Political Theory

Political Theory

Introduction

Political Theory

Introduction

Political Theory

Human beings are unique in two respects: they possess reason and
the ability to reflect on their actions. They also have the capacity to
use language and communicate with each other. Unlike other species,
they can express their innermost thoughts and desires; they can
share their ideas and discuss what they consider to be good and
desirable. Political theory has its roots in the twin aspects of the
human self. It analyses certain basic questions such as how should
society be organised? Why do we need government? What is the best
form of government? Does law limit our freedom? What does the
state owe its citizens? What do we owe each other as citizens?
Political theory examines questions of this kind and
systematically thinks about the values that inform political life
values such as freedom, equality and justice. It explains the meaning
and significance of these and other related concepts. It clarifies the
existing definitions of these concepts by focusing on some major
political thinkers of the past and present. It also examines the extent
to which freedom or equality are actually present in the institutions
that we participate in, everyday life such as schools, shops, buses
or trains or government offices. At an advanced level, it looks at
whether existing definitions are adequate and how existing
institutions (government, bureaucracy) and policy practices must
be modified to become more democratic. The objective of political
theory is to train citizens to think rationally about political questions
and assess the political events of our time.
In this chapter, we will examine what is meant by politics and
political theory and why we should study it.

1.1 WHAT

LETS DEBATE
What is Politics.

IS

POLITICS?

You would have noticed that people have different ideas

about what politics is. Political leaders, and persons
who contest elections and hold political office, may argue
that it is a kind of public service. Some others associate
politics with manipulation and intrigue undertaken to
pursue ambitions and satisfy wants. A few think of
politics as what politicians do. If they see politicians
defecting from parties, making false promises and tall

Political Theory
Political Theory

Introduction

We are thus confronted with conflicting

images of politics. Is politics an undesirable
activity that we should stay away from and get
rid off? Or, is it a worthwhile activity which we
must engage with in order to make a better world?

R. K. Laxman in the Times of India

claims, manipulating different sections, pursuing personal or group

interests ruthlessly and in worst cases stooping to crime, they link
politics with scams. So prevalent is this way of thinking that when
we see people in different walks of life trying to promote their interests
by any means possible, we say they are playing politics. If we see
a cricketer manipulating to stay in the team, or a fellow student
trying to use his fathers position, or a colleague in office mindlessly
agreeing with the boss, we say he or she is playing dirty politics.
Disillusioned by such pursuits of selfishness we
despair of politics. We say, I am not interested
in politics or I am going to stay away from
politics. It is not only ordinary people who
despair of politics; even businessmen and
entrepreneurs routinely blame politics for their
woes even as they benefit from and fund various
political parties. Cinema stars also complain of
politics though they seem to be adept at the game
once they join it.

You must retire from politics at

once! Your activities are having a
bad influence on him. He thinks
he can get away with lying and
cheating.

It is unfortunate that politics has come to be

associated with the pursuit of self-interest by
any and every method. We need to realise that
politics is an important and integral part of any society. Mahatma
Gandhi once observed that politics envelops us like the coils of a
snake and there is no other way out but to wrestle with it. No society
can exist without some form of political organisation and collective
decision making. A society that wants to sustain itself needs to
take into account the multiple needs and interests of its members.
A number of social institutions such as the family, tribes and
economic institutions, have emerged to help people fulfil their needs
and aspirations. Such institutions help us find ways of living together
acknowledging our obligations to each other. Among such
institutions, governments play an important part. How governments

Political Theory

Introduction
Read the newspaper. What are
the issues dominating the
headlines? Do you think they
have any relevance for you?

Political Theory

are formed and how they function is thus an

important focus of politics.

But politics is not confined to the affairs of

government. In fact what governments do is
relevant because it affects the lives of the
people in many different ways. We see that
governments determine our economic policy and foreign policy and
educational policy. These policies can help to improve the lives of
people but an inefficient or corrupt government can also endanger
peoples lives and security. If the government in power allows any
conflicts to become violent, markets close down and schools are
shut. These disrupt our lives; we cannot buy things that we may
need urgently; those who are sick cannot reach the hospital; even
the school schedule gets affected, syllabi cannot be completed and
we may have to take extra coaching for the exams and pay tuition
fees. If, on the other hand, the government makes policies to increase
literacy and employment, we may get an opportunity to go to a
good school and get a decent job.
Since the actions of the government affect us deeply, we take a
lively interest in what governments do. We form associations and
organise campaigns to articulate our demands. We negotiate with
others and try to shape the goals that governments pursue. When
we disagree with the policies of the government, we protest and
organise demonstrations to persuade the government to change
the existing laws. We passionately debate the actions of our
representatives and discuss whether corruption has increased or
decreased. We ask whether corruption can be rooted out; whether
reservations for specific groups are just or not. We try to understand
why some parties and leaders win
elections. In this way we look for the
rationale underlying the prevalent chaos
LETS DO IT
and decay, and aspire to create a better
world.

Do

To sum up, politics arises from the

fact that we have different visions of what
is just and desirable for us and our

How does politics

influence our daily life?
Analyse a days events
in your life.

Political Theory
Political Theory

Introduction

society. It involves the multiple negotiations

that go on in society through which collective
decisions are made. At one level, it involves what
governments do and how they relate to the
aspirations of the people; at another level, it
involves how people struggle and influence decision
making. People may be said to engage in political
activity whenever they negotiate with each other
and take part in collective activities which are
designed to promote social development and help
to resolve common problems.

1.2 WHAT DO WE STUDY

IN

LETS DEBATE

Should students
participate in politics?.

POLITICAL THEORY?

If we look around us what we see would be movement, development

and change. But if we look deeper we would also see certain values
and principles that have inspired people and guided policies. Ideals
like democracy, freedom or equality for instance. Different countries
may try to protect such values by enshrining them in their constitutions
as is the case with the American and Indian constitutions.
These documents did not just emerge overnight; they are built
upon the ideas and principles debated almost since the time
of Kautilya, Aristotle to Jean Jacques Rousseau, Karl Marx, Mahatma
Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. As far back as the fifth century
B.C., Plato and Aristotle discussed with their students whether
monarchy or democracy was better. In modern times, Rousseau first
argued for freedom as a fundamental right of humankind. Karl Marx
argued that equality was as crucial as freedom. Closer home, Mahatma
Gandhi discussed the meaning of genuine freedom or swaraj in his
book Hind Swaraj. Dr. Ambedkar vigorously argued that the
scheduled castes must be considered a minority,
and as such, must receive special protection.
Write a short note on any of
These ideas find their place in the Indian
the
political
thinkers
Constitution; our Preamble enshrines freedom
mentioned in the chapter. [50
and equality; the chapter on Rights in the Indian
words]
Constitution abolishes untouchability in any
form; Gandhian principles find a place in
5
Directive Principles.

Political Theory

Introduction

Political Theory

Political theory deals with the ideas and principles that shape
Constitutions, governments and social life in a systematic manner.
It clarifies the meaning of concepts such as freedom, equality, justice,
democracy, secularism and so on. It probes the significance of
principles such as rule of law, separation of powers, judicial review,
etc. This is done by examining the arguments advanced by different
thinkers in defence of these concepts. Though Rousseau or Marx or
Gandhi did not become politicians, their ideas influenced generations
of politicians everywhere. There are also contemporary thinkers who
draw upon them to defend freedom or democracy in our own time.
Besides examining arguments, political theorists also reflect upon
our current political experiences and point out trends and
possibilities for the future.

Can you identify the political principle/value which is in

application in each of the following statements/situations?
a.

I should be able to decide which subjects I want to study in

school.
b. The practice of untouchability has been abolished.
c. All Indians are equal before law.
d. Minorities can have their own schools and colleges.
e. Foreigners who are visiting India cannot vote in Indian
elections.
f. There should be no censorship of media or films.
g. Students should be consulted while planning the annual day
functions.
h. Everyone must join the Republic Day celebrations.

But is all this relevant for us now? Have we not already achieved
freedom and democracy? While India is free and independent,
questions regarding freedom and equality have not ceased to crop
up. This is because issues concerning freedom, equality, democracy,
arise in many areas of social life and they are being implemented in
different sectors at different paces. For instance, although equality
may exist in the political sphere in the form of equal rights, it may
not exist to the same extent in the economic or social spheres.
People may enjoy equal political rights but still be discriminated

Political Theory
Political Theory

Introduction

against socially because of their caste or poverty. Some people may

have a privileged place in society while others are deprived even of
basic necessities. Some are able to achieve whatever goals they set
for themselves while many are unable even to go to schools so that
they can have decent jobs in the future. For them, freedom is still a
distant dream.
Secondly, though freedom is guaranteed in our Constitution,
we encounter new interpretations all the time. This is a bit like
playing a game; as we play chess or cricket, we learn how to interpret
the rules. In the process, we discover new and broader meanings of
the game itself. Similarly, the fundamental rights guaranteed by
our Constitution are continually being reinterpreted in response to
new circumstances. For instance, the right to life has been
interpreted by the Courts to include the right to livelihood. The
right to information has been granted through a new law. Societies
frequently encounter new challenges which generate new
interpretations. The fundamental rights guaranteed by our
Constitution have been amended and expanded over time through
judicial interpretations and government policies which are designed
to address new problems.

Do

Thirdly, as our world changes, we may discover new

LETS DO IT
dimensions of freedom as well as new threats to freedom.
For instance, global communications technology is
making it easier for activists to network with one another
Collect cartoons
across the world for protecting tribal cultures or forests.
fr om
various
But it also enables terrorists and criminals to network.
newspapers and
magazines. What are
Moreover, internet commerce is all set to increase in
the various issues
the future. This means that the information we give
that
they
are
about ourselves online to buy goods or services must
concer
ned
with?
be protected. So even though netizens (citizens of the
Which
political
internet) do not like government control, they recognise
concept do they
that some form of regulation is necessary to safeguard
highlight?
individual security and privacy. As a result, questions
are raised regarding how much freedom should be given
to people using the net. For instance, should they be allowed to send
unsolicited e-mails to strangers? Can you advertise your products in
7

Political Theory

Introduction

Political Theory

In ancient Greece, in the city of Athens, Socrates was described as the wisest
man. He was known for questioning and challenging popularly held beliefs about
society, religion and politics. For this he was condemned to death by the rulers of
Athens.
His student Plato wrote extensively about the life and ideas of Socrates. In his
book The Republic, he created the character Socrates and through him examined
the question what is justice?
The book opens with a dialogue between Socrates and Cephalus. In the course of
this dialogue Cephalus and his friends come to recognise that their understanding
of justice is inadequate and unacceptable.
The important thing in this is that Socrates uses reason to reveal the limitations
and inconsistencies in a given point of view. His adversaries eventually admit
that the views they had held and lived by could not be sustained.

chat rooms? Should governments be allowed to read private e-mails

to track down terrorists? How much regulation is justified and who
should regulate governments or some private regulators? Political
theory has a lot to teach us about possible answers to these questions
and is therefore very relevant.

1.3 PUTTING POLITICAL THEORY

TO

PRACTICE

In this textbook, we confine ourselves to one aspect of political theory

that which deals with the origins, meaning and significance of
political ideas that we are familiar with such as freedom, equality,
citizenship, justice, development, nationalism, secularism and so
on. When we begin a debate or argument on any topic, we usually
ask what does it mean? and how does it matter? Political theorists
have asked what is freedom or equality and provided diverse
definitions. Unlike in mathematics where there can be one definition
of a triangle or square, we encounter many definitions of equality
or freedom or justice.

Political Theory
Political Theory

Introduction

Read and see how Socrates achieved this.

Well said, Cephalus, I replied; but as concerning justice, what is it? to speak the
truth and to pay your debts no more than this?
And even to this are there not exceptions? Suppose that a friend when in his right
mind has deposited arms with me and he asks for them when he is not in his right
mind, ought I to give them back to him?
You are quite right, he replied.
But then, I said, speaking the truth and paying your debts is not a correct definition
of justice.
And instead of saying simply as we did at first, that it is just to do good to our
friends and harm to our enemies, we should further say: It is just to do good to our
friends when they are good and harm to our enemies when they are evil?
Yes, that appears to me to be the truth.

This is because terms like equality concern our relationships

with other human beings rather than with things. Human beings,
unlike things, have opinions on issues like equality. And many
opinions need to be understood and harmonised. How do we go
about doing this? Let us begin with our common experience of
equality in different places.
You may have noticed that people often jump the queue in shops
or doctors waiting rooms or government offices. Sometimes, those
who do so are told to get back in line and we feel glad. Sometimes,
they get ahead and we feel cheated. We resent this because we all
want equal opportunity to get goods and services for which we are
paying. So when we reflect on our experience, we understand that
equality means equal opportunity for all. At the same time, if there
are separate counters for the old and disabled, we understand that
such special treatment may be justified.
But we also notice everyday that many poor people cannot
go to the shop or to a doctor because they have no money to pay

Political Theory

Introduction

Political Theory

But ought the just to injure anyone at all?

Undoubtedly he ought to injure those who are both wicked and his enemies.
When horses are injured, are they improved or deteriorated?
The latter.
Deteriorated, that is to say, in the good qualities of horses, not of dogs?
Yes, of horses.
And dogs are deteriorated in the good qualities of dogs, and not of horses?
Of course.
And will not men who are injured be deteriorated in that which is the proper virtue
of man?
Certainly.
And that human virtue is justice?
To be sure.

for goods and services. Some of these people could be day

labourers who are cutting stones or lugging bricks for long hours.
If we are sensitive, we feel that it is not fair that in a society
some members cannot even have their basic needs satisfied. We
come to realise that equality must involve some kind of fairness
so that people are not unduly exploited and disadvantaged by
economic factors.
Consider the fact that there are many children who cannot go
to school because they have to work to feed themselves. And most
girl students in poor households are pulled out of school to care for
their younger siblings while parents go to work. Even though the
Indian constitution guarantees the right to primary education for
all, this right remains formal. Again, we may feel that the government
should do more for such children and their parents so that they are
enabled to go to school.

10

Thus you may see that our idea of equality is quite complex;
when we are in a queue or playground we want equal opportunity.

Political Theory
Political Theory

Introduction

Then men who are injured are of necessity made unjust?

That is the result.
But can the musician by his art make men unmusical?
Certainly not.
Or the horseman by his art make them bad horsemen?
Impossible.
And can the just by justice make men unjust, or speaking general can the good
by virtue make them bad?
Assuredly not.
Nor can the good harm anyone?
Impossible.
And the just is the good?
Certainly.

If we suffer from some disability we want special provisions made.

When we cannot even afford basic needs, equal opportunity is not
enough. We must be enabled to go to school or get help through
proactive measures such as fair distribution of resources (jobs,
decent wages, subsidised hospitals, etc.). This requires that some
agency be made responsible to ensure fairness.
So the reason we have many definitions is because the meaning
of equality is dependent on the context. We started with what it
meant for ourselves and then proceeded to consider others (the poor,
disadvantaged, senior citizens, etc.). We discovered many layers of
meaning. We have been doing political theory without realising it.
Political theorists clarify the meaning of political concepts by
looking at how they are understood and used in ordinary language.
They also debate and examine the diverse meanings and opinions
in a systematic manner. When is equality of opportunity enough?
When do people need special treatment? How far and how long
should such special treatment be given? Should poor children be

11

Political Theory

Introduction

Political Theory

Then to injure a friend or any one else is not the act of a just man, but of the
opposite, who is the unjust?
I think that what you say is quite true, Socrates.
And he who is most skilful in preventing or escaping from a disease is best able to
create one?
True.
And he is the best guard of a camp who is best able to steal a march upon the
enemy?
Certainly.
Then he who is a good keeper of anything is also a good thief?
That, I suppose, is to be inferred.
Then if the just man is good at keeping money, he is good at stealing it.
That is implied in the argument.

given midday meals to encourage them to stay in schools? These

are some questions which they address. As you can see, these issues
are eminently practical; they provide guidelines for framing public
policies on education and employment.
As in the case of equality, so also in the case of other concepts,
political theorists engage with everyday opinions, debate possible
meanings and thrash out policy options. Freedom, Citizenship, Rights,
Development, Justice, Equality, Nationalism and Secularism are some
of the concepts that we will discuss in the following chapters.

1.4 WHY

12

SHOULD

WE STUDY POLITICAL THEORY?

We may have political ideas but do we need to study political theory?

Is it not more suited for politicians who practise politics? Or for
bureaucrats who make policies? Or for those who teach political
theory? Or for lawyers and judges who interpret the Constitution
and laws? Or for activists and journalists who expose exploitation

Political Theory
Political Theory

Introduction

Then after all the just man has turned out to be a thief.
You would argue that the good are our friends and the bad our enemies?
Yes.
And instead of saying simply as we did at first, that it is just to do good to our
friends and harm to our enemies, we should further say: It is just to do good to our
friends when they are good and harm to our enemies when they are evil?
Yes, that appears to me to be the truth.
But ought the just to injure any one at all?
Undoubtedly he ought to injure those who are both wicked and his enemies.
When horses are injured, are they improved or deteriorated?
The latter.
Deteriorated, that is to say, in the good qualities of horses, not of dogs?
Yes, of horses.
And dogs are deteriorated in the good qualities of dogs, and not of horses?
Of course.

and demand new rights? What do we (high school students) gain by

knowing the meaning of freedom or equality?
First of all, political theory is relevant for all the above target
groups. As high school students, we may choose one of the above
professions in the future and so indirectly it is relevant for us even
now. Do we not learn mathematics although not all of us will become
mathematicians or engineers? Is it not because basic arithmetic is
useful to life in general?
Secondly, we are all going to be citizens entitled to vote and
decide other issues. To act responsibly, it is helpful to have a basic
knowledge of the political ideas and institutions that shape the
world we live in. In the information society, it is crucial that we
learn to be reasonable and informed if we are to participate in gram
sabhas or offer our views on websites and polls. If we simply express
arbitrary preferences, we will not be very effective. But if we are
thoughtful and mature we can use the new media to discuss and
express our common interests.

13

Political Theory

Introduction

Political Theory

And will not men who are injured be deteriorated in that which is the proper
virtue of man?
Certainly.
And that human virtue is justice?
To be sure.
Then men who are injured are of necessity made unjust?
That is the result.
But can the musician by his art make men unmusical?
Certainly not.
Or the horseman by his art make them bad horsemen?
Impossible.
And can the just by justice make men unjust, or speaking general can the good
by virtue make them bad?
Assuredly not.

As citizens, we are a bit like the audience in a music concert;

we are not the main performers interpreting the song and melody.
But we set the agenda and appreciate the output and put in new
requests. Have you noticed that musicians perform better when
they know the audience is knowledgeable and appreciative? So
also an educated and vigilant citizenry makes those who play politics
more public-spirited.

14

Thirdly, freedom, equality and secularism are not abstract issues

in our lives. We daily encounter discrimination of various sorts in
families, schools, colleges, shopping malls and so on. We ourselves
have prejudices against people who are different from us, be they
of a different caste or religion or gender or class. If we feel oppressed,
we want it redressed and if that is delayed, we feel violent revolution
is justified. If we are privileged, we deny that there is any oppression
even as our maids and servants struggle for dignity. Sometimes,
we even feel that our servants deserve the treatment they get. What
political theory encourages us to do is examine our ideas and feelings

Political Theory
Political Theory

Introduction

Nor can the good harm any one?

Impossible.
And the just is the good?
Certainly.
Then to injure a friend or any one else is not the act of a just man, but of
the opposite, who is the unjust?
I think that what you say is quite true, Socrates.
Then if a man says that justice consists in the repayment of debts, and
that good is the debt which a man owes to his friends, and evil the debt
which he owes to his enemies, to say this is not wise; for it is not true, if, as
has been clearly shown, the injuring of another can be in no case just.
I agree with you, said Polemarchus.

about political things. Just by looking at them more carefully, we

become moderate in our ideas and feelings.
Finally, as students we enjoy debates and elocution competitions.
We have opinions about what is right or wrong, just or unjust but do
not know whether they are reasonable or not. Only when we argue
with others, we realise the need to defend them and seek out reasons
and arguments. Political theory exposes us to systematic thinking
on justice or equality so that we can polish our opinions and argue in
an informed manner and for the sake of common interests. Such
skills of debating rationally and communicating effectively are likely
to be great assets in the global informational order.

15

Political Theory

Introduction

Political Theory

1. Which of the following statements are true/false about Political Theory?

(a) It discusses ideas that form the basis of political institutions.
(b) It explains the relationship between different religions.
(c) It explains the meanings of concepts like equality and freedom.

Exercises

(d) It predicts the performance of political parties.

16

2. Politics is more than what politicians do. Do you agree with this
statement? Give examples.
3. Vigilant citizens are a must for the successful working of a democracy.
Comment.
4. In what ways is the study of political theory useful for us? Identify
four ways in which political theory can be useful to us?
5. Do you think that a good/convincing argument can compel others to
listen to you?
6. Do you think studying political theory is like studying mathematics?
Give reasons for your answer.