Narcissus (plant)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the plant genus. For the mythological character, see Narcissus (mythology).
"Daffodil" redirects here. For other uses, see Daffodil (disambiguation).

Narcissus
Temporalrange:240Ma
Pre

O
S
D
C
P
T
J
K
Pg

LateOligoceneRecent

Narcissuspoeticus

Scientificclassification
Kingdom:

Plantae

Clade:

Angiosperms

Clade:

Monocots

Order:

Asparagales

Family:

Amaryllidaceae

Subfamily:

Amaryllidoideae

Tribe:

Narcisseae

Genus:

Narcissus
L.[1]

Typespecies
NarcissuspoeticusL.
Subgenera
Seetext.

N. poeticus. Thom: Flora von Deutschland, sterreich und der Schweiz (1885)[2] 1. Longitudinal
section, 2. Anthers, 3. Stigma, 4. Cross section of ovary

Floral diagram
From centre outwards: Trilocular ovary, 6 stamens, corona, perianth
Floralformula

BrP3+3+CoronaA3+3G(3)
Bracteate,Actinomorphic,Bisexual
Perianth:6tepalsin2whorlsof3
Stamens:2whorlsof3
Ovary:Superior3fusedcarpels

Narcissus /nrsss/ is a genus of predominantly spring perennial plants in

the Amaryllidaceae (amaryllis) family. Various common names including daffodil,[notes
1]
daffadowndilly, narcissus, and jonquil are used to describe all or some members of the
genus. Narcissus has conspicuous flowers with six petal-like tepals surmounted by a cup- or trumpetshaped corona. The flowers are generally white or yellow (orange or pink in garden varieties), with either
uniform or contrasting coloured tepals and corona.
Narcissus were well known in ancient civilisation, both medicinally and botanically, but formally
described by Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum (1753). The genus is generally considered to have
about ten sections with approximately 50 species. The number of species has varied, depending on how
they are classified, due to similarity between species and hybridization. The genus arose some time in
the Late Oligocene to Early Mioceneepochs, in the Iberian peninsula and adjacent areas of southwest
Europe. The exact origin of the name Narcissus is unknown, but it is often linked to a Greek word for
intoxicated (narcotic) and the myth of the youth of that name who fell in love with his own reflection. The
English word 'daffodil' appears to be derived from "asphodel", with which it was commonly compared.
The species are native to meadows and woods in southern Europe and North Africa with a center of
diversity in the Western Mediterranean, particularly the Iberian peninsula. Both wild and cultivated plants

have naturalised widely, and were introduced into the Far East prior to the tenth century. Narcissi tend to
be long-lived bulbs, which propagate by division, but are also insect-pollinated. Known pests, diseases
and disorders include viruses, fungi, the larvae of flies, mites and nematodes. Some Narcissus species
have become extinct, while others are threatened by increasing urbanisation and tourism.
Historical accounts suggest narcissi have been cultivated from the earliest times, but became
increasingly popular in Europe after the 16th century and by the late 19th century were an important
commercial crop centred primarily on the Netherlands. Today narcissi are popular as cut flowers and as
ornamental plants in private and public gardens. The long history of breeding has resulted in thousands
of different cultivars. For horticultural purposes, narcissi are classified into divisions, covering a wide
range of shapes and colours. Like other members of their family, narcissi produce a number of
different alkaloids, which provide some protection for the plant, but may be poisonous if accidentally
ingested. This property has been exploited for medicinal use in traditional healing and has resulted in the
production of galantamine for the treatment of Alzheimer's dementia. Long celebrated in art and
literature, narcissi are associated with a number of themes in different cultures, ranging from death to
good fortune, and as symbols of spring. The daffodil is the national flower of Wales and the symbol of
cancer charities in many countries. The appearance of the wild flowers in spring is associated with
festivals in many places.

Contents
[hide]

1Description

1.1General

1.2Specific

1.3Chromosomes

1.4Phytochemistry
2Taxonomy

2.1History

2.2Subdivision

2.3Evolution

2.4Etymology
3Distribution and habitat

3.1Distribution

3.2Habitats
4Ecology

4.1Life cycle

4.2Pollination

4.3Pests and diseases

5Conservation

6Cultivation
o

6.1History

6.2Narcissi as garden plants

6.3Propagation

6.4Breeding

6.5Classification
7Toxicity

7.1Pharmacology

7.2Poisoning

7.3Topical effects
8Uses

8.1Traditional medicine

8.2Biological properties

8.3Therapeutics

8.4Commercial uses
9Culture

9.1Symbols

9.2The Arts

9.3Popular culture

9.4Festivals

9.5Cancer

10See also

11References

12Notes

13Bibliography

13.1General

13.2Flora

13.3Narcissus

13.4Pests and diseases

13.5Historical research

13.6Literature and art

13.7Databases

13.8Societies and organisations

13.9Cultivation

13.10Reference material

13.11Geography
14Wikimedia links

Description[edit]
Vegetative

Narcissus bulb with shoot and roots

Narcissus shootsemerging, with sheathed leaves

Narcissus floral morphology

Solitary Narcissusflower, prior to opening, emerging from spathe

N. papyraceus, showing umbelformation

N. pseudonarcissusshowing from top to bottom, spathe, floral tube, tepals, corona

N. cyclamineus, showing reflexed tepals

N. bulbocodiumshowing prominent corona and reduced tepals

N. triandrus, showing pendent orientationand reflexed tepals

Narcissus flower, showing erect orientation

Narcissus flower, showing outer white tepals with a central yellow corona(paraperigonium)

Tazetta cultivar, showing stamenssurrounding central stigma

Close-up of stamen filaments and anthers, with stigma

Gynoecium and fruit

Longitudinal section of ovary with ovules

Cross section of ovary

Narcissus capsuledispersing seed

General[edit]
Narcissus is a genus of perennial herbaceous bulbiferous geophytes, dying back after flowering to an
underground storage bulb. They regrow in the following year from brown-skinned ovoid bulbs with
pronounced necks, and reach heights of 580 cm depending on the species. Dwarf species such as N.
asturiensis have a maximum height of 58 cm, while Narcissus tazetta may grow as tall as 80 cm.[3][4]
The plants are scapose, having a single central leafless hollow flower stem (scape). Several green or
blue-green, narrow, strap-shaped leaves arise from the bulb. The plant stem usually bears a solitary
flower, but occasionally a cluster of flowers (umbel). The flowers, which are usually conspicuous and

white or yellow, sometimes both or rarely green, consist of a perianth of three parts. Closest to the stem
(proximal) is a floral tube above the ovary, then an outer ring composed of six tepals (undifferentiated
sepals and petals), and a central disc to conical shaped corona. The flowers may hang down (pendent),
or be erect. There are six pollen bearing stamens surrounding a central style. The ovary is inferior
(below the floral parts) consisting of three chambers (trilocular). The fruitconsists of a dry capsule that
splits (dehisces) releasing numerous black seeds.[4]
The bulb lies dormant after the leaves and flower stem die back and has contractile roots that pull it
down further into the soil. The flower stem and leaves form in the bulb, to emerge the following season.
Most species are dormant from summer to late winter, flowering in the spring, though a few species are
autumn flowering.[4]

Specific[edit]
Vegetative[edit]
Bulbs
The pale brown-skinned ovoid tunicate bulbs have a membranous tunic and a corky stem (base or
basal) plate from which arise the adventitious root hairs in a ring around the edge, which grow up to
40 mm in length. Above the stem plate is the storage organ consisting of bulb scales, surrounding the
previous flower stalk and the terminal bud. The scales are of two types, true storage organs and the
bases of the foliage leaves. These have a thicker tip and a scar from where the leaf lamina became
detached. The innermost leaf scale is semicircular only partly enveloping the flower stalk
(semisheathed).(see Hanks Fig 1.3). The bulb may contain a number of branched bulb units, each with
two to three true scales and two to three leaf bases. Each bulb unit has a life of about four years.[4][5]
Once the leaves die back in summer, the roots also wither. After some years, the roots shorten pulling
the bulbs deeper into the ground (contractile roots). The bulbs develop from the inside, pushing the older
layers outwards which become brown and dry, forming an outer shell, the tunic or skin. Up to 60 layers
have been counted in some wild species. While the plant appears dormant above the ground the flower
stalk which will start to grow in the following spring, develops within the bulb surrounded by two to three
deciduous leaves and their sheaths. The flower stem lies in the axil of the second true leaf.[4]
Stems
The single leafless stem or scape, appearing from early to late spring depending on the species, bears
from 1 to 20 blooms.[6] Stem shape depends on the species, some are highly compressed with a visible
seam, while others are rounded. The stems are upright and located at the centre of the leaves. In a few
species such as N. hedraeanthus the stem is oblique (asymmetrical). The stem is hollow in the upper
portion but towards the bulb is more solid and filled with a spongy material.[7]
Leaves
Narcissus plants have one to several basal leaves which are linear, ligulate or strap shaped (long and
narrow), sometimes channelled adaxially to semiterete, and may (pedicellate) or may not (sessile) have
a petiole stalk.[8] The leaves are flat and broad to cylindrical at the base and arise from the bulb.[9] The
emerging plant generally has two leaves, but the mature plant usually three, rarely four, and they are
covered with a cutin containing cuticle, giving them a waxy appearance. Leaf colour is light green to
blue-green. In the mature plant the leaves extend higher than the flower stem, but in some species the
leaves are low hanging. The leaf base is encased in a colourless sheath. After flowering the leaves turn
yellow and die back once the seed pod (fruit) is ripe.[4]
Jonquils usually have dark green, round, rush-like leaves.[10]

Reproductive[edit]
Inflorescence
The inflorescence is scapose, the single stem or scape bearing either a solitary flower or forming
an umbel with up to 20 blooms.[6] Species bearing a solitary flower include section Bulbocodium and

most of section Pseudonarcissus. Umbellate species have a

fleshy racemose inflorescence (unbranched, with short floral stalks) with 2 to 15 or 20 flowers, such
as N. papyraceus (see illustration, left) and N. tazetta (see Table I).[11][12] The flower arrangement on the
inflorescence may be either with (pedicellate) or without (sessile) floral stalks.
Prior to opening, the flower buds are enveloped and protected in a thin dry papery or membranous
(scarious) spathe. The spathe consists of a singular bract that is ribbed, and which remains wrapped
around the base of the open flower. As the bud grows, the spathe splits longitudinally.[9][13] Bracteoles are
small or absent.[7][9][12][14]
Flowers
The flowers of Narcissus are hermaphroditic (bisexual),[15] have three parts (tripartite), and are
sometimes fragrant (see Fragrances).[16] The flower symmetry is actinomorphic (radial) to slightly
zygomorphic (bilateral) due to declinate-ascending stamens (curving downwards, then bent up at the
tip). Narcissus flowers are characterised by their, usually conspicuous, corona (trumpet).
The three major floral parts (in all species except N. cavanillesii in which the corona is virtually absent
- Table I: Section Tapeinanthus) are;

(i) the proximal floral tube (hypanthium),

(ii) the surrounding free tepals, and

(iii) the more distal corona (paraperigon, paraperigonium).

All three parts may be considered to be components of the perianth (perigon, perigonium).
The perianth arises above the apex of the inferior ovary, its base forming the hypanthial floral tube.
The floral tube is formed by fusion of the basal segments of the tepals (proximally connate). Its shape is
from an inverted cone (obconic) to funnel-shaped (funneliform) or cylindrical, and is surmounted by the
more distal corona. Floral tubes can range from long and narrow in sections Apodanthi and Jonquilla to
rudimentary (N. cavanillesii).[17]
Surrounding the floral tube and corona and reflexed (bent back) from the rest of the perianth are the six
spreading tepals or floral leaves, in two whorls which may be distally ascending, reflexed (folded back),
or lanceolate. Like many monocotyledons, the perianth is homochlamydeous, that is undifferentiated into
separate calyx (sepals) and corolla (petals), but rather has six tepals. The three outer tepal segments
may be considered sepals, and the three inner segments petals. The transition point between the floral
tube and the corona is marked by the insertion of the free tepals on the fused perianth.[5]
The corona, or paracorolla, is variously described as bell-shaped (funneliform, trumpet), bowl-shaped
(cupular, crateriform, cup shaped) or disc-shaped with margins that are often frilled, and is free from the
stamens. Rarely the corona is a simple callose (hardened, thickened) ring. The corona is formed during
floral development as a tubular outgrowth from stamens which fuse into a tubular structure, the anthers
becoming reduced. At its base the fragrances which attract pollinators are formed. All species produce
nectar at the top of the ovary.[11] Coronal morphology varies from the tiny pigmented disk of N.
serotinus (see Table I) or the rudimentary structure in N. cavanillesii to the elongated trumpets of
section Pseudonarcissus (trumpet daffodils, Table I).[8][11][12][5]
While the perianth may point forwards, in some species such as N. cyclamineus it is folded back
(reflexed, see illustration, left), while in some other species such as N. bulbocodium (Table I), it is
reduced to a few barely visible pointed segments with a prominent corona.
The colour of the perianth is white, yellow or bicoloured, with the exception of the night flowering N.
viridiflorus which is green. In addition the corona of N. poeticus has a red crenulate margin (see Table I).
[9]
Flower diameter varies from 12 mm (N. bulbocodium) to over 125 mm (N. nobilis=N.
pseudonarcissus supsp. nobilis).[17]

Flower orientation varies from pendent or deflexed (hanging down) as in N. triandrus (see illustration,
left), through declinate-ascendant as in N. alpestris = N. pseudonarcissus subsp. moschatus, horizontal
(patent, spreading) such as N. gaditanus or N. poeticus, erect as in N. cavanillesii, N. serotinus and N.
rupicola (Table I), or intermediate between these positions (erecto-patent).[7][9][11][12][14][18][17]
The flowers of Narcissus demonstrate exceptional floral diversity and sexual polymorphism,[14] primarily
by corona size and floral tube length, associated with pollinator groups (see for instance Figs. 1 and 2 in
Graham and Barrett[11]). Barrett and Harder (2005) describe three separate floral patterns;

'Daffodil' form

'Paperwhite' form

'Triandrus' form.

The predominant patterns are the 'daffodil' and 'paperwhite' forms, while the 'triandrus' form is less
common. Each corresponds to a different group of pollinators (See Pollination).[14]
The 'daffodil' form, which includes sections Pseudonarcissus and Bulbocodium, has a relatively short,
broad or highly funnelform tube (funnel-like), which grades into an elongated corona, which is large and
funnelform, forming a broad, cylindrical or trumpet-shaped perianth. Section Pseudonarcissus consists
of relatively large flowers with a corolla length of around 50mm, generally solitary but rarely in
inflorescences of 2-4 flowers. They have wide greenish floral tubes with funnel shaped bright yellow
coronas. The six tepals sometimes differ in colour from the corona and may be cream coloured to pale
yellow.[15]
The 'paperwhite' form, including sections Jonquilla, Apodanthi and Narcissus, has a relatively long,
narrow tube and a short, shallow, flaring corona. The flower is horizontal and fragrant.
The 'triandrus' form is seen in only two species, N. albimarginatus (a Moroccan endemic) and N.
triandrus. It combines features of both the 'daffodil' and 'paperwhite' forms, with a well-developed, long,
narrow tube and an extended bell-shaped corona of almost equal length. The flowers are pendent.[14]
Androecium
There are six stamens in one to two rows (whorls), with the filaments separate from the corona, attached
at the throat or base of the tube (epipetalous), often of two separate lengths, straight or declinateascending (curving downwards, then upwards). The anthers are basifixed (attached at their base).[8][5]
Gynoecium
The ovary is inferior (below the floral parts) and trilocular (three chambered) and there is a pistil with a
minutely three lobed stigma and filiform (thread like) style, which is often exserted (extending beyond the
tube).[8][5]
Fruit
The fruit consists of dehiscent loculicidal capsules (splitting between the locules) that
are ellipsoid to subglobose (almost spherical) in shape and are papery to leathery in texture.[7]
Seeds
The fruit contains numerous subglobose seeds which are round and swollen with a hard coat,
sometimes with an attached elaiosome. The testa is black[8] and the pericarp dry.[12]
Most species have 12 ovules and 36 seeds, although some species such as N. bulbocodium have more,
up to a maximum of 60. Seeds take five to six weeks to mature. The seeds of
sections Jonquilla and Bulbocodium are wedge-shaped and matte black, while those of other sections
are ovate and glossy black. A gust of wind or contact with a passing animal is sufficient to disperse the
mature seeds.

Chromosomes[edit]
Chromosome numbers: 2n=14, 22, 26, with numerous aneuploid and polyploid derivatives. The basic
chromosome number being 7, with the exception of N. tazetta, N. elegans and N. broussonetii in which it
is 10 or 11, chromosome number being the way that this subgenus (Hermione) was characterised.
Polyploid species include N. papyraceus (4x=22) and N. dubius (6x=50).[5]

Phytochemistry[edit]
Alkaloids[edit]
As with all Amarylidaceae genera, Narcissus contains unique isoquinoline alkaloids. The first alkaloid to
be identified was lycorine, from N. pseudonarcissus in 1877. These are considered a protective
adaptation, and are utilised in the classification of species. Nearly 100 alkaloids have been identified in
the genus, about a third of all known Amaryllidaceae alkaloids, although not all species have been
tested. Of the nine alkaloid ring types identified in the family, Narcissusspecies most commonly
demonstrate the presence of alkaloids from within the Lycorine (lycorine, galanthine, pluviine)
and Homolycorine (homolycorine, lycorenine) groups. Hemanthamine, Tazettine, Narciclasine,
Montanine and Galantamine alkaloids are also represented. The alkaloid profile of any plant varies with
time, location, and developmental stage.[19] Narcissus also contain fructans and low molecular
weight glucomannan in the leaves and plant stems.

Fragrances[edit]
Fragrances are predominantly monoterpene isoprenoids, with a small amount of benzenoids,
although N. jonquilla has both equally represented. Another exception is N. cuatrecasasii which
produces mainly fatty acid derivatives. The basic monoterpene precursor is geranyl pyrophosphate, and
the commonest monoterpenes are limonene, myrcene, and trans--ocimene. Most benzenoids are nonmethoxylated, while a few species contain methoxylated forms (ethers), e.g. N. bugei. Other ingredient
include indole, isopentenoids and very small amounts of sesquiterpenes. Fragrance patterns can be
correlated with pollinators, and fall into three main groups (see Pollination).[16]

Taxonomy[edit]
Main article: Taxonomy of Narcissus

History[edit]

Genus valde intricatum et numerosissimis dubiis oppressum

A genus that is very complex and burdened with numerous uncertainties
Schultes & Schultes fl., Syst. Veg. 1829[20]

Early[edit]
The genus Narcissus was well known to the ancients.
In Greek literature Theophrastus[21] and Dioscorides.[22] described , probably referring to N.
poeticus, although the exact species mentioned in classical literature cannot be accurately
established. Pliny the Elder later introduced the Latin form narcissus.[23][24][25][26] These early writers were
as much interested in the plant's possible medicinal properties as they were its botanical features and
their accounts remained influential until at least the Renaissance (see also Antiquity). Mediaeval and
Renaissance writers include Albert Magnus and William Turner, but it remained to Linnaeus to formally
describe and name Narcissus as a genus in his Species Plantarum (1753) at which time there were six
known species.[1][27]

Modern[edit]
De Jussieu (1789) grouped Narcissus into a 'family'[28][29] which he called Narcissi.[30] This was renamed
Amaryllideae by Jaume Saint-Hilaire in 1805,[31] corresponding to the modern Amaryllidaceae. For a

while Narcissus was considered part of Liliaceae (as in the illustration seen here of Narcissus
candidissimus),[32][33][34] but then the Amaryllidaceae were split off from it.[35][36]

N. candidissimus by Pierre-Joseph Redout, 1808[32]

Various authors have adopted either narrow (e.g. Haworth,[37][38] Salisbury[39]) or wide (e.g.Herbert,
[40]
Spach[41] ) interpretations of the genus.[42] The narrow view treated many of the species as separate
genera.[43] Over time the wider view prevailed with a major monograph on the genus being published
by Baker (1875).[44] One of the more controversial genera was Tapeinanthus,[45][43] but today it is included
in Narcissus.[18]
The eventual position of Narcissus within the Amaryllidaceae family only became settled in this century
with the advent of phylogenetic analysis and the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system.[27][46] Within
Amaryllidaceae the genus Narcissus belongs to the Narcisseae tribe, one of 13 within
the Amaryllidoideae subfamily.[19] It is one of two sister clades corresponding to genera in the
Narcisseae,[47] being distinguished from Sternbergia by the presence of a paraperigonium,[4] and
is monophyletic.[11]

Subdivision[edit]
The infrageneric phylogeny of Narcissus still remains relatively unsettled,[19] the taxonomy having proved
complex and difficult to resolve,[12][15][18] due to the diversity of the wild species, the ease with which
natural hybridization occurs, and extensive cultivation and breeding accompanied by escape and
naturalisation.[19][48] Consequently, the number of accepted species has varied widely.[48]
De Candolle, in the first systematic taxonomy of Narcissus, arranged the species into named groups,
and those names have largely endured for the various subdivisions since and bear his name as their
authority.[33][34] The situation was confused by the inclusion of many unknown or garden varieties, and it

was not till the work of Baker that the wild species were all grouped as sections under one
genus, Narcissus.[44]
A common classification system has been that of Fernandes [49][50][51] based on cytology, as modified by
Blanchard (1990)[52][53] and Mathew (2002).[18] Another is that of Meyer (1966).[54] Fernandes proposed
two subgenerabased on basal chromosome number, and then subdivided these into ten sections as did
Blanchard.[53]
Other authors (e.g. Webb[12][43]) prioritised morphology over genetics, abandoning subgenera, although
Blanchard's system has been one of the most influential. While infrageneric groupings
within Narcissus have been relatively constant, their status (genera, subgenera, sections, subsections,
series, species) has not.[18][19] The most cited system is that of the Royal Horticultural Society (RHS)
which simply lists ten sections. Three of these are monotypic (contain only one species), while two
others contain only two species. Most species are placed in section Pseudonarcissus.[55][56] Many of
these subdivisions correspond roughly to the popular names for daffodil types, e.g. Trumpet Daffodils,
Tazettas, Pheasant's Eyes, Hoop Petticoats, Jonquils.[18]
The most hierarchical system is that of Mathew, illustrated here -

TableI:SubdivisionsofNarcissus(Mathew2002)[18]
Subgenus

Section

Subsection

Series

Typespecies

NarcissusPax

NarcissusL.

N.poeticusL.

PseudonarcissusD
C

syn.AjaxSpach
N.pseudonarcissusL.

GanymedesSalisbur
yexSchultesand
Schultesfil.

N.triandrusL.

JonquillaeD
C

N.jonquillaL.

JonquillaeDe
Candolle

Apodanthi(A
.Fernandes)D.
A.Webb

N.rupicola
Dufour

ChloranthiD
.A.Webb

N.viridiflorus
Schousboe

Tapeinanthus(Her
bert)Traub

N.cavanillesii
A.BarraandG.Lpez

Hermione
(Salisbury)Spach

Hermione
syn.TazettaeDe
Candolle

Hermione

N.tazettaL.

Hermione

AlbifloraeR
ouy.

N.papyraceus
KerGawler

Angustifolia
e

(A.Fernandes)
F.JFernndes
Casas

SerotiniParla
tore

Clickforimage
N.elegans
(Haw.)Spach

N.serotinusL.

Aurelia(J.Gay)
Baker

N.broussonetii
Lagasca

Corbularia(Salis
b.)Pax

syn.Bulbocodiu
mDeCandolle
N.bulbocodiumL.
Phylogenetics[edit]
The phylogenetic analysis of Graham and Barrett (2004) supported the infrageneric division
of Narcissus into two clades corresponding to Fernandes' subgenera, but did not support monophyly of
all sections.[11] A later extended analysis by Rnsted et. al. (2008) with additional taxa confirmed this
pattern.[57]
A large molecular analysis by Zonneveld (2008) sought to reduce some of the paraphyly identified by
Graham and Barrett. This led to a revision of the sectional structure.[48][56][58] While Graham and Barrett
(2004)[11] had determined that subgenus Hermione was monophyletic, Santos-Gally et. al. (2011)[56] did
not. If two species excluded in the former study are removed from the analysis, the studies are in
agreement, the species in question instead forming a clade with subgenus Narcissus. Some so-called
nothosections have been proposed, to accommodate natural ('ancient') hybrids (nothospecies).[58]

Species[edit]

Main article: List of Narcissus species

N. major, N. triandrus and N. jonquilla. Encyclopaedia Londinensis1819

Estimates of the number of species in Narcissus have varied widely, from anywhere between 16 and
almost 160,[48][52] even in the modern era. Linnaeus originally included six species in 1753, by 1784 there
were fourteen[59]by 1819 sixteen,[60] and by 1831 Adrian Haworth had described 150 species.[37]
Much of the variation lies in the definition of species. Thus, a very wide view of each species, such as
Webb's[12] results in few species, while a very narrow view such as that of Fernandes[49] results in a larger
number.[18]Another factor is the status of hybrids, with a distinction between 'ancient hybrids' and 'recent
hybrids'. The term 'ancient hybrid' refers to hybrids found growing over a large area, and therefore now
considered as separate species, while 'recent hybrid' refers to solitary plants found amongst their
parents, with a more restricted range.[48]
Fernandes (1951) originally accepted 22 species,[51] Webb (1980) 27.[12] By 1968, Fernandes had 63
species,[49] Blanchard (1990) 65 species,[52] and Erhardt (1993) 66.[61] In 2006 the Royal Horticultural
Society's (RHS) International Daffodil Register and Classifed List [55][62][63] listed 87 species, while
Zonneveld's genetic study (2008) resulted in only 36.[48] As of September 2014, the World Checklist of
Selected Plant Families accepts 52 species, along with at least 60 hybrids,[64] while the RHS has 81
accepted names in its October 2014 list.[65]

Evolution[edit]
Within the Narcisseae, Narcissus (western Mediterranean) diverged from Sternbergia (Eurasia) some
time in the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene eras, around 29.318.1 Ma. Later the genus divided into the
two subgenera (Hermione and Narcissus) between 27.416.1 Ma. The divisions between the sections
of Hermione then took place during the Miocene period 19.97.8 Ma.[56] Narcissus appears to have
arisen in the area of the Iberian peninsula, southern France and north-western Italy.
Subgenus Hermione in turn arose in the southwestern mediterranean and north west Africa.[56]

Etymology[edit]
Narcissus[edit]

N. juncifolius, Carolus ClusiusRariorum stirpium 1576

N. poeticus, Matthias de l'ObelIcones stirpium 1591

The derivation of the Latin narcissus (Greek: ) is unknown, but may be connected with hell.
[66]
It is frequently linked to the myth of Narcissus who became so obsessed with his own reflection in
water that he drowned and the narcissus plant sprang from where he died. There is no evidence for the
flower being named for the youth. Narcissus poeticus which grows in Greece, has a fragrance that has
been described as intoxicating.[67] Pliny wrote that the plant was named for its fragrance
(narkao, "I grow numb" ) not the youth.[19][23][68][69] Furthermore, there were accounts of narcissi
growing long before the story of Narcissus appeared (see Greek culture).[66][70][notes 2] It has also been
suggested that daffodils bending over streams represent the youth admiring his reflection.[71] Linnaeus
used the Latin name 'narcissus' for the plant but was preceded by others such as Matthias de
l'Obel (1591)[72] and Clusius (1576).[73] The name Narcissus was not uncommon for men in Roman times.

The plural form of the common name "narcissus" has caused some confusion. Dictionaries list
"narcissi", "narcissuses" and "narcissus"[67][74][75] However, texts on usage such as Garner[76] and
Fowler[77] state that "narcissi" is the preferred form. The common name narcissus should not be
capitalised.

Daffodil[edit]
The name "daffodil" is derived from "affodell", a variant of asphodel. The narcissus was frequently,
referred to as the asphodel,[68] (see Antiquity). Asphodel in turn appears to come from the Greek
"asphodelos" (Greek: ).[68][78] The reason for the introduction of the initial "d" is not known.
[79]
From at least the 16th century, "Daffadown Dilly", "daffadown dilly", and "daffydowndilly" have
appeared as alternative names.[67]
Other names include "Lent lily".[80][81]

Distribution and habitat[edit]

Distribution[edit]

See also: List of Narcissus species

Although the Amaryllidaceae family are predominantly tropical or subtropical as a
whole, Narcissus occurs primarily in Mediterranean region, with a centre of diversity in the Iberian
Peninsula (Spain and Portugal).[18] A few species extend the range into southern France, Italy, and
the Balkans (N. poeticus, N. serotinus, N. tazetta) and the Eastern Mediterranean (N. serotinus)[18]
[4]
including Israel (N. tazetta).[11][19] The occurrence of N. tazetta in western and
central Asia, China and Japan are considered introductions, albeit ancient[4] (see Eastern cultures).
While the exact northern limit of the range is unknown, the occurrences of wild N.
pseudonarcissus in Great Britain, middle and northern Europe are similarly considered ancient
introductions.[18][82][83]
While Amaryllidaceae is not native to North America, it grows well in USDA hardiness zones 3B through
10, which encompass most of the United States.[84]
N. elegans occurs on the North West African Coast (Morocco and Libya), as well as the coastline
of Corsica, Sardinia and Italy, and N. bulbocodium between Tangier and Algiers and Tangier
to Marrakech, but also on the Iberian Peninsula. N. serotinus is found along the entire Mediterranean
coast. N. tazetta occurs as far east as Iran and Kashmir. Since this is one of the oldest species found in
cultivation, it is likely to have been introduced into Kashmir. N. poeticus and N. pseudonarcissus have
the largest distribution ranges. N. poeticus ranges from the Pyrenees along the Romanian
Carpathians to the Black Sea and along the Dalmatian coast to Greece. N. pseudonarcissus ranges
from the Iberian Peninsula, via the Vosges Mountains to northern France and Belgium, and the United
Kingdom where there are still wild stocks in Southern Scotland. The only occurrence in Luxembourg is
located near Lellingen, in the municipality of Kiischpelt. In Germany it is found mainly in the nature
reserve at Perlenbach-Fuhrtsbachtal and the Eifel National Park, where in the spring at Monschau the
meadows are teeming with yellow blooms.[85] One of the most easterly occurrences can be found
at Misselberg near Nassau on the Lahn.

N. pseudonarcissus growing in the Perlenbach-Fuhrtsbachtal reserve in Germany

However unlike the above examples most species have very restricted endemic ranges[56][86] which may
overlap resulting in natural hybrids.[48] For instance in the vicinity of the Portuguese city of Porto where
both N. pseudonarcissus and N. triandrus occur there are found various intersections of the two species
while in a small area along part of the Portuguese Montego river are found intersectional hybrids
between N. scaberulus and N. triandrus.
The biogeography demonstrates a phylogenetic association, for instance subgenus Hermione having a
lowland distribution, but subgenus Narcissus section Apodanthi being montane and restricted to
Morocco, Spain and Portugal. The remaining sections within subgenus Narcissus include both lowland
and mountain habitats.[56] Section Pseudonarcissus, although widely naturalised is endemic to the Baetic
Ranges of the south eastern Iberian peninsula.[15]

Habitats[edit]
Their native habitats are very varied, with different elevations, bioclimatic areas and substrates,[56] being
found predominantly in open spaces ranging from low marshes to rocky hillsides and montane pastures,
and including grassland, scrub, woods, river banks and rocky crevices.[11][19] Although requirements vary,
overall there is a preference for acidic soils, although some species will grow on limestone. Narcissus
scaberulus will grow on granitesoils where it is moist in the growing season but dry in the summer,
while Narcissus dubius thrives best in regions with hot and dry summers.
The Pseudonarcissus group in their natural habitat prefer humid situations such as stream margins,
springs, wet pastures, clearings of forests or shrublands with humid soils, and moist hillsides. These
habitats tend to be discontinuous in the Mediterranean mountains, producing discrete isolated
populations.[15] In Germany, which has relatively little limestone, Narcissus pseudonarcissus grows in
small groups on open mountain meadows or in mixed forests
of fir, beech, oak, alder, ash and birch trees with well-drained soil.

Ecology[edit]
Life cycle[edit]

Narcissus bulb with shoot

Narcissus are long-lived perennial geophytes with winter-growing and summer-dormant bulbs[15] that are
mainly synanthous (leaves and flowers appearing at the same time).[4] While most species flower in late
winter to spring, five species are autumn flowering (N. broussonetii, N. cavanillesii, N. elegans, N.
serotinus, N. viridiflorus).[11] By contrast these species are hysteranthous (leaves appear after flowering).
[4]

Flower longevity varies by species and conditions, ranging from 520 days.[87] After flowering leaf and
root senescence sets in, and the plant appears to be 'dormant' till the next spring, conserving moisture.
However the dormant period is also one of considerable activity within the bulb primordia. It is also a
period during which the plant bulb may be susceptible to predators (see Pests and diseases below). Like
many bulb plants from temperateregions, a period of exposure to cold is necessary before spring growth
can begin. This protects the plant from growth during winter when intense cold may damage it. Warmer
spring temperatures then initiate growth from the bulb. Early spring growth confers a number of
advantages, including relative lack of competition for pollinators, and lack of deciduous shading. [88] The
exception to requiring cold temperatures to initiate flowering is N. tazetta.[5]
Plants may spread clonally through the production of daughter bulbs and division producing clumps.
[15]
Narcissus species hybridise readily, although the fertility of the offspring will depend on the parental
relationship.[19]

Pollination[edit]
The flowers are insect pollinated, the major pollinators being bees, butterflies, flies, and hawkmoths,
while the highly scented night flowering N. viridiflorus is pollinated by crepuscular moths. Pollination
mechanism fall into three groups corresponding to floral morphology (see Description - Flowers).[87]
1. 'Daffodil' form. Pollinated by bees seeking pollen from anthers within the corona. The broad
perianth allows bees (Bombus, Anthophora, Andrena) to completely enter the flower in their
search for nectar and /or pollen. In this type the stigma lies in the mouth of the corona,
extending beyond the six anthers, whose single whorl lies well within the corona. The bees
come into contact with the stigma before their legs, thorax and abdomen contact the anthers,
and this approach herkogamy causes cross pollination.
2. 'Paperwhite' form. These are adapted to long-tongued Lepidoptera, particularly sphingid
moths such as Macroglossum, Pieridae and Nymphalidae but also some long-tongued bees,
and flies, all of which are primarily seeking nectar. The narrow tube admits only the
insect's proboscis, while the short corona serves as a funnel guiding the tip of the proboscis
into the mouth of the perianth tube. The stigma is placed either in the mouth of the tube, just

above two whorls of three anthers, or hidden well below the anthers. The pollinators then carry
pollen on their probosci or faces. The long tongued bees cannot reach the nectar at the tube
base and so collect just pollen.
3. 'Triandrus' form. Pollinated by long-tongued solitary bees (Anthophora, Bombus) which forage
for both pollen and nectar. The large corona allows the bees to crawl into the perianth but then
the narrow tube prevents further progres, causing them to probe deeply for nectar. The
pendant flowers prevent pollination by lepidoptera. In N. albimarginatus there may be either a
long stigma with short and mid length anthers or a short stigma and long anthers
(dimorphism). In N. triandrus there are three patterns of sexual organs (trimophism) but all
have long upper anthers but vary in stigma position and the length of the lower anthers.[11][14]
Allogamy (outcrossing) on the whole is enforced through a late-acting (ovarian) selfincompatibility system, but some species such as N. dubius and N. longispathus are self-compatible
producing mixtures of selfed and outcrossed seeds.[16][14]

Pests and diseases[edit]

Diseases of Narcissus are of concern because of the economic consequences of losses in commercial
cultivation. Pests include viruses, bacteria, and fungi as well as arthropods and gastropods. For control
of pests, see Commercial uses.
Viruses
Aphids such as Macrosiphum euphorbiae can transmit viral diseases which affect the colour and shape
of the leaves, as can Nematodes.[89] Up to twenty five viruses have been described as being able to
infect narcissi.[90][91][92] These include the Narcissus common latent virus (NCLV, Narcissus mottlingassociated virus[93]),[notes 3] Narcissus latent virus (NLV, Narcissus mild mottle virus[93]) which causes green
mottling near leaf tips,[94][95] Narcissus degeneration virus (NDV),[96] Narcissus late season yellows
virus (NLSYV) which occurs after flowering, streaking the leaves and stems,[97] Narcissus mosaic
virus, Narcissus yellow stripe virus (NYSV, Narcissus yellow streak virus[93]), Narcissus tip necrosis
virus (NTNV) which produces necrosis of leaf tips after flowering[98] and Narcissus white streak
virus (NWSV).[99]
Less host specific viruses include Raspberry ringspot virus, Nerine latent virus (NeLV) =Narcissus
symptomless virus,[100] Arabis mosaic virus (ArMV),[101] Broad Bean Wilt Viruses (BBWV)[102] Cucumber
mosaic virus (CMV), Tomato black ring virus (TBRV), Tomato ringspot virus (TomRSV) and Tobacco
rattle virus (TRV).[102][99]
Of these viruses the most serious and prevalent are NDV, NYSV and NWSV.[99][91] NDV is associated
with chlorotic leaf striping in N. tazetta.[96] Infection with NYSV produces light or grayish green, or yellow
stripes or mottles on the upper two-thirds of the leaf, which may be roughened or twisted. The flowers
which may be smaller than usual may also be streaked or blotched. NWSV produces greenish purple
streaking on the leaves and stem turning white to yellow, and premature senescence reducing bulb size
and yield.[90]These viruses are primarily diseases of commercial nurseries. The growth inhibition caused
by viral infection can cause substantial economic damage.[103][104][105]
Bacteria
Bacterial disease is uncommon in Narcissus but includes Pseudomonas (bacterial streak)
and Pectobacterium carotovorum sp. carotovorum (bacterial soft rot).[99]
Fungi
More problematic for non-commercial plants is the fungus, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. narcissi, which
causes basal rot (rotting of the bulbs and yellowing of the leaves). This is the most serious disease
of Narcissus. Since the fungus can remain in the soil for many years it is necessary to remove infected
plants immediately, and to avoid planting further narcissi at that spot for a further five years. Not all

species and cultivars are equally susceptible. Relatively resistant forms include N. triandrus, N.
tazetta and N. jonquilla.[106][99][107][108]
Another fungus which attacks the bulbs, causing narcissus smoulder, is Botrytis narcissicola (Sclerotinia
narcissicola) and other species of Botrytis, including Botrytis cinerea,[109][110] particularly if improperly
stored. Copper sulfate is used to combat the disease, and infected bulbs are burned. Blue mould rot of
bulbs may be caused by infection with species of Penicillium, if they have become damaged either
through mechanical injury or infestation by mites (see below).[111] Species of Rhizopus (e.g. Rhizopus
stolonifer, Rhizopus nigricans) cause bulb soft rot[104][112] and Sclerotinia bulborum, black slime disease.
[113]
A combination of both Peyronellaea curtisii (Stagonosporopsis curtisii) and Botrytis
narcissicola causes neck rot in the bulbs.[99]
Fungi affecting the roots include Nectria radicicola (Cylindrocarpon destructans), a cause of root
rot[113] and Rosellinia necatrix causing white root rot,[114] while others affect root and bulb, such
as Aspergillus niger (black mold), and species of Trichoderma, including T. viride and T. harzianum (=T.
narcissi) responsible for green mold.[112]
Other fungi affect the remainder of the plant. Another Botrytis fungus, Botrytis polyblastis (Sclerotinia
polyblastis) causes brown spots on the flower buds and stems (narcissus fire), especially in damp
weather and is a threat to the cut flower industry.[115][116]Ramularia vallisumbrosae is a leaf spot fungus
found in warmer climates, causing narcissus white mould disease.[117] Peyronellaea curtisii, the Narcissus
leaf scorch, also affects the leaves[103][104][118][119][120] as does its synanamorph, Phoma narcissi (leaf tip
blight).[121][99] Aecidium narcissi causes rust lesions on leaves and stems.[113]
Animals
Arthropods that are Narcissus pests include insects such as three species of fly that have larvae that
attack the plants, narcissus bulb fly Merodon equestris, and two species of hoverflies, the lesser bulb
flies Eumerus tuberculatus[122] and Eumerus strigatus. The flies lay their eggs at the end of June in the
ground around the narcissi, a single female fly being able to lay up to fifty eggs. The
hatching larvae then burrow through the soil towards the bulbs and consume their interiors. They then
overwinter in the empty bulb shell, emerging in April to pupate in the soil, from which the adult fly
emerges in May.[103][123] The larvae of some moths such as Korscheltellus lupulina (the common swift
moth) attack Narcissus bulbs.[124][103]
Other arthropods include Mites such as Steneotarsonemus laticeps (Bulb scale mite),
[125]
Rhizoglyphus and Histiostoma infest mainly stored bulbs and multiply particularly at high ambient
temperature, but do not attack planted bulbs.[103]
Planted bulbs are susceptible to nematodes, the most serious of which is Ditylenchus dipsaci (Narcissus
eelworm), the main cause of basal plate disease[126] in which the leaves turn yellow and become
misshapen. Infested bulbs have to be destroyed; where infestation is heavy avoiding planting further
narcissi for another five years.[103][127][128][129] Other nematodes include Aphelenchoides subtenuis which
penetrates the roots causing basal plate disease[126][130] and Pratylenchus penetrans (lesion nematode)
the main cause of root rot in narcissi. [131][99] Other nematodes such as the longodorids (Longidorus spp.
or needle nematodes and Xiphinema spp. or dagger nematodes) and the stubby-root nematodes
or trichodorids (Paratrichodorus spp. and Trichodorus spp.) can also act as vectors of virus diseases,
such as TBRV and TomRSV, in addition to causing stunting of the roots.[89][130]
Gastropods such as snails and slugs also cause damage to growth.[103][104][99]

Conservation[edit]
Many of the smallest species have become extinct, requiring vigilance in the conservation of the wild
species.[4][19][68][132] Narcissi are increasingly under threat by over-collection and threats to their natural
habitats by urban development and tourism. N. cyclamineushas been considered to be either extinct or
exceedingly rare[18] but is not currently considered endangered, and is protected.[133] The IUCN Red
List describes five species as 'Endangered' (Narcissus alcaracensis, Narcissus bujei, Narcissus

longispathus, Narcissus nevadensis, Narcissus radinganorum). In 1999 three species were considered
endangered, five as vulnerable and six as rare.[4]
In response a number of species have been granted protected species status and protected areas
(meadows) have been established such as the Negrai Daffodil Meadow in Romania, or Kempley
Daffodil Meadow in the UK. These areas often host daffodil festivalsin the spring.

Cultivation[edit]
History[edit]

Magna cura non indigent Narcissi

Most easy of cultivation is the Narcissus
Peter Lauremberg, Apparatus plantarius: de plantis bulbosis et de plantis tuberosis 1632[134]

Early illustrations of Narcissus

Narcissus serotinus, John Gerard, The Herball 1597

Narcissi, Hortus Eystettensis 1613

Narcissi, John Parkinson, Paradisus Terrestris 1629. (8. Great Double Yellow Spanish Daffodil)

Narcissus, Peter Lauremberg1632

N. poeticus, Thomas Hale, Eden: Or, a Compleat Body of Gardening 1757

Of all the flowering plants, the bulbous have been the most popular for cultivation.[135] Of these, narcissi
are one of the most important spring flowering bulb plants in the world.[136][8] Indigenous in Europe, the
wild populations of the parent species had been known since antiquity. Narcissi have been cultivated
from at least as early as the sixteenth century in the Netherlands, when large numbers of bulbs where
imported from the field, particularly Narcissus hispanicus which soon became nearly extinct in its native
habitat of France and Spain, though still found in the southern part of that country.[137] The only large
scale production at that time related to the double narcissus 'Van Sion' and cultivars of N.
tazetta imported in 1557.[138]
Cultivation is also documented in Britain at this time,[139][140][141] although contemporary accounts show it
was well known as a favourite garden and wild flower long before that and was used in making garlands.
[142]
This was a period when the development of exotic formal gardens and parks was becoming popular,
particularly in what is known as the 'Oriental Period' (15601620). In his Hortus Medicus (1588), the first
catalogue of a German garden's plants,[143] Joachim Camerarius the Younger states that nine different
types of daffodils were represented in his garden in Nuremberg.[144] After his death in 1598, his plants
were moved by Basilius Besler to the gardens they had designed at Willibaldsburg, the bishop's palace
at Eichsttt, Upper Bavaria. That garden is described in Besler's Hortus Eystettensis (1613) by which
time there were 43 different types present.[145] Another German source at this time was Peter
Lauremberg who gives an account of the species known to him and their cultivation in his Apparatus
plantarius: de plantis bulbosis et de plantis tuberosis (1632).[146]
While Shakespeare's daffodil is the wild or true English daffodil (N. pseudonarcissus),[142] many other
species were introduced, some of which escaped and naturalised, particularly N. biflorus (a hybrid)
in Devon and the west of England.[147] Gerard, in his extensive discussion of daffodils, both wild and

cultivated ("bastard daffodils") described twenty four species in London gardens (1597),[147][148][149] ("we
have them all and every one of them in our London gardens, in great abundance", p. 114).
In the early seventeenth century, Parkinson helped to ensure the popularity of the daffodil as a cultivated
plant[147] by describing a hundred different varieties in his Paradisus Terrestris (1629),[150] and introducing
the great double yellow Spanish daffodil (Pseudonarcissus aureus Hispanicus flore pleno or Parkinson's
Daffodil, see illustration) to England.[151]
I thinke none ever had this kind before myselfe nor did I myself ever see it before the year 1618 for it is
of mine own raising and flowering first in my own garden
John Parkinson, Paradisus Terrestris 1632[151]
Although not achieving the sensationalism of tulips, daffodils and narcissi have been much celebrated in
art and literature (see The Arts). The largest demand for narcissi bulbs were large trumpet daffodils, N.
poeticus and N. bulbocodium, and Istanbul became important in the shipping of bulbs to western
Europe. By the early baroque period both tulips and narcissi were an important component of the spring
garden. By 1739 a Dutch nursery catalogue listed 50 different varieties. A catalog of a Dutch nursery
from 1739 already counted 50 varieties. In 1757 Hill gave an account of the history and cultivation of the
daffodil in his edited version of the works of Thomas Hale, writing "The garden does not afford, in its
Kind, a prettier plant than this; nor do we know one that has been so early, or so honorably mention'd by
all Kinds of Writers" (see illustration).[152] Interest grew further when varieties that could be grown indoors
became available, primarily the bunch flowered (multiple flower heads) N. tazetta (Polyanthus
Narcissus).[135] However interest varied by country. Maddock (1792) does not include narcissi in his list of
the eight most important cultivated flowering plants in England,[153] whereas in the Netherlands van
Kampen (1760) stated that N. tazetta (Narcisse bouquet) is the fifth most important "Le Narcisse
bouquet est la premiere fleur, aprs les Jacinthes, les Tulipes les Renoncules, et les Anemones, (dont
nous avons dja parl,) qui merite ntre attention".[154][155] Similarly Philip Miller, in his Gardeners
Dictionary (17311768) refers to cultivation in Holland, Flanders and France, but not England,
[156]
because it was too difficult, a similar observation was made by Sir James Justice at this time.
[157]
However, for most species of Narcissus Lauremberg's dictum Magna cura non indigent Narcissi was
much cited.[158]
Narcissi became an important horticultural crop in Western Europe in the latter part of the nineteenth
century, beginning in England between 1835 and 1855 and the end of the century in the Netherlands.
[5]
By the beginning of the twentieth century 50 million bulbs of N. Tazetta 'Paperwhite' were being
exported annually from the Netherlands to the United States. With the production of triploids such as
'Golden Spur', in the late nineteenth century, and in the beginning of the twentieth century, tetraploids
like 'King Alfred' (1899), the industry was well established, with trumpet daffodils dominating the market.
[137]
The Royal Horticultural Society has been an important factor in promoting narcissi, holding the first
Daffodil Conference in 1884,[159] while the Daffodil Society, the first organisation dedicated to the
cultivation of narcissi was founded in Birmingham in 1898. Other countries followed and the American
Daffodil Society which was founded in 1954 publishes The Daffodil Journal quarterly, a leading trade
publication.

Daffodil trumpets

Narcissi are now popular as ornamental plants for gardens, parks and as cut flowers, providing colour
from the end of winter to the beginning of summer in temperate regions. They are one of the most
popular spring flowers[160] and one of the major ornamental spring flowering bulb crops, being produced
both for their bulbs and cut flowers, though cultivation of private and public spaces is greater than the
area of commercial production.[19] Over a century of breeding has resulted in thousands of varieties
and cultivars being available from both general and specialist suppliers.[11] They are normally sold as dry
bulbs to be planted in late summer and autumn. They are one of the most economically important
ornamental plants.[11][19] Plant breeders have developed some daffodils with double, triple, or ambiguously
multiple rows and layers of segments.[6] Many of the breeding programs have concentrated on the
corona (trumpet or cup), in terms of its length, shape, and colour, and the surrounding perianth[18] or even
as in varieties derived from N. poeticus a very reduced form.

Narcissi as garden plants[edit]

While some wild narcissi are specific in terms of their ecological requirements, most garden varieties are
relatively tolerant of soil conditions,[161] however very wet soils and clay soils may benefit from the
addition of sand to improve drainage.[162] The optimum soil is a neutral to slightly acid pH of 6.57.0.[161]
Bulbs offered for sale are referred to as either 'round' or 'double nose'. Round bulbs are circular in cross
section and produce a single flower stem, while double nose bulbs have more than one bulb stem
attached at the base and produce two or more flower stems, but bulbs with more than two stems are
unusual.[163] Planted narcissi bulbs produce daughter bulbs in the axil of the bulb scales, leading to the
dying off of the exterior scales.[161] To prevent planted bulbs forming more and more small bulbs, they can
be dug up every 57 years, and the daughters separated and replanted separately, provided that a piece
of the basal plate, where the rootlets are formed, is preserved. For daffodils to flower at the end of the
winter or early spring, bulbs are planted in autumn (SeptemberNovember). This plant does well in
ordinary soil but flourishes best in rich soil. Daffodils like the sun but also accepts partial shade
exposure.[164]
Narcissi are well suited for planting under small thickets of trees, where they can be grouped as 612
bulbs.[165] They also grow well in perennial borders,[161] especially in association with day lilies which
begin to form their leaves as the narcissi flowers are fading.[162] A number of wild species and hybrids
such as 'Dutch Master', 'Golden Harvest', 'Carlton', 'Kings Court' and 'Yellow Sun' naturalise well in
lawns,[161] but it is important not to mow the lawn till the leaves start to fade, since they are essential for
nourishing the bulb for the next flowering season.[161] Blue Scilla and Muscari which also naturalise well
in lawns and flower at the same time as narcissus, make an attractive contrast to the yellow flowers of
the latter. Unlike Tulips, narcissi bulbs are not attractive to rodents and are sometimes planted near tree
roots in orchards to protect them.[166]
When flower heads have died, removing (deadheading) them will allow more energy to build up the
bulbs and strengthen the following years' display.[10]

Propagation[edit]
The commonest form of commercial propagation is by twin-scaling, in which the bulbs are cut into many
small pieces but with two scales still connected by a small fragment of the basal plate. The fragments
are disinfected and placed on nutrient media. Some 2535 new plants can be produced from a single
bulb after four years. Micropropagation methods are not used for commercial production but is used for
establishing commercial stock.[167] [128]

Breeding[edit]
For commercial use, varieties with a minimum stem length of 30 cm are sought, making them ideal for
cut flowers. Florists require blooms that only open when they reach the retail outlet. For garden plants
the objectives are to continually expand the colour palette and to produce hardy forms, and there is a
particular demand for miniature varieties. The cultivars so produced tend to be larger and more robust
than the wild types.[4] The main species used in breeding are N. bulbocodium, N. cyclamineus, N.
jonquilla, N. poeticus, N. pseudonarcissus, N. serotinus and N. tazetta.[168]
N. pseudonarcissus gave rise to trumpet cultivars with coloured tepals and corona, while its
subspecies N. pseudonarcissus subsp. bicolor was used for white tepaled varieties. To produce large
cupped varieties, N. pseudonarcissus was crossed with N. poeticus, and to produce small cupped
varieties back crossed with N. poeticus. Multiheaded varieties, often called 'Poetaz' are mainly hybrids
of N. poeticus and N. tazetta.[4]

Classification[edit]

Range of Narcissus cultivars

Main article: List of Narcissus horticultural divisions
For horticultural purposes, all Narcissus cultivars are split into 13 divisions as first described by Kington
(1998),[169] for the Royal Horticultural Society (RHS),[6] based partly upon flower form (shape and length
of corona), number of flowers per stem, flowering period and partly upon genetic background. The
classification is a useful tool for planning planting. Most commercially available narcissi come from
Divisions 1 (Trumpet), 2 (Large cupped) and 8 (Tazetta). Division 13 which includes the wild daffodil is
the exception to this scheme.[170]
Growers register new daffodil cultivars by name and color with the Royal Horticultural Society, which is
the international registration authority for the genus.[62] Their International Daffodil Register is regularly
updated with supplements available online[62] and is searchable.[18][63] The most recent supplement (2014)
is the sixth (the fifth was published in 2012).[171] More than 27,000 names were registered as of 2008,
[171]
and the number has continued to grow. Registered daffodils are given a division number and colour

code[172] such as 5 W-W ('Thalia').[173] In horticultural usage it is common to also find an unofficial Division
14: Miniatures, which although drawn from the other 13 divisions, have their miniature size in common.
[174]
Over 140 varieties have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (See List of
Award of Garden Merit narcissus).

Colour code[edit]

Narcissus 'Geranium' 8 W-O

Daffodil breeding has introduced a wide range of colours, in both the outer perianth tepal segment and
the inner corona. In the registry, daffodils are coded by the colours of each of these two parts. Thus
'Geranium', Tazetta (Division 8) as illustrated here with a white outer perianth and orange corona is
classified as 8 W-O.

Toxicity[edit]
Pharmacology[edit]
All Narcissus species contain the alkaloid poison lycorine, mostly in the bulb but also in the leaves.
[175]
Members of the monocot subfamily Amaryllidoideae present a unique type of alkaloids, the
norbelladine alkaloids, which are 4-methylcatechol derivatives combined with tyrosine. They are
responsible for the poisonous properties of a number of the species. Over 200 different chemical
structures of these compounds are known, of which 79 or more are known from Narcissus alone.[176]
The toxic effects of ingesting Narcissus products for both man and animals (such as cattle, goats, pigs
and cats) have long been recognised and they have been used in suicide attempts. Ingestion of N.
pseudonarcissus or N. jonquilla is followed by salivation, acute abdominal pains, nausea, vomiting,
and diarrhea, then neurological and cardiac events, including trembling, convulsions, and paralysis.
Death may result if large quantities are consumed.
The toxicity of Narcissus varies with species, N. poeticus being more toxic than N. pseudonarcissus, for
instance. The distribution of toxins within the plant also varies, for instance there is a five times higher
concentration of alkaloid in the stem of N. papyraceus than in the bulb, making it dangerous to
herbivores more likely to consume the stem than the bulb, and is part of the plant's defence
mechanisms. The distribution of alkaloids within tissues may also reflect defence against parasites.
[19]
The bulbs can also be toxic to other nearby plants, including roses, rice, and cabbages, inhibiting
growth.[19] For instance placing cut flowers in a vase alongside other flowers shortens the life of the latter.
[177]

Poisoning[edit]

Many cases of poisoning or death have occurred when narcissi bulbs have been mistaken
for leeks or onions and cooked and eaten. Recovery is usually complete in a few hours without any
specific intervention. In more severe cases involving ingestion of large quantities of bulbs, activated
carbon, salts and laxatives may be required, and for severe symptoms
intravenous atropine and emetics or stomach pumping may be indicated. However, ingestion of large
quantities accidentally is unusual because of a strong unpleasant taste. When narcissi were compared
with a number of other plants not normally consumed by animals, narcissi were the most repellent,
specifically N. pseudonarcissus Consequently, narcissus alkaloids have been used as repellents and
may also discourage fungi, molds and bacteria.[19]
On 1 May 2009, a number of schoolchildren fell ill at Gorseland Primary School in Martlesham Heath,
Suffolk, England, after a daffodil bulb was added to soup during a cookery class.[175]

Topical effects[edit]
One of the most common dermatitis problems for flower pickers, packers, florists and gardeners,
"daffodil itch", involves dryness, fissures, scaling, and erythema in the hands, often accompanied
by subungual hyperkeratosis (thickening of the skin beneath the nails). It is blamed on exposure
to calcium oxalate, chelidonic acid or alkaloids such as lycorine in the sap, either due to a direct irritant
effect or an allergic reaction.[178][179] It has long been recognised that some cultivars provoke dermatitis
more readily than others. N. pseudonarcissus and the cultivars 'Actaea', 'Camparelle', 'Gloriosa', 'Grande
Monarque', 'Ornatus', 'Princeps' and 'Scilly White' are known to do so.[19][180]
If bulb extracts come into contact with wounds, both central nervous system and cardiac symptoms may
result. The scent can also cause toxic reactions such as headaches and vomiting from N. bulbocodium.
[19]

Uses[edit]
Traditional medicine[edit]
Despite the lethal potential of Narcissus alkaloids, they have been used for centuries as traditional
medicines for a variety of complaints, including cancer. Plants thought to be N. poeticus and N.
tazetta are described in the Bible in the treatment for what is thought to be cancer.[177][181][182][183] In
the Classical Greek world Hippocrates (ca. B.C. 460370) recommended a pessary prepared from
narcissus oil for uterine tumors, a practice continued by Pedanius Dioscorides (ca. A.D. 4090)
and Soranus of Ephesus (A.D. 98138) in the first and second centuries A.D., while the Roman Pliny the
Elder (A.D. 2379), advocated topical use.[177] The bulbs of N. poeticus contain the antineoplastic agent
narciclasine. This usage is also found in later Arabian, North African, Central American
and Chinese medicine during the Middle Ages.[177] In China N. tazetta var. chinensis was grown as an
ornamental plant but the bulbs were applied topically to tumors in traditional folk medicine. These bulbs
contain pretazettine, an active antitumor compound.[19][183][184]
Narcissus products have received a variety of other uses. The Roman physician Aulus Cornelius
Celsus listed narcissus root in De Medicina among medical herbs, described as emollient, erodent, and
"powerful to disperse whatever has collected in any part of the body". N. tazetta bulbs were used in
Turkey as a remedy for abscesses in the belief they were antiphlogistic and analgesic. Other uses
include the application to wounds, strains, painful joints and various local ailments as an ointment called
Narcissimum. Powdered flowers have also been used medically, as an emetic, a decongestant and for
the relief of dysentery, in the form of a syrup or infusion. The French used the flowers as
an antispasmodic, the Arabs the oil for baldness and also an aphrodisiac. In the eighteenth century the
Irish herbal of John KEogh recommended pounding the roots in honey for use on burns,
bruises, dislocations and freckles, and for drawing out thorns and splinters. N. tazetta bulbs have also
been used for contraception, while the flowers have been recommended for hysteria and epilepsy.
A homeopathic medicine made from bulbs was prescribed for bronchitis and whooping cough.[19] In the
traditional Japanese medicine of kampo, wounds were treated with narcissus root and wheat flour paste;
[185]
the plant, however, does not appear in the modern kampo herb list.

There is also a long history of the use of Narcissus as a stimulant and to induce trance like states
and hallucinations. Sophocles referred to the narcissus as the Chaplet of the infernal Gods,[66] a
statement frequently wrongly attributed to Socrates (see Antiquity).[19]

Biological properties[edit]
Extracts of Narcissus have demonstrated a number of potentially useful biological properties
including antiviral, prophage
induction, antibacterial, antifungal, antimalarial, insecticidal, cytotoxic, antitumor, antimitotic, antiplatelet,
hypotensive, emetic, acetylcholine esterase
inhibitory, antifertility, antinociceptive, chronotropic, pheromone, plant growth inhibitor, and allelopathic.
[19]
An ethanol extract of Narcissus bulbs was found effective in one mouse model of nociception, parabenzoquinone induced abdominal constriction, but not in another, the hot plate test.[186] Most of these
properties are due to alkaloids, but some are also due to mannosa-binding lectins. The most-studied
alkaloids in this group are galantamine (galanthamine),[187] lycorine, narciclasine, and pretazettine.
It is likely that the traditional use of narcissi for the treatment of cancer was due to the presence of
isocarbostyril constituents such as narciclasine, pancratistatin and their congeners. N. poeticus contains
about 0.12g of narciclasine per kg of fresh bulbs.[177]
Acetylcholine esterase inhibition has attracted the most interest as a possible therapeutic intervention,
with activity varying by a thousandfold between species, and the greatest activity seen in those that
contain galantamine or epinorgalanthamine.[57]
The rodent repellant properties of Narcissus alkaloids have been utilised in horticulture to protect more
vulnerable bulbs.[188]

Therapeutics[edit]

Daffodils growing in Wales

Of all the alkaloids, only galantamine has made it to therapeutic use in man, as the drug galantamine
for Alzheimer's disease. Galantamine is an acetylcholine esterase inhibitor which crosses the blood
brain barrier and is active within the central nervous system.[19] Daffodils are grown commercially
near Brecon in Powys, Wales, to produce galantamine, a drug used to combat Alzheimer's disease.[189]

Commercial uses[edit]
Throughout history the scent of narcissi has been an important ingredient of perfumes, a quality that
comes from essential oils rather than alkaloids.[19] Narcissi are also an important horticultural crop,[48]
[68]
and source of cut flowers (floriculture).

Daffodil production in the Netherlands

The Netherlands, which is the most important source of flower bulbs worldwide is also a major centre of
narcissus production. Of 16,700 hectares (ha) under cultivation for flower bulbs, narcissi account for
about 1,800 hectares. In the 1990s narcissus bulb production was at 260 million, sixth in size
after tulips, gladioli, irises, crocuses and lilies and in 2012 it was ranked third.[136] About two thirds of the
area under cultivation is dedicated to about 20 of the most popular varieties. In the 2009/2010 season
470 cultivars were produced on 1578 ha. By far the largest area cultivated is for the miniature 'Tte-Tte', followed at some distance by 'Carlton'. The largest production cultivars are shown in Table II;[190]

TableII:AreaundercultivationintheNetherlands,bycultivar
Cultivar

Division

Colour

Area(ha)

'TteTte'

6:Cyclamineus

Yellow

663

'Carlton'

2:Largecup

Yellow

54

'BridalCrown'

4:Double

WhiteYellow

51

'DutchMaster'

1:Trumpet

Yellow

47

'Jetfire'

6:Cyclamineus

YellowOrange

42

'IceFollies'

2:Largecup

White

36

'Carlton' and 'Ice Follies' (Division 2: Large cup) have a long history of cultivation, together with 'Dutch
Master' and 'Golden Harvest' (1: yellow). 'Carlton' and 'Golden Harvest' were introduced in 1927, and
'Ice Follies' in 1953. 'Carlton', with over 9000 million bulbs (350 000 tons), is one of the larger individual
plants produced in the world.[191] The other major areas of production are the United States,
[136]
Israel which exported 25 million N. tazetta cultivar bulbs in 2003,[190] and the United Kingdom.
In the United Kingdom a total of 4100 ha were planted with bulbs, of which 3800 ha were Narcissi, the
UK's most important bulb crop, much of which is for export,[192] making this the largest global production

centre, about half of the total production area. While some of the production is for forcing, most is for dry
bulb production. Bulb production and forcing occurs in the East, while production in the south west is
mainly for outdoor flower production.[193] The farm gate value was estimated at 10m in 2007.[194]

Narcissi growing at Keukenhof

Production of both bulbs and cut flowers takes place in open fields in beds or ridges, often in the same
field, allowing adaptation to changing market conditions. Narcissi grow best in mild maritime climates.
Compared to the United Kingdom, the harsher winters in the Netherlands require covering the fields with
straw for protection. Areas with higher rainfall and temperatures are more susceptible to diseases that
attack the crops. production is based on a 1 (UK) or 2 (Netherlands) year cycle. Optimal soil pH is 6.0
7.5. Prior to planting disinfection by hot water takes place, such as immersion at 44.4 C for three hours.
[128]

Bulbs are harvested for market in the summer, sorted, stored for 2 3 weeks, and then further
disinfected by a hot (43.5 C) bath. This eliminates infestations by narcissus fly and nematodes. The
bulbs are then dried at a high temperature, and then stored at 15.5 C.[4] The initiation of new flower
development in the bulb takes place in late spring before the bulbs are lifted, and is completed by mid
summer while the bulbs are in storage. The optimal temperature for initiation is 20 C followed by cooling
to 13 C.[5]
Traditionally, sales took place in the daffodil fields prior to harvesting the bulbs, but today sales are
handled by Marketing Boards although still before harvesting. In the Netherlands there are special
exhibition gardens for major buyers to view flowers and order bulbs, some larger ones may have more
than a thousand narcissus varieties on display. While individuals can visit these gardens they cannot buy
bulbs at retail, which are only available at wholesale, usually at a minimum of several hundredweight.
The most famous display is at Keukenhof, although only about 100 narcissus varieties are on display
there.

Forcing[edit]
There is also a market for forced blooms, both as cut flowers and potted flowers through the winter from
Christmas to Easter, the long season requiring special preparation by growers.
Cut flowers
For cut flowers, bulbs larger than 12 cm in size are preferred. To bloom in December, bulbs are
harvested in June to July, dried, stored for four days at 34 C, two weeks at 30 and two weeks
at 1720 C and then placed in cold storage for precooling at 9 degrees for about 1516
weeks. The bulbs are then planted in light compost in crates in a greenhouse for forcing at
13 C15 C and the blooms appear in 1930 days.[4][128]
Potted flowers
For potted flowers a lower temperature is used for precooling (5 C for 15 weeks), followed by
16 C18 C in a greenhouse. For later blooming (mid- and late-forcing), bulbs are harvested in
July to August and the higher temperatures are omitted, being stored a 1720 C after

harvesting and placed in cold storage at 9 C in September for 1718 (cut flowers) or 1416
(potted flowers) weeks. The bulbs can then be planted in cold frames, and then forced in a
greenhouse according to requirements.[128]
Narcissus tazetta
N. tazetta and its cultivars are an exception to this rule, requiring no cold period. Often
harvested in October, bulbs are lifted in May and dried and heated to 30 C for three weeks,
then stored at 25 C for 12 weeks and planted. Flowering can be delayed by storing at 5 C
10 C.[99]

Culture[edit]
Main article: Narcissus in culture

Symbols[edit]

N. triandrus 'Thalia', considered a grave flower

The daffodil is the national flower of Wales, associated with Saint David's Day (March 1).
The narcissus is also a national flower symbolising the new year or Newroz in the Iranian
culture.
In the West the narcissus is perceived as a symbol of vanity, in the East as a symbol of
wealth and good fortune (see Eastern cultures), while in Persian literature, the narcissus
is a symbol of beautiful eyes.
In western countries the daffodil is also associated with spring festivals such as Lent and
its successor Easter. In Germany the wild narcissus, N. pseudonarcissus, is known as
the Osterglocke or "Easter bell." In the United Kingdom the daffodil is sometimes referred
to as the Lenten lily.[80][81][notes 4]
Although prized as an ornamental flower, some people consider narcissi unlucky, because
they hang their heads implying misfortune.[19] White narcissi are especially associated with
death, such as N triandrus 'Thalia', and have been called grave flowers.[195][196] In Ancient
Greece narcissi were planted near tombs and Robert Herrick, describes them as portents
of death, an association which also appears in the myth of Persephone and
the underworld (see The Arts, below).

The Arts[edit]
Antiquity[edit]

Demeter and Persephonesurrounded by daffodils - "Demeter rejoiced, for her

daughter was by her side"
The decorative use of narcissi dates as far back as ancient Egyptian tombs,
and frescoes at Pompeii.[197] They are mentioned in the King James Version of the
Bible[198] as the Rose of Sharon[68][199][200][201] and make frequent appearances in classical
literature.[152]

Greek culture[edit]
The narcissus appears in two Graeco-Roman myths, that of the youth Narcissus who was
turned into the flower of that name, and of the Goddess Persephone snatched into
the Underworld by the god Hades while picking the flowers. The narcissus is considered
sacred to both Hades and Persephone,[202] and to grow along the banks of the river Styx in
the underworld.[196]
The Greek poet Stasinos mentioned them in the Cypria amongst the flowers of Cyprus.
[203]
The legend of Persephone comes to us mainly in the seventh century BC Homeric
Hymn To Demeter,[204] where the author describes the narcissus, and its role as a lure to
trap the young Persephone. The flower, she recounts to her mother was the last flower
she reached for before being seized.
Other Greek authors making reference to the narcissus include Sophocles and Plutarch.
Sophocles, in Oedipus at Colonus utilises narcissus in a symbolic manner, implying
fertility,[205] allying it with the cults of Demeter and her daughter Kore (Persephone),[206] and
by extension, a symbol of death.[207] Jebb comments that it is the flower of imminent
death with its fragrance being narcotic, emphasised by its pale white colour. Just as
Persephone reaching for the flower heralded her doom, the youth Narcissus gazing at his
own reflection portended his own death.[206] Plutarch refers to this in his Symposiacs as
numbing the nerves causing a heaviness in the limbs.[208]He refers to Sophocles' "crown of

the great Goddesses", which is the source of the English phrase "Chaplet of the infernal
Gods" incorrectly attributed to Socrates.[66]
A passage by Moschus, describes fragrant narcissi.[209][210][211] Homer in his Odyssey[212][213]
[214][215]
described the underworld as having Elysian meadows carpeted with flowers,
thought to be narcissus, as described by Theophrastus.[68][216][notes 5] A similar account is
provided by Lucian describing the flowers in the underworld.[217][218][219] The myth of the
youth Narcissus is also taken up by Pausanias. He believed that the myth of Persephone
long antedated that of Narcissus, and hence discounts the idea the flower was named
after the youth.[70]

Roman culture[edit]
Virgil, the first known Roman writer to refer to the narcissus, does so in several places, for
instance twice in the Georgics.[220] Virgil refers to the cup shaped corona of the narcissus
flower, allegedly containing the tears of the self-loving youth Narcissus.[221] Milton makes a
similar analogy "And Daffodillies fll their Cups with Tears".[222] Virgil also mentions narcissi
three times in the Eclogues.[223][224]
The poet Ovid also dealt with the mythology of the narcissus. In his Metamorphoses, he
recounts the story of the youth Narcissus who, after his death, is turned into the flower,[225]
[226]
and it is also mentioned in Book 5 of his poem Fasti.[227][228] This theme of
metamorphosis was broader than just Narcissus; for instance
see crocus, laurel and hyacinth.[229]

Western culture[edit]
I wandered lonely as a Cloud
wandered lonely as a Cloud
That floats on high o'er Vales and Hills,
When all at once I saw a crowd
A host of dancing Daffodils;
Along the Lake, beneath the trees,
Ten thousand dancing in the breeze.
The waves beside them danced, but they
Outdid the sparkling waves in glee:
A poet could not but be gay
In such a laughing company:
I gaz'd and gaz'd but little thought
What wealth the shew to me had brought:
For oft when on my couch I lie
In vacant or in pensive mood,
They flash upon that inward eye
Which is the bliss of solitude,
And then my heart with pleasure fills,
And dances with the Daffodils.
William Wordsworth (1804 version)[230]

Although there is no clear evidence that the flower's name derives directly from the Greek
myth, this link between the flower and the myth became firmly part of western culture. The
narcissus or daffodil is the most loved of all English plants,[142] and appears frequently in
English literature. Many English writers have referred to the cultural and symbolic
importance of Narcissus[231][232][233][234]). No flower has received more poetic description

except the rose and the lily, with poems by authors from John Gower, Shakespeare,
Milton (see Roman culture, above), Wordsworth, Shelley and Keats. Frequently the
poems deal with self-love derived from Ovid's account.[235][236] Gower's reference to the
yellow flower of the legend has been assumed to be the daffodil or Narcissus, [237] though
as with all references in the older literature to the flower that sprang from the youth's
death, there is room for some debate as to the exact species of flower indicated, some
preferring Crocus.[238] Spenser announces the coming of the Daffodil in Aprill of
his Shepheardes Calender (1579).[239]
Shakespeare, who frequently uses flower imagery,[234] refers to daffodils twice in The
Winter's Tale [240] and also The Two Noble Kinsmen. Robert Herrick alludes to their
association with death in a number of poems.[241][242] Amongst the English romantic
movement writers none is better known than William Wordsworth's short 1804 poem I
Wandered Lonely as a Cloud[230] which has become linked in the popular mind with the
daffodils that form its main image.[68][196][235][243] Wordsworth also included the daffodil in
other poems.[244] Yet the description given of daffodils by his sister, Dorothy is just as
poetic, if not more so,[158] just that her poetry was prose and appears almost an
unconscious imitation of the first section of the Homeric Hymn to Demeter (see Greek
culture, above).[245][158][246] Amongst their contemporaries, Keats refers to daffodils amongst
those things capable of bringing 'joy for ever'.[247]
More recently A. E. Housman, using one of the daffodil's more symbolic names
(see Symbols), wrote The Lent Lily in A Shropshire Lad, describing the traditional Easter
death of the daffodil.[248]
In Black Narcissus, Rumer Godden describes the disorientation of English nuns in the
Indian Himalayas, and gives the plant name an unexpected twist, alluding both
to narcissism and the effect of the perfume Narcisse Noir (Caron) on others. The novel
was later adapted into the 1947 British film of the same name. The narcissus also
appears in German literature such as that of Paul Gerhardt.[249]
In the visual arts, narcissi are depicted in three different contexts, mythological
(Narcissus, Persephone), floral art, or landscapes. The Narcissus story has been popular
with painters and the youth is frequently depicted with flowers to indicate this association.
[67][229]
The Persephone theme is also typified by Waterhouse in his Narcissus, the
floral motif by van Scorel and the landscape by Van Gogh's Undergrowth.
Narcissi first started to appear in western art in the late middle ages, in panel paintings,
particularly those depicting crucifixion. For instance that of the Westflischer Meister in
Kln in the Wallraf-Richartz-Museum, Cologne,[250] where daffodils symbolise not only
death but also hope in the resurrection, because they are perennial and bloom at Easter.
[196][196][251][252]

Narcissi in art

Jan van Scorel: Madonna of the Daffodils with the Child and Donors, 1535

Vincent van Gogh: Undergrowth with Two Figures, 1890

Waterhouse: Narcissus, 1912

Crucifixion, Westflischer Meister c. 1415

Eastern cultures[edit]
In Chinese culture Narcissus tazetta subsp. chinensis (Chinese sacred lilies), which can
be grown indoors, is widely used as an ornamental plant.[253][254] It was probably introduced
to China by Arab traders travelling the Silk Road prior to the Song Dynasty for medicinal
use.[48][253][254] Spring-flowering, they became associated with Chinese New Year, signifying
good fortune, prosperity and good luck[255][256] and there are many legends in Chinese
culture associated with Narcissus.[257][258][259] In contrast to the West, narcissi have not
played a significant part in Chinese Garden art,[260] however, Zhao Mengjian in
the Southern Song Dynasty was noted for his portrayal of narcissi.[261] [262] Narcissus bulb
carving and cultivation has become an art akin to Japanese bonsai[256] The Japanese
novel Narcissu contains many references to the narcissus, where the main characters set
out for the famed narcissus fields on Awaji Island.[263][264]

Islamic culture[edit]
Narcissi are one of the most popular garden plants in Islamic culture.[265] Prior to the Arab
conquest of Persia, the Persian ruler Khosrau I is said to have not been able to tolerate
them at feasts because they reminded him of eyes, an association that persists to this
day,[266] as described by the poet Ghalib.[266] The eye imagery is also found in a number of
poems by Abu Nuwas.[267][268][269][270] Another poet who refers to narcissi, is Rumi. Even the
prophet Mohammed is said to have praised the narcissus.[271]
Narcissi in Eastern and Islamic cultures

Chinese Sacred Lily

Chinese decorative carved Narcissusbulb

N. poeticus symbolising the eye in Islamic culture

Popular culture[edit]
The word "daffodil" has been used widely in popular culture, from Dutch cars (DAF
Daffodil) to Swedish rock bands (The Daffodils) to slurs against homosexuals and crossdressers (as in the film J. Edgar, when Hoover's mother explains why real-life crossdresser Barton Pinkus[272] was called "Daffy" (short for "Daffodil" and the equivalent of
a pansy[273]), and admonishes, "I'd rather have a dead son than a daffodil for a son".[274]
[275] [276][277][278]

Festivals[edit]
In some areas where narcissi are prevalent, their blooming in spring is celebrated in
festivals. For instance, the slopes around Montreux, Switzerland and its
associated riviera come alive with blooms each May (May Snow) at the annual Narcissi
Festival.[279] Festivals are also held in many other countries.

Cancer[edit]

Various cancer charities around the world, such as the American Cancer Society,[280][281][282]
[283]
and Marie Curie in the UK[284] use the daffodil as a fundraising symbol on "Daffodil
Days".[285]

See also[edit]

Taxonomy of Narcissus

Narcissus in culture

List of Narcissus species

List of Narcissus horticultural divisions

List of AGM narcissus - Narcissus cultivars given the Royal Horticultural

Society's Award of Garden Merit

Daffodil (disambiguation)

Narcissus (disambiguation)

Glossary of botanical terms

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227. Jump up^ Ovid. "Fasti" (Book V: May 2, l. 201). The Latin Library. p. 201.
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237.

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239.

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259.

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262. Jump up^ Hearn 2008, Zhao Mengjian p. 70 "I pity the narcissus for not
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Notes[edit]
1.

Jump up^ The word "Daffodil" is also applied to related genera such
as Sternbergia, Ismene and Fritillaria meleagris. It has been suggested that the word
"Daffodil" be restricted to the wild species of the British Isles, N. pseudonarcissus. (Halevy
1985, Rees A. R. Narcissus pp. 268271)

2.

Jump up^ Prior here refers to the poet Pamphilus, but it is likely he
meant Pamphos

3.

Jump up^ This Carlavirus should not be confused with the similarly
named Narcissus latent virus which is a Macluravirus

4.

Jump up^ Rarely "Lentern", especially ecclesiastical usage as here, or dialect,

particularly Scottish (Masefield 2014, p. 104)(Jamieson 1879, Care Sonday vol I p. 284)
(Wright 1905, vol 3 HL, Lentren p. 575)

5.

Jump up^ The Asphodel of the Greek underworld has been variously associated
with the white Asphodelus ramosus (Macmillan (1887)) or the yellow Asphodeline
lutea (Graves (1949)), previously classified as Asphodelus luteus

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Flora[edit]

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Narcissus[edit]
Articles[edit]

Krelage, JH (17 April 1890). "On Polyanthus Narcissi". Journal of the Royal Horticultural
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American Horticultural Society (January 1966). "The Daffodil Handbook". Amer. Hort.
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Chow, Y (1993). "Basal Plate Tissue in Narcissus Bulbs and in Shoot Clump Cultures: Its
Structure and Role in Organogenic Potential of Single Leaf Cultures". Annals of Botany. 71
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Dobson, Heidi E.M.; Arroyo, Juan; Bergstrm, Gunnar; Groth, Inga (December
1997). "Interspecifc variation in floral fragrances within the genus Narcissus
(Amaryllidaceae)". Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. 25 (8): 685
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Dana, Michael N.; Lerner, B. Rosie (1 April 2001). "The Narcissus". Purdue Extension:
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Taxonomy[edit]

Pugsley, H.W (1933). "A monograph of Narcissus, subgenus Ajax." (PDF). Journal of the
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Jimnez, Juan F.; Snchez-Gmez, Pedro; Guerra, Juan; Molins, Arntzazu; Rossell,
Josep A. (12 June 2009). "Regional Speciation or Taxonomic Inflation? The Status of Several
Narrowly Distributed and Endangered Species of Narcissus Using ISSR and Nuclear
Ribosomal ITS Markers". Folia Geobotanica. 44 (2): 145158. doi:10.1007/s12224-009-90402. Retrieved 29 October 2014. (Full text on Research Gate)

Medrano, M.; Herrera, C. M. (12 May 2008). "Geographical Structuring of Genetic

Diversity Across the Whole Distribution Range of Narcissus longispathus, a Habitat-specialist,
Mediterranean Narrow Endemic". Annals of Botany. 102 (2): 183
194. doi:10.1093/aob/mcn086. PMID 18556752.

Aedo, Carlos (2010). "Typifcations of the names of Iberian accepted species

of Narcissus L. (Amaryllidaceae)" (PDF). Acta Botanica Malacitana. 35: 133142. Retrieved 29
November 2014.

Fernndez-Casas, Francisco Javier (2011). "Narcissorum Notulae,

XXXI" (PDF). Fontqueria. 56 (26): 239248. Retrieved 5 October2014.

Phylogenetics[edit]

Graham, S. W.; Barrett, S. C. H. (1 July 2004). "Phylogenetic reconstruction of the

evolution of stylar polymorphisms in Narcissus (Amaryllidaceae)". American Journal of
Botany. 91 (7): 10071021. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.7.1007. PMID 21653457. Retrieved 30
October 2014.

Barrett, Spencer C. H.; Harder, Lawrence D. (2 September 2004). "The evolution of

polymorphic sexual systems in daffodils (Narcissus)". New Phytologist. 165 (1): 45
53. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01183.x. PMID 15720619. Retrieved 30 October2014.

Rnsted, Nina; Savolainen, Vincent; Mlgaard, Per; Jger, Anna K. (MayJune

2008). "Phylogenetic selection of Narcissus species for drug discovery". Biochemical
Systematics and Ecology. 36 (56): 417422. doi:10.1016/j.bse.2007.12.010. Retrieved 30
October2014.

Zonneveld, B. J. M. (24 September 2008). "The systematic value of nuclear DNA content
for all species of Narcissus L. (Amaryllidaceae)". Plant Systematics and Evolution. 275 (12):
109132. doi:10.1007/s00606-008-0015-1. Retrieved 30 October2014.

Zonneveld, B. J.M. (8 July 2010). "The involvement of Narcissus hispanicus Gouan in the
origin of Narcissus bujei and of cultivated trumpet daffodils (Amaryllidaceae)". Anales del
Jardn Botnico de Madrid. 67 (1): 2939. doi:10.3989/ajbm.2219. Retrieved 5 October 2014.

Marques, I.; Nieto Feliner, G.; Martins-Loucao, M. A.; Fuertes Aguilar, J. (11 November
2011). "Genome size and base composition variation in natural and experimental Narcissus
(Amaryllidaceae) hybrids". Annals of Botany. 109 (1): 257
264. doi:10.1093/aob/mcr282. PMID 22080093. Retrieved 30 October 2014.

Gage, Ewan; Wilkin, Paul; Chase, Mark W.; Hawkins, Julie (2011). "Phylogenetic
systematics of Sternbergia (Amaryllidaceae) based on plastid and ITS sequence
data". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 166 (2): 149162. doi:10.1111/j.10958339.2011.01138.x. Retrieved 30 October 2014.

Santos-Gally, Roco; Vargas, Pablo; Arroyo, Juan (April 2012). "Insights into Neogene
Mediterranean biogeography based on phylogenetic relationships of mountain and lowland
lineages of Narcissus (Amaryllidaceae)". Journal of Biogeography. 39 (4): 782
798. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02526.x. Retrieved 30 October 2014.

Medrano, Mnica; Lpez-Perea, Esmeralda; Herrera, Carlos M. (June 2014). "Population

Genetics Methods Applied to a Species Delimitation Problem: Endemic Trumpet Daffodils
(NarcissusSection Pseudonarcissi) from the Southern Iberian Peninsula". International Journal
of Plant Sciences. 175 (5): 501517. doi:10.1086/675977. JSTOR 675977.

Pharmacology[edit]

John M. Riddle, John M. (September 1985). "Ancient and Medieval Chemotherapy for
Cancer" (PDF). Isis. 76 (3): 319330. doi:10.1086/353876. Retrieved 31 October 2014.

Bastida, Jaume; Lavilla, Rodolfo; Viladomat, Francesc Viladomat (2006). Cordell, G. A.,
ed. "Chemical and biological aspects of "Narcissus" alkaloids" (PDF). The Alkaloids: Chemistry
and Biology. The Alkaloids: Chemistry and Biology. Amsterdam: Elsevier Inc. 63: 87
179. doi:10.1016/S1099-4831(06)63003-4. ISBN 9780124695634. Retrieved 31
October 2014.

Hartwell, J. L. (1967). "Plants Used Against Cancer". Lloydia. 30: 379436.

Kornienko, Alexander; Evidente, Antonio (2008). "Chemistry, Biology, and Medicinal
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2014. doi:10.1021/cr078198u. PMC 2856661 . PMID 18489166.

Pettit, GR; Cragg, GM; Singh, SB; Duke, JA; Doubek, DL (1990). "Antineoplastic agents,
162. Zephyranthes candida". Journal of Natural Products. 53 (1): 176
178. doi:10.1021/np50067a026. PMID 2348199.

Pettit, George R.; Tan, Rui; Bao, Guan-Hu; Melody, Noeleen; Doubek, Dennis L.; Gao,
Song; Chapuis, Jean-Charles; Williams, Lee (27 April 2012). "Antineoplastic Agents. 587.
Isolation and Structure of 3-Epipancratistatin from Narcissus cv. Ice Follies". Journal of Natural
Products. 75 (4): 771773. doi:10.1021/np200862y. PMC 3372531

. PMID 22413911.

Pigni, Natalia B.; Ros-Ruiz, Segundo; Martnez-Francs, Vanessa; Nair, Jerald J.;
Viladomat, Francesc; Codina, Carles; Bastida, Jaume (28 September 2012). "Alkaloids
from Narcissus serotinus". Journal of Natural Products. 75 (9): 1643
1647. doi:10.1021/np3003595. Retrieved 5 October 2014.

Pigni, Natalia B.; Ros-Ruiz, Segundo; Luque, F. Javier; Viladomat, Francesc; Codina,
Carles; Bastida, Jaume (November 2013). "Wild daffodils of the section Ganymedes from the
Iberian Peninsula as a source of mesembrane alkaloids". Phytochemistry. 95: 384
393. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2013.07.010. Retrieved 5 October 2014.

Takos, Adam; Rook, Fred (31 May 2013). "Towards a Molecular Understanding of the
Biosynthesis of Amaryllidaceae Alkaloids in Support of Their Expanding Medical
Use". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 14 (6): 11713
11741. doi:10.3390/ijms140611713. PMID 23727937. Retrieved 5 October 2014.

Takos, Adam; Rook, Fred (31 May 2013). "Towards a Molecular Understanding of the
Biosynthesis of Amaryllidaceae Alkaloids in Support of Their Expanding Medical
Use". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 14 (6): 11713
11741. doi:10.3390/ijms140611713. PMID 23727937. Retrieved 25 December 2014.

Berkov, Strahil; Martnez-Francs, Vanessa; Bastida, Jaume; Codina, Carles; Ros,

Segundo (March 2014). "Evolution of alkaloid biosynthesis in the genus
Narcissus". Phytochemistry. 99: 95
106. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2013.11.002. PMID 24461780. Retrieved 31 October 2014.

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Books[edit]

Atta-ur-Rahman, ed. (1998). Studies in natural products chemistry. Vol 20 Structure and
Chemistry (Part F). Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 9780080541990. Retrieved 2 April 2015.

Haworth, Adrian Hardy (1831). Narcissinearum Monographia(PDF) (2 ed.). London:

Ridgway. Retrieved 20 October 2014.

Burbidge, Frederick William (1875). The Narcissus: Its History and Culture: With Coloured
Plates and Descriptions of All Known Species and Principal Varieties. London: L. Reeve &
Company. Retrieved 28 September 2014. (also available as pdf)

Barr, Peter; Burbidge, F.W. (1884). Ye Narcissus Or Daffodyl Flowere, Containing Hys
Historie and Culture, &C., With a Compleat Liste of All the Species and Varieties Known to
Englyshe Amateurs. London: Barre & Sonne. ISBN 978-1104534271. Retrieved 2
November 2014.

Blanchard, J. W. (1990). Narcissus: a guide to wild daffodils. Surrey, UK: Alpine Garden
Society. ISBN 0900048530. Retrieved 2 October 2014.

Erhardt, Walter (1993). Narzissen : Osterglocken, Jonquillen, Tazetten. Stuttgart

(Hohenheim): E. Ulmer. ISBN 3800164892. Retrieved 18 October 2014.

Hanks, Gordon R (2002). Narcissus and Daffodil: The Genus Narcissus. London: Taylor
and Francis. ISBN 0415273447. Retrieved 2 October 2014.

Kingsbury, Nol; Whitworth, Jo (2013). Daffodil : the remarkable story of the world's most
popular spring flower. Timber Press. ISBN 1604695595. Retrieved 8 November 2014.

Websites[edit]

Cook, Danielle. "Daffodil". Retrieved 14 November 2014.

Johnston, Brian (April 2007). "A Close-up View of the "Daffodil""(Close up images). Micscape
Magazine. Retrieved 14 November 2014.

Kraft, Rachel (April 30, 2001). "Propagation of Daffodils (Narcissus

pseudonarcissus)". Plant Propagation. North Dakota State University, Department of Plant
Sciences. Retrieved 14 November2014.

Trinklein, David (2007). "Spring Flowering Bulbs: Daffodils". University of

Missouri Extension. Retrieved 25 October 2014.

Van Beck, John; Christman, Steve (3 Oct 2005). "Narcissus". Floridata. Retrieved 25
October 2014.

Vigneron, Pascal. "Narcissus". Amaryllidaceae.org (in French). Retrieved 23

October 2014.

"Daffodil Festivals and Fields". Retrieved 3 November 2014.

"Narcissus" (Image galleries). Dryad Nursery. 2014. Retrieved 12 November 2014.

"Narcissus (Narcissus spp.)". UC Pest Management Guidelines. Agriculture and Natural

Resources, University of California. Integrated pest management program. March 2009.
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Steinbergs, A (2008). "Daffodils". Spring-flowering Bulbs. The Plant Expert. Retrieved 26

November 2014.

"Narcissus Horticultural Tips". Van Engelen. 2014. Retrieved 27 November 2014.

History[edit]

Libertiny, Susan (5 February 2013). "Peter Barr The King of Daffoldils". All about my
garden. Retrieved 2 November 2014.

"John Gerard (15451612)". Historical Collections at the Claude Moore Health Sciences
Library. University of Virginia. 2007. Retrieved 26 November 2014.

Pests and diseases[edit]

Books[edit]

Alford, David, ed. (2000). Pest and Disease Management Handbook. Chichester: John
Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0470680199. Retrieved 4 December 2014.

Pirone, Pascal Pompey (1978). Diseases and pests of ornamental plants (5 ed.). New
York: Wiley. ISBN 0471072494. Retrieved 4 December 2014.

Gratwick, Marion, ed. (1992). Crop Pests in the UK. Dordrecht: Springer
Netherlands. doi:10.1007/978-94-011-1490-5. ISBN 978-94-011-1490-5. Retrieved 3
December 2014.

Horst, R. Kenneth (2013). Field manual of diseases on garden and greenhouse flowers.
Dordrecht: Springer. ISBN 978-94-007-6049-3. Retrieved 4 December 2014. Additional
excerpts

Dreistadt, Steve H. (2001). Integrated pest management for floriculture and nurseries.
Oakland, Calif.: University of California, Statewide Integrated Pest Management Project,
Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. ISBN 1879906465.

Smith, I.M., ed. (1988). European Handbook of Plant Diseases. Oxford:

Wiley. ISBN 1444314181. Retrieved 8 December 2014.

Fungi[edit]

Elad, Yigal; Williamson, Brian; Tudzynski, Paul; Delen, Nafz, eds. (2007). Botrytis biology,
pathology and control. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-26263. ISBN 978-1-4020-2626-3. Retrieved 4 December 2014. Further excerpts

Moore, WC (1959). British Parasitic Fungi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Retrieved 22 November 2014.

Viruses[edit]

Fauquet, C.M.; et al., eds. (2005). Virus taxonomy classifcation and nomenclature of
viruses ; 8th report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Oxford:
Elsevier/Academic Press. ISBN 008057548X. Retrieved 12 December 2014.

King, Andrew M. Q.; et al., eds. (2012). Virus taxonomy : classifcation and nomenclature
of viruses : ninth report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. London:
Academic Press. ISBN 0123846846. Retrieved 9 December 2014.

Tidona, Christian; Darai, Gholamreza, eds. (2012). The Springer index of viruses (2 ed.).
New York, NY: Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-95919-1. Retrieved 12 December 2014.

Nematodes[edit]

Lee, Donald L, ed. (2010). The biology of nematodes. London: Taylor &
Francis. ISBN 0415272114. Retrieved 16 December 2014.

Zuckerman, Bert M.; Rohde, Richard A., eds. (1981). Plant Parasitic Nematodes vol. 3.
Oxford: Elsevier Science. ISBN 0323147038. Retrieved 14 December 2014.

Ravichandra, N. G. (2014). Horticultural Nematology. New Delhi:

Springer. ISBN 9788132218418. Retrieved 14 December 2014.

Perry, Roland N.; Moens, Maurice, eds. (2013). Plant nematology(2 ed.). Boston, MA:
CABI. ISBN 1780641516. Retrieved 16 December 2014.

Articles[edit]

McWhorter, Frank P.; Weiss, Freeman (June 1932). "Diseases of Narcissus" (PDF). Station
Bulletin. Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State Agricultural College. 304. Retrieved 6
December 2014.

"Narcissus pests, 6th ed." (PDF). Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food Bulletin (51).
1970. Retrieved 20 December 2014.

Mor, M.; Spiegel, Y. (1993). "Infection of Narcissus Roots by Aphelenchoides subtenuis". J

Nematol. 25 (3, September): 476479. PMC 2619407

. PMID 19279798.

Slootweg, A.F.G. (1 January 1956). "Rootrot of Bulbs Caused By Pratylenchus and

Hoplolaimus Spp". Nematologica. 1 (3): 192201. doi:10.1163/187529256X00041.
Retrieved 14 December2014.

Singh, S. K.; Hodda, M.; Ash, G. J. (August 2013). "Plant-parasitic nematodes of potential
phytosanitary importance, their main hosts and reported yield losses". EPPO Bulletin. 43 (2):
334374. doi:10.1111/epp.12050. Retrieved 15 December 2014.

Fungi[edit]

Hong, Sung Kee; Kim, Wan Gyu; Cho, Weon Dae; Kim, Hong Gi (2007). "Occurrence of
Narcissus Smoulder Caused by Botrytis narcissicola in Korea". Mycobiology. 35 (4):
235. doi:10.4489/MYCO.2007.35.4.235. Retrieved 4 December 2014.

Hanks, G.R. (1996). "Control of Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. narcissi, the cause of narcissus
basal rot, with thiabendazole and other fungicides". Crop Protection. 15 (6 September): 549
558. doi:10.1016/0261-2194(96)00023-3. Retrieved 3 December 2014.

Hanks, Gordon; Carder, John (2003). "Management of basal rot - the narcissus
disease". Pesticide Outlook. 14 (6): 260. doi:10.1039/B314848N. Retrieved 4 December 2014.

O'Neill, T.M; Mansfeld, J.W. (1980). "Infection of Narcissus by Borytis

narcissicola and Botrytis cinerea" (109:403-408). Acta Hort. ISHS. Retrieved 4 December 2014.

Boerema, G. H.; Hamers, Maria E. C. (May 1989). "Check-list for scientifc names of
common parasitic fungi. Series 3b: Fungi on bulbs: Amaryllidaceae and
Iridaceae". Netherlands Journal of Plant Pathology. 95 (S3): 129. doi:10.1007/BF01981520.
Retrieved 5 December 2014.

Mantell, S.H.; Wheeler, B.E.J. (February 1973). "Rosellinia and white root rot
of Narcissus in the Scilly Isles". Transactions of the British Mycological Society. 60 (1): 23
IN1. doi:10.1016/S0007-1536(73)80056-7. Retrieved 6 December 2014.

Fellows, Jane; Hanks, Gordon (October 2007). "Narcissus: The cause of 'physiological
rust' disorder" (PDF) (BOF 62). Horticultural Development Council. Retrieved 7
December 2014.

Crous, P.W.; Summerell, B.A.; Shivas, R.G.; Romberg, M.; Mel'nik, V.A.; Verkley, G.J.M.;
Groenewald, J.Z. (31 December 2011). "Fungal Planet description sheets: 92
106". Persoonia - Molecular Phylogeny and Evolution of Fungi. 27 (1): 130
162. doi:10.3767/003158511X617561. PMC 3251320

. PMID 22403481.

Viruses[edit]

Brunt, A.A. (1971). "Occurrence and importance of viruses infecting narcissus in

Britain". Acta Hort. (ISHS). 23: 292299. Retrieved 11 December 2014.

Mowat, W.P.; Duncan, G.H.; Dawson, S. (1988). "An appraisal of the identities
of Potyviruses infecting Narcissus". Acta Hort. (ISHS). 234: 207208. Retrieved 8
December 2014.

Asjes, C.J. (1996). "Control situation of virus diseases in Narcissusin the

Netherlands". Acta Hort. (ISHS). 432: 166175. Retrieved 11 December 2014.

Brunt, A. A. (1970). "Virus diseases of Narcissus" (PDF). Daffodil Tulip Yb. 36: 1837.
Retrieved 8 December 2014.

Chen, J.; Shi, Y.-H.; Adams, M. J.; Zheng, H.-Y.; Qin, B.-X.; Chen, J.-P. (February
2007). "Characterisation of an isolate of Narcissus degeneration virus from Chinese narcissus
(Narcissus tazetta var. chinensis)". Archives of Virology. 152 (2): 441
448. doi:10.1007/s00705-006-0841-9. PMID 16932980. Retrieved 9 December 2014.

Chen, J.; Shi, Y.-H.; Lu, Y.-W.; Adams, M. J.; Chen, J.-P. (9 June 2006). "Narcissus
symptomless virus: a new carlavirus of daffodils". Archives of Virology. 151 (11): 2261
2267. doi:10.1007/s00705-006-0801-4. PMID 16763730.

Mowat, W. P.; Duncan, G. H.; Dawson, S. (December 1988). "Narcissus late season
yellows potyvirus: symptoms, properties and serological detection". Annals of Applied
Biology. 113 (3): 531544. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7348.1988.tb03330.x. Retrieved 9
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Iwaki, Mitsuro; Komuro, Yasuo (1970). "Viruses Isolated from Narcissus (Narcissus spp.)
in Japan I. Narcissus mosaic virus". Japanese Journal of Phytopathology (in
Japanese). 36 (2): 8186. doi:10.3186/jjphytopath.36.81. Retrieved 11 December 2014.

Iwaki, Mitsuro; Komuro, Yasuo (1971). "Viruses Isolated from Narcissus (Narcissus spp.)
in Japan II. Tomato ringspot virus and its transmission by Xiphinema americanum". Japanese
Journal of Phytopathology (in Japanese). 37 (2): 108116. doi:10.3186/jjphytopath.37.108.
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Iwaki, Mitsuro; Komuro, Yasuo (1972). "Viruses Isolated from Narcissus (Narcissus spp.)
in Japan III. Cucumber mosaic virus, tobacco rattle virus and broad bean wilt virus". Japanese
Journal of Phytopathology (in Japanese). 38 (2): 137145. doi:10.3186/jjphytopath.38.137.
Retrieved 11 December 2014.

Iwaki, Mitsuro; Komuro, Yasuo (1973). "Viruses Isolated from Narcissus (Narcissus spp.)
in Japan IV. Tomato black ring virus". Japanese Journal of Phytopathology (in
Japanese). 39 (4): 279287. doi:10.3186/jjphytopath.39.279. Retrieved 11 December2014.

Iwaki, Mitsuro; Komuro, Yasuo (1974). "Viruses isolated from Narcissus (Narcissus spp.)
in Japan V. Arabis mosaic virus.". Japanese Journal of Phytopathology (in Japanese). 40 (4):
344353. doi:10.3186/jjphytopath.40.344. Retrieved 11 December2014.

Berniak, Hanna; Komorowska, Beata; Sochacki, Dariusz (1 January 2013). "Detection of

Narcissus Latent Virus Isolates Using One-Step Rt-Pcr Assay" (PDF). Journal of Horticultural
Research. 21 (1). doi:10.2478/johr-2013-0002. Retrieved 12 December 2014.

Websites[edit]

"Narcissus (Narcissus spp.)". UC Pest Management Guidelines. Agriculture and Natural

Resources, University of California. Integrated pest management program. March 2009.
Retrieved 21 November 2014.
"Daffodil viruses". Royal Horticultural Society. 2014. Retrieved 8 December 2014.

"Daffodil (Narcissus spp.)-Virus Diseases". Pacifc Northwest Plant Disease Management

Handbook. Oregon State University. 2014. Retrieved 8 December 2014.

"Virus Taxonomy: 2013 Release". International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses

(ICTV). 2014. Retrieved 10 December 2014.

Adams, Mike (2013). "Overview". Descriptions of Plant Viruses. Association of Applied

Biologists. Retrieved 22 December 2014.

Historical research[edit]

Anonymous (MayOctober 1887). "Homer the botanist". Macmillan's Magazine. London:

Macmillan and Company. 56: 428436. Retrieved 3 November 2014.

Graves, Robert (1949). The Common Asphodel (1970 ed.). New York: Haskell. pp. 327
330. Retrieved 20 November 2014.

Arber, Agnes (1912). Herbals, Their Origin and Evolution: A Chapter in the History of
Botany 1470-1670. Cambridge University Press 1912. Retrieved 2 November 2014.

Krausch, Heinz D (2012). 'Kaiserkron und Ponien rot?': Entdeckung und Einfhrung
unserer Gartenblumen. Munich: Dlling und Galitz Verlag G. ISBN 3862180220. Retrieved 16
October 2014.

Literature and art[edit]

Ferber, Michael (2007). "Daffodil". A Dictionary of Literary Symbols (2 ed.). Cambridge

University Press. ISBN 9781139466394. Retrieved 24 November 2014.

Antiquity[edit]

Singer, Samuel Weller, ed. (1846). Hesperides: or, The works both humane and divine of
Robert Herrick, Volume 1. London: William Pickering. Retrieved 1 October 2014.

Jebb, Sir Richard Claverhouse, ed. (1889). Sophocles: the plays and fragments with
critical notes, commentary, and translation in English prose. Part II. The Oedipus Coloneus (2
ed.). Cambridge University Press.

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Ecclesiastical Literature, Vol. IX RH-ST. New York: Harper & Brothers. Retrieved 8
October 2014.

Zimmerman, Clayton (1994). The pastoral Narcissus : a study of the frst idyll of
Theocritus. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefeld. ISBN 0847679624. Retrieved 19 October 2014.

Jashemski, Wilhelmina Feemster; Meyer, Frederick G., eds. (2002). The natural history of
Pompeii. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521800544. Retrieved 19
October 2014.

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Oedipus at Colonus. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3110895889. Retrieved 23
November 2014.

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Routledge. ISBN 0415775221. Retrieved 23 November 2014.

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1914). Internet Sacred Text Archive. Retrieved 23 November 2014.

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BC (in Greek and English). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press. ISBN 0-674-99605-4.
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Mediaeval and Renaissance[edit]

Gower, John (2008). "Confessio Amantis or Tales of the Seven Deadly Sins. Liber
primus". Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 30 November 2014.

Gower, John (1390). Pauli, Reinhold, ed. Confessio Amantis of John Gower, Volume
1 (1857 ed.). Bell and Daldy 1857. Retrieved 30 November 2014.

Yeager, R.F. (1990). John Gower's poetic : the search for a new Arion. Cambridge:
Brewer. ISBN 0859912809. Retrieved 30 November 2014.

Spenser, Edmund (1579). "The Shepheardes Calender". Renascence Editions.

Retrieved 25 November 2014.

Constable, Henry (1859). Hazlitt, WC, ed. Diana: The Sonnets and other poems by Henry
Constable. London: Basil Montagu Pickering. Retrieved 25 November 2014.

Shakespeare, William (1623). "The Winter's Tale". The Complete Works of William
Shakespeare. Retrieved 6 November 2014.

Shakespeare, William (1634). "The Two Noble Kinsmen". Classic Literature Library.
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D'Ancona, Mirella Levi (1977). Garden of the Renaissance: Botanical Symbolism in Italian
Painting. Firenze: Casa Editrice Leo S.Olschki. ISBN 9788822217899.

Sparrow, Lady Amie (November 2007). "Flowers and Their Renaissance Symbolism". The
Bull, Newsletter for the Barony of Stierbach, Vol. 10 Issue XI. Retrieved 6 October 2014.

Modern[edit]

Wordsworth, William (1807). Poems in Two Volumes, VOL. II. Longman, Hurst, Rees and
Orme. Retrieved 12 October 2014.

Wordsworth, Dorothy (1802). "Excerpt from Dorothy Wordsworth's Grasmere Journal, 15

April 1802". Journals of Dorothy Wordsworth: The Alfoxden Journal 1798, The Grasmere
Journals 1800-1803, ed. Mary Moorman. New York: Oxford UP, 1971. pp. 109110.
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Books Online. Bartleby. Retrieved 22 December 2014.

Shelley, Percy Bysshe (1820). "The Sensitive Plant" (Oxford Edition 1914, edited by Thomas
Hutchinson). The Complete Poetical Works, by Percy Bysshe Shelley: Volume 25. Poems
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"The London Quarterly Review" (January - April). 92 (183186). 1853. Retrieved 24

December 2014.

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November 2014.

Lewis, C. Day (1992). The Complete Poems. Stanford, California: Stanford University
Press. ISBN 0804725853. Retrieved 5 November 2014.

Masefeld, Richard (2014). Brimstone. Red Door Publishing. ISBN 178301332X.

Retrieved 17 November 2014. if you ain't as white as a lentern lily

Islam[edit]

Schimmel, Annemarie (1984). Stern und Blume : die Bilderwelt der persischen Poesie.
Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz. ISBN 3447024348. Retrieved 16 October 2014.

Schimmel, Annemarie (1992). Two-colored brocade : the imagery of Persian poetry. Univ
Of North Carolina. ISBN 0807856207. Retrieved 15 October 2014.

Schimmel, Annemarie (1998). Die Trume des Kalifen : Trume und ihre Deutung in der
islamischen Kultur. Mnchen: Beck. ISBN 3406440568. Retrieved 16 October 2014.

Schimmel, Annemarie (2001). Kleine Paradiese : Blumen und Grten im Islam. Freiburg
im Breisgau: Herder. ISBN 3451051923.

Meisami, Julie Scott; Starkey, Paul, eds. (1998). Encyclopedia of Arabic literature, vol. 2.
London: Routledge. ISBN 0415185726. Retrieved 16 October 2014.

Eastern[edit]

Hearn, Maxwell K. (2008). How to read Chinese paintings. New York: Metropolitan
Museum of Art. ISBN 1588392813. Retrieved 17 November 2014.

Hu, William C. (1989). Narcissus, Chinese new year flower : legends and folklore. Ann
Arbor, Mich.: Ars Ceramica with the Honolulu Academy of Arts. ISBN 0893440353.
Bailey, LH (1890). "Legend Of The Chinese Lily (Narcissus Orientalis)" (The American

Garden vol XI). The Rural Publishing Company. Retrieved 20 November 2014.

Anonymous (12 September 1946). "The legend of the Chinese lily". Gippsland Times: 10.
Retrieved 20 November 2014.

Databases[edit]

"Narcissus". The Plant List (2013). Version 1.1. 2013. Retrieved 3 November 2014.

"Narcissus L.". International Plant Names Index. Retrieved 16 October 2014.

"Narcissus". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
Retrieved 16 October 2014.

"Narcissus L.". eMonocot. 2014. Retrieved 31 December 2014.Distribution maps

"Narcissus". Euro+Med Plantbase. Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum Berlin-Dahlem.

Retrieved 1 January 2015.

Stevens, P.F. (2015) [1st. Pub. 2001], Angiosperm Phylogeny Website: Amaryllidaceae - 3.
Amaryllidoideae - 3H. Narcisseae

Societies and organisations[edit]

"The Daffodil Society" (UK). 2014. Retrieved 16 November 2014.

"The American Daffodil Society". 2014. Retrieved 4 November2014.

"DaffLibrary books, articles, and journals about daffodils". American Daffodil

Society. Retrieved 4 November 2014.

"DaffSeek - Daffodil Database with Photos". American Daffodil Society.

Retrieved 4 November 2014.

"International Daffodil Organizations". American Daffodil Society. Retrieved 16

November 2014.
"Daffodils". Royal Horticultural Society. Retrieved 4 November2014.

"IBS Gallery". Gallery of the world's bulbs. International Bulb Society. 2012. Retrieved 4
November 2014.
"National Daffodil Society of New Zealand". 2014. Retrieved 23 October 2014.

"Daffodil cultivar registration". Royal Horticultural Society. Retrieved November

20, 2014.

"Narcissus". Plant Encyclopaedia. Alpine Garden Society. 2011. Retrieved 29

October 2014.
"Narcissus". Pacifc Bulb Society. 2014. Retrieved 29 December2014.

"Overview of the Narcissus Species". Pacifc Bulb Society. 2014. Retrieved 29

December 2014.

Cultivation[edit]

"Flower Bulb Research Program". Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture and

Life Sciences, Cornell University. Retrieved 3 November 2014.

"Research Newsletter". Retrieved 3 November 2014.

"International Flower Bulb Centre". Retrieved 3 November 2014.

"Bulb flower production: Narcissus". Retrieved 3 November2014.

"Narcissus". Narcissus, Hyacinth & Special Flower Bulbs Picture Book.
Retrieved 3 November 2014.

Reference material[edit]

ICN (2011). "International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and

plants". Bratislava: International Association for Plant Taxonomy. Retrieved 2 February 2014.

"The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species". International Union for Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources. 2014. Retrieved 18 November 2014.

"Oxford Dictionaries". Oxford dictionaries online. Oxford University Press. 2014.

Retrieved 17 November 2014.

"Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Encyclopaedia Brittanica. 2014. Retrieved 20

November 2014.

Jamieson, John (1879). An Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language (Forgotten

Books ed.). Paisley: Alexander Gardener. Retrieved 25 November 2014.

Wright, Joseph (1905). The English dialect dictionary. Oxford:

Frowde. ISBN 9785880963072. Retrieved 25 November 2014.

"Middle English Dictionary". University of Michigan. 2013. Retrieved 30 November 2014.

Geography[edit]

Gold, Sara; Eshel, Amram; Plotnizki, Abraham (2014). "Wild Flowers of Israel".
Retrieved 7 October 2014.

"Awaji Yumebutai International Conference Center" (Narcissus felds). Awaji Island, Japan.
2006. Retrieved 17 November 2014.