A zariah
Ama i ah (II)
A hi tu b (II)
Za d o k (II)
S hal l u m
Hil k iah
A ariah ( III)
S eraiah
Jeho z ad a k

Meraioth

Za d o k
A hi maaz

A zariah
Amariah
A hi t u b
Za d o k
S hal l u m
Hil k iah
A zariah
S raiah
E zra

The third list has two evident la c unae S ix names are

la cki ng betwen M eraioth and A zariah (II ) and one
between S eraiah and Ezra In this list Ezra c omes next
to Seraiah whil e in the second list Jehozada k is pla c ed
there Now Jehozada k went into c a p tivty not later than
l
8
B
whi
e
Ezra
came
to
Jerusalem
at
the
end
of
the
C
5 7
c aptivit y 4 5 8 B C There is then in this pla c e in the
thir d list a lacuna of c a 1 3 0 years
In the se c ond list which seems to be the most complete
we noti c e the repeated re c urren c e of the same names
There are three A zariahs two Am a ria h s two Ah itu b s
I I Chron 6 : stat s that this A z ariah x c ut d t h hi gh p ri stly i in
t h hous that S olo m on b uilt in J rusal m
But as his son Ama riah was hi gh
p ri st in th ti m of J hosh ap h at
this A z a riah c annot hav b n
87
i d nti c al with A z ari a h son of Za dok in th ti m of S olom on ( I Kin gs
I Chron 6 : 5 r m a rks that J hoz a dak w nt into c aptivity wh n Yahw h
d stroy d J rusal m by th han d of N b uc h a d r zz ar
.

,
.

e e

1 0

ca

ce

ee

20

P R I E S T H OO D S

T HE

an d two Za d oks There is no reason to doubt the cor

rec tn es s of these names
The y only g o to show that the
same names were often repeated in a g iven family a phe
n om en on which we might expect from common S emitic
practi c e
This fa c t is to be emphasized for it is to be
suppose d that in later times scribes nd ing lists with the
same names may Often have mixe d them up and id en ti
ed entirely di fferent persons merely because th ey w ere
c alled alike We shall presently revert to this fact in
the case of the d escendants of Eli and the priests in the
time of David an d S olomon
B u t the name of Eli as we have said occurs in none of
these lists It is necessary here for a moment to anticipate
the conclusions reache d in the next chapter and to state
that in our opinion the evidence in P conclusively points

1
1
to a date 4 4 1 1 4 1 B C for the Exodu s and entran c e
into C anaan therein describe d Now the priesthood an d

1
1
1
8
1 0 79 B C
ju dg eship of Eli took place
A compari
son of these dates shows that between the arrival of the
P migration an d the b eginning of the Eli perio d there was
a period of only 2 3 short years
Now 2 0 of these are to be set down accordin g to our
theory to the judgeship of S amson a perio d of the great
est disorder durin g which the chaos caused by the entrance
of the P people as well as the P hil istines was gradually
bein g resolved into order At the en d of the period w e
n d that the land was subdued and that the ark was
.

'

I Cf

G osp l of M atth w i John t h B aptist s n a m

W c an h a rd ly allot S a m u l a short r j u dg shi p th a n tw lv y ars an d as
h d i d an ol d m
in t h ti m of S a ul a n d as it s ms n c ssary to g iv S a ul
forty y a rs S amu l s b irth m ust h a v b n a t l a st s v nty y a rs b for S a ul s
d ath A d thus t h d at s assi g n d ab ov to E li s p ri sthoo d d o not s m at all
i mp ro bab l
2

th e

n re

a n,

ee

ee

e.

e e

e e

ee

I D E N T I T Y OF

AND

ELI

L E A ZAR

20

pla c ed at Shil oh in the char g e of Eleazar B u t we know

that Eli was priest in c harge of the ar k also at S hil oh
It is our c ontention and we thin k not an unreasona ble
one in Vi ew of what we are convin c ed i s an identity of
Chronology that E li a n d E l ea za r w ere on e a n d th e s a me
.

pri es t

zar
The c hief reasons for this identi c ation aside from the
assumed identity in c hronology are these :
B oth Eli a n d E l ea za r son of Aaron had sons b y
1
the name of P hin ehas This in itself would not in di c ate
an identity of the fathers it is true b ut the identity b e c omes
more probable when we note that P hinehas is an Egyptian
name
It hardly seems probable that an Egyptian name
would have been bestowed upon the son of one of the
leaders of a people who had b een three hundred years out
of Egypt as Eli and his son have c onventionally b een
supposed to have been It is even more im pro b a ble when
we remember that Eli was hi gh p riest and that P hin ehas
is a heathen name In the case of Eleazar son of A aron
these o bje c tions would not apply for he might have named
the son P hinehas assuming as is perfe c tly possi ble that
the latter was born in Egypt before the Exodus b egan If
we con clude that Eli and Eleazar were one all d iffi c ulty
in regard to the name disappears

Furthermore we read in I S am 2 :2 7 3 1 that there

2
c ame a man of God unto Eli and said unto him Thus
says Yahweh D id I reveal myself u nto the house of thy
father when they were in Egypt in bondage in P haraoh s
house ? And did I choose him out of all the tri b es of
Israel to be my priest to go up unto mine altar to burn
I I P kh i th n g ro
I d en ti t y

of

Eli

and

E l ea

a -n e

2 0

P R I E S TH OOD S

THE

incense to wear an ephod b efore me ? An d did I give

unto the house of th y father all the o fferings of the chil dren
B ehol d the days c ome that
of Israel ma d e b y re ?
I wil l cut off thine arm and the arm of thy father s house

that there shall not be any old man in thine house

And

this prophecy was ful lled in I Ki n g s 2 :2 7 : So S olomon

thrust out Abiathar from being priest unto Yahweh ; that
he might full the word of Yahweh which he spake c on

c erning the house of Eli in S h iloh

Now this Abiathar
was a great great g ran d son of Eli the genealogy runn ing
Eli P hinehas Ahitub Ahimelech (L XX Abimelech )
Abiathar
As the text stands we have no reason to reje c t a literal
interpretatio n The father of Eli had been in Egypt in
bondage to P haraoh and had been Chosen by Yahweh
as his priest B u t the house which had been chosen in
Egypt b y Yahweh was as we know the house of Moses
and Aaron It was Aaron the father of Eleazar who
in the P document was Chosen to be Yahweh s priest It
is only the P document which knows of any c allin g in
Egypt The JED document knows of one only in Horeb
and in that it is M oses not A aron who is c alled to be
priest

It is true that in the O ld Testament the word father

sometimes stands for what we would translate fore

B u t there is nothin g in the passage whi c h would

father
seem to in dicate that this is the meanin g here
From the considerations of Chronology from the sim i
l a ri ty in the name of P hinehas and from the prophe c y
against the house of Eli with its reference to the father
c alled in Egypt we feel it safe to assume that Eli and
Eleazer were one and the same man
,

C ONF U S I ON OF E L E A ZAR AND E L I E Z E R

2 0

The fact that in the Hebrew the name Eli begins with
a different ra d i c al from that which stands at the begin nin g
of the name Eleazar c an hardly be taken as a good argu
ment against this identi c ation We know that in the
Gal ilean and Samaritan diale c ts all gutturals ex c ept h
were treated as in A ssyrian i e they were pra c ti c ally
unpronoun ced The diff erence in spellin g might then b e
exp lained as due to slight diale c ti c d iff eren c es Nor c an
there be any legitim ate obje c tion raised to the shortening
of the name from Eleazar to Eli S uch abbreviations are
not an un common thin g in Hebrew
If Eli and Elea zar were the same then we know that
the house of Eleazar was the one cut off from the high
priesthood in the time of Solomon when Abiathar was
deposed B u t this seems to be contrar y to all the priestly
list s whi c h go back to Phi nehas Elea zar and Aaron
.

o f usion of E l eazar

an

d E

li eze r

Now we know that the M oses of the E do c ument had

a son whose name was Eliezer and sin ce he was the son
of the man who in this document is the priest it is but
natural to suppose that he was a priest as well Thi s
Eliezer had a brother Gershom whose son Jonathan
became high priest in Micah s house and later in the
sanctuary of D an
We know that in the ancient Hebrew
script the vowel letters were very seldom written out and
in these old do cuments there would be absolutely no d iffer
ence whatever between the appearan c e of the names
Eliezer and Eleazar
A later tradition therefore promul g ated chiey by the
priests who knew very well about Eleazar son of A aron
I Ju dg
,

2 0

THE

P R I E S T H OODS

and very little if an yt hing about Eliezer son of Moses

would naturall y identif y the descen d ants of these two men
It is our contention that in the priestly lists of the C hronicler
the names from Abishua down are not those of Aaronic
priests d es c ended through Eleazar an d P hinehas but of
d escendants of Moses priest accord ing to J E D through
Eliezer and his d escendants an d that the confusion of the
two l ines was due either to ignorance on the part of the
C hronicler or as seems more probable to a desire on
the part of the later priests to c onnect themselves
with Aaron the hi g h priest to whom greater privileges
ha d been g iven than to the priesthood of the JED exodus
That in this case the C hronicler should have been so
c onfused as to be utterly unreliable is not impro b able
when we consider how mixed he is in other portions of
his priestly lists In fact in the later periods the su cc es
sions and genealo g ies of the priests and high priests seem
to have b een pretty well mixed up in all the historians
minds P erhaps a p ortion of these confusions is due to
the mistakes either wilful or a cc idental of those who
trans c ribed the original writings of such b ooks as S amuel
Kings and C hronicles
,

onfusion of A h im el c h

and

l ch

Ab m e

In one case at least we can see that this is so and even

point out the time when the confusion arose In many
cases in our Samuel an d C hronicles we rea d of an Ahime
lech Sometimes he is the son of Ahitub an d a descendant
of Eli an d has a son by the name of Abiathar At other
times he is a son of Abiathar and has a son by the nam e
of Jonathan There seems at rst glance a hopeless con
fusion here an d mo d ern critics have a d vance d all sorts
,

"

C ONF U S I ON OF AH I M E L E C H AND A B I M E LE C H

20

of in genious guesses to explain it B u t when we look at

the Gree k text we nd that this c onfusion has come into
the He b rew S in c e the time that the L XX was translated

When Ahimelech in the Gree k is spo ken of as the son

of Ahitub he is always c all ed Abimele c h

When the

son of Abiathar is mentioned the name Ahimelech is

retained Thus there are seen to have b een tw o men who
have sin c e the translation of the L XX b ecome confused
in our M assoreti c text
A nd this distin ction b ecomes the
plain er when we note that whenever the one called in
Gree k Abimele c h is mentioned in our He b rew the title

the p riest is af xed to the name and whenever the one

c alled in Greek Ahim elech is mentioned in the Hebrew
the title is omitted
And this is the more signi cant when we remember

that A bimelech the priest is a des c endant of Eli his

reat
grandson
As
we
have
seen
the
title
the
priest
g
is a P title and reserved for the high priesthood of A aron
and his sons This Abimelech was a hi gh priest although
he is not mentioned in the list in C hroni c les This seems
to S how that the high priestly line of Eli was left entir ely
out of consideration b y the C hronicler
At any rate if confusion such as this between Abim e
le c h and Ahimele c h co ul d ar ise in later years among the
transcri bers of Samuel and C hronicles why need we wonder
that the hi gh priestly lists in the latter boo k should S how
as one line a composite of what were origin all y two lin es ?
This hypothesis alone exp lains the mysteries involved in
the lists as they stand
It wil l be seen then that there is nothin g in the history
of the tim es of Samuel and Eli which in terferes with the
hypothesis that there were two l ines of priests amon g the
.

P R I E S TH OODS

TH E

2 10

Jews that of Aaron ( P ) and that of Moses (JED ) In

fa c t it may even be said that the history of these times
seems to point in that direction L et us now pass on to
the priesthood in the time of D avid an d S olomon
.

P ri esthoo d s in

Th e

th e

U nit ed

Monar c h y

Most modern critics admit that the d ivision of the

priesthood into courses b y D avid as recorded in I Chr on
For not onl y is
Chaps 2 3 2 4 is a corre c t bit of history
this division attested by Josephus but b y both Ezekiel
and Nehemiah who each bear witness to a pre exilic
division
D avid divided the priests as follows :
.

TH E S O

NS

OF E LE

c ou r s es

AA

Z R

( P)

TH E S O

O v r ea c h ourse a p rin ce of th e
san c tua y
O ver th ese p rin ces a su perior p ri est
Za d o k
e

NS

0F I

THAMA

c ou rses

O ver a c h c ours a p rin ce of

E l ohi m
O e ; th es e p rin ces a su p e rior p ri st
A hi mel ec h

v r

O ver a ll these priests we must conclude that there was

appointed by David a supreme high priest Abiathar son
of Abimelech
It is true that in the a c count of the
d ivision the C hronicler ma kes no mention of such a hi gh
priest ; and c onsequently most critics have assumed that
Zado k and Ah imelech were c o ordinately hi gh priests at
this time B u t this seems highl y impro b able in View of
what happened when Solomon came to the throne O ne
of the r st th in g s that he did was to d epose from the hi g h

priesthood Abiathar son of Abimelech (who as we have

seen was the great grandson of Eli ) It was at this point
-

IN

eh

7,

1 2 2 1

Thus th n a m in t h G r k
I Kin gs
e

ee

TH E

P RI E S TH OOD S I N

U N I TE D MONAR C HY

THE

2 1 1

that Zado k was raised to the high priesthood in Abiathar s

place Even the C hronicler seems to imply that this was
the case for he says that at the time S olomon was anointed
to b e king Zadok was anoin ted priest This certainl y
means that he became priest at this time in a sense
that he had not b een b efore i e that he b ecame
high priest M oreover the C hronicler knows of only
one high priestly lin e If he meant to im ply that in
Davi d s time b oth Zado k and Ah im elech were high
priests why did he not include them b oth in his high
priestly lists ?
In View of all these cir c umstan c es it is our belief that
the two l i nes of priests s y stematiz ed by D avid were by
h im made subject to the hi gh priestly lin e of Eli or
Eleazar and that this state of things lasted until this
lin e was a b olished by S olomon and the lin e represented
b y Zado k advan c ed to the high p riesthood in its
stead
If this b e the c ase we must suppose that when the
C hronicler calls the line of which Zadok was the head

the sons of Eleazar he has again merely fallen Vi c tim

to hi s usual false ident ication of Eleazar and Elie zer son

of M oses and that the lin e was properly c alled the

sons of Eliezer
In other words we are convinced that
th i s li n e of Z a d oki te pri es ts a d va n c ed by S ol omon to th e
h i g h pri es th ood w a s n ot of A a ron i c d es c en t a t a ll bu t w a s
o th e M os a i c pri es th ood of J E D
f
We then conclude that under D avid s arrangement of

priests the Mosai c line that of Elie zer and the y ounger

b ran c h of the Aaronic line that of Ithamar were both

placed in su bjection to the elder Aaronic line the house

of Eli or Eleazar

TH E PRI E S TH O

2 1 2

OD S

O ur investi gations have le d us to suggest the following

genealogies of priests as probable :
II

M os es
E l i zer
e

( severa l

g en era tion s p ro

A b ishua
B u kk i
U zz i

bb
a

l y)

hh

( ig

A aron ( hi gh p ri est)
-

p ri es ts )

leazar)
P hi n ehas

I thamar

A b i melec h
A b iathar

A b iathar
A hi mel ec h
A b iathar
J onathan

E li ( E

Zera i a h

Amariah

( th en t)

Za d o k (hi gh p i st)
A hi maaz ( hi gh p ri est)
A zariah ( hi gh p ri est)
an d s o forth as in th C hroni cler s
h i g h p ri stly l ist
-

r e
-

wh y it ma y be asked shoul d David have united

these various l ines of priests ? The answer is to be found
by a c onsideration of the cir cumstances involve d in the
history of the b eginnin g of the monarchy
We know that the home of Kin g Saul was at Gibeah
or Gibeon and that both of these were L evitical cities
In this city was lo c ate d as we have seen the Tabern a cle of
the Testimony and the altar that Moses and B eza l el made
at Sinai both of them P institutions an d therefore c on
Th onl y o bj c tion whi c h c oul d p ossi b l y b rais d to t h intrinsi c p ro ba
b i li ty of this a rran g m nt is th si m il a rity in na m s in t h d i ff r nt lin s of p ri sts
But of c ours
m ust r m m b r that so f a r as t h two A aroni c lin s
c on
c rn d si m il a riti s in nam s only natural W k now of m any fam ili s wh r
c rt a in n am s w r r ga rd d a s p c uli a rly t h fa vorit s of th whol c l a n
B tw n th A a roni c p ri sthoo d s an d th a t of M os s th r is only
li k n ss in
n a m s T h r is an A hitu b p r s nt in ac h But A hitu b k now to hav b n
a c o mm on p ri stly n am Th r is a hi g h p ri st of th a t nam for inst a n c
m u c h f a rth r d own in t h C hroni c l r s list
T h na m s of t h various lin
shoul d c aus no d i f c ulty
B ut

e e

ee

we

on e

e e

e e

a re

e e

e e

a re

e e

e w e

e e

ee

e,

e,

es

THE

P R I E S TH OODS I N

TH E

UN IT E D MONAR C H Y

n ec ted

2 1

with the A aronic priesthood On this a c count we

should expect that Saul was an adherent b y residen c e an d
inheritan c e of the P c ode and its institutions We have
shown above that in rega rd to the w i t c hes and other
m atters it was the P code whi c h he c arrie d out
There c ame a b rea c h b etween S aul and David and
the latter ed It is proba ble that if there were any other
priestly line than that of P it would not being in the favor
of the court ally itself with those opposing the rei g ning
kin g It is only natural then that we should nd among
D avid s adherents while yet he was a freebooter and
pretender to the throne the priesthood whi c h was headed
b y Zado k This priesthood would probably have become
the sole favorite of Davi d had it not been for an event
whi c h c ompli c ated matters Saul in rage against the
Eli lin e which had aided the eeing David with some
shew breads caused A bimelech the hi gh priest in that
lin e to be ki lled His son Abiathar saved his own life
only by precipitate i ght to David with whom he
proceeded to ma ke common cause Thus David had
two priesthood s on his hands
Wh en at length S aul was overthrown and David had
b een king for seven years the latter su cc eeded in c apturing
Je rusalem and thus in pa c ifyin g his entire kin gdom In
order that this pea c eful state of things mi ght be made more
secure it was ne c essary that he con c iliate the various
fa c tions of his people With all ancient peoples religious
union or faction has had a large inuence upon politi c al
union or fa c tion David re c ognizing this pro c eeded to
unify the relig ious life of the people To do this it was
necessary to recogni ze in some fashion all the diff erent
lines of L evitical priests that there were He found the
.

2 1

P R I E S TH O OD S

TH E

Eliezer lme from Moses and two Aaronic lines that of

Ithamar and that of Eli He found moreover that the
last name d ha d always advance d the claim of bein g sole
high priests He acknowle dg e d the in te g rity of each of
the three lines and persuaded the Eliezer line an d the
Ithamar l ine to ac knowle dg e a nominal preceden c e to
the Eli or Eleazar l ine In the light of our recor d s of
those times this seems plainly to have been the course of
events
The amal g amation of the priesthoods was made still
more Close in the time of S olomon by the deposition of
A biathar and his the Eli line and the advancement of
the Zado kite lin e to the high priestly position a move far
more easy than it would have been in the time of David
b ecause of the g reatly in creased strength of the monarch y
All of this of course had become confuse d in the time
of the C hronicler an d he remain ed under the impression
that the l ine raised to high priesthood in Solomon s day
was the original Aaronic line of high priests C o u se
quentl y he took it that Eliezer the ancestor of the high
priests of his da y was the same as the Eleazar who was
son of Aaron and really the ancestor of the line d eposed
b y S olomon Th e mistake seems natural and easy
,

Th e

P ri esthoo d s i n J u d ah

and

I sra l
e

us now consider the history of the priesthood after

the d eath of Solomon In this consi d eration it i S i mp or

tant that there be borne in m in d the d istin ction that exists

between the priests the L evites which is the D way of

desig natin g its prie sts an d the prie sts and the L evites
which is the P way of po intin g out those in charge of the
services It is further to be consi d ere d that these terms
L et

TH E

P R I E S TH OODS I N J UDAH AND I SRA E L

2 1

were simultaneous and that the one d id not succee d the

other
At the disruption of the ki ngdom Jeroboam I in the
north established religion on the b asis of the E c ode as
add i ng thereto c ertain in novations
w e have noticed
The fa c t that any man could become a priest in the north
left the A aronic priesthood there in a very gloomy state

C onsequently we nd that the priests and the L evites

i e the P or A aronic priests left there and settled in
Judah under King Reho b oam
B u t Reho b oam and his kingdom fell pra c tically into
H is son Abijah followed in his footsteps
idolatry
The priesthoods naturally su ffered
In the tim e of Asa we per c eive a religious awakening
in Judah and we n d that A sa made a c ovenant with the

people on the b asis of the P code

His son Jehoshaphat
c ontinued his policy with e ven greater zeal for Yahweh

and for the P c ode

The A aroni c priesthood was thus
at this time entirely in the ascendancy in Judah and it is
to b e assumed that the high priests being politi c supported
this trend of things even though they themselves were not
of Aaroni c des c ent Anyone who carefull y compares the
P and D c odes realizes how mu c h the former is the inferior
in spir ituality
It is largely c eremonial in c hara c ter
C onsequently when we consider how wea k in spiritual
vigor a religion b ased solely on ceremonial is it is not to
b e wondered at that the religion of these times in Judah

vas a demoralizing and deteriorating one

No wonder
,

I II Chron
2

3
4

II C hron
II C hron
II C h on
r

4;

I King s
5 ; I Kin g s

-1 0

2 1

T H E P RI E S TH O

ODS

then that soon after this we nd Kin g Jehoram and the

people with h im turning away from Yahweh as is related
in II C hron
This apostasy contin ued down to the rei gn of A thalia
an d Joash
The overthrow of Athalia was entir ely
planned by a priest Jehoiada It would seem that this
man was not a high priest for his name is lackin g in the

high priestly lists nor is he so called in our re c or d s ; His

royal funeral may point though to his havin g been a high
priest and if so then in this pla c e too the C hroni c ler s
lists are in c omplete A t any rate his reforms were based

on the L a w of Moses or D and not on P

And now begins a period of spiritual awakening which
extends down to the time of Amaziah durin g which we
can trace continually the inuence of the D code After
the d eath of Amaziah the Aaronic priesthood with its P
co d e a g ai n resume d the ascendency an d irregularities
became noticeable Kin g U zziah undertook to enter the
temple himself to o ffer in cense He was withstood an d
de ed by the high priest Azariah (III ) who appeale d to
the law which in this case could have b een only the P
c ode
In the time of Ahaz grandson of U zziah the religion of
Judah was at such a low ebb that Ahaz even closed the
temple an d buil t a heathen altar copie d after one in
Damascus where he sacriced The C hronicler himself
attributes this to the low state of the priests He means
the Aaroni c priests for immediately afterward he calls

them the priests an d

,

I II Kin gs
2

if

II C hron
II Chron

-2 0

6;
.

II Chron

ff

THE

P R IE S TH OO D S

IN

J U DAH

A ND

I S RA E L

2 1

S eeing the dan gers besettin g his kin gdom and attribut
ing the same to the religious lethargy on the part of his
people and guided by su c h men as Isaiah Kin g Hezekiah
Ahaz successor started a relig ious reform He repaired
and reopened the temple and in vited the people b oth from
the north and from his own kin gdom to c elebrate the
P assover in Jerusalem in the second month His zeal for
D in stitutions is evident everywhere At this openin g
celebration the P priests were considered so far inferior
and so degraded that they were not permitte d even to take
part in it until the y had sanctied themselves for they

were
These L evites must then have been

a portion of the D priesthood The reason why the

priests and the L evites were thus hum iliated can only
have been because they had been serving at the heathen
altars which Hezeki ah had just c aused to be overthrown
At this celebration then the priesthoods were a g ain
temporarily united and the Aaronic priests who had
b ecome apostates were for g iven This we know for

we read that d urin g the service

the priests and the

L evites rejoiced that they had been healed while at the

same t i me the priests the L evites too k their part too

rising and blessin g the people in a manner accepta ble to

Yahweh
The next important reign is that of Josiah He ze kiah s
great g randson
The impulse of his reform was the
redis c overy of the D code i n the temple although some
of the reforms were it is true based on P This was
in 62 1
,

I II Chron
2

II C hron
1 1 Chron

2 0

2 2

5,

2 1

P R I E S TH OODS

TH E

z ek i l s P rop os d Reform
In 5 9 8 Ezekiel was carried awa y into captivity in
B ab ylonia and in 5 8 5 he be g an to write his boo k of p r op h e
cies In this book there are four passages whi c h have
a bearin g on the question of the priesthood

1
Thou shalt g ive to the priests the L evites that be of
the see d of Zadok which are near unto me to minister
unto me says the L or d Go d a youn g bullock for a s in

Offering ?

2
B u t the priests the L evites the sons of Zadok that
kept the char ge of my sanctuar y when the children of
Israel went astray from me they S hall come near unto me
to minister unto me ; and they shall stan d before me to o ffer
unto me the fat and the bloo d says the L ord God : the y
shall enter into my sanctuar y an d the y shall come in unto
m y table to minister unto me an d they shall keep my
E

the L evites that went far from me when Israel

went astray which went astray from me after their i d ols
they shall bear their iniquity Yet they shall be ministers
in my sanctuary havin g oversight at the gates of the house
and ministering in the house They S hall slay the burnt
o fferin g and the sacrice for the people and they shall
B ut
stand before them to minister unto them
they shall not come near unto me to exercise the o fce of
priest unto me nor to come near to an y of m y hol y things
unto the thin g s that are most hol y but they shall bear
their S hame and their abomination which the y have

committed

It S hall be for the priests that are sanctie d of

4
the sons of Zadok which have kept my char g e whi c h
I Ez k
Ez k
Ez k
3
3

B ut

1 1

TH E

P R I E S TH OO D IN

TH E

T I ME OF E ZRA

2 1

went not astray when the c hildren of Israel went astray

as the L evites went
Modern criti c ism is wont to explain these passages b y
sayin g that Eze kiel here tells of the de gradation of certain
of the priests bec ause they had been idolatrous In this
we are wil lin g to concur wi th the further statement that
the priests who were to be d e g ra d ed were probably of that
line who ha d been so shamefully lax in their duties in
Judah during the various apostasies of that people namely
the P priesthood It wil l be remembere d that when
D avid divided the courses he had two sets of them one
headed by Zadok the other by Ahimelech The former
we saw were of JED origin the latter of P ori g in And in
the former the line of Zadok was vested the hi gh priest
hood after Solomon s d eposition of the line of Eli Now
all that E zekiel desire d was the c ont inuance of this Zadok
ite lin e which had proved faithful and the rejection
of the l ine of Ahim elech which was A aronic and which
had apostatized It was the prophet s d esire that what
priests there were of that line shoul d be d e graded to the
condition of the greater number of the L evitical tribe
i e that they S houl d become what we call technically

L evites
or temple servants
O ne more thin g it is necessary to note in regard to
these word s of Ezeki el i e that whatever is written in
his prophecies in this re gard cannot be looked on as re c ords
of historical fact but onl y as expression of his d esires We
have nothing to S how that the thin g he a d vocated was ever
carrie d out
Th P ri st h oo d i t h Tim of E z ra
Th e next period to receive attention is that of the return
people
from exile In 5 3 7 B C there returned
Ez k
.

P R I E S T H OO D S

T HE

2 2 0

O f these
were priests or practicall y one out of
every ten B u t there were in this ban d onl y 7 4 L evites
who were not priests ! T hese
priests belonged
to only 4 of the L evitical fam ilies T h e number of these

families was increase d in the hi gh priesthoo d s of Jeshua

and Joiakim to 2 2 families Ezra brou ght 2 more families
with him one of the line of Eleazar
the other of the
line of Ithamar
He succee d e d b y direct entreat y in

persuading 3 8 other L evites to accompany him

We
have then 1 1 2 L evites not priests in Jerusalem In the
time of Nehemiah there sojourned in the Cit y
priests
b ut onl y 2 8 4 L evites and sin gers The rest of the priests
who had come from B ab ylon of course were resident
outsi d e the cit y proper The L evites thou gh had all
of them to live in the city in ord er to care for the temple
How are we to account for this lar ge number of priests
an d this small number of non priestly L evites ? To our
knowle dge no one has advance d an y adequate explanation
of this remarkable situation We venture therefore to
a d van c e ours that the g reater number of priests in Jeru
salem and V icinity at this time were not P priests at all
i e were not of the Aaronic l ine but were descen d ants of

the priests the L evites Of the Zadokite line i e were

priests of the J E D code which had no provisions for non
priestl y L evites Durin g this whole chapter we have seen
that there never was an y reason to suppose that the Aaronic

priests an d the Aaronic L evites were existent in any

g reat numbers
S u mm ar y
In this Chapter we rst of all examined the a c coun t s
in the Hexateuch of the institution of the priesthood as
E z ra
N h
E z ra
E z ra
9
,

S U MM ARY

2 2 1

c ontain ed in the various documents We found that there

are apparent two distinct priesthoods one c alled the

priests the L evites in the E an d D documents the other

called the priests and the L evites in the P document

We then concluded that possibly there may have b een
two institutions of the priesthoo d and not one We then
took this hypothesis and tested it in the light of the later
history of the Hebrew people We examin ed the history
of the priesthood from the end of the Exodus to the return
from B abylon We considered the records of : (a ) the
time of the Jud ges ; (b) the period of Eli and S amuel ;
c
the
rei
g
ns
of
David
and
Solo
m
on
d
the
period
of
;
( )
( )
the later monar c hy from Solomon to Josiah ; (e) the period
of the Exile as ill ustrated by the prophe c ies of E ze k iel ;
and nally (f ) the return from B abylon
In every
one of these periods we found that the eviden c e was
in favor of the hypothesis of the double priesthood and
that the distin c tion seemed to b e plain ly recogniza ble

b etween the priests the L evites and the priests and

In V iew of all these fa c ts we venture to
th e
.

,
.

I I n c onn c tion with

qu stion of th p ri sthoo d s shoul d

th e

ntion d

b e me

qu stion of t h p ho d s
f a P p assa g
I n E xo d
G o d c omman d d M os s to mak holy gar
A mon g th s was t h
p ho d a distinc tiv mark
m nts for Aaron an d his sons
of th hi gh p ri sthoo d or at l ast of th c hi f i of a t m p l T his p ho d was
to b m ade of gol d b lu p urp l sc arl t an d twin d lin n ( E xo d
l arn that M os s c arri d out this c omman d an d from
F rom E xo d c hap 3 9
n d that wh n A aron was c ons c rat d hi gh p ri st h was c loth d
w
L
with th is p ho d At a lat r ti m
n d this p ho d worn by t h hi gh p ri sthoo d
an d r f rr d to sim p ly as th p ho d T hus A hi m l c h had suc h an p ho d
an d so d i d A b iathar ( 1 S m
B si d s this p ho d n d anoth r m ntion d c all d th lin n p ho d
S am u l for instan c was g ird d in su c h an p ho d ( I S m
Wh n t h
A k of t h Cov ant was b rou ght u p from th hous of O b d E d om to J rusal m
of th s lin n p ho d s ( II S m 6 : 4 ; f I Chron
D avi d was ro b d in
T his latt r c irc um stan c c onn c ts th lin n p ho d di r c tly with th worshi p of

th e

e e

e,

e e

e,

e e

e e

e e
e

e
a

on e

en

we

ne

e we

c er

e,

e e

we e

e,

e e

ev

P R I E S TH OODS

THE

2 2 2

present as our conclusion that the hypothesis of a double

exodus elsewhere so strongly su ggested gains an emphati c
indorsement from the history of the development of the
priesthoods
,

of t h C ov nant whi c h b lon gs to J E D T h s v nty p ri sts of

No b sl a in by S a ul w r also ro b d in lin n p ho d s if
to trust th H b r w
t xt Th G r k r a d s si m p ly p ho d s ( I S m
d M i c ah
A thir d k in d of p ho d s m s to hav b n m a d b y G i d on
T h s w r of gol d a n d s m in g ly di ff r d
( Ju dg
from th oth r two k in d s of p ho d s W r th s t h p ho d s of th m issin g
statut s of E ?
With t h pho d w nt t h U ri m an d T hum m i m ston s T h s d t rm in d
by lot what was t h di vin will an d th y s m to h a v b n us d b y th c hi f
D ut
p ri st in ac h t m p l ( N m
IS m
E z ra
N h
I t is p ro bab l too that th U ri m an d T hum m i m w r us d in Ju dg :
7
T h b r ast p l a t d s c ri b d in E xo d 8 : 9 s m s to hav b lon g d x c lusiv l y
to t h A aroni c p ri sthoo d ( c f L
t h e A rk

ee

e e

ee

e e

e e

an

ee

e e

e e

e,

ee

e e

e e

- ve

e e

w e a re

e e

ee

ev

ee

ee

e e

e e

e e

C HA P TER XXI
Th e Da t es

of

th e E x od i

In treatin g of the dates of the ex od i we need great c are

in dividin g the text
We have already c all ed attention
to the fa c t that J and E c over the same hi story and that
D w ritten forty years after them treats of the same
series of events To this same period undoubtedly b elong
those early P records whi c h we call the Tol ed oth B ook
The testimony of all of these documents enables us to
determin e the date of the Exodus a cc ord ing to JED
The P document proper stands by itself Those se c
tions commonly ascribed to J and E w hi ch agree with P
in everything except the use of the di vin e name whic h
c riti c s are growing more and more in clin ed to regar d a s
an un c ertain criterion wil l be treated together with P in
determinin g the date ac c ord in g to that do cument
We will take up r st of all the P do c ument and its
chronological testimony
,

Th e D

at e

Ac c

or di g to
n

We have alrea d y seen that the people in this do cu

ment could not have c ome into E g ypt until there was a
land of Raamses We have seen that the city land known
b y this name is not kno w n before the time of Ramses II
who re claime d it from the swamps and gained it for c ul
He reigned from 1 3 1 0 to 1 2 44 B C
We
tiva t ion
kn ow that the City of Raamses was in existence in hi s
twent y r st year be c ause he then receive d the Hittite
I S A pp n d i II for th hronolo gy of th Nin t nth D y nasty
-

ee

e C

2 2

e ee

2 2

DAT E S OF

THE

TH E E X O D I

am b assadors there We have then in his reign a denite

termi n u s a gu o for the settlement of the He b rews in Eg ypt
Even if the settlement was in the rei g n of Ramses II
the O ppression too could not have been in his reign for
it is intrinsi c ally improbable that a P haraoh should with
out apparent reason c hange his attitude from extreme
favor toward the Hebrews to extreme opposition and
oppression The c ommon criti c al Opin ion that Ramses
II was the P haraoh of the O ppression is one that seems
impossible to hold
Al thou g h we may admit that Joseph c ame to Egypt
in the reign of Ramses II it is our belief that proba b il ity
po ints to the rei g n of his su cc essor Merneptah as the
time when the S ettlement proper was ma d e There are
several l ines of cir c umstantial eviden c e whi c h seem to
poin t that wa y

We have in Egyptian a story known as The Tale of

the Two B rothers

It is written on the P apyr us O rb in ey
which b elongs to the time of S eti II last k in g of the Nine
It has
teen th Dynasty when he was st ill crown prin c e
often been observed that this story of Anpu and B ata
shows remarkable similarity to the story of Joseph when
he was tempted by his master s wife What could have
been more natural if indee d the elevation of Joseph
had taken pla c e only some thirty years before the story
was written ?
Now we know that in the time of Merneptah there
were settlements from southern P alestine ma d e in Egypt
and that these were being made because of lac k of food
in the land whence the people came P a p yru s A n a s ta si
VI pl IV 1 1 3 to pl V l 4 is a letter or report from a
frontier o fcial at the fortress of Mern eptah Hotep h irma
.

'

D AT E ACC O RD IN G

TH E

TO

2 2

in

S u cc oth and reads as follows : An other matter for

the satisfaction of my lord s heart : We have n ished
passing the tribes of the S hasu of Edom through the
H
fortress of Merneptah otep h ir ma in S u cc oth to the
pools of P ithom of Merneptah Hotep hi r ma in S u cc oth
in order to sustain them and their herds in the domain of
P haraoh the good S un of every land
I have
c aused them to be b rought
O ther names of days
when the fortress of M erneptah Hotep h irma was p a ssed
In the P do cument Ja c o b and his sons c ome from
Hebron a land on the b order of Edom from whi ch these
people in the inscription are said to have c ome The

Egyptian name Shasu refers to the people of southern

P alestine includin g Edom The word

to sustain
indi c ates that they were su ff erin g from famine There
and
w a s then a famin e in P alest ine in Me r neptah s reign
a people from southern P alest ine settling b ecause of it
in Egypt
After M erneptah there were three short reigns totalin g
twenty thr ee years or thereabouts and then a period of

what Ramses III c alls

anar c hy
P robably t hi s

anar c hy began b efore the twenty thr ee years mentioned

were over Ac c ording to the O s a rsip h story as given b y
Josephus who quotes from M anetho the distur b an c e
started in the reign of Amenophis (Amen mes es ) under
the leadership of one O s a rsip h This latter bec ame the

r ul er of a
polluted people c a ll ed lepers b y M anetho
and he g ot assistan c e from people who were hi s k indred
and who lived in or about Jerusalem If this revolt were
put down b y the P haraohs who su c ceeded the period
,

I For th vi d n c of a fam in in Pal stin

e e

ti m in th b ginnin g of th r i gn of M rn ptah
e

e,

in I sra l t th i v ry
illustration on n e t p ag

y ea

s ee

'

e.

DAT E A CC ORD I N G T O P

THE
k
Na ht Set ,

2 2

namely
who reigned one year and his son
Ramses III there would be every ex cuse for treating the
revolters as a su bd ued people and inaugurating an
Oppression
T hi s anar c hy and his putting it down are attested by

Ramses III himself in his great P apyrus Harris

The
quotation follows :

S aid Kin g Userma re Meria mon ( Ramses III ) the

great God to the prin c es and leaders of the land the in fa n
try and chariotry the Sard inians the numerous ar c hers
and all those livin g in the land of E gypt :

L et us hear when I am inform i ng you of my b ene

fa c tion which I did while I was kin g of the people The
land of Egypt was overthrown from without and everyone
w a s deprived of his rights ; formerly they had no superior
for many years until other times (came ) The land of
Egypt was in the hands of c hiefs and town rulers ; one
slew the other both great and small O ther times came
after it with empty years an d O sir S iw ( O s a rs ip h ) a

c ert ain man from Kharu was Chief among them He

pla c ed the whole land under tri bute to h im ; he united
together his c ompanions and plundered their (the E g yp
tians ) possessions Th ey ma d e th e g od s li ke men and no
o fferi ngs were presented i n the temple

Then the gods in clin ed themselves to pea c e and

gave the land its right ac c ordin g to its a cc ustomed man
ner ; they esta blished their son who c ame forth from their
limb s to b e ruler of all the land upon their great throne :
,

IP
2

p yr u s H a rri s ,

Br ast d A RE
l gy P art I p
Th H orit lan d
e

Ch ron o o
3

P l LXX V l 1 to PI LXX V I l 6
Vol I V p 1 9 9 rea d s ya s ; b ut s ee
,

2 0

r u

To fft een , A n c i en t

TH E

DATE A CC ORD I N G T O P

31

r ka r e S ete n er e M eri a m on son of Re Na kht

e
namely
U
s
(
)
p

M
set ererre M eria mon He was Kh ep ri S et when he is
enraged He set in order the entire land which had been
re bellious ; he slew the rebels who were in the land of
Egypt ; he cleansed the great t hr one of Egypt ; he was
ruler of the Two L ands on the throne of Atum He
restored those ready of fa c e which had been turned away
Everyone re c ognized again his brother after having b een

walled in He re established the temples to re c eive divi ne

offerings for sacricing to the Ennea d a cc ording to their
c ustomary stipulations

He appointed me to be hereditary prince in the place

of Keb I became superior prince of the lands of Egypt
an d commander of the whole land united in one He
kh
N
The
a
t set ) went to rest in his horizon li ke the gods
(
same rites that were performed for O s i ris were performed
for him : he was rowed in his royal b arge upon the river
and laid to rest in his eternal house in western Thebes

Then my father Ammon Re lord of g ods Re Atum

and P tah b eautiful of face c rowned me as lord of the
Tw o L ands on the throne of him who begat me I
re c eived the o f ce of my father with joy The land rested
d rejoi c ed in the possession of peace bei ng jo y ful over
an
seei ng me as rul er of the Two L ands lik e Horus when he
was called to rule the Two L ands on the throne of O siris
I was c rowned with the E tef crown bearing the U raeus
I assumed the double plumed diadem li ke T a ten en I
sat upon the throne of Ha ra kh te I was clad in the regalia
li ke Atum

I or ganized Egypt in to many classes c onsisting of

butlers of the palace great princes numerous in fantry
c hariotry b y the hundred thousand S ard inians in n u m
-

DATE A CC OR D I N G T O P

T HE
er a ble

e
h
e
s
q
q ,

33

attendants by the ten thousands and serf

laborers of E gypt
P uttin g the letter to Merneptah the O sa rs ip h story
ac c ord ing to Manetho an d P apyrus Harris to gether we
feel that there is every reason for the following histori c al
re c onstruction
A people from southern P alestine settled in E g ypt
in the most eastern Delta whil e M erneptah was king
bein g driven there by a fam ine U nder Merneptah s
weak succes sors this people arose in rebellion under the
leadership of O s a r s ip h thus precipitatin g a condition
of general anarchy in the kin gd om This anarchy lasted
for about a generation when it was put down b y Ramses
III and his short lived prede c essor Th e lea d ers in the
anarchy were naturall y the ones most severel y punished
An d this people who rebelled and were p un i s h ed w e believe
may well have been those Hebrews who a c cor d ing to P
sojourned in Egypt at this time And the be g inning of
the reig n of Ramses III we are convince d was the begin
ning of the O ppression accordin g to the P account This
was in 1 1 8 1 B C

Ramses III reigned thirty one years or until 1 1 5 0 B C

In his inscriptions there are numerous passages whi c h
state that he used serf labor for the rebuildin g of temples
and cities amon g which latter were Raamses P ithom and
Northern Heliopolis Very often we are told that these
serf laborers were P alestinian captives Ramses III
was succeede d b y Ramses IV who rei gned for S ix years
Then the records cease very abruptl y and for a long time
up to the rei gn of Ramses IX we know hardly anything
about affairs in E g ypt
I T t A i t Ch l g y P a rt I pp 5 9 64
-

een ,

n c en

ron o o

T HE

34

D AT E S O F

T H E EX O DI

It is a remarkable fact that a people called A pw ri w

or A p ri w which a lar ge number of E g yptologists identify
with the Hebrews is mentione d frequently on the monu
ments in the rei gns of Ramses III and Ramses IV ; and
then utterl y d isappears
We believe that the rei gn of Ramses IV marks the end
of the O ppression and that the Exodus took place at the
en d of his rei g n We d ate the g oin g forth from Egypt
therefore as c a 1 1 44 B C
We then allow three years for the wanderin g in the
wil d erness for reasons state d above This brin g s us to
1 1 41
B C which is the be g innin g of the ju dg eship of
Samson And here we call attention to the remarkable
fa c t that in the B ook of Ju dges the rst clear evi d ence of
the existence of the P code and its institutions is to be found
in the j ud geship of this ver y man
,

Th e D

at e A cc ord in g to

J ED

This date which we have seen made necessar y by the

internal evidence of P absolutel y d isa g rees both with
the statement in I Kin g s
that the temple of Solomon
was founde d 4 80 years after the Exo d us an d with the
internal evi d ence furnishe d by the JED d ocuments
We know that the temple of S olomon was founded in
the year 9 68 B C
Accordin g to Kin g s the Exo d us was

This woul d carr y u s to 1 44 7 B C

4 8 0 y ears before this
,

IE

S a m son is t h rst N a z a rit k nown in t h Bi b l ; b ut th l a w on

N a z a ritism is foun d only in P ( N m 6 :
vi d n c for this in T ff t A i t Ch l g y P a rt I pp 7 8
S
A ll oth r
T h G r k ( b oth A a n d B ) st a t s th a t it w a s 4 4 y ars
sio s how v r s ay 4 8 xc p t of c ours thos ba s d on t h G r k T his
d i ff r n c a t rst g l a n c is v ry annoy in g b ut ca n it s m s b s atisfac torily
x p l a in d I th ti m of Jos p hus a n d in d d in t h whol H ll nisti c
.

ee e

e,

een ,

r on o o

n c en

e,

ee

ee

ee

e,

ee

e e

v er

DATE A CC ORD IN G T O

TH E

JED

35

We must note here that this date is found in an admit

tedl y early do c ument written most probably in the rei gn
of S olomon and b ased on the C anaaniti c c alendar system
then in use
,

t i E g yp t
A ccord i ng to Exod 1 2 :40 the entran c e into Egyp t was
This statement b elongs
4 3 0 years be fore the Exodus
to the J E do cument whi ch uses the Egyptian c alendar
system whi c h has a year of 3 65 days The text emp h a
sizes the fa c t that the Exodus too k place on the very same
day of the month and year that the entrance had taken
pla c e
T hi s would in dicate that the text had taken
a cc ount of the 1 0 7 d ays that would b e the d ifferen c e
between Julian and E g yptian years in this spa c e of t ime
B u t even if this be not con c eded the dif feren c e amounts
to hardly a th i rd of a year and need therefore not be
ta ken a cc ount of If the Exodus too k p l a c e th en in 1 44 7
the settlement in Egypt took pla c e in 1 8 7 7 B C
The going into Egypt too k pla c e in the thir d year of a
famine whi c h began therefore in 1 88 0 1 8 7 9 B C B efore
this famin e there were seven good years at the begin ning
of which Joseph had be c ome governor of Egyp t This

8
event must have been then in 1 8 7 1 88 6 B C If we could
establish the historicity of Joseph at this time whi c h we
Th e

tt

J E D S e l emen

p rio d th J ws assum d that t h E xo d us was i d nti c al with th xp ulsion of

A i t Ch
Hy ksos ( S T t
l g y P art I pp
th
5 5 ff ) I f w
now a dd tog th r th r i gns of th kin g s of Ju dah from R ho b oam to Z d ki ah
in c lusiv as giv n in th Boo k of Ki n g s w n d that in th M assor ti c H b r w
t xt th p rio d is
y ars b ut in G r k B ( C o d x Vati c anus ) 4 9 % y rs
an d in G r k A ( C o d x A l xan drinus) 44 9 % y ars A cc ord in g to th l tt r
t xt th E xo d us too k p la c in 5 3 whi c h falls within th r i g n of Thutmos I
I This is show by th
of th Canaaniti c m onth nam s an d th wor d
kh for month
y
e

ee

e,

nc en

ron o o

e u se

ea

ee

e e

a ra

een ,

ee

36

D AT E S O F

THE

THE EX O D I

have deduced from the B ible the statement in Kin g s

would then become historicall y ver y probable
1
a
If
Joseph
became
g
overnor
i
n
1
88
8
8
6 he must have
)
7
been born in 1 9 1 7 1 9 1 6 B C for he was raise d to power
in his thirtieth year
As he was sold in his seventeenth
,

RE P O RT OF T H E S E C RE TA R Y O F KH N UM H O T E P II
D a t d in t h sixth y a r of S sostris II a n d a nnounc in g t h a rriv a l of 3 7 A siati c s
of th d s rt who
b rin g in g y c osm ti c s
lli i M
m ti S t i i P l XX V I )
( F ro m R
TH E
e

e e

os e

year
B C

e e

a re

on u

or c

en

0
1
his go ing into Egypt must have been in
9
This would be in the rei gn of Sesostris II ( 1 9 0 6
The monuments acquaint us with the fa c t that
in the sixth year of this kin g i e 1 9 0 1 B C there was a
caravan of thirt y seven P alestinian people un d er the
lea d ership of one A b is h a h which V isited Kh n u mh otep II
a prince or un d er k in g of the nome of O ryx ( B en ih a s s a n )
The y brou g ht with them eye cosmetics and other beauti
ful presents which the y presente d to the prince A slave
bo y was also in their compan y The representations on
.

2
0
1
9

IG

en

2
.

G en

TH E

D A TE ACCOR D IN G

JED

TO

37

the monuments S how that these Asiati c s possessed a

very highly developed culture This is shown by their
gorgeous c ostumes their musi c al instruments their
b oomerangs and spears The c ulture seems equal if
not superior to that of Egypt itself
Now ac c ording to the B i ble the Ishmaelites of the
story
also
carried
c
osmetics
down
to
Egypt
A
nd
J
even if it was not in this very caravan that Joseph
was c arried as a slave it is of great value to know
that caravans at this tim e even in this very year of 1 9 0 1
B C were passing from P alest ine to Egyp t bearing
down spi c es and c osmetics and slaves even as the J
a cc ount states Further Joseph is said to have been the
possessor of a coat of many colors i e a variegated
coat and the monument shows that su c h coats were
the usual wear of these people at least of the ri c h
mer c hantmen
b) We have a stela of S e b e k khu dis c overed at A bydos
and published b y Mr John Garstang in E l A ra ba h plate
IV whi c h throws important light upon the history of this
very time This stela was ere c ted beside the stair c ase
of the temple of O siris at Abydos as a memorial of S ebe k
khu and six of his nearest relatives His gure appear s

on the stela with the superscription son of

Then in tw o rows
B efore him is an altar wi th o ffe r in gs
are the gures of his relatives three gures to a row
The name of the last g ure in the se c ond row is that of
.

IG

en

c hap

37

in th m onum nt hav th m on xc p t of c ours t h slav b oy

A cc ord in g to t h p hoto g ra p h this is th r a d in g an d not Y t as N w
b rry r ad s it Furth rm or t h d t rm inativ is vi d ntly kp (or kp ) not
2

A ll

Ta w y

e,

e e

e,

a a,

38

DAT E S OF

THE

T HE E X O D I

his wife or lady and reads Is n t

The in s c rip
tion then reads as follows :

His majesty proceeded northward to overthrow the

Mentiu Sati His majest y led the good way in procee d ing
to the palace S ekm em it ha d fallen together with the
wretche d Retenu I was formin g the rear guard when
the An kh u of the army join ed in combat with the Aa mu
P
alestinians
I
captured
an
Aam
and
I
caused
his
)
(
weapons to be seize d by two An kh u of the army for one
d id not turn back from the ght but m y face was to the
front and I did not give my ba c k to the Aam As S esos
tris lives I speak the truth Then he g ave me a staff of
ele c trum into m y hand a bow and a da gger wrou ght with
electrum together with his weapons

The hereditary prince count r m of sandal satised

in g oin g treadin g the path of him that favors him whose
plenty the lord of the Two L ands has furnishe d whose
seat his love has exalte d the g reat commandant of the
C ity Zaa he sa y s I have made for m y self this splen d id
tomb an d established its place at the stair c ase of the Great
God L ord of L ife P resi d er over Ab ydos at the bend
L ord of O fferin gs an d at the bend Mistress of L ife that
I may smell the incense that comes forth from this
as d ivine dew

Th e g reat commander of the cit y Zaa he says I was

born in the y ear twenty seven under the majesty of the
king of U pper an d L ower E gypt Nub kau Re (Amen em
het II ) triumphant Th e majest y of the kin g of Upper
I N b y r a d s N bt A t But t h i si g n app a rs b low in t h
insc ri ption a n d is quit d iff r nt T h i gn h r c o m s n a r st to t h i si gn
N bt n d not b a pa rt of t h n a m a n d fro m t h a n a lo g y of t h oth r na m s
on th st l a it is a titl si g nify in g wif or l a dy
E l A b h P l I V a r p ro d u c tion of whi c h is g iv n in P I I
-

ew

er r

ee

e S

e e

e,

e,

ra

n -n

e
-

e e

s-

P L AT E I

STE LA

SE BE K

OF

( F ro m G AR S TAN G

El

KH U

A r a ba h , P l I V )
.

D AT E ACCOR D IN G

TH E

To

JED

39

and L ower Egypt Khe kau Re ( S esostris III ) t r iumphant

appeared with a double diadem upon the horus throne
of the livin g His majesty c aused that I should render
servi c e as a warrior b ehind and beside his majesty with
ve men of the c ourt
I was ever ready at his side and his majesty promoted
me to b e a foll ow er of the ruler I furnished sixty men
when his majesty pro c eeded southward to overthrow the
Troglodytes of Nubia I c aptured a negro
along
side my c ity Then I proceeded northward following
with six of the c ourt ; then he appointed me c ommander
of the attendants and gave to me one hundred men as a

reward
In this ins c ription we have an Egyptian o f c ial who

w a s b orn in the year twenty seven of Amen emh et II

i e 1 9 1 7 B C This it will be noted was the same year
in whi c h Joseph was b orn ac c ord ing to the JED a cc ount
In the ins c ription he passes by entirely the reign of S esos
tris II According to the bibli c al ac c ount Joseph was at
the time of his reign in prison T his o f c er Sebek khu
got his great promotion at the accession of S esostris III
i e 1 8 8 7 B C Accordin g to JED this is the same year
in whi c h Joseph was made governor

1
:
1
In Gen 4 4 4 3 we are tol d that at this time imme
d ia tel y after this elevation the people started to say before

Joseph Ab rek
The proper translation of this is not yet

c ertain b ut it probably means B end the kn ee or B ow

the knee as it is translated in our En g lish versions It

is worth noti c ing that the c hief title of Sebek khu when he
was raised to ofce was in Egyp tian Wertu whi ch pro b a bly

means c ommandant the S ign for whi c h in Egyptian

is th e si g n of a ben d ed kn ee
-

THE

40

DAT E S OF

TH E E X O D I

The name of the father of this S ebek khu we render

a
e
The
resemblance
between
this
an
d
Jaco
b
which
J q p
in Hebrew is spelled J a qob is so remarkable as to need
no comment
In Gen 4 1 :4 5 we are tol d that Joseph received a secon d

Z a p h en a th P aneah
name
E gyptolo g ists are as yet
unable to agree just what could have been the original
from which this name could have come B u t Sebek khu

also received a secon d or beautiful name Zaa which

is an exact equivalent of the rst part of this se c ond name
of Joseph s
Joseph s wife in the JED account is called Asenath
The wif e of S ebe k khu had the name Is n t which vocal
i zed is A s en a t
The most remarka b le fact re c orded on this tablet of

Sebek khu s is the expedition to P alestine a g ainst the

Retenu an d the A a mu of S ekmem This is the rst cer
tain account in the monuments of the Mi d dle Kin gdom of
an expedition to this land The text indi c ates that there
had been a rebellion in S ekm em and that the Retenu had
fallen away Stil l from the monuments we do not kn ow
that Egypt ha d any possessions in P alestine at this time
And this absence of mention of such territor y is the more
remarkable when we remember that the monumental
recor d s of this period are ex c eed ingly full At any rate
we kn ow that at this time a great military expe d ition was
sent out to S ek m em Some scholars have sou ght to
i d entify this place with Shechem B u t this is probably
incorrect In the Gree k versions there are two wor d s
bo th of which are rendere d i n the Hebrew text Shechem
two wor d s so d ifferent as to presuppose di fferent ori g inals
-

IG

en

41 :
45,5 o

DAT E A CC ORD I N G T O

TH E

JE D

41

O ne of these is Syc hem ; the other is Sikima (a neuter

plural ) The Hebrew equivalent of the former is S h ec h
em;
of the latter S h i kmi m The Egyptian S ekmem is
an exa c t rendering of this latter A study of the Greek
text shows that Sikim a (S h ikmi m) is a name of the terri
tor y around Mount Ger izim or possibly south thereof
whil e Sychem ( Shechem ) was originally a personal name
given to the son of Hamor (the Amorite ) who settled in
middle P alestin e in the region afterward called S hechem
The Hebrew text has c onfounded and identied the two
names
S e b e k khu went down then to this S h ikm im or S ek
mem and c onquered a people called the Aa mu who had
rebelled Now these A a mu correspond to the biblical
Amorites When we remem b er this Gen 4 8 :2 2 b ecomes

signi c ant : Moreover I have given to thee S ikirn a

k
m
i
m
h
i
as
a
portion
a
b
ove
thy
brothers
w
hi
ch
I
too
k
S
(
)
out of the hand of the Amorite with my swor d and with

my b ow
These are the words of the dyin g Israel to
Joseph Now sin c e Joseph had become a subject of the
E g yptian ki ng his lan d s ha d be c ome subject territory
to that king Further these A a mu are mentioned as
having fallen in connection with the Retenu whose land
at this early time was the land east of the Jordan that
lan d which in the B ible is called the possession of L ot
Just before Israel died he requeste d that he be buried
in the lan d of C anaan ; and after his death Joseph set
out with an exp edition to full this dyin g request B u t he

took with him a great army With him went up all the ser
vants of P haraoh the elders of his house and all the el d ers
of the land of E gyp t an d all the house of Joseph an d his
brethren and his father s house
An d there went
.

THE

42

DAT E S OF

THE E X O D I

up with him both c hariots and horsemen : an d it was a

very great
Why all this for c e for a mere funeral
expedition ? Evidently there were battles to be fought
before that land c ould be used for buryi ng in whi c h Israel
had as ked to b e interre d

The funeral expedition proceeded to the threshin g

oor of A tad beyond Jordan and there Israel was b uried

Now we kn ow that when Israel had settled in C anaan years
before he had xed his ha b itation in S u cc oth south of

the Ja bb o k and east of the Jordan

A little later he

removed to b eyond the tower of

This Eder is
identi c al with the c ity known elsewhere as Edrei a c ity
of B ashan east of the Jordan It seems proba ble then
that the name of the threshing oor of A tad is a corruption
of the name of the threshing
oor of Eder d and r being
ex c eed ingly much alike in He b rew This pla c e and
indeed all this land east of the Jordan is lo c ated in the
land whi c h the Egyptians c alled the land of the Retenu
Nothing is more possible in V iew of all these facts than
that the expedition against the A a mu in S ekmem and
the Retenu is identi c al with that great warlike expedition
on which Israel was buried
It is true that the B ible
speaks of no great battles fought b y this military expedi
tion B u t it must be remem b ered that the bibli c al writer
is interested here merely with the patriarchal bearing of
the expedition an d not at all with its importance from
the point of view of Egyptian history
Was this Sebek khu the man whom we know as Joseph
O f course we are not a b le a b solutely to a frm it B u t
it is rare indeed that S O remarkable a parallel is found
.

IG
2

en

G en

1 1

G en

G en

DAT E A CC ORD IN G T O

THE

JED

43

bet w een b i bli c al narra tives and those of the monume n t s

B oth men are b orn in the same y ear of father s of the sa me
B oth marry wives of the same name
n a me
B oth a re
i c e the title of which in
ra ised in the same year to an o
b oth c ases is the same at whi c h time b oth are given bea u

tiful names that a re very S imilar And they b oth lead

expedition s against the same people s in the same land s
This remar k a ble c oin c i
in the reign of the same kin g
den c e demands explanation from those who c laim th a t a n
Exodus at this early date which we h a ve dedu c ed fro m
Kin gs and the e viden c e of JED itself is impossi ble
c ) A mong the scara b s of the Twelfth Dyn a sty whi c h
h a ve been d is c overed there are several whi c h b ear th e
name of Y a keb and several others with the name Y a keb

her whi c h means the God Y a keb whi c h c orrespond s

An d that this is to b e th e
to the title Kin g Y a keb
meanin g atta c hed is plain from the fa c t that the titl e

S on of Re is on these s c ara b s a title whi c h is reserved

for royal personages P etrie has suggested that th e

name of this k ing who w a s admittedly not an Eg yptia n

is derived from that of the S yri a n God Y a keb (or

Ja c ob) Thi s might b e plausible if there were any evi
den c e of the existen c e of su c h a God B ut unfortunately
there is no su c h eviden c e and his existen c e is merely
hypotheti c al Who then is this kin g Y a keb or Y a qeb ?
He cannot be one of th e Twelfth Dynasty for we kno w
who all of them were A nd moreover as we have said
.

I Acc ord in g to th Bi b l Jac o b d i d an d was b uri

e,

ca

8 60

T hi

is within t h r i gn of S sostris III ( 88 7 8 5 4

S om r a d Y k b oth rs Y q b(p) A t this arly tim th r was littl if
any d istinc t d i
b tw n k an d q Th sam thin g is tru in th arly
Ba by lonian insc ri p tions
P tri H i t y f E g yp t P art I p xxi ( 4th
e

eren c e

-1

ee

e,

s or

e e
e

e e

S CA RA B S O F J A CO B
S on of R Y k b

( F rom

Us r
e

Re t h e

N w b rry
e

e,

S C A RA B S O F
b lov d S on of

S c a r a bs ,

JA

O B -E L

R e, Y a q eb

P l XX II Nos
.

1 2

-el

30

g ivin g lif

P l XX III Nos
.

3)

D AT E A CCOR D IN G

T HE

To

J ED

45

the name is non Egyptian Stil l he lived in Egypt at

this very time May he not have been the S heik Ja co b
of the B i ble story ?
Yet one more cir c umstan c e rema ins to b e noted c on
c ernin g these s c arabs In the J and E do c uments Ja c o b
has two names Jaco b a nd Israel corresponding to the
b irth name and the thr one name of the Egyptian kings
Now there is a s c arab pu blished b y P rofessor P etrie in
whic h the birth name is given as Y a keb her ( Kin g Ja c o b)
and the throne name is Wser R e Any Egyptian or non
He b rew name b eginn ing in w b y the phoneti c laws of
He b rew must be Changed to y In Hebrew then this
throne name would b e Yser Re Now the E gp tia n Re
while properly the name of the S un God of Heliopolis
was often used for denoting god This Re then is equ iva
lent to the Hebrew El Thus we get the name Yser E l
whi ch of c ourse is an exa c t e quivalent for Israel We
have then the record of a non Egyptian kin g (of c ourse
an u nder kin g) resident in Egypt in the Twelfth Dynasty
whose birth name was King Jacob and whose throne
name was Israel This is either evidence of the truth
of the B ibli c al story or else it is a most remark able
c oin c iden c e
d ) L et us refer b ac k for a moment to S e b e k khu
The
stela that we have dis c ussed was erected in the reign of
S esostris III and does not pretend to give his later c areer
We know however from another monument that he
w a s stil l livin g in the nin th year of Am en emh et III i e
1 84 6 B C
At that time he must have b een seventy one
years old We nd him enga ged in superin tending the
kin g s observations of the height of the inundation with
I L p si s D kmal II 3 g b
-

en

'

er ,

T HE

RE I G N OF

H Y K SOS KI N G S

T HE

47

the title C ommander to the Ruler

O f the end of his
career or of anythin g other than this in his later career
the monuments tell us nothing There is then nothin g
i n the monuments to contradi c t an y later history of Joseph
which we may nd in the B i ble if indeed he and Sebek khu
are the same man
Th e Rei g n of th e H y k s os Ki n g s
The B i ble tells us that Joseph died at the a ge of one
hundre d and ten years i e in the year 1 8 0 7 B C
S trangely enough this is th e date of the death of the rst
of the Hyksos or Shepherd Kings
Manetho as quoted b y Josephus asserts that the H yk
sos ruled two hun d re d an d fty nine years and ten months
From the monuments an d from Josephus both we d raw
the date for the expulsion of these Hyk sos from E gypt
and nd that it is c a 1 5 66 B C
The be ginnin g of the
Hyksos rule is then about 2 60 years before this date or
ca
1 82 6 B C
T his falls within the reig n of Amen emh et
III the successor of Sesostris III And Josephus indeed

states that he was the ruler at the time

This it wil l be
seen places the be g inn i ng of the Hyksos rule in the n i ne
teen last years of the life of Joseph as g iven by the JED
documents in the B ible
The name of the rst Hyksos kin g was S a l itis or S a l a ti s
This name is a perfectl y good Semitic word and means

ruler
O ur sultan is d erived from it The H yksos

were certainl y a Semitic people from the beginning

.

IG

en

To
t een , A nc i en t C h ron ol og y ,

P art I p
P a rt I p
,

92

n
I t m y b only a c oin c i d n c b ut it is p rhap s worth notin g that Jos p h
r c iv d th titl gov rnor in E gy p t ( G
whi c h is r n d r d in
H b r w with l t of c ours a n xac t quiv a l nt of S li ti t h rst Hyksos
k in g
3

T o fft een , A nc i en t C h ron ol og y ,

e e

sa e

en

53,

e,

e,

s,

e e

48

DAT E S OF

TH E

TH E E X O D I

The second king of this H y ksos Dynasty was called

B n On
He ruled for fortyfour years after the death of
the rst kin g S a l iti s And Eusebius tells us that these
two kings were brothers and adds the interesting note
that it was in these times that Joseph was in E g ypt and
began to rule there The name of this se c ond king is
surprisin gly similar to B enoni the name given by Rachel
to her youn g est chil d a name which was changed by the
father ac c ord in g to the tribal idea to B enj amin
Not
only was B enoni or B enj amin Joseph s brother but he
was his younger b rother and his favorite brother The

question c omes naturally Was S a l i tis (the ruler) Joseph

and was E n On his younger b rother B enoni
The latter part of the reign of Am en emh et III was as
the monuments show one of perceptibly de c reasing
power And after him one wea k kin g and one weak
queen brought the Twelfth Dynasty to an inglorious close
M eanwhil e the Hyk sos starting as we have seen in the
middle of Amen emh et I I I s rei gn grew stron ger and
stronger until at the Close of the Twelfth D ynasty they
were the supreme overlord s of E gypt Is it too much to
suppose that Joseph as A men em h et I I I S great minister
in the latter part of his l ife g rew so strong that he was
able to throw off his allegiance to his weaken in g lord and
to found a dynasty of his own that which we call the
Hyksos
There is a blank in the records of the B ible from the
death of Joseph to the birth of M oses M eanwhile until
Ah m ose I S rei gn the monuments tell us that S emiti c
kin g s these Hyksos rule d in Egypt
.

IG

en

For

th e

r l ations of th Hyk sos to

l g y P a rt I pp
9
5
e

A n c i en t C h ron o

th e

2 1

T w lfth D y nasty c f
e

T o ffteen ,

TH E E X

OD U S OF

o us

of

Th e E x d

JED

49

J ED

ca
Final
l
y
under
Ah
m
o
I
1
6
6
B
these
se
C
H
k
)
5
y
sos were overthrown They may have b een expell ed in
part from E g ypt The monuments contrary to general
b elief do not give explicit evidence of this exp ulsion but
in View of the statements in Josephus it seems probable
The monuments d o imply that many of them were c ap
tu red and made slaves
And from this time on Semiti c
slaves are not uncommon in the in scriptions That
among these Semitic S laves there were Hebrew slaves is
not hard to believe Ma y this then the overthrow of
the Hyksos not be the b e g inn ing of the enslavement
of the people of which the J and E documents give
evidence
It is not hard to cal c ul ate the date of the birth of M oses
He died at the end of the forty years wandering forty
years that is after the date of the Exodus This was of
c ourse 1 4 0 7 B C He was then one hundred and twenty
years old
C onsequently he was born about 1 5 2 6 B C
At that t ime Thutmose I was king of Egypt
This ki ng had a dau ghter name d Hatshepsut one of
the truly remarkable women of all time S he was b orn

about 1 5 40 4 5 B C She must then have been b etween

fteen and twenty years of age when Moses is said to have
b een b orn The events of Moses early life and the history
of this Hatshepsut t to gether most remarkably S he
became c o regent with her father in 1 5 2 2 B C and after
his death became sole ruler of E g ypt in 1 5 0 8 B C She
would indee d make a powerful patroness for a humble
Hebrew She died in 1 4 86 B C and was succeeded by
her half b rother T h u tmose III who hated her so that he
I D ut

DAT E S OF

THE

0
5

TH E EX O D I

erased her name from all the monuments which he c ould

lay his hands on Her partisans doubtless all ed If
they ha d not done so their deaths must soon have resulted
Now if the b iblical dates are to be trusted this must have
been in Moses fortieth y ear seein g that he was born in
1 52 6 B C
and this death took pla c e in 1 4 86 B C An d
Josephus in d eed states that Moses di d ee from Egypt
in his fortieth year
We kn ow of Th u tmose III that he used Asiati c serf
la b or for bri ck ma ki n g and for building his numerous
temples So states expli c itly his vizier Rekh mire
We
know also that he had Hebrews in his army
The cruel
grim Th u tmose III ts beautif t
with the P haraoh of
the O ppression accord in g to JED
Thutmose III d ied in 1 4 5 0 B C If the Exodus too k
place in 1 4 4 7 B C then it must have happene d in the
reign of Amenhotep II three years after Thutmose I I I S
d eath
An d indeed the B ible says that P haraoh the
O ppressor d ie d and that then it was that Go d appeared
to Moses an d sent him back to lead out the people Now

Amenhotep s constant title on the monuments is Ruler

of Heliopolis whi c h indicates that that was his residen c e

cit y And Heliopolis is only a few miles distant from
Goshen where accor d ing to JED the people were c en
Thus the frequent visits of Moses to P haraoh were
ter ed
neither inconvenient nor improbable An d perhaps
the utter absence of all record of a Hebrew exodus at this
time is d u e to the fact that most of the inscriptions and
monuments of Heliopolis have been forever lost from the
face of the earth
.

I A RE II
2

7 5 8, 7 5 9

P apy rus H arris

50

TH U TM O S E III I N S P E C T S
B RI C KM A KE R S
P l XX I )
( F rom N w b rry Th L if f R kh m

RE KH M A RE ,

V IZ I E R

A T

OF

e o

a ra ,

TH E

RE KH M A RE ,

( F ro m

V IZ I E R
N

ew

A T
R

II

TH U TM O S E III I N S P E CT S
B RI C KM A KE RS
P l XX I )
y Th L if f R kh m

b err

OF

e o

a ra ,

TH E

TH E E X
Th e

OD U S OF

on qu es t a n d

the

JED

53

Am a r
a rn

P e i od

w
Follo
ing
the
Exodus
ac
c
ord
ing
to
JED
there
f)
was a forty years wandering i n the wil derness
The
absen c e of all monumental evidence of this is not surpris
in g for monuments do not as a rule mark the path of
nomadic tribes Some forty years after leavin g E g ypt
the y entered P alestin e i e c a 1 40 7 B C
Now at this time Amenhotep III was k ing of Egypt
He reigned from 1 4 3 8 to 1 4 0 2 an d was su cc eeded by his
son Amenhotep IV who ruled from 1 40 7 to I 3 70
Duri ng
these two rei gns falls the s o c alled A marna period for
during it the Am arna letters were written
Most of these letters were unearthed in 1 888 in the
modern city of Tel el Amarna Three hun d red and ten
were found at this tim e Now there have been dis c overed
about 3 5 0 in all They are d espat c hes and reports A
few are written by kin g s of B abylonia A ssyria M it ani
the Hittites and Arzawa to the kings of E gypt Amen
B y far the larger number
h otep III and Amenhotep IV
however are reports to the E g yptian kings ladies of the
court and hi gh offi cials from C anaanitic prin ces and
governors These letters are ver y import ant to us in this
our surve y for they expose to View the conditions in all
parts of C anaan at the ver y time when if the biblical
dates are correct the Hebrew people were enteri n g that
lan d
At the be g inn ing of the period of these letters it
is plain that E gypt is sovereign over all C anaan B u t
it becomes increasingly apparent that the Egyptian power
is i n this region a g radually de clin i n g one This d e cline
is seen to be due to two causes one internal the other
external The in ternal cause is that several of the tri bu
,

THE

54

D AT E S

O F THE E X O D I

tary princes are apparently determined to revolt whil e

others are equally determined to remain faithful to Egypt
Thus intri g ues are astonishingly frequent and complex
while the most remarkable lies are being continually
passed aroun d in a most uns c rupulous d iplomac y Whil e
this internal d isruption is weakenin g their d efensive power
the E gyptian provinces in C anaan are being harassed by
three external trouble makers
In the north the Hittites are ma k ing conquests and
movin g southwar d All over the land are rovin g bands

c alled s a g a z whi c h seems to mean the robbers a

people whose ori g in is unkn own but who may have some
c onnection with that portion of the Hyksos whi ch had
b een driven out of E gypt if Josephus be correct some
c entur y and a half before In the south in the vicinity
of Jerusalem there are two peoples entering from a south
easterly direction one called H a bi re the other called
,

S u tu

H a bi

re ?
Who were these invaders called
By
Winc kler and st ill more b y Kn ud tzon they are thought
to have been either precursors of the biblical Hebrews
or else the bibli c al Hebrews themselves It is our r m
c onviction that Kn u d tzon s supposition is corre c t that these
are none else than the bibli c al He b rews Those who
express doubts concernin g this seem to do so be c ause of
unwill ingness to accept the biblical d ates and for little
other reason The names are exactl y the same an d the
Chronologies t perfectly
And even the acts which these H a bi re are represented
as doing are the same in man y instances as those of the
biblical record s For instance they attack the city of
-

I Di

E l -A ma rn a -Taf el n ,

pp

4 5 63
-

OD U S OF

TH E E X

J ED

55

Jerusalem
The B ible in b oth Judges and Joshua
says the same thin g

Aga in there is a letter from a c ertain Mu t B aal to

In it
Y a n h a mu E gyp ta in c apta in general in P alestine
he reports that a certain A ia b has ed ; that the kin g of

i
B
n
B i ti lim has also ed ; that there are three men
e
e

I
u
u
shu
ia
whom
he
thi
n
k
s
ni
d
d
a
and
a
J
( )
Y a n h a m u ought to call to a cc ount for the defection of these
k in gs ; that some sub king has b een driven out of the city
of Astarte ; that Ud u mu A d u re A ra ru Me ish tu
M a a g d a lim H i n ia na b i and Z a ar
all cities of
the land of G a re are in revolt and that two cities

H a pi u i and J a b i shi have been c aptured

How does this t in with the biblical records of the tim e
of the c onquest ? Aia b who had ed may be identied
with the biblical Hoba b (which in the Greek is written
I K d t VB II Nos 8 5 9
Josh
Ju dg
Win ck l r No 37
Th nam is g n r a lly r a d B i h i si
S u c h a lo cal nam is oth rwis
unk nown in P al stin b oth in th Bi b l an d in t h m onum nts But t h
si g ns ca n also b r a d B i ti lim E xc p t for th
of t ( H b r w t th ) th
nam is a n xac t quiv a l nt of th b i b li c al B th l Nor c an this b r gard d
as an insu p rab l o bstac l in vi w of t h fac t that at this ti m
not i f
qu ntly n d m ph ati c s us d wh r
p c t sp ir a nts an d vi c v rsa
La t r Wh il r ad in g p roof of this s c tion th p r s nt writ r r c iv d
B Oh l D i S p
in pa g s 8 an d 9 of whi c h
h d Am
b i f ( L i pz ig
num rous x am p l s of th in d isc ri m inat int rc han g of d t a n d t in th s
l tt rs O f s p c i a l int r st to us is th
of ti ( i gn h i ) for ti T h id t i
c ation i this nam B i ti li m with th b i b li c al B th l is thus a b solut ly c rtain
p l a in in t h p hotog rap h of this l tt r Both
O nl y t h two l a st si gns
K dt
a n d W in ck l r r a d it T Th latt r pa rt of t h i g n is how v r
c l arly d an d th r
trac s of a p r c d in g I si g n
T h n a m H p i i whi c h c an also b r a d H wa ni is a g o g ra p hi c al
nam unknown in ast rn P al stin or in a ll P al stin for that m att r I as
sum th r for that th sc ri b h a s l ft out th f si gn whi c h c onsists of a sin g l
hori z ontal w dg an d that th n am shoul d b r a d Ii f p i i T his is an
xac t quival nt of th b i b li c al H sh b on

nu

zo n ,

ra c

e e a re

e e

e,

-u

e,

a-

e,

e S

e a

e e

e,

e,

en

e e

e e

e e

e e

a re

n re

e- e

e u se

zo n

r e e

e e

a rna

e we

er

nu

e e w e ex

e u se

e,

a re

1 1

e,

e e

a -a

OB v E R S E

li s t I E v
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57

who had been living near J eric h o fb u t w h o left there

and went up to settle in the hi ghlan d s of Judah
The
kin g of B i ti lim w h o also ed is probably to be i d enti e d
with the ruler of the people of B ethel the house of Joseph
whi c h Joshua persuaded to join his army
The letter
pla c es the blame for these defections upon thr ee men O ne
of these is (I ) u d d u a who ma y be i d entie d with Ehu d

Another
t h ejudge who lived in Jericho at this very tim e
of them is J a shu ia which is so similar to the biblical
Joshua as to make identication almost instin ctive The

third of the men B i en e n i (ma ) may be B eon (or Meon )

of Num 3 2 :3 3 8 and the name is i d entical with the com
mon Hebrew name B en On i S even cities of the lan d of
This is the
G a re the letter de clares to be in rebellion

same as the B iblical land of Gerah (which name save

for the late Massoreti c pointing can just as well be read
Gareh ) a land in the southern portion of the older land of
O f the seven cities six can be identied with
B enjamin
out much d ifculty with six biblical cities all in this lan d
namel y Admah Eder Aroer ( Meshah
Mi gdal Anab
and Zoar The sub kin g so says the letter has been
driven out of the City of Astarte which of course is the

biblical Ashtaroth captured by Moses

F i nall y H a pi n i
and J a b i shi are said to have been captured T hese cities

are to be identied with Heshbon captured b y Moses

Ai a b ) ,

I Judg

with whi c h c f Judg

an d N m
8
Cf p
Cf A pp n d ix II p 3
G ra is a son of B nj am in But a s b oth E hu d an d S a ul
ds n
dants of this G r ah or G ar h it is vi d nt th a t son st a n d s h r for p o p l
or l a n d
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D AT E S

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an d Jabesh a city near b y which must also have been

captured by Moses since he too k the whole country round
abou t
Ac c ording to this letter then c ities east of the Jordan
have been capture d the lan d around the Dead S ea and
the lower Jordan is in anarchic revolt the governor has
ed from Astarte and , inuence d by certai n men several
of the g overnors have deserted the Egyptian c ause No th
in g could harmonize better with the events of the last year
of Moses an d the rst of Joshua as given us in the JED
accounts in the B ible
O ne of the names in Mut B aal s letter we have read
ud du a
I
If
the
reading
may
b
e
accepted
the
iden
( )
It
t i c a ti on with the biblical Ehud lies close at han d
would seem that this man was quite important if a num
b er of the letters ascribed to a certain judge Addi belong
to him The name in these letters is written Si ip tu (ti )
Ad d i T h e rst part of the name thus read Si ip tu is

an equivalent of the Hebrew Sop h et meaning jud g e

This much then is not a part of the name but is a title
This is made the more pro b able by some other letters
from we are convinced the same man where the name is
written A dd i d an or Addi Sip tu Here the second part
of the name is expressed i d eographically with the S ign for
The important fa c t is that in these letters
s i tu follows after A dd i which in the other letters it pre
p
cedes thus showing that it is not an integral part of the
Ju dg
4
6
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4
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64

TH E D

ATE S

O F TH E E X OD I

am e bu t r ath er a t i t l e We have thus th e w elco me

n ews
that in th e A m arn a p er i od th ere wa s a m a n
b ea rin g th e t i tl e of jud ge in th e sa me s en s e t hat th e
wo r d i s us ed in th e B ook of Ju dges at th e t im e wh en
acco rd in g to b i bl i cal ch r o n o l o g y E hu d should have
b een in that pos it i on
Th e n a m e of th i s ju d ge has b een r ead by W in c kl er
a n d m os t oth er Assyr i olo g i sts as Ad d i or Adad
It i s
wr i t t en w ith th e id eogr aph for Hadad or Ada d A n I m
Kn u d tz on s read in g
a n d th e read in g s eem s to b e co r r ect
of B aal seem s to r est on i n su f c ien t gr ou n ds for A n I m
m ost c er ta in ly i s th e i d eo gr aph for Ada d
At a n y r a t e in on e of t h es e l etters Judge Add i wri t es
to E gyp t tha t h i s c i ty of Tu mu r ( ka ) has been tak en away
fr o m h im a n d that th ere i s d i s c o n t en t even reb ell i o n
Now ta mm i s th e A r ab i c p lu r al of ta mer
in th e c i ty

pal m t r ee a n d co rr espo n ds to th e H ebrew

m ean i n g

plu ral tema ri m m ea n in g pal m t rees wh i ch at th i s t im e

was th e n a me of Jer i cho E hu d s ho m e Th i s jud ge th en
wr i t es that Jeri cho i s in r eb ell i o n a n d th e govern o r sh i p
has b een tak en away fr o m h im B ut a t th i s t ime if w e
ma y trust th e B i bl e Ehud i s ju dg e in J eri cho a n d at th i s
ver y t im e Joshua wi th h i s a r m y i s d r awin g n ear t o tak e
th e c i ty
Now th ere was a cap ta in of th e a r m y of Y ahw eh who
vi s i t ed Joshua a few d ays b efo re th e s iege of Jericho b eg an
May n ot th i s capta in have been th e capta in of a p eop l e
who wo r sh i p Y ahw eh i n st ead of th e sup ern atu ral sup er
n

i s c ri p ti
p 6 l 4
r d s fr m t h m
K dt
c rt i b t pr f Wi c k l r d S
J sh
4
I

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TH E C

ON Q
UE S T

OF

JED

65

hu m an a gen t wh i ch p eopl e o rd in arily s uppos e h im to ha ve

been ? May h e n ot have been even Judge Ehu d h im s elf
who wa s a Y ahweh wo r s h ip er a n d a Hebrew who aft er
hi s d epos i t i o n fr o m th e go vern o r shi p of Jer i c ho had
d ec id ed t o m ake co mm o n cau se wi th Jo shua s fo r c es
aga in st th e c i ty ? An d if t h i s b e s o w e c a n eas ily u n d er
s tan d how th e walls of Jeri cho fell to th e in vad er s a t a
s hou t a s hout wh i ch wa s merely th e p rea rr an ged s ig n al
f or c o op er at in g revol t b y a pa rty w i th in th e c i ty
Tw o l et t er s a re wr i t t en by a c er tain wo ma n who s e
n a m e has b een r ead in va ri ous way s bu t i s n ot c er t a in ly
t o b e d et ermin ed
Her pos i t i o n i s s o u n i qu e t ha t a
n u m ber of Assyri ologi s t s hav e c o m pa r ed h er wi th th e
bi bl i cal D ebo rah P o ssi bly th e n ame in thi s l et t er should
B u t m o re p r oba bly D ebo rah i s a mere
b e read D ebo r ah

t i tl e h eld by a wo m an w h o h eld th e ofc e of p roph et ess

whos e n ame ha s been lo s t fr o m th e bi bl ic al rec ord s A t
3
a n y r a t e w e ha ve s een a bo ve
t ha t D ebo r ah belon g s t o
t h i s v er y A m arn a p eri od t ha t sh e wa s a c on t empo ra ry
of Joshua a n d t hat s h e wa s on e of th e c o mm an d er s in th e
w a r wi t h Ja b in of Ha z o r a n d on e of t ho se who thu s en a bl ed
t h e H eb rew p eopl es t o u n i t e p erm a n en tly
Th ese exa mpl es serve very w ell t o ill u s t r a te th e bea rin g
t hese A ma rn a l etter s ha ve on th e h isto ri c i ty of th e JED
ac c ou n t Th e h i s t o ri cal si tua t io n wh i c h they p resen t
a s ex i s t in g in P al est in e a t thi s t im e i s exactly that wh i c h
t h e bi bl i c al a cc ou n t fr o m i ts po in t of View p res en t s
,

Kun d t zon , D i e E l -A ma m a Taf el n N o

,

Ur

M a b M es
-

a nd

i t rpr ts it l dy f l i
c t d ith H b r
y b c
n e

rhm
r cl p l c
P 3 ; cf A p p d ix II p
9

D eb o
-

o a

on n e

en

30

ons
e

73 ,

r d s th
ea

e n a m e a mltu

B el i t

ew

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to

sp k
ea

a nd

d ebi r ,

L E TTE R

F RO M

A LA D Y

IN

P AL E S TIN E

V A Th , N o
.

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686

m M OS E , I - I V , N o

37)

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L E TTE R

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( Fr

A LAD Y IN P AL E S TIN E

m M OS E , I I V , N o

3 8)

68

TH E D

AT E S

Th e

O F THE E X O D I

i d i it s i
an

JED

i
n
n
h
i
r
m
re
B
bl
says
that
wh
Mos
s
a
y
d
w
e
e
e
a
d
s
g)

n i g h to Moab B alak k i n g of Moab ask ed

th e el d er s of

M id i an for a id
T h e co n t ext in d i cat es that th es e
M id i an i t es w ere n eighbo r s of Moab It is i m poss i bl e
to assu me that Moab was here d ea l in g w i th th e M id ia n i t es
of th e n o r th ern S in a it i c p en in su l a or w ith th e M id ian i t es
h
n d of M i t a n i i n M eso p ota mi a
r
en t ly
o
of
l
a
Appa
r
er
e
t
p p
o n t h e a d v i c e of th es e eld er s of M i d i a n B alak s en t for
B alaa m a M id i an p r iest He s en t for h im cl ea r u p to th e
c i ty of Petho r wh i ch i s on th e upp er Euphrat es i n th e
la n d of M ita n i Th i s passage has greatly pu zzl ed c om
m en ta tors for a lan d of M i d i an in th e i mmed iat e vi c in i ty
of Moab has b een felt to b e imp oss i bl e Th e accu ra c y
of th e bi bl ical sto ry has th erefo re been im pu gn ed
I n th e su mm er of 1 9 0 7 however W in ckl er excava t ed
th e r u in s of th e m od ern B o g ha z koi locat ed in Ca p p od o c ia
wh i ch p roved to b e th e old ca p i tal of th e H i tt i t es Not
o n l y H i tt it e in sc ript i o n s wer e fou n d but also so m e i n
B abylo n i an cu n ei fo rm sc r ipt a n d la n gua ge T h e h i sto r y
of th e H itt i t es fr o m th e t i m e of A m en hot ep III of E g ypt
dow n to th e en d of th e N in et een th E g ypt i a n D yn as t y ha s
by th es e excava t io n s been co n s id er ab l y cl ea red up It wa s
in th is p er i od that th e H i tt i t es b eg an to expa n d a n d to g o
south to co n qu er P al est in e T h ere a r e co n s equ en tly
a n u m b er of referen c es t o k in g s a n d even ts in Syri a a n d
P al est in e
I n pa r t i cular a g oo d d ea l of l ig ht h a s been th row n upo n
th e la n d of M i t a n i i n M eso p ota m i a
We kn ew b efo re
fro m th e A m a rn a l ett ers th e n a mes of a few of th eir g reat
k in g s e g Arta ta ma (I ) S u tta rn a a n d D u s h ra tta Th e

Th e

N um

TH E C

ON QUE S T

J ED

OF

69

wa s c o n t em po r ary w i th Am en hot ep III a n d l ived

a few year s in to th e r ei gn of A m en hotep I V Fr o m t hes e
n ew in s c ri p t i o n s w e l earn t hat th er e wa s a b r an c h of th e
k in gly l in e head ed by Arta ta ma (II ) c o n t empo r ar y w i th
D u sh r a tta a n d s u rvi vin g h im i e in th e t ime of th e
Am arn a l ett er s a n d if th e B i bl e b e c o rrec t th e t i me of
T h i s Arta ta ma (II ) was n ot kin g
th e H ebr ew c o n qu es t
of th e lan d of M i t an i on th e upp er Euphr at es bu t r ul ed
over a p eopl e call ed th e Harre a p eopl e wh i ch th e Hebrews
kn ew as th e Ho ri t es a n d wh i ch w e kn ow b oth fr o m th e
Egyp t ian in scrip t io n s a nd fro m th e B i bl e l ived sou t h a n d
w est fro m Edo m t owar d th e bo rd er of Egyp t Th e in fer
en c e i s t ha t th i s A r ta t a m a (II ) had co m e down wi th so m e
M it an i follow er s fr o m th e lan d on th e Euphr a t es a n d had
co n qu ered so m e Hori t e c lan in s outhern P al es t in e Th ere
wa s th en a M itan i p eopl e a M id i an p eopl e who l i ved
as n eighbo rs t o Moab a t th e t im e when a cc o rd in g t o JED
B alak of Moab w i s h ed to co n sul t t h em An d th e c on
n ec ti on b et w een t h es e M id i a n i t es a n d thos e of th e pa r en t
lan d of M i t an i is plain in th e B i bl e i t s elf wh en w e rem em
b er tha t aft er co n su l t in g th e el d er s B alak s en t to th e ho m e
lan d to M id i an or to M it an i up in th e n o r th for a p ries t
t o c u r se h i s en emies
d 37
A th r p rt f t h b i b l i c l hist ry f
M D OG ; N 3 5 pp 3
d l c i d ti
this ti m r c iv s c rm ti
fr m th s
ly d is c v r d
th
g r f Y hw h w
w
I
J dg
t l d th t
m
m ts
ki d l d g i st I sr l d h s l d th m i t th h d f C sh Ri h th im
f I sr l t h
ki g f M s p t m i
Th c hi l d r
s rv d this ki g f
i gh t y rs ti l O th i l d l iv d th m fr m h im Wh
this C sh
m h r f
M s p t mi
R i h t h im ki g f M s p t m i ? Th H b r
is A m N h im w hi c h is th q iv l t f th E gypti N h i
p rt
m
b y th
f Mit a i
Th
f th
hi c h t this ti m
k
m
f
ki g hi m s lf C sh Ri h th im is r d r d i t h G r k w hi c h
w
m ti l t d H b r
h v
f t s i d is s lly m r cc r t th
ith C A th im Th l tt r h lf f this m is
x c t q iv l t f

l ast

en

on u

e o

ea

ra

us

er e

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an-

en

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na

an
e

e o

an e a

e o
,

a e
e

or

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as

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a r na , a

e na

ee

ou r

o w as

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as

or

e e

a n-

an

e o

u a e

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T H E D AT E S O F T H E E X O D I

70

III

We n d th en that

c si on s

Con l u

P accou n t of th e Exodu s wh en
taken by i ts elf is p er fectly auth en t i cat ed by th e mo n u
We
m en t s of th e Ni n et een th a n d Tw en t iet h dyn ast ies
n d al s o that th e JED accou n t wh en co n si d ered apar t
fr o m P a n d in co n n ect i o n wi th th e stat emen t in I Ki n gs 6 :
too by :( I )
I i n r ega r d to t h e E xo d us i s auth en t i cat ed
th e m o n u m en ts r eg ar d i n g th e Is r a el i t es who Vi s i t ed Egypt
at th e t i me of Josep h s b ein g sold ; ( 2 ) th e S ebek khu
st ela ; ( 3 ) th e Jacob a n d Jacob Isr a el s ca r ab s ; (4 ) th e
r eco rd s of t h e Hyksos ; ( 5 ) t h e m o n u men ts of Hatsh epsut
a n d Thut m os e III ; (6) t h e A m a r n a l et t er s ; a n d ( 7 ) th e
n ewly d i scov er ed H i tt i t e i n sc r i pt i o n s
Th e evi d en c e i s so st r o n g that i t i s w i thout h es itat io n
that th e hypo t h esi s of two ex od i i s adva n c ed a n d th e
followi n g dat es a s s ign ed to th em :
,

th e

JED
i n E g yp t
T h e b e i n n in g o f t h e pp res s i on
T h e E xod u s
set t lem en t

Th e

T h e b e i n n in

of

t h e c on

B
I 5 66 B
1 44 7 B
1 40 7 B
1

ca

q u es t

877

P
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The

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O
T h e E x od u s
T h e a r ri va l i n P a l es tin e
Th e

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ou

ow

na

e,

r a a

ea n
s

ew

ou

on e

A rt a t a ma

n a me

H br

e n

a e

w as

ne

is

2
0
34

1 1

83

B
B
B

ca

1 1

44

ca

1 1

41

p l t l si b i l t it is i v ri bl y
r d r d i Ar m i c ith t ) N i t h i s c ri p ti s f d t B gh z koi
th r is m ti d c ity i Mit a i c ll d K
hi c h s m s th s m th
rst h lf f th b i bl i c l m i C ( ) T h m f this ki g th l g
m y st ri s m
s si m p l y A t t m f K
Th r is d b t th t
A t t m
this C sh Ri h t h im
th
Mi d i it ki g w h r l d v r
t h H rit s f s
th r P l sti ( M D O G N 3 5 p
th e

( Wh en

sh

a a a

an

on

ou n

u u s -sa r , w

us a r

ee

e na

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o e

C HA P T E R XX II
S i mil a r i ti es i n th e Tw o S t ori es

o n ly v al id grou n d of obj ec t io n to th e hypothesi s of

t h e t wo ex od i s eem s to b e that th e s to r i es a r e too s i m ila r
t o b e an yt hi n g m o re tha n d iff eren t ver si o n s of th e sa me
h i s t o r y E ven allow i n g for th e co n fusi o n whi ch was
curr en t in th e min d s of those who in la t er t imes co m bin ed
th e accou n t s a fac t wh ic h m u s t n ot b e u n d er est i m at ed i t

ma y w ell b e ask ed
How c a n t h ese rem a rkabl e s imila ri

t ies b e expla in ed on th i s n ew doubl e exodus bas i s ?

F or in s t an c e i s i t i n t ri n s i cally p r o b abl e that th ere
should have been two ex od i of n ea rly r elat ed S em i t i c
p eopl es or even two d i st in c t sojou rn in gs in Egypt ? How
do es it happ en t hat th e t wo r out es a re so s imila r a n d t ha t
th ey have p r ac ti cally th e sam e star t in g po in t a n d th e
sa me poin t of arr ival ? How c a n th e t wo v ery si mila r
law givi n g s th e on e at Ho reb a n d th e oth er a t a d iff eren t
m ou n ta in S in ai b e exp lain ed ? Why a re th e t wo s et s
of p l a gu es so similar ? Fin al ly a n d m ost of a l l how d o es
i t hap p en that both ex odi w ere l ed by a t ri o of men of th e
same n ames Mos es Aaro n a n d Joshua ?
O f cou r s e all th es e obj ect i o n s a re n a t u r al a n d do
d em an d a n an sw er An d w e m u s t ad mi t that t h ey s eem
t o us ver y rea l a n d i mpo r tan t O n a cc ou n t of th em th ere
was for a lo n g t ime gr eat h es itan cy on ou r ow n par t about
acc ep t in g th e su ggest ed h ypoth esi s We r eco gn i ze th e
feel in g tha t i s d oubtl ess in th e m in ds of m an y r ead er s
th e i m p r ess i o n that th e th eo r y i s p r epos t er ous th e u n w il
Th e plaus i bil it y
l in g n es s to c on sid er i t as ev en pos si bl e
Th e

71

72

I MI L A RI T I E S I N

TW O S T O R I E S

THE

valu e of th e th eo ry r em ain to b e co n s id ered in th e

last chapt er L et us n ow take up th es e m o re p r o min en t
s imilarit ies wh ich have occu rred to us a n d doubtl ess to
m an y i f n ot m ost of ou r rea d er s a n d s ee if th eir ad mi tt ed
d if c ult ies a re so great as to b e in su rm ou n tabl e
I Th e I tri si c P ssi b i l i t y f Tw E d i
It must b e remem b ered that each of th e migr at i on s in to
E gyp t if th ere w ere two i s a c cou n t ed for by a famin e in
P al est in e I t is n ot to b e fo r g ott en tha t E gypt esp ec i ally
t h e Ni l e V all ey was th e n a t u r al sto r ehous e or g r a n a r y of
w est ern Asi a It s eem s p r obabl e th en that th ere should
have b een co n t in ual m igr at io n s fro m wes t ern As i a in t o
a n d out of E g yp t a c co r d in g as th e foo d su p pl i es i n th es e
n ei g hbo ri n g cou n t r i es wan ed or i n c r eas ed
A n d f r o m exam in at io n of th e m o n u m en t s We s ee that
ther e w ere m a n y migrat io n s f r o m t ime to t ime both in to
a n d out of E g ypt f r o m th e lan s to i t s east
F or exa m pl e :
d
M
I
i
n
K
h
i
i
i
n
t
h
I
t
Dy
asty
a
n
u
h
o

g
ht
s
w
th
As
at
cs
e
e
e
t
t
( )
p
i n th e n eig hbo rhoo d of T h eb es ; ( 2 ) th e ver y la rge n u m b er
of S emit ic n a mes fou n d in th e m o n u men t s of th e X I I th
D yn asty show that th ere m ust have b een n u mer ous As i at i c
s ettl em en ts in Egyp t at that t ime ; ( 3 ) th e Hyk sos p eo p l e
fro m th e X I I I th to th e X VI I th dyn ast ies a r e ad mi tt edly
Asia ti c ; (4 ) i n th e X VI I I th Dyn asty w e have a n exp res s
s tat emen t by H a remh a b that h e gav e pastu re la n ds t o

fa min e st ri k en Asiat ics ; 5 ) in th e X I X th Dyn asty w e

have a n oth er stat em en t to th e eff ect that M ern eptah a l so
g ave p astu re l a n d s to oth er Asiat ic s a n d esp ec i a l ly to
E d o mit es fro m Mou n t S eir : (6) in th e t ime of th e XX VI th
Dyn asty both G reeks a n d S emi t es s ett l ed i n la rge n u mb er s
i n E g ypt ; a n d ( 7 ) i n th e P er s ia n p eri od fr o m C a m byses
Cf T fft
A i t Ch
l g y P rt I p
34
a nd

xo

een ,

n c en

r on o o

TH E S

I M I L A RI T Y

O F T H E L AW-

G IV I N G S

73

o n wa rd S em it es w ere must er ed in to th e Per sian a rmies

in Egyp t a n d as th e A s u a n El ephan t in e p apyr i att est
th e J ews w er e n u mer ous i n th e r egi o n of th e r st catar act
Pri o r to thi s t ime th e p r ophecies of J eremi ah t est ify tha t
large n u m ber s of Jews s et tl ed in E gyp t at th e F all of
Jer usal em
Fu r ther th e d i stan ce fr om Jerusal em to th e bord er of
Egypt by way of th e P hil i st in es was o n ly abou t t wo
hu n d red mil es a n d by way of Shu r th r ough th e wild ern ess
Why in those semin o m ad i c t imes should
even sho r t er
w e d eem i t i m p r obabl e that J ewi sh ba n d s i m p ell ed by
hu n ger or other caus es wan d ered down to Egypt a n d
b ack again n ot two o n l y but half a do zen t im es ? Th e
o bj ect io n wh i ch m a y seem at r st glan c e so in sur m ou n t
abl e really has l i ttl e fo r ce
,

II

Th e S i mi l a ri t y

We have shown tha t

of

th e R ou t es

out es a re an yt hin g
bu t id en t i cal N ever th el ess i t ma y b e u r ged that t h eir
gen er al out l in e i s susp i c i ously th e s ame Th i s ma y b e
gr an t ed Th e geo gr aphi cal co n d i ti on s m ad e i t pos si bl e
t o go b y lan d fr o m E gypt t o Ju d aea in on ly two ways by
way of th e Ph il i st in es or by way of Shu r If a ma n wi sh es
to take a n ei ght een hou r t r ain fr o m C hi ca g o to New Y o rk
h e has th e choi c e of onl y t wo r out es
If a t r avel er t akes
two t ri ps on on e of t h ese l in es say th e P en n sylvan i a a re
w e n ec essa ri ly to assu me that th ey a r e n ot r eally t wo t ri ps
bu t o n ly on e ? Th e r out es t ak en out of Egypt could n ot
ha ve b een an yt h in g else than s imilar
th e

t wo

III

Th e S im l a r i t y

of

t h e La w -G

ivi gs
n

u r ged t ha t b o t h lawgi vin gs w ere on m ou n tain s

B u t a mon g an c ien t s th e m ou n t a in wa s oft en r egard ed a s
It

is

I I A RI T I E S I N

S M L

74

TW O S T O R I E S

T HE

p ecul ia rly th e abo d e of d ivi n ity a n d th i s i s esp ec ially t ru e

a m o n g th e S em it es Mo reover Y ahw eh th e H eb rew
G o d was reg ar d ed as ess en t ial l y a m ou n ta in g o d
I n both cas es tabl es of sto n e w ri tt en w i th th e n g er O f
G o d w er e d el i vered Sto n e a n d c l ay thou gh w ere o n ly
th e co m m o n w ri t i n g m at eri a l s of that t i m e as th e m o n u
m en ts of th e Hi tt i t es th e E gypt i a n s th e Assyr i an s th e
B abylo n i a n s a n d th e A m a rn a l ett er s a ll t est ify T hat
i n both cas es G o d shoul d b e sai d to hav e w ri tt en th e laws
All
i s n o t r em a r kab l e or p ecul i a r to th es e law g i vi n g s
l aws i n thos e t imes w er e suppos ed to have b een given
d irect l y by G o d An d i s it n ot t r u e that in th e H a m
m u ra b i cod e Sha m ash th e g reat ju dge of H eav en holds
th e stylus i n h i s ha n d as th e co d e i s d el i ver ed
,

IV

i i ri t i s

Th e S m l a

P l a g u es

i n th e

It m a y b e thou ght that c er tain l y th e plagu es a r e too

m uch th e sa m e for th er e to have b een two s ets of th em
B ut l et us see what th e pla gu es a re i n each of th e accou n ts
I n J E D w e hav e : ( I ) wat er tu rn ed to b l ood
( 2 ) fr o g s
6
S
( 3 ) ies (4 ) Mu rr a in ( 5 ) h a il (6) locust s ( 7 ) da r k
8
n ess
a n d ( 8 ) d eath of th e rs t bo rn
I n P w e n d ;
I
rn ed to blood
wat
er
tu
2
f
r
o
a
n
d
l
i
c
s
e
( )
3
( )
g
(4 )
( )
bo ils a n d bl a in s
It m a y b e co n s id er ed that th e p r es en c e
of th e P assover p r esu p poses th e d eath of th e r stbo rn in
P B ut if ou r th eo r y b e co rr ect th is do es n ot n ec essar ily
Ex d
8
b
b
b 5
Ex d
Ex d 9 : 3 35
4 8
5 b

Ex d
Ex d
3
Ex d
Ex d
7
9
Ex d
;
3
3
5
7
9 4
Ex d
Ex d
9
E x d 8 :5 7
Ex d
s
.

I o

1 2

1 0

2 o 2 I a

2 2

1 0

2 0 0

2 0

2 1 6- 2 2 0

2 1 2

I I

1 2

1 2

THE S

I M I LAR I TY I N

N AM E S

TH E

O F TH E L E

A D E RS

75

follow for at th e t ime of th e P exo d us th e Isr ael it es might

have already th e cu s to m of c el ebr a tin g th e P asso ver i n t r o
Th e P
d u c ed at th e t ime of th e JED exodu s lo n g befo re
accou n t show s o n ly a sl igh t mo d i cat i o n in th e mo d e of
c el ebr a t in g th e feast
Th ere a re b ut two plagu es th en wh i ch a re th e sam e
ies
a n d a t h ir d cas e wh er e they a r e s i mi lar n amely th e
Th e t wo i d en t i cal plagu es a re f requ en t in
a n d th e l i c e
E gyp t even t o t his day Th e redd en in g of th e wa ter is
oft en b ein g d u e to th e d ecay of veget abl e
n ot u n usual
m a t t er
T hi s r o tt in g ass i sts th e r ap i d p r oduct i on of fr og s
ies or l i c e t h es e a re n a t u r al wh er e th ere i s
As for th e
sup er abu n da n c e of a n imal a n d vegetabl e d ec o m pos i t io n
Th e s imilari ty of th e plagu es t h en i s by n o mean s a n
in su rm ou n tabl e d i f culty
,

Th e S imil a i ty i n th e Na m es

of

rs

th e Lea d e

It i s t ru e t ha t ou r Masso ret i c t ex t c all s th e l ead er s of

b o t h ex od i b y th e s a me n ames Mos es Aar o n a n d Joshua
B ut th e m o re an cien t a n d r el i abl e LXX t hrows so me
fu r t h er l igh t I n t ha t t ex t th e n ame of Mo ses is gen er ally
w ri t t en Moa ses b u t n ot l ess t ha n 1 0 7 t imes w e n d it
wr i tt en M os es Upo n t h i s w e can n ot of c ou r s e bu ild t oo
B u t th e p resen c e of t hes e t wo sp ell in gs in th e
much
G reek p resupposes a n a n cien t H ebr ew in wh i ch th ere w ere
also t wo sp ell in gs Is i t i mposs i bl e to assu me t ha t t h es e
were o rigin ally t wo d i s t in c t thou gh simila r n am es t hat
t h ey were p r es en t in th e d ifferen t docu men t s wh i ch w er e
i n th e n al r edacto r s han d s that h e had fo r go tt en as
w e m ust ad mi t that h e had th e d i st in ct i o n b etw een th e
two ex od i a n d t hat h e ho p el essly co n fus ed th e sp ell in g s ?
T h i s hypo t h esi s mi ght b e s u f c ien t to solve th e d if
,

I I A IT I E S I N

S M L R

76

TH E

TW O S T O R I E S

c ulty but th ere i s st ill an oth er possi bl e We l ea rn in

Exod
I C hro n
Nu m
2 3;
47 ;
30 that th er e wa s a L evi t i cal clan call ed M u s h i
wh i ch is a gen t il i c of th e n a m e M oa s es Th i s was a whol e
L evi t ical c l an a n y on e of wh i ch might b e cal l ed M ou s es
Th ere m a y have b een a thousa n d L evi t es or al most a n y
call ed by thi s
n u m b er on e choos es to n a m e of L evi t es
n a me
I n vi ew of all th es e fac t s th e exp l an at i o n adva n c ed
s eem s to us a n ythi n g but im possi bl e
I n reg a rd to Aa r o n th e p r obl em i s a l i t tl e m o re d if c ul t
I n al l th e Ol d Testam en t th e n am e app ear s o n l y i n c on
n ec ti on wi t h th e m a n who gu r ed i n th e Exodus
B ut
w e v en tu re to suggest th er e i s n o p o s i t i v e p r oof t hat th e
n a me was n ot f r equ en t i n th e o l d er t i m e
M er e s il en c e
do es n ot m ak e a val id ar gu m en t Mo reover th e n a me

as Red sl ob suggests m a y m ean n o t h in g m or e than th e

on e who i s co n c ern ed wi th th e A rk
i n wh i c h c as e i t wa s
n ot a p er so n al n a m e at a l l a n d m i gh t hav e b een appl i ed
to m an y d iff er en t p eopl e
In
Th e n ame of Joshua rem ain s t o b e c o n s id er ed
1 6
D eut er o n o m y
w e r ead
a n d in
Nu m
that th e n ame of th e Joshua of th es e d ocu m en t s wa s
I n Nu m
n ot o r i g in ally J os h u a s on of N em bu t H osh ea

w e a r e tol d tha t
b er s
Mo ses c all ed H os h ea th e
.

uh J
N
f

s on o

os h u a

a mes of th e l ead er s it must b e ad m i tt ed do p re

s en t d i f cult ies but p erhap s n ot such gr eat o n es as m igh t
at r st b e suppos ed
Th e

C HA P T E R XX III
Con c l u s i on

s t udy of th e hi s t o ri ci t y of th e Exodu s has n ow been

c o m pl et ed Wha t th e Valu e of th e t heo r y of th e dou bl e
exodus m a y b e of cou r s e th e au t ho r can n o t d et er m i n e
A t all even ts h e i s cer t ain t ha t i t will o n ly p r ove valuabl e
as 1 t m a y p r ove t o b e tr u e It i s th e resul t of a grea t m an y
year s of stu d y a n d of c o n sid er at i o n of th e evid en c es fu r
n i s h ed bo t h by th e H ebr ew d ocu men ts a n d by th e m o n u
m en t s a n d in script i on s of th e p eri od
It i s n ot a t a l l fr o m
a d esire t o o b t ain n o t o riety t ha t h e ha s h ere p res en t ed
h i s b el i efs
I t is n ot fr o m a d esire t o oppos e or overt hr ow
L ea s t of all
th e valua b l e c r i t i c al en d eavo r s of th e pas t
i s i t fr o m a d es ir e t o d es t r oy th e t r ad i t i o n al in t erp ret a t i on s
whi ch for ages have p revail ed I t is m er ely fr o m a wi sh
poss i bly to t h row s o me l ig h t on wha t i s ad mi tt edly on e
of th e m ost d if cult p r obl em s con n ect ed wi th Holy Wri t
Th e au t ho r b el ieves t ha t th e theo r y explain s sat i sfac t o r ily
i c u l ties a n d apparen t co n t r a
th e grea t m ajo r i t y of th e d i
d i c t i on s geo g r aph ical h i s t o ric al ch ro n ologi cal b iog ra p h i
c al a s well as most of th e vari a t ion s in rel igi ous c on c ep
t io n s a n d rel igi ous in s t i t u t io n s wh i ch a re so apparen t in
th e Hexa t euch wh en in t er p r et ed in a n y o t h er way
Thi s

Da t es

of

th e Doc um en t s

A t th e begin n in g of our in qu ir y w e s t a t ed tw o s et s of
p rin cipl es whic h s er ve as ba ses of th e E volu tion a ry Hyp oth
Th e r s t s et d ealt wi t h
es i s of m od ern h i gh er c r i t i c i s m
th e evi d en c es for th e exi s t en c e of s ever al co m pl et e do c u
.

77

78

ON CL US I O N

m en ts in th e

Hexat euch Th e s eco n d d ealt wi th th e

hypoth esi s acco rd in g to wh ich th es e d ocu m en ts a re to
b e dat ed
I n chap s i i v i vii a n d xi w e hav e gi ven
r easo n s why w e ca n n ot acc ept th es e usua l ly adva n c ed
d a t es We hav e fou n d that th es e d ocu m en ts s eem to have
been co m p os ed a t th e t im e or n early subs equ en t to th e
t im e wh en th e even ts th ey r eco r d took plac e Th e a r gu
m en ts for th i s w e f eel a r e of such a n atu re that a m ere
cat ego r ical d en i al of th em w ill n ot su f c e Even thou gh
i n all cas es ou r evid en c e m a y n ot b e d ir ect t est i m o n y ev en
thou g h it m a y s eem to so m e rea d ers t o b e in plac es m erely
cir cu m st a n t ia l st il l th e evid en c e is such that i t must b e
reg a r d ed i t m ust b e p r oved to b e i n m a n y cas es i r rel eva n t
befo re it c a n b e co n clusi vely shown that ou r dat es for th e
docu m en ts a r e too ear l y Nor d o w e feel that thi s l in e
of evid en c es has been exhaust ed A la rg e pa r t of i t
d eal in g w i th th e p r obl em s of G en es i s has been r eser ved
for th e vo l u m e on th e pat ri ar chs wh i ch i t i s hop ed m a y
i n th e futu re b e i ssu ed
B ut how ev er m uch th i s evi d en c e
i n G en esi s co n r m s ou r ear ly d at es th e a r g u m en ts d eri ved
fr o m th e exo d us sto ries alo n e s eem to us a m p l e to d em an d
a reco n s id er at io n of th e d a t es of th e d ocu men ts
.

Th e Nu m b e

of

Do

cume ts
n

C hap s iii ix a n d x i d eal wi th th e n u m b er of d ocu m en t s

We came to th e co n clus io n that th e
in th e H exat euch
H exat euch co n tain s n ot fou r but at l east s even d iff er en t
d ocu m en ts a n d that n o n e of th em exc ept th e o r igin al D
T hou g h th e
i s co n ta in ed co mp l et e i n ou r H exat euch
i n t egr a l ex i st en c e of the s e d ocu men ts at so me past t i me
m a y b e co n c ed ed w e co n clu d ed that th ey app ea r n ow as
f ra g men ta ry An d w e fu rth er v en tu red to d oubt wh eth er
.

TH E

m an y

N UM B E R

OF D

O CUME N T S

79

pa rts n ow d es i gn at ed as po rt io n s of J E a n d
P w ere ever pa rt s of t hos e do c u men t s a t a ll Th e evi
d en c e s eem ed t o show tha t oft en t h ey w ere r a t h er to b e
rega r d ed a s s t i ll o t h er o ri gin ally i n d ep en d en t docu m en t s o r
fragmen t s
B ut w e fou n d t ha t t hese n u merous do c u men ts or
fr agm en ts s eemed t o group them s elves n a t u rally in t o two
sect io n s each c en t erin g a n d clust erin g abou t a n exodus
fro m Egypt Th e r s t set th e Tol ed oth B ook a n d JED
t old th e stor y of th e Exodus fr o m G osh en a n d th e l egisla
t i o n at Ho reb a n d in Moab Th e s eco n d s et P p ro p er a n d
s m all sec t i o n s whi c h w e have cal l ed J E a n d D tol d
of th e Exodus fro m R aa m s es a n d th e l egi slat i on a t S in a i
I n each s et th e docu m en ts d iff ered f r o m on e a noth er i n
vi ewp o in t a n d m o d e of exp ressi o n ; but asid e fro m thi s
th e d ocu m en t s w i th in a s et O ffer ed n o co n t r ad i ct io n n o
r eal d i sc repan cy n ot even a d i v er gen t t r ad i t i o n
We ven t u re th erefo re to b el ieve t hat th e Hexa t euchal
stories of th e Exodus a re rel i abl e even to th e m ost min ut e
d etails exc ept wh ere th e lat er co m p il er of th e docu m en t s
has m i su n d er s t ood a n d chan ged h is m at eri al a n d where
th e co p yi sts of lat er ages have m i scop ied th e t ex t or a n n o
Th e B i bl e w e a re
t a ted i t wi t h th ei r o w n expla n a t i o n s
c o n vi n c ed in d eal in g wi th th e Exodus is a bs olu tely h is
tori c a l in th e b est s en s e of that wo r d a n d t r u s two r thy
in i ts evi d en c e even t o d etai ls c o n t ra r y to th e usual
m od ern hypoth esi s
It will b e s een that th e theo ry w e advan c e requ ires n o
uph eaval of th e fu n dam en tal p rin c ip l es of h igh er c ri t ic i s m
B ut th e h i sto ric al view po in t wh ich w e have atta in ed o er s
us n ew a n d valuabl e c ri t eri a for a p rop er d i vi s io n of th e
d ocu men ts a n d a n ew d at in g of th em
of

th e

8o

ONC L US I ON

We v en tu re th en to take u p in t u rn each of th e m ethod s

,

of d ivi d in g th e t ext a n d examin e th em i n th e l i ght of th i s

viewpo in t
n ew
1
D i ff
s i L g g d S ty l
Th e d iff eren c es i n la n gua ge a n d styl e i n th e d iff eren t

m
n
docu m en ts a r e by n o ea n s to b e u d er r at ed or d en ied
Th ey a r e m ost c er ta in l y p r esen t a n d d es er ve att en t i o n
As w e hav e s een in chaps iv x a n d x i th ey do
a n d stu d y
B ut th ey assu m e
n o t h el p i n th e d at in g of th e docu m en ts
th e g r eat est i mp o r ta n c e i n th e study of th e H eb rew l a n
gua ge in that t h ey show u s th e p r es en c e in that la n gu a ge
of s ever al d ial ects each of wh ich was d evelop in g a n d
d ecayin g th r ou gh th e c en tu ries B y m ean s of t hi s n ew
m ethod of obs er v in g th e d iff eren c es in lan guage a n d
styl e thi s d i scovery if w e m a y ven tu re so to t er m i t it i s
r ew l i t er atu r e a n d r esolv e i t i n to
i
oss
bl
to
stu
d
y
a
l
l
H
b
e
e
p
i ts co n st i tu en t d i al ects a n d l i t er a r y epochs
II
D b l ts d T i p l ts f T xts
T h ere i s n o evid en c e of t r ipl ets i n th e sto ry of th e Exo
d u s St ill th e p res en c e of th es e n eed n ot b e ca t ego ri cally
d en ied I n th e n atu re of th in g s w e should r a t her exp ec t it
B ut th e ava ilabl e d a t a s eem to in d i c at e t ha t in th e c om
i
i
n of th e docu m en ts wh en th e T ol ed oth B ook a n d
l
a
o
t
p
th e ol d er J a n d E do c u m en t s o ff er ed th r ee a c cou n t s of
th e sa me ev en t o n ly on e was s el ect ed or els e two sto ri es
w ere wo r k ed to geth er in to on e in su c h a way that o nl y on e
s t o ry rem ain s
B ut in th e s to ries of thi s p eri o d t h ere a r e a la rge n u m b er
of d oubl ets d oubl ets so absolut ely d i vergen t a s t o b e
g en u in e co n t r a d i ct io n s B ut th es e d oubl et s in th e n ew
way O f look in g at th e r ec o rd s d o n ot u n d ermin e in th e
l east th e h i sto ri c i ty of ei th er of th e co n
i ct in g reco r d s
,

eren c e

ua

an

e an

ou

an

THE

N UM B E R

OF D

O CUM E N T S

SI

doubl ets a re n ot gen u in e doubl ets T hey do n ot

r efer t o th e sa me even t or s eri es of even t s bu t to d i ff eren t
t hough sim ila r o n es
S i mi l i t y
Di v g
i L
d L
In
C d
Fr o m th e n ew viewp o in t all th e hi s t o ry of Isra el a d

n
i
h
i
n
r
e
r
r
v a c es ts ev d e ce tha t t e th e o fou law c od es a re n ot
by a n y m ean s c o n tr ad i ct or y T hey a re th e p rodu c ts of th e
t imes a n d su rrou n d in g s whi ch t hey s eem t o re
ec t t h ey
o ri gin at ed at a n ea rly epoch in th e l i fe of th e p eopl e a n d
th ey ha d a p rofou n d i n
u en c e upo n th e d evelop men t of
I sr ael fr o m th e ex od i down t o exil i c a n d po s t exil i c t imes
For th e

ar

er en c e

or

a w - o es

aw s an

D i ff t Hi t i l G g p h i l d B i g p h i l S t t m t s
Th e n u mer ou s h i s t o ri c al geogr aph i c al a n d b iog r a p h i
c al sta temen ts wi th whi ch th e Hexa t euch abou n ds esp e
c i a ll y in th e s to ries of th e Exodus a r e t o us n o lo n ger c on
tr a d i c tor y n or do t h ey d em an d a s explan at i o n th e t h eo r y

of a faulty o r al t r ad it ion Th e c o n t r ad i c t i o n s qu iet ly

d i sapp ear as soo n as t h ey a re tt ed in t o t hat s eries of even t s
wh i c h each of th e docu m en t s pu rpo r t s t o d esc ri be We
d eal n o mo re wi th co n t r ad i ct io n s but wi t h va r yin g b i s t or i
ca l veri ties An d n ot o n ly in th e Hexat eu c h i t s elf do th e
d if culties van i sh in th e l ight of t hi s t h eo r y of ou r s Th e
B ook of Jud ges too lo n g co n sid er ed as c o n tr ad ict in g th e
e vi d en c e of th e books of Nu m b er s a n d Jo s hua em er ges
as h i sto ri cal a n d rel i abl e Even i ts lo n g d esp i s ed ch ro n
Olo g y i s foun d n ot o n ly n ot t o c o n t r ad i ct but even to
su p p o r t th e d ocu m en t s of th e Hexa t euch
IV

s or c a

eren

eo ra

ca

an

o ra

ca

en

Fin al l y

D i ff

er en c es

i n Rel i g i on ,

Mora l s ,

a nd

Ceremon i es

co n tr ad i ct i o n s in th e r eal m of rel igio n

wh ich these ea rly h isto rica l books have b een thou ght t o
co n tain also d i sap p ea r a n d wi th th em all th e in s u p erabl e
,

th e

82

ON CL U S I ON

obj ect i o n s to th e u n i ty of th e H exat eucha l reco rd s a n d

th e ea rly dat e of th e d ocu men ts wh i ch th ey hav e b een
thought to p rov e We have t ried to show that Isr a el was
n o t a ha r m o n i ous u n i ty i n rel i gi ous b el i ef a n d
r act i c e u n t i l
p
a very l at e d at e a n d that s id e by sid e var yin g p riesthoo d s
a n d i n st i tut i o n s ex i st ed i n a stat e of m i n g l ed tol er at i o n
We have fu r th er en d eavo r ed to show that
a n d r i va l r y
th er e w a s n ot on e of th e r el i gious bel iefs or in st itut i o n s of
t h e H ebr ews wh i ch was n ot accou n t ed for ei th er by an t e
c ed en t h i sto r y or by th e l egis l at i o n s of Ho reb Moab a n d
S in a i ; that th ey w er e n ot m ush r oo m growths sp rin g in g
r en t l y out of n oth in g i n a n i ght ; but that n o n e of
u
a
a
p pp
th em ca m e in to exi st en c e wi thout a law to shap e a n d
d e n e i t A l ar ge n u m ber O f qu est i o n s d eal in g wi th
d ivin e n a m es a n d r el igious in st i tut io n s b elo n g to G en es i s
a n d hav e th er efo r e n ot b een t r eat ed h er e or if th ey hav e
h a ve o n ly been touch ed u p o n B ut so fa r as w e c a n n ow
s ee th ere i s n ot on e of th es e but c a n b e explai n ed c on
s on a n tl y w i th ou r
r es en t hyp oth es i s
p
.

autho r r eco gn i zes that th i s th eo ry m a y a n d p r ob

ably w ill hav e to b e m od i ed on futu re in vest i gat i o n H e
hop es however that h e has su ggest ed a l in e of in ves tiga
t i o n wh ic h scho l ar s m a y d eem wo r thy of th eir c a reful
att en t io n a l in e of in vest iga t i o n wh i ch m a y p erhaps a id
th em in cl earin g up p r obl em s wh i ch a re pu zzl es to us all
and
m ost of a ll a l i n e of in v est i g at i o n wh i ch m a y s er ve
to m o re r m l y establ i sh th e h i sto ric i ty of at l east th i s p or
t io n of G o d s r evel at io n May H e who gav e that r ev el a
t i o n p r osp er a ll in th is book wh ich is in acco rd w i th His
w il l a n d p a rd o n al l th in g s wh ich a re a ga in st i t
Th e

A PP ENDI C E S

A PP ENDIX I
J ew s

Th e

and

Th ei r Temp l e
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p a p yru s w a s off ered for s a le in

o n b ot h si d es b u t t h e tex t w a s b a dl
y
a f terw a r d t h e I m p eri a l L ib r a ry of S tra s sb u r g

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fa sc

Th eol og i s c h e Li ler a tu rzei tun g ,

H o man n

E A O, V III ,

Gu a r d i a n ,

E l ep h a n ti n e,

von

Cl erm on t-G a n n ea u
S R D river

E l ep h a n ti n e

ra p h y

Zu d en Pa p yrusurku n d en

at

S h ortly

of

p ossessi on of i t a n d i t w a s f ou n d to b e w ri tten in th e O ld
P rofes sor
A r a m a i c sc ri p t a n d l a n g ua ge of t h e P er s i a n p eri od
E u tin g u n d ert ook i n 1 9 0 3 t h e d i i c u l t ta sk of edi tin g a n d t ra n s la tin g
it a n d suc c eed ed in ex t r a c tin g a gen era lly c orrec t m ea ni n g of t h e
H e f ou n d t h a t i t d ea l t w i t h a c om p l a in t a b ou t a r evolt or
sa m e
g He fa iled h ow
s om e mi sc h i ef i n sti g a ted b y a c er ta i n Wi
c a me

in to

85

APP E N D IX I

86

ev e

i n i d en t i fy in g t h e l oc a li ty ,

w i th w

h ic h i t d ea l t ,

and

in

a p p rec i

r ea l c h a ra c ter of t h e d oc u m en t
P r o fes s o r Clerm on t G a n n ea u t h en t ook u p t h e q u es tion s l ef t
E u t in g
H e p erc ei v ed t h a t t h e l oc a li ty w a s h er e
u n s l ved b y D r
w h ic h c ou ld b e n o t h i n g el se b u t t h e E g y p ti a n J eb
th e
c a l l ed J B
G reek E lep h a n t in e
S ti ll m o r e r em a r ka b le w a s h i s p en et ra tin g
H e rea s on ed t h a t i t
i n s ig h t i n t o t h e c h a r a c ter of t h e d oc u m en t
c ou l d n ot h a v e b een w r it t en b y a n a t i v e E g y p ti a n b ec a u se i t w a s a
N eit h er c ou ld i t
c om p l a i n t a g a in s t E g y p tia n of c i a l s a n d p ri es ts
b e o f P er s ia n o r B a b y l on ia n o ri g in b ec a u se i t f a i led t o d es i g n a t e
Kh n u b g o d o f E lep h a n tin e a s a g od H e a rg u ed t h eref or e t h a t t h e
m a n w h o m a d e c om p l a i n t s a g a in s t t h e p ries t s of t h e g o d Kh n u b
H is h yp ot h es i s s eem ed
w i t h ou t c a llin g Kh n u b a g o d m u s t b e a J ew
d a r in g b u t i t w a s b u i l t on s ou n d p r in c ip l es a n d l a te r d i s c overi es
h a v e c on rm ed i t i n ev ery d et a i l
A b ou t t h e s a m e t im e a n ew n d of A r a m a ic p a p y ri w a s p la c ed o n
s a l e i n A s s u a n a c i ty on t h e ea s t er n b a n k of t h e N i le o p p o s i te t h e
P r of es s or
i s la n d of E lep h a n tin e a n d j u s t b el ow t h e Fi r s t Ca ta r a c t
S a yc e a c qu i r ed o n e of t h em for t h e B od lei a n L ib r a ry t w o w en t t o
t h e B ri t i s h M u s eu m a l a r g e n u m b er t o t h e Ca i r o M u s eu m a n d s ti ll
o t h er s h a ve b een a c q u i r ed b y o t h er m u s eu m s w h i l e t h er e i s r ea son
t o b eli ev e t h a t s om e o f t h es e p a p y ri a r e n ow i n p ri v a te o w n er s h i p
P r of es s o rs S a yc e a n d Cow ley p u b lis h ed in 1 9 0 6 n ot l es s t h a n
Al m o s t a ll o f t h em w er e i n p er f ec t p r es er v a
s i x teen of t h es e p a p y ri
t i on u n d is tu r b ed a n d u n in j u r ed s i n c e t h e d a y t h ey w ere l a i d a s i d e
T h e s t ri n g s w er e s t i ll ti ed a r ou n d t h em a n d
s om e
yea r s a g o
T h ei r s c ri p t
t h e ol d c l a y s ea l s w ere s t ill f a s t en ed t o t h e s t ri n g k n ot s
T h ey d ea l w i t h b u si
a n d l a n g u a ge i s a l s o t h a t of t h e ol d A r a m a i c
n es s t r a n s a c ti on s i n t h e c i ty o r f o r t r es s E l ep h a n ti n e a n d t h er e s eem s
t o b e g o od r ea s on f o r a s s u mi n g t h a t a l l t h e A s s u a n p a p y ri a s w ell a s
t h e E u t in g p a p y r u s h a ve c om e o r ig i n a lly f r om t h a t c i ty
T h e c h i ef i n ter es t in t h ese p a p y ri c en t e r s a b ou t t h e f a c t t h a t t h ey
p resen t u s w i th a v ivi d p ic tu re of a p r os p er ou s J ew i s h c omm u n i ty
A n d t h e p i c tu r e i s s o vi vi d t h a t
i n t h a t c i ty i n t h e f t h c en t u ry B C
w e c a n n o t on ly f oll o w t h es e Je w s i n s om e d eta i l s of t h e d a ily r o u ti n e
o f t h ei r l i f e b u t w e k n o w ev en h o w t h ey b u i l t t h ei r h om es a n d w h er e
t h ei r h ou ses w er e l oc a t ed
T h e J ew s o f E lep h a n tin e h a d q u a r t er s
a ti n g t h e

J E WS

TH E

TH E IR T E M P L E A T

A ND

PH A N T I N E

ELE

87

rt h w es ter n p a r t of th e c ity ; t h ey h a d t h ei r Ow n
m a k i n g t h ei r o a t h s i n
c ou r t b esi d es a H eb r ew t rib u n a l i n A ss u a n
t h e n a m e of Y a h u ( Y a h w eh ) a n oa t h w h i c h w a s a s v a li d i n E g y p tia n
of

t h ei

r ow n

in t h e

no

J E W I S H QUA RTE R IN E LE P HANTIN E

L O C ATI O N O F J E W I S H P R O P E RT Y A N D
TE M P LE O F JAHU

MA P O F

TH E
TH E

t t
r ee

3
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o

t t

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p r op er ty w ou ld n ot b e
s in c e s ever a l m on u m en t s h a v e

o f a n c i en t

p resen t tim e
la tely b een di s c ov ered i n E gy p t a n d B a b yl on i a a c qua i n ti n g u s w i t h
s im il a r d oc um en t s of a fa r hi g h er a e
N o t ev en t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
g
a g en t s a re J ew s i n t h i s c a se i s ex t r a o r di n a ri l n ovel for w e h a ve f ou n d
y
f rom t h e B a b yl on i a n d oc u m en t s t h a t J ew s p os s es sed p r op er ty a n d
c on d u c ted l a r g e b u si n ess t ra n s a c ti on s i n s ev era l c i ti es of B a b l on i a
y
at

the

88

APP E N D IX I

rb in g in teres t in t h es e A s su a n d eed s
i s t h e f a c t t h a t t w o of t h em l oc a te p r o p er ties a s a d j oi n in g t h e c h a p el
of Y a h u
N ow t h e A ra m a ic w o rd u s ed h er e for c h a p el i s Eg a ra
w h ic h o t h er w i s e d en ot es
tem p l e in t h e A s sy ri a n B a b yl on i a n a n d
A ra ma ic l a n g u a ges
B u t i t s eem ed im p r ob a b l e t o Pr o f es s o r s S a yc e
a n d C ow l e
y t h a t t h er e c o u ld b e a J ew i s h t em p l e i n E l ep h a n t in e a n d
Fo r w h o
t h er ef o r e t h ey t r a n sl a ted i t w i t h
c h a p el
s y n a g og u e
c ou ld d r ea m t h a t t h er e exi s t ed a J ew i s h t em p le i n E g y p t i n t h e f t h
H a pp ily a ll t h i s i s n ow c h a n g ed
c en tu ry B C

T h e a s su red f a c t h ow ev er t h a t a
c h a p el
or a
s yn a g og u e
c on s ec ra t ed t o t h e w o r s h i p of Y a h w eh ex i s ted i n E g y p t a t t h a t t im e
a w ok e t h e k een es t i n t er es t a m on g sc h ol a r s a l l o ver t h e w o r l d
Wi thi n
a f ew m o n t h s a c on si d era b le l it er a tu re of l ea r n ed t r ea ti s es h a d s p ru n g
u p a r ou n d t h i s s p l en d i d p u b li c a t i on o f P r o f es s o r s S a c e a n d Cow l e
y
y
W h ile t h i s w a s g oin g on D r Ru b en so h n w a s b u sy w i th exc a va ti on s
on t h e i sl a n d of E l ep h a n ti n e a n d i n t h e s p ri n g of 1 9 0 7 h e d i s c overed
t h ree A r a m a ic p a p y ri f ou n d i n a h ou s e t h a t p r ob a b ly h a d b el on g ed
t o t h e o ri gi n a l o w n er o f t h em t h e c h ief p ri es t Y ed On i a h
A ll t h ree
p a p y ri w ere w ell p res erv ed a n d t h ey w ere w ritten in t h e A ra m a ic
s c ri p t a n d l a n g u a g e
T h ey w ere imm ed ia tely b rou g h t to G er m a n y
a n d tu r n ed ov er t o P r o f es so r S a c h a u
H e u n d er t ook t o r ea d t h em
a n d a t t h e s ess i on of t h e P h i l o sop h i c a l H i s t o ri c a l D ep a r tm en t o f t h e
R oya l P r u s s ia n A c a d em y of S c ien c es i n B erli n o n t h e 2 5 t h of J u ly
1 9 0 7 h e p r es en ted a n a b le a n d s c h ol a r l y t ra n sl a tion of t h es e d oc u
men ts tog et h er w i t h n otes a n d ex p l a n a tion s o f t h e m ore im p o r ta n t
p oin ts T h is w a s im m ed ia tely ord ered to b e p rin ted a n d w a s p u b
l is h ed on t h e r o t h of O c t ob er 1 9 0 7
O f th e th ree E lep h a n tin e p a pyri tw o a re c on c ep ts d ra w n u p for
a p et i tion t o t h e g over n or o f J er u s a lem
T h e t h i r d i s a m em o r a n d u m
n o r o f J er u sa l em a n d s en t t o t h e J ew s
o f a n o r d er i s su ed b
g
r
h
v
t
e
o
e
y
o f E lep h a n ti n e i n a n s w er t o t h ei r p eti ti on
T h e tw o c on c ep t s c ov er
es s en t ia lly t h e s a m e g r o u n d b u t a s o n l y o n e o f t h es e i s p u b l i s h ed i n
f a c simile w e s h a ll c on n e ou r t ra n sla tion to t h e s a m e I t c on ta i n s
t h i r ty l in es a n d rea d s a s f o ll ow s :
I
To ou r L ord B a g oh i Gov er n or of Ju d a h th y s erva n ts
Y ed on i a h a n d h i s c omp a n i on s th e p r i es ts i n th e for tres s E l e
at

th i s

t im e

v ery

Th e

a l l -a b s o

h
i
a
n
t
n e,
p

(s en d )

J E WS

TH E

THE I R T E M P LE A T

AN D

ELE

PH A N T IN E

89

Gr eeti n g I

M a y our L ord

h ea v en , g r a n t a bu n d a n c e a t a ll ti me,
before Ki n g D a ri u s a n d th e s on s of th e

th e God

pl a c e th ee i n fa vor
s eri ty , on e th ou s a n d fold more th a n
P
c
o
r
a
l
a
e
p
p
a nd

n ow

and

l on g

l ife ma y h e g i v e thee, a n d ma y th ere be joy a n d g l a d ness a t a ll ti me!

N ow , th y s erv a n t Y ed on i a h a n d h i s c ompa n i on s , w e s pea k
th us :

mz

fou rteen th yea r of Ki n g

D a ri u s a t th e ti me w h en A r s h a m h a d d ep a rted a n d g on e to th e
Ki n g th e p ri es ts of g od Kh n u b w hi c h w er e i n th e fortres s E l e
p h a n ti n e ma d e a l ea g u e w i th Wa i d r a n g w h o w a s c h i ef c omma n
der here s a yi n g :

Th e templ e of God Y a h u w h i c h i s i n th e fortr es s E l ep h a n

ti n e l et th em ta ke (i t) a w a y from th en c e!
Th ereu p on th a t a c c u r s ed Wa i d ra n g s en t a l etter to N a p h dy d n
h i s s on w h o w a s c omma n d er of th e g a rri s on i n th e fortr es s
I

th e mon th

Ta m

i n th e

A s su a n ,

ti n e!

th e

s a yi n g

roy th e templ e

Let th em d es t

hi c h i s i n th efortr es s E l ep h a n

Th ereu p on N a p h dyd n or d ered th e E g yp ti a n s tog eth er w i th

oth er for c es ;
th ey c a me to th e fortres s E l ep h a n ti n e w i th th ei r

th e g

r ou n d

d es tr u c ti on ,
a nd

th ey d i s c omted
.

w ea p on s o

I O

th e

en te ed

i
l
a
s
r
l
p

i n to thi s templ e, d es troyed i t to

hich

we e

ra ke a su n der

th ere th ey b

r re th ere w ere ve s ton e g a tes bu i l t of hew n s ton e

w h i c h w er e i n th i s temp l e; th em th ey des tr oy ed a n d th ei r d oors
th ey r emoved a n d th ei r c op p er h i n g es w h i c h (w ere fa s ten ed ) i n
ma r bl e bl oc ks a nd th e c overi n g (ma d e) of c ed a r bea ms a ll of
w h i c h tog eth er w i th th e r es t of th e equ i p men t a n d oth er th i n g s
w h i c h w er e th er e a l l th ey bu r n t w i th re;
a n d a ll th e g ol d en
ba son s a n d th e s i l ver a n d w h a ts oever th ere w a s i n thi s templ e
a ll th ey took a n d a p p r op ri a ted f or th ems el ves
N ow i n th e d a y s of th e Ki n g (s ) of E g yp t ou r fa th er s h a d
A n d w h en Ca mby
bu i l t th i s templ e i n th efortress E l ep h a n ti ne
Al th oug h th ey
s es en ter ed E g yp t h e foun d thi s templ e bu i l t
over th r ew a ll th e templ es of th e g od s of E g yp t n o on e i nju red
F u th e mo

I I

1 2

a n yth i n g

i n th i s templ e

0
9

APP E N D IX I
B

h a ve p u t
th e L or d

h a v e fa s ted

on s a c kc l oth , a n d w e

h ea ven ,

h
f
w

ho has

v i n d i c a ted

la id

th em

on

a n d ou r c h il d en

a nd

r
p a y ed

us

ll

on

'

to I

'

a h u,

i d r a n g , th a t

re before th i s a t th e ti me w h en th i s evil w a s d on e
to u s w e s en t a l etter (to) ou r l ord a n d to Jeh oh a n a n th e h ig h
p r i es t a d to h i s c omp a n i on s th e pr i es ts w h i c h a re i n Jer u s a l enz
A n a n i a n d to th e n obl es of th e
a n d to h i s br oth er O s ta n i e
Jew s (bu t) n ot a s in g l e l etter d id th ey s en d to u s
F u rth er more fr om th e Ta mmuz d a y of th e fou r teen th y ea r
of Ki n
g D a r i u s a n d u n til th i s d a y w e h a ve p u t on s a c kc l oth a n d
fa ted ; ou r w i ves h a ve bec ome l ike w id ow (s ) ; w e h a ve n ot a n oi n ted
ou r s el ves w i th oil n or d r un k w i n e
F u r th er mor e fr om th a t ti me u n til th i s d a y of th e fou r teen th
D
i
s
h
h
v
ot offer ed i n th i s tem l e a mea l
r
u
ea
r
o
K
i
n
a
t
e
a
e
n
f
y
y
g
p
oer i n g or fr a n ki n c en se or a h ol oc a u s t
N ow th y s er va n ts Y ed on i a h a n d h i s c omp a n i on s a n d th e
r

F u th e mo

i ves

our w

i
i
s ) , a n d a l l th e
h
a
ve
s
ee
t
n
f
e
t
e
r
t
y
(
p r op er ty
w h i c h h e a c qu i r ed h a s p er i s h ed , a n d a ll the men w h o h a d w i s h ed
ev i l a g a i n s t th i s tem l e a r e sl a i n , a n d w e h a v e s een o u r d es i r e
p
u

th ey d i d th us , w e w i th

th e

d og

u t si n c e

2 0

2 1

2 2

ew s , a l l

If i t

be

w
2

the

rebu il t!

ho

a re

E l ep h a n ti ne ,

c i ti en s o

h er

th u s :

g ood to our l o d , th i n k u p on th i s templ e, th a t i t ma y

L ook u p on th e ec i p i en ts of th y boun ty a n d g ood nes s ,
M a y a l ette be s en t f om th ee u n to th em
e i n E g y p t!

th e te mp l e

God Y a h u , th a t i t ma y be rebu il t i n the

i t w a s bu il t i n for me r ti mes
Th en th ey

fortres s E l ep h a n ti n e a s
s h a l l p r es en t meal offer i n g s a n d i n c en s e offer i n g s a n d h ol oc a us ts
u on th e a l ta r o
f G od Y a h u i n th y n a me; y ea w e w ill p ra y f or
p
th ee a t a ll ti mes w e a n d our w i v es a n d our c h il d r en a n d the Jew s
a ll w h o a r e h ere if th ey d o th u s u n til th i s templ e i s r ebu il t; y ea
fore Y a h u th e God of
a l eg i ti ma te p or ti on s h a l l bel on g to th ee be
h ea v en f r o m a n y on e w h o s h a ll p res en t to H i m a h ol oc a u s t a n d
s a c r i c es i n v a l u e eq u i v a l en t to a s u m of
A nd in
ta l en ts
reg a rd to th e g old c on c er n i n g th a t w e h a ve ( al rea dy ) s en t
i nf or ma ti on
.

sa y

r
r

s eem

c on c e n i n g

O ri g
st bl ish d

st bl ish d

s d ls

u e

o of a

dc

e r ee,

th t
a

w en

t f rth i
o

w as

B A G O HI

F u rth ermore,
l etter to B el a y a h
of S a ma ri a

we

h a ve

a nd

sen t c on c e n i n g a l l

S h el ema ya h ,

s on s

91

ma tter s i n

th e(s e)

S a n ba ll a t, Gov ern or

30

F u th e more, A rs h a m h a s

h a s been d one to

us

no

kn ow l edg e

all

th a t w h i c h

f M a rc h es w a n

O n th e [tw en ti eth ] d a y
y ea r of Ki n g D a r i u s
.

i n th e

s even teen th

N OTE

B a g ob

J eru sa lem a n d J u d a h is kn ow n f rom J osep h us

J osep h u s c a ll s h im B a g oa s a n d m en tion s
h im a s s ervi n g i n t h e tim e o f A r ta xer xes I I (40 4 3 5 9 B C )
Th e
h ig h p ries t of J eru sa lem a t t h i s tim e w a s J eh on a n c a lled J eh o h a n a n
i n t h i s d oc u m en t
J os h u a a b rot h er of J oh a n a n w a s a n in tima te
f rien d of B a g oa s a n d h a d b een p romi sed b y t h e la tter t h e h i g h p ries tly
i c e a t h i s b r o t h er s d ea t h
T h i s seem s to h a ve m a d e h im s o a g g res
o
s i ve a n d h i s c on d u c t s o off en si v e t h a t h i s b r o t h er J o h a n a n t h e h i g h
p riest on e d a y killed h im in t h e tem p le T h i s c rim e w a s s o ou t
r a g eou s a n d so h ei n ou s t h a t i t ga v e B a g o a s a n ex c ellen t op p ortu n i ty
for en terin g t h e t em p le a n d p u ni s hi n g t h e off en d er i n s p i te of t h e
p rotes ts of th e J ew s B a g oa s vin dic a ted t h e d ea t h of h is frien d b y
im p os i n g a h ea vy n e on J o h a n a n c o n s i s tin g of a la r ge s h a r e o f a ll
T h is
t h e s a c ri c es off ered i n t h e t em p le for t h e f ol l o w i n g sev en y ea rs
p u n i s h men t a ffec ted t h e h i gh p riest a n d t h e p eop le a like
I t i s evi d en t f r om t h es e d oc um en ts t h a t B a g oa s or B a go b i w a s
a pp oi n ted g overn o r o f J u d a h b y D a riu s II a n d n ot b y A r ta x er x es II
S i n c e t h e r st letter o f t h e J ew s o f E l ep h a n ti n e w a s a d d ressed t o h im
i n 4 1 1 B C i t f o l low s t h a t h e w a s g overn or o f J u d a h a t t h a t time a n d
t h a t h i s a p p oi n tm en t t h eref o r e c ou ld n ot h a v e b een m a d e b y A rt a x er
I t i s o f c ou r s e
x es II a s s om e s c h ol a rs h a ve i n f erred f r om J osep h u s
p os sib le th a t h e w a s su c c eed ed b y a n ot h er B a g oa s a pp oin ted b y
A rta x erx es II b u t i t i s m ore n a tu r a l to i n t erp ret J o s ep h u s a s s a yi n g
t h a t B a g o a s g ot h i s a pp oi n tm en t a s g en er a l i n t h e r eig n of A r ta x er x es
II b u t th a t h e b ec a me govern or of J u d a h in t h e time of D a ri u s II
I t i s p os s ib le i n d eed t h a t t h e m u r d er o f J o s h u a t ook p l a c e i n t h e
W h en t h e J ew s a p p ea led to J eru sa lem for
i n terva l o f 4 1 1 4 0 8 B C
b v I 8
Cf
T h is

g o vern or of
(An tiqu i ti es , xi , 7

e,

APP E N D IX

h el p i n t h e yea r 4 1 1 B C , t h ei r p eti ti on w a s a d d ress ed b o t h t o t h e

N ow , i n 4 0 8 t h e h ig h -p ri es t i s i g n o r ed
ov ern o r a n d t h e h i g h p ri es t
.

rn or

and

S a m a ri a ,

of

t h e g ove

x p ec t

h om

w e s h ou ld e

b een
t h er ef o re

to h a v e

p l a c e I t i s p o s si b le
Th e
t h a t t h e m u r d er o f J os h u a h a d t a ken p l a c e i n t h e m ea n tim e
J ew s of E lep h a n tin e w ere evid en tly w ell p os ted on a ffa irs in J eru sa
l em a n d k n ow i n g t h e d i s g r a c e i n t o w h ic h t h e h ig h p ri es t h a d f a ll en
w er e w el l a w a r e t h a t t h ey w ou ld on ly w ea k en t h ei r c a u s e b y m en
Con s equ en tly t h ey p a ssed h im
t i on i n g h im i n t h i s s ec on d p eti tion
T h i s st ra tegem m a y even h a v e b een on e of t h e rea s on s
b y en ti r ely
t h a t i n c li n ed t h e g over n or t o g r a n t t h em t h e f a vor t h ey a sk ed f or
a b ho
'

rr ed

by

J ew

every

t a k es h i s

Th e
s ia n s

n a me

T hu s

B a g oa s
nd

we

s eem s

t o h a ve b een c omm on a m on

P ersia n

n ob l em a n

b ea ri n g t h i s

na

t h e P er

me in t h e

r
D a ri u s I
T h e eu n u c h g en era l B a g oa s s erved u n d er t h e
E ven a m on g t h e J ew s t h i s n a m e b ec a m e c om
s i x t h P er s ia n k in g
A c er t a in B ig v a i s ea l ed t h e c oven a n t
mon i n t h e P er s ia n p eri o d
b u t B ig v a i s h ou ld u n d ou b t ed ly b e p ron ou n c ed B a g oy
of N eh em i a h
O n e of t h e p rin c es of t h e r et u r n i n g exi l es w a s c a ll ed
or B a g o a s
B ig va i a n d a n ot h er B ig v a i a pp ea r s in E z r a s c a r a va n
s e v ic e of

II Th
t em p l e a t
.

Tem

pl

e at

ne

p ly a syn a g og u e
or a n a l ta r h ou s e b u t a rea l t em p l e b ec a u s e ou r p a p y ru s d es i g n a t es
i t a s a tem p l e b y t h e s a m e w o r d t h a t i t u s es f or t h e E gyp ti a n tem p l es
T h is tem p l e h a d a n a os w i t h c olu mn s i n fron t of i t a n d a n a lta r of
6
I t w a s s ur
i n c en se a n d a sev en b r a n c h ed c a n d les tic k w i t h in i t
rou n d ed b y a c ou r t w h i c h c o n ta i n ed t h e h ol oc a u s t a l ta r a n d w h i c h
w a s g i r d l ed b y a w a l l w i t h ve g a t es
T h ere i s n o t h in g i n th i s p a pyru s to s h ow t h a t t h e n a os c on ta in ed

n
n
e
r oom t h e H oly Pla c e I t h a d n o H oly of H olies N or
m ore t h a o
d i d t h e J ew i s h c om m u n ity o f E lep h a n t i n e h a v e a h ig h p r ies t
J ed o
n i a h w a s t h ei r c h ief p r i es t equ a l w i t h h i s
c om p a n i on s
b ut h e w a s
Th e

J ew i s h

E l ep h a n ti n e

l ep h a n t i

w a s n o t s im

H r d t s iii :
Ab t 34 C
e o

o u

ou

N eh

1 2

zr
E zr

ls

m en

e en -

on e

di

N eh

A J ish str c f d b y P r f ss r M s p
s v b c h d c d l sti c k
6

ti

ew

ra n

an

on ,
e

ou n
.

o e

ero a t

l ph ti
e

an

n e,

sh s
ow

TH E

n ot a

the

in

AT E L E

PHAN T I N E

93

T h e h i g h -p ri es t of J eru s a lem w a s h i h p ri es t
E lep h a n tin e, a n d a ll o t h er J ew s a s w el l
T h e H oly

of

hi g h -p ries t

J ew s

TE M PLE

of

H oli es in t h e tem p le a t Jerus a lem w a s t h e ora c le p la c e of a ll J ew s

b oth in E lep h a n tin e a n d el sew h ere
T h u s w e s ee t h a t t h e tem ple a t E lep h a n tin e w a s in s tri c t a c c ord
w i t h D eu ter on om y w hi c h res tri c ted t h e
d w el lin g p la c e o f Y a h w eh s

n a me
t o on e c en tra l s a n c tu a ry n ow es ta b li s h ed a t J eru s a l em b u t
p ermitted s a c ri c es everyw h ere Th e J ew s of E lep h a n tin e w ere
t h en w or s hi p in g in en tire a c c ord w i t h D eu ter on omy a n d t h e u tter
-

a u c es of

I s a ia h

I
.

p a pyru s s h ow s u s t h a t t h e Jew s of E lep h a n tin e c on

d u c ted t h ei r w ors h i p a c c ordi n g t o t h e s tric t r eg u la ti on s of t h e w h ole
P c od e th e h oloc a u st s p ea c e sa c ri c es mea l offerin gs in c en se
f a s tin g p ra yers a ll p oin t to th e la w s of th e P c od e w h ic h t h u s mus t
h a ve b een in op er a ti on i n E gyp t n ot l a t er t h a n 5 2 5 B C a n d p r ob a b ly
Fu rt h er , t h i s

f rom
I

t h e b e in n i n
I sa

of

t h e s even t h c en tu ry

A PP ENDIX II
A n c i en t Ch r on ol og y

B i b l i g r ph y
o

A m eli n ea u

pp
B eec h er

p h ia
A

90 7

8 S 2 0 4

r oi s

d e l p o qu e

th e Ol d Tes ta men t

D ie

J H

B rea s ted

90 8
Cla y

A H i s tory

S A Cook
.

New Y ork ,

t h e D yn a s ti es

PEF

Om i

of

P ersia n Peri od s

and

N otes on
p p 5 9 7 63 1

XX .

B a b ylon ia n ,

eo-

III Pa rt I p p 3
B a b ylon ia n Ch r o n olog y
.

QS

pp

90 7 ,

J eh u

and

3 1 8 ii
R, Vol

JQ

Corma c k

un d

th e A n c i en t E g yp ti a n s

T h e A s s y ri a n , N

T es ta m en te

B E , S er A , Vol V
.

h a i qu e,

P h i la d el

h r on ol o i sc h e S ys t em i m Al ten

i
0
b e J o s ep h u s , M VG , 1 9 8 , p p 1 0 1 7 6

B os s e

a rc

Th e D a ted E v en ts

Ch ro n olog i e d es

RE , X I I ,

E g yp t i n A s i a

Pere

L on d on ,

90 8

am S i n , O LZ ,
1

N r
1 9 0 9 pp 5 3 63
F C B i selen
S i don a S tu dy i n O r i en ta l H i s tory New Y o rk 1 9 0 7
W E rb t
D a s J ob el j a h r
O LZ 1 9 0 7 pp 63 6 3 8
Th e C h r on ol og y of th e Ol d Tes ta men t
Folk eri n g h a m
Ca mb ri d g e
H

D h orme

Sa

g on ,

0
9

1 2 0 2 2
.

N ote s u r

G in z el

Ll

G ri f t h

la Ve d yn a s ties ,

M on t h

gp

et

6
3 44

as

F ir s t

of

RE ,

X II pp
,

B and

The

t h e E y tia n Y ea

L ei p z ig ,

90 6
L en g t h of t h e R ei
.

u nd

Tec h n i s c h en

of

p II

A m en h o t e

XXX I pp 4 2 4 3
th s A i t C h l g y P rt I C hi c g 9 7
S pp l m t t t h
This b i bl i gr p h y r pr s ts m r l y t h b ks d rti cl s th t h v
f his A i t Ch
c m t th
ti c f t h th r si c t h p bl i c ti
l gy P t I
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en

o o

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ar

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C h r on ol og i e
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A N CI E N T CH RONO L O G Y
H

H a ll
H isto ry

of

PS B A,

8
3 5 87

H omm el
ten s ,

D ie

Jr

H yk s os

Th e

8,

1 0

1 0

of

O n t h e L en t h

pp

2 2 1 30

m d es Z w ei t

th e

77 82

M on t h in B a b ylon ia ,
-

T h e B a b yl on i a n Ch r on i c le

t h e T w el t h D yn a s ty ,

T h e Fi r s t Y ea r of S a m s u -I lu n a

a nd

XX I pp

ZA,

P S B A , X XX ,

pp

90 9,

J oh n s

H ob oken

55 58
G en ea l og i e d es Ka ssi ten kOn ig s A

OL Z ,

M J a s t r ow

XXX pp

PS B A,
.

Mi qqed en

Y a mi m

W H olli n gw o rt h

Rela ti on t o t h e

XXX I pp 1 3 5 4 8
a n d M y r til o s
JH S XX I X pp 1 9 2 2
D er Z w Olft e KOni g d er er s ten D yn a s tie v on I sin

V H ilp rec h t
O LZ , I 90 7 , p p

T h ei r

a nd

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E

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a nd

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M u r sil

T h e D i s c overi es i n C rete

95

of

PS B A,

the

XXX pp

70 , 7 1
Fi r s t D yn a s ty of B a b y
,

XX I X pp 1 0 7 1 1

N ote on t h e Ch roni c le of t h e Fi r st D yn a s ty of B a b yl on
P S B A XX I X pp 1 0 8 1 0
S ome Fu rt h er N otes o n t h e B a b yl oni a n Ch r on i c l e o f t h e
P S B A XXX I pp 1 4 1 9
Fi r s t D yn a s ty
B C 668
T h e Ch r on ol og y of A s h u rb a ni p a l s Rei gn
62 6 P S B A XX I X p p 7 4 8 4
T h e a n c i en t Y ea r a n d t h e S ot h ic Cy c l e
PS B A
F A J o n es
XXX p p 9 5 1 0 6
L W Ki n g
S a rg on I Ki n g of Ki s h a n d S h a r g a ni s h a r ri Kin g
P S B A XXX pp 2 3 8 4 2
o f A kk a d
2
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l on ,

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pp
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37
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Ha u pt
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ann-

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c a lled

PS B A,

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Pa py ru s
B er oss o s

6 2

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d es

l on i a c a ,
F

St

Kli o V III
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Kl i o V III ,
,

D i e S ot hi s -P eri od e

pp

2 2

pp

un d

7 51

un d

d er Ka len d er

3 26
d i e k ei li n s c h ri ftlic h e N eu

2 1

6
9

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C F L eh m
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et

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PS B A,

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P a p yr u s

l a d a te d u

5 5 ff

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I s ra eliten

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n om

Le

X II pp
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T h e E x od u s

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s v on

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9

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90 8

N eu e N a c h tr age zu r agyp tis c h en Ch r on olo gi e Z A

XL I V p 5
M A M eyer H i s tory of th e Ci ty of Ga za New Y o rk 1 9 0 7
M ik etta D er P h a r a oh d es A u s zu g es F reib u r g i B 1 9 0 3
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1 1

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pp

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7 5 ff

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pp

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A N C I E N T CHR ONO L O G Y
H

Ra d a u

T h e G en ea l o y

of

th e

X VII P a r t I p p 5 9 7 1
A H S a yc e
N otes on A s sy ria n
XXX pp 1 3 9
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d e Ha n a ,

OLZ , 1 90 8 ,

93

L a g n a l og i e d
OLZ , 1 9 0 8 , pp 3 1 3 3

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pp

A g um k a k ri m e,

5 6, 2 5 7

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d ix ser T ome X I pp
.

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g Ammidi t

B A , VI , 3 , pp 1 5 3

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90

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90 8 ,

pp

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a n a s un d

Ammi

62

62

Weill
L e s j ou r d es I s r a eli t es a u d esert et l e S in a i

rela ti on p rim itive RE V L V II pp 1 9 5 4 1 9 42 38

H W ei s sb a c h
Zu r Ch r on ol o gi e d er B isu tu n I n sc h ri f t

4 7

OLZ ,

sy n c h on i sm es

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9,

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f on d a tion d u oya um e b a b ylon ien , Z A ,

pp

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1 1

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en

i n B o h a z -Koi irn S omm er

rs t h a t h a ve p a ssed sin c e t h e m a n u s c ri p t for

Pa rt I w a s sen t to t h e p ress a s u rp ri sin g ly la rg e

I n t h e t w o yea
A n c i en t C h ron ol og y ,

APP E N D IX

98

ri tten on t h e su b j ec t
A b ou t s ev en ty ve s u c h a r ti c les h a v e b een o b ser ved b y t h e a u t h or
A n d d u ri n g t h es e t w o y ea r s s om e r ea l ly i m p o r t a n t d i s c ov er ies b ea ri n g
o n t h i s s u b j ec t h a ve b een m a d e
A l l t h ese t og et h er w i t h r evi ew s on
A n c i en t C h r on ol og y P a r t I an d s ev er a l p ri v a te l et ter s f r om emi n en t
A s s y ri ol og is t s a n d E gy p t o l o g i s t s h a ve b een c a r ef u lly c on si d er ed a n d
w eig h ed b y t h e a u t h or ; a n d i t i s a p lea s u r e t o s t a te t h a t i n n o c a s e
h a s h e d eem ed i t n ec es s a ry t o c h a n g e or d ev i a te f r om t h e p ri n c i p l es
la id d o w n i n t h a t w o rk a s t h ose u s ed i n b u ild in g u p t h e c h r o n o l og y
I t i s e qu a lly p l ea sa n t t o r ec o r d t h a t t h e r es u l t s rea c h ed t h e d a tes
g iv en i n t h a t v o lu m e a l t h ou g h o f t en on ly a p p r o xim a te s ti ll rem a in
w i t h i n t h e lim i t s o f h ig h p r ob a b i l i t
T h a t s om e m od i c a tion s a re
y
n ec es s a ry a f ter t h i s l a p s e o f t im e i s of c ou r s e t o b e ex p ec t ed
The
a u t h o r i s q u i t e w i l l i n g h er e t o r ec o r d t h em
w h erev er t h e ev i d en c e
s eem s t o r eq u i r e
M a n y o f t h e n ew h y p ot h eses o ered i n t h i s eld a re s u c h t h a t h e
n d s him self u n a b le to a c c ep t t h em S p a c e f orb id s h im ev en to
d i sc u s s m o s t of t h em
I t i s w i t h r eg ret t h a t h e c a n n o t a c c ep t t h e
s c h em e o f a n c i en t c h r on o l o g y w h i c h Pr o f es s o r P et ri e t h e b r i ll i a n t
E g y p t o lo g i s t a d v oc a tes i n ser t in g a s h e d oes a w h ol e S ot h i c c yc le
yea r s ) b et w een t h e X I I th a n d X VI I I t h E g yp ti a n d y n a s ties

n u mb e

of

rtic les

II

and

b o ok s h a v e b een

N ot

o n ly

is t h i s

a g a in s t

b ib l i c a l

evi d en c e ,

b u t th e

s c a rc i ty o f

m on u

p eri o d in E gyp t p rec lu d es t h e el a p sin g of s o lon g a

p eri od T h e p a r a llel a n d s im u l ta n eou s d e el op m en t of c u ltu re in
E g y p t a n d C r et e i s s o im p o r t a n t a n d o f s u c h a n a tu r e t h a t t h e 5 0
ea r s w h ic h t h e a u t h o r p os t u l a t ed f or t h i s p er i od f u l l a l l t h e r eq u i r e
men t s o f a r c h a eo log y for t h i s im p o r t a t a g e
T h e c on ten ti on
a d a n c ed i n t h e f o r m er b oo k t h a t w e d ea l h er e w i t h a n u m b er o f
c o n t em p r a ry d y n a s ties i s t oo im p r t a n t t o b e o v er l ook ed o r i g n o r ed
b y a n y s c h o l a r w i s h i n g t o g r a s p t h e s ig n i c a n c e o f t h e H y k s o s r u l e
W i t h equ a l reg ret i s r ec o rd ed t h e i n a b ility to a c c ep t t h e b rillia n t
h y p o t h es i s a d va n c ed b y P r o f es s o r L ieb lei n f o r t h e i n terp r et a tio n o f
t h e S o t h ic d a tes i n E g y p t a n d t h e c h ro n ol o g y w h ic h h e en d ea v or s
t o b u i ld t h er eu p o n
W it h Pro f es s o r Kn u d tzon t h e p resen t a u t h or
a g r ees t h a t c o n s i d er a t i on s o f c o n tem p o r a ry B a b yl o n ia n c h r o n o l og y
es p ec i al ly t h a t o f t h e A m a r n a p eri o d m a k e i t n ec es s a ry t o set i t a s i d e
N o r i s P r o f ess o r L ieb lei n c o n v i n c in g i n h i s r ea d i n g of t h e n a m e on
m en t s

of

t h is

I A

B B L C L CH R

a d mi tted

P a pyru s

99

p ec u li a r it mu st b e
B u t w h y m a y i t n o t rep resen t t h e t h ron e n a m e of Am en

v ers o of

th e

ONO L O G Y

E b er s

Th e

w ri tin

is

I?

h o tep

b ec om e a pp a ren t th a t some m od i
c a ti on of th e d a tes a s si gn ed to rei gn s a n d ev en t s i n t h e ea rli er b ook
T h i s w a s a n tic i p a ted a n d em p h a si zed severa l tim es
a re n ec ess a ry
b oth in p refa c e a n d tex t too w h en p eriod s w ere b ein g trea ted w h ere
I t i s t h eref ore
m a teri a l w a s a s yet t oo s c a n ty for d ogm a tic c ert a in ty
s u rp ri si n g to n d h ow c orrec t or h ow n ea r ly c orr ec t m o s t o f t h ese
O f c ou rs e even a s yet th ere a re n o n a l a n d
a p p r o xim a ti on s w er e
L et u s h ow ev er exa m i n e a n d en u m
c er t a i n resu lt s on t h es e p oi n t s
c r a t e t h e p ri n c i p a l i tem s o f w h a t i n t h ese t w o yea rs h a s b een a d d ed
t o ou r s t ore o f kn ow l ed g e a n d in c i d en t a lly trea t s om e o f t h e q u es ti on s
t h a t in t h e f ormer b o ok w ere op en ly a n d p u rp os ely p a ss ed b y
H ere a n d

re

th e

h ow ev er , i t h a s

i
h r o l og y
I n A n c i en t C h r on ol og y P a r t I i t w a s d e n itely s ta ted t h a t i n
t rea ti n g of t h e b ib li c a l c h ron ol og y of t h e p eri o d t h ere w a s t o b e n o
A

B b li c a l C

d i sc u ssi on

of

t h e d a t es

no

n or of

the

v era c i ty a n d

h i st ori c i ty

of

t h e d oc u

r merely r ec or d ed a n d i t w a s s h ow n
w h ere su c h d a tes l a n d ed u s i f a pp li ed t o s om e c er ta i n h i s t ori c a l d a te
I n reg a rd t o t h i s d a te t h ere
l ike t h e f ou n di n g of S ol om on s t em p le
T h e p resen t v ol u m e
h a s a s yet a ri sen n o n ec es s ity for c h a n g i n g i t
m a y in di c a te s om ew h a t w h y t h ere c ou ld n ot t h er e b e a d is c u s si on of
p revi ou s b ib lic a l d a tes Nor i s i t a s yet t h e a u t h or s w i s h to exp res s
a n y o p i n i on u p on t h e h i s t ori c i ty of a n y B ib lic a l d a tes t h erei n g iv en
N eit h er a
ex c ep t t h ose w h i c h h a ve b een t r ea t ed in t h i s volu m e
c a t eg o ri c a l a f rm a ti on n or a c a teg o ri c a l d en i a l of t h ei r h i s t ori c i ty i s
E a c h d a t e a n d ea c h d oc u men t m u st b e trea ted sep a ra tely
s u f c ien t
a n d t rea t ed w i t h t h e u tm os t c a r e a n d c on sid era ti on
m en t s

T h e d a ta

a nd

d a tes

we e

Th e Ch r on ol og y

In

re a rd

to t h e B o ok

h a s s h ow n t h a t t h e
It

n eed s
1

t h e B ook of

J u g es

J u d g es it i s h op ed th a t th e p resen t volume

c on ten ti on

qu a li c a ti on

Th e

of

of

m a d e in

h o w ever , i n th e

even n u m b er s of 2 0

40

re a rd

t o i ts d a tes w a s c orr ec t

f oll o w i n g

and

80

w a ys :

m a y in

s om e c a s es ,

p os
S ti ll , t h e su mm a ry of d a tes
si b l y i n a ll , b e rou n d n um b er s m er ely
u p t o D eb ora h s h ow s t h a t t h ey a re a p p r ox im a t ely c o r rec t , f or t h e
.

APP E N D IX

0
0
3

11

r J a b in b elon g s to t h e tim e o f
J os h u a j u s t s ub s equ en t t o t h e A m a rn a p eri od a n d t h is i s j u s t w h ere
t h e c h r o n ol og y o f J u d g es p l a c es i t
I f t h en on e of t h ese rou n d
wo
n
e
t
n u m b er s b e f ou n d t o ex c eed t h e a c tu a l n u m b er of
r
e
a
b
o
s
y
y
or m o r e w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t t h e r ev er s e p r ev a i l s i n ot h er s of t h em
a n d t h a t t h ei r s u m i s c o rr ec t or a pp r o xim a tely s o
2
We h a ve f ou n d in t h is p res en t v ol u m e t h a t i t w a s o n ly a f ter
t h e c o n q u es t o f J a b in b y t h e c o o p er a ti n g f o rc es o f J o s h u a a n d
D eb o r a h t h a t t h e H eb rew s of Ca n a a n w er e u ni ted i n to on e p eop l e
i n t o on e p oli tic a l u n it i f s u c h a term m a y b e u sed in d ea li n g w i t h
T h e c o n q u es t r ec or d ed i n J u d g es w a s c a rri ed o n b y
t h o s e t im es
I t w ou ld s eem t h en t h a t t h e j u d g es l iv i n g
ea c h t r ib e s ep a r a t el y
b ef o re Deb ora h i e O t h n i el a n d E h u d w er e n ot j u d g es of a ll I s r a el
b u t on ly of t h ei r res p ec tiv e t ri b es
A n d i f t h i s b e s o t h es e t w o m en
m a y h a v e b een c on tem p o r a ry
O th n iel w a s j u d g e of t h a t I s ra el

v ic t o

ry

D eb o r a h

of

a nd

Ba

ra k

ov e

h i c h l iv ed i n

ca

p i ta l

E hud

o f a b od e

th e la n d

j udge

w as

of

in

J u d a h w i t h Kiria t h S ep h er a s h is
B en j a m in w i t h J eri c h o a s h i s p l a c e
-

J u d g es a
i rm s

r u led t h e
s o n s of I s r a el f or ei g h t y ea r s a n d t h a t t h en O t h n i el b ec a m e j u d g e
for f or ty yea r s
T h i s m a kes a p erio d of a b ou t f orty ei g h t yea r s B u t
w e h a v e a l r ea d y i d en ti ed Cu s h a r A rs h a ta i m w i t h A r ta ta m a II o f
M i t an i w h o w a s t h eref o re of A ra m N a h a ra im T h e i d en ti ty of
M i t an i a n d M i di a n c a n s c a r c ely b e q u es tion ed
N ow t h es e M id ia
n i tes w er e s et t led i n t h e s ou t h i n t h e H o ri te la n d b ef o r e t h e d ea t h of
M o s es b ec a u se B a la k k i n g of M oa b c a lled i n t h ei r el d ers for a s sis t
a n c e w h en M os es a n d h i s a rm
n
d
f
M
a
p
h
r
r
c
m
e
d
o
t
e
b
o
e
o
oa b
y
3

T h e B oo k

of

Cu s h a r-A rs h a ta im

th a t

A r ta t a m a

re

th e

f or

a nd

s om e

b ec a u se t h ey
I t li es

th e

we

mu st

a s su

me

w ou l d

h a v e b een

p ri o r to t h i s even t a t lea s t tw o or t h ree yea rs

t o b e rm ly s ettl ed w h en B a la k c a lls u p on t h em

tim e

s ee

n ea r a t

M i d ia n i tes

h a n d to

a ssu m e

t h a t i t w a s t h i s A r ta ta m a

M i t an i p eop le i n M ou n t H or t h a t d ep ri v ed Ca leb of H eb ron

a nd

a nd

h is

ma d e

J u d a h t rib u ta ry to him T his w ou ld t h en b e t h e eig h t y ea r s op p res

s io n
u n d er C u s h a r A rs h a ta im
N ow Ca leb c a me to J os h u a a t
G i lg a l c a 1 4 0 2 a s kin g h i s a ss i s ta n c e t o rep o s ses s H eb r o n w h ic h
J os h ua a g reed to a n d s h o rtly a fter w e n d J os h u a ma rc h in g s ou t h

Cf

31

I L I CA L CH R ONO L O G Y

B B

0
1
3

rd to c on qu er J u d a h a n d t h e N eg eb H e w a s suc c es s fu l in th i s
c a m p a i g n a n d t h i s m ea n s t h en t h a t t h e M i t an i a n s or M idi a n i t es i n
M ou n t H or w ere overp ow ered Th e B ib le s a y s in d eed t h a t J os h u a
c on qu er ed a ki n g of A ra d or a Ki n g A ra d a n d i t i s p os si b l e t h a t t hi s
n a m e m a y b e a n a b b r evi a ti on of A r ta ta m a
A n y h ow t h e opp ressi on
of Cu s h a r A rs h a ta im la s ted t h en
from a b ou t 1 4 1 0 to 1 4 0 2 w h ic h
v i ew ed i n t h i s li g h t s eem s ex t r emely p rob a b l e
A f ter t h e c on qu es t
of t h e sou t h i t w ou l d b e qu i te n a tu r a l t h a t O t h n i el th e r en ow n ed

n ep h ew of Ca leb
j u d ge over
s h ou l d b e a pp oi n ted g ov ern o r or
t h i s terri tory
A s h e w a s j u d ge for f o rty y ea r s h i s j u d g es h i p w ou ld
t h en ex ten d f rom c a
1 40 2
T h i s i s on ly a few
to c a 1 3 63 B C
yea rs a f ter D eb ora h s vi c t ory over J a b in 1 3 66 a n d i t w a s s h ort ly a f ter
t h i s vi c to ry t h a t t h e tri b es g a t h ered a t S h i l o h w h en J os h u a es ta b
li s h ed Wi t h t h em t h e w ell kn ow n c oven a n t a n d t h e t ri b es w ere
If
reu n i ted
S oon a f ter t hi s J os h u a d ied a t t h e a g e o f 1 1 0 yea rs
h e d i ed i n 1 3 63 h e w ou l d h a ve b een b o rn i n 1 4 73 a n d w ou ld h a v e
b een a b ou t tw en ty ve yea rs old w h en h e w a s w i t h M oses a t H oreb
A n d i n d eed t h e B ib l e sa y s t h a t J o s h ua w a s t h en a you n g m a n
O th ni el s j u d ges h ip w ou ld th u s p a rtly c over th e p eri od of Ja b in s
E v en th i s i s p r ob a b l e O f a ll t h e t rib esmen t h a t g a t h ered
o pp r es s i on
a b ou t D eb ora h a n d B a r a k in t h e b a ttl e a g a i n s t S i sera n on e c a m e
f r omJ u d a h E vid en tly b ec a u se J a b i n s d omini on di d n ot ex ten d
F or t h e s a m e rea son n on e c a m e f r om t h e t r a n s
t h a t fa r sou t h
jord a ni c tri b es ex c ep t M a c hi r w h o w a s a t th i s tim e s ettl ed in
Western Ma n a sseh O th niel c on tin u ed th erefore a s g overn o r of
wa

t h e s ou th u n ti l t h e reu n i on

c oven a n t a t

M oa b

S hi l oh

I sra el

w a s es ta b li s h ed

gh t

yea r s , u n til
I
n
l
n
d
a
d
r
t
f
o
r
e
i
h
t
a
r
s
I t i s n ot
u
d
ll
d
h
i
m
w
h
e
t
h
e
a
h
es
e
Eh
ki e
,
g y y
s t a ted t h a t E h u d w a s j u d e f or ei g h ty yea rs , n or s h ou ld w e a ssu me
4

E g l on , ki n

of

ru led

f or

ei

een

T h e ei h ty y ea r s of p ea c e m erely i n dic a te ei h ty yea r s of H eb r ew

T hi s p eri od mu st h a ve p rec ed ed J a b i n s
s u p rem a c y a r ou n d J eri c h o

it

pp ressi on

E hud

b ec a u se B en j a m in t ook

m u rd er

of

E g l on

w ou l d

p a rt

in th e

w ar

t h en c om e a b ou t

4 65

h im

a in s t

and

b efore
T h e An n a l s of T h u tm os e III a ss ert t h a t b e c on qu ered
t h e E x od u s
I f th ese
t h e l a n d s of J a c ob e1 a n d J o s ep h e1 b ot h s i tu a ted i n Ca n a a n
E l on

c on

qu es t

a b ou t

483

B oth t h ese d a tes

c om e

J dg
u

3:
30

APP E N D IX II

0 2

a n y t h in

m ea n

n a m es

t h ey

the

rib es a n d H eb rew p os s es sion s in

o s h u a n ic

b een

but

a m on g

fa c t

t h e l a n d of
.

th e

of

m a y h a v e b een d es c en d a n t s

I s ra el H eb rew s w h o h a d
,

n ot

H eb r ew s

th e

h en

h ile h er

x p ec t

E gyp t

D i e P a l as ti n a l i ste Th u tmos i s I I I

p eop le

n a m e s h ow s

qu a in ted

we e ac

w i th th e

of

E y tia n c u l t u e
w a s m a d e u p of d e

J eric h o

Y a h w eh

gp

a f n i ty w i t h

w o s hi

a s w e w ou l d

p en d en c ies

t h i s t ime w h en Ca n a a n

at

b es i eg ed it

J osh u a

M ll r
'

t h e R a h a b s t o y s h ow s t h a t t h e

a n y c a se

o e

Ma x

a t a ll

J a c ob

of

t h e d a ys

t h ey

or

Y ASA F E L
(J s ph)

Q
(J c b )
a

of

d ow n t o E g yp t

on e

E B -E L

Y AC

In

i n p re
ma y h a ve

n ot on l y

Ca n a a n

T h es e p eop le
i n p re-M o sa i c t im es
H yks os w h o h a d b een ex p elled f r om E yp t ,

ev en

( From

H eb rew

t h a t t h ere w ere

of

I
.

A t h w l s j d g t this ti m S v r l sc h l rs
ith G rsh m
f M s s
This is p ssi bl s p c i lly i f t h
I d ti fy h i m
r c rd
t k f m c i f rm t bl t
hi c h t h m
ritt
ith
si g s Gi S m I f this b
f A th
d t s i h b it t f
t
S
A th This A th
l d i d ti fy ith A th th c ity f m i l s rth
fJ r s l m
m rd r d b y S
N rby l iv d th s v ty p ri sts th t
l
Th s p ri sts r l i
ph d s d
th r f r d r t h D t r m i c
Th
st bl ish m t f this c d i this vi c i it y
l d b q it t r l
C d
i f G rsh m
f M s s h d b
j dg th r J r m i h
b r i A th th d h d his h m th r W l d t this cc t
S

am

g r
a

was

e o

wo

e u a e

e e

was

e e

na

w e w ou

ea

en

na

an

e en

an

on w

na

een

e e

w er e

w ou

ou

en w

no

au

eu e o n o

e e

no

an

e e

ew

o a

e w as w

en o e

e e o e un

o e

w er e

na

ve

e, e

e na

e e a

on

en

s on

so,

n en

e a

o e

o n

s on o

un e

o a

as a

wo e

ro

r a

na

na

en

s on of

en

e na

e e

u a
a

ou n

B AB

YL ON IA N CHR ONO L O G Y

B
a

B a b y l on i a n Ch

ro

30 3

n ol og y

T h u rea u -D a n i n h a s s h ow n t h a t t h e Ka s si te n a me B i -ti l -i a -s h u

s h ou l d

Ka s -ti l i a -s h u

rea d

be

b) Cla y h a s s h ow n t h a t t h e d ivin e n a m e E n -li l w a s p ron ou n c ed

E n -l i l , a n d n ot B el
P rop er n a mes c omp ou n d ed t h erew i t h s h ou ld b e
.

rea d s o
c

) H ommel

tim e i n
a

ha s

rea c h ed

th e

P a rt I

A n c i en t C h ron ol og y,

bb revia tion

Meyer

for S a r

a d v a n c ed

) T h u rea u

ha s

na

m e S u -l i -li i s

d a te t h e

p l a c i n g h im c a 2 5 5 0
c on rm ed our a rg um en t

Da n in h a s

r st

for t h e

l a ter

Akk a d ,

on of

w i th th e

a g eed

a d v a n c ed

t h a t th e

S u mu l a -il u

or r ea di n g of

d ) E d u a rd

c on c lu si on

p resen t
B C
.

a u t h or

th a t t h e e w a s

l a c u n a b etw een D yn a s ti es A (of B a b yl on ) a n d C ( Ka ssi t e) , a n d h e

h a s p l a c ed D yn a s ty B (of S ea -l a n d ) c on tem p ora ry w i t h b ot h t h e

d yn a sties A

and

tw o d y n a s ti es

i n d ep en d en t in t h e i n terv a l b etw een t h es e

and

C,

f) Win c kl er h a s d i sc overed
i n B a b yl oni a n , i n

at

B o h a z -k oi

h i c h H a ttu sil , ki n

of

Hi ttite ta b let w ri tten

t h e H i ttites i n f orm s a
a

B a b yl on i a n ki n g w h o i s t h e su c c es s o r of Ka d a s h m a n -Tu r g u t h a t h e
h
i
l
h
n
t
n
f
E
t
i
a
tt
u
s
a
s
c
o
c
l
u
d
e
d
a
r
e
a
t
w
i
t
h
t
h
e
ki
o
p
T
s
)
g
(H
y
y
B a b yl on i a n ki n
n ot a

pp ea r

is

in t h i s l etter ,

t hi d y ea r

sec on d o r

Ku d u r E n li l ,

evi d en tly

and

N ow

k n ow ,

Ku d u r E n lil

of

T his

m a kes

n ec es s a ry

m ost

i s th e

th e

w el c om e

s ec on d o r

p la c i n g

of

th e

few yea r s l a ter , som e t en t o tw en ty yea rs , t h a n w a s

A n c i en t C h ron ol og y , P a rt I
W h en t h a t b ook w a s w ritten

Ka ssi te d yn a sty
d on e i n

t h ere w a s n o evi d en c e w h a tev er to

d id

in h is
,

t hi rd yea r

m e d oes

f rom t h e E g yp tia n m on u m en ts
t h e H i t ti tes w a s c l os ed i n t h e

rea ty b etw een E gyp t a n d

tw en ty r s t yea r of R a m s es II
We h a ve h ere t h en
T h e t w en ty r st yea r of Ra m ses I I
s yn c h r oni sm

th a t th i s t

na

evi d en t ly w ri tten

t h e l ett er w a s

we

hi s

a l t h ou g h

n ot w

h olly

s h ow

t h a t D yn a s ty

p rec ed e D yn a sty D (of Pa s h e)

( Ka s si te)

T h e d a te of t h e la t ter

si m i l riti s i l g g b t
J r m i h d D t r my
v i s c h p rts f J r m i h ( g c h p 7 ) th t r d l iv r d b f r D t r
di sc v r d Th p c l i riti s i l g g d th ght f J r m i h
my w
r c t t h d i l c t d tr d iti s f A th th d N b
i g f t h l tt r w h r
l d t r ll y xp c t t d th
Th b g i
w
m h
b br k
y

fo r t h e m a n y
e en

on o

as

e e

na

e,

as

an

e e

a e
e

een

e e

an

nn n

on

en a w a

ua
.

e u

na

e w een

e e w e

an

an

ou

e e

we e

e an

ua

eu e on o

an

e o e

e e

ou

eu e

e e

na u a

APP E N D IX

0
3

is

ce

r ta in

Ku d u rru i n s c ri p tion s of t h e d yn a s ty ,

j u d g in g f rom t h e
a s t h ey d o s o f requ en t ly
,

11

b ut

p r op erty i n s ou t h ern B a b yl on ia
i t i s s a f e to c on c l u d e t h a t t h i s d yn a s ty b eg a n t o r u l e a t r s t o n ly i n
I t m a y t h er ef ore
s ou t h er n B a b yl on ia or m ore d e n it ely ov er I s i n
h a ve b een ea sily c o n t em p o r a ry w i t h t h e l a s t t w en ty y ea r s o f D yn a s ty
F r om
C w h en w e kn o w t h e Ka s si te k in g s t o h a v e b een v ery w ea k
c o n s id er a ti on s w h i c h w e s h a ll t a k e u p i n a m om en t i t seem s p r ob a b l e
t h a t R a m s es I I s h ou l d b e p la c ed s om e y ea r s l a ter t h a n w a s d o n e i n
A n c i en t C h r on ol og y P a r t I a n d t h is f a c t t o g et h er w i t h t h e syn c h r o
n i s m j u s t d i s c u s s ed m a k es i t n ec es s a ry t o p l a c e t h e Ka s s i t e d y n a s t
y
o f B a b y l on s om e t w en ty y ea r s l a ter t h a n w a s b ef o r e p r op o s ed
g ) T h u r ea u D a n gi n h a s p ro p os ed t h e s a m e d a t e a s w a s g iven
i n A n c i en t C h r on ol og y P a r t I f or t h e b eg i n n in g o f D yn a s ty A o f
B a b yl o n i e 2 2 3 3 B C
T h er e c ou ld b e n o b etter a f rma tion t h a n
t h a t of t h i s em i n en t A s sy ri ol o g i s t es p ec i a l ly a s h i s c o n c l u s i o n s w er e
rea c h ed b y en ti rely in d ep en d en t r es ea rc h on ly a few m on th s a f ter
A n c i en t Ch ron ol og y P a r t I w a s p u b li s h ed
d ea l in

wi th

It ) Th u rea u -D a n in
S h a rr u -g i

as

Ki n g of Kis h

was

and

ade

I n l a te

M ou s es

a nd

S h a r -g a n i -s h a rr i
T h e l a tter

was

ti m es t h e t w o

M os es

Ki n g h a v e s h ow n t h a t t h e kin

a nd

p rec is ely

k i n g s id en ti ed ,

na

as we

H o reb

or w i th

w e e n ot

fa th er

a nd

N a r am

of

mes

h a ve

i d en tic a l
-

Th e

S in ,

a nd

k n ow n

f o rm er
ki n g i n

w e e c on u sed , a n d t h e t w o
su g g es t ed

S in a i

w a s th e c a se w i t h

re T h u rea u D a n g in h a s s h ow n t h a t Ki s h w a s l oc a ted
w es t o f t h e E u p h r a tes a n d w e b eli ev e t h a t i t w a s t h e p r ed ec es s or o f
Fu th e m o

the

Ka s h d i
-

or

Ka l d i la n d
-

C
a

E d u a rd

P a py r u s

M eyer

g p i a n Ch ro

E y t

ha s

p ted

acce

n ol o

gy

S et h e

rea d in g

of

th e

T u ri n

r eg a rd to t h e la st ki n g of t h e X I t h D yn a sty B rea sted

h a s l a ter a c c ep t ed t h e s a m e i n t erp ret a ti on
T h ese s c h ola rs h a v e
t h u s c h a n g ed t h ei r view s a n d rea c h ed t h e s a m e r es u lt i n reg a r d to
t h e c l ose of t h a t d y n a s ty a s w a s p res en t ed i n A n c i en t C h r on ol og y
P a r t I Na ville h a d a ss u m ed t h a t Neb h ep et Re M en tu h otep a n d
N eb b ru R e M en tu h o tep w er e i d en tic a l
T h i s s eemed rea s on a b le
B u t N ev ille h a s l a ter c h a n g ed h is v iew a n d H a ll a n d M eyer reg a r d
t h em a s t w o d i ff er en t ki n g s
T h i s is p o s s i b l e o f c o u r s e B u t t h e
T u rin P a py ru s a sser ts t h a t t h ere w ere on ly s ix T h eb a n ki n g s o f
in

XI

Dyn a sty

GYPTI AN

T h ere i s

as

y et ,

CH R

ONO L O G Y

rea s on

no

30 5

t o d ou b t t h i s

M a n eth o s a y s t h ere w ere s i xt een ki n g s of t h i s d y n a sty

M eyer en u m er a ties ve I n tefs a n d six M en tu h otep s
ma y b e

qu ite c o rr ec t i n

i n Th ebes

a ll

of

Ma y

T u rin P a p yru s

T h eb es

t h em li ved i n

th a t

th e

c ou s e

B u t it i s

n ot

T u ri n P a p yru s

i ts s ta tem en t t h a t t h ere w er e b u t s ix

h o r ul ed

t h em h a ve l iv ed i n G eb el en ?

s om e of

n ot

and

r
E d u a rd

and

c er ta in

Of

Th e

r s w h i le
M a n et h o a c c ord s i t on ly f o r ty t h ree yea rs B rea s ted in si s ts u p on t h e
1 60 yea r s a n d d a tes t h e X t h D yn a s ty of H er a c l eop oli s b a c k of t h es e
T h i s c a n n ot b e c o rr ec t T h ere
1 60 yea rs of t h e X I t h D yn a s ty
i s n o qu es ti on th a t t h e T u ri n P a p yr u s i s c o rr ec t i n gi vi n g 1 60 yea rs
t h a t t h e X I t h D y n a s ty l a s ted

s a ys

60 y ea

t o th e d yn a s ty i n Th ebes , b u t i t i s y et t o b e
r ei

n ed over a ll

p oin ted
ki n

rt a in

O n th e

c on tra ry , a s w a s

xt

it

th a t

ce

t h a t t h e d yn a s ty

w a s th e n e

N eb -h ru -R e-M en tu h otep ,

d yn a s ty ,

th e

p eri od

a n y su c h

p ra c tic a lly

it i s

ou t ,

of

E g yp t f or

s h ow n

ho

to th e la st

rth r ew

ov e

H era c leop olis T h e f o rty th r ee yea r s of M a n et h o a re

a m p l e tim e f or t h e p eri od f r om t h e f a ll of t h e X t h D yn a s ty to t h a t of
t h e X I I th
M eyer s a n d B rea s ted s c h ron ol o gi es s h ou l d t h eref ore
T h is
b e l ow er ed 1 1 7 y ea r s for d a tes b a c k of t h e X I t h Dyn a s ty
c a n h a r dl y b e d i s p u t ed a n d i t i s im p or ta n t en ou g h t o d em a n d c on
si d er a tion

D yn a s ty

of

b) A G a r d i n er h a s s h ow n t h a t t h e E y p ti a n m on th -n a m es a re d e
ri ved fr om t h e n a m es of t h e c h i ef f es tiv a ls oc c u rri n g i n t h ose m on t h s
.

He h a s
of

R e,

fu r th er
was

l a s t m on th
E gy p t

of

w i th
c

s eem s

hi s

es

New

r ei n

th e

ref ore

th e

b egi n n in g

em

ha s

a s c ri
n ot

be

su

pi r es

gg

to 0

es ted
1 0 5,

t h e l en t h

p ec ia lly a s

of

rst m on th

n ot

th e

c a l en d a r r e orm

in

t h e X I X t h D yn a s ty a n d

th e

c ivi l n ew

yea r

b ega n

t h en ,

h is

t h a t t h e 3 6 yea r s w h i c h

Ma n

m a y d esig n a te t h e d u ra tion

of r ei n of

A m en h ote

IV

of

T h is

yea r i s yet t h e hi h es t
b e t h a t h e di d n ot r ei n

s ev en t een t h

I t m a y , t h er ef ore,
1 7 yea r s , a n d of t h a t p eri o d t h e 6 y ea rs a t t h e b e i n n i n
The
w a s a c or e en c y w i t h h i s f a t h er A m en h otep I II

m on u m en t s

l on g er t h a n

B i r th

p os sib le

th e

a nd

J os ep h u s
fa i t h a n d

t h e A t on -

T h ere w a s

) P ro f ess or P etri e

et h o a n d

M es ore f orm ed f r om M es w t Re

b et w een t h e

Mid d le

M esore

th a t

M id d l e a n d New em pi res

t h e y ea r

s om etirn e

I n th e

of

in t h e

P tolema ic p eri od

th e

on

s h ow n

g
.

0
3

APP E N D IX II

J os ep h u s a sc rib es to O r os w ou ld t h en b egin w i th t h e
a n d ex ten d ed t o
a c c es s i on of A men h o tep I V ( I k h n a t on ) i n 1 4 0 7
T h e la t ter d a t e c om es t w o yea r s b ef o r e t h e d ea t h of T u ta n ek h
1 371
a n d w e k n ow t h a t t h i s ki n g c h a n g ed f r om t h e A t on t o t h e
a m on
T h e rei g n o f H a r em h a b
A m on r el i gi on s h o r t ly b ef o r e h i s d ea t h
h a ve la s t ed f or
o n t h i s a c c ou n t
ex ten d in g ov er a ll E gyp t w ou ld
t w en ty f ou r y ea r s 1 3 4 5 2 1 B C
d ) I n A n c i en t C h ron ol og y P a r t I w e a s su m ed f oll ow in g J os e
h
r
ei g n of S eti I w a s i n c l u d ed i n t h a t of R a m s es I I
t
h
a
t
t
e
h
u
s
p
We c a lled a t ten ti on a ls o to s om e i n di c a tion s of t h is on t h e m on u
I t i s h o w ev er p o ss ib l e t h a t t h i s m ea n s on ly
m en ts of Ra m ses I I
t h a t R a m s es I I w a s a p p o in ted c r o w n p ri n c e i n ea r ly c h il d h ood
T h e m on u m en t s o f S eti s eem t o s h ow t h a t h i s rei g n w a s en ti r ely
i n d ep en d en t o f t h a t of Ra m s es I I
S ti l l h e c ou ld n ot h a ve r ei g n ed
H i s n i n t h yea r o c c u r s on t h e
for a n y c on s id era b le l en g t h o f t im e
m on u m en ts a n d n i n e yea r s w er e p r ob a b ly t h e d u ra ti on o f h i s r ei gn
B C T h is ma kes i t n ec es sa ry to l ow er t h e s u c c eedi n g
1 31 9 1 31 0
d a tes o f t h e N in eteen t h D yn a s ty w it h n i n e yea r s
3 6 yea

rs

h ic h

F or m ore m i n u te d et a il s
to t h e sy n c

h ro n i s tic ta b l e, h e

t his

of

rec o n s t r uc ti on , r e eren c e
n
e
p d ed

et o a p

is m a d e

I
.

c ll d t h
th r s
tt ti t t h st t m t p 5 9 f t h A i t C h l g y P rt I i r g rd
t
tw
c i t E gy p ti l g d s O f c rs it w
t th t th s
th
ot m
l g d s pp r t h E gy p ti m m ts b t m r l y th t th y d l t w ith
th
rly hist ry f E gy p t H w v r t h x p r ssi is l i bl t m is d rst d i g
pp rt it y is h r t k t c ll tt ti t it
a d th
I

en

P r f ssor E rma
o e

on

e ea

o an

e en

ea

e o

a e

in

n,

on

en

un

p riva t e c rr s p o d c
o

an

en

on

an

e e

en

en

n c en

ou

on u

e e

en

e en

e e

en

has

e,

ron o o

as n

e e

on

on

e au

ea n

e o

e a

e e

un

ea

an

S Y N C H R O NIS TI C

TA B L E

A PP E N D IX II
L AN

S E A-

B A Y L ON

S h a r ru -g i
3

Ma

a n -i s h -tu -s u c a

30 5 0

Dy n a s t y

of

Ki -eu -g i

Dy n a s t y

of

Tel l o

Ki s h

of

Dy n a s t y

S h a rru -g i

8
1 0

A s s yri a

1 2

Dy na s t y
E -a bzu

of

Gi s h k h u

E n a n n a du I
E n temen a
1

ca

80

Dy n a s t y
1

of

r ec h
2

67 S

du
2 2

2
2
2

7
8
9

30

Dy n a s t y

Ag a d e

S h a r g a n i -S h a rri , c a

N a r am S i
-

n,

ca

of

Ur -E n g u r ,

B i n g a n i -S h a r ri ,
Ubi l -I s h ta r
Dy n a s t y

32

of

'

ca

5 5 o Lu g a l u s h u mg a l

5 5
2

48 5

Ur -ba -u

N a m-ma kh mi

A u s h pi a

Ur
2

Ki ki a

477 5 9

Ur -a b-ba

s et tl

YN CHR ON I S T I C T A B LE

YN C H R O NI S TI C TAB LE
EG

pa c h s h a d

0
3

P red yn a stic

M I SCELL ANE OU S

PT

Ki n g s

Dy n a s t i es I I V
nan , c a

31 9 1
ca

32

85 - 2 7 2 9
i
I

la h ,

ca

3 0 62

G
er , c a

9 33

I O
I I

1 2

3g , c a

80

B e i n ni n
Cyc l e,

g
2

3
1 4
1

of

S oth ic

8
1
4
7
I

5
6

70 1

688
2 68 8- 2 668

Dy n a s t y V

Us er kaf ,
S a h ure,
ca

67 1

7 9
2

91

N ef ererka r e,

Temp le of B a a l
ca

h e ses ka re,

S p
A ka u h or ,

N u serre,

at

T yr e

730

6
8
2 661
6
661 2 64 1

64 1 2 5 9 7
M en ka u h or , 2 5 9 7 8 8
D ed ka re, 2 5 8 8 44
ug , c a

L a si ra b

5 40
Dy n a s t y V I
Teti , 2 5 1 1 - 2 4 9 7
Us er kaf , 2 4 9 7 8 1
P epi I , 2 4 9 7 - 4 4

M ern ere

444 3 7

of

A n u -B a n i n i

G u tium

of

L ul u b u

31
32
33

0
1
3

PP E N D IX II
TAB LE

S Y N CH R O N I S T I C

L AN D

B A Y L ON

S E A-

34
35
36
37
38

B u r-S i n I , 2 4 0 1 2 3 9 2

-S i n
i
m
i
l
2
2
G
,
39 85
I bi -S i n , 2 3 8 5 60
Dy n a s t y of
I s h bi - Ur a ,

I sin
2

39
40

I d i n -D a g a n , 2 3 1 8 2 2 9 7
I s h me-D a g a n , 2 2 9 7 7 7

32

8- 1 8

43

Li bi t-I s h ta r , 2 2 7 7 66
Ur -N i n i b, 2 2 66 3 8

44
45

B u r -S i n , 2 2 3 8 1 7
I ter -ka -s h a , 2 2 1 7 1

42

46

2 2 1 2 0

47
48

49
so
51
52

A ra d -N a n n a r

Dy n a s t y A

of

S u mu -a bi , 2 2 33 1 8
S u mu -l a -i l u , 2 2 1

ca

Z a bu ,

2 1

Dy n a s t y of B e
S h a -kn -kd te

8 3 69

77 72

2
7 68
2 1 68 5 7

A p i l -S i n ,

2 1

S i n -mu ba ll i t,

54

S i n -mu ba ll i t,
2 1

31

69 5 1

2 1 2 1 0

of

S ea -La n d

79

20 1

51

31

v a ss a l ,

B l -tabi ,
B el-ka bi

ca

ca

va ss a l ,

H a mmu ra bi , ki n
2 0

20

2 1

2 1

H a mmu ra bi ,

55

58

2 I

I l u -ma -i l u ,

83

B el-ban i , 2 2 0 4 2 1 8 0
Z a mbi a , 2 1 8 0 7 7

5 6 Dy n a s t y B

I l u -s h u ma , c a
E ri s h u m, c a
I ku n u m,

53

57

B a b y l on

2 20

Ag
2 1
S i n -mag i r ,

G a l u -ka -za l
Ur -l a ma

Gi mi l -i l i s h u ,

41

Al -l a

3 60
2

Con ti n u ed

2 1 0

66

S a ms u -i l u n a ,

S h a ms h i -A d a
2 1 0 0

2 0

66 3 1

S Y N CH R
S

ON I STI C TAB LE

YN CH R O NI S TI C TABLE
EG

f
or , c a

41

3I

Con ti n u ed

PT

S ELL AN O S
C

i
l
2
l
} 4 3 7 2 343
r

M ern ere

II

Dy n a s t y V

34 3 4 2

II I

Ku d u r -N a n kh u n di

of

E la m

Dy n a s t y I X
o f H e a c l eo

p ol i s

H era c leop oli s

h,

ca

2 2

33

3 30

N inns

and

S emi ra mi s

Dy n a s t y X
of

2 2

30

z o4 s

B el u s

c on

q u ers

A ssy ri a

Dy n a s t y X I
am

2 1

65

Wa h a nekh

n te

2 1

62

ZI I 2

Ku d ur-M a bug

ca

2 1

40

N a kh tn eb Tep n of er
I

n te

2 1 1 2 2 0

86

C h ed or -La omer

S a nekh -i b-ta w i -M en tu
h otep , c a 2 1 0 0 2 0 8 6

of

E la m

aan , 2 0

yp t ,

Firs t

0
9

ca
ca

N ebh a p etre-M en tu h otep ,

ca

2 0

86 7 7

H yk s o s
2 o 84

Ka s s i tes in
ca

2 o5 8

set tlem en t ,

B a b yl on i a ,

A bes h u ,

u l ki s ha r , 1

20

31

8 98 4 3

7 93

80

ra

Dy n a s t y C of Ka s s i t es

ka l a ma ,

82

Ada

84

Mel a rn ma

739

7 9 3 65

31

Ka s h ti li a s h

72

0 2
4

85

830

S
S

YN CH R ON I S T I C T A B L E

YN C H R O NI S TI C TABLE

B LE

EG

IB

of

B a ttl e
B i rth

Da n ,

ca

2 0

I s h ma el ,

of

2 0

of

sa a c ,

M a rria ge of

2 0

Dy n a s t y X VI

65
46

20

S a ra h ,

of

rr

a c ob

I s h ma el ,

of

in

H a ra n

M a rri a ge
92 4
B i th of
a c ob i n
1

J
J
J
J

2
6
77

2 0

Fa ll

ph

90

of

D yn a s t y

2
2
6 1

2 0 1

943

93 1

a c ob ,

ca

ca

of

A menemh et I I

s ol d

to

XIII

Di os p oh s ,

9 86

0 2
44

H itti tes

i n B a b yl oni

91 7

Ca n a a n ,

I
2
0
0
6
1 98 6
A men emh et ,

D
n a sty
i
s
I
1
8
6
0
S es os t
y
4
,
9

S es os tri s I I

90 6

88 7

1 1

ose
1

ph

os e

ca

of

84

Dy n a s t y X I I

B i t h of a c ob, 2 0 0 6
D ea t h of A b a h a m, 1 9 9 0
M a i a g e of E s a u , 1 9 67

D ea t h

2 0

S a nekh ka re-M en tu h otep ,

2 0 2 2

60

ca

N eb-h ru r e-M en tu h otep ,

ca

D ea t h

S h ep h er d s ,

N ebta w i re-M en tu h otep ,

78

sa a c , 2 0

Con ti n u ed

PT

80

ca

B i rth

B i th of S ebek-kh u , 3
A si a ti c s vi s i t Kh n
h otep I I , 1 9 0 1

E gy t,

p h g ov ern or i n E g yp t
1 887
a c ob i n E g y p t , 1 8 7 7
D ea t h ofiJ a c ob, 1 8 60
D ea t h jof osep h , 1 8 0 7
os e

ri s

S esos t

III

A men emh et I I I

8 8 7 5 4

8 5 4- 0

A menemh et I V,
I

Hy k ? Ki n g s
2
6
0 7
1
3
1
8
0
1
0
1
5
:
6

80 6

11

5 11 ;

79 7

Dy n a s t y X I V

A p a kh n a n ,

Dy n a s t y X V I
of I l i op oli s ,

793

5 79

6
7 3 2

APP E N D IX II
L AN D

S E A-

A e-g ami l ,

73 1

1 1

Du (
shi ,
A bi r a tta s h ,

70

1 69 4

69 3

Ta s h s h i g u ru ma s h

90
91

93
94
95

Ku ri g a l zu I

96

98

P u zu r -A s h u

I 0 0

'

I OI

Bu

rn a

Ka r a

bu ri a s h ,

i n da s h

II

ca

ca

58

(N a zi bug a i

u su

3 86

rp er

A s h u r -u ba lli t

3 61

ca

1 0

Ku rt g a i zu I I I
-

8
3 5 34

N a zi ma r u tta s h , 1 33 4 - 0 8
1 30

1 2

91

S h a l ma n es er
1 2

1 0
I 0

91

85

Ku d u r E n l i l

S h a g a r a kti -S h u ri a s h ,
1 2

7 7 64

1 2

8 5- 7 7

Tu kul ti -N i rti

SY

N CHR ON I S T I C TAB L E
TAB LE

S Y N CH R O N I S T I C

B LE

EG

IB

C on ti nu ed

PT

A p op h i s ,

X
p

Dy n a s t y
VI I
of H erm o oli s ,

A h mos e,

5 79

6- 1 66

6
6 5 15

793

XVI I I

Dy n a s t y

a nna s, 1

72

A seth , 1 61 5 - 1 5 66
E x p u l si on of H yk s os

554

5 66

B i rt h

Mos es

of

Fli h t

of

E g l on

of

M oses

M oa b

ca

ca

52

486

6
8
4 3
5

A men h otep I
Th u tmos e I

5 54 33

5 33

Th u tmos e I I , 1 5 2 2 - 0 9
H a ts h ep su t, 1 5 0 9- 1 4 86
Th u tmos e I I I , 1 4 86
4 73
Th u tmos e I I I

Wa r

in S yri a

Wa r

i n S yri a

E h ud ,

1 8
6
4 5
3 5

rei g

E x od u s , 1 4 4 7
Cu s h a r -A rs h a th a i m,
1

41 0

D ea t h

50

n, 1

w h ol e

Ki n g s

of

Mi t zi n i

450

A men h otep I I , 1 4 7 34 7

u
m
o
s
e
I
V
1
Th t
44 7 3 8
,

A r ta ta ma I
S h u ta rn a

A men h otep I I I

D u s h ra tta

0 2

of

M os es

40 7

4 38

:
.

M a tti w

0 2

Amen h otep , I V

Con qu es t b e in s , 1 4 0 7

M eetin g

of

J os h u a

Ca l eb , 1 4 0 2
th n i el , c a 1 4 0
.

and

3 63

3 64
Dea t h of

at

S a ka re,

Ai ,

S h il o h ,

ca

3 90
0
3 9 78

40

Hi t t i t e Ki n g s

Tu ta n ekh a mon ,

i
1
8
ab n,
3 5 65
D ebora h , 1 3 65

Coven a n t

t on )

(I kh n a

S uplil i u ma
8
3 7 69

M urs i l : A ra nd a s

6
3 9 57

Dy n a s t y X I X

J os h u a

ca

3 63 H a remh a b,

34 5

Ra mses I ,

i
1
S et I , 1 3 9 1
1

32 1

2 1

Mu ta l l u

L AN

S E A-

YN CH R O NI S TI C TAB LE

B A Y L ON

C on ti n u ed

1 1 0

Ka s h tili a s h I I

I I I

E n l i l n ad i n

1 1 2

54
Ka d a s h ma n -kh a r be I I

1 1

54 53
A d a d s h u m-i dd i n ,

64 5 6

s h u m, 1 2

56

1 2

1 2

1 2

53

1 2

47

47

Ad a d -s h u m -u z u r ,

1 1

1 1

5 Dy n a s t y D
6 Ma duk

I I

of

Pa s

he

k
I
2
M
I, I 17 0
pa
M a r d u k -a p i l-i d d in ,

el i -s hi

87

1 1

89
Z a ma ma -s h u mi dd i n ,

1 1 89 88
1 2 0 2

1 1

1 1

1 1

A s h u r -d an

1 2 0
1 1

8 7- 8 1

llI

u ta kkil -N u

1 2 2
1 1

I 2

8I

ca

N ebu c h a d rezza r

6
4
30
E n li l -n dd i n -a pl u , 1

A s h u r -r es h i i

46

11

ca

1 1

I 2
I 2

6
7

1
0
3

a kh e

M a rd u k n d di n -

Ti g l a th p il es
2
ca r 1
5 1
.

6 1 0 94
M a rd u k-a kh -e ba ,
1 1 1

3o
31

32

33

34

4
Q

93 8 1
i dd i n
A
i
d
a
d
a
l
,
(
p
1 0

93
M a rd u ks h a pi k-zr -mati ,
I O

I 2

A s h u r -bl -ka l

1 0

8I

S ea La n d
S i mma s h -s h i p a k, 1 0 7 3

Dy n a s t y E

of

55
B l mu -ki n , 1 0 5 5 5 4
Ka s h s h tt-n ad i n -okh e,
-

S h a ms hi -A d a o

S
S

YN CH R ON I S T I C TAB L E

YN CH R O NI S TI C TAB LE
EG

Ra ms es I I

C on ti n u ed

M S CELL AN E OU S

PT

31 7

31 0

1 2

H a ttu si l : H ittit e

44

1 2
2

78
75

M ern ep ta h

A men mes es ,
-

1 2
0

S i p ta h ,
S eti I I ,

ca
ca

Th ou ri s ,

ca

44

8- 0
-

1 20 2

1 2 0 0

1 2 2

1 2 0

1 2

1 1 1

A r ma n ta

1 1 2

in

Ki d i n kh u tra s h

E la m

of

83
of

T r oy

1 1

83

H era c li d es i n L ydi a ,

83 8 1
-

1 1

ca

Ra mses I V, 1 1 5 0 44
Ra ms es V, 1 1 44 c a 1 1 3 4
.

I 1

I I

1 1

5
6

1 1

1 1

1 1

ca

1 1

34

1 1 1

ca

1 1 1

1 2 2
1 2

1 2

3
4
5

E x od u s of H eb ew s
E y t, c a 1 1 44

gp

f r om

1 2

1 2

1 2

1 2

S h a di -Tes h u p ,

ca

1 1 2

Ra ms es VI I I
Ra mses I X ,

1 2 1

1 2

Ra ms es VI
Ra ms es VI I

H eb opp ressi on in E g y p t
P h ili stin e m ig ra ti on

81 50

81 4 1

1 0

1 1

I 2 O

1 1

Ra ms es I I I

s ettl em en t

1 20 0

I I 0

E yp t

XX

N a kh tset,

D ud c h al i a

F a ll
Dy n a s t y

rea ty

90

H eb rew

92
1

Ra mses X
Ra ms es X I
8 1 61

1
60

'

1 0

2
9 77

1
I

30
31
32
S3
34
3S

INDI C ES

sis

en e

en e

4 9 bi s

)
t

50
55

INDI C ES
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I N D I CE S

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I N D I CE S

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I N D I CE S
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6
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I N D I CE S

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A d d S y i di i i ty 64
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48 f
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Am h t p I I ki g f E gyp t Dy
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66
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I N D I CE S

33 2

Hi g h p i st 3 65
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I N D I CE S
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I N D I CE S

33 4

t xt G r k 3
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I N D I CE S

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l
t
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S e - a o e i n E gy , 2 3 3
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n
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a y on a n s u n -g o d , 2 7 4
S a ma ,
S am a , 30 2
85
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S ec em , 1 2 1 , I 3 2 , 2 4 0
1 36
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S h elem a y a h , 2 9 1

o f, 5 1 , 5 4 , 63
en e a o n
S em , 1 8 ;
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2 47
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e of , 1 3 2 ;
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1 3 2 , 30 1 ;
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9 1 ; a r e oa k a t , 9 1 ; a e
47,

h ll
h l
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9 ;
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4
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59
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3
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S t
54
d d i l c ts f 5 9
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S yc h m
4
Sy i
69 ; S y ri c v rsi
4
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S na
eni n u a , 1 7 4 , 1 7 7 , 2 68
S i n -o 3 eri n g , 2 7 , 3 0
S n e , 2 20
S era , 1 3 1 , 3 0 2
S a n , m o n -n a m e, 2 0 , 2 2
S a e, a w on , 1 8 9 ; o e
3 , 2 37
S o om , 4 5
S o a y ea , i n , 2 0
S o o m o n , 2 1 , 2 8, 3 3 , 4 0 , 63 , 7 0 , 80 f ,
2 0 4
2 1 4;
8 6, 1 0 9 , 1 7 8, 1 8 4
e of , 2 3 4 , 3 0 0 ;
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80 ;
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of ,
of , 7 5
S on of R e, 2 4 3
S o n of D e o a , 60
S o n of S on , 60
S or e y , la w o n , 3 3 , 1 1 5 , 1 89
a e , 1 97
So i
S e , 1 1 9, 1 70
a o n of , 1 0 2
S o , u
S a u e , 3 8 , 5 6, 7 7 , 8 0 f , 1 0 1 f , 1 0 6,
.

33 7

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f t sti m y
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2 1 2
1 0 2

I N D I CE S

33 8

T bl e of N a ti s 1 7
Ta bl s f C v
t 95
f T sti m o y
78 3
Ta h p h s 6
T l f th T w o Br th s
on

en a n

an

a e o

97,

H l i p l is

T u m , s u n -g o d o i
e o
T u m ila t ,
a y, 1 49
n
u
a y ru , 3 0 4
Tw o
o
e ,
a e of ,
Tw o
an

er

2 2

Ta ma r , 2 65
-n
a m e, 2 8 9
a mm u , m o n
a n , 2 4 , 1 62
a g um O nk elo s , 1 5 2
e , la w o n , 1 9 0
a
n
T a t en en , E y
an
y, 2 3 1
T eh en u , 2 2 8
T el el - m a n a , 2 5 3
T el el-D ef en n eh , 1 6 2
T el el -J eh u di eh , 1 5 0
T el el - e
1 4 7 , 1 49
,
T el el -M a s kh u t a h , 1 4 8
T el el -Ro t a b i eh , 1 4 5 , 1 4 9
r e
2
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, 1 0
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a we , E y
an
o o
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a n n e, 4 3 , 2 8 3
y e of , 1 7 5 ; a t E e
91
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1 8 6,
m on y, r 8 2
1 96
of e
e a
m, w o
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1 8
e e
,
e
mo n e , 7 7 , 8 0 , 1 7 4 , 1 7 9
a n -of e n , 2 7
a u, 1 5 8
T h a u b a s i u m , 1 60
.

T
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T is
Tr
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th

d ivi it

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p r c p i sts
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f
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3
Th p h i 4 7 4 9 9
Th s d 9 7 f
Thr
m s 48
Th m m i m
Th t m
I ki g f E gypt Dy
XVIII 3 5 4 9
Th t m s III ki g f E gy pt D y
XVIII 4 9
7
T ig l th p i l
I V ki g f Assy ri
43
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Ti m s h L k 4 8 5 8 7 5
Ti
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8
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9
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k 5 5
64
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9
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Tr s p ss 3 i g 8 3
Tri b l d i l c ts 4 9
39 f
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3
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T

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55

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;
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37 f
f
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s
3
7 ; F st f 9 ; l
9
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Uri m
k
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3
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9
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75
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W dy T m il t 49
W i d g 83 8 9
W ll f E gy p t 5 8
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W rs f Y h h 3 7
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74 f
W v 3 ri g
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n y, 2 3
1 52 ;
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2 2 2

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a w on , 1 1

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I N D I CE S
W ll f t h S
49
W t 39
Wi l d r ss st f R d S
5 f ;
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i 6;
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66
69
7 6;
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Wi rd s l w s 3
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97
3
78 3
W rshi p f s tyrs 3 7 ; f M l c h
f Ash r h 67 7 ;
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67 ;
f
c st rs
f T r p hi m 7 ; c lf 9 6
4 7 ;
f t m b st
s
75
5
78
93 ;
f s p lc h rs 7
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1 0
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3
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m ou n a
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Y r

o a

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s l r
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2 1

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Y ed o n i a h , 2 8 9 3
Y en o a m , 2 2 8
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of ,

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f ;

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bb ti c l
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30 ;

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31 ;

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2 1

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Z a -a r -ki , 2 5 5
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2 0 3,
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1 8 4,
2 1 0
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Z ep h en a t h - a n ea , 2 4 0
a e , 1 66
e u on ,
e of , 1 2 2 , 1 3 2 ;
of , 4 3
e e ia , 2 35
Z ep h a t , I 2 0
Z era ia h , 2 0 3 , 2 1 2
eu ,
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i n y, 2 3
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