Generator and Motor

A hand-cranked generator can be used to generate voltage to turn a motor. This is an example
of energy conversion from mechanical to electrical energy and then back to mechanical
energy.

As the motor is turning, it also acts as a generator and generates a "back emf". By Lenz's law,
the emf generated by the motor coil will oppose the change that created it. If the motor is not
driving a load, then the generated back emf will almost balance the input voltage and very
little current will flow in the coil of the motor. But if the motor is driving a heavy load, the
back emf will be less and more current will flow in the motor coil and that electric power
being used is converted to the mechanical power to drive the load.

Index

DC Motor Operation
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Magnetic interactions with charge

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Magnetic
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concepts
Magnetic
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Index

Current in DC Motor
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DC Motor Operating Principles

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Magnetic
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Magnetic
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Index

Magnetic Field in DC Motor

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DC Motor Operating Principles

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Magnetic
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Force in DC Motor
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DC Motor Operating Principles

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Torque in DC Motor
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Index
Magnetic
field
concepts
Magnetic
force
applications

DC Motor Operating Principles

Variation of torque with coil angle
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Torque on a Coil

Faraday's Law
Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause a voltage
(emf) to be "induced" in the coil. No matter how the change is produced, the
voltage will be generated. The change could be produced by changing the
magnetic field strength, moving a magnet toward or away from the coil,
moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field, rotating the coil relative to
the magnet, etc.

Index
Faraday's
Law
concepts

Further comments on these examples

Faraday's law is a fundamental relationship which comes from Maxwell's
equations. It serves as a succinct summary of the ways a voltage (or emf) may
be generated by a changing magnetic environment. The induced emf in a coil
is equal to the negative of the rate of change of magnetic flux times the
number of turns in the coil. It involves the interaction of charge with magnetic
field.

Lenz's law

AC coil example

Faraday's Law and Auto Ignition

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R Nave

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Lenz's Law
When an emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux according to Faraday's
Law, the polarity of the induced emf is such that it produces a current whose
magnetic field opposes the change which produces it. The induced magnetic
field inside any loop of wire always acts to keep the magnetic flux in the loop
constant. In the examples below, if the B field is increasing, the induced field
acts in opposition to it. If it is decreasing, the induced field acts in the
direction of the applied field to try to keep it constant.

Index
Faraday's
Law
concepts

HyperPhysics*****Electricity and magnetism

Electric Motors
Electric motors involve rotating coils of wire which are driven by the magnetic force exerted
by a magnetic field on an electric current. They transform electrical energy into mechanical
energy.

How does an electric motor work?

Magnetic interactions with charge

How does a generator work?

AC Motor
As in the DC motor
case, a current is passed
through the coil,
generating a torque on
the coil. Since the
current is alternating,
the motor will run
smoothly only at the
frequency of the sine
wave. It is called a
synchronous motor.
More common is the
induction motor, where
electric current is
induced in the rotating
coils rather than
supplied to them
directly.

Index
DC
Circuits

One of the drawbacks of this kind of AC motor is the high current which must flow through
the rotating contacts. Sparking and heating at those contacts can waste energy and shorten the
lifetime of the motor. In common AC motors the magnetic field is produced by an
electromagnet powered by the same AC voltage as the motor coil. The coils which produce
the magnetic field are sometimes referred to as the "stator", while the coils and the solid core
which rotates is called the "armature". In an AC motor the magnetic field is sinusoidally
varying, just as the current in the coil varies.
How does a motor work?

AC Generator

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Generator and Motor

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AC Generator
The turning of a coil in a magnetic field produces motional emfs in both sides of the coil
which add. Since the component of the velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field changes
sinusoidally with the rotation, the generated voltage is sinusoidal or AC. This process can be
described in terms of Faraday's law when you see that the rotation of the coil continually
changes the magnetic flux through the coil and therefore generates a voltage.

Index
DC
Circuits

Voltage generation detail

AC Motor

Generator and Motor

DC Motor

DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of the chapter you will be able to:

State the principle by which generators convert mechanical energy to

electrical energy.

State the rule to be applied when you determine the direction of

induced emf in a coil.

State the purpose of slip rings.

State the reason why no emf is induced in a rotating coil as it

passes through a neutral plane.

State what component causes a generator to produce direct current

rather than alternating current.

Identify the point at which the brush contact should change from one
commutator segment to the next.

State how field strength can be varied in a dc generator.

Describe the cause of sparking between brushes and commutator.

State what is meant by "armature reaction."

State the purpose of interpoles.

Explain the effect of motor reaction in a dc generator.

Explain the causes of armature losses.

List the types of armatures used in dc generators.

State the three classifications of dc generators.

State the term that applies to voltage variation from no-load to

full-load conditions and how it is expressed as a percentage.

State the term that describes the use of two or more generators to
supply a common load.

State the purpose of a dc generator that has been modified to

function as an amplidyne.

INTRODUCTION
A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy by using the principle of magnetic induction. This principle is
explained as follows:

Whenever a conductor is moved within a magnetic field in such a way that

the conductor cuts across magnetic lines of flux, voltage is generated in
the conductor.
The AMOUNT of voltage generated depends on (1) the strength of the magnetic
field, (2) the angle at which the conductor cuts the magnetic field, (3)
the speed at which the conductor is moved, and (4) the length of the
conductor within the magnetic field.
The POLARITY of the voltage depends on the direction of the magnetic lines
of flux and the direction of movement of the conductor. To determine the
direction of current in a given situation, the LEFT-HAND RULE FOR
GENERATORS is used. This rule is explained in the following manner.
Extend the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of your left hand at right
angles to one another, as shown in figure 1-1.
Point your thumb in the direction the conductor is being moved. Point your
forefinger in the direction of magnetic flux (from north to south). Your
middle finger will then point in the direction of current flow in an
external circuit to which the voltage is applied.
Figure 1-1. - Left-hand rule for generators.

THE ELEMENTARY GENERATOR

The simplest elementary generator that can be built is an ac generator.
Basic generating principles are most easily explained through the use of
the elementary ac generator. For this reason, the ac generator will be
discussed first. The dc generator will be discussed later.
An elementary generator (fig. 1-2) consists of a wire loop placed so that
it can be rotated in a stationary magnetic field. This will produce an

induced emf in the loop. Sliding contacts (brushes) connect the loop to an
external circuit load in order to pick up or use the induced emf.
Figure 1-2. - The elementary generator.

The pole pieces (marked N and S) provide the magnetic field. The pole
pieces are shaped and positioned as shown to concentrate the magnetic field
as close as possible to the wire loop. The loop of wire that rotates
through the field is called the ARMATURE. The ends of the armature loop are
connected to rings called SLIP RINGS. They rotate with the armature. The
brushes, usually made of carbon, with wires attached to them, ride against
the rings. The generated voltage appears across these brushes.
The elementary generator produces a voltage in the following manner (fig.
1-3). The armature loop is rotated in a clockwise direction. The initial or
starting point is shown at position A. (This will be considered the zerodegree position.) At 0 the armature loop is perpendicular to the magnetic
field. The black and white conductors of the loop are moving parallel to
the field. The instant the conductors are moving parallel to the magnetic
field, they do not cut any lines of flux. Therefore, no emf is induced in
the conductors, and the meter at position A indicates zero. This position
is called the NEUTRAL PLANE. As the armature loop rotates from position A
(0) to position B (90), the conductors cut through more and more lines of
flux, at a continually increasing angle. At 90 they are cutting through a
maximum number of lines of flux and at maximum angle. The result is that
between 0 and 90, the induced emf in the conductors builds up from zero
to a maximum value. Observe that from 0 to 90, the black conductor cuts
DOWN through the field. At the same time the white conductor cuts UP
through the field. The induced emfs in the conductors are series-adding.
This means the resultant voltage across the brushes (the terminal voltage)
is the sum of the two induced voltages. The meter at position B reads
maximum value. As the armature loop continues rotating from 90 (position
B) to 180 (position C), the conductors which were cutting through a
maximum number of lines of flux at position B now cut through fewer lines.
They are again moving parallel to the magnetic field at position C. They no
longer cut through any lines of flux. As the armature rotates from 90 to
180, the induced voltage will decrease to zero in the same manner that it

increased during the rotation from 0 to 90. The meter again reads zero.
From 0 to 180 the conductors of the armature loop have been moving in the
same direction through the magnetic field. Therefore, the polarity of the
induced voltage has remained the same. This is shown by points A through C
on the graph. As the loop rotates beyond 180 (position C), through 270
(position D), and back to the initial or starting point (position A), the
direction of the cutting action of the conductors through the magnetic
field reverses. Now the black conductor cuts UP through the field while the
white conductor cuts DOWN through the field. As a result, the polarity of
the induced voltage reverses. Following the sequence shown by graph points
C, D, and back to A, the voltage will be in the direction opposite to that
shown from points A, B, and C. The terminal voltage will be the same as it
was from A to C except that the polarity is reversed (as shown by the meter
deflection at position D). The voltage output waveform for the complete
revolution of the loop is shown on the graph in figure 1-3.
Figure 1-3. - Output voltage of an elementary generator during one
revolution.

Q.1 Generators convert mechanical motion to electrical energy using what

principle?
Q.2 What rule should you use to determine the direction of induced emf in a
coil?
Q.3 What is the purpose of the slip rings?
Q.4 Why is no emf induced in a rotating coil when it passes through the
neutral plane?

There are two types of generators, one is ac generator and other is dc generator. Whatever
may be the types of generators, it always converts mechanical power to electrical power. An
ac generator produces alternating power. A DC generator produces direct power. Both of
these generators produce electrical power, based on same fundamental principle of Faradays
law of electromagnetic induction. According to these law, when an conductor moves in a
magnetic field it cuts magnetic lines force, due to which an emf is induced in the conductor.
The magnitude of this induced emf depends upon the rate of change of flux (magnetic line
force) linkage with the conductor. This emf will cause an current to flow if the conductor
circuit is closed.

Hence the most basic tow essential parts of a generator are

a) a magnetic field and
b) conductors which move inside that magnetic field.
Now we will go through working principle of dc generator. As, the working principle of ac
generator is not in scope of our discussion in this section.

Single Loop DC Generator

In the figure above, a single loop of conductor of rectangular shape is placed between two
opposite poles of magnet.
Lets us consider, the rectangular loop of conductor is ABCD which rotates inside the
magnetic field about its own axis ab. When the loop rotates from its vertical position to its
horizontal position, it cuts the flux lines of the field. As during this movement two sides, i.e.
AB and CD of the loop cut the flux lines there will be an emf induced in these both of the
sides (AB & BC) of the loop.

As the loop is closed there will be a current circulating through the loop. The direction of the
current can be determined by Flemmings right hand Rule. This rule says that is you stretch
thumb, index finger and middle finger of your right hand perpendicular to each other, then
thumbs indicates the direction of motion of the conductor, index finger indicates the direction
of magnetic field i.e. N pole to S pole, and middle finger indicates the direction of flow of
current through the conductor.

Now if we apply this right hand rule, we will see at this horizontal position of the loop,
current will flow from point A to B and on the other side of the loop current will flow from

point C to D.

Now if we allow the loop to move further, it will come again to its vertical position, but now
upper side of the loop will be CD and lower side will be AB (just opposite of the previous
vertical position). At this position the tangential motion of the sides of the loop is parallel to
the flux lines of the field. Hence there will be no question of flux cutting and consequently
there will be no current in the loop.
If the loop rotates further, it comes to again in horizontal position. But now, said AB side of
the loop comes in front of N pole and CD comes in front of S pole, i.e. just opposite to the

previous horizontal position as shown in the figure beside.

Here the tangential motion of the side of the loop is perpendicular to the flux lines, hence rate
of flux cutting is maximum here and according to Flemmings right hand rule, at this position
current flows from B to A and on other side from D to C.
Now if the loop is continued to rotate about its axis, every time the side AB comes in front of
S pole, the current flows from A to B and when it comes in front of N pole, the current flows
from B to A. Similarly, every time the side CD comes in front of S pole the current flows
from C to D and when it comes in front of N pole the current flows from D to C.
If we observe this phenomena in different way, it can be concluded, that each side of the loop
comes in front of N pole, the current will flow through that side in same direction i.e.
downward to the reference plane and similarly each side of the loop comes in front of S pole,
current through it flows in same direction i.e. upwards from reference plane. From this, we
will come to the topic of principle of dc generator.
Now the loop is opened and connect it with a split ring as shown in the figure below. Split
ring are made out of a conducting cylinder which cuts into two halves or segments insulated
from each other. The external load terminals are connected with two carbon brushes which
are rest on these split slip ring segments.

Working Principle of DC Generator

It is seen that in the first half of the revolution current flows always along ABLMCD i.e.
brush no 1 in contact with segment a. In the next half revolution, in the figure the direction of
the induced current in the coil is reversed. But at the same time the position of the segments a
and b are also reversed which results that brush no 1 comes in touch with that segment b.
Hence, the current in the load resistance again flows from L to M. The wave from of the
current through the load circuit is as shown in the figure. This current is unidirectional.

This is basic working principle of DC generator, explained by single loop generator model.
The position of the brushes of DC generator is so arranged that the change over of the
segments a and b from one brush to other takes place when the plane of rotating coil is at
right angle to the plane of the lines of force. It is so become in that position, the induced emf
in the coil is zero.