Anderson, Loren Runar et al "RING STRESSES"

Structural Mechanics of Buried Pipes

Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC,2000

Figure 6-1 Free-body-diagrams for analyzing hoop stresses in rigid and flexible rings with initial ovality.

Figure 6-2 Stress distribution across the wall of a thick-walled cylinder due to internal pressure (top) and
external pressure (bottom). For this example, the outside diameter equals twice the inside diameter.

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CHAPTER 6 RING STRESSES

For preliminary buried pipe design, stress analysis
requires only fundamental principles of pipe
mechanics. However, analysis in greater depth is
often essential. In all cases, performance limit is
deformation; i.e., rupture, wall crushing, wall
buckling, ring deflection, etc. In this chapter,
performance limit is analyzed in terms of stress at
the point of excessive deformation.

Hoop Stress
Hoop stress due to internal pressure, P', in a thinwalled circular ring, from Equation 2.1, is:
s = P'(ID)/2A

. . . . . (6.1)

where
s = hoop stress; i.e., circumferential stress in a
thin-walled pipe for which D/t > 10,
ID = inside diameter,
A = cross-sectional area of the pipe wall per unit
length of pipe = t for plain wall pipe,
t
= wall thickness for plain pipe,
c = distance from neutral surface, of the wall to
the most remote surface,
dq = change in curvature = 1/r - 1/ro,
r
= deformed radius, ro = original radius,
E = modulus of elasticity.
Now suppose that the pipe is not circular it is outof-round before installation called ovality. See
Figure 6-1. In the case of a rigid ring, the maximum
hoop stress occurs at B on the maximum diameter
(ID). This horizontal (ID) is called the span. If the
long axis is vertical, ID must be vertical.
In the case of a flexible pipe, Figure 6-1, the
maximum hoop stress acts on the maximum
diameter. But hoop stress tends to round the pipe.
If the ring is initially deformed, the circumferential
stress due to internal pressure, P', is, from Equation
5-2, the sum of hoop stress and flexural stress; i.e.,
s = P'r/A + Ecdq.

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Because dq is a function of loads on the ring, which

could be complex, analyses can be complicated.
However, for plastic pipes and elasto-plastic (metal)
pipes, rupture does not occur until average hoop
stress reaches yield.
Therefore, the flexural
component of stress is not an issue. Flexure adds to
the hoop stress at one surface of the wall, but
subtracts from it at the other. For flexible thinwalled pipes that are out-of-round, internal pressure
tends to round the ring causing soil pressure
concentrations. However, most pipes are near
enough to circular when buried, that rerounding is
not an issue.

Circular Thick-walled Pipes

Analyses of circular thick-walled cylinders can be
found in texts on solid mechanics. Thick-walled
cylinders subjected to internal or external pressure,
feel maximum tangential stress, s , on the inside of
the wall. See Figure 6-2.
Internal Pressure, P':
si = P'(a2 + b2)/(b2 - a2)
tension on the inside surface,

. . . . . (6.2)

so = 2P'a2/(b2 - a2)
tension on the outside surface,
sav = P'a/t = average tangential stress,
where subscripts i, o, and av, refer to inside, outside,
and average; and:
s
b
a
P'
t

= tangential stress (hoop stress, tension),

= outside radius,
= inside radius,
= internal pressure,
= wall thickness = b-a.

External Pressure, P:
si = 2Pb2/(b2 - a2)
compression on the inside surface,

. . . . . (6.3)

so = P(b2 + a2)/(b2 - a2)

compression on the outside surface,
sav = Pb/t = average tangential stress.
Example 1
Figure 6-2 (top) shows the cross section of a thickwalled, high pressure pipe. What is the maximum
tangential stress, s , if OD = 2ID? From Equation
6.2, si = 5P'/3 = 5/3 rds sav.
If pressure is external, the maximum tangential
stress is still on the inside surface. See Figure 6-2
(bottom). Because of the greater outside diameter,
stress si is greater due to external pressure than due
to an equal internal pressure.
However,
compressive yield strength is greater than tensile
yield strength for many pipes.
Example 2
If OD = 2ID, Figure 6-2 (bottom), the ring
compression stress due to external pressure is, si =
8/5 the ring compression stress due to equal internal
pressure.

neglected. Dry unit weight of soil is 110 pcf.

Saturated unit weight is 140 pcf. A water table can
rise to 6 ft above the top of the pipe. What is the
ring compression stress, s , in the pipe wall?
s = P(OD)2t = P(DR)/2,
where
P = vertical soil pressure on the pipe
P = 4(110)psf + 6(140)psf = 1280 psf.
The ring compression stress is s = 182 psi.
Under some circumstances ring compression in the
wall is not simply T = P(OD)/2. Consider a pipe
with uniformly distributed pressure at the top and a
line reaction (Class D) bedding, on the bottom. See
Figure 6-3. Class D bedding is poor practice but
happens. For this loading, ring compression thrusts
T occur at A and B even though sidefill pressure is
zero. Flexure occurs at A and B due to moments
M. Shear is zero because the load is symmetrical
about the vertical axis. Where thrust is known, the
ring compression stress is T/A, or T/t for plain pipes.
Thrusts and moments are functions of loads, as
discussed below.

Thrusts and Moments in the Ring

Ring Compression Stress

Thrusts T and moments M can be evaluated by

energy methods such as Castigliano's equation for
deflections due to loads:

Due to external pressure on a thin-walled pipe, ring

compression stress is,

d = (M/EI)(JM/Jp)rdq

s = P(OD)/2A,
where
OD
= maximum outside diameter,
P
= external pressure,
A
= wall area per unit length
= t for plain pipes.

See Appendix A. d is deflection in the direction of

a dummy load, p, (or dummy moment m for
rotation). The dummy load or moment is applied at
the point where deflection, or rotation, is to be found.
Assumptions are:
1. The ring is thin-walled, D/t > 10.
diameter D is used for analysis.

Mean

Example 3
2.
A PVC pipe, DR 41, is a storm sewer under 10 ft of
soil. DR = OD/t = the standard dimension ratio.
Ring deflection is less than 5% and can be

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The pipe material is elastic.

3. Ring deflection, d, is small. Accuracy is

adequate if d < 5%, or even 10% in some cases.

Figure 6-3 Buried pipe on a flat surface (left), showing the free-body-diagram for stress analysis (right). This
Class D bedding is not recommended.

Example
Complete a force analysis for Figure 6-3.
Notation:
D
=
2r = mean diameter,
T
=
ring compression thrust per unit
length,
M
=
moment in the wall per unit length,
P
=
vertical soil pressure,
Q
=
PD = line reaction per unit length,
t
=
wall thickness,
I/c
=
section modulus per unit length,
XB/A =
horizontal shift of B with respect to
A,
YB/A =
change in tangent slopes of B with
respect to A when the ring is loaded.

From Figure 6-3, with P known, five unknowns

remain to be solved: T B, MB, T A, MA, and Q.
Because three equations of static equilibrium are
available, two additional equations are needed. Two
equations of deflection are:

From Figure 6-3 (right), angles q locate points

where thrusts T and moments M complete freebody-diagrams of segments of the ring and become
unknowns for solution by equations of static
equilibrium plus equations of deflection from the
Castigliano equation.

TA
MA
TB
MB
Q

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YB/A = 0, and XB/A = 0.

As the ring deflects due to P, tangents at A and B
remain horizontal. Therefore YB/A = 0. Point B
shifts vertically, but not horizontally with respect to
A. Therefore XB/A = 0. These two Castigliano
equations for deflection, together with three
equations of equilibrium, are solved simultaneously
for the unknowns:
=
=
=
=
=

0.1061 Pr compression
0.5872 Pr2
0.1061 Pr tension
0.2994 Pr2
2Pr

Figure 6-4 Values to which ring deflection, d, will be reduced after internal pressure P is applied to buried
steel pipes (assuming initial ring deflection is greater than d).

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This analysis is conservative. The theoretical line

reaction Q is always worse than a soil bedding.
Horizontal pressure of soil against the pipe provides
some support. Measurements of soil stress reveal
deviant stress patterns.
In general, pressure
concentration shows up on the bottom due to a firm
bedding. But this may be reversed if the bedding is
soft and soil is compacted on top of the pipe. In
general, pressure reduction shows up under the
haunches because of the difficulty of soil placement.
But this may be reversed if concrete or low-slump
soil cement is placed under the haunches or if the
bedding is shaped by a V-cut. Compaction affects
soil pressure distribution. The more flexible the ring,
the more uniform is soil pressure against the pipe.
Vertically compressible sidefill causes concentration
of pressures on the top and bottom of the pipe. But
an exception could occur if the pipe were located in
a trench with firm sidewalls that support topfill by
shear reactions. However, in time, shear breaks
down due to earth tremors, cycles of wetting and
drying, and changes in temperature. As a general
rule, the vertical dead load on top of a flexible pipe
is (OD)g H called the soil prism load; i.e., the
weight of a soil prism directly above the top of the
pipe where g is the unit weight of soil and H is the
height of soil cover above the top of the pipe. This
general rule may require a load factor for rigid pipe
design because the rigid ring may have to support
part of the backfill within the trench if sidefill soil is
not compacted. If sidefill is compacted, the soil
prism load may be adequate for rigid ring design.
For flexible ring design, the soil prism load is
conservative. Normal pressures on the ring are no
greater than pressure, P, at the top because, 1. the
flexible ring conforms with the soil, and 2. the soil is
invariably loose agains t the ring at the interface. In
plastic pipes, stress relaxation results in further
reduction of normal pressure of the soil against the
pipe.
The stiffer the ring, the greater are the pressure
concentrations on top and bottom when sidefills are
compressible. For a rigid pipe, well-compacted

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sidefill is necessary if pressure concentrations are to

be avoided.

Combined Pressures
The question arises, what are the stresses in the wall
of a pipe subjected to both internal and external
pressures? It would seem that external pressure
should be subtracted from internal pressure, or vise
versa. For most installations, however, there will
come a time when either internal or external
pressure will not be acting. Therefore, the ring is
usually designed for internal and external pressures
separately. In the case of the flexible ring, because
internal pressure is usually not applied until after the
external soil pressure is in place, ring deflection has
occurred before the pipe is pressurized. If internal
pressure is enough to partially re-round the ring,
crescent gaps develop between the pipe and the
sidefill. See Figure 6-4. Clearly the ring no longer
needs the support of the sidefill soil to retain its
shape. However, because of soil pressure on top,
the pipe is not completely re-rounded. If the
specified allowable ring deflection is less than the
ring deflection with soil load on top, crescent gaps do
not develop. Figure 6-4 shows test results for steel
pipes. It is usually prudent to specify a minimum
allowable ring deflection that is less than the value at
which gaps would develop according to Figure 6-4.
But even if crescent gaps develop, the ring does not
collapse for lack of side support when it is
depressurized. The ring may or may not deflect
and any ring deflection will be less than before
pressurization because soil particles tend to migrate
into the gaps.
Combined pressures include the effect of live load
passing over a buried pipe as explained in Chapter 4,
and Equation 4.1, P = Pd + Pl. If the water table is
above the pipe, the unit weight of soil is increased.
Dead load pressure is found by soil mechanics
explained in Chapter 4.
It may be concluded that internal pressure and
external pressure are each analyzed separately.

Figure 6-5 Diagrams for force analysis of tanks buried to the top and subjected to internal test pressures.
Internal and external pressures are analyzed separately and combined by perposition.

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Re-rounding is seldom an issue for internal pressure

analysis, if pipes are held to nearly circular shape
when installed. For design by ring compression, the
prism load is the most reasonable load. The prism
load is usually the total (not just the effective) load.
Combined stress analysis is rarely justified, but may
be required for rigid pipes thick-walled and brittle
based on the familiar equation,
s = T/A + Mc/I,
where
T/A
= ring compression stress,
Mc/I = flexural (bending) stress.
Example
In one city, acceptance for buried tanks is based on
an internal pressure test when the tank is buried to
the top. See Figure 6-5a. What are the tangential
force, T A, and moment, MA, at the top, point A?
Shearing force, VA, is zero by symmetry. The soil
is compacted sufficiently to prevent ring deflection.
Therefore, the ring is fixed at B, Figure 6-5b. The
effects of internal pressure and external soil load
can be analyzed separately and then combined by
superposition. Figure 6-5c is the free-body-diagram
for internal pressure analysis.
Figure 6-5d
introduces the procedure for analyzing the effect of
s oil load. The moment at C due to the soil load is
Ms. It can be found by integrating the element of
soil, shown cross-hatched, multiplied by its lever
arm. The result is the moment at C (angle 2), due to
the soil load only. The equation is,
Ms = g r3[(1/2)sin 2q - (1/2)sinq - (1/4)sin2qsinq
- (1/3)cos 3q + (1/3)]
. . . . . (6.4)
The five unknowns of Figure 6-5b require three
equations of equilibrium and two equations of
deformation. From deformation, by symmetry, the
relative rotation of A with respect to B is zero; i.e.,
yA/B = 0. The horizontal displacement of A with
respect to B is zero; i.e., cA/B = 0. From Castigliano,
Appendix A, and Figure 6-6a showing a dummy

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moment, m, at A in the assumed direction of rotation

of A with respect to B,
yA/B = (M/EI)( M/ m)rdq = 0
M = MA + m - TAr(1-cosq) + Ms . . . at point C.
M/ m = 1, then m 0 in the M-equation.
EI is wall stiffness and r is radius.
Substituting into Castigliano's equation, and
integrating within the limits for q from 0 to p/2, the
first equation of deformation becomes,
MA - 0.3634TAr + 0.0174g r3 = 0
. . . . . (6.5)
The second equation of deformation is zero
horizontal displacement of A with respect to B.
Figure 6-6b shows a dummy force, p, in the assumed
direction of relative displacement of A with respect
to B. From Castigliano,

cA/B = (M/EI)( M/ p)rdq = 0

M = MA - (TA + p)r(1-cosq) + Ms . . at point C.
M/ p = -r(1-cosq), then p 0 in M-equation.
Substituting into Castigliano's equation and
integrating within limits for q from 0 to p/2,
the second equation of deformation becomes,
-MA + 0.6240TAr - 0.0320g r3 = 0

. . . . . (6.6)

Equations 6.5 and 6.6 are solved simultaneously for

the two unknowns, MA and T A. Then by the three
equations of equilibrium, MB, VB, and T B are
evaluated. The results are shown in Figure 6-6c.
Soil load decreases hoop tension at A due to internal
pressure by TA = 0.0560g r2.
Ring Stress Uses and Misuses
Stress is one basis of buried pipe design and
analysis. Most stress analyses are based on theories
of elasticity for which yield stress is the
performance limit (failure). Elastic stress analysis is
useful in some cases such as hoop stress due to
internal pres sure, ring compression stress due to
external soil pressure, and the

Figure 6-6 Force analysis of a flexible circular cylinder buried to the top.

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Boussinesq soil stress.

Unfortunately, elastic
analysis is often misapplied. In buried pipe analysis,
properties of materials are not elastic either for
the pipe or the soil. Performance limits are not
elastic.
Performance limit (failure) of the pipe invariably
occurs beyond the elastic range. Performance limit
is excessive deformation of pipe and soil. Excessive
deformation of the pipe may be fracture (leak), or
collapse, or it may be so much deformation that
cleaning tools cannot pass through the pipe, or that
appurtenances (fittings) are distressed. It is prudent
to specify a maximum allowable ring deflection
but usually for reasons other than yield stress.
Performance limit of the soil is either excessive
compression or soil slip a plane on which
s hearing stress exceeds strength. From theories of
elasticity, the maximum shearing stresses in soil
embedment around a flexible pipe occur on planes
through the pipe axis at 45o with the horizontal.

compression, sidefill soil is densified such that it

resists soil slip. (Three- dimensional compression
can change carbon into diamonds.) In a controlled
test, planes of soil slip were observed in the sand
embedment of a flexible ring. See Figure 6-7.
Clearly, there are no soil slip planes at 45o or (45o f/2). There are no slip planes near the springlines
of flexible pipes because the soil is in twodimensional compression.

PROBLEMS
6-1 Using Appendix A, what and where is the
maximum compressive stress in a rigid pipe if D/t =
5 and the load is uniform vertical pressure on top
and bottom?

Spangler's Iowa formula predicts ring deflection

based on elastic pipe and elastic soil. Spangler, a
s oil engineer, included a horizontal elastic soil
modulus E' which he called "modulus of passive
resistance of soil." In fact, horizontal passive
resistance is Ksy where K = (1+sinf)/(1-sinf). Soil
slip planes occur at (45o - f/2) not at 45o. E' is
not elastic, nor is it constant. E' varies with depth
(degree of confinement), and with ring stiffness
(movement of pipe wall into the sidefill).
Using the Mohr circle analysis, horizontal soil
resistance is Ksy . Accordingly, soil slip planes
should occur at spring lines at angle (45o - f/2) with
the horizontal. The analysis is conservative. The
soil friction angle, f, is not constant. It varies with
depth of cover and ring deflection. At spring lines,
an infinitesimal cube of soil is subjected to twodimensional compression vertical and radial.
Longitudinally it is confined. Under two-dimensional

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Figure 6-7 Soil slip planes in a sand embankment.

Note lack of soil slip at the spring lines.

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6-2 A thin-wall flexible circular pipe resting on a flat

surface is filled with water to the top. With no
additional internal pressure, what is the vertical ring
deflection? See Figure 6-8.
(Appen. A)
6-3 A 90o thin-wall arch is pinned (hinged) at the
two ends and is loaded with uniform vertical
pressure P. What are the reactions at the ends?
(B x = 0.832Pr, and By = 0.707Pr)

cation to a value small enough to be neglected.

Data are,
(101 ft or less?)
Given:
Soil
Type, SM, silty sand
Compaction 80 percent (AASHTO T180)
Ss
= 1.0 = degree of saturation,
G
= 2.7 = specific gravity of soil grains,
e
= 0.4 = void ratio,
sf
= 1.0 at performance limit (wall crushing).
Pipe
D
= 48 inches = diameter,

= 0.064 inch (16 gage)

= specified wall thickness,

A
= 0.775 in 2/ft from AISI tables,
I
= 0.0227 in 4/ft,
S
= 36 ksi at yield strength,
E
= 30(106) = modulus of elasticity,
Corrugations, 2-2/3 x 1/2.
6-10 What height of dense soil cover can be
supported by the pipe of Problem 6-9 if it is
subjected to an internal vacuum of 12 psi?
(H = 88.5 ft)

6-4 Plot the moment diagram for Problem 6-3.

6-5 What and where is the maximum moment in
Problem 6-4?
6-6 If the arch of Problem 6-3 is thick-walled, for
which t = r/5, what is the maximum circumferential
stress on the bottom surface of the arch at A?
6-7 What is the maximum circumferential stress at
B in Problem 6-6?
6-8 What and where is the maximum stress in the
plain pipe of Figure 6-3 if r/t = 10 and I/c = t2/6?
(At point A, =353P)
6-9 What height H of dense soil cover can be supported by a 4-ft corrugated steel culvert? Assume
that ring deflection, d, is held by design specifi-

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6-11 What height of loose soil, e = 1.0, can be

supported by the pipe of Problem 6-9 if the soil
liquefies due to earth tremors?
(at r=24, N=14.9ft; at r= 24.25, H=15ft)
6-12 What wall thickness is required for a 2-2/3 x
1/2 corrugated steel pipe, 36-inch diameter, under a
forest road (HS-20 loading) with 2 ft of soil cover if
the soil envelope is average granular soil compacted
to at least 80 percent density (AASHTO T-180)?
Assume that S = 36 ksi, and sf = 2 for the steel.
Assume that the unit weight of soil is 120 pcf.
6-13 What wall thickness is required for a 1.0meter bare (plain) steel pipe under 160 meters of
saturated tailings with unit weight 140 pcf? A select
soil envelope is specified. What should be the
conditions for installation? Is steel pipe a good
option? Under what conditions?