Civil Engineering Specification

Civil Engineering Specification
By the same author

Civil Engineering Quantities
Building Quantities Explained
Municipal Engineering Practice
Civil
Engineering Specification
IVOR H.
SEELEY
B.Sc., M.A., C.Eng., M.I.Mun.E., F.R.I.C.S., F.I.Q.S.

Chartered Engineer and Surveyor
Macmillan Education
Ivor H. Seeley 1968

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1968
ISBN 978-1-349-00283-2
ISBN 978-1-349-00281-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-00281-8
Published by
MACMILLAN & CO LTD
Little Essex Street London WC2

and also at Bombay Calcutta and Madras
Macmillan South Africa (Publishers) Pty Ltd Johannesburg
The Macmillan Company of Australia Pty Ltd Melbourne
The Macmillan Company of Canada Ltd Toronto
StMartin's Press Inc New York
First published 1968

9"
6" trimmed, viii + 245 pp.

1 line illustration
Preface
THIS book is primarily concerned with the drafting of specification
clauses for civil and municipal engineering work. The specification on a
civil engineering contract constitutes a contract document and its
provision is essential if the material and workmanship requirements of
the job are to be adequately detailed.
The book sets out to indicate how a comprehensive and yet straightforward specification can be produced. The specification acts as one of
the principal lines of communication between the Engineer and the
Contractor and thus requires the exercise of considerable care and
skill in its preparation.
The contents of this book should be helpful to engineers when compiling specifications and also of value to students who are studying the
subject for degrees, diplomas and professional examinations in civil
and municipal engineering.
Units of measurement, weight and pressure have been converted to
their nearest metric equivalents using the analogue or 'rounding-off'
method, and the imperial units are shown in brackets. Appendix IV
contains an anologue metric conversion table which readers may find
useful when preparing their own specifications on the metric system.
At the time of going to press the final decision on the form of the
decimal marker had not been made by all participant bodies, but the
point has been used throughout in line with the recommendation of the
Decimal Currency Board.
I. H.
Nottingham,
Spring 1968
SEELEY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
author expresses his indebtedness to the various consulting and

municipal engineers from whom over the years he has received valuable
experience and guidance in the drafting of specifications.
Grateful thanks are also due toP. J. Edmonds Esq. and T. E. Blackall
Esq. of the publishers for abundant help and consideration during the
production of the book.
THE
vi
Contents
v
Preface
Acknowledgements
1
Vl
CIVIL ENGINEERING CONTRACTS
Contract Documents: Form of Contract; General Conditions of Contract;

Specification; Bill of Quantities; Contract Drawings; Form of TenderI.C.E. Conditions - I.Struct.E. Conditions - Types of Contract.
PuRPOSE AND ARRANGEMENT OF AND SOURCES OF

INFORMATION FOR SPECIFICATIONS
16
Functions of Specification - General Arrangement - Drafting of

Specification Clauses - Sources of Information - British Standards Codes of Practice.
GENERAL CLAUSES IN SPECIFICATIONS
26
General Contractual Matters - Legal Provisions - General Matters

affecting Cost of Job- Use of Site- Temporary Works- Materials and
Workmanship Requirements- General Working Requirements- Records.
SPECIFICATION OF EARTHWORK
49
Site Investigation and Clearance - Excavation, Fill and Disposal Keeping Excavations free from Water- Timbering- Tunnel WorkCofferdams - Dredging.
SPECIFICATION OF CONCRETE WORK

Materials- Concrete Work, including mixing, placing, joints, curing
and testing - Reinforcement - Shuttering.
65
SPECIFICATION OF BRICKWORK, MASONRY AND

WATERPROOFING
88
Brickwork: Bricks; Mortars; Brickwork; Damp-proof Courses; Faced

Brickwork, etc.
Masonry: Dressed Stonework; Rubble Walling; Special Stonework;
Fixings; Cast Stonework.
Waterproofing: Asphalt; Bitumen Sheeting.
SPECIFICATION OF PILING
Concrete Piles, including materials, shoes, casting, curing, trial piles,
handling, pitching, driving and lengthening. Timber Piles, including
timber, creosoting or tarring, shoes and rings, pitching, driving and
cutting off heads. Steel Sheet Piling, including driving, cutting and
drilling piles.
vii
103
SPECIFICATION OF IRON AND STEELWORK

Structural Steel - Fabrication - Erection - Bolting - Riveting Welding - Measurement - Testing - Ladders - Guardrails - Open
Steel Flooring- Painting- Wall and Roof Sheet Coverings: Asbestos
Cement; Aluminium; Corrugated Steel.
114
SPECIFICATION OF TIMBERWORK
Timberwork in Wharves and Jetties: Quality of Timber; Workmanship;
Fender Piles, Rubbing Pieces, Walings, Braces, Guardrails and Decking;
Tarring and Creosoting; Bolts and Nuts; Measurement; EquipmentSteps, Footbridge and Scumboards- Joinery: Quality of Timber;
Windows; Doors; Miscellaneous Joinery Work; Painting.
126
10
SPECIFICATION OF ROADS AND PAVINGS

Materials - Road Bases, including lean concrete and soil cement Flexible Road Construction: Tarmacadam; Bitumen Macadam; Rolled
Asphalt; Cold Asphalt; Surface Dressing- Concrete Carriageway
Construction - Kerbs, Channels, etc. - Road Gullies - Electric Cable
Ducts- Footpaths: Tarmacadam; Asphalt; Flagged; 'Insitu' ConcreteGrass Verges- Chain-link Fencing.
142
11
SPECIFICATION OF SEWERS AND DRAINS

Materials - Excavation - Pipelaying, including concrete protection and
testing of pipes - Manholes: Brick and Precast Concrete; Associated
Metalwork - Tunnel and Shaft linings: Cast Iron and Precast Concrete
Segments; Jointing; Grouting; Concrete Lining- Ventilating ColumnsSewage Works Filters, Scumboards and Screens.
171
12
SPECIFICATION OF PIPELINES
Materials, including valves - Pipelaying under varying conditions Watercourse and River Crossings- Reinstatement of Trench SurfacesTesting and Sterilisation of Pipes- Valve Chambers: Sluice Valves;
Air Valves; Washouts; Hydrants.
200
13
SPECIFICATION OF RAILWAY TRACKWORK

Preliminary Work- Track Materials: Ballast; Sleepers; Rails; Fishplates;
Rail Fixings; Separators; Bearing Plates; Chairs and Keys; Laying
Permanent Way: Laying Ballast; Laying Track; Points and Crossings;
Measurement of Railway Work.
215
Appendix I List of British Standard Codes of

Practice relating to Civil Engineering Work
229
Appendix II List of British Standards relating to

Civil Engineering Work
230
Appendix III Typical Programme of Works covering

Tunnels and Shafts to a Circulating Water System to a
Power Station
236
Appendix IV Metric Conversion Table
237
Index
239
viii
CHAPTER ONE
Civil Engineering Contracts

THIS Book is mainly concerned with the drafting of specifications for
civil and municipal engineering work, but it is felt desirable to begin by
considering the relationship of the specification to other contract documents, particularly the Conditions of Contract.
With any major civil engineering project, it is necessary for the engineer to prepare a set of comprehensive contract documents. These are
all binding upon the contractor, who must pay full regard to their
contents when tendering for a job and throughout the contract period,
when the work is under way.
CONTRACT DOCUMENTS
There are usually six contract documents for the larger civil engineering
jobs, as listed below, although with very small contracts it is conceivable
that a bill of quantities may be omitted.
(1) Form of Contract.
(2) General Conditions of Contract.
(3) Specification.
(4) Bill of Quantities.
(5) Contract Drawings.
(6) Form of Tender.
The nature and uses of each of these documents are now described.
(1) Form of Contract
The Form of Contract constitutes the formal agreement between
the promoter and the contractor for the execution of the work in
1
CIVIL ENGINEERING SPECIFICATION
accordance with the other contract documents. It is usually covered by

the Form of Agreement incorporated in the General Conditions of Contract for Works of Civil Engineering Construction. (See reference 1 at
the end of the chapter.)
In the Form of Agreement, the contractor covenants to construct,
complete and maintain the works in accordance with the contract, and
the promoter or employer covenants to pay the contractor at the times
and in the manner prescribed by the contract. These are the basic
requirements of any civil engineering contract.
(2) General Conditions of Contract
The General Conditions of Contract define the terms under which the
work is to be undertaken, the relationship between the promoter or
employer, the engineer and the contractor, the powers of the engineer
and the terms of payment. For many years it had been considered desirable to establish a standard set of generally recognised conditions
which could be applied to the majority of civil engineering contracts.
In 1945, the Institution of Civil Engineers, in conjunction with the
Federation of Civil Engineering Contractors, issued a standard set of
General Conditions of Contract for use in connection with Works of
Civil Engineering Construction (1 ). The Association of Consulting
Engineers was concerned with the preparation of later editions of this
document, in addition to the two bodies previously mentioned. Furthermore, other sets of conditions have been specially prepared to cover
civil engineering works which are to be performed overseas (2).
The Institution of Structural Engineers has issued a set of standard
conditions for use on structural engineering contracts (3) and the main
clauses will be considered later in this chapter.
For building work, it is customary to make use of the standard conditions issued under the sanction of the Royal Institute of British
Architects and various other bodies, and generally referred to as the
R.I.B.A. Conditions (4). There are alternative forms for use where
quantities do or do not form part of the contract and there are, in addition, sets of conditions specially devised for use on local authority contracts. Practice notes are issued from time to time to clarify doubtful
points.
Where a contract is very limited in extent and the use of the standard
comprehensive set of conditions is not really justified, an abbreviated
set of conditions, often worked up from the appropriate set of standard
conditions, is frequently used.
With certain specialised classes of civil engineering work, the respon-
sible a-uthorities have seen fit to introduce a number of clauses which

modify or supplement the standard clauses of the I.C.E. Conditions.
Typical examples are the clauses prepared by the Central Electricity
Generating Board for use on power station contracts, and the clauses
introduced by the Ministry of Transport in connection with contracts
for roads and bridges.
(3) Specification
The specification amplifies the information given in the contract

drawings and the bill of quantities. It describes in detail the work to be
executed under the contract and the nature and quality of the materials
and workmanship. Details of any special responsibilities to be borne by
the contractor, apart from those listed in the general conditions of
contract, are often incorporated in this document. It may also contain
clauses specifying the order in which various sections of the work are to
be carried out, the methods to be adopted in the execution of the work,
and details of any special facilities that are to be afforded to other
contractors.
In Civil Engineering Procedure (5), issued by the Institution of Civil
Engineers, it is recommended that the specification should require
tenderers to submit an outline programme and a description of proposed
methods and temporary works with their tenders.
The specification will always be a contract document on civil engineering contracts, while in the case of building contracts, operating under
the R.I.B.A. form of contract, it will be only a contract document if
there is no bill of quantities or when it is specifically made a contract
document under the particular contract.
(4) Bill of Quantities
A bill of quantities consists of a schedule of the items of work to be

carried out under the contract, with quantities entered against each
item. Quantities of civil engineering work are normally measured in
accordance with the Standard Method of Measurement of Civil
Engineering Quantities (6), whereas most building work is measured in
conformity with the Standard Method of Measurement of Building
Works (7). For road and bridge work, the notes issued by the Ministry
of Transport (8) may prove useful, although they conflict with some of
the provisions of the Standard Method of Measurement of Civil
Engineering Quantities.
One of the primary functions of a civil engineering bill of quantities
3
is to provide a basis on which tenders can be obtained and, when the

bills are priced, they afford a means of comparing the various tenders
received, both as regards totals and individual rates. After the contract
has been signed, the rates in the priced bill of quantities can be used to
assess the value of the work as executed, and help in the preparation of
interim statements and calculation of bonus.
The quantities should be as accurate as possible, although on civil
engineering contracts the work is invariably remeasured on site, whereas
on building jobs the remeasurement of work on site is mainly limited to
substructural and drainage work and work which is the subject of variations. Civil engineering billed descriptions are kept brief, with frequent
references to specification clauses, whereas in building work detailed
descriptions appear in the bill. In all cases, billed descriptions must
indicate clearly the nature and scope of the work covered.
The unit rates entered by contractors against items in bills of quantities
normally include for overheads and profit, and in civil engineering bills
the rates also have to include for the majority of items of temporary
work, such as trench timbering, keeping excavations free from water, and
levelling and ramming bottoms of excavations. Special items of temporary work, such as the construction of a cofferdam around a sewer
outfall into a river, may call for special billed items.
The actual arrangement of a civil engineering bill of quantities varies
with the type of work being measured. For instance, a bill for a sewage
disposal works will usually be split into sections, each covering a component part of the works, such as sedimentation tanks and biological
filters. Within each section, the billed items will normally follow the
order of subsections contained in part IV of the Standard Method of
Measurement of Civil Engineering Quantities. In building work, the
bill is subdivided into trades or work sections.
Where the same constructional work is to be performed under different conditions, separate billed items should be provided to give the
contractor the opportunity to enter different prices against them.
Typical examples are a reinforced concrete slab in the base of a pump
well below ground and a similar slab in a water tower tank 21m (70ft)
above ground. Where the quantity of work is uncertain, such as making
up soft spots in a road formation, then these should be listed as 'provisional'.
Where 'prime cost' sums are entered in the bill to cover the cost of
materials to be supplied or work to be done by sub-contractors, the
main contractor must be given the opportunity of adding sums to cover
profit and fixing of materials or attendance on sub-contractors. General
provisional sums are frequently included in bills of quantities to cover
4
contingencies and additional works that may arise during the course of
the contract, due to site conditions or changes in design.
The Standard Method of Measurement of Civil Engineering Quantities permits the use of a system of comprehensive measurement for
repetition work, mainly composite work of a uniform type of construction. A single billed item can be used, although several classes of workmanship and materials may be involved. Typical examples of work
where this method can be employed are retaining walls, tunnel work
and pipelines. In each case a subsidiary bill should be included in the
description column listing, in the recognised units of measurement, the
quantities of the component materials and work required to provide a
unit of length, e.g. one metre (linear yard) of tunnel lining. Where the
'Variation of Price (Labour and Materials) Clause' operates, the contractor is permitted to claim the increased costs which occur after the
date of tender, for labour, materials and consumable stores, which are
used on the contract. It is the usual practice in these circumstances to
include a schedule of basic rates at the end of the bill of quantities, in
which the contractor can enter the basic prices on which his tender is
based. In some cases the principal materials are entered in the schedule
when the bill is being prepared, but the contractor can enter any other
materials if he so wishes.
To secure uniformity of measurement, recognised units of measurement and general rules and principles appertaining to the work of measurement are detailed in the Standard Method. The application of these
rules to the measurement of the different classes of civil engineering
work is illustrated in a book by the author (9), which also describes the
processes involved in the preparation of a bill of quantities.
( 5) Contract Drawings
Contract drawings depict the nature and scope of the work to be

carried out under the contract. They must be prepared to a suitable
scale and be in sufficient detail to permit a contractor to price the bill
of quantities and to carry out the work satisfactorily. For instance,
sewer plans are frequently drawn to a scale of 1 : 2000 (1/2500) or 1: 500
(1/500), with sections prepared to an exaggerated scale, such as 1:2000
(1/2500) horizontal and 1:500 (-to in. to 1 ft) vertical. Road plans are
sometimes drawn to 1:500 (1/500) scale. Scales of 32 or 64 ft to 1 in.
have been used to an increasing extent (multiples of i in. scale) but the
1 : 500 scale will now probably become universal. Manhole and gully
details are usually drawn to a scale of 1:20 (! in.: 1 ft).
All available information as to the topography of the site, the nature
5
of the ground and the water-table level, should be made accessible to

contractors tendering for a job. Existing and proposed work must be
clearly distinguished on the drawings. For instance, old and new sewers
and other services can be depicted in different colours or different types
of line. With alterations to buildings it is often preferable to prepare
separate plans of old and new work.
All drawings should contain an abundance of descriptive and explanatory notes which should be clearly legible and free from abbreviations. Ample figured dimensions should be inserted on the drawings to
ensure maximum accuracy in taking-off quantities and in setting-out
the constructional work on the site.
Materials shown in section are best coloured or hatched for ease of
identification, using the notation in the relevant British Standard (10).
Guidance is also given in the British Standards on the use of lines for
various purposes: for instance, dimension lines are to be thin and continuous with the dimension placed above the line and along it, and readable from the bottom or right-hand edge of the drawing.
There are nine recommended engineering drawing sheet sizes, ranging from 2m x 1 m (72 in. x 40 in.) to 250 mm x 200 mm (10 in. x
8 in.) (sheet sizes as cut from roll) in B.S. 3429. Where a civil engineering department keeps a stock of ready-printed negative sheets, it will
probably be decided to limit the number of sheet sizes to about 4-6.
Recommendations are also included as to the layout of drawing sheets
and numbering of drawings (10). It is good practice to keep a card
index of drawings and to enter on drawings the date and nature of any
amendments.
One set of contract drawings will be used by the contractor on the
site, and these will probably be supplemented by further detailed drawings during the course of the contract. Prints are obtainable on paper or
linen, the latter being more suitable for rough usage on the site. Dyeline
prints are not true to scale and can give rise to errors in scaling dimensions.
Information on drawings over-rides that given in the specification
which, in its turn, over-rides the bill of quantities, and all three are overridden by the Conditions of Contract.
(6) Form of Tender
The Form of Tender constitutes a formal offer by the contractor to

execute the contract works in accordance with the contract documents
for the contract price or tender sum. It usually incorporates the contract
period within which the contractor is to complete the works.
The form of tender now generally used for civil engineering contracts
is the form incorporated in the General Conditions of Contract for use
in connection with Works of Civil Engineering Construction (1). This
form of tender provides for a 'bond' amounting to 10 per cent of the
tender sum. The contractor is generally required to enter into a bond,
whereby he provides two sureties or a bank or insurance company who
are prepared to pay up to 10 per cent of the contract sum if the contract
is not performed satisfactorily.
The appendix to this form of tender covers the amount of the bond,
minimum amount of third party insurance, time for completion,
amount of liquidated damages, period of maintenance, percentage for
adjustment of prime cost sums, percentage of retention, limit of retention money, minimum amount of interim certificates and the time
within which payment is to be made after a certificate is issued.
CONDITIONS OF CONTRACT
The most important provisions of the two main standard sets of conditions used on civil engineering contracts are now summarised.
I.C.E. Conditions
The duties of the engineer's representative are stated in clause 2: 'to

watch and supervise the Works and to test and examine any materials
to be used or workmanship employed in connection with the Works'.
Furthermore, the engineer may delegate in writing any of his powers to
his authorised representative.
The contractor is entitled to two sets of drawings (clause 7) and he is
required to examine the site before submitting his tender (clause 11).
Clause 14 requires the contractor to submit a detailed programme,
showing the order and method of carrying out the work. The contractor
shall not assign any part of the contract or sub-let any part of the works
without the written consent of the employer or engineer respectively
(clauses 3 and 4).
The contractor is responsible for the true and proper setting-out of the
works and for the provision of all necessary instruments and labour
(clause 17). Under clause 16, the engineer may require the contractor to
remove from the works any person who misconducts himself or who is
incompetent or negligent.
The contractor is also responsible for the care of all permanent and
temporary works (clause 20), insurance of the works (clause 21),
7
damage to persons and property (clause 22), giving of notices and payment of fees (clause 26), supply of all plant, material and labour (clause
32), providing reasonable facilities for other contractors on the site
(clause 31) and clearance of the site on completion (clause 33). It will be
noted from clause 30 that the passage of traffic to and from the site is to
be organised, as far as possible, so as to reduce to a minimum all claims
for damage caused by extraordinary traffic.
Clause 34 provides for the payment of wages and observance of hours
and conditions of labour not less favourable than those established for
the trade or industry in the district where the work is carried out.
The requirements with regard to costs of samples and tests (clause 36)
and the inspection and removal of improper work and materials (clauses
38 and 39) are very important. No work shall be covered up without
being approved by the engineer, and the engineer has power to order,
in writing, the removal of improper materials or work.
Clause 40 gives the engineer the right to suspend the progress of
the works but, in the majority of cases, any extra cost incurred by the
contractor as a result of the suspension will have to be borne by the
employer.
The contractor is required to begin the works within 14 days after
receipt of the engineer's written order to proceed (clause 41). Whilst
clauses 43, 44, 47 and 48, relating to time for completion, liquidated
damages for delay and certificate of completion, all have far-reaching
effects.
The contractor is required to make good any defects arising from the
use of materials or workmanship not in accordance with the contract
appearing during the maintenance period (clause 49).
The engineer may alter the extent or character of the works, by orders
in writing, without invalidating the contract, and the additional or
amended works shall be valued at billed rates, as far as practicable
(clause 51). The engineer is given the power to fix rates for varied work,
and provision is also made for carrying out certain work on a daywork
basis (clause 52). 'Daywork' is the method of valuing work on the basis
of the time spent by the workmen, the materials used and the plant
employed, plus a percentage to cover overheads and profit. This method
is used when it is impracticable to value work at the billed rates and the
only satisfactory method of evaluation of the work is on a daywork
basis. The Standard Method of Measurement of Civil Engineering
Quantities (6) details three ways of valuing work on this basis.
Clause 53 vests the ownership of all constructional plant, temporary
work and materials on the site in the employer, and these cannot be
removed by the contractor without the written consent of the engineer.
The quantities are to be measured in accordance with the Standard

Method of Measurement of Civil Engineering Quantities, and the work
as executed is to be measured on completion (clauses 56 and 57).
Under clause 58, both selected suppliers of goods and selected subcontractors on a civil engineering contract are referred to as 'nominated
sub-contractors'. 1 No cash discounts are legally payable to the main
contractor, unless he pays the sub-contractor, on the direction of the
engineer, before he himself receives payment from the employer, although this procedure is not always followed in practice on account of
the practical difficulties that arise in operation.
The contractor submits to the engineer a monthly statement of the
estimated value of permanent work executed and, if it exceeds the minimum amount for interim certificates, the engineer issues a certificate
authorising payment to the contractor, less retention money. The
contractor is entitled to 5 per cent interest on overdue payments
(clause 60).
If the contractor becomes bankrupt or fails to perform his obligations under the contract, he becomes liable to expulsion from the site
(clause 63). The engineer is authorised to settle any disputes arising
under the contract, but if the contractor is dissatisfied with his decision,
he can take the matter in dispute to arbitration (clause 66).
The Variation of Price (Labour and Materials) clause can be incorporated where it is not to be a 'fixed price' contract.
Institution of Structural Engineers, Conditions
The same provisions as in the I.C.E. Conditions apply as to assignment and sub-letting (clause 2). All work, including approximate items,
shall be contained in the bill of quantities, otherwise the contractor can
claim additional payment (clause 3). Under clause 4, the contractor is
entitled to two copies of the drawings and other contract documents.
The contractor is to be given full possession of the site within a
stated number of days of the signing of the contract and he is to complete the works by a specified date. This latter date may be extended by
virtue of one or more of the five causes mentioned in this clause. If the
contractor fails to complete the works within the specified period, suitably extended where appropriate, he shall become liable for payment
1 'Nominated sub-contractors' on civil engineering contracts are specialist tradesmen, merchants and others carrying out work or supplying goods, for which
provisional or prime cost sums are included in the bill of quantities. These subcontractors are selected by the engineer on behalf of the employer, but they receive
their instructions and payment from the main contractor. In building contracts, the
person nominated for the supply of goods is described as a 'nominated supplier'.
of a specified weekly sum as liquidated and ascertained damages

(clause 6).
Clause 9 contains similar testing provisions to those contained in the
I.C.E. Conditions, and similar powers with regard to the removal from
the site of unsatisfactory persons (clause 10). Under clause 11, the
contractor is responsible for paying all fees and giving all notices legally
demandable, except that he can recover the cost of fees from the employer if they are not covered by a provisional sum in the bill of quantities. The contractor is to supply the engineer with a detailed programme
showing the methods, plant and order to be adopted (clause 12).
Under clause 13, the contractor is obliged to pay rates of wages and
observe hours of labour not less favourable than those commonly
recognised by employers and trade unions in the district where the work
is being performed. Furthermore, the billed rates are to include for welfare requirements and all labour costs.
The contractor is entitled to recover the amount of increases in the
cost of wages and materials occurring during the period of the contract.
Similarly, the employer will be entitled to the benefit of any decreases
that occur (clause 14).
By virtue of clause 15, the contractor is responsible for the care of
the works from their commencement to the end of the maintenance
period and shall, at his own expense, make good any damage or loss
unless this is caused by certain specified acts. The contractor is made
liable for all injuries or damage caused to any person or property due
to the construction of the works, with certain specified exceptions
(clause 16). The contractor is also to insure all works against loss or
damage by fire and other specified risks (clause 17).
Materials, plant and temporary works on the site vest in the employer
(clauses 18 and 19).
The contractor is obliged to provide adequate supervisory staff on the
job (clause 20). The resident engineer is empowered to order the removal of condemned work or materials and to order variations (clause
21). It is not specifically mentioned that these orders are to be in
writing. Under clause 22, billed rates are to include all liabilities and
obligations listed in the General Condition of Contract and Specification. Varied work is to be valued at billed rates as far as practicable
(clause 23). Clause 24 introduces the quantity surveyor for measurement and valuation of work, whereas he was not mentioned in the
I.C.E. Conditions. Clause 25 requires bills of quantities for structural
work to be prepared in accordance with the Standard Method of
Measurement of Building Works, but in practice the civil engineering
code of measurement is often used.
10
The contractor has the same responsibilities for setting-out the works
as under the I.C.E. Conditions (clause 27). The contractor is to afford
reasonable facilities on the site to contractors and workmen engaged by
the employer (clause 28) and allow the employer and engineer access to
the site and appropriate workshops (clause 29). The contractor is to
give notice to the engineer before any work is covered up (clause 30).
Under clause 32, the contractor is entitled to extra payment for
excavation in rock, running sand or artificial obstructions. The contractor shall not execute permanent work at night or weekends, without the
written consent of the engineer, except in special circumstances (clause
33). Where the contractor is required to suspend the works, he will
normally be recompensed for the additional cost involved (clause 34).
The contractor is entitled to 2-! per cent cash discount on subcontractors' work and 5 per cent on nominated suppliers' work. If a
contractor fails to pay nominated sub-contractors or suppliers the cost
of work or materials included in previous certificates, the employer
may pay the accounts direct and deduct the amounts paid from the
sums due to the contractor (clause 36). This clause follows the procedure
laid down in the R.I.B.A. Conditions.
The engineer is given the same power to vary the works as in the
I.C.E. Conditions. Varied work shall be valued at billed rates wherever
possible, and on a daywork basis if the extra work cannot be satisfactorily measured and valued (clause 37).
Under clause 38, the contractor is responsible for furnishing the
engineer monthly with details of the amount of work performed and
materials on site. The engineer is to issue his certificate within 14 days
of the receipt of this statement. One-half of the retention money is to
be paid to the contractor on certified completion and the remainder at
the expiration of the maintenance period, provided that all defects have
been remedied. This clause further provides that if the employer fails to
honour certificates within 14 days of issue or to settle the final account
within 28 days of receipt of written notice from the contractor, then the
contractor is entitled to a 5 per cent rate of interest on outstanding sums.
The contractor is to remedy, at his own expense, any defects in workmanship or materials occurring before the termination of the maintenance period (clause 40). The site is to be left in good order and free
of surplus materials on completion (clause 41).
If the contractor becomes bankrupt or fails to carry out the terms of
the contract, the contractor may be expelled from the site and he will
not be entitled to any further payment until the end of the maintenance
period (clause 42). Clause 43 lists a number of circumstances under
which the contractor has the right to cease work and to recover the
11
costs incurred from the employer. Clause 44 makes provision for the
settlement of disputes by a single arbitrator where the parties are unable
to reach agreement.
TYPES OF CONTRACT
There are basically eight types of contract which can be used for civil
engineering work, and each of these is now described and their uses are
detailed.
(1) Bill of Quantities Contract
This is generally the soundest form of contract. It incorporates a bill

of quantities, in which all the component items of work are listed and
subsequently priced by the contractor to give the tender sum. The bill of
quantities helps the contractor in pricing the job, and in the absence of
this document he may have to prepare his own approximate bill in the
limited time allowed for tendering.
Furthermore, the priced bill of quantities provides a basis for the
valuation of variations, in addition to ensuring a common basis for
tendering. It is good policy to use this form of contract on all but the
smallest civil engineering jobs, or where the special circumstances on a
job favour the use of some other form of contract.
(2) Lump Sum Contract
In a lump sum fixed price contract the contractor undertakes to carry

out the contract works for a fixed sum of money. The details of the
project are normally shown on drawings and described in a specification, but no bill of quantities is supplied. This form of contract is often
used where the job is reasonably certain in character and small in
extent, such as site clearance work and on small constructional jobs like
pumping stations.
(3) Schedule Contract
This type of contract may take one of two forms.

(a) The employer supplies a schedule of unit rates covering each item
of work likely to be encountered, and contractors are required to
state a percentage up or down on the rates, for which they are
prepared to undertake the work.
(b) The more usual method is to require contractors to insert a rate
against each item of work in the schedule. It is good practice to
12
include approximate quantities to assist contractors in pricing the

schedule and for the subsequent comparison of tenders.
This type of contract is used mainly for maintenance work, but
occasionally schedules of rates are used as a basis for negotiated
contracts.
(4) Cost Plus Percentage Contract
In a cost plus percentage contract the contractor is paid the actual

cost of the work, plus an agreed percentage of the actual or allowable
cost to cover overheads, profit, etc. It is useful in an emergency, when
there is insufficient time available to prepare a detailed scheme before
work is begun, but it will be apparent that an unscrupulous contractor
could increase his profit by delaying the completion of the works. No
incentive exists for the contractor to complete the works as quickly as
possible or to try to reduce costs.
( 5) Cost Plus Fixed Fee Contract

In this form of contract, the contractor is paid the actual cost of the
work plus a fixed lump sum, which has been previously agreed upon
and which does not fluctuate with the cost of the job. It is not a particularly good form of contract, although it is superior to the cost plus
percentage type contract, as there is some incentive to the contractor to
complete the job as speedily as possible and so release his resources for
other work.
(6) Cost Plus Fluctuating Fee Contract
In this type of contract the contractor is paid the actual cost of the
work plus a fee, with the amount of the fee being determined by reference to the allowable cost of the work on some form of sliding scale.
Thus the lower the actual cost of the works, the greater will be the fee
that the contractor receives. An incentive thus exists for the contractor
to carry out the work as quickly and cheaply as possible, and it constitutes the best of the 'cost plus' or 'cost reimbursement' type of contract,
from the employer's viewpoint.
(7) Target Contract
In a target contract a basic fee is quoted as a percentage of an agreed

target estimate obtained from a priced bill of quantities. The target
estimate may be adjusted for variations in quantity and design and
13

fluctuations in labour and material costs, etc. The actual fee paid to the
contractor is determined by increasing or reducing the basic fee by an
agreed percentage of the saving or excess between the actual cost and
the adjusted target estimate. Thus there is a definite incentive to the
contractor to complete the work as speedily and economically as possible, but it involves a considerable amount of contract document
preparation, including a bill of quantities.
(8) All-in Contract

With this type of contract the employer gives his requirements in
broad outline to the contractor, who submits full details of design,
construction and cost for the project. It is suitable in a few special cases,
such as gas and chemical works, oil-refineries and nuclear power stations, but it is unlikely to be suitable for the majority of civil engineering
contracts (5).
This type of contract is often referred to as a 'package deal'.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
REFERENCES
INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, in conjuction with Association
of Consulting Engineers and Federation of Civil Engineering
Contractors. General Conditions of Contract and Forms of Tender,
Agreement and Bond for use in connection with Works of Civil
Engineering Construction. Fourth Edition, January, 1955.
INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, in conjunction with Association
of Consulting Engineers and Export Group for Constructional
Industries, Conditions of Contract for Overseas Works mainly of
Civil Engineering Construction.
FEDERATION INTERNATIONALE DES INGENIEURS CONSEILS. International Conditions.
INSTITUTION OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS. General Conditions of
Contract for Structural Engineering Works. 1949.
ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS, in conjunction with other
bodies, Agreement and Schedule of Conditions of Building Contracts
(i) Private edition with quantities;
(ii) Private edition without quantities;
(iii) Local authority edition with quantities;
(iv) Local authority edition without quantities. 1963.
INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS. Civil Engineering Procedure. 1963.
INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, Standard Method of Measurement of Civil Engineering Quantities. 1953 (reprinted 1963).
14

(7) ROYAL INSTITUTION OF CHARTERED SURVEYORS and NATIONAL
FEDERATION OF BUILDING TRADES EMPLOYERS, Standard Method of
Measurement of Building Works. Fifth Edition, March, 1963 (with
1964 amendments). Metric Edition, 1968.
(8) MINISTRY OF TRANSPORT, Notes on the Third Edition of the Specification for Road and Bridge Works and on the Preparation of Bills
of Quantities. H.M.S.O., 1963.
(9) SEELEY, lvor H., Civil Engineering Quantities. Macmillan, 1965.
(10) B.S. 308, Engineering Drawing Practice.
B.S. 1192, Architectural and Building Drawing Practice. (Metricated
British Standards issued in 1968.)
15
CHAPTER
Two
Purpose and Arrangement of and

Sources of Information for Specifications
THIS chapter is concerned with the functions of the specification, its
general arrangement and the sources from which information needed
in its compilation can be obtained.
FUNCTIONS OF SPECIFICATION
The specification is a very important contract document on a civil

engineering contract, whereas on building jobs it is frequently dispensed
with and its place is then taken by lengthy preamble clauses in the bill of
quantities. A civil engineering specification is read in conjunction with
drawings and a bill of quantities to supply the contractor with all the
information he needs to submit a tender and execute the works.
The main function of the specification is to describe fully the workmanship and materials required to carry out the contract. It forms, in
fact, a schedule of instructions to the contractor and will, to a large
extent, determine the quality of the executed job.
On a civil engineering job, the descriptions of items contained in the
bill of quantities are kept as brief as possible, with frequent references to
specification clauses. This procedure avoids the duplication of much
descriptive information, as full descriptions appear in a single document: the specification. During the execution of the contract, the
existence of a comprehensive specification is of great value to the contractor, although at the tendering stage the contractor is obliged to make
frequent reference to both documents, which slows down the job of
pricing the bill of quantities.
16
SOURCES OF INFORMATION FOR SPECIFICATION
In addition to supplying detailed information on the work to be

executed and the nature and quality of materials and workmanship, the
specification also contains details of any special responsibilities of the
contractor which are not covered by the conditions of contract. The
specification clauses covering special responsibilities are often termed
'general clauses' as they are not confined to any particular section of
work, but relate to the job as a whole. 'General clauses' will be described in some detail in the next chapter.
The specification should, as far as possible, amplify but not repeat
and certainly never contradict the information detailed on the contract
drawings and given in the bill of quantities and conditions of contract.
When the various documents are taken together they should leave no
doubt as to the character and extent of the contract works. The specification is a lengthy and complex document and requires considerable skill
and wide technical knowledge in its preparation.
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF SPECIFICATIONS
Most civil engineering specifications start with 'general clauses' which

relate to the job as a whole, and include the special responsibilities of
the contractor which are not covered in the conditions of contract. The
general clauses are followed by materials and work clauses which are
related to the various sections of work making up the job. The latter
type of clause is sometimes referred to as a 'special clause'.
The sequence of the materials and work clauses will follow one of
two patterns.
(a) Materials clauses are entered first, followed by work clauses in each
section (earthwork, concrete work, etc.)
(b) All materials clauses are written first followed by works clauses
sub-divided on a sectional basis.
All specification clauses are generally numbered for ease of reference,
the reference numbers usually running consecutively throughout the
whole of the specification. Each clause is normally provided with a
suitable heading, although a clause should be complete in itself without
including the heading. Sub-headings act as useful signposts to the
contractor. It is advisable to begin each section of a specification on a
fresh page, to assist in breaking up the document and making it more
readable.
17

DRAFTING OF SPECIFICATION CLAUSES
(1) Material Descriptions
Considerable care must be exercised in the drafting of a specification,

to prepare clauses which are concise, complete and free from ambiguity.
For instance, when drafting materials clauses it is advisable to adopt
some pre-arranged order of grouping the particulars, to avoid missing
an important detail. The following build-up of a specification description for bricks will serve to illustrate this approach.
Particulars required
Material
Type
Actual description
Bricks
Southwater red No. 2
engineering bricks
Messrs. X of Y.
Name of manufacturer
or source of supply
Prime cost
420/- per thousand,

delivered to the site.
Well burnt, of uniform shape,
size and colour, and sound and
hard.
Free from cracks, stones, lime
and other deleterious substances.
Minimum compressive strength
of 483 MN/m 2 (7000 lbf/in. 2)
Maximum water absorption of
7 per cent by weight.
Desirable characteristics
Undesirable characteristics
Tests
Note: Reference to the appropriate British Standard will reduce

considerably the amount of information to be given.
The following alternative methods of describing materials, or possibly

a combination of them, can be used in a specification.
(a) A full description of the material or component is given with
details of desirable and undesirable characteristics and appropriate
test requirements.
(b) Relevant British Standard reference, together with details of class
or type where required is given. The contractor can then refer to the
British Standard for fuller information.
(c) Name of manufacturer, proprietary brand or source of supply is
18
stated and the contractor can obtain further particulars from the
manufacturer or supplier.
(d) A brief description of the material is given together with the prime
cost for supply and delivery of a certain quantity of the material to
the site.
Typical quantities are: a thousand bricks, a thousand kilogrammes
(ton) of tarmacadam or a cubic metre (yard) of sand, and these normally
represent the units by which the materials are sold.

This latter method ensures that all contractors are tendering on the
same basis, without the need to obtain quotations from manufacturers
or suppliers. It also permits the employer to defer the actual choice of
material to a later date if he so wishes.
(2) Avoidance of Unsatisfactory Descriptions
In practice, use is made of a number of wide and embracing terms
which are not sufficiently precise in their meaning and can be interpreted
in different ways. This leads to inconsistencies in pricing with consequent undesirable effects. Some examples of undesirable terms are now
given.
(a) The word 'best' is widely used in specifications, where best quality
materials or workmanship are obviously not required. If this term
is frequently and loosely applied throughout the specification,
without any real consideration as to its true intent and meaning,
then the contractor will be tempted to disregard it. It is important
to prevent this happening by using the term only when materials or
workmanship of the highest quality are required. Materials are
frequently produced in a number of grades and it is essential that a
clear indication should be given of the particular grade required.
For instance, it would be pointless to specify best quality glazed
vitrified clay pipes when British Standard pipes were really required.
(b) The word 'proper' is also frequently misapplied, particularly in
descriptions of constructional methods. As a general rule it is far
more satisfactory to include full instructions in the specification, and
so leave the contractor in no doubt as to the actual requirements of
the job. With minor items of work a comprehensive description of
the method of construction may not be essential and in these circumstances the use of the word 'proper' may be acceptable.
(c) The term 'or other approved' usually represents an undesirable
feature in any specification, as it introduces an element of uncertainty.
The contractor cannot be sure whether the materials or components
19
which he has in mind will subsequently prove acceptable to the

engineer. All specification requirements should be clear and certain
in their meaning and be entirely free from doubt or ambiguity.
(d) The term 'as specified' is used widely sometimes without specifying
anything.
(3) Workmanship Oauses
Specification clauses covering constructional work and workmanship

requirements, are generally drafted in the imperative, e.g. 'Lay manhole
bases in concrete, class B, 225 mm (9 in.) thick', or alternatively 'The
contractor shall lay, etc.'. All workmanship clauses should give a clear
and concise description of the character and extent of the work involved.
The sequence of clauses within a section will normally follow the
order of constructional operations on the site. This procedure reduces
the possibility of omission of items from the specification and assists
the contractor in working to its requirements on the site.
It is essential that the specification clauses should be kept as concise
and straightforward as possible, with an absence of unreasonable
requirements. Lengthy, involved clauses tend to confuse the contractor
and may well result in higher prices. The specification writer must have a
sound knowledge of the type of construction which he is specifying and
know exactly how it will be executed, in order to be able to draft a
specification which is entirely satisfactory in all respects. He must also
avoid specifying standards of work and quality of materials which are
completely out of keeping with the class of work involved.
The specification is a highly technical document and is drafted in
technical language with the free use of recognised civil engineering
terms. In this respect, it differs appreciably from a report prepared for
an employer which should be kept as free from technical terms as possible.
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
Information for use in civil engineering specifications can be obtained

from a variety of sources. The principal sources of information are now
described.
(1) Previous Specifications

In the majority of cases specifications for past jobs are used as a
basis in the preparation of a new specification for a job of similar type.
20
This procedure expedites the task of specification writing considerably, but care must be taken to bring the specification clauses up-todate by the incorporation of the latest developments and techniques.
It is also necessary to be constantly on the alert for any changes of
specification needed to cope with differences of design, construction or
site conditions in the current job. Care must be taken to omit details
which are not applicable and to insert information on additional
features.
{2) Contract Drawings
The draft contract drawings will be prepared in advance of the

specification, and these will show the character and extent of the works.
The specification writer will extract a considerable amount of information from the drawings and will work systematically through them
when compiling the specification.
(3) Employer's Requirements
The employer or promoter often lays down certain requirements in

connection with the job and these will probably need to be incorporated
in the specification. Typical requirements of this kind are programming
of the works so as to provide for completion of certain sections at specified dates and the taking of various precautions so as to cause the minimum interference with productive processes in the employer's existing
premises.
It is essential that requirements of this kind are brought to the notice
of the contractor, as they may quite easily result in increased costs.
(4) Site Investigations
Some of the information inserted in a specification will arise from

site investigations, such as information on soil conditions and watertable level and the extent of site clearance work. The contractor should
be supplied with the fullest information available, to reduce to a minimum the risks that he must take and the number of uncertain factors
for which he must make allowance in his tender.
( 5) British Standards
Frequent references are made in civil engineering specifications to

British Standards relating to materials and components. This practice
permits a considerable reduction in the length of clauses relating to
materials and components and ensures a good standard of product. It
21
also helps the contractor, as he no longer has to read through lengthy

descriptive clauses with wide variations from one contract to another.
(6) Codes of Practice
Reference can also be made in specifications to codes of practice in

some instances. This practice ensures a good standard of construction
and workmanship without the need for lengthy specification clauses.
(7) Trade Catalogues
Where proprietary articles are being specified for use on a job, reference will be made to the manufacturers' catalogues for the extraction of
the necessary particulars for inclusion in the specification. It is often
necessary to quote the catalogue reference when an article is produced
to a number of different patterns.
This procedure will also reduce the length of specification clauses and
will ensure the use of a specific article with which the engineer is familiar
and in which he has every confidence. Some public bodies object to this
practice as it restricts the contractor's freedom of choice and in some
cases prevents the use of local products. Furthermore, it may prevent
the contractor from using his regular sources of supply and may thus
result in higher prices.
BRITISH STANDARDS
British Standards are prepared by the British Standards Institution,

which is the approved body for the preparation and promulgation of
national standards covering methods of test; terms, definitions and
symbols; standards of quality, of performance or of dimensions;
preferred ranges and codes of practice.
The institution has a general council which controls five divisional
councils concerned with building, chemicals, engineering, textiles and
codes of practice. Over seventy industrial standards committees, each
representing a major section of industry, are responsible to the divisional councils. These committees are largely concerned with developing industrial standardisation, as they decide the subject-matter of new
standards and their scope and extent, and approve the draft standards
which are prepared by various technical committees. The technical
committees comprise experts on the subject-matter of each standard
and consist of representatives of the users, producers, researchers and
other interests.
22
The enormous scope of the British Standards Institution can be

appreciated when it is realised that there are over 3000 operative British
Standards. These are kept constantly under review in order that they
may be up-to-date and abreast of progress. They have proved to be an
efficient means of making the results of research available to industry
in a practical form.
British Standards prescribe the recognised standards of quality for a
wide range of materials and components, and also define the dimensions
and tests to which they must conform. The coverage of British Standards
is so extensive that almost every specification contains numerous
references to British Standards. Appendix II, at the end of this book,
contains a schedule of the principal British Standards relating to civil
engineering materials and components.
British Standards are of great value in the drafting of specifications,
as they reduce considerably the amount of descriptive work required,
and yet at the same time ensure the use of a first-class product. The
standards are prepared by committees, each of which is made up of
experts in the particular field covered by the standard. Each standard
does therefore incorporate the most searching requirements that the
latest stage of technical development and knowledge can produce.
The contractor, who will encounter British Standards quite frequently,
will possess a reasonable knowledge of their contents and will be freed
from the necessity to examine carefully lengthy specification clauses
relating to materials and components, in case they introduce some
unusual requirement which will affect the price. The use of British
Standards in this way materially assists in establishing a uniform basis
for tendering, as each contractor is pricing for exactly the same articles.
The specification writer must, however, possess a good knowledge of
the scope and contents of any particular standard, prior to making
reference to it in a specification. Where different grades or classes of a
material or component are given in a British Standard, then the particular grade or class of product required must be indicated in the specification. In practice, one frequently finds references to British Standards in
this category without any class or grade being mentioned. Similarly, the
specifying of first, second or best quality glazed vitrified clay pipes
conforming to B.S. 65:1963 is entirely unsatisfactory, as the only three
classes of pipe recognised by this standard are 'British Standard',
'British Standard Tested' and 'British Standard Extra'. The latter class
of pipe can withstand increased loadings.
The British Standards mark (popularly referred to as the 'kite' mark)
is a registered certification trade mark owned by the British Standards
Institution, which may by licence permit manufacturers to use the mark
23
on their products, after they have agreed to follow a routine of inspection, sampling and testing appropriate to the particular product. The
mark is thus an independent assurance to the purchaser that the products are produced and tested in accordance with the requirements of the
relevant British Standard and its associated certification scheme.
The British Standards Institution opened a testing and inspection
centre at Hemel Hempstead New Town in 1959, and this has since been
progressively extended. The functions performed by this centre can be
broken down into three main categories.
(a) To control the factory inspections and laboratory testing in connection with the B.S.I. certification marking scheme.
(b) To undertake testing commissions from individual firms and organisations relating to overseas as well as British Standards.
(c) To produce individual schemes of approval to serve the needs of
particular industries.
In addition to the publication of British Standards and Codes of

Practice, the British Standards Institution issues a British Standards
Yearbook, an Annual Report and B.S.I. News. The Yearbook is particularly useful as it contains brief summaries of all operative British
Standards and Codes of Practice. Complete sets of British Standards
are maintained for reference in a large number of public libraries,
universities and technical colleges throughout the United Kingdom.
CODES OF PRACTICE
Codes of Practice are issued by the British Standards Institution and

represent a standard of good practice. The principal codes of practice
relating to civil engineering work are listed in Appendix I. Codes of
Practice cover design, construction and maintenance aspects, are
extremely comprehensive in their scope, and are well illustrated. As
their contents become more widely known and recognised they should
secure improved standards of work within their respective fields of
operation.
For instance, Code of Practice CP 2003: Earthworks deals with earthworks ancillary to other civil engineering work, but excludes consideration of tunnels and such works as dams, dykes, canals, dredging and
river-training works. The first part of the Code describes methods of
carrying out projects for cuttings and bulk excavation in the open and
for the construction of embankments on areas of fill in road, railway
24
and airfield construction. The second part covers trenches, pits and
shafts, and deals with methods of excavating these in various types of
ground and of forming temporary supports to the sides. The Code is
intended to form a guide to engineers in the design and execution of
works, but it is not intended that it should be used as a standard specification.
As a further illustration of the scope of codes of practice, CP 301:
Building Drainage sets out recommendations for the design, layout and
construction of foul and surface water drains and sewers not exceeding
300 mm (12 in.) in diameter (together with all ancillary works such as
connections, manholes, inspection chambers, etc.), used from the building to the connection to a public sewer or to a treatment works, soakaway or watercourse. It deals with methods of excavation, keeping the
work free from water, timbering and supporting, filling and consolidation and surface reinstatement.
2S
CHAPTER THREE
General Clauses in Specifications

MosT specifications for civil engineering work begin with a selection of
'general clauses' which relate to the contract as a whole and are not
confined to any particular trade or works section. The nature and
content of these clauses will vary from job to job. An attempt is made to
classify and group the more commonly used general clauses on a functional basis and it is hoped that this approach will prove useful to the
reader.
GENERAL CONTRACTUAL MATTERS
(1) General requirements

(2) General conditions
(3) Extent of contract
(4) Contract drawings
(5) Price variations
(6) Cancellation of Contract owing to offer of gift or reward
(7) Sufficiency of tender
LEGAL PROVISIONS
{1) Acts and regulations

(2) Factories Acts
(3) River Authority regulations
(4) Working rule agreement
26
GENERAL CLAUSES IN SPECIFICATION

GENERAL MATTERS AFFECTING THE COST OF THE JOB
(1) Labour expenses and overtime

(2) Safety precautions
(3) Sequence of works
(4) Electricity supply
(5) Water supply
(6) Contractor to visit site
(7) Access to site
(8) Subsoil investigations
USE OF SITE
(1) Working area

(2) Use of site
(3) Storage
(4) Advertising
TEMPORARY WORKS
(1) Diversion of services

(2) Traffic control
(3) Temporary access and works
(4) Dealing with flows in existing pipelines
(5) Interference with existing works
(6) Protection of existing sewers
(7) Surveys and setting out
(8) Office and instruments
(9) Telephone
(10) Sanitary accommodation
(11) Use of roads
(12) Making good damage to existing properties
MATERIALS AND WORKMANSHIP REQUIREMENTS
(1) Labour and materials

(2) Plant
27
CIVIL ENGINEERING SPECIFICATlON
(3) Materials and workmanship

(4) Samples, tests and certificates
(5) Work prepared off-site
GENERAL WORKING REQUIREMENTS
(1) Suspension of work during bad weather

(2) Facilities for other contractors
(3) Co-ordination with other contractors
(4) Accommodation for employees
(5) Keeping site tidy
(6) Measurement of work
(7) Photographs
(8) Protection of work
RECORDS
(1) Programme and progress record

(2) Other records
To assist readers in the drafting of suitable general clauses for civil
engineering work, a large range of typical general clauses follows,
accompanied by explanatory notes.
GENERAL MATTERS
TYPICAL GENERAL CLAUSES
EXPLANATORY NOTES
General requirements
The works to be executed under this
Contract are to be carried out in accordance with the Conditions of Contract,
Specification, Bill of Quantities and
Contract Drawings. If in construing the
Contract there shall appear to be any
inconsistency between the Specification
and Conditions of Contract, the Conditions of Contract shall prevail.
28
This clause draws the Contractor's attention to the

requirements of all the Contract Documents and emphasises that the Conditions of
Contract have precedence
over other contract documents.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
General Conditions
The General Conditions of Contract,

Forms of Tender, Agreement and Bond
applicable to this Contract are those
drawn up by the Institution of Civil
Engineers jointly with the Association of
Consulting Engineers and the Federation of Civil Engineering Contractors
(dated January, 1955) and provision for
compliance with the clauses in the Conditions of Contract must be made in the
measured rates.
Alternatively, the General

Conditions of Contract for
Structural Engineering
Works, issued by the Institution of Structural Engineers,
could be operated for structural jobs.
Extent of contract
(a) Railway bridge over canal. The

Works in this Contract consist of the
driving of steel sheet piling alongside
the canal; the excavation for and construction of two concrete piers; the fabrication and erection oftwo welded plate
girders with welded diaphragms site
welded to the main girders; the supply
and placing on the plate girders of precast reinforced concrete trough units;
the construction of bored piles in the
existing railway embankment and the
construction ofreinforced concrete abutments; the supply of precast reinforced
concrete longitudinal beams and erection as side spans between the abutments and piers and all ancillary works
in connection therewith.
(b) Extensions to sewage disposal works.
The Works in this Contract consist of
the construction of a flow-dividing
chamber; sedimentation tanks; dosing
chambers; biological filters; humus
tanks; sludge well and pumphouse; effiuent sump and pumphouse, including
29
Descriptions will vary

considerably according to the
nature of the work. For this
reason two typical clauses
are given; one relating to a
railway bridge and the other
to sewage disposal works
extensions.
The approach is rather
different in each case, with a
much more detailed description being supplied for the
railway bridge with information on forms of construction. The sewage disposal
works clause merely lists the
major component parts of
the works.
Basically, the function of
this clause is to give the
Contractor a general picture
of the job before he begins
reading the detailed clauses.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
pumping plant; sludge drying beds;

sludge, top water and effiuent pumping
mains; feed, effiuent and sludge pipes;
distribution and collecting grips; manholes; and alterations to existing works.
Drawings
The drawings referred to in the

The purpose of this clause
General Conditions of Contract are is to list the Contract Drawlisted hereunder. Written dimensions ings with their numbers and
should be taken in preference to scaling. titles. This permits the Contractor to check that he has
Contract
all the Contract Drawings in
Drawing No. Title
his possession at the tenderLayout of site roads and ing stage.
1
surfaced areas
Site roads: cross sections,
2
Sheet No.1
Ditto: Sheet No.2
3
Plan of road drainage
4
Road drainage: Longi5
tudinal sections
Road drainage: gully and
6
manhole details
Price variations
The Variation of Price (Labour and
Materials) Clause, prepared by the
Institution of Civil Engineers in conjunction with the Federation of Civil
Engineering Contractors and the Association of Consulting Engineers, is to
operate on this Contract.
Where this clause is to

apply, it must be expressly
incorporated in the Contract.
Its use is particularly necessary on contracts which are
uncertain in extent or of long
duration.
Cancellation of contract if contractor

shall offer any gift or reward
The Employer shall be entitled to canThis clause or a similar
cel the Contract and to recover from the one is usually incorporated
Contractor the amount of any loss in a civil engineering contract
30
EXPLANATORY NOTES
resulting from such cancellation, if the

Contractor shall have offered or given
or agreed to give to any person any gift
or consideration of any kind, as an
inducement or reward for doing or forbearing to do or for having done or
forborne to do any action in relation to
the obtaining or execution of the Contract, or any other Contract with the
Employer or for showing or forbearing
to show favour or disfavour to any person in relation to the Contract or any
other Contract with the Employer, or if
the like acts shall have been done by any
person employed by him or acting on
his behalf (whether with or without the
knowledge of the Contractor) or if in
relation to any Contract with the
Employer the Contractor or any person
employed by him or acting on his behalf shall have committed any offence
under the Prevention of Corruption
Acts 1889 to 1916, or shall have given
any fee or reward the receipt of which
is an offence under sub-section (2) of
section 123 of the Local Government
Act 1933.
for a local authority with the

object of preventing any bribery or corruption occurring
on such a contract.
Sufficiency of tender
The Contractor shall be deemed to

have satisfied himself before tendering as
to the correctness and sufficiency of his
tender for the Works and of the prices
inserted in the Bill of Quantities (and
Schedule of Rates, where applicable),
which rates and prices shall cover all his
obligations under the Contract and
everything necessary for the proper
completion of the works.
31
This clause operates as a

reminder to the Contractor
that his tender must include
all the works (both permanent and temporary) and
general obligations and liabilities involved in the completion of the Contract.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
LEGAL PROVISIONS
Acts and regulations
It is advisable to draw the

The Contractor shall comply with all
Acts of Parliament and Statutory Instru- Contractor's attention to his
ments applicable to the Contract Works obligations resulting from
and shall indemnify and keep indemni- Acts of Parliament and
fied the Employer against any failure on Statutory Instruments.
the part of the Contractor or his
employees to comply with any such
Acts of Parliament or Statutory Instruments and against any damages or other
consequences arising out of such failure.
In particular, the Contractor's attention
is drawn to The Building (Safety, Health
and Welfare) Regulations, 1948 (S.I.
1948 No. 1145), to the Factories Act,
1961, and to all subsequent amending
legislation and relevant Statutory Instruments.
Port or River Authority regulations
The Contractor is to comply with the

Port Authority Regulations insofar as
they control and regulate any of the
Works or the incidental movement of
plant, equipment, labour, materials or
craft conveying these in or about the
Works or plying between the Works and
the Contractor's supplying wharves.
The Contractor shall obtain from the
Port Authority such permissions as are
required for carrying out the work or
any necessary temporary works. He
shall provide, maintain and remove,
when required, such fenders, lights,
fences, hoardings, guard rails, etc., as
may be required by the Port Authority's
regulations or on the direction of the
32
Where the Works adjoin a

harbour or river, it is often
necessary for the Contractor
to comply with the regulations of the Port or River
Authority. These regulations
may have considerable influence on the Contractor in his
execution of the Work and he
will need to make allowance
for this in his tender.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Engineer. The tender will be deemed to

include for the whole of the cost of
these operations. On completion of the
Works the Contractor shall remove all
temporary works and leave the river bed
free from any obstructions or deposits
arising from the Works.
Working rule agreement
The Contractor shall allow in his

Tender for all costs incurred in complying with the provisions of the Working
Rule Agreement made by the Civil
Engineering Construction Conciliation
Board for Great Britain.
This clause emphasises the

fact that no additional payments will be made to the
Contractor in connection
with the working rule agreement.
MATTERS AFFECTING COST
Labour expenses
Subject to the Price Variation Clause,

the tender shall include for all expenses
relating to labour and in particular the
following: insurance of all kinds, selective employment tax, pensions, holidays
with pay, overtime working, night work,
double shifts, rotary shifts, tidework,
tool allowances, servicing of plant, 'plus'
rates and allowances and payment by
result or bonus.
The Contractor must not

merely build-up his billed
rates from basic labour rates
but must include for a wide
range of indirect labour
charges.
Safety precautions
The Contractor shall take all necessary precautions and shall comply with
all regulations and the recommendations of Reports of the Committee of the
Institution of Civil Engineers, dealing
with shaft and tunnel works, and for
33
The wording of this clause

will vary with the nature of
the work in the Contract.
For instance, a sewage works
contract would make reference to the publication issued
EXPLANATORY NOTES
work carried out in compressed air, in- by the Institution of Civil

side cofferdams, on or below water, and Engineers, Safety in Sewers
shall continually operate all safety and at Sewage Works.
measures made necessary by virtue of
the method employed for the execution
of the Contract.
Sequence of works
The works are to be carried out in

accordance with a programme and in a
sequence to be approved by the Engineer in relation to other works to be
executed on the site under other Contracts.
The Engineer may from time to time,
by order in writing without in any way
vitiating the Contract, require the
Contractor to proceed with the execution of the Work at such time or times
as may be deemed desirable, and the
Contractor shall not proceed with any
work ordered to be suspended until he
receives a written order to do so from
the Engineer.
This clause sometimes includes a detailed schedule

giving the dates by which
specific sections of the Works
are to be completed. On
occasions, the Contractor is
required to make allowance
in his tender for possible
delays resulting from programme changes introduced
by the Engineer: this is an
unreasonable request on account of the uncertainties
involved.
Electricity supply
The Employer will make available

from points on the site as shown on the
Site Plan:
{1) a supply of electrical energy of
stated kVA at 415 volts, threephase, for supplying power for
heavy erection plant and welding;
(2) a supply of electrical energy at
110 volts, single-phase or threephase, with centre points earthed,
for supplying power to portable tools
and for fixed lighting and handlamp
transformers.
34
This clause gives details of

the electricity supply available on the site and lists the
requirements relating to the
Contractor's electrical installation.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
The Contractor will be responsible

for providing and maintaining the whole
of the installation on the load side of the
points of supply. All necessary safety
precautions must be taken and the
Contractor's electrical installation must
be to the satisfaction of the Engineer,
and must comply with all appropriate
statutory requirements including the
current Regulations for the Electrical
Equipment of Buildings issued by the
Institution of Electrical Engineers.
Water supply
The Contractor will be supplied free

of charge at a fixed point on the site
with the necessary water for constructional purposes. The Contractor shall
distribute at his own expense to all other
points on the site where water is required, and he will be held responsible
for any unnecessary wastage of water
and shall be charged for such wastage at
current rates.
The Contractor will be held responsible for compliance with the requirements of the local water undertaking.
Alternatively, the Contractor may be required to

obtain the necessary supply
of water and to pay the water
authority's charges. These
charges may be calculated as
a percentage of the contract
sum, although this procedure
offers no incentive to the
Contractor to prevent the
misuse of water.
Contractor to visit site
The Contractor is requested to visit

the site of the proposed works before
tendering and will be deemed to have
satisfied himself as to local conditions,
the nature and degree of accessibility of
the site, the nature and extent of the
operations, the supply of and conditions
affecting labour and materials and the
execution of the Works generally. No
claim will be entertained in respect of
35
This clause serves to

emphasise the need for the
Contractor to make a thorough examination of the site
prior to submitting his tender, and to make allowance
in his price for any factors
which will affect working
conditions on the site.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
any of these matters, neither will lack of

knowledge nor ignorance of conditions
be accepted as substantiating a claim.
Access to site
Access to the site is obtained from
Road X. The Contractor shall provide
and maintain such temporary roads as
he may require for the purpose of carrying out the work in the most expeditious
and efficient manner, and shall remove
the temporary roads on completion.
Temporary roads shall be constructed
of hardcore, engine ash, timber sleepers
or other suitable material. The Contractor shall comply with all police and
highway authority requirements.
This covers access to the

site and the construction,
maintenance and subsequent
removal of temporary roads
on the site, and compliance
with all public authority
requirements.
Subsoil investigations
Borings have been taken on the site

and the results are shown on Drawing
X, but there is no guarantee that the
conditions found in the borings are
truly representative of conditions generally on the site. The Contractor is
therefore advised to make his own
independent enquiries and observations
as to the character of the soil.
All levels on the Contract Drawings
are related to Ordnance Datum (Newlyn). Details of subsoil water levels in
the ground are also recorded on Drawing X.
36
The results of trial borings

should always be made available to Contractors tendering
for a job.
In the case of work to be
carried out beside the sea or
tidal waters, a number of
water levels should be supplied, such as highest recorded water level; mean high
water spring tide; mean low
water spring tide; and lowest
low water.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
USE OF SITE
Working area
The area available for the storage of

This provision is particumaterials and assembly of components larly important when workis indicated on Drawing X.
ing space is restricted.
Use of site
The Contractor shall, except when

authorised by the Engineer, confine his
men, materials and plant within the site
of which he is given possession. The
Contractor shall not use any part of the
site for any purposes not connected with
the Works unless the prior written consent of the Engineer has been obtained.
The purpose of this clause

is to confine the Contractor's
activities to the Site of the
Works, and to prevent its use
for improper purposes. Reference may also be made to the
erection of fences and hoardings around the site.
Storage
The Contractor shall provide at his

own expense suitable offices and adequate storage accommodation for plant
and materials. In particular, adequate
waterproof storage sheds shall be provided for materials requiring protection
against weather, humidity or damage.
No materials or plant shall be stored
on the public highway.
It is important that the

Contractor should be required to provide adequate
and suitable storage accommodation to prevent damage
or deterioration to materials
and plant.
Advertising
The Contractor shall treat the Contract and everything within it as private
and confidential. In particular, the
Contractor shall not publish any information, drawing or photograph relating
to the Works and shall not use the site
for advertising purposes, except with
37
This requires the Contractor to obtain the Engineer's

consent before he can use
anything connected with the
Contract or even its site for
advertising purposes.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
the written consent of the Engineer and

subject to such conditions as he may
prescribe.
TEMPORARY WORKS
Diversion of services
Where it becomes necessary permanently to divert any cable, sewer, drain,

main, etc., the Contractor will be
permitted to recover the cost of this
work unless, in the opinion of the
Engineer, it was due to the Contractor's
negligence, bad workmanship, faulty
materials or lack of reasonable foresight. The Contractor is required to
make all necessary arrangements with
the appropriate authorities for the
diversion of their services.
The Contractor is assured

of payment for the unavoidable diversion of services, but
is responsible for making the
necessary arrangements with
the authorities concerned.
Traffic control
The Contractor shall provide all

necessary traffic control signs and signals that may be required by the Highway Authority or the Police, and shall
operate and maintain them efficiently
and to the satisfaction of the authorities mentioned. The contract rates for
pipelaying shall be deemed to include
all expenses of traffic control, watching
and lighting.
This provision is particularly appropriate on sewer

and pipeline contracts, where
work is to be carried out
along public highways.
Temporary works
The Contractor shall be solely responThis clause gives added

sible for the sufficiency, stability and emphasis to clause 20 of the
safety of all temporary works and their I.C.E. Conditions and procare in accordance with clause 20 of the vides for the supply to the
38
EXPLANATORY NOTES
I.C.E. Conditions. He shall at his own Engineer of drawings and

expense supply detailed drawings and calculations relating to terncalculations of stability of such tern- porary works.
porary works as the Engineer may direct,
but no approval given or implied by the
Engineer shall relieve the Contractor of
his responsibilities in connection with
temporary works.
Dealing with flow in existing pipelines
This provision may be
The Contractor shall at his own expense deal with, pump, maintain or necessary when the Contract
divert the flows in existing pipelines as Works involve alterations to
may be necessary during the execution existing operative sewers and
pipelines.
of the works.
Existing services
The Contractor shall avoid all damage to operative gas or water mains or
service pipes, sewers, drains, cables,
wires, overhead telephone or telegraph
lines, telegraph poles, etc., which he
encounters in carrying out the Works
and he must provide for supporting
them to the satisfaction of the Engineer
and the responsible authorities. The
Contractor must give all notices, pay
any charges made and make good at his
own expense any damage done. The
Contractor must satisfy himself by his
own enquiries and observations as to
the precise position of all existing services and must take full responsibility in
connection with them and shall hold
the Employer indemnified against any
claims that may arise from any damage
caused to such services by his operations.
39
This is an important clause,

as costly damage is often
caused to electricity cables
and other services by plant
engaged on excavating work.
It is essential that the Contractor takes full responsibility for all damage to and
works of support required in
connection with existing services, otherwise the Employer
could be liable for the cost of
work resulting from the negligence of the Contractor.
The Engineer normally
gives an indication of the
extent of existing services so
far as they are known to him,
but as a guide only since their
true whereabouts can only be
determined by the Contractor.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Setting out
The Contractor shall be entirely responsible for accurately setting out all
the work, and he shall at his own
expense make good any defects arising
from errors in the lines or levels. He
shall also provide for the use by the
Resident Engineer throughout the contract, a modern and accurate theodolite
and precision level, both of approved
type and make, complete with all
ancillary equipment, steel and linen
tapes, poles, pegs, stagings, templates,
profiles, etc., necessary for setting out
and measurement of the work, and the
services of an experienced chainman.
The Contractor shall also provide such
rubber boots, oilskins and protective
clothing as may be required by the
Engineer's staff on the site.
Although the Contractor is

responsible for setting out
the work the Engineer or his
representative normally carries out checks and needs a
supply of instruments, equipment and a chainman for
this purpose.
Office for Resident Engineer
The Contractor shall provide and

erect in a position approved by the
Engineer, and maintain, clean, heat and
light throughout the Contract, one suitable and substantial office measuring
not less than 45 m x 375 m (15ft x
12 ft) internally, with a close-boarded
floor and adequate windows, for the
sole use of the Resident Engineer and
his staff. The office shall contain one
locked cupboard, one table 25 m (8ft)
long with two locked drawers and three
double elephant plan drawers, one
office desk, one typewriter, two chairs,
two stools, one double elephant drawing board and T-square, and washing
facilities, and it shall be provided with a
40
The office requirements

will vary from job to job
according to the size of a
contract and the number of
engineer's staff employed on
the site. It is necessary to
give detailed particulars of
the office and its contents in
order that the contractor can
make a realistic assessment
of their probable cost at the
time of tendering.
Site offices often have to
be large enough to accommodate site meetings.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
lock and four keys. There shall be no

spare keys in the possession of any
person other than the Engineer or his
representative.
The Contractor shall provide such
labour as is reasonably necessary to
attend to the office requirements, clean
instruments and assist in measuring,
supervising, checking or testing the
work at any time.
Telephone
The Contractor shall arrange for the
installation of a Post Office telephone in
the Resident Engineer's office, which is
to be kept directly connected to the
public telephone exchange, and the
Contractor shall pay all charges for
installation, rent, calls and eventual
disconnection. The Employer will reimburse to the Contractor the sums paid
to the Post Office in this connection. The
Contractor will not be permitted to have
any other telephone on the same line or
as an extension from it.
The Engineer's representative normally requires the

sole use of a telephone on the
site, and a provisional sum is
generally included in the bill
of quantities to cover the
costs involved, since the Contractor cannot be reasonably
expected to estimate the probable cost of telephone calls to
be made from the Engineer's
office.
Sanitary conveniences
This clause supplements

The Contractor shall provide and
maintain at his own expense proper and the requirements of the
adequate sanitary conveniences for the Safety, Health and Welfare
use of persons on the site throughout Regulations.
the Contract, and shall remove same on
completion. Where water closets cannot
be provided, the Contractor shall provide suitable chemical closets which shall
receive regular attention. All sanitary
accommodation shall be to the approval
of the Engineer and the local Public
Health Authority.
41
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Use of public highways
The Contractor shall take all reasonable precautions to prevent the deposit
of mud, filth or rubbish on the highway
and shall from time to time, or as
instructed by the Engineer or the Highway Authority, remove from the highway at his own expense any mud, filth
or rubbish which may have been
deposited on it.
This clause gives added

emphasis to the Contractor's
responsibility to keep public
highways free from mud, etc.,
from the site. Failure of the
Contractor to keep roads
clean can cause considerable
inconvenience and annoyance to the public.
Damage to adjoining properties
The Contractor shall not trespass on

properties adjoining the site of the Employer should be indemWorks. The Contractor will be held nified against any claims subresponsible for any damage to adjoin- mitted by adjoining owners.
ing properties caused through the carrying out of work contained in this
Contract. The Contractor shall repair
and make good any such damage at his
own expense to the satisfaction of the
Owners.
MATERIALS REQUIREMENTS
Plant, etc.
The Contractor is to provide all

labour, materials, plant, tools, tackle,
etc., necessary for the satisfactory completion of the Works. All mechanical
plant used by the Contractor in the
execution of the Works shall be of such
type and size and subject to such
method of working as the Engineer may
approve.
42
The Contractor must provide everything necessary for

the job and it is desirable
that the Engineer should have
some control over the type of
plant and how it is used.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Materials and workmanship

All materials and components shall
be of good quality, appropriate to the
class of work involved, and be in full
accordance with the Contract requirements. Where an applicable specification issued by the British Standards
Institution is currently operating, the
materials and components used in the
execution of the Works shall comply
with that specification, unless otherwise
specified or ordered by the Engineer.
Workmanship shall be of a high
standard and shall conform to the
detailed requirements of the specification and the appropriate sections of any
applicable current Codes of Practice
issued by the British Standards Institution.
It is unsatisfactory to require all materials and components to be of the best

quality, as this is rarely
always the case. It is good
and sound practice to make
wide use of British Standards
and Codes of Practice.
Samples, tests and certificates
When required by the Engineer, the

Contractor shall at his own expense
submit to the Engineer, for approval,
samples of any of the materials and
components to be used. The quality of
materials and components subsequently
used in the Works shall not be inferior
to the approved samples.
The cost of testing is to be borne by
the Contractor, who shall give not less
than 7 days notice of all tests in order
that the Engineer or his representative
may be present. Two copies of all test
certificates shall be supplied to the
Engineer or his representative.
All material which is specified to be
tested at the Manufacturer's Works
must satisfactorily pass the tests before
being painted or otherwise covered.
43
To assist the Contractor

and to clarify the testing
procedure, it is the practice
of some Engineers to detail
the number of certificates
required for the principal
materials and components.
For instance, one test certificate may be required for each
delivery of cement, and each
type of pipe, one for each
sluice valve, one for each
10,000 kg (10 tons) of bar
reinforcement of each diameter, one for each make of
brick, etc.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Test certificates shall be supplied to

the Engineer or his representative before the materials or components are
used in the Works, unless the Engineer
directs otherwise.
Work prepared oft' the site

The Contractor shall give the Engineer written notice of the preparation
or manufacture at a place off the site of
any material or component to be used
on the Works, stating the place and
time of preparation or manufacture, so
that the Engineer may make inspections
at all stages of the production process.
Failure to give such notice may result in
the rejection of the material or component, if the Engineer considers that his
inspection was necessary during the
production process.
The Engineer needs the

facility to inspect the preparation or manufacture of materials and components away
from the site.
GENERAL WORKING REQUIREMENTS
Suspension of works during bad weather

The Contractor shall, without compensation, delay or suspend the progress
of the Works, or any part thereof, during frost or bad weather for such
periods as may be required by the
Engineer. The Engineer shall determine
what extension of time (if any) shall be
allowed to the Contractor for such
suspensions.
This clause empowers the

Engineer to order the suspension of any part of the
Works during exceptionally
bad weather, without incurring the Employer in additional expenditure.
Facilities for other contractors

The Contractor shall afford all reasonOn some civil engineering
able facilities to other Contractors contracts, notably those for
employed by the Employer, or to any power stations, it is necessary
44
EXPLANATORY NOTES
local or other authority, to execute

work on the site. The Contractor will
not be held responsible for injury to
such other work or workmen employed
on it, unless the injury is caused by the
Contractor's operations or by persons
in his employ.
for several main contractors

to be engaged on the site at
the same time, e.g. civil,
mechanical and electrical
contractors. It is not then
possible for a single contractor to have exclusive possession of the site.
Co-ordination with other contractors
The Contractor shall co-ordinate his

work with that of the other contractors,
so as to cause the minimum practical
interference with their work. The other
contractors will likewise be required to
enter into reciprocal arrangements. The
Contractor shall bear all reasonable
costs or charges that, in the opinion of
the Engineer, are caused by the Contractor's lack of reasonable co-operation.
This provision is frequently

necessary on civil engineering
contracts, when the Employer
also enters into separate contracts for such work as piling
and installation of machinery.
Accommodation for employees

tender for providing all necessary canteen and first-aid facilities and other
accommodation and services for his
employees, and shall provide for maintaining them in a clean and tidy
condition throughout the construction
period, and for clearing away and
reinstating the site on completion, all to
the satisfaction of the Engineer and
other appropriate authorities.
The Contractor has to

allow in his price for all
canteen, first-aid and other
welfare facilities needed for
his employees on the site.
Keep site tidy
The Contractor shall throughout the

This clause provides for
constructional period maintain the keeping the site in a tidy
whole of the site and all plant and condition and for cleaning
45
EXPLANATORY NOTES
materials placed on it in a clean, tidy down walls and pavings,

and safe condition to the satisfaction of flushing out drains, etc.
the Engineer. The Contractor shall clear
away all rubbish from time to time as
directed and at completion.
The Contractor shall clean down the
surfaces of all concrete, cladding and
other work from time to time, and wash
pavings and flush drains and gullies. He
shall allow for cleaning down the whole
of the Works at completion and leaving
them in a clean and perfect condition to
the satisfaction of the Engineer.
Measurement of work
The Contractor shall provide a suitably qualified agent and chainmen to

assist the Engineer/Quantity Surveyor
who will be responsible for measurements, interim valuations and measurement for the final account. The measurements and the form in which the
accounts are submitted by the Contractor shall be in accordance with the
reasonable demands of the EngineerI
Quantity Surveyor.
Whenever the Contractor shall carry
out any work or provide any material
for which he may propose to claim an
extra, he shall first obtain a written
order from the Engineer and then make
arrangements for its joint measurement,
although this will in no way commit the
Engineer to recognition of the claim.
The Engineer/Quantity Surveyor shall
at all reasonable times have access to
the Contractor's time-book.
Measurement of work on
a civil engineering contract is
normally carried out by the
Engineer's representative in
conjunction with the Contractor's agent. On occasions
a quantity surveyor performs
the Engineer's measuring
functions.
This clause emphasises the
need for joint measurement,
and outlines the procedure
for dealing with 'extra work'.
Photographs
Photographs are often reA provisional sum of 150 (One

hundred and fifty pounds) is included quired on civil engineering
46
EXPLANATORY NOTES
in the Bill of Quantities for Progress

Photographs. This sum is to be expended in whole or in part as directed
by the Engineer, or deducted if not
required.
jobs to provide a permanent

pictorial record at various
stages of the job. These often
assist in assessing the extent
of delays and sometimes help
in settling disputes when
measuring work. As the Contractor cannot possibly estimate the number of photographs that will be required,
the only satisfactory way of
dealing with this in the Bill
is by means of a provisional
sum.
Protection of work
The Contractor shall, at his own

expense, cover up and protect all
materials and work liable to be stained
or injured from any cause, and shall
make good any such damage to the
entire satisfaction of the Engineer. The
Contractor shall adequately protect
from frost all concrete, brickwork,
masonry, rendering and other work
requiring the use of cement, and shall
not execute such work when the temperature of the atmosphere or materials
is below 2C (36F), except with the
Engineer's consent and subject to any
additional precautions that he may
prescribe. Adequate protection shall
also be provided against hot sun or rain.
The Contractor is made

responsible for protecting all
constructional work from
damage from any cause,
including the effects of extreme weather conditions.
RECORDS
Programme and progress record
The programme which the ContracIt is essential that proper

tor is required to provide under clause provision is made for satis14 of the I.C.E. Conditions shall be in a factory programming and
47
EXPLANATORY NOTES
form approved by the Engineer. The

Contractor shall from time to time
modify the programme if required to do
so by the Engineer. The Contractor
shall at all times during the progress of
the Works endeavour to adhere to the
approved programme.
The Contractor shall supply to the
Engineer weekly during the progress of
the Works such written particulars and
information as will enable the Engineer
to maintain a progress record for the
Works in the same form as the approved
programme.
progressing. This requires the

submission of adequate
information weekly by the
Contractor to the Engineer.
Records
The Contractor shall maintain accurate records, plans and charts showing
the dates and progress of all main
operations, and the Engineer shall have
access to this information at all reasonable times. Records of tests made shall
be handed to the Engineer's representative at the end of each day.
The Contractor shall also maintain
records and charts of all strata and
materials encountered in shaft sinking
and tunnel driving, together with records
ofworking conditions under compressed
air. The Engineer shall be supplied with
a copy of these records as and when
required.
48
The Contractor is normally

required to maintain records
of progress made, tests performed, strata encountered
and details of working conditions, and to submit this
information to the Engineer
as it becomes available.
CHAPTER FOUR
Specification of Earthwork
THE majority of civil engineering projects entail a considerable amount
of earthwork. Apart from general excavation, filling and the disposal of
excavated material, some jobs require the execution of more specialised
forms of excavation work, such as tunnel work and dredging. In addition it is customary to include, under the general heading of 'Earthwork', specification requirements covering ancillary works such as
timbering and keeping excavations free from water.
It will probably be useful at this stage to consider the matters that
may require inclusion in an earthworks specification and to determine
a logical sequence for them. The specification writer can then determine
from this list the items which he needs to incorporate in the specification for his particular job.
PRELIMINARY WORK
{1) Site investigation

(2) Site clearance
EXCAVATION, FILL AND DISPOSAL
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Excavation work generally

Excavation of pipe trenches
Excess excavation
Disposal of surplus excavated material
Backfilling
Fill
Trimming slopes
Restricted use of plant
49

ANCILLARY WORK
(1) Keeping excavations free from water
(2) Timbering
SPECIALISED WORK
(1) Tunnel work

(2) Cofferdams
(3) Dredging
The Codes of Practice on earthworks (CP 2003) and site investigations (CP 2001) contain a vast amount of detailed information on the
methods which can be used in carrying out these classes of work. They
can be useful guides to the Engineer in the drafting of specifications.
A wide selection of typical earthwork specification clauses follows,
accompanied by explanatory notes, although it will be appreciated that
the detailed requirements will vary considerably from job to job.
TYPICAL SPECIFICATION CLAUSES
EXPLANATORY NOTES
PRELIMINARY WORK
Site investigation
Borings and ground information. Drawings showing details of the sub-strata
obtained from borings are available for
inspection at the offices of the Engineer.
The Contractor is requested to examine
these drawings and to make himself
fully familiar with the conditions on site.
The information on these drawings is
believed to be correct but is not
guaranteed and is supplied for guidance
purposes. The Contractor is responsible
for obtaining such additional information as he considers necessary covering
such matters as the nature of the ground,
water levels, physical features of the
site, etc.
50
It is customary to supply
contractors with information
on sub-strata and watertables from borings, subject
to the proviso that these
details may not truly represent conditions over the whole
area of the site. The onus is
on the Contractor to obtain
such further information as
he deems necessary.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
It is the usual practice to

Site levels. All levels shown on the
Contract Drawings or mentioned in relate all levels to Ordnance
this document are related to Ordnance Datum, preferably a specific
bench mark near the site.
Datum at Newlyn.
With tidal work it is desirWater levels. It is believed that the following truly represent the operative able that the Contractor
water levels, but their accuracy is not should be supplied with the
various water levels.
guaranteed.
Highest recorded water level
+1527 O.D.
Mean high water spring tide
+1031 O.D.
Mean low water spring tide
- 868 O.D.
-1285 O.D.
Lowest low water
Trial holes. The Contractor shall excavate all trial holes as required ahead of
pipelaying work, and shall backfill and
reinstate them and maintain the surfaces. The Contractor shall receive
separate payment for this work provided he obtains prior consent of the
Engineer, but he shall at his own
expense take all other practicable measures to determine the location of other
services.
It is often necessary to
determine accurately the location of other underground
services before the lines of
new sewers and mains can be
established with certainty. It
is not always possible to
obtain sufficiently precise
information from the statutory undertakers themselves.
Site clearance
These need to be uprooted,

Removal of hedges and brushwood. The
Contractor shall uproot and burn all and burning on the site is
hedges and brushwood on the site of the usually the best method of
disposal.
Works.
Removal of trees and tree stumps. Where
indicated on the Drawings or directed
by the Engineer, trees shall be uprooted
or cut down close to ground level and
removed from the site. Stumps and tree
51
Here again, the removal of

roots is essential. Entire trees
can often be removed by a
tree puller or a bulldozer (see
Ministry of Agriculture pam-
EXPLANATORY NOTES
roots shall be grubbed up or blasted and

burnt or removed from the site. Where
directed by the Engineer the voids
resulting from tree root removal shall
be filled with approved excavated material in 225 mm (9 in.) consolidated layers.
phlet No. 101). Alternatively,

trees should be cut off at a
height not exceeding 1 m
(3 ft) above ground and the
stumps removed by winch
gear or high-velocity explosives (subject to Home Office
Demolition of concrete wall. Demolish Regulations and local police
the concrete wall as indicated on the requirements) or a combinaDrawings and retain the resulting debris tion of both methods.
on the site for use as filling under roads.
With demolition work it is
important to indicate whether
the materials resulting from
the demolition are to become
the property of the Contractor or the Employer.
EXCAVATION, FILL AND DISPOSAL
General
Surface soil. Surface soil shall be
stripped and deposited in temporary
storage heaps, preparatory to being used
for the soiling of slopes to cuttings and
embankments and in the preparation of
beds to receive trees and shrubs.
Where surface soil is to be

retained, provision must be
made for its stripping as a
separate item from general
excavation.
Turf. Where directed by the Engineer,

turf shall be carefully cut 1 m x 300 mm
x40 mm (3ft x 1 ft x 1! in.) thick and
it must be relaid within one week of
cutting.
Turf is preferable to soiling and seeding in areas subject to constant and heavy
wear, or where a grassed
surface is required urgently.
Excavation
The excavation shall be carried out to
The Contractor is invarithe dimensions, levels, lines and profiles ably required to excavate to
indicated on the Contract Drawings or the required dimensions in
52
EXPLANATORY NOTES
to such other dimensions as may be

directed in writing by the Engineer.
The excavations are to be performed in
whatever material may be found, but
extra payment will be made for excavation in rock. Rock is defined as material
which, in the opinion of the Engineer,
can be removed only by the use of
compressed-air plant, wedges or explosives and is found in continuous beds
exceeding 75 mm (3 in.) in thickness or
in isolated stones exceeding 006 m 3
(2 ft 3) in volume.
The Contractor shall include for getting out the excavated material by hand
or machine and for levelling and ramming surfaces prior to commencing any
constructional work.
The faces and beds of all excavations,
after being excavated to the required
dimensions, shall be carefully trimmed
to the required profiles and levels and
cleaned of all loose mud, dirt and other
debris. The bottom 150 mm (6 in.) of
material in the beds of excavations shall
not be removed until immediately prior
to the execution of the permanent work.
Should slips of material occur during
the execution of the Works or during
the maintenance period, the Contractor
shall be required to perform the remedial works at his own expense, unless
the Engineer certifies that the slip
occurred through no fault of the
Contractor.
No excavation shall be refilled or
built upon until the formation has been
inspected and approved by the Engineer.
Where the Contractor excavates below
the required level in good ground, he
shall make up the void in concrete
(1 : 3: 6) at his own expense.
whatever material may be

encountered. This clause will
also contain any requirements as to the method of
working, such as excavating
to within 150 mm (6 in.) of
formation in the first instance
and removing the latter portion just before construction
of the permanent works is
commenced.
The choice of method of
excavation is usually left to
the Contractor and is influenced by a number of factors:
(1) type of ground to be
excavated;
(2) ground-water conditions;
(3) the period and height for
which an excavated face
will stand unsupported;
(4) dimensions of trench.
Mechanical excavation of
trenches is normally practicable to a depth of about 3 m
(10ft) in medium ground and
6 m (20 ft) in good ground,
using various types of trencher. In wet or bad ground,
it is necessary to install an
efficient de-watering system
before mechanical excavation proceeds.
53
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Pipe trenches shall be excavated to

the lines and levels shown on the
Contract Drawings or as directed by the
Engineer. The bottoms of all trenches
shall be of such a width as to provide at
least 150 mm (6 in.) clearance between
the barrels of the pipes and the excavation or timbering, or such greater clearance as may be necessary to accommodate the concrete surround of the
thickness prescribed.
This clause aims at securing pipe trenches of adequate

width to allow for satisfactorily laying and jointing the
pipes.
Disposal of surplus excavated material
All surplus excavated material shall

be removed from the site to a tip to be
provided by the Contractor. The site
shall be kept as free as possible from
accumulations of surplus material.
The responsibility for finding a method of disposing of

surplus excavated material
almost invariably falls upon
the Contractor.
Backfilling
Backfilling of trenches and other

excavations shall be carried out in
layers not exceeding 225 mm (9 in.) in
thickness and the filling shall be of
material selected from the excavations
and approved by the Engineer. This
material must be carefully placed around
foundations, etc., and be thoroughly
consolidated, with care being taken to
prevent any damage being caused to
the permanent works. No backfilling
shall be deposited until all silt, mud or
other soft material has been removed.
In backfilling pipe trenches special
care shall be taken to ram the fill at the
sides of pipes. The filling material used
54
This clause aims at ensuring backfilling with suitable

materials which are adequately consolidated to eliminate the source of much
future trouble and expense.
With pipe trenches, special
precautions must be taken to
prevent any possibility of
damage to pipes during ramming of backfilled material.
The degree of compaction
of backfilled material will
depend on the nature of the
work, i.e. on how much soil
movement can be tolerated.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
beside pipes and for 300 mm (12 in.)

above them shall be free from stones
exceeding 25 mm (1 in.) gauge. The first
ramming shall take place at half the
height of the pipe. Where a mechanical
rammer is used, the pipes shall be
protected by at least 1 m (3ft) of handrammed material.
Fill
Selected and approved excavated

material may be used for fill, but
certain additional material may have to
be imported. Suitable imported material
consists of stone, rubble, broken brick
and slag, free from objectionable rubbish or trade waste and to the approval
of the Engineer. Sample loads of filling
material shall be approved by the
Engineer before it is used in the Works.
Any filling materials rejected by the
Engineer shall be removed from the site
immediately at the Contractor's expense.
General filling to embankments, etc.,
shall be thoroughly consolidated with a
roller or crawler tractor weighing not
less than 10,000 kg (984 tons). The fill
is to be consolidated in layers not
exceeding 300 mm (12 in.) consolidated
thickness. Each layer shall extend over
the full width of the embankment, and
shall consist of reasonably well graded
material, with all large voids suitably
filled before the next layer is deposited.
The Contractor shall reconstruct to
the proper level and profile any filled
areas which may settle or spread during
the execution of the work or the maintenance period. Where the settlement or
55
Provision is made for the

use of suitable material, adequately consolidated in layers
in fill.
Code of Practice CP 2003:
Earthworks gives guidance
on the design and construction of embankments. Where
embankments are to cross
soft ground, undisturbed
samples should be taken from
the foundation at various
depths and tested in a consolidation press. From the results
of these tests an estimate can
be obtained of the settlement that will occur under the
fill at various depths.
Where the required height
of bank is such that sheer
failure of the foundation
material might occur, it is
advisable to construct the
bank in stages, allowing sufficient time for the foundation
material to consolidate under
the weight of the first stage
and so increase its strength
before the second stage is
added.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
spreading is, in the opinion of the Engineer, due to a cause within the control
of the Contractor, then the cost of the
remedial work shall be borne by the
Contractor.
Trimming of side slopes
In addition drainage may
Side slopes shall be trimmed evenly to
the inclinations shown on the drawings be required
or to such other inclinations as the (1) in the bottom of cuttings;
Engineer may direct. Earth slopes and (2) upon the slopes to interverges, after trimming, shall be soiled
cept springs or seepage
to a depth of at least 150 mm (6 in.)
water;
with suitable vegetable soil, which shall (3) at the top of slopes to
be sown in the correct season with grass
intercept surface water,
either in the form of open
seed as specified at the rate of 0 05 kg/m 2
channels or French drains.
(li ozjyd 2).
The contract rates for grass seed are
CP 2003: Earthworks conto include for preparing and re-sowing
tains a useful table coverbare patches either at the end of the
ing the design of slopes in
maintenance period or within six months
various types of rock.
of sowing the seed, whichever is the
longer, and for applying a suitable
selective weed killer when the grass has
become established.
Restricted use of plant
If for any reason the Engineer is of
the opinion that it is undesirable that
any excavator, mechanical digger or
other plant used or proposed to be used
by the Contractor for the purpose of
excavation should be used or that any
such plant is unsuitable for use on the
Works or any part of them, the Engineer may order the Contractor not to
use and/or to remove the plant from the
site.
56
Although the Engineer

does not normally direct the
Contractor as to the method
in which he carries out the
Contract Works or as to the
plant which he shall use,
nevertheless there may be a
case on occasions for restricting the type of plant used to
avoid undue annoyance or
nuisance being caused to
adjoining owners/occupiers.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
ANCILLARY WORK
Keeping excavations free from water

All excavations shall be kept free from
water at all times and adequate pumping plant, including special de-watering
equipment, shall be provided by the
Contractor, who shall also make his
own arrangements for the disposal of
all water encountered in the excavations.
All sumps shall be located clear of
excavations for permanent work, and
when no longer required the sumps shall
be filled in with suitable material or
dealt with as directed by the Engine~r.
The Contractor will not be permitted
to carry out any concreting or other
constructional work unless the excavations are dry, and the excavations shall
be kept free from water until the concrete has set sufficiently so as not to be
damaged by water.
Timbering
The Contractor shall supply and fix

all necessary timbering, steel sheeting,
strutting, shoring, etc., to support the
sides of excavations so as to ensure the
safety of workmen, freedom from
damage of any structures or services
and to prevent any movement of
adjacent soil. All such supports shall be
maintained until the constructional
work is sufficiently advanced to permit
the timbering, etc., to be withdrawn.
57
The Contractor is responsible for keeping all excavations free from water.
Ground-water can often be
excluded by surrounding the
excavations with steel sheet
piling or by the use of groundwater lowering; the injection
of cement grouts, silicate
solutions or bituminous
emulsions can reduce the
flow appreciably.
Ground-water
lowering
methods include shallowwell, well-point, deep-well
and multi-stage.
The volume of water to be
dealt with in excavations
depends on:
(1) the precautions taken to
exclude water;
(2) the nature of the ground;
(3) the head causing water to
flow into excavations.
The selection of the method
of timbering to be used in
excavation work is largely
influenced by the type of
ground encountered. Four
types of sheeting are described in CP 2003: Earthworks, namely poling boards,
horizontal sheeting, runners
and sheet piling.
Sheet piles are frequently
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Where necessary, the excavations

shall be close timbered or sheeted and
the Contractor will receive no additional
payment for this work, even although it
may have been ordered by the Engineer.
Where the Contractor is required to
leave in position timbering or sheeting
on the order of the Engineer to safeguard adjoining buildings, etc., he will
be paid the schedule price for the
materials used. Any timbering or sheeting not ordered by the Engineer but
left in for the convenience of the Contractor will not be the subject of any
additional payment.
Any bridges, railways, buildings,
walls, sewers, culverts, mains, cables,
etc., likely to be damaged by the excavation shall be properly supported and the
Contractor shall be held responsible for
any damage arising in this connection.
The Contractor shall be responsible for
any damage to the permanent work due
to inadequacy of timbering, etc., and
any consequential damage caused by
the removal of timbering, steel sheeting
or other supports from excavations.
interlocking rolled steel sections of various weights and

strengths. This type of piling
has the great advantage that
it can be re-used many times.
Sheet piling is normally
driven by a steam- or airoperated hammer. A pile
frame or crane is used for
pitching the piles and the size
of crane or the height of
frame required depends on
the method to be used for
pitching and driving and on
the length of pile.
SPECIALISED WORK
Tunnel work
Excavation in tunnels and associated
shafts shall be performed in a manner
approved by the Engineer. All reasonable precautions shall be taken to prevent the subsidence or movement of the
surrounding ground or disturbance of
adjoining structures.
Where necessary or where directed,
the Contractor shall closely timber the
58
With tunnel work it is

imperative that the Contractor takes all necessary steps
to prevent any movement of
adjacent ground or buildings.
Another essential requirement is the provision of adequate timbering. The accompanying specification clauses
EXPLANATORY NOTES
excavations to the satisfaction of the indicate one way of doing

Engineer. When close timbering is not this.
in use during driving of a tunnel, a set
of timber ready cut and marked for
boxing up the face shall be kept in close
proximity to the work ready for immediate use should an emergency arise.
Where support is required for the ground
at the top and/or sides of a length during excavation, mild steel polings not
less than 10 mm (i in.) thick shall be
inserted and left in.
When driving operations cease, the
face shall be closely timbered to the
Engineer's satisfaction and if work
ceases for 48 hours or more, the timbering shall be grouted at the Contractor's
expense.
The Contractor shall include in his
prices for all getting out, filling, wheeling, hoisting, handling, loading, transporting and disposal of the surplus
spoil to the satisfaction of the Engineer.
Use ofcompressed air plant andequipment.

The Contractor is required to comply
with the regulations contained in the
Report of the Committee on Regulations for the Guidance of Engineers and
Contractors for Work carried out under
Compressed Air, published by the
Institution of Civil Engineers, and of
the Regulations as to Safety, Health and
Welfare in connection with Diving
Operations and Work in Compressed
Air, issued by the Ministry of Labour.
The Contractor shall install, maintain, operate and remove on completion, suitable air compressors, sufficient
to supply adequate compressed air at
the highest pressure that can be
59
Special precautions are

needed when tunnel work is
to be performed in compressed air. The accompanying specification notes illustrate some of the principal
matters to be considered.
Above all, adequate precautions must be taken to ensure
the safety of the workmen
engaged in this class of work.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
required, and allowing sufficient standby equipment of not less than one
compressor nor less than 20 per cent of
the total equipment.
The Contractor shall make arrangements for any alternative standby
sources of electrical energy generation
or other alternative means to maintain
continuity in the event of breakdown of
any of the services required for the
safety of the workmen, or the Works, or
for the prevention of any damage.
The whole of the plant and equipment for the supply of compressed air
shall be brought on to the site, erected if
possible, and tested before any work in
compressed air is commenced.
Mter erecting and equipping the air
locks but before work in compressed
air is commenced, the works shall be
subjected to a test under a pressure of
028 MN/m 2 (40 lbf/in 2 ) maintained for
not less than one hour. The Contractor
shall supply, install and maintain in
good working order a telephone system
connecting the compressor houses, outside and inside of the air locks and
tunnel faces, at all times that constructional work is proceeding in compressed air.
Shaft excavation. Under suitable conditions, shaft sinking may be performed
by the orthodox underpinning method
in free air; excavating, erecting and
grouting each ring before the next is
commenced. Where necessary, the shafts
shall be sunk in compressed air with air
locks.
Where steel sheet piling is used, it
shall be supported in such a manner
60
This clause is particularly

concerned with the sinking
of shaft rings and the use of
steel sheet piling to retain the
sides of the excavation.
The Contractor may be
given the opportunity to use
other than orthodox methods
subject to certain requirements.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Concrete mix C would

that the extreme fibre stress shall not
exceed 155 MN/m 2 (10 tonf/in 2). With probably be 1:3:6.
the consent of the Engineer, sheet piling
supports may be in the form of rings of
shaft lining, temporarily assembled and
suitably packed. Annular space between
the outside of the lining and the sheet
piling shall be filled with concrete mix
C in lifts not exceeding 12 m (4 ft) in
height and with construction joints in
the concrete not less than 150 mm (6 in.)
distant vertically from the horizontal
(circumferential) joints in the lining.
The Contractor shall include in his
prices for all pumping, temporary
sumps, etc. needed to control and remove the water entering the shafts.
Where the Contractor wishes to sink
a shaft by a method other than that
described, he shall submit his proposals
to the Engineer, accompanied by adequate drawings and other information,
including particulars of the items in the
Bill of Quantities requiring adjustment.
Shield-driven work. The main tunnel

lengths shall be driven using a hooded
Greathead type shield, although tunnels
may be driven open-faced for a distance
not exceeding 6 m (20ft) from the shaft
break out. This work must be adequately timbered or otherwise supported
to the satisfaction of the Engineer, and
where directed the timbering or sheeting
shall be left in position.
Where no water is encountered, the
Contractor shall maintain an air pressure of 006 MN/m 2 or 55 kN/m 2
(8 lbf/in 2) in the tunnel, but where
necessary the air pressure shall be increased to balance the hydrostatic head.
Where there is insufficient loss of air at
61
It is frequently necessary
to use a shield in tunnel work,
to speed up the job, increase
the safety of the workmen
and reduce the loss of timbering. Even where shield-driven
work is specified, it is customary to permit a short length
of tunnel to be driven without
a shield when breaking out
from a shaft.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
the face to give adequate ventilation,

the Contractor shall install suitable
pipes or ducts for this purpose.
As the shield is driven, auger holes
shall be driven in the top of the face for
a distance of 600 mm (2ft) to determine
the nature of the ground.
Cofferdams
The Contractor shall provide, construct and maintain proper and sufficient
cofferdams of steel sheet piling for
dealing with water during the construction of the work adjoining the river
bank, and shall remove the cofferdams
at completion.
The price for cofferdams shall include
for all steel sheet piles, angle and junction piles, struts, cleats, walings, puncheons, tie rods, anchors, etc., and for
all labour in driving and fixing and for
all clay puddle and other material necessary to make the cofferdams sound and
watertight. The method of construction
is at the discretion of the Contractor,
who is entirely responsible for keeping
the cofferdams watertight, but in no
case shall the sheet piles be driven to a
depth of less than 3m (10ft) below the
new dredged or excavated levels. The
tops of cofferdams shall be not less
than 600 mm (2 ft) above flood level.
The Contractor shall be paid billed
rates for any steel sheet piling which is
left in position on the order of the
Engineer.
The cofferdams shall be designed to
withstand all pressure conditions obtaining at high and low tides both before
and after excavation work has been
62
The responsibility for the

design, provision, maintenance and removal of cofferdams usually rests with the
Contractor. They form one
of the most important and
costly items of temporary
works and the accompanying
specification clauses list some
of the more common requirements.
There is a continual
emphasis on the need for
watertightness to permit the
permanent works within the
cofferdam to be constructed
in the dry. All responsibilities
in connection with cofferdams fall upon the Contractor. The only extra payment
he will receive is for sheet
piling left in position on the
order of the Engineer.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
carried out. The cofferdams must be

maintained in a stable and satisfactory
condition for such periods as are necessary for the performance of the Works,
and they are not to be removed without
the Engineer's written consent.
In the event of a cofferdam failing, the
Contractor is to replace it at his own
expense and to the satisfaction of the
Engineer. Notwithstanding that the
Engineer may have accepted the cofferdam designs submitted by the Contractor, the Contractor will be held entirely
responsible for the adequacy and safety
of the cofferdams and shall satisfy all
claims for damage to new works,
damage to property or injury to persons
arising out of the failure of the cofferdams and shall indeinnify the Employer
therefrom.
The Contractor shall keep all cofferdams free from water from any source
and shall provide all temporary pumping plant, pumping sumps, subdrains,
pipes, channels, etc., and shall fill in any
spaces left by the removal of any such
works in a manner approved by the
Engineer.
No concreting or other constructional
work will be permitted unless the excavations are dry and they shall be kept
free from water until the concrete has
set sufficiently to prevent any possibility
of damage by water.
Dredging
The dredging shall be performed to

the lines and levels shown on the
Contract Drawings or to such other
lines and levels as may be directed by
the Engineer.
63
Due to the cumbersome

machinery used and the fact
that the excavation is carried
out below water level, it is
customary for tolerances
EXPLANATORY NOTES
The work shall be undertaken with a

suitable dredger and the excavated
material shall be removed to a site
approved by the River Authority.
Dredging shall be paid for on the
basis of measurement in barge. The
Contractor will be permitted a tolerance
of 300 mm (12 in.) on horizontal surfaces and 600 mm (24 in.) on sloping
surfaces, below the specified dredged
levels. The volume of any excess dredging over this tolerance will be deducted
from the barge quantities.
The Engineer and the Contractor
shall undertake and agree a joint postdredging survey to determine the final
dredged levels.
below specified dredged levels

to be allowed. Measurement
of dredged quantities is usually by barge or hopper, but
a check on final dredged
levels by soundings will need
to be made.
64
CHAPTER FIVE
Specification of Concrete Work

ALL civil engineering jobs make use of concrete in one way or another.
This chapter therefore covers an important section of civil engineering
work. The drafting of specification clauses for concrete piles and roads
is dealt with in later chapters.
It is advisable to adopt a logical sequence of items in this work section. These can be conveniently grouped under six main headings,
namely: materials; concrete work; reinforcement; shuttering; precast
work; and prestressed work. In practice the actual order adopted
varies from office to office, but some advantages would accrue from the
general adoption of a standardised order of items. Within each subsection, the items should also follow a logical order and, in the case of
concrete, these can conveniently follow the order of operations on the
site.
A selection of typical clause headings, grouped under the four main
sections of reinforced concrete work, are now listed.
MATERIALS
{1) Cement
(2) Fine aggregate
(3) Coarse aggregate
(4) Water
(5) Reinforcement
(6) Samples and tests
(7) Stocks of materials
65

CONCRETE WORK
(1) Concrete mixes

(2) Weigh-hatching
(3) Mixing concrete
(4) Workability of concrete
(5) Test cubes
(6) Percolation tests
(7) Transporting concrete
(8) Placing concrete
(9) Blinding coat
(10) Vibrators
(11) Construction joints
(12) Expansion joints
(13) Joining new and old concrete
(14) Surface finish to concrete
(15) Concreting in cold weather
(16) Curing concrete
(17) Fixing bolts, etc.
(18) Pipes through concrete walls
(19) Tests for watertightness
(20) Concreting records
REINFORCEMENT
(1) Bending reinforcement

(2) Placing reinforcement
(3) Cover to reinforcement
SHUTTERING
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Shuttering generally
Shuttering to beams and slabs
Preparation of shuttering
Striking shuttering
PRECAST CONCRETE AND PRESTRESSING WORK
Typical specification clauses under these headings follow, although it

is emphasised that the actual requirements vary considerably from one
job to another.
66
EXPLANATORY NOTES
MATERIALS
Cement
Unless otherwise specified or ordered

by the Engineer, the cement shall be
ordinary Portland cement complying
with B.S.l2. The cement shall be
delivered either in unbroken bags of
the manufacturer and stored in a waterproof shed with a raised boarded floor,
or delivered in bulk for bulk storage,
provided that the Engineer is satisfied
that the methods of transport, handling
and storage are satisfactory.
In both cases the cement shall be
stored in such a way that each consignment shall be used in order of receipt.
Each consignment of cement shall be
delivered to the site at least two weeks
before it is required for use and the
Contractor shall supply the Engineer
with a copy of the manufacturer's test
certificate for each consignment.
The special conditions relating to the
storage and use of rapid-hardening
cement shall be strictly observed and
different types of cement shall be kept
separate at all times.
It is essential that all

cement used complies with
the appropriate British standard. It is customary to
permit delivery in bags and
storage in suitable sheds, or
delivery in bulk in specially
designed vehicles and storage
in suitable bins or silos.
On delivery fresh cement
may be at a high temperature
and for this reason it is
customary to require cement
to be stored on the job for at
least two weeks prior to use.
Conversely, the Contractor
will not be permitted to use
stale or lumpy cement.
Fine aggregate
Fine aggregate shall be well washed

and shall be sharp and free from clay,
chalk, organic matter and other impurities. It shall comply with the requirements of B.S. 882 and shall be graded
in accordance with Table 2, Zone 2,
namely:
67
The most usual procedure

is to require compliance with
B.S. 882 and such additional
requirements as the Engineer
thinks fit.
To pass sieve size
10 mm (tin.)
5 mm (/-6 in.)
No.7
No.14
No.25
No. 52
No. 100
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Percentage
100
90-100
75-100
55- 90
35- 59
8- 30
0- 10
Coarse aggregate
Similar provisions inserted

Coarse aggregate shall be gravel or
other suitable material and shall be well as for fine aggregate.
washed and free from sand, clay,
quarry refuse and other impurities. It
shall comply with the requirements of
B.S. 882 and shall be graded in accordance with Table I, namely:
To pass sieve size
40 mm (1 i in.)
20 mm (!in.)
10 mm (i in.)
5 mm
in.)
No.7
u6
Percentage
100
95-100
25- 55
0-10
Nil
Water
Water supplied by the local water

undertaking only shall be used for mixing concrete, mortar and grout. It shall
be free from organic or other harmful
substances in solution or suspension,
and shall be tested for suitability in
accordance with B.S. 3148.
It is advisable to restrict
the water used on the job to
that supplied by the local
water undertaking to ensure
a reasonable standard of
purity.
Steel reinforcement
Specification clauses for

Bar reinforcement shall be mild steel
round bars of British manufacture by reinforcement invariably refer
the open hearth (acid or basic) process the Contractor to British
68
EXPLANATORY NOTES
and shall comply with the requirements

of B.S. 785. The Contractor shall supply
the Engineer with mill order sheets and
test certificates.
Fabric reinforcement shall conform
to B.S. 1221 and shall be supplied in flat
sheets.
All reinforcement shall be free from
oil, grease, dirt, paint and any loose rust
prior to use.
Standards for detailed requirements. This procedure

shortens the specification
(which is always a lengthy
document) and yet, at the
same time, ensures a high
standard of material, well
suited for the job in hand.
Samples of aggregate
Samples of the aggregate which the
Contractor proposes to use on the
Works shall be deposited with and
approved by the Engineer prior to
commencement of the Works. All
aggregates used shall be equal to the
original samples and further samples
shall be supplied as required.
Some Engineers require

the Contractor to carry out
grading analyses, voids tests,
bulk density tests, silt tests
and tests for organic impurities, and to supply the necessary equipment for this
purpose.
Stocks of cement and aggregates

This clause avoids the posThe Contractor shall maintain on
site stocks of cement and aggregate to sibility of the job being
cover not less than two weeks' require- retarded owing to lack of
essential materials.
ments.
CONCRETE WORK
Concrete proportions
Concrete for reinforced work shall
comply with the requirements of British
Standard Code of Practice CP 114:
Structural Use of Reinforced Concrete
in Buildings, unless this specification
contains different requirements. The
following table indicates the mix requirements for reinforced work.
69
B.S. Code of Practice 114

provides a good basis for the
construction of reinforced
concrete work. Mixes can be
specified by weight, volume,
strength or a combination of
these.
Nominal
mix
Minimum cube strength:

MN/m 2 (lbflin. 2)
Preliminary tests
Works tests
at 28 days
at 28 days
Class
30 (4375)
24 (3500)
17 (2500)
1:1!:3
1:2:4
1:3:6
The proportions of fine to coarse

aggregate and of cement to combined
aggregate will depend on the type and
grading of the aggregate and shall be
determined in accordance with the
recommendations contained in Road
Research Paper No. 4, to secure concrete of the required strength and of the
highest possible density.
Mass concrete shall consist of cement
and 'aU-in' aggregate of the following
mixes:
Nominal
mix
1:6
1:8
Class
EXPLANATORY NOTES
26 (3750)
21 (3000)
14 (2000)
This table lists the nominal

mixes of concrete with their
class references and gives the
minimum permissible crushing strengths for each mix.
Exact proportions of aggregates are dependent on a
number of factors and will
have to be decided on the job.
'All-in' aggregate may consist of river ballast or a mixture of sand and coarse
aggregate graded in accordance with Table 5 of B.S. 882,
with a nominal maximum
size of 40 mm (li- in.).
Cement:
kg (!b)
'All-in'
aggregate
(dry):
ms (fta)
50 (112)
50 (112)
021 (7i-) 21 (3000)

028 (10) 16 (2300)
Minimum cube
strength:
MN/m 2 (lbffin. 2)
Preliminary Works
tests at
tests at
28 days
28 days
17 (2500)
12 (1700)
Gauging of concreting materials

Fine and coarse aggregates for strucThe bulk of concrete
tural work shall be measured in a weigh- ingredients are measured by
70
EXPLANATORY NOTES
hatching machine of approved design.

The machine shall be maintained in good
working order with periodic checks for
accuracy.
The cement shall be gauged by weight,
using one or more 50 kg (112lb) bags of
cement to each batch. The water for
each batch shall be measured by volume
in a calibrated container.
The Engineer may permit the use of
gauge boxes for the measurement of
aggregates for non-structural concrete,
such as in blinding coats and surrounds
to pipes. Due allowance must be made
for the bulking of the fine aggregate and
the boxes shall be capable of use without dividing the contents of bags of
cement.
weigh-hatching plant, which

is much more convenient,
less laborious and makes for
greater accuracy in use, as
compared with gauge boxes.
Nevertheless, it may be
permissible to allow the use
of gauge boxes for small
quantities of concrete or
where the standards are less
exacting.
Mixing of concrete
Concrete shall be mixed in batch type

mixers of approved design. The volume
of materials inserted per batch shall not
exceed the manufacturer's rated capacity and the volume of each batch shall
be such that only whole bags of cement
will be used. The mixer drum shall be
emptied completely before being refilled.
All materials shall be mixed until the
concrete is uniform in colour and consistency and in no case shall it take less
than two minutes.
At commencement and on completion of each mixing period, the drum of
the mixer shall be thoroughly washed
out with clean water and it shall be kept
free from hardened or partially set
concrete.
Under special circumstances the Engineer may permit hand-mixing of concrete. The ingredients shall be mixed
71
The majority of specifications require concrete to be

mixed in approved batch
type mixers. The accompanying specification clauses list
the principal precautions to
be taken if good quality
concrete is to be produced.
Where small quantities of
non-structural concrete are
required the Engineer may
permit the use of handmixed concrete, subject to
certain conditions.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
dry on a watertight platform until a

uniform colour is obtained. Clean water
shall then be added gradually through
a rose-head and the whole mass turned
over at least three times in a wet state
until it attains a slightly wet consistency.
A 10 per cent reduction shall be made in
the quantities of fine and coarse aggregate at the Contractor's expense and the
concrete shall be carefully checked by
slump test or compacting factor test.
Water content and consistency

Clean water shall be added in the
quantity required to maintain the water/
cement ratio at the optimum value as
determined from the preliminary tests,
to secure a sufficiently impervious concrete of adequate strength and workability, in accordance with CP 2007.
The Contractor shall check the moisture content of the aggregates in
determining the volume of water to be
added to each batch of concrete. The
Contractor shall keep sufficient equipment on the site for carrying out slump
tests and/or compacting factor tests
during each day of concreting in the
manner described in B.S. 1881 and
shall keep a record of these tests.
The following table gives a guide as to
probable test limits.
The water content has to

be kept within narrow limits
to ensure a dense concrete of
adequate strength and impermeability. B.S. 1881:
Methods of Testing Concrete
indicates two ways of testing
the concrete for correct consistency: slump test and compacting factor test.
The accompanying specification clause also indicates
typical limits for slumps and
compacting factors for different classes of work. The
compacting factors can also
vary with different mixes.
Hand compacted concrete:
Slump
Mass concrete filling and blinding
40-65 mm
(lt-2! in.)
50-75 mm
(2-3 in.)
65-90mm
(2!--3! in.)
Reinforced concrete foundations, floors,

beams and slabs
Reinforced concrete columns and walls
72
Compacting
factor
089-093
091-094
093-095
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Vibrated concrete:
Slump
Compacting
factor
Reinforced concrete floors, beams and

slabs
Reinforced concrete columns and walls
(i-1 in.)
15-25 mm
082-085
25-50 mm
(1-2 in.)
085-091
Test cubes
The strength of concrete shall be

determined by tests on cubes made,
cured and tested in accordance with
B.S. 1881 (Parts 7 and 8), except that
the temperature during the first two
weeks of curing shall be between 15 and
21 oc (60 and 70F).
Six cubes shall be taken for each section of the work during each halfday's concreting. If the minimum batch
cube strength (average strength of batch
less twice the value of the standard
deviation of the results) is less than the
specified minimum strengths, the concrete represented by these cubes shall
be cut out and replaced with satisfactory concrete at the Contractor's expense.
Provision must be made

for the taking of a sufficient
number of cubes of concrete
to maintain a check on the
crushing strength of the concrete. The method of applying the results of the tests
must also be indicated.
Percolation tests
Concrete in structures which are to

withstand water under pressure is to be
the subject of percolation tests. The
Contractor shall supply concrete test
slabs 130 mm (5 in.) in diameter and
50 mm (2 in.) thick, gauged in the
specified proportions, to a testing laboratory, where they will be subjected to a
73
There are occasions when

concrete offering a high degree of resistance to water
penetration is necessary, as
with circulating water ducts
on power stations. In these
circumstances it is desirable
to make provision for test
EXPLANATORY NOTES
water pressure equivalent to 12 m

(40 ft) head of water on one side of the
slab for 24 hours. Should dampness
appear on the other side of the slab,
further test slabs shall be prepared with
adjusted proportions of mix. This
procedure shall be repeated until slabs
are produced which satisfactorily meet
the requirements of the test and the mix
adopted in the last test will be used
throughout this class of work.
slabs of concrete to be prepared and subjected to percolation tests, with a view to

determining a suitable mix of
concrete for this class of
work.
Transporting concrete
The concrete must be

All concrete shall be transported
from the mixer to the place of final transported to its final posideposit as speedily as possible, and in tion by a satisfactory method
no case shall this exceed 20 minutes as speedily as possible.
after mixing. The method of transit
shall be such that it will prevent the
segregation, loss or contamination of
the ingredients.
Placing concrete
Before any concrete is placed in

position the shuttering and other adjoining surfaces shall be clean and free from
all foreign matter. Care must be taken
to prevent workmen placing concrete
from introducing clay or other harmful
matter on their boots.
The concrete shall be thoroughly
worked into all parts of the shuttering
and between and around the steel reinforcement, and compacted by approved
methods to give a dense and compact
concrete, free from voids of any kind.
Great care shall be taken to prevent the
displacement or deformation of the
steel reinforcement during concreting.
74
This forms an important

part of any specification
dealing with concrete work,
as special care must be taken
in placing and compacting
concrete if the best results
are to be achieved. Essential
precautions, such as keeping
surfaces of shuttering clean,
preventing the displacement
of
steel
reinforcement,
depositing the concrete in
relatively thin horizontal
layers and finishing at construction joints all need
emphasis.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Concrete placed against shuttering to

form an exposed surface shall be particularly well vibrated or otherwise compacted to produce a perfectly smooth
finish.
Concrete shall be deposited in layers
not exceeding 225 mm (9 in.) in thickness and the surface of all concrete
during depositing shall be kept reasonably level. No concrete shall be allowed
to fall uncontrolled through a height
of more than 125 m (4ft).
No concrete shall be deposited in
water except where indicated on the
drawings or where special permission is
granted by the Engineer. Where permissible, the concrete shall be placed by
tremie pipe or lowered in boxes with
opening bottoms, in bags or by other
approved method.
Concreting shall be carried out continuously between construction joints
with each section completed in a single
working day unless specially authorised
by the Engineer.
Lifts of concrete shall normally be not
less that 600 mm (2ft) nor greater than
2 m (6 ft) in height. In the event of
unavoidable stoppages at positions other
than those required, the concrete shall
be terminated on horizontal planes and
against vertical surfaces, and construction joints shall be formed in these
positions. After being placed in position
the concrete shall not be subjected to
any disturbance other than that associated with compacting.
Where screeds, rendering or granalithic finish are to be applied, the surface
of the concrete shall be left rough to
form a key. Where a smooth floated
finish is required, care shall be taken to
Detailed requirements will

vary from job to job, but the
clauses given form a useful
guide and incorporate the
more usual requirements.
75
EXPLANATORY NOTES
avoid an excess of water in the top layer

of concrete. Where excess moisture
arises, a dry mixture of cement and fine
aggregate in the proportions used in
the concrete shall be sprinkled on the
surface and worked in with a float.
Blinding coat
Reinforced concrete shall not be laid

directly onto earth surfaces. A blinding
coat of 75 mm (3 in.) minimum thickness of concrete class D shall be laid on
the ground before any reinforcement is
placed in position.
It is usual to specify a thin

blinding coat of mass concrete to provide a working
platform for the reinforced
concrete work which follows.
Vibrated concrete
All reinforced concrete of classes A

and B shall be compacted with approved
insertion vibrators operating at a frequency of not less than 5000 cfmin. The
vibrators shall be operated by men
skilled and experienced in this class of
work.
Care shall be taken to prevent contact between the vibrators and the
reinforcement, and to ensure that the
concrete is not vibrated in a manner
likely to cause damage to previously
placed concrete. Vibration shall be discontinued as soon as water or grout
appears on the top of the concrete.
It is a common specification requirement that reinforced concrete in structural

members shall be vibrated to
ensure maximum compaction. It is necessary to insert
clauses to ensure the use of
the right type of vibrator in
a manner which will not produce adverse effects. Vibrators of the needle or shutter
types are often specified.
Construction joints
Construction joints shall be formed

only in positions approved by the
Engineer and the Contractor shall
accept full responsibility for the soundness of such joints.
76

location of construction
joints is approved by the
Engineer, so that these only
occur in places where they
EX PLAN A TORY NOTES
Vertical construction joints in walls

and construction joints in slabs shall be
formed with stop shutters, holed or
slotted for reinforcement. Where joints
are visible on the finished face, a 25 mm
(1 in.) square lath shall be attached to
the main shuttering in order to leave a
clean, straight joint on the face of the
finished work. Joggles 50 mm (2 in.)
deep shall be formed at construction
joints in walls to water-retaining structures of 225 mm (9 in.) or greater
thickness.
Walls and floors exceeding 10 5 m
(35ft) in length shall be constructed in
alternate bays with each bay being not
more than 105 m (35 ft) square. Intermediate bays shall not be placed until
at least 28 days after the adjoining concrete has been laid.
As soon as the concrete has attained
its final set, the surface of the construction joint shall be wire brushed or
hacked as appropriate to remove all
laitance and expose the aggregate. A
coat of cement mortar (1 :2) 15 mm
(! in.) thick shall then be applied to the
washed and cleaned surface and concreting shall follow within 20 minutes.
cause the least possible harm.

For instance, in the case of
reinforced continuous slabs,
the construction joints should
be at the centre of a support
over which such members
will be continuous. In the
case of beams, the joints
should be either over a support or at the centre of the
span.
The accompanying clauses
also outline typical requirements for forming the joints
and for treating the surface
of the joint prior to placing
further concrete.
Expansion joints
Expansion joints shall be formed of

Proprietary materials are
approved non-extruding jointing mater- often specified for this work.
ial sealed with a hot-poured bituminous
sealer.
Surface finish to concrete
The Engineer's representative shall

Provision is made for recinspect all concrete faces after shuttering tifying the smaller defects
77
EXPLANATORY NOTES
has been struck and before any work is

done to the surfaces of the concrete.
All surfaces to be permanently exposed shall be rubbed down to remove
all fins and other projections and all
angles shall be finished satisfactorily.
The rubbing down shall be performed
with power-driven grinding wheels
where necessary.
Any honeycombed surfaces accepted
by the Engineer shall be filled with
cement mortar having the same proportions of cement and fine aggregate as
the concrete and shall be finished to a
true surface with a float.
occurring in concrete surfaces

after the striking of shuttering. On occasion, the Contractor is also required to
wash all exposed surfaces
with water and then to coat
them with a cement wash
(1 part cement: 1! parts fine
sand) rubbed in with carborundum blocks and steel floats.
Concreting in cold weather
The Contractor shall provide sufficient

thermometers for measuring the temperature of the air, mixing water,
aggregates, finished concrete, etc. No
concreting shall be carried out when the
air temperature is below 4oc (40F) or
1oc (34 oF) up to 2 hours before sunset
subject to the following precautions
being taken:
(1) Cement shall be properly stored.
(2) Aggregates shall be protected from
frost by tarpaulins and heated if
necessary.
(3) Mixing water shall be free from ice
and heated if necessary.
(4) Any frost, snow or ice shall be removed from shuttering.
(5) No delay shall occur between mixing and placing concrete and no
concrete shall be left unplaced in
break periods.
(6) All exposed surfaces of concrete,
metal shuttering and projecting reinforcement shall be adequately
78
In the past, the time lost

on civil engineering jobs during very cold weather was
considerable.
In recent years an
endeavour has been made to
find methods of permitting
concreting and other work to
proceed for longer periods
during the winter months.
The provisions described
aim at ensuring that the temperature of the concrete is not
less than 10C (50F) at the
time of placing and is kept
above 4C (40F) for three
days afterwards, or not less
than 4 oc (40F) on placing
and above 2oC (35F) for
seven days afterwards. The
latter periods can be reduced
if rapid-hardening cement is
used.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
covered as soon as practicable, with

a 150 mm (6 in.) air space left
between the concrete and the covering.
(7) Curing times shall be extended by the
number of days on which the temperature falls below 2oC (36F)
unless the Engineer permits the
addition of 1 kg (2! lb) of calcium
chloride per 50 kg (cwt) of cement.
Curing concrete
All exposed concrete surfaces shall be

covered with hessian or other suitable
material, and this shall be kept moist
for at least 14 days after the placing of
the concrete.
Curing is essential to prevent the formation of hair

cracks on the surface of the
concrete caused by the speedy
drying action of sun and
winds.
Fixing bolts, etc.
Anchor bolts, Lewis bolts, ragbolts,

tubes, steel angles, etc., shall be built
into the concrete as shown on the
Drawings or as directed by the Engineer.
Where necessary, temporary wooden
boxes shall be set in the concrete and so
arranged that the box may be withdrawn
and the bolt or other article set in the
recess so formed and grouted up solid.
The Contractor is to include in his price
for temporary boxings and for keeping
the recesses free from oil, grease and
debris.
Bolts are frequently required to be set in the concrete as fixings for machinery,
pipes, etc. Two alternative
procedures are available:
building the bolts into the
concrete as it is placed, or
fixing temporary boxings to
produce holes into which the
bolts can be grouted subsequently.
Pipes through concrete walls, etc.
Pipes shall be built through concrete

The main requirements are
walls and slabs wherever possible at the that the pipes should be
time the concrete is placed. Boxing-out accurately positioned and so
for subsequent insertion shall only be fixed as to secure watertight
79
EXPLANATORY NOTES
adopted with the approval of the

Engineer, and the Contractor shall be
entirely responsible for securing sound
and watertight construction.
The Contractor shall take the greatest
care to set the pipes in the correct
positions and to the required inclinations. In this connection the Contractor
shall collaborate to the fullest possible
extent with any plant contractors involved.
joints. Some Engineers do

not favour boxing-out for
pipes but this procedure is
unavoidable on occasions.
Tests for watertightness of tanks

After at least 28 days from completion
of construction of concrete waterretaining structures, but before backfilling earth around them, the structures
shall be filled with water. After sufficient time has been allowed for absorption, the water level shall be measured
daily for a seven-day period, extended
if necessary for periods of rain.
If leakage occurs, the Contractor
shall be required to make good any
defects and repeat the test for watertightness at his own expense. The
Contractor must allow in his price for
the supply and removal of the water,
sealing and unsealing of pipes, and all
other expenses to be incurred in carrying out the tests.
With reservoirs and tanks

for the storage of sewage,
water, etc., it is essential that
the structures should be
watertight, and tests are
necessary to establish that
this is so.
Concreting records
The Contractor shall be required to
keep the following records.
(1) Daily minimum and maximum
temperatures.
(2) Weather conditions when concreting
is proceeding with reference to
moisture, winds and sunshine.
80
These records may subsequently prove valuable if

parts of the concrete prove
to be sub-standard, as they
may provide a guide to the
probable cause.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
(3) Part of structure concreted each day,

shown on a set of drawings, and
amount of water added to each
batch of concrete suitably recorded.
REINFORCEMENT
Bending reinforcement
All bar reinforcement shall be bent

cold, before the bars are placed in
position. No heating or welding will be
permitted.
Bar reinforcement shall be shaped to
the exact dimensions required. All
bending dimensions and tolerances shall
comply with B.S. 1478. Hooked ends
shall each have an internal diameter of
curvature and a straight length beyond
the semi-circle of at least four times the
diameter of the bar.
It is a usual requirement
that all bar reinforcement
shall be bent cold. It is also
useful to refer to B.S. 1478:
Bending Dimensions and
Scheduling of Bars for the
Reinforcement of Concrete,
for bending dimensions and
tolerances.
Placing reinforcement
All reinforcement shall be set out

exactly as shown on the working drawings. It shall be supported by an adequate number of small precast concrete
blocks with tying wire cast in, or with
other approved spacers. The bars shall
be adequately tied at intersections with
18 gauge annealed steel wire.
All joints in bar reinforcement shall
overlap for a distance of at least 40
times the diameter of the smallest
lapped bar. With fabric reinforcement
the following laps shall operate:
oblong mesh: 450 mm (18 in.) along
longitudinal wires
75 mm (3 in.) along
transverse wires
81
The main points to cover

are the setting out of the bars,
the method of fixing and the
amount of laps. In particular,
pieces of steel or blocks of
wood should not be used to
keep the reinforcing steel
permanently in position.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
square mesh: 300 mm (12 in.) in both

directions
Cover to reinforcement
Reinforcing bars shall be provided

with the following minimum cover of
concrete:
(1) To each end of a reinforcing bar, not
less than 25 mm (1 in.) nor less than
twice the diameter of the bar.
(2) To a longitudinal reinforcing bar in
a column, not less than 40 mm (ll
in.) nor less than the diameter of the
bar.
(3) To a longitudinal reinforcing bar in
a beam, not less than 25 mm (1 in.)
nor less than the diameter of the bar.
(4) To a reinforcing bar in a wall, not
less than 20 mm (!in.) nor less than
the diameter of the bar.
(5) To a reinforcing bar in a slab, not
less than 15 mm (lin.) nor less than
the diameter of the bar.
(6) To any other reinforcement, not less
than 15 mm (l in.) nor less than the
diameter of the bar.
All the above dimensions shall be
increased by 15 mm (lin.) for external
faces of concrete exposed to the weather
and for all faces in contact with earth.
Where external faces of concrete are
exposed to water, the cover of concrete
shall be not less than 50 mm (2 in.).
It is essential that steel

reinforcement in structural
members should be given
sufficient concrete cover to
ensure adequate strength and
prevent the rusting of the
reinforcement. The minimum
amount of cover required
varies with the type of mem
ber, size of bar and position
of the work.
SHUTTERING
Design and construction of shuttering
All shuttering, whether of timber or

The responsibility for
metal, shall be in every respect adapted providing adequate shutterto the structure and to the required ing rests entirely with the
82
EXPLANATORY NOTES
surface finish of the concrete. All shuttering shall be fixed in perfect alignment and be securely braced to withstand, without appreciable displacement, deflection or movement of any
kind, the weight of the construction and
the movement of persons, materials and
plant. Notwithstanding approval by the
Engineer, the strength and adequacy of
the shuttering shall remain the responsibility of the Contractor. All joints shall
be sufficiently close to prevent leakage
ofliquid from the concrete. Wedges and
clamps shall be used wherever practicable in the construction of the shuttering to permit easy adjustment and
removal. Where special surface treatment is required, the shuttering shall be
lined with hardboard.
All pipes, angles, etc., that are
required to be built in or through the
concrete shall be firmly fixed in the
shuttering, which shall be neatly and
accurately cut and fitted around them.
The joints shall be caulked where necessary to prevent leakage of grout or fines.
Contractor. Nevertheless, it
is advisable for the Engineer
to give guidance to the Contractor as to the precautions
to be taken, thus possibly
avoiding failure of the shuttering and consequent delays
to the work.
Where a perfectly smooth
finish is required to the concrete, as to the interior surfaces of circulating water
ducts, it is customary to
specify the use of metal
faced moulds and sheeting.
Shuttering to vibrated concrete

Where concrete is to be vibrated and
timber shuttering is used, all joints shall
be tongued and grooved or the boards
shall have straight parallel edges planed
perpendicular to the board surface.
Where necessary, to prevent leakage of
grout or fines, joints shall be caulked
with putty or other approved material
before concreting is commenced.
Where steel shuttering is used, all
joints and holes in the shuttering shall
be sealed with tape held in position with
spirit or other suitable glue.
83
Shuttering to vibrated concrete has to withstand the

more severe effects resulting
from the vibration. Special
attention has to be directed
to the joints in the shuttering.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Shuttering to beams and slabs
Beam shuttering shall be designed so

that the sides may be removed without
disturbing the bottom boards or their
supports. The bottom boards shall be
set to a camber approximating to the
final deflection as determined by the
Engineer. The supporting struts shall
be adjusted in position and be suitably
supported at their lower ends on proper
soleplates.
Boarded shuttering to the soffit of
slabs shall be laid perfectly true and
adequate bearers and struts shall be
provided.
It is sometimes specified
that the bottoms of beam
shutters should have a camber of from 1/300 to 1/350
of the span according to the
size of beam. Beam shutters
should be so constructed
that the only parts not immediately removable are
those directly above the supporting struts.
Preparation of shuttering
Where narrow members of considerable depth are to be concreted, the Contractor shall, if directed by the Engineer,
provide temporary openings in the sides
of the shuttering to facilitate the pouring and compacting of the concrete.
Small temporary openings shall be provided as necessary at the bottoms of
shuttering to columns, walls and deep
beams to permit the extraction of debris.
Before concreting is commenced,
shuttering and centering shall be carefully examined and cleaned out. The
inside surfaces of the shuttering shall be
coated with approved mould oil to
prevent adhesion of the concrete.
It is essential that all

shutters should be examined
and cleaned out immediately
before concreting is started.
Adequate provision must be
made for access points for
the removal of debris. In
addition to coating the interior surfaces of shuttering
with mould oil, it is a common practice also to require
their wetting to prevent
absorption of the water from
the concrete.
Striking shuttering
No shuttering or supports for shutThe sole responsibility for

tering shall be struck or moved without the removal or striking of
the Engineer's consent. The work of shuttering and supports, and
84
EXPLANATORY NOTES
removing the shuttering or supports

shall be carried out under the personal
supervision of a competent foreman.
The Contractor shall be responsible
for any injury to the work and any
consequential damage caused by or
arising from the moving or striking of
shutters or supports. Any advice, permission or approval given by the Engineer's
representative shall not relieve the
Contractor of his responsibilities.
All shuttering shall be removed without shock or vibration and in the manner
and order approved by the Engineer.
Before the shuttering is stripped, the
concrete surface shall be exposed where
necessary in order to determine whether
the concrete has hardened sufficiently.
In general, the following minimum
times shall elapse between concreting
and striking of shuttering:
in particular its premature

removal, rests with the Contractor.
Some Engineers give guidance on possible minimum
striking periods, such as those
given by the author. These
periods will be reduced if
rapid-hardening cement is
used.
Striking periods are sometimes calculated on the following basis for ordinary
Portland cement concrete and
normal weather conditions:
Bridge abutments and wing
walls: 5 days
Archwork: 28 days
Roof, slabs, beam soffits,
etc.: 7 days plus l day (1 day)
for every metre (foot) of
span over 2 metres (6 feet).
Beam sides: 3 days.
Cold weather
(about freezing point)
Days
Normal weather
(about l6C (60F)
Days
Beam sides, walls

and columns (unloaded) 8
Slabs for X m (ft)

span
! X (1! X) but not

less than 5 (15)
X but not
less than 35 (10)
Beam soffits for

Ym (ft) span
t Y(1!
Ybut not
less than 7 (20)
Y) but
not less than 10 (30)
PRECAST CONCRETE
All precast concrete members shall be

Alternatively, the Engineer
cast on the site on a suitable casting may be prepared to allow the
platform and in accordance with the casting of precast members
85
EXPLANATORY NOTES
detailed drawings. Steel reinforcing bars off the site, although he will
shall be left projecting from the ends of require access to the casting
precast members for building into in area.
situ concrete work.
price for all necessary moulds, handling,
transporting, hoisting and lowering the
precast members into position, temporarily supporting as necessary and
fixing to the satisfaction of the Engineer.
PRESTRESSED WORK
Prestressing equipment and materials
All prestressing steel shall be free

from loose rust, loose mill scale, oil,
grease or any other harmful material.
Cables shall be free from twists and shall
have tags affixed to them indicating the
cable and coil or steel numbers.
All sheaths and cores shall be placed
and maintained in their correct positions while the concrete is being placed.
Cores shall not be extracted until the
concrete has set sufficiently hard to
permit withdrawal without damage.
Joints in sheaths shall be kept to a
minimum and shall be properly sealed.
Ducts through adjoining stressed units
shall be in perfect alignment with one
another and with the anchorage assemblies throughout.
Tensioning procedure
Tensioning shall be carried out only

in the presence of and to the approval
of the Engineer. No member shall be
stressed until the concrete is of the
required age as shown by test cubes.
86
Several proprietary systems of prestressing are in

operation. This makes for
difficulties in specifying the
materials and method of
stressing in general terms.
Nevertheless, there are some
general rules applicable to all
systems and these have been
brought out very effectively
in the Specification for Road
and Bridge Works issued by
the Ministry of Transport.
This document has been used
as a guide in framing the
accompanying specification
clauses.
The tendons shall be stressed gradually

and evenly until they attain the required
stress and shall then be anchored.
After the tendons have been anchored,
the jack pressure shall be released
gradually and evenly. The Contractor
shall keep records of all tensioning
operations, including measured extensions, pressure-gauge and load-meter
readings and amount of pull-in at
anchorages.
Grouting of tendons cannot proceed
until ducts have been cleaned and
anchorages sealed with mortar. The
grout injection equipment shall be able
to operate continuously, recirculate
grout and attain a delivery pressure up
to 07 MN/mz (100 lbfjin. 2). The grout
shall consist of Portland cement and
water with a water/cement ratio not
exceeding 045.
Where members are tensioned off the
site, the Contractor shall notify the
Engineer of the starting dates of the
various operations and shall supply
weekly reports giving details of units
cast and stressed and of test results.
87
EXPLANATORY NOTES
CHAPTER
SIX
Specification of Brickwork, Masonry

and Waterproofing
THIS chapter deals with the drafting of specification clauses covering
brickwork, masonry and waterproofing work. It is desirable that a logical sequence of items should be adopted for each section of work,
preferably beginning with materials clauses and following with particulars of workmanship. It will be appreciated that the detailed requirements vary from job to job and that the typical clauses produced aim
at giving a guide as to their possible form and content.
There are a number of relevant British Standards and Codes of Practice which can be usefully employed and reference is made to most of
them in the typical specification clauses which follow. The principal
items to be covered in specification clauses for each of the three works
sections covered by this chapter are now listed.
BRICKWORK
(1) Bricks
(2) Mortars
(3) Bricklaying generally

(4) Damp-proof courses
(5) Faced brickwork and pointing
(6) Special features or classes of work
MASONRY
(1) Dressed stonework (ashlar)

(2) Various forms of rubble walling (squared, random, dry rubble
walling, etc.)
88
SPECIFICATION OF BRICKWORK, MASONRY, WATERPROOFING
(3) Special stonework (copings, quoins, arch stones, etc.)

(4) Dowels, cramps, etc.
(5) Cast stonework
WATERPROOFING
The nature and content of the specification clauses in this section will
be largely determined by the constructional details of the particular job.
Asphalt is widely used in good-class work and various bituminous
applications are also available, in addition to polythene sheeting, there
is a wide range of proprietary integral waterproofers and waterproofing
paints. In each case, the specification clauses can normally be subdivided into two categories: materials and workmanship. The workmanship clauses will often describe the method of performing the work as
well as the quality required.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
BRICKWORK
Bricks generally
All bricks shall conform to the

requirements of B.S. 3921 and in
addition they shall be hard, sound,
square, well burnt, uniform in texture,
regular in shape, with true square
arrises, and even in size. Care is to be
taken in unloading, stacking and handling and no chipped or damaged bricks
shall be used.
All bricks shall be equal to samples
submitted to and approved by the
Engineer before any brickwork is commenced. Adequate stocks of bricks shall
be maintained on the site to ensure
continuity of working.
All bricks, irrespective of

their type or function, must
conform to certain basic minimum requirements and be
equal in all respects to submitted and approved samples.
The common bricks are

Common bricks. The common bricks
shall be 65 mm (2! in.) commons sup- often obtained from a local
plied by Messrs X or other equal and brickworks when one is
available.
approved.
89
TYPICA L SPECIFI CATION CLAUSE S
EXPLAN ATORY NOTES
Engineering bricks. Engineering bricks

This British Standard
shall conform to the requirements for details two classes of engiclass B engineering bricks in B.S. 3921. neering brick with minimum
average compressive strengths
of 69 MN/m2 {10,000 lbf/in. 2)
for class A bricks and 483
MN/m 2 (7000 lbf/in. 2) for
class B bricks.
Note: These strengths will
probabl y be rounded off to
70 and 50 MN/m2 respectively and might be expressed
in N/mm. 2
Facing bricks. Facing bricks are to be
Antique dark brown facing bricks obtained from Messrs Y at a prime cost of
185 per thousand bricks delivered to
the site.
In most cases the facing

bricks will have been selected
to ensure that the desired
colour and texture of brick is
obtained. The inclusion of a
prime cost prevents each of
the contractors tendering
having to obtain quotations.
Mortar
Mortar for engineering brickwork
shall consist of one part of ordinary
Portland cement, as previously specified, to three parts of sand. The sand
shall comply with B.S. 1200, Table 1,
shall be approved by the Engineer before use and shall be adequately protected from contamination.
Sand shall withstand satisfactorily the
following test. A sample of sand shall be
mixed with water (in the proportions of
one part sand to two parts water) for one
minute in a cylindrical glass jar with a
flat base. It shall then be set aside for
two hours for the contents to settle and
at the end of this period, the top layer
of fine materials shall not exceed 5 per
cent of the volume of the solid matter in
90
Different types and proportions of mortars may be

specified for different classes
of work. Strong cement mortars are needed for heavy loadbearing and damp-resistant
structures, gauged mortar for
general work and possibly
lime mortar for work requiring maximum flexibility, as in
tall chimney shafts.
All the materials used
should comply with the relevant British Standards and
adequate safeguards should
be introduced to cover gauging, mixing, sampling and
use of mortar.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
the jar. The water remaining from the

test shall show no evidence of sewage,
organic or chemical contamination.
Different sands shall be stored separately and sands for pointing shall be
obtained in sufficient quantity at one
time to enable material of the approved
colour to be used for the whole of the
work. Sand for pointing mortar and
fine joint work shall pass a 15 mm
(h in.) square mesh sieve.
Mortar for common and faced brickwork shall consist of gauged mortar
mixed in the proportions of one part of
ordinary Portland cement, one part of
non-hydraulic or semi-hydraulic lime
and six parts of sand. The lime shall
comply with B.S. 890, class B, and shall
be stored in a similar manner to that
described for cement.
All materials for mortar are to be
accurately measured in proper gauge
boxes and shall be mixed on a suitable
stone or wooden banker or in an approved mixer with only sufficient water
added to produce a workable mix. All
gauge boxes, bankers and mixers shall
be kept clean.
The Contractor shall permit samples
of mortar to be taken from time to time
for testing and re-tempering of mortar
will not be permitted. All mortar shall
be mixed in quantities sufficient for only
30 minutes work.
Bricklaying
All brickwork shall be built to the
dimensions, thicknesses and heights and
in the positions shown on the Drawings
or as directed by the Engineer and in
conformity with CP 121.101. Clean off
91
It is usual to specify that

all brickwork shall be laid to
the dimensions and in the
positions shown on the Drawings. It is also advisable to
EXPLANATORY NOTES
and prepare all concrete and other surfaces on which bricks are to be laid.
All brickwork shall be built uniform,
true and level, with all perpends vertical
and in line, and shall rise 300 mm
(12 in.) in every four courses. No brickwork shall rise more than 125 m (4ft)
above adjoining work during bricklaying and the work in rising shall be
properly toothed and racked back.
All bricks shall be wetted sufficiently
prior to laying to avoid excessive suction. All bed and vertical joints shall be
filled solid with mortar as the bricks are
laid. Bricks shall be laid with frogs
uppermost and shall be wetted during
hot weather.
Prices for brickwork shall include the
cost of all necessary scaffolding.
prescribe
general
rules
governing bricklaying to ensure thoroughly sound and
stable brickwork. Note the
reference to the relevant Code
of Practice.
Bonding of brickwork
Walls exceeding 115 mm (4! in.) in
thickness shall be built in English bond
unless otherwise directed by the Engineer. Half-brick walls shall be constructed in stretcher bond. Hollow walls
shall be constructed of two half-brick
skins separated by a 50 mm (2 in.)
cavity and tied with three 150 mm
(6 in.) galvanised strip-type fish-tailed
ties to B.S. 1243 per square metre
(sq. yd) in staggered formation. All ties
shall be kept clear of mortar droppings.
The use of snap headers shall not be
permitted and bats shall be allowed only
as closures.
It is necessary to specify
the bonds to be used in the
construction of the brickwork and to state the number
and type of wall ties in hollow
walls.
Labours to brickwork
The type of labours inThe Contractor shall build in or cut
and pin the ends of joists, lintels, steps, volved will vary from job to
92
EXPLANATORY NOTES
corbels, etc., and shall build in all frames

and bed and point in cement mortar.
The Contractor shall perform all
necessary rough and fair cutting and
shall form all necessary chases and
reveals.
The Contractor shall rake out joints
of brickwork for the insertion of metal
flashings, wedge the flashings and afterwards repoint the joints in cement
mortar.
job and the specification

writer must examine the
drawings carefully, in order
to pick up all the labours
needed and describe them in
the specification.
Bricklaying in frosty weather
When frost is likely to occur brickwork shall be properly protected and

covered with sacking, tarpaulins or
other suitable material in the manner
recommended in CP 121.101. Any
brickwork which has been affected by
frost shall be pulled down and rebuilt
at the Contractor's expense.
Protection shall also be provided
against heavy rain or other severe
weather ,conditions.
The Contractor is invariably required to protect

new brickwork adequately
against frost and other severe
weather conditions. Responsibility for the replacement of
work damaged by the lack of
such protective measures rests
with the Contractor.
Damp-proof courses
(a) Engineering bricks. The Contractor

shall lay over the full thickness of all
walls in the positions indicated on the
Drawings, a damp-proof course of two
courses of class B engineering bricks to
B.S. 3921 bedded and pointed in cement
mortar (1 : 3).
(b) Bitumen felt. The Contractor shall
lay over the full thickness of all walls in
the positions indicated on the Drawings
a damp-proof course of a single layer of
bitumen felt, incorporating a hessian
93
Various damp-proof course

materials are available, from
engineering bricks and slates
to bitumen felt and sheet
metals. Two of the most
popular materials have been
taken to illustrate the approach usually adopted. Note
the reference to relevant
British Standards wherever
possible and the need to state
the extent of laps with materials supplied in rolls.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
base and a layer of lead in accordance

with B.S. 743, type 5 D. Joints in the
bitumen felt shall be kept to a minimum
and the damp-proof course shall be
lapped 225 mm (9 in.) at joints. The
bitumen felt shall be bedded and
pointed in cement mortar (1 : 3).
Faced brickwork
Facing bricks of the type specified
shall be laid in the positions indicated
on the Drawings and all facing brickwork shall be well bonded to the backing
bricks. No facing brickwork shall at any
time be more than 600 mm (2ft) above
the backing brickwork.
All facing brickwork shall be pointed
with a rubbed joint as the work proceeds and internal faces of brickwork
shall be pointed with a neat flush joint
to give a fair face.
Faced work shall be kept clean at all
times and scaffold boards adjoining
brick faces shall be turned back at
nights or during heavy rain. All faced
brickwork shall be cleaned down as
necessary on completion to give an
even-coloured surface free of mortar
droppings or staining of any kind. The
Contractor shall carefully fill all putlog
holes with bricks similar to the surrounding brickwork, point up as required and
generally make good.
Faced brickwork is normally provided to the external

wall faces of buildings to
enhance their appearance.
Numerous types of facing
bricks and methods of pointing are available. Pointing
can be performed as the bricklaying proceeds or be left
until the brickwork is complete. The joints are then
raked out and pointed to
secure a uniform treatment
throughout. Brick joints can
be :finished flush, struck or
weathered; have a shallow,
rounded or rectangular recess; or take a more complex form.
Reinforced brickwork
Reinforced brickwork shall be proBrickwork is sometimes
vided with strips of No. 20 gauge ex- reinforced to increase its
panded metal in each bed joint as shown resistance to tensile and shear
on the Drawings. The expanded metal stresses.
94
EXPLANATORY NOTES
reinforcement shall be lapped a minimum of 450 mm (18 in.) at joints.

Chimney shaft linings
Chimney shaft linings shall be formed

of a 115 mm (4! in.) lining of Messrs X
or other approved solid grade insulating
blocks jointed in mortar composed of
one part Portland cement and four parts
of Messrs X No. 6 F powder or other
approved mix. The linings shall be tied
to the main brickwork with galvanised
steel ties, as specified, 1 metre (3 ft)
apart and in every third course.
Tall chimney shafts often

have an inner lining of special
heat-resisting bricks. As the
lining is not bonded to the
main brickwork, it is necessary to insert ties connecting
the two.
Clauses covering any other
special classes of brickwork,
such as glazed bricks and
brick arches, can conveniently
follow at this stage.
MASONRY
Dressed stonework
All dressed stone shall be sandstone

obtained from Messrs X's quarry and
shall be free from vents, clayholes, discolourations or other defects and be of
even texture and colour. The stone shall
be laid on its natural or quarry bed.
All dressed stone is to match in colour
and texture the samples of stone submitted to and approved by the Engineer.
Every stone shall ring clearly when
struck with a hammer.
The mortar for bedding and jointing
shall consist of one part ordinary Portland cement to B.S. 12, one part lime
and six parts sand. The lime shall be
semi-hydraulic lime conforming to B.S.
890, Part I, class B, and the sand shall
comply with B.S. 1200 (grading as
Table 1).
95
Dressed stone or ashlar is

usually employed as a stone
face to a rubble, brick or
concrete wall, to produce a
first-class finish and possibly
to harmonise with walling in
the vicinity of the job.
Ashlar is usually defined
as masonry consisting of fine
blocks of stone, finely squaredressed to given dimensions
and laid in courses of not less
than 300 mm (12 in.) in
height with fine joints.
The specification clauses
should preferably begin with
material requirements and
then follow with details of
workmanship.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Each stone shall be set on a full mortar

To obtain a satisfactory
bed not less than 5 mm
in.) thick and finish to the stonework, it is
the beds shall be damped with water necessary for the stones to be
before setting the stonework. All stone- carefully dressed and laid
work shall be carried out in general with fine joints. Provision
should also be made for the
conformity with CP 121.201.
Each stone shall be of the dimensions protection of the stonework
shown on the Drawings and the backs from damage by frost, rain
shall be dressed at right angles to the bed. or other causes and for the
All beds shall be set horizontally and replacement of damaged
dressed to even surfaces throughout. work by the Contractor at
All joints shall be dressed for the full his own expense.
depth of the stone and the exposed faces
Mason's mortars are someshall be chiselled to a fair surface.
times used in preference to
The whole of the dressed stone shall gauged mortars, a common
be set in gauged mortar (1 : 1 : 6) and mix by volume being:
neatly jointed as the work proceeds. 12 parts crushed stone
Clean down all exposed faces of dressed 3 parts lime putty or hydrated
stone to remove all dirt and mortar
lime
stains and leave in perfect condition free 1 part Portland cement.
from any defacement.
The prices for dressed stone shall
include for chiselled exposed faces,
preparatory labours, beds, joints, back
faces, sunk faces, splays, transporting,
storage, hoisting, setting in mortar and
jointing as the work proceeds.
No stonework shall proceed when the
temperature falls below 1oc (34 oF) and
all work must be adequately protected
with sacking, tarpaulins or other suitable material against frost and rain.
Any work damaged by frost or rain shall
be relaid with fresh mortar at the Contractor's expense.
The Contractor shall suitably protect
all dressed stonework and make good
any damaged stonework at his own
expense and to the satisfaction of the
Engineer. Any chipped or broken stones
shall be cut out and replaced.
u6
96
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Rubble walls
Squared rubble, built to courses. Squared
rubble shall consist of approved stone
from Messrs X's quarry and no stones
shall be less than 225 mm (9 in.) long,
150 mm (6 in.) wide and 100 mm (4 in.)
deep. All stones shall be roughly
squared and dressed smooth on beds
and joints for a distance of at least
100 mm (4 in.) from the exposed face.
Bond stones shall be provided at the
rate of at least one to each square metre
(sq. yd) of exposed face: they shall
measure at least 150 mm x 150 mm
(6 in. x 6 in.) on the face and extend for
three-quarters of the thickness of the
wall. Vertical joints shall not extend
past more than three stones and the
horizontal lapping of stones shall be not
less than 100 mm (4 in.). The stonework shall be levelled up at intervals of
about 600 mm (24 in.), and all stones
shall be solidly bedded and jointed in
gauged mortar (1: 1 : 6) with flush joints
as the work proceeds.
In squared rubble the

stones are roughly squared
and small stones are sometimes introduced to assist
bonding. These are generally
referred to as 'sneck' stones.
In work built to courses the
stonework is levelled up at
intervals varying between
300 mm (12 in.) and 1 m
(36 in.) in the height of the
wall. This form of walling
provides a reasonably economical and regular stone
finish. Squared rubble can
also be built coursed or
uncoursed.
Random rubble, uncoursed. Random

rubble shall consist of approved stone
from Messrs X's quarry, carefully selected by the mason or waller to obtain a
good bond and shall be hammer-pitched
on exposed surfaces. Bond stones shall
be provided at the rate of at least one to
each square yard of exposed face, they
shall measure at least 150 mm x 150 mm
(6 in. x 6 in.) on the face and extend for
three-quarters of the thickness of the
wall.
Stones shall be solidly bedded and
jointed in gauged mortar (1 : 1 : 6) with
flush joints as the work proceeds. The
Random rubble may be

uncoursed or brought to
courses. This represents the
cheapest form of stone walling and has an irregular appearance. Bond stones are
needed to give the wall
adequate strength and the
interior voids are usually
filled with small stones.
97
EXPLANATORY NOTES
interior spaces in the wall shall be filled

with small pieces of stone grouted in
position.
Dry rubble walling. Dry rubble boundary
walls shall be constructed of approved
stones of the type specified for random
rubble. The stones shall be roughly
dressed and laid on edge at a slope with
the hearting formed of small stones.
The stones shall be laid in such a manner that rain penetrating the outer face
will run out at a lower level.
This type of walling is occasionally used for boundary

walls in rural areas and is
similar to uncoursed random
rubble with the omission of
mortar from the joints.
Special stonework
Coping stones in natural stone shall

be of approved stone, dressed with a
smooth finish to the shapes and dimensions shown on the working drawings,
of B.S. 3798. The coping stones shall be
laid to the correct lines and bedded and
jointed in gauged mortar (1: 1: 6).
Quoins, plinths, voussoirs and other
special stonework shall be of approved
stone dressed to the finishes, shapes and
dimensions shown on the working drawings and bedded and jointed in the
manner indicated.
This clause refers the Contractor to the working drawings for some of the more
detailed requirements. Where
this procedure is adopted, it
is essential that the Contractor should be supplied with
these drawings at the time
of tendering. Alternatively, a
full description can be given
in the specification, such as
'375 mm x 150 mm (15 in. x
6 in.) parapet coping, weathered on top with 60 mm
(2! in.) throated projection
at each edge'.
Dowels and cramps
Copper dowels, 25 mm (1 in.) square

and 75 mm (3 in.) long, shall be fixed
between column stones and in other
positions indicated on the Drawings or
where directed by the Engineer. The
dowels shall penetrate an equal distance
98
Both dowels and cramps

are used to join stones together and keep them in their
correct positions. Dowels are
fixed in a vertical plane and
cramps are used horizontally.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
into each stone and shall be set in

cement mortar.
Gunmetal cramps, 225 mm {9 in.)
long by 40 mm {1! in.) wide by 5 mm
(1 in.) thick with each end turned at
right angles for a distance of 40 mm
(1! in.), shall be provided at each joint
between coping stones. The Contractor
shall form suitable mortices to receive
the cramps which shall be set in cement
mortar. The cramps shall extend for an
equal distance into each stone.
As an alternative, slate can be

used for both dowels and
cramps. The metal used must
be non-corrodible.
Cast stonework
Cast stone shall be obtained from an
approved manufacturer and shall comply with the requirements of B.S. 1217.
The facing shall be not less than 20 mm
(! in.) thick and shall consist of one
part of white Portland cement to three
parts of Bath stone aggregate with a
maximum size of 15 mm (! in.) The
faces of the stones shall be smooth, even
and free from crazing, and equal to
samples submitted to and approved by
the Engineer. Aggregates used in the
concrete core shall comply with B.S.
882.
The Contractor shall be responsible
for protecting cast stonework on the
site. Metal bond ties shall be cast into
the stones as shown on the Drawings or
directed by the Engineer.
The stones shall be bedded and
pointed in one operation with a mason's
mortar consisting of one part Portland
cement to two parts white hydrated
cement and eight parts clean fine aggregate, all by volume. Facing stones shall
be brought up in courses to a height not
exceeding 1 m (3 ft) in one operation.
99
Cast stone is a material

manufactured from cement
and natural aggregate for use
in a manner similar to and
for the same purposes as
natural stone. The term includes reconstructed stone
and artificial stone.
Cast stone often consists of
a comparatively thin facing
incorporating crushed stone,
around a core of structural
concrete.
Reference should be made
to B.S. 1217: Natural Stone,
for basic requirements and
any additional particulars
added in the specification.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
The concrete backing shall then be

brought up and well compacted around
the stones and projecting metal ties.
WATERPROOFING
Asphalt
Asphalt for tanking and damp-proof
courses shall comply with the requirements of B.S. 1097 (mastic asphalt with
limestone aggregate) or B.S. 1418 (mastic asphalt with natural rock asphalt
aggregate).
The most efficient waterproofing membrane consists

of asphalt, of which mastic
asphalt is the most suitable
for this purpose.
Asphalt work
All asphalt work shall be carried out

by workmen experienced in the preparation and laying of mastic asphalt.
Horizontal membranes shall be laid
in three thicknesses, each with 75 mm
(3 in.) laps, to a total thickness of
30 mm (It in.), and shall be carried
through walls to connect with vertical
membranes with a two-coat angle fillet
in the manner shown on the Drawings.
All surfaces to be covered with asphalt
shall be dry and free from dirt or loose
material immediately prior to the application of asphalt.
Vertical membranes shall be applied
in three thicknesses with 75 mm (3 in.)
laps, to a total thickness of not less than
20 mm (!in.).
Where necessary, protect the asphalt
by laying loading coats of concrete as
soon as each section of asphalt work is
complete. Pumping shall be continued
until the concrete loading coat is set.
100
To ensure satisfactory
results it is necessary to lay
the asphalt in a minimum
number of coats with a minimum total thickness and the
requirements vary for different situations. The accompanying specification clauses
indicate the generally accepted minimum requirements.
Other basic requirements
include the provision of laps
between adjoining coats of
asphalt and two-coat angle
fillets at the junction of
horizontal and vertical work.
Asphalt tanking must be
continuous and it should
therefore be carried under
stanchion bases by lining
their pits. It is also important to protect all asphalt as
the work proceeds. Where a
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Asphalt for use on roofs shall comply with B.S. 988 or B.S. 1162 and shall
be laid to falls on an underlay of sheathing felt. Mastic asphalt to fiat roofs shall
be laid in two thicknesses with 75 mm
(3 in.) laps, to a total thickness of not
less than 20 mm (i in.). At the junctions
of fiat roofs and parapet walls, twocoat asphalt skirtings shall be provided
150 mm (6 in.) in height above the
highest part of the roof. Two-coat angle
fillets shall be provided at the junction
of the skirting and the roof, and the top
of the skirting shall be splayed, turned
at least 25 mm (1 in.) into a groove in
the brickwork or concrete, and pointed
or connected to a damp-proof course in
the parapet wall. Mastic asphalt roofing
shall be laid in accordance with CP 144.
201.
horizontal layer of asphalt

is to be covered by reinforced
concrete, it is advisable to
lay a 50 mm (2 in.) layer of
concrete in advance of the
laying of the reinforcement
to avoid damage to the
asphalt.
Bitumen sheeting
Bitumen sheeting shall comply with
B.S. 747 type 1C, weighing not less than
1 kg/m 2 (2! lb/yd 2). For roof coverings
the sheeting shall be applied in three
layers, the bottom layer being of asbestos based felt, type 2A, and the top
layer shall be covered with white Derbyshire spar chippings set on a coat of
cold dressing compound.
All surfaces shall be dry and free from
dirt and loose material immediately
prior to the application of bitumen
primer or an approved cut-back bitumen solution of suitable viscosity. The
sheeting shall be laid with laps of not
less than 50 mm (2 in.), and a coat of
hot ox.idised or blown bitumen bonding
compound shall be applied between
adjacent sheets. Splayed or rounded
101
An alternative and cheaper

form of waterproofing is
provided by the use of bitumen sheeting. The sheeting
should conform to one of the
classes detailed in B.S. 747, it
should be properly lapped,
and each sheet should be
fixed and sealed with hot
bitumen to ensure a sound
and waterproof job.
angle fillets shall be provided at the

junction of horizontal and vertical surfaces.
Bitumen felt roof coverings shall be
laid in accordance with CP 144.101:
Bitumen Felt Roof Coverings. The
Contractor shall be responsible for the
protection of all bitumen sheeting
throughout the period of the Contract.
102
EXPLANATORY NOTES
CHAPTER SEVEN
Specification of Piling
EXTENSIVE use is made of piles in civil engineering work, often for
the purpose of transmitting heavy loads down to a firm stratum at a
considerable depth below ground level. Sheet piling is used extensively
to hold back water or loose soil and to form the walls of wharves,
jetties, etc.
There are three main classes of piling: timber, reinforced concrete and
steel sheet. Reinforced concrete piles can be cast or formed in situ, and
there is a wide variety of proprietary in situ concrete piling systems. In
one method a steel lining tube is sunk by a mechanical auger until a
satisfactory bearing stratum is reached, concrete is forced into an enlarged base, steel reinforcement with helical binding is lowered down
the temporary lining tube and further concrete is placed and rammed as
the lining tube is withdrawn. Another method makes use of compacted
gravel in place of concrete and the interstices in the gravel are subsequently filled with cement grout injected under pressure.
Different methods can be employed for excavating the soil from the
pile holes, such as the use of cutters or shells inside lining tubes. Yet
another system entails the driving of a conical cast iron shoe at the base
of a steel tube; the steel tube may be left in position or withdrawn
according to circumstances. In both cases steel reinforcement and concrete will be placed in the void. Another system uses a revolving screw
pile shoe to bore through the various strata.
When specifying contractor-designed concrete piles it is usual to
state the superimposed load to be carried by each pile, the method of
disposal of any surplus spoil, any restrictions regarding the type of pile
or method of driving and the finished levels of tops of piles in relation
to ground level.
103
With piles other than contractor-designed, it is advisable to set out

the specification requirements in a logical sequence to assist the Contractor in reading the document and to reduce the risk of omission of
essential details. As with the work previously described, it is good
practice to insert materials clauses for each class of piling followed by
workmanship and other requirements.
The following lists of items give a typical range of clauses covering
each of the three main classes of piling.
CONCRETE PILES (CAST)
(1) Concrete
(2) Reinforcement
(3) Shoes
(4) Casting
(5) Curing, stripping and stacking
(6) Ready-made piles
(7) Trial piles
(8) Handling
(9) Pitching and driving
(10) Lengthening piles
Alternatively, concrete piles may be formed in situ, when they are
likely to be constructed under a proprietary system. When engineerdesigned, it is usual to specify the dimensions of piles, class of concrete
and type and size of reinforcement. In addition, clauses normally will
be included relating to compaction of concrete and cover to reinforcing
bars, and the Contractor is usually required to keep a record of the
construction of each pile and to test certain piles.
TIMBER PILES
(1) Timber
(2) Piles
(3) Creosoting or tarring
(4) Shoes and rings
(5) Pitching and driving
(6) Cutting off heads of piles
104
SPECIFICATION OF PILING
STEEL SHEET PILING
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Steel sheet piles

Driving
Damaged piles
Cutting piles
Drilling piles
A selection of typical specification clauses for piling follow:

EXPLANATORY NOTES
CONCRETE PILES (CAST)
Concrete
Concrete shall be mixed in the proportions of 50 kg (112 lb) of Portland

cement to 013 m3 (4! ft 3 ) of aggregate
with a maximum size of 20 mm (i in.).
Minimum compressive strengths 28 days
after mixing shall be 39 MN/m 2 (5600
lbf/in. 2) on a preliminary test and
29 MN/m 2 (4200 lbfjin. 2) on a works
test.
The cement and aggregate shall comply with the requirements under 'Concrete Work' (see Chapter 5).
Mix and strength requirements should be given, but

the Contractor can be referred
to previous clauses for materials, and for gauging and
mixing requirements as necessary. In some cases rapidhardening cement may be
specified. Alternatively, the
compressive strengths might
be expressed in N/mm. 2
Reinforcement
Reinforcement shall consist of 30 mm

(1! in.) diameter mild steel bars and
6 mm (! in.) diameter binding links to
B.S. 785, bent and fixed as shown on the
Drawings. Main reinforcing bars shall
be supplied in one complete length as
far as possible; where this is impracticable, separate lengths shall be satisfactorily spliced or butt welded. Steel
skeletons or cages shall be fabricated
before being placed in the moulds.
105
General requirements with

regard to the nature and
method of fixing steel reinforcement should be given.
Note the requirements relating to fabrication of steel
cages and the use of forks or
stretchers.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Pressed steel forks or stretchers, machine moulded and true to length, shall
be fixed in the positions indicated on the
Drawings, to keep the binding links
taut.
Shoes
Chilled hardened cast iron shoes

The type and weight of
with mild steel straps, weighing 25 kg shoe should be stated, to(56lb) each, as supplied by Messrs X or gether with fixing requireother equal and approved, shall be ments.
provided, shall be accurately fitted to
the piles and tied to the pile reinforcement.
Casting
Concrete piles shall be cast in wrought

timber or other approved moulds on a
substantial horizontal platform capable
of carrying the weight of the piles without appreciable deflection. The concreting of each pile shall be completed in
one continuous operation free from
interruptions of any kind.
All arrises of piles shall be chamfered
and holes for lifting tackle shall be
formed through piles in the positions
shown on the Drawings.
General requirements are

given as to moulds and casting platforms. Timber, steel
or composite moulds would
normally be permissible. It
is essential that each pile
should be cast in a single
operation. Note the requirement as to chamfered arrises.
Curing, stripping and stacking
Piles made with ordinary Portland

cement shall be kept moist for a minimum period of 14 days after casting.
Side forms may be stripped 1 day and
bottom forms 10 days after casting,
provided the piles are kept supported on
level blocks spaced not more than 2 m
(6 ft) apart.
106
It is essential that piles

should be properly cured and
that forms are not stripped
prematurely. Piles must not
be driven before they have
matured sufficiently. The
periods quoted can be reduced where rapid-hardening
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Piles may be lifted 21 days after cast- and other special types of
ing and moved to a suitable stacking cement are used.
site, but they shall not be driven until
at least 6 weeks after casting. Each pile
shall be suitably marked with the date
of casting and the stacks so arranged as
to permit the use of piles in correct age
order.
Ready-made piles
The Contractor may use ready-made

piles with the approval of the Engineer.
The Contractor shall provide details of
the manufacturer and the piles to be
supplied, which shall be produced
strictly in accordance with the requirements of the previous clauses. Care shall
be taken to prevent damage to the piles
in transit.
The use of ready-made

piles will often result in the
earlier supply of piles, but
care is needed to prevent
damage to piles in transit.
The Engineer will have right
of access to the supplier's
casting yard.
Trial piles
The Contractor shall, as soon as

practicable after the acceptance of his
tender, cast, drive and test trial piles
made with an approved rapid-hardening cement, either singly or in groups in
permanent positions as directed by the
Engineer. The trial piles shall be manufactured in conformity with the requirements of the relevant clauses in the
specification.
It is customary for the

Contractor to be required to
cast, drive and test a number
of trial piles on the site with
a view to determining the
probable lengths of the piles
generally.
Handling
Piles shall be carefully handled and
lifted and shall not be jolted or stacked
in a manner which will subject them to
bending. No pile shall be lifted other
than by slinging from the lifting holes.
107
The lifting holes are usually formed at the quarter

points in the pile. Alternatively, cast iron pipes may be
cast into the piles for lifting
purposes.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Pitching and driving

Piles shall be pitched accurately in the
required positions and shall be driven
to the lines shown on the Drawings.
Any piles which are out of alignment or
verticality shall be withdrawn and repitched.
Single acting rams or drop hammers
weighing not less than 3000 kg (3 tons)
and giving 40 blows per minute with a
drop of 1 m (3 ft) shall be used for driving piles. Driving shall continue until
the piles penetrate to a minimum depth
of 75 m (25ft) below dredged level or
until a set of 25 mm (1 in.) has been
obtained for the last 10 blows of the
monkey with the specified drop.
Raking piles shall be driven accurately to the rake shown on the Drawings. The pile frame shall be fitted with
leads capable of adjustment to the
required angle and extension leads shall
be used where necessary.
Piling frames must be capable of
driving piles below the level of the base
of the frame. The Engineer or his
representative shall be present when
each pile is driven to its final set. Suitable
helmets shall be fitted to the heads of
piles to prevent damage during driving.
The Contractor shall supply the Engineer with a report containing a complete record of the results of the driving
of each pile.
Mter piles have been driven to the
required set and to the satisfaction of
the Engineer, the concrete shall be cut
away from the head of each pile for a
distance of 600 mm (2ft) and the main
reinforcing bars bent as necessary for
connection to intersecting members.
108
It is usual to indicate in the

specification the type of piling
plant to be used and the
method of determining the
lengths of piles. Other common requirements cover the
use of helmets, stripping of
heads of piles and supply of
records covering pile-driving
operations.
On occasions the lengths
of piles are determined by
reference to test piles driven
in advance of the main piles.
The Engineer will then decide
on the lengths to which the
remainderofthepilesareto be
constructed and may vary the
type and weight of hammer to
be used.
The weights of hammers
vary between 2000 and 4000
kg (2 and 4 tons) and the
drop or free fall of the
hammer is often 1 m (3 ft or
3ft 6 in.).
The Contractor's report
normally gives details of pile
reference and location, and
shortening or lengthening
details, depth of penetration,
set and safe load.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Where piles extend for more than

600 mm (2ft) above the required level,
the surplus length shall be cut off and
removed unless the Engineer directs
otherwise. The Contractor's billed rates
shall include for stripping heads and
cutting off surplus lengths of piles.
Lengthening of piles
Where piles require to be lengthened,

the reinforcing bars shall be stripped of
concrete for a minimum distance of
600 mm (2ft). The old concrete must be
adequately roughened and rinsed with
clean water prior to the application of a
neat cement slurry and a 5 mm (! in.)
thick layer of cement mortar of the
same proportions as that contained in
the concrete mix.
The additional reinforcement shall be
spliced or butt-welded to the exposed
reinforcing bars, as directed by the
Engineer. The new concrete shall be of
the same mix as the original concrete and
shall be adequately compacted between
suitable moulds. The Engineer may permit the use of rapid-hardening Portland
cement or high alumina cement in the
new concrete where desirable.
The specification requirements aim at securing a

satisfactory connection between the new and the old
concrete and reinforcement
respectively. It is customary
to use butt joints for this
purpose. The use of rapidhardening or high alumina
cement may be permitted to
speed up the work.
TIMBER PILES
Timber
Timber for piles shall be greenheart
of good quality, straight, sound, sawn
square, well seasoned and free from rot,
worm, beetle, injuries, shakes, large and
decayed knots or other defects and shall
conform to B.S. 1860, Part I.
109
It is good policy to begin

with a clause covering timber
requirements to ensure the
use of timber of adequate
strength and durability. Note
the reference to B.S. 1860
EXPLANATORY NOTES
dealing with the measurement of characteristics affecting the strength of structural

softwood.
Piles
Piles shall be at least 300 mm x

300 mm (12 in. x 12 in.) and shall be
properly pointed and shod, and be
provided with rings at their heads.
Piles are to be driven at least 3m (10ft)
into the river bed.
A common size for timber

piles is 300 mm x 300 mm
(12 in. x 12 in.). Average
lengths are sometimes included in the specification
particulars.
Creosoting
Creosoting of timber piles shall be

carried out in accordance with the
requirements of B.S. 913 (full cell process) and the creosote shall comply with
B.S. 144. The timber shall be worked,
incised 20 mm (i in.) deep and have
clean surfaces and a moisture content
not exceeding 25 per cent prior to pressure creosoting. All later cuts shall
receive two brush coats of creosote prior
to the fixing of the timber in its final
position.
It is essential to list preparation work on the timber

prior to creosoting and to
detail the method of creosoting. Note the use of British
Standards to ensure a good
standard with a minimum of
description.
Tarring
All connecting surfaces of timbers,
scarf joints and cut ends shall receive
two coats of hot coal tar complying with
B.S. 3051 before the timbers are fixed.
Mter completion the whole of the timberwork shall be painted with two coats
of hot coal tar.
The application of coal tar

is an alternative to creosote.
The Contractor is referred to
a British Standard for the
detailed requirements.
Shoes and rings
The points of all timber piles shall be

protected with cast iron shoes weighing
110
Timber piles need protection by metalwork at both
EXPLANATORY NOTES
not less than 125 kg (28 lb) each,

securely fixed to the timber with
wrought iron straps. The heads of timber piles shall be protected with tightly
fitting mild steel or wrought iron rings,
75 mm (3 in.) wide x 20 mm (! in.)
thick.
ends. Sufficient information

should be given to avoid any
doubt as to the Engineer's
requirements.
Pitching and driving
Timber piles shall be accurately

pitched in the required positions and
driven to the lines and levels shown on
the Drawings or as directed by the
Engineer. The driving hammer shall
weigh not less that 2000 kg (2 tons),
shall not drop a greater distance than
2m (6ft), and shall be guided by leads
to ensure that the piles are driven in
correct alignment and to the required
batter.
Any piles driven out of line, broken,
split or otherwise damaged are to be
withdrawn and replaced where necessary. Maximum permissible deviations
shall be 50 mm (2 in.) for alignment and
2 per cent for verticality.
The depth of penetration

of the piles may be determined in various ways,
including the attainment of a
certain set when the length of
pile is not readily determinable. The weight of the driving hammer may be varied to
suit the particular strata encountered.
Timber piles to wharves
and jetties are often driven to
a batter of about 1 in 24.
Cutting off pile heads
After timber piles have been driven to

the required set and to the satisfaction
of the Engineer, the heads shall be cut
off square at the levels shown on the
Drawings or as directed by the Engineer.
When estimating the lengths of timber
piles the Contractor shall make allowance for the removal of damaged timber
in pile heads.
111
Even although rings are

provided, timber in the heads
of piles becomes compressed
and splits from the impact of
the driving hammer. It must
then be removed.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
STEEL SHEET PILING
Steel sheet piles
Steel sheet piling shall be Messrs X

No. 3 section, weighing 57 kg (4135
lb/ft) or other equal and approved, and
it shall conform with the requirements
of B.S. 15: Mild Steel for General Structural Purposes. The piles shall be free of
pronounced warp, have properly formed
interlocks and be free from cracks at
folds. The piling shall be coated with an
acid-resisting tar based paint before
delivery to site.
special closer piles and shall allow for
thoroughly greasing the locks of piles
before pitching.
Driving
necessary frames, leaders, etc., needed
for driving the steel sheet piling. A suitable helmet shall be provided to prevent
damage to the head of the pile when
driving. The piles shall be guided and
held in position by adequate temporary
walings and struts and all precautions
shall be taken to ensure that the piles
are driven in correct alignment. The
Contractor shall submit to the Engineer
or his representative for approval the
method he proposes to use for the driving of piles.
The sheet piles shall be driven accurately and truly vertical to the lines and
levels shown on the Drawings or as
directed by the Engineer. Any creep
occurring shall be eliminated in a manner approved by the Engineer.
112
The Engineer may specify

a particular make and type
of pile or specify that the
piles shall be of approved
type, giving greater flexibility
to the Contractor.
The Contractor is required

to provide all plant, equipment and labour necessary
to drive the steel sheet piling
satisfactorily in the required
positions and to the appropriate depths.
The piles may be driven
singly or in pairs and they
must be properly interlocked
throughout the whole of the
driving period. It is good
practice to specify the action
to be taken when obstructions
are encountered or when
piles are driven below the
required level.
Where the steel sheet piling is to be tied back to
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Where the driving of any pile or pair

of piles meets obstruction or resistance,
it shall be discontinued and the driving
of other piles commenced and/or continued until the final level is reached.
The Contractor shall return to the piles
meeting obstruction or resistance and
recommence driving until the final level
is reached or, on the instructions of the
Engineer, the affected piles are cut off
at a suitable level.
Any piles driven deeper than the
required level shall be withdrawn to the
correct level. Existing piles on the site of
the new work shall be withdrawn completely and re-driven in new positions
as shown on the Drawings.
concrete, one method is to

weld mild steel tangs, about
15 mmx50 mmx375 mm
(! in. x 2 in. x 15 in.) girth, to
the back of the sheeting. One
endofeachtangwillprobably
be split and fishtailed.
Damaged or misplaced piles

Any piles which are driven out of
alignment or twisted, broken, bent or
otherwise damaged in driving shall be
withdrawn and replaced, at the Contractor's expense, with other piles which
are properly driven to the satisfaction of
the Engineer's representative.
This clause provides for

the removal of unsatisfactory
piles and their replacement
with sound, properly driven
piles.
Cutting piles
The Contractor will not be permitted
Cutting of steel sheet pilto cut steel sheet piling, except where ing is generally restricted as
shown on the Drawings or as ordered to extent and method.
by the Engineer. Any cutting shall be
performed with an approved type of
oxy-acetylene burning plant.
Drilling piles
The Contractor shall drill the steel
This is a reminder to the
sheet piling as necessary and shall fix Contractor that his piling
steel channel waling and tie rods as price must include for the
additional labours involved.
113
CHAPTER EIGHT
Specification of Iron and Steelwork

THIS chapter is primarily concerned with the drafting of specification
clauses covering structural steelwork with riveted and welded connections. Incidental items of metalwork such as ladders, handrailing and
open steel flooring, and some of the more common forms of wall and
roof sheeting are also included.
Probable main headings in a structural steelwork specification are as
follows
(1) Structural steel
(2) Fabrication
(3) Inspection and marking
(4) Erection
(5) Bolting
(6) Riveting
(7) Welding
(8) Measurement
(9) Testing
(10) Painting
Structural steelwork is normally supplied and erected by a steel
fabricator, who may also carry out the painting of the steelwork. On
very large structural steelwork contracts the steel fabricator, as main
contractor under the steelwork contract, may also be responsible for
incidental work such as roof decking, ventilators and patent glazed
lanterns, which are to be provided by nominated sub-contractors. The
steelwork contractor is usually required to prepare working drawings
of the permanent steelwork and to submit them to the Engineer for
approval before any work is put in hand. He also furnishes corrected or
amended drawings as necessary.
114
EXPLANATORY NOTES
STRUCTURAL STEELWORK
Structural steel
Structural steel shall be to the approval of the Engineer or his representative
of B.S. 15: Mild Steel for General
Structural Purposes. Steelwork for
bridges shall comply with B.S. 153:
Steel Girder Bridges, Part I.
Steel castings shall comply with the
requirements of B.S. 3100: Steel Castings for General Purposes.
High tensile steel for riveted work
shall comply with the requirements of
B.S. 548: High-tensile Structural Steel
for Bridges, etc., and General Building
Construction, and for welded work it
shall comply with B.S. 968: High Yield
Stress (Welding Quality) Structural
Steel.
Numerous references are

made to British Standards
which lay down stringent
standards and tests to be
performed on the steel. For
instance, B.S. 15 specifies the
process of manufacture, with
maximum limits of sulphur
and phosphorous contents,
and describes the tests to be
carried out on plates, sections, bars and rivets. The
standard also covers marking, certificates and testing
procedures.
Fabrication
Workmanship and general fabrication procedure shall be in accordance
with B.S. 153, Part 2, where appropriate,
and with the best modern practice for
structural steelwork.
The edges of universal plates or fiats
need not be machined except for accurate fitting against adjacent parts. All
butting members shall have their ends
machined after fabrication.
Where turned bolts are to be used, the
holes shall be reamed through the full
thickness while the members are held in
their correct relative positions. With the
approval of the Engineer turned bolts
may be used as an alternative to rivets
for site connections.
115
Most of the normal fabrication workmanship requirements are contained in B.S.

153, Part 2. Any additional
requirements should be inserted in the specification.
Members can be connected
in several different ways:
bolting, riveting, welding and,
more recently, by the use of
high strength friction grip
bolts (B.S. 3139 and 3294).
In connection with girder
work, it is sometimes specified that plates and bars shall
be accurately assembled, and
shall be of uniform thickness
EXPLANATORY NOTES
All stiffeners shall bear tightly against

the compression flange and against the
loaded flange at points of concentrated
load. At other points the ends of riveted
stiffeners shall, unless tightly fitted,
provide a clearance of at least 10 mm
O in.) between their ends and the tension flange, with the outstanding leg
bevelled. The ends of welded stiffeners
shall be sawn square or to the correct
bevel and shall fit tightly against both
flanges.
All members shall be to the dimensions shown on the Drawings, cut to
exact lengths and finished true and
square.
All holes shall be accurately marked
from templates and shall be drilled to
give smooth edges. The diameters of
holes shall not exceed those of the bolts
or rivets by more than 15 mm (-fEr in.).
The Engineer may require the Contractor to erect each part of the steel
structure temporarily in the shop, to
check the accuracy of the work.
and free from winding, with

the surface ofadjoining plates
and bars in close contact.
Another requirement might
be that plates shall be of
sufficient size to permit 3 mm
(t in.) to be planed off all
edges.
With regard to bolt and
rivet holes, it will be noted
that punching of holes and
drifting will not be permitted.
Inspection and marking

The Contractor shall notify the
Engineer when materials are ready for
inspection at the maker's works and
fabricated material at the fabricator's
works.
After checking or testing at the fabricator's works all members and fittings
shall, for the purpose of identification
during erection, have a distinguishing
number and letter (corresponding to the
distinguishing number and letter on an
approved drawing) painted and where
possible also stamped on in two positions.
116
The Contractor must provide adequate facilities for

inspection of materials by the
Engineer at fabricating and
manufacturer's shops. It is
good practice to have all
structural members and fittings suitably marked for ease
of working on the job.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Erection
Ordinary steelwork may have a tolerance not exceeding 1 in 500 and steelwork around lift shafts shall not be
greater than 1 in 1000 from plumb.
Girders shall have a camber of uniform
curvature of 5 mm for every metre of
span
in. for every foot of span).
All columns and bases shall be set
accurately to the required lines and
levels, and all holding-down bolts shall
be strictly in accordance with the detailed
drawings. Concrete bases shall be laid
not less than one month before the
steelwork is placed in position.
Grillages shall be set truly level by
careful levelling at each corner. Girders
shall be lowered slowly onto their seating cleats, with each end secured initially by at least one bolt and nut.
No member of the structure shall be
finally bolted, riveted or welded until
the whole or a major section is approved
by the Engineer for line, levels and verticality. Connections shall be completed
as soon as possible after receipt of the
Engineer's written approval, with care
being taken not to interfere with existing steelwork in any way.
u6
It is essential that all the

structural members should be
accurately fixed in the correct
positions, and if any tolerances are permitted, then
these must be detailed in the
specification.
It is advisable to fix individual members temporarily
in the first instance and to
carry out the final connections when each structure or
section thereof has been inspected and approved by the
Engineer.
Bolting
All bolts, nuts, rods, straps and the

like shall comply with the latest appropriate British Standard. Unless otherwise stated all bolts shall have washers
in.) thick, and heads and nuts
5 mm
shall be well forged hexagonal Whitworth screws. All bolts shall be screwed
tight with at least one clear thread projecting beyond the nut when tightened
a6
117
General requirements as
to bolts and washers should
be supplied where bolting is
permitted. It is imperative
that all bolts should be
screwed up tight and have a
projecting thread beyond the
nut. This is subsequently
riveted down or welded.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
B.S. 3139 deals with dimenup, and the projecting thread shall be
riveted down or welded.
sions, mechanical properties
Tapered washers shall be provided to and tests of high strength
bolts which pass through the flanges of friction grip bolts.
rolled joists, etc. The external diameter
of washers shall be 2! times the diameter of the bolt.
Riveting
Rivets shall be of the size and to the
pitch shown on the Drawings, and shall
be of best quality mild steel and be set
up by hydraulic power to fill the holes
completely when closed up. They shall
have hemispherical heads with a projection in all directions of not less than
! times the diameter of the rivet.
Any rivets which are away from
adjoining surfaces, badly formed,
cracked or in any way defective, shall
be cut out and replaced. No riveting
shall be carried out until the work has
been approved by the Engineer and the
members shall be bolted together in
advance of the riveting.
It is important that rivets

should be provided of the
sizes and in the positions
required, and that they should
be properly formed with well
shaped and adequately sized
heads.
Welding
Welding shall be performed by an
electric arc process conforming to best
British practice and complying with the
requirements of B.S. 1856: General
Requirements for the Metal-Arc Welding of Mild Steel. All welding shall be
carried out by fully trained and experienced welders.
The welding procedure for making
each joint shall be approved by the
Engineer before work is commenced
and the Contractor shall make such trial
118
The specification requirements for welding need to be

given in considerable detail
to ensure a good class, sound
job. As on previous occasions
the use of British Standards
can help considerably in this
respect.
It is usual to require all
welding to be performed by
the electric arc process, although it can be carried out
EXPLANATORY NOTES
welds as may be required to demonstrate

the soundness of the proposed method
and the competence of his workmen.
Electrodes shall be grade A, of the
best heavy-coated type, and shall be
kept in a dry store in unbroken packets.
They shall comply with the requirements of B.S. 639: Covered Electrodes
for Metal-arc Welding of Mild Steel.
Fillet welds shall be made with electrodes not less than 6 mm (! in.) in
diameter.
The welding plant shall be of modern
design and of adequate capacity to
produce the required current to each
welding point without appreciable fluctuations.
All parts to be welded shall be
accurately prepared so that they will fit
closely together. After assembly and
before the general welding is commenced, the parts shall be tack welded
with small fillet welds about 50 mm
(2 in.) long made with a 5 mm (-f-6 in.)
diameter electrode and a high current.
The tack welds shall be of the same
quality and size as the first run of the
main weld. When the latter is deposited
it shall fuse completely with the ends of
the tack welds to form a final profile free
from irregularities.
either manually with coated

electrodes or by a suitable
automatic process. When
welding high tensile steel it
is often necessary to use
electrodes of the basic-coated
or hydrogen-free variety.
It is necessary to make
suitable allowance in the
lengths of steel parts for
contraction during welding,
in order that the finished
lengths will be within the
normally accepted limits.
Measurement
Prices for steelwork shall include for

the supply, fabrication, delivery and
erection of the steelwork as shown on
the Drawings and to the satisfaction of
the Engineer. Steelwork rates shall include the cost of all necessary staging,
119
Steelwork rates are to include everything required in

the supply, manufacture and
erection of the steelwork
complete. The actual weights
of steel sections may vary
EXPLANATORY NOTES
plant, equipment and materials required

in the erection of the steelwork.
Payment shall be made on the basis of
the calculated weights as determined
from the dimensions given on the Drawings. Where the weight of any rolled
steel is short of the calculated weight by
more than 2! per cent, but the material
is nevertheless accepted, then payment
shall be made only for the actual weight
of steel supplied.
In the case of mild steel plates, the
calculated weight shall be based on
185 kg/m 2, 25 mm thick (408 lb/ft 2 ,
1 in. thick), and with mild steel standard
sections the calculated weight shall be
based on the weight per linear metre
(foot) specified in the relevant British
Standard Specification. No additional
weight for weld metal deposited will be
included in the measurements.
from the calculated weights

due to wear and tear on the
manufacturer's plant. The
permissible allowance for
rolling margin is usually 2!
per cent up or down from the
calculated weights. Where a
deficiency in excess of 2! per
cent occurs it is customary to
pay only on the basis of the
actual weights supplied,
otherwise the basis of payment is that of calculated
weights.
Testing
The Contractor shall test all welds in
main plates and such other welds as the
Engineer may direct, with X-ray or
gamma-ray apparatus.
No part of the steelwork shall at any
time be loaded in excess of the designed
working load. On completion of steelframed bridges, the Contractor shall
provide, position and move from place
to place, such rollers and loaded trailers
as the Engineer may require for testing
purposes. The Contractor shall also
supply and fix, as directed by the
Engineer, sufficient instruments for the
measurement of deflection and stresses.
Any work shown to be defective by
these tests shall be removed and replaced at the Contractor's expense.
120
Adequate testing of structural frameworks to design

loadings is most desirable.
The responsibility for failure
may not always lie with the
Contractor, as for instance
where the failure results from
errors in a design prepared by
the Engineer. It was a common practice in some quarters
in years gone by to require
the Engineer responsible for
the design of a structure to
remain beneath it while test
loads were applied.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS
Ladders
All ladders shall be 375 mm (15 in.)

wide overall, fabricated of 65 mm x
15 mm (2! in. x t in.) steel strings and
stays, with 20 mm (!in.) diameter rungs
at 225 mm (9 in.) centres shouldered and
riveted to the strings. The bottom ends
of strings shall be bent 90 and built into
concrete, and the top ends shall be
turned over to 150 mm (6 in.) radius,
returned 450 mm (18 in.) and bolted to
precast concrete copings. Prices shall
include for rustproof bolt fixings and
mortices or drilling in concrete and
grouting in. Ladders shall be heavily
galvanised after erection.
This clause gives essential

details such as materials,
dimensions of members, spacing of rungs and finish to top
and bottom ends of strings.
Prices should include for
fixing and for all protective
treatment.
Widths of ladders are
sometimes increased to
450 mm {18 in.), and they
may be constructed of
wrought iron. Alternative
protective treatments include
applications of epoxy resin or
bituminous paints.
Guardrails
Guardrails shall be supported on

galvanised steel double ball pattern
forged steel standards, spaced at no
more than 15 m (5 ft) centres, drilled to
receive two 30 mm (1! in.) bore tubular
handrails with the top handrail at a
height of 1 m (3 ft) above base. The
standards shall be supplied with extensions and rectangular plates for bolting
to sides of concrete walls or have
flanged bases with ragged shanks for
building into concrete. Plates shall be
fixed to concrete walls with two 15 mm x
100 mm (i in. x4 in.) galvanised rawlbolts. Prices shall also include for forming mortices in concrete to receive
ragged shanks to standards and for
grouting them in.
121
The majority of guardrails

are formed of galvanised
steel standards and tubular
handrails, to a total height of
1 m (3 ft or 3 ft 6 in.). The
handrail tubing can be conveniently provided in accordance with B.S. 1387: Steel
Tubes and Tubulars suitable
for screwing to B.S. 21 Pipe
Threads.
The finish to the bases of
standards will vary according
to whether they are to be
connected to the tops or
sides of walls.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Handrails shall be made of 30 mm

(1! in.) nominal bore, galvanised steel
tubes to B.S. 1387, heavy grade, with
screwed and socketed joints, in lengths
as required. Made bends and capped
ends shall be provided as necessary.
Open steel flooring
The Contractor shall supply and

place in position in prepared rebates
Messrs X, type B, or other equal and
approved 25 mm (1 in.) deep open steel
floor panels with a heavily galvanised
finish. Steel angle curbs 50 mm x
50 mm x 5 mm (2 in. x 2 in. x! in.) shall
be cast into the concrete at the tops of
walls, where shown on the Drawings,
with angles formed of welded mitres.
The Engineer often has a

particular type of flooring in
mind, although even then
the Contractor should be
given the opportunity to offer
an alternative for consideration. Chequer plating is
usually galvanised with a
thickness of 10 mm (i in.).
SURFACE PROTECTION
Painting
(a) General requirements. All work
required to be painted shall be properly
cleaned and rubbed down between each
coat. No coat of paint shall be applied
until the Engineer has passed the previous coat as dry, hard and entirely satisfactory.
No paint shall be applied on wet
surfaces, or in damp or frosty weather.
All paintwork shall be undertaken by
skilled tradesmen experienced in this
class of work.
Welds and adjacent parent metal
shall not be painted prior to inspection
and approval.
122
It is essential that all steel

surfaces which will be in contact after assembly should be
thoroughly cleaned and given
one or two coats of suitable
priming paint. One of the best
primers for steelwork is red
lead paint, although sprayed
metal coatings complying
with B.S. 2569 can be most
effective.
Steps must be taken to
ensure that suitable paints
are applied under satisfactory conditions to properly
EXPLANATORY NOTES
(b) Works painting. Before leaving the

Manufacturer's works, all surfaces which
will, after erection on the site, be in
contact with steel or concrete or be
otherwise inaccessible, shall be thoroughly cleaned, scraped, wire-brushed
and freed from dirt, rust and scale and
shall be given two substantial coats of
genuine red lead paint of approved
quality and composition. All other surfaces shall be left bare. Red lead shall
comply with B.S. 217.
prepared surfaces. British

Standards 2521-2532 cover
ready-mixed oil-based paints.
It is sometimes advocated
that steel surfaces which will
become encased in concrete
should have a cement wash
applied to them and that
steelwork which is to be in
permanent contact with soil,
brickwork or masonry should
be protected by bituminous
paint.
Site painting maybe undertaken by the steel fabricator
or by the main civil engineering contractor. Where the
paint is applied by the steel
fabricator the cost is included
in the steelwork rates; otherwise the main contractor will
be paid in accordance with
the normal rules for the
measurement of painting
work.
(c) Site painting. All exposed surfaces of

steelwork shall be thoroughly cleaned,
as previously specified, and shall as soon
as practicable thereafter be given one
good coat of suitable red lead priming
paint. The cleaning and application of
priming paint shall be carried out after
the erection of the steelwork on the site
and in such sections as the Engineer
may approve or consider necessary to
arrest or prevent undue corrosion of
the steelwork.
The steelwork shall then be painted
with two coats of an approved readymixed oil undercoat and one finishing
coat of approved ready-mixed oil gloss
paint. All paint shall be delivered to the
site in the manufacturers' sealed containers. The colours of the undercoats
and finishing coat shall be to the approval of the Engineer. The total thickness of paint film shall not be less than
0.15 mm (10600 in.)
Galvanising
Steel and iron work required to be
Galvanised work is specigalvanised shall be pickled in dilute fied, particularly for handmuriatic acid, and then stored and rails and standards. Specifi123
EXPLANATORY NOTES
dipped in a bath of pure virgin spelter,

the quality of which shall comply with
the requirements of B.S. 221: Special
Zinc. All items shall be passed rapidly
through the bath, which shall be of
sufficient size to take the articles without need for bending. The galvanised
articles shall then be washed and
brushed.
Galvanising shall be undertaken after
corrugating, chipping, trimming, filing
and fitting are completed. All galvanised
articles shall be covered evenly on all
sides and the additional weight after
galvanising shall be not less than
035 kg/m 2 (ll oz/ft 2) of surface galvanised. All galvanised surfaces shall have
a bright face with a crystalline structure
and all edges shall be clean and free
from drops of spelter.
cation requirements such as

those listed are necessary to
ensure that a sound galvanising process is adopted to
produce a first-class finish.
WALL AND ROOF SHEET COVERINGS
Asbestos cement
Wall cladding shall be of coloured
asbestos cement panels, 5 mm (i in.)
thick with an overall depth of about
55 mm (2! in.), fixed with end laps of
150 mm (6 in.) and side laps of 75 mm
(3 in.) to steel angles at 2 m (6 ft)
centres, with 10 mm 0 in.) diameter
galvanised hook bolts and bituminous
washers.
Colours available include

grey, blue, red, russet,
browns and greens. Various
types of sheets with varying
profiles are available for wall
and roof coverings: roof
sheets are fixed in a similar
manner to purlins.
The desirable characteristics of asbestos cement decking are detailed in B.S. 3717.
Aluminium
Wall cladding shall be of 22 gauge
There are many propriecorrugated aluminium sheets, with an tary forms of aluminium
124
EXPLANATORY NOTES
average depth of 20 mm (! in.) and corrugations to a nominal pitch of 75 nun

(3 in.), fixed as for asbestos cement
sheets with side laps of 1! corrugations
and end laps not less than 150 nun
(6 in.).
sheeting available, and many

types of roof decking, of
which aluminium troughing
covered with insulation board
or wood wool slabs, finished
with built-up bitumen roofing, is very popular.
Corrugated steel
This is a less popular
Wall cladding shall be of corrugated
galvanised mild steel sheeting of 22 alternative which needs paints.w.g. with laps and method of fixing as ing at regular intervals. It is
for aluminium sheeting.
advisable to apply a coating
of oxide of zinc where the
sheeting will be exposed to
sea air or acid vapour.
Newer materials for roof
decking include glass-fibre
polyester resin.
125
CHAPTER NINE
Specification of Timberwork
THIS chapter is primarily concerned with the specifying of the large
structural timbers used in the construction of jetties, wharves and
similar structures, and of their associated labours. Civil engineering
jobs do, on occasion, contain subsidiary items of timberwork, such as
scumboards on sewage disposal works, wooden steps and footbridges.
Some contracts include a small amount of building work, such as
pumping stations which can incorporate a number of joinery items like
windows and doors.
The type, form and extent of specification clauses relating to timberwork will accordingly vary considerably from job to job. Nevertheless,
in all cases a logical sequence of items should be secured. For instance,
with a timber wharf or jetty the foJlowing specification clause headings
would probably be appropriate:
(1) Quality of timber
(2) Workmanship generally

(3) Fender piles
(4) Rubbing pieces
(5) Walings and braces
(6) Guardrails, decking, etc.
(7) Tarring or creosoting
(8) Bolts, etc.
(9) Measurement
(10) Equipment
Subsidiary carpentry items are best taken under appropriate headings
covering the function of the timberwork, e.g. steps or footbridge.
Joinery work could be conveniently covered under the following
headings:
126
SPECIFICATION OF TIMBERWORK
(1) Quality of timber

(2) Workmanship
(3) Windows
(4) Doors
(5) Miscellaneous work
(6) Painting
The typical joinery specification clauses will be kept as brief as possible, as this is essentially building work. A selection of typical timberwork specification clauses follows.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
TIMBER WORK IN WHAR YES AND JETTIES
Quality of timber
The timber for fender piles, walings

and braces shall be greenheart, rubbing
pieces shall be of elm, and Columbian
pine shall be used for all other timbers.
Timbers in elm shall be creosoted under
pressure to absorb 180 kg/m 3 (10 lb/ft 3),
while all Columbian pine timbers shall
absorb 125 kg/m 3 (7 lb/ft 3) of creosote.
All timber shall be of merchantable
grade and shall be straight, sound,
square cut and free from injuries, waney
edges, decay, shakes, large and dead
knots, insect attack and other serious
defects. Any baulks of timber showing
more than 15 per cent sapwood on one
end section or more than 10 per cent on
average of both end sections shall not
be accepted.
All timbers shall be of the scantlings
shown on the Drawings, with an allowance of 3 mm (lin.) for each wrot face.
The moisture content of timbers shall
not exceed 22 per cent of the dry weight
at time of use. Softwood shall, unless
otherwise specified, comply with B.S.
Code of Practice 112 (Table 1, Group 1)
127
The type and grade of timber required must be stated

as precisely as possible. Timbers must be free from all
defects which would impair
their suitability for the function which they have to
perform.
Adequate seasoning of
timber can be ensured by
specifying the maximum permissible moisture content.
Note the use of a British
Standard and a Code of
Practice: The Structural Use
of Timber in Buildings to
assist in ensuring the use of
timbers
of
satisfactory
quality.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
and the measurable characteristics and

moisture content shall be assessed in
accordance with B.S. 1860: Structural
Timber: Measurement of Characteristics affecting Strength.
Workmanship generally
Fender piles shall each be in one piece

and no joints will be permitted. Joints
in walings and braces shall be properly
scarfed for a minimum length of
450 mm (18 in.).
All labours on timbers shall be
accurately executed and finished in a
first-class manner. All tenons, mortices,
scarves, rebates and other joints shall be
accurately cut and well fitted together
in accordance with the best class of
workmanship with mild steel bolts,
coachscrews, straps, nails, oak pins,
wedges, etc., as shown on the Drawings
or as directed by the Engineer.
Holes for bolts, etc., shall be accurately drilled in the required positions
and be of the correct sizes to secure a
tight fit. The holes shall be countersunk
where shown to receive the heads of
bolts, nuts, etc.
The final completed timber shall be
in full accordance with the details
shown on the Drawings, with wrought
faces where required.
Prices shall include for any nails or
screws required for fixing purposes and
these shall comply with B.S. 1202 and
B.S. 1210 respectively.
These clauses are concerned primarily with the

jointing of the structural
members. Failure of a timber
structure often results from
poorly constructed joints.
Load-bearing timbers are
normally extended by means
of scarfed joints, when the
tapered ends of adjoining
lengths of timber are bolted
together. On occasions the
lengthening of certain timbers, such as piles, is not
permitted.
Intersections of main structural timbers in jetties and
wharves, e.g. piles and walings, are almost invariably
formed with bolted joints.
Fender piles
More detailed clauses

Fender piles shall be 300 mm x
300 mm (12 in. x 12 in.) in size and shall covering timber piles are
128
EXPLANATORY NOTES
be driven not less than 3 m (10 ft) into

the river bed. Twin fender piles shall be
notched on adjoining surfaces to receive 150 mm x 100 mm (6 in. x4 in.)
teak shear pins, which shall be driven
into position after the twin piles have
been securely bolted together. Twin
fender piles shall be driven as a single
pile, 600 mm x 300 mm (24 in. x 12 in.)
in size.
The tops of fender piles shall be cut
off at the levels indicated on the Drawings. The fender piles to the wharf shall
be tied back to the concrete structure
with wrought iron straps and steel bolts.
The 300 mm x 300 mm (12 in. x 12 in.)
fender piles shall be fitted with cast iron
shoes weighing not less than 125 kg
(28 lb) each and the twin piles with
shoes weighing not less than 70 kg
(160 lb) each, inclusive of straps.
given in Chapter VII. This

clause is concerned with the
provision of fender piles to
protect the sides of jetties and
wharves from the impact of
vessels.
Twin piles are also included
to extend the scope of the
clause. Two 300 mm x 300
mm (12 in. X 12 in.) piles
are bolted and pinned together, and driven as a single
unit with an enlarged shoe
at the base.
Rubbing pieces
Rubbing pieces shall be 300 mm x

150 mm (12 in. x 6 in.) in size and shall
fit tightly against the fender piles, to
which they shall be fixed vertically with
ragged spikes. The top and bottom ends
of rubbing pieces shall be bull-nosed.
Rubbing pieces are spiked

to the outer face of fender
piles to protect the latter
from damage. The spiking
permits reasonably easy replacement.
Walings and braces
Walings shall be 300 mm x 300 mm

(12 in. x 12 in.) in size, except the top
waling to the wharf which shall be
300 mm x 150 mm (12 in. x 6 in.).
Diagonal braces shall be 300 mm x
150 mm (12 in. x6 in.) with bolted connections to walings and piles, and splay
cut ends.
129
This clause describes the

various horizontal and diagonal members and also the
packing and distance pieces,
which complete the timber
framework to the sides of
wharves and jetties.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Walings shall be fixed to the concrete

structure with wrought iron plates and
steel bolts as shown on the Drawings.
All packing pieces and distance pieces
shall be of Columbian pine creosoted
under pressure as previously specified.
Guardrails
Construct guardrail of Columbian
pine creosoted under pressure as previously specified. The top of the guardrail shall be 125 m (4 ft) above jetty
deck level and shall consist of three
rails, twice chamfered, 100 mm x
100 mm (4 in. x4 in.) in size, halved and
dowelled to 100 mm x 100 mm (4 in. x
4 in.) posts at 2 m (6 ft) centres. The
posts and bottom rail shall be bolted to
the jetty members with 15 mm (! in.)
diameter mild steel bolts as shown on
the Drawings.
Constructional features of
this type are best described
complete in single items.
Guardrails are more usually
constructed of steel standards
supporting tubular steel
handrailing (see Chapter VIII
for details) but a timber
guardrail has been taken here
to show the approach.
Jetty decking
The jetty decking shall be constructed
of greenheart in 175 mm (7 in.) widths x
50 mm (2 in.) thick, with 15 mm (!in.)
gaps between the boards. The deck
boards shall be spiked with 90 mm
(3!in.) nails to 150mm x75 mm (6in. x
3 in.) greenheart bearers, spaced at
450 mm (18 in.) centres.
Gaps must be left between

the deck boards to permit
rain or sea water to pass
between them instead oflying
on the top surface of the
boards and eventually rotting
them away. The length of
nails or brads is usually
taken as the thickness of the
boards + 40 mm (lt in.).
Tarring
The beds of all intersecting timbers,
The meeting surfaces of
scarf joints and cut ends of timbers adjoining timbers and cut
shall have two coats of hot coal tar ends need to be treated with
applied to them before the fastenings preservatives. Tar must be
130
EXPLANATORY NOTES
are secured. The whole of the timber- applied hot and should comwork on completion shall be cleaned ply with the appropriate
down and painted with two substantial British Standard.
coats of hot coal tar. The coal tar shall
comply with the requirements of B.S.
3051: Coal Tar Oil Types of Wood
Preservatives.
Creosoting
All timbers shall be cleaned of mud
and dirt and incised to assist penetration of creosote, and all labours shall be
executed on the timber as far as practicable prior to creosoting. The timbers
shall be creosoted under pressure in
accordance with B.S. 913: Pressure
Creosoting of Timber, and the creosote shall conform to B.S. 144: Coal
Tar Creosote for the Preservation of
Timber.
This is an alternative to
the application of hot coal
tar. An essential difference is
that the creosote is applied
under pressure, whilst the tar
treatment was specified as a
brush application.
Bolts, nuts, etc.

All bolts shall have square heads and
nuts and clean-cut Whitworth threads.
Heads shall be solidly forged with the
shanks of the bolts perfectly square to
the axis of the bolt, and with the under
sides of heads in a true plane to take an
even bearing all over the steel washers,
on which both the heads and nuts of
every bolt shall be bedded. Every head
and nut on the water face shall be
countersunk and no portion of the shank
shall come within 25 mm {1 in.) of the
surface of the timber.
Plates shall be of the dimensions
shown on the Drawings and shall be
evenly bedded on timber or concrete
throughout their entire area.
131
This clause specifies in

detail the essential characteristics of the bolts to be
used for fixing structural timbers. Note that heads and
nuts of bolts must be kept
back at least 25 mm (1 in.)
from the water face of timbers. It is sometimes specified
that the hole shall be filled
with hard setting bitumen to
render it watertight.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Wrought iron for straps, etc., shall

comply with B.S. 51, and certificates of
quality and tests shall be submitted to
the Engineer before any iron is used on
the job.
Measurement
The measurement of structural timbers shall be taken as the net cubical

contents of timber in the finished work
actually completed in accordance with
the Contract Documents. The prices for
timberwork shall include for provision,
cutting, shaping and moulding of the
timber to the required shapes, sections
and dimensions, drilling and countersinking for fixings, forming joints of all
kinds, creosoting or tarring as specified, and erecting and fixing the timberwork complete in position. Timber
prices shall also include all nails, screws,
pins and wedges, but separate items will
be taken for bolts, coachscrews, straps,
etc.
Structural timbers are

measured in cubic metres
(previously cubic feet), including all labours and joints
in accordance with the Standard Method of Measurement.
It is difficult for the Contractor to assess the amount of
labour involved in a cubic
metre or cubic foot of timber.
Bolts and metalwork generally are measured separately.
Equipment
(a) Lighting installation. The provisional sum of 800 (eight hundred

pounds) is included in the Bill of
Quantities for builder's work and attendance in connection with the installation
of lighting standards, navigation lights
and all necessary wiring. This sum shall
be expended in whole or in part as the
Engineer may direct, or may be deducted if not required.
A provisional sum may be

included for the lighting installation if details of the
work have not been prepared
at the time of drafting the
specification.
In some cases rubber

(b) Rubber buffers to fender piles. The
prime cost sum of 9000 (nine thousand buffers are to be supplied by
132
EXPLANATORY NOTES
pounds) is provided in the Bill of

Quantities for the supply of the following rubber buffers by a firm to be
approved by the Engineer:
No. 130 Solid rubber buffers 250 mm
(10 in.) in diameterx250 mm (10 in.)
long with a vulcanised rubber sleeve
cast in.
No. 60 Ditto, 375 mm (15 in.) in diameter x450 mm (18 in.) long, ditto.
The Contractor shall take delivery of
the rubber buffers at site, and unload,
get in, store and fix in the positions
indicated on the Drawings.
a nominated firm and the

main contractor is instructed
to fix them in the required
positions. It is necessary to
provide the Contractor with
sufficient information to enable him to price the fixing
work. The P.C. sum will be
based on a quotation obtained from the supplier.
(c) Bollards. The following prime cost

sums are provided in the Bill of Quantities for the supply of coated bollards
for the wharf, jetty and dolphins, complete with all necessary holding-down
bolts, by a firm to be approved by the
Engineer.
P.C. sum of 160 (one hundred and
sixty pounds) for 8 no. bollards type X
to wharf.
P.C. sumof1200 (one thousand, two
hundred pounds) for 12 no. bollards
type Y to jetty.
P.C. sum of 200 (two hundred
pounds) for 2 no. bollards type Z to
dolphins.
The Contractor shall take delivery of
the bollards at site, and shall unload,
get in, store prior to fixing, transport,
hoist, sling and lower into position, and
fix true and level on the wharf, jetty and
dolphins in the positions shown on the
Drawings and in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions and, after
fixing, shall fill the bollards solid with
fine graded concrete (class B).
Further prime cost items

are provided to cover the
supply of three types of botlard by a nominated firm.
The main contractor is required to fix the bollards and
fill them with concrete after
they have been fixed in the
correct positions. In this case
the Contractor will be able to
obtain sufficient particulars
of the bollards from the
manufacturer's catalogue.
133
EXPLANATORY NOTES
(d) Motorised capstans. The prime cost

sum of 9500 (nine thousand, five
hundred pounds) is provided in the Bill
of Quantities for 3 no. motorised capstans supplied, delivered and fixed on
the wharf by a firm to be approved by
the Engineer.
The Contractor shall allow for all
necessary attendance upon the Subcontractor and shall assist in unloading
materials at site, and shall get in, transport on site, provide free storage
accommodation and free use of plant,
hoist and lower to required positions,
perform all general builder's work, and
provide all other facilities required by
the specialist workmen fixing the motorised capstans.
With this example the

nominated subcontractor
both supplies and fixes the
equipment. The main contractor has to allow in his
price for ancillary functions
such as handling materials on
site and making storage and
plant available.
(e) Rescue chains. The following prime

cost sums are provided in the Bill of
Quantities for rescue chains and fittings,
each 25 m (8 ft) long, supplied and
delivered to site, painted with two coats
of bituminous paint, and fixed complete
by a firm to be approved by the Engineer:
P.C. sum of 100 (one hundred pounds)
for 5 no. rescue chains to wharf.
P.C. sum of 200 (two hundred pounds)
for supply of 10 no. rescue chains to
jetty.
The Contractor shall allow for all
necessary attendance upon the Subcontractor in a similar manner to that
described for motorised capstans.
As with the motorised capstans, the nominated subcontractor is both supplying

and fixing the equipment, and
the main contractor's responsibilities follow a similar
pattern.
(f) Mooring rings. The prime cost sum

of 85 (eighty five pounds) is provided
in the Bill of Quantities for 12 no.
mooring rings to the wharf, each consisting of a 100 mm (4 in.) diameter ring
This is another example of

a prime cost item covering
the supply of equipment by a
nominated firm and the fixing
of the equipment, in this case
134
EXPLANATORY NOTES
bolt with a 100 mm x 100 mm x 5 mm

(4 in. x 4 in. x l in.) flat plate washer
and nut, for fixing the ring bolt to a timber waling, and a 225 mm (9 in.)
diameter loose ring.
These shall be supplied and delivered
to the site, painted with two coats of
bituminous paint, by a firm to be approved by the Engineer.
The Contractor shall take delivery
of the mooring rings at site, unload, get
in, store and subsequently fix to greenheart walings on the wharf in the
positions shown on the Drawings.
mooring rings, by the main

contractor. The Contractor
has to insert a price in the
Bill of Quantities to cover all
labour associated with handling and fixing of the rings.
SUBSIDIARY CARPENTRY ITEMS
Steps
Creosoted redwood steps, 125 m
Short lengths of open tim(4ft) wide overall, shall be constructed ber steps are sometimes prowhere shown on the Drawings with vided to give access to tanks,
225 mm x 40 mm (9 in. x 1t in.) treads filters, etc.
housed to 275 mm x 50 mm (11 in. x
2 in.) string boards housed and dowelled
to 100mm x 100 mm.(4in. x4 in.) posts.
Footbridge
A creosoted redwood footbridge shall

be constructed across the brook in the
position shown on the Drawings and
shall be supported on concrete walls and
foundations at each end, of the dimensions indicated on the Drawings.
Two stringers shall be used consisting
of two 225 mm x 75 mm (9 in. x 3 in.)
timbers 45 m (15 ft) long, spiked and
bolted together and supported on and
securely spiked to 200 mm x 75 mm
135
A small timber footbridge

of stringers, bearer blocks,
boards, handrail and upright
supports, is described in a
single comprehensive item.
The dimensions of all the timbers are stated, together with
their method of fixing.
TYPICAL SPECIFIC ATION CLAUSES
EXPLANA TORY NOTES
(8 in. x 3 in.) hardwood bearer blocks

450 rom (18 in.) long, bolted to concrete
walls.
The footwalk shall consist of 150
mmx50 mm (6 in. x2 in.) boards
125 m (4 ft) long, with 25 mm (1 in.)
spaces between them, nailed to stringers,
together with 75 mm (3 in.) diameter
half-round handrails, each supported
on three 75 mm x 75 mm {3 in. x 3 in.)
posts fixed to stringers with coach
bolts.
Scumboards to sewage works
Scumboards shall be constructed of
creosoted redwood 300 mm x 40 mm
(12 in. x 1tin.), formed of two 150 mm
x40 mm (6 in. x 1! in.) boards, close
cramped and connected by 100 mm x
40 mm (4 in. x 1! in.) cross battens,
300 mm (12 in.) long, at 1 m (3 ft)
centres, each bolted on with two
15 mm (!in.) diameter galvanised mild
steel bolts 100 mm (4 in.) long, with
nuts and washers.
Scumboards are invariably

provided to settling, stormwater and humus tanks on
sewage disposal works. Timber is, however, gradually
being displaced by asbestos
cement and fibre glass.
JOINERY
Quality of timber
The softwood for joinery shall be

B.S. 1186, Part I: Quality
unsorted joinery quality Scandinavian of Timber in Joinery, covers
redwood complying with B.S. 1186, such matters as moisture conPart I and amendments.
tent, straightness of grain,
sapwood, checks, splits,
shakes and knots. It is accordingly unnecessary to detail
the requirements in connection with these defects.
136
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Quality of workmanship
The quality of joiner's workmanship

shall comply with B.S. 1186, Part 2.
The thicknesses specified for joiner's
wrought timbers are, unless otherwise
specified, prior to planing and 3 mm
(t in.) will be allowed from the thickness stated for each wrought face.
All joinery shall be wrought on all
faces and finished off by hand with glass
paper, with slightly rounded arrises.
All doors and other framed work shall
be put together immediately on commencement of the general work, but
shall not be glued or wedged up until
joinery is prepared in readiness for
fixing.
The word 'framed' as applied to
woodwork is to be understood as
including all the best known methods of
joining woodwork together by mortice
and tenon, draw-pinning with hardwood
pins, or other method. The backs of
door frames, skirtings and other similar
items of joinery shall be painted with
one coat of wood primer before fixing.
This priming shall be performed on the
site but not before the Engineer has
approved the joinery, and the prices for
the respective items of joinery shall
include for this priming.
Clinker concrete fixing bricks shall be
used wherever possible for fixing timber
frames, etc. ; otherwise they shall be
securely plugged to walls or fixed to
proper grounds where required.
The prices of all joinery work are to
include for nails and screws for fixing,
complying with B.S. 1202 and B.S. 1210
respectively.
Any joiner's work which shall split,
137
B.S. 1186, Part 2: Quality

of Workmanship in Joinery,
describes in detail the method
of making the various joints
in joinery work and of constructing the moving parts of
windows, doors and drawers.
Specification clauses of
workmanship should include
allowances for planed surfaces, moulded edges, framing, priming non-accessible
surfaces, fixing of joinery,
and defects.
Joinery specifications vary
considerably in practice in
their scope and contents, but
the attached specification
clauses should form a useful
guide.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
fracture, shrink, part in the joints, or

show flaws or other defects due to unsoundness, inadequate seasoning or bad
workmanship, shall be removed and
replaced with sound material at the
Contractor's expense.
Windows
Wood casements shall be Messrs X
type J with built up sill of a 65 mm x
40 mm (2! in. x 1! in.) weathered and
throated member tongued to a 70 mm x
70 mm (2! in. x2! in.) member. Each
window frame shall be fixed with 4 no.
wrought iron cramps, 40 mm x 3 mm x
300 mm girth (1 l in. xi in. x 12 in.
girth), built into the brickwork, and the
frames shall be bedded in cement mortar
and sealed all round in mastic.
All glass shall be ordinary glazing
quality clear sheet glass in accordance
with B.S. 952 and be free from waves,
specks, disfigurements or blemishes of
any kind. Putty for glazing in wood
frames shall conform to B.S. 544.
All glass shall be accurately cut and
fitted into the rebates and shall be well
sprigged, puttied and back puttied, and
neatly trimmed off to the depth of the
rebate. All rebates shall be primed before glazing. Glass in panes not exceeding 1 m 2 (8 ft 2) shall be 7 kg/m 2 (24 oz)
glass and that in larger panes shall be
9 kg/m 2 (32 oz) glass.
Windows are frequently

mass-produced stock pattern
casements in wood or metal,
obtained from an approved
supplier. It is also useful at
this stage to describe the
method of fixing and sealing
around window frames and
to specify the types of glass
and putty and the method of
glazing. This latter provision
obviates the need to include
a separate glazing section in
the specification.
Doors
The majority of doors used
All flush doors shall be of the sizes
shown on the Drawings and shall be on civil engineering jobs will
obtained from an approved manufac- be stock pattern doors. Flush
138
EXPLANATORY NOTES
turer. Details of construction shall be

submitted to and approved by the Engineer before the order is placed. Plywood
facing is to be 4 mm Ua in.) thick for
interior use and 6 mm (!in.) for exterior
use. Plywood is to comply with B.S.
1455. The interior type shall be of first
grade, and the exterior type shall be of
weatherproof type, first grade. Unless
otherwise specified, the outer plies shall
be of alder or birch. Synthetic resin
adhesives for plywood shall comply
with B.S. 1203, and where required to be
waterproof shall be of the AX100 type.
All flush doors, except those described as solid flush doors and those
having panels for glazing, shall be
constructed in accordance with B.S. 459,
Part 2, for 43 mm (1 i in.) stock flush
doors, with a 20 mm (! in.) continuous
birch fillet tongued and grooved to the
core and finished flush with the outer
faces of the door.
All ironmongery shall be obtained
from a firm nominated or approved by
the Engineer. Samples of all ironmongery are to be submitted to the
Engineer for his approval before ordering. All ironmongery shall be supplied
with screws of the same metal and
finish as the article with which they are
to be used. Each lock is to be provided
with two keys and each master key is to
be in quadruplicate.
doors are becoming increasingly popular. Constant references are made to British
Standards where appropriate,
e.g. B.S. 1455: Plywood
manufactured from tropical
Hardwoods; B.S. 1203: Synthetic Resin Adhesives (phenolic and animoplastic) for
Plywood; B.S. 459, Part 2:
Flush doors. Part 1 of the
last standard deals with panelled and glazed doors, Part 3
covers plywood faced firecheck flush doors and wood
and metal frames (t hour and
1 hour types) and Part 4 deals
with matchboarded doors.
Ironmongery is generally
identified by reference to
numbers in a manufacturer's
catalogue.
Miscellaneous joinery work

Shelving. The Contractor shall provide
225 mm x25 mm (9 in. x 1 in.) plain
edge wrought softwood shelving supported on 25 mm x 50 mm (1 in. x2 in.)
chamfered bearers plugged to walls.
139
Various other joinery items

may still remain to be
covered, such as shelving,
cupboards, skirtings, architraves, linings, pipe casings,
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Cupboards. The Contractor shall pro- etc. Specification clauses

vide six Messrs X type 1 double floor covering a few of the more
combined cupboard and drawer units, common items are included.
without cladding to top, back and one
side, overall size 1 m x 450 mm x 1 m
(3 ft x 1 ft 6 in. x 3 ft), plugged and
screwed to brick walls.
Skirtings. Skirtings shall be of 20 mm x
75 mm (!in. x 3 in.) chamfered wrought
softwood, nailed to 20 mm x 25 mm
(! in. x 1 in.) splayed tanalised grounds,
plugged and screwed to brickwork.
Painting
Materials. The paint shall be of good

quality and shall be obtained from one
of the following six manufacturers. All
paint shall be delivered to the site in
sound and sealed containers, labelled
by the manufacturer with the following
information:
(1) Type of product;
(2) Brand name, if any;
(3) Use for which it is intended;
(4) Manufacturer's batch number.
The Engineer's representative may
take samples from painters' kettles for
analysis and test. No thinners or other
materials shall be added to the paint
without the consent of the Engineer.
Knotting shall comply with B.S. 1336.
Stopping for interior woodwork shall
be putty complying with B.S. 544. For
exterior woodwork it shall be white lead
paste complying with B.S. 2029 with red
lead to B.S. 217, type B, and gold size
to B.S. 311.
Primers for woodwork shall comply
with B.S. 2521, while primers for iron
140
As there are many hundreds of paint manufacturers

in this country producing
paints of varying qualities, it
is common practice to give a
selected list of from six to
twelve manufacturers from
whom the Contractor can
make his choice.
It is usual to specify that
all paint must be delivered to
the site in the sealed containers of the manufacturer and
that samples may be taken
from the painters' kettles
with the object of preventing
the adulteration or thinning
of the paint prior to use.
Extensive use has been
made of British Standards in
specifying painting materials
and the Code of Practice as a
guide to the means of applying paint.
It is essential that the paint
and steelwork shall be one of the following:

(1) Red lead primer to B.S. 2523;
(2) Calcium plumbate primer containing not less than 73 per cent calcium
plumbate in the pigment and with a
pigment/binder ratio of not less than
1 :2;
(3) Approved zinc chromate primer.
Zinc chromate primer shall also be
used with aluminium.
All materials shall be kept in dry
stores protected from frost. All painting
materials used on a particular surface
shall be obtained from the same manufacturer. Colour schemes will be prepared by the Engineer.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
is applied strictly in accordance with the manufacturer's

instructions, that the surfaces
are dry and that a sufficient
period of time is left between
the application of succeeding
coats of paint.
Premature failure of paint
films frequently arises from
unsatisfactory or insufficient
preparation work and all
surfaces must be properly
cleaned down, old paint burnt
off or otherwise removed
where necessary, knots sealed,
priming coat applied and
holes and cracks stopped before an undercoat of paint is
Workmanship. All surfaces shall be applied.
thoroughly cleaned down and approved
prior to the application of paint. Wood
surfaces shall be knotted, primed and
stopped, as necessary, before the application of undercoat. Paint shall be
applied strictly in accordance with the
manufacturer's instructions and Code
of Practice CP 231. Painted work shall
be rubbed down between coats and at
least 24 hours shall elapse between the
application of succeeding coats. No
painting shall be carried out on exterior
work in wet or foggy weather or on
surfaces which are not entirely dry.
Painting prices shall include for all
necessary scaffolding, cradles and plant;
painting of brackets and supports to
pipes, fittings, etc. ; touching up and
bringing forward worn and bare patches
and areas which have been stopped or
filled; and taking off and refixing small
items of ironmongery such as door
knobs.
141
CHAPTER TEN
Specification of Roads and Pavings

THIS chapter covers a wide range of constructional methods adopted
in the provision of roads and footpaths. The modern practice is often to
refer to roads as 'pavements', following American terminology.
In drafting specifications for roadworks it is probably advisable to
subdivide the specification into the component parts or elements of the
work. In some cases these sections need further subdivision into
materials and construction or workmanship provisions. Alternatively
all materials clauses can be grouped together at the beginning of the
specification. This procedure has the great merit of avoiding duplication
of items. One suitable approach in the drafting of roadwork specifications follows.
MATERIALS required for roads and footpaths.
RoAD BASES, including formation, hard shoulders and possibly soil
stabilisation.
FLEXIBLE ROAD CONSTRUCTION: tarmacadam, bitumen macadam
and asphalt.
RIGID ROAD CoNSTRUCTION: concrete roads, including expansion
and longitudinal joints.
ANCILLARY WORK: kerbs, channels, quadrants and edging.
142
SPECIFICATION OF ROADS AND PAVINGS

SURFACE WATER DRAINAGE: road gullies, pipework and manholes.
FOOTPATH CONSTRUCTION: tarmacadam, bitumen macadam,
asphalt, in situ concrete and paving slabs.
OTHER ITEMS
Grass verges
Street lighting: possibly covered by prime cost items and road crossings for cables.
Fencing: various types.
Readers are referred to Chapter V for more detailed clauses on concrete work and to Chapter XI for detailed clauses on sewers, drains and
manholes. For bridgework, readers will find most of the information
they require in the chapters covering excavation, concrete, brickwork,
masonry, piling and iron and steelwork.
Typical specification clauses follow, covering a selection of the more
commonly used materials and constructional methods. Some guidance
on alternative methods, where appropriate, will be found in the explanatory notes.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
ROAD-WORKS: MATERIALS
Hardcore for filling

Hardcore shall be natural broken
The actual material used
stone, broken brick or other approved will be largely determined by
hard material, clean and free from any the materials available in the
extraneous matter and graded from particular district.
225 mm (9 in.) to 75 mm (3 in.).
Ashes
Ashes shall be clean, sharp foundry

Ashes are often used as a
ashes containing not more than 20 per base for footpath surfacings
cent of dust and shall be free from and sometimes for concrete
foreign matter. Flue dust and destructor roads.
ashes will not be accepted.
143
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Aggregate for granular bases

Aggregate for granular bases shall be
See Table 1 of B.S. 63:
clean, hard crushed rock, limestone, Single-sized Roadstone and
slag or gravel of 50 mm (2 in.) or Chippings.
40 mm (1! in.) nominal size.
Road tar for surface dressing

Road tar for surface dressing shall
comply with B.S. 76, type A, and the
equiviscous temperature of the tar shall
be in accordance with Road Note
No. 1: Recommendations for Tar
Surface Dressings.
Note the use of Road

Notes and other publications
of the Road Research
Laboratory as a guide to
constructional methods.
Cut-back bitumen for surface dressing

Cut-back bitumen shall be obtained
Typical viscosities are 40from an approved manufacturer and 60 sees S.T.V. at 40oc in
have a viscosity within the range pre- April, May and September,
scribed by the Engineer.
rising to 80-120 sees S.T.V.
at 40C in June to August.
Aggregate for surface dressing

Aggregate for surface dressing shall
Chippings used vary from
consist of hard, clean crushed rock or 3 mm (i in.) to 20 mm (i in.)
slag of 10 mm (!in.) nominal size and in size and may be of granite,
shall comply with the grading require- basalt, limestone, slag or
ments of B.S. 63.
gravel.
Bitumen road emulsion

Bitumen road emulsion for curing
B.S. 434 is entitled Bitumen
cement stabilised bases or sub-bases Road Emulsion (Anionic).
shall comply with B.S. 434.
Tarmacadam
Tarmacadam for carriageways shall
Tarmacadam is normally
consist of 40 mm (1 lin.) gauge material laid in two courses, but single
144
EXPLANATORY NOTES
for the base course and 10 mm (!in.)

gauge material for the wearing course.
The grading of the 40 mm {1 i in).
material shall be in accordance with
B.S. 802, Table 1b. The grading of the
10 mm (! in.) material shall also conform to B.S. 802 and shall be mediumtextured material complying with Table
3 of the Standard. The aggregate shall
be hard, durable and clean crushed
limestone to the approval of the Engineer, and the binder shall be of tar.
Tarmacadam for footpaths shall consist of 25 mm (1 in.) gauge material for
the base course and 10 mm (i in.) gauge
material for the wearing course. The
grading of the materials, and the binder
contents and viscosities shall comply
with B.S. 1242.
course construction is sometimes used for surfacing and

resurfacing work for light to
medium traffic.
Similar
material of smaller gauge is
specified for footpath work,
but reference would be made
to B.S. 1241 where gravel
aggregate is required.
Testing requirements are
also covered in the British
Standard.
Bitumen macadam
Bitumen macadam for carriageways
and footpaths shall be of similar
material and gauge to that specified for
tarmacadam. The grading of the 40 mm
{1 l in.) material shall be in accordance
with Table 2 and the 10 mm (! in.)
material shall comply with Table 5 of
B.S. 1621.
The construction of bitumen macadam roads and

paths is similar to those in
tarmacadam. B.S.1621 covers
bitumen macadam with
crushed rock or slag aggregate, while B.S. 2040 covers
that with gravel aggregate.
Rolled asphalt
Rolled asphalt (hot process) base and
Rolled asphalt is composed
wearing courses shall comply with B.S. of asphaltic cement, fine ag594 and shall have a natural rock gregate, coarse aggregate and
aggregate.
a filler.
Cold asphalt
Cold asphalt shall be manufactured
Cold asphalt is used as an
in accordance with B.S. 1690 with a impervious wearing course,
145
EXPLANATORY NOTES
crushed natural rock aggregate with a as a carpet coat or for patching or sealing.
maximum size of 5 mm (! in.).
Waterproof underlay
Cement and aggregates are
The waterproof underlay shall concovered
in Chapter V.
sist of either waterproof paper complying with B.S. 1521, class B, or plastic
sheeting to grade 250.
Fabric reinforcement
Steel fabric reinforcement shall comply with B.S. 1221, reference 125, weighing not less than 195 kg/m 2 {432lb/ft 2).
The reinforcement shall be made up in
mat form.
This type of fabric is made

up of 5 s.w.g. wires at a pitch
of 150 mm (6 in.) in each
direction with electrically
welded intersections.
Dowel bars
Dowel bars shall be formed of mild
steel complying with B.S. 785, and shall
be 20 mm (!in.) in diameter, 600 mm
(2ft) in length, clean, straight and free
from all deformations.
Dowel bars are often inserted across transverse joints

in concrete road slabs to provide load transmission from
one slab to the next.
Joint filler
The joint filler shall be pre-moulded
and of a type and manufacture approved
by the Engineer. It shall be not less than
10 mm (! in.) thick. It shall be 25 mm
{1 in.) less in depth than the thickness of
the concrete slab, and accurately holed
to receive the dowel bars.
Specimens shall be subjected to three
applications of load at 20 hour intervals
to obtain 50 per cent compression. The
specimens shall recover at least 70 per
cent of their thickness within 2 hours of
the release of the last loading.
146
The joint filler is usually

made of non-extruding fibre
strips which are capable of
adjusting themselves to the
changing widths of expansion
joints.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Joint sealer
The joint sealer shall be a rubberbitumen compound of a proprietary

brand, approved by the Engineer, and
shall be poured in position in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
An alternative method of
specifying joint sealers is
given in the Ministry of
Transport Specification for
Road and Bridge Works,
which refers to the U.S.
Federal Specification and
cone penetration, flow and
bond test requirements.
Forms
Forms shall be of either steel or timber with a depth equal to the thickness
of the slab.
Timber forms shall be free from
warps and twists, of sufficient thickness
to ensure adequate rigidity and with a
tamping edge which is true to line and
level.
Steel forms shall be of approved
section and construction, and shall be
perfectly straight or suitably curved,
with a broad base and sufficient thickness to withstand, without displacement or distortion, the placing and
compaction of the concrete. Steel forms
shall be provided with an efficient
locking device to ensure continuity of
line and level through joints and with
steel pins to hold them in position.
It is essential that all forms,

whether of timber or steel,
should be of adequate
strength and properly fixed
in the correct positions, to
withstand the tamping or
vibration of the concrete
without movement.
Kerbs
Kerbs shall be of naturally coloured

precast concrete and shall comply with
B.S. 340. They shall contain a granite
aggregate and be hydraulically pressed,
with a 125 mm x250 mm (5 in. x 10 in.)
147
The majority of road kerbs

used today are of precast concrete, the strongest being of
granite aggregate, and are
hydraulically pressed with
EXPLANATORY NOTES
half-battered section. Purpose-made patterned faces. There are

radius kerbs shall be used for all radii nine different standard secof 12m (40ft) and less with the radius tions of concrete kerb.
clearly marked on one of the unexposed
faces.
Channels
The same British Standard

Channels shall be of precast concrete
with a granite aggregate complying applies as for kerbs. Channels
with B.S. 340, and shall be 250 mm x are now often omitted on
125 mm (10 in. x 5 in.) in section.
grounds of expense.
Quadrants
Quadrants shall be of precast concrete with a granite aggregate complying

with B.S. 340. They shall be of 300 mm
(12 in.) radius, 250 mm (10 in.) deep
with a half-battered curved face.
These are also covered by

B.S. 340. They are often
provided at each side of footpath crossings on the kerb
line: 450 mm (18 in.) radius
quadrants are also available.
Edgings
Edgings shall be of precast concrete

with a gravel aggregate complying with
B.S. 340. They shall be 50 mm x 150 mm
(2 in. x 6 in.) in section with a halfrounded top.
These are used at the edges

of tarmacadam, bitumen
macadam and asphalt paths.
Sections of 50 mm x 200 mm
(2 in. x 8 in.) and 50 mm x
250 mm (2 in. x 10 in.) are
also available.
Concrete flags
Concrete flags shall be naturally

Precast concrete flags are
coloured precast concrete hydrauli- made in four sizes: 900 mm x
cally pressed with a granite aggregate 600 mm (3ft x2 ft), 750 mm
and shall comply with B.S. 368. The x 600 mm (2 ft 6 in. x 2 ft),
600 mm x 600 mm (2 ft x
flags shall be 50 mm (2 in.) thick.
2ft), and 600 mm x450 mm
(2 ft x 1 ft 6 in.), and in two
thicknesses: 50 mm and
65 mm (2 in. and 2! in.).
148
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Clayware gully pots
Precast concrete gullies

Clayware road gullies shall be 375 mm
(15 in.) in diameter x 750 mm (30 in.) should be unreinforced and
deep with a rodding eye in accordance should comply with B.S. 556.
with B.S. 439, Part 1.
Gully gratings and frames
Gully gratings and frames shall comply with B.S. 497 and shall be curved
bar gully gratings and frames, grade B,
with a clear opening of 400 mm x
350 mm (16 in. x 14 in.), and weighing
approximately 100 kg (2 cwt).
An alternative is to use
kerb type gully covers and
frames, grade C, with a clear
opening of 475 mm x 375 mm
(19 in. x 15 in.) and weight of
100 kg (2 cwt) for use in paths
and verges. Grade A heavy
duty gully gratings and
frames, weighing up to 150 kg
(3 cwt), are designed for use
in main roads.
Grass seed
Grass seed for use on verges, central

reserves and side slopes shall be a
tested mix from an approved source,
supported by certificates of purity and
germination. The mixture shall consist
of the following types of grass seed in
the proportions given:
60 per cent
Perennial rye grass
20 per cent
Red fescue
Smooth stalked meadow grass
10 per cent
10 per cent
Crested dogstail
Different Engineers specify

varying mixes largely resulting from past experience. A
high proportion of hardy,
quick-growing perennial rye
grass is needed in these locations.
Fertiliser
The fertiliser for grass seeded areas

It is good policy to state
shall consist of an approved compound the three essential ingredients
containing:
of the grassland fertiliser.
10 per cent Nitrogen
15 per cent Phosphoric Acid
10 per cent Potash
149
EXPLANATORY NOTES
WORKMANSHIP: ROAD BASES
Surface soil
The Contractor shall strip all top soil

from the area of carriageways, footways, verges, cuttings and embankments, and shall stack it where directed
for future use.
Surface soil or turf should

be stripped from the site of
the roadworks. Most of it
will be required later for soiling verges and other grassed
areas.
Excavation
The Contractor shall excavate in any

There is usually an obligamaterial down to formation level or to tion on the Contractor to
such lower level as is required by the provide a tip for the disposal
Engineer to reach a sound foundation. of surplus excavated material.
The spoil shall be used as filling, if
approved by the Engineer, or removed
from the site.
Preparation of formation
The whole area of carriageways

whether on fill or in excavation shall be
thoroughly consolidated to the satisfaction of the Engineer. In general a
2500 kg (2! ton) smooth wheeled roller
will be adequate for this purpose. Any
soft places shall be cut out and replaced
with suitable hard, dry filling material
and again consolidated.
The finished surface of the formation
shall be reasonably smooth and free
from loose material and shall be approved by the Engineer. The formation
shall have gradients and crossfalls
parallel to those of the finished road
surface and provision shall be made for
the removal of surface water that will
collect near the edges of the formation.
The surface water shall be directed to
150
It is essential that the

formation or subgrade should
be carefully formed and consolidated to the correct levels.
The type and weight of roller
required will vary with the
characteristics of the subgrade. Any soft spots within
the carriageway limits must
be cut out and replaced with
suitable consolidated material and arrangements made
for disposing of surface water
which would otherwise accumulate on the surface of
the formation.
It is good practice to seal
the formation with a surface
dressing of hot tar or bitumen
EXPLANATORY NOTES
surface-water gully pots or to temporary

ditches with suitable outlets formed
clear of the formation, through grips at
3 m {10 ft) intervals. The Contractor
shall take care to prevent damage to
gully pots or blocking of pots with
earth or other debris.
Within 24 hours of the final preparation of the formation, or as soon as
practicable thereafter, the Contractor
shall surface dress the formation with
hot tar, as previously specified, at a
temperature within the range 931270C (200-260F), evenly applied at a
rate of 12-15 l/m 2 {3-4 yd 2/gal) with a
distributor complying with B.S. 1707:
Hot Binder Distributors for Road
Surface Dressing. Immediately after
spraying, the binder shall be covered
with 5 mm (l in.) gravel chippings at the
rate of 160 m 2 /1000 kg (200 yd 2/ton),
and be adequately rolled with a 2500 kg
(2! ton) roller.
and chippings of gravel,

crushed rock or slag. Some
Engineers permit the hand
application of binder and
chippings.
Filling
No filling material shall be laid until
the surface soil has been removed. Filling shall consist of approved material
from the excavations or hardcore as
specified and shall be placed and consolidated in layers not exceeding 225 mm
(9 in.) in thickness of loose material.
Consolidation shall be effected by the
use of a suitable roller or approved
heavy plant and during the process of
consolidation the Contractor shall ensure that the material used for filling
shall have the correct water content to
secure maximum compaction.
The final surface of filling shall be
carefully levelled and graded, finishing
151
The filling material will be

determined by a number of
factors, including depth of
fill, class of road and nature
of surplus excavated material.
The type of plant required
for consolidation purposes
will likewise be influenced by
the depth and type of fill.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
parallel to the profile of the road surface.

Sub-base
The carriageway sub-base shall consist of ashes, as specified, laid and rolled
to a consolidated thickness of 100 mm
(4 in.). The roller shall be the heaviest
which will compact the sub-base without unduly disturbing the underlying
formation.
The sub-base lies between

the formation and the road
base in flexible construction.
With rigid pavements this
layer will constitute the base
lying between the formation
and the road slab. Thicknesses may range from
100 mm (4 in.) to 250 mm
(10 in.), depending on the
CBR value and frost susceptibility figure for the subgrade.
Water-bound granular base
The base course shall consist of hard,

durable igneous rock with a maximum
size of 50 mm (2 in.), laid in two layers
each with a consolidated thickness of
100 mm (4 in.).
The aggregate shall be mixed with 25 per cent of water depending on the
type of aggregate in an approved mixer.
Compaction shall be effected with an
8000-10,000 kg (8-10 ton) smoothwheeled roller with a minimum of 10
passes.
It is generally considered
undesirable to lay waterbound granular bases in
layers more than 150 mm
(6 in.) thick. Alternative
forms of construction include
dry-bound granular base,
low-binder macadam and tar
or bitumen-bound granular
base.
Lean concrete base
The coarse aggregate shall be washed

gravel complying with B.S. 882, Table 3,
in an all-in aggregate, with a maximum
size of 20 mm (! in.). The mix shall be
1 part of Portland cement to 20 parts of
all-in aggregate with a water content of
152
This is weak concrete with

a low water content, consolidated by rollers. This gives a
strong but rather expensive
form of base, but is used
extensively for rigid roads to
EXPLANATORY NOTES
5-6 per cent by weight, mixed in an

approved batch-type mixer.
The lean concrete base shall be
200 mm (8 in.) thick and shall be compacted within 1! hours of laying with a
400 kg (8 cwt) vibratory roller, followed
by an 8000-10,000 kg (8-10 ton) deadweight roller. Within 1 hour of compaction the surface shall be sprayed with
55 per cent bitumen emulsion at the
rate of 075 1/m 2 (6 yd 2/gal). The lean
concrete base shall attain a minimum
strength of 10 MN/m 2 (1400 lbf/in. 2).
carry heavy traffic flows.

Readers requiring more information on the grading of
aggregates are referred to the
Ministry of Transport Specification for Road and Bridge
Works, 1963 (H.M.S.O.).
Soil cement
The basic material shall consist of
crushed rock graded in accordance with
the Ministry of Transport specification,
mixed with 10 per cent by weight of
Portland cement in an approved paddle
type mixer. The moisture content shall
be determined using the methods outlined in B.S. 1377.
The soil cement shall be laid 150 mm
(6 in.) thick and shall be compacted
within 2 hours of mixing, starting with
a 2000-3000 kg (2-3 ton) smoothwheeled roller and following with an
8000-10,000 kg (8-10 ton) smoothwheeled roller.
The soil cement shall be cured by
spraying the stabilizing layer with 55 per
cent bitumen emulsion at the rate of
0751/m2 (6 yd 2 /gal) as soon as compaction is complete.
153
A variety of materials can

be used for soil cement or
cement stabilization, including naturally occurring soil,
washed or processed granular
material, crushed rock or
slag, and pulverised fuel ash
or burnt colliery shale. Where
suitable soil exists on the site,
mix-in-place construction can
be adopted, whereby cement
is spread ahead of the mixer
after the soil has been pulverised. Methods of testing
are detailed in B.S. 1924.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
ROAD SURFACINGS
Tarmacadam
The carriageway surfacing shall consist of two coats of tarmacadam,
machine-laid to a consolidated minimum thickness of 80 mm (3! in.), with
limestone aggregate and a tar binder.
The base course shall consist of 40 mm
(1l in.) nominal size material as specified, rolled to the required profile with a
10,000 kg (10 ton) roller, with a width
ofroll of not less than 450 mm (18 in.),
(2l in.), in the manner described in
B.S. 802.
The wearing course shall be of
medium-textured material as specified
to a nominal size of 15 mm (lin.). The
wearing course shall be rolled to the
required profile with a 10,000 kg (1 0 ton)
roller to a consolidated thickness of
20 mm (!in.). The finished surface of
the tarmacadam shall be blinded immediately after consolidation with approved grit of a grading not exceeding
3 mm (l in.) to dust. The grit shall have
been coated with 2-3 per cent of tar of
e.v.t. not exceeding 30oC (86F).
Where construction joints occur in the
surfacing, the edge of the previous work
shall be cut back to a vertical face which
shall be coated with hot tar before any
new work is laid against it. The adjoining edges of manhole covers and similar
fittings shall be cleaned and painted with
hot tar. The surface across joints shall
be tested for truth of level and any
irregularities exceeding 5 mm (h in.)
with a 3m (10ft) straight edge shall be
rectified immediately.
154
Tarmacadam surfacing can

take various forms, from
single-course to two-course
workandfromopen- to closetextured material. The type of
aggregate and binder can
also be varied.
The courses must be laid to
the correct profiles and adequately consolidated, usually
with a 10,000 kg (10 ton)
roller.
B.S. 802 gives details of the
grading of the aggregate and
the binder content.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Bitumen macadam
The carriageway surfacing shall consist' of two coats of open-textured

bitumen macadam machine laid to a
consolidated minimum thickness of
85 mm (3! in.), with limestone aggregate and cut-back asphaltic bitumen
binder. The base course shall consist of
40 mm (It in.) nominal size material as
specified rolled to the required profile
with a 10,000 kg (10 ton) roller, with a
width of roll of not less than 450 mm
(18 in.), to a consolidated thickness of
65 mm (2! in.), in the manner described
in B.S. 1621.
The wearing course shall be of 15 mm
(! in.) nominal size material complying
with Table 5 of B.S. 1621. The wearing
course shall be rolled to the required
profile with a 10,000 kg (10 ton) roller
(1 in.). The surface of the newly compacted bitumen macadam shall be
blinded with bitumen-coated limestone
grit not exceeding 3 mm (lin.) nominal
size.
Where construction joints occur in
the surfacing, the edge of the previous
work shall be cut back to a vertical face
which shall be coated with hot bitumen
before any new work is laid against it.
The adjoining edges of manhole covers
and similar fittings shall be cleaned and
painted with bitumen.
The accuracy of the finish in the
longitudinal direction shall be checked
with a 3m (10ft) straight edge and the
maximum permissible gap between the
underside of the straight edge and the
bitumen macadam shall be 10 mm (!in.)
155
Various
constructional
methods are available, using
single-course or two-course
construction, and the bitumen macadam can be openor close-textured.
A wide range of aggregates
can be used, as indicated in
B.S. 1621, and the binder can
be either cut-back or straightrun bitumen. An alternative
material for blinding is fine
cold asphalt to B.S. 1690.
The total thickness of twocourse construction varies
from 75 mm (3 in.) to 115 mm
(4! in.) for normal work.
Note the alternative and
more comprehensive method
of specifying maximum permissible surface irregularities
to that adopted for tar
macadam.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
for base course and 5 mm (! in.) for

wearing course.
Rolled asphalt (hot process)
Rolled asphalt surfacing to carriageways shall consist of two coats of hot

rolled asphalt machine-laid to a consolidated minimum thickness of 100 mm
(4 in.), all in accordance with the general
requirements of B.S. 594. The base
course shall have a consolidated thickness of 65 mm (2t in.) and shall consist
of 70 per cent of an approved crushed
rock coarse aggregate and an asphaltic
cement of bitumen of 40/60 penetration.
The wearing course shall have a
consolidated thickness of 40 mm (1 tin.)
and shall consist of 30 per cent of an
approved crushed rock coarse aggregate
and an asphaltic cement of equal proportions by weight of bitumen of appropriate penetration and refined Lake
asphalt.
The wearing course shall, except
under exceptional conditions, be laid
within 3 days of the laying of the base
course. The base course shall have a
clean surface and no traffic, except that
required in connection with the wearing
course, shall be permitted on it. The
surface of the newly laid wearing course
shall be blinded with 20 mm (i in.)
coated chippings rolled into the surface at a uniform rate of between 70 and
90 m 2/1000 kg (90 and 110 yd 2/ton),
with a roller weighing not less than
5000 kg (5 tons).
The accuracy of the finish in the
longitudinal direction shall be checked
with a 3m (10ft) straight edge and the
maximum permissible gap between the
156
Most of the essential

requirements relating to the
manufacture and laying of
hot rolled asphalt are detailed
in B.S. 594. Some amplification is, however, necessary
as outlined in the accompanying specification clauses.
Hot rolled asphalt can be
laid as a single course or in
two courses and it is advisable
to produce a roughened surface by applying pre-coated
chippings.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
underside of the straight edge and the

asphalt wearing course shall be 5 mm
Us in.).
Cold asphalt
Cold asphalt shall be manufactured
and laid in general accordance with
B.S. 1690, with a limestone aggregate.
Cold fine asphalt shall be machine-laid
in a single wearing course with a consolidated thickness of 20 mm (!in.) to
the required profiles.
Pre-coated bitumen stone chippings
(10 mm (!in.) single size) shall be evenly
distributed over the newly laid asphalt
at the rate of 80-130 m 2/1000 kg (100160 yd 2/ton). The asphalt and chippings
shall then be compacted with a roller
weighing not less that 5000 kg (5 tons).
Road channels, 250 mm (10 in.) wide,
shall be left clear of chippings.
When laying cold asphalt against
existing work, the old material shall be
cut back to provide a dense vertical face
which shall be painted with hot bitumen.
Fine cold asphalt is used

for a variety of purposes, but
particularly as carpet coats
and for blinding, sealing and
patching. Its great advantage
is its ease of application and
it is now used extensively in
the repair and maintenance
of roads and paths. It has a
life of up to 10 years.
Surface dressing
Hot tar shall be evenly applied to the
carriageway surface by means of a
distributor complying with B.S. 1707:
Binder Distributors for Road Surface
Dressing, at the rate of 075-1 l/m 2
(4!-6 yd 2/gal.). The temperature of the
tar at the time of application to the
road surface shall be appropriate to the
equiviscous temperature of the tar being
used, but in no case shall it fall below
82C (180F).
Immediately after spraying, the tar
157
The rate of application of

binder and chippings varies
with the condition of the
surface which is being dressed
and the type and size of chippings. For initial surface
dressing of an open-textured
coated macadam wearing
course, 5 mm (! in.) slag
chippings applied at the rate
of 110-140 m 2/1000 kg (140170 yd 2/ton) and tar at the
EXPLANATORY NOTES
shall be covered with an even layer of

10 mm (! in.) clean slag chippings
applied at the rate of 70-80 m 2/1000 kg
(90-100 yd 2/ton). The chippings shall be
rolled with a roller weighing 60008000 kg (6-8 tons), rolling being continued until a uniform compact surface
has been obtained. When required the
Contractor shall mix an approved adhesion agent with the binder prior to
spraying.
rate of 06-07 l/m 2 (6!8 yd 2/gal.) would be suitable.

Where a hot cut-back bitumen is used as binder, the
temperature of application
would be 121-177C and the
rate of spread of the binder
would be 06-09 l/m2 (58 yd 2/gal.) depending upon
conditions. (See Ministry of
Transport: Specification for
Road and Bridge Works.)
NOTE : Other suitable applications for periodic surface dressing would

be:
Type of aggregate
Tar
Rates of application
Aggregate
20 mm (! in.) slag or
crushed rock
1-13 1/m2
(3!-4 yd 2/gal.)
60-70 m 2/1000 kg
(70-80 yd 2 /ton)
15 mm (!in.) gravel
09-1 1/m2
(3!-5 yd 2/gal.)
70-80 m 2/1000 kg
(90-100 yd 2/ton)
20 mm (! in.) gravel
12-15 1/m2
(3-4 yd 2/gal.)
60-70 m 2/1000 kg
(70-80 yd 2/ton)
CONCRETE CARRIAGEWAY CONSTRUCTION

Waterproof underlay
A waterproof underlay, as previously
specified, shall be laid over the base to
the concrete carriageway. Laps at joints
shall be not less than 150 mm (6 in.) and
the underlay shall be free from tears or
any other damage when the concrete is
deposited upon it.
158
A waterproof underlay is
necessary to prevent loss of
water and cement from the
concrete slab into the porous
base. It must be properly
lapped at joints.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Road base levels
A final check on road base

Immediately before the underlay is
laid the top surface of the road base levels is essential to ensure a
shall be checked by working a scratch constant minimum thickness
template off the side forms. All irregu- of concrete road slab.
larities shall be corrected immediately
and the surface protected from disturbance in any form.
Forms
Forms shall comply with the requirements previously specified. They shall
be set true to line and level on a foundation of sufficient strength to ensure that
they will not be disturbed by the placing
and compacting of the concrete.
Bent or damaged forms shall not be
used. The forms shall be tested for level
with a 3 m (10 ft) straight-edge before
any concrete is laid and where a variation of more than 3 mm (!in.) is found
the form shall be taken up and reset.
The Contractor shall make good at his
own expense any irregularities in the
concrete surface resulting from the
movement of forms.
Forms shall be set for at least 60 m
(200 ft) in advance of the point where
concrete is being placed and they shall
remain in position for at least 24 hours
after concrete has been deposited against
them. The Contractor shall set forms to
the required radius where the curve has
a radius of less than 45 m (150ft).
A suitable foundation for

forms would be a strip of
concrete or mortar, 25 mm
(1 in.) to 50 mm (2 in.) thick.
Forms are kept true to line by
the insertion of not less than
three pins to each 3 m (10ft)
length of form and by the use
of locking joints.
Another way of ensuring
that an adequate length of
form is fixed in position before concrete is placed is to
specify that forms shall be set
in position at least 30 hours
before concrete is placed
against them.
Concrete mix
It is normally required that
The concrete used in the road slab
shall be class B. When instructed by the the concrete mix shall be such
Engineer two 150 mm (6 in.) cubes shall as to provide concrete of a
159
EXPLANATORY NOTES
be made from a representative sample

of concrete being delivered at the point
of deposit. The average crushing strength
of the two cubes shall be not less than
28 MN/m 2 (4000 lbf/in. 2). The cubes
shall be made in accordance with the
procedure given in Section 6 of CP
certain compressive strength

at 28 days. Provision must
therefore be made for the
making and testing of sufficient test cubes of concrete to
ensure that the required
strength is attained.
Rigid control of the water
content of the concrete is also
needed to prevent loss of
strength.
Specification clauses covering the hatching and mixing
of concrete are not included
here as they have already
been given in Chapter V.
Class B concrete would probably be a 1:2:4 mix.
Crushing strengths could
also be expressed in N/mm~
144.
If the strength of the cubes is below

the specified value, three cores shall be
cut from the appropriate section of
road slab and tested for crushing
strength at an age of approximately
three months. If the average strength of
the three cores when calculated as
equivalent cube strength falls below
31 MN/m 2 (4500 lbf/in 2) the Engineer
may order the removal of the concrete
at the Contractor's expense.
The waterjcement ratio of the concrete shall not exceed 055 by weight.
The concrete shall be of suitable workability for full compaction and the compacting factor shall be determined in
accordance with B.S. 1881: Methods of
Testing Concrete.
Placing concrete and reinforcement
The mixed concrete shall be deposited

in its final position within 20 minutes of
leaving the mixer. It shall be spread
uniformly over the road base to a depth
of 100 mm (4 in.), with great care being
taken to ensure that it is of uniform
composition and that no segregation
takes place. The concrete shall then be
compacted to the 100 mm (4 in.) depth
by a vibrated hand tamper.
The steel fabric reinforcement shall
be accurately assembled and fitted to160
Concrete road slab thicknesses are affected by the

properties of the soil, inclusion or omission of base or
steel reinforcement and the
intensity of the traffic to be
carried.
Concrete road slabs are
usually reinforced with a
single layer of steel fabric
reinforcement
positioned
about 50 mm (2 in.) down
EXPLANATORY NOTES
gether to form a mat on the compacted

concrete. The use of small pieces of fabric will not be permitted. All laps shall
be one complete mesh and the reinforcement shall terminate 50 mm (2 in.) from
the edges and from all joints in the
concrete, unless otherwise directed by
the Engineer.
After the reinforcement has been
placed in position the top 50 mm (2 in.)
of concrete shall be spread and tamped
to give a total slab thickness of 150 mm
(6 in.). Care must be taken to prevent
disturbance of the reinforcement and
the top layer of concrete shall be spread
and tamped within 30 minutes of placing the bottom layer. Spreading and
compacting of concrete shall be continuous between joints.
from the top surface of the

slab.
Many concrete road slabs
are laid with vibrated hand
tampers, but with important
projects to carry heavy traffic
flows concrete spreaders and
compacting and finishing
machines, of the type described in the Ministry of
Transport Specification for
Road and Bridge Works,
may be used.
Compacting concrete
Concrete shall be compacted with a

tamper weighing not less than 10 kg/m
(7 lbflin. ft), having a 75 mm (3 in.)
tamping edge shod with a steel strip and
fitted with an approved type of vibrator.
Tampers shall be worked off the side
forms and that for the base course shall
be recessed at the ends to permit the
base concrete to be tamped to a level
50 mm {2 in.) below the finished level of
the road.
Tamping shall continue until a uniform closely knit surface is obtained.
The surface shall be left slightly serrated
except for smooth channels, 250 mm
(10 in.) wide, and smooth strips, 65 mm
(2! in.) wide, adjoining the arrises at
joints. Tamping towards a joint shall
cease 600 mm {2 ft) from the joint and
161
It is important that concrete in a road slab should be

properly compacted to produce a slightly corrugated
road surface to the correct
profile.
Strips in the channels need
to be finished smooth to offer
the least possible resistance
to the free flow of water towards gullies, etc.
Tampers need to be of a
certain minimum weight per
unit length to ensure adequate compaction, and most
engineers insist on the use of
vibrators.
On large-scale projects the
concrete is usually spread by
EXPLANATORY NOTES
the remainder shall be tamped working

away from the joint.
On completion of tamping, the surface shall be checked with a 3 m (10ft)
straight-edge and any irregularities exceeding 3 mm (i- in.) shall be corrected
immediately.
The channels shall be floated to a
smooth finish for a width of 250 mm
(10 in.) with a steel float and shall be
checked with a straight-edge and spirit
level to ensure that there is a true fall to
gullies at all points. Any faults disclosed
by these checks shall be made good
immediately. The concrete around a
gully shall be slightly dished towards it
and care shall be taken to ensure that
there is no obstruction to the free flow
of water into the gully. All cast iron
frames of manholes, gullies, etc., shall
be separated from the concrete by a
strip of jointing material not less than
5 mm (! in.) thick.
a hopper type of concrete

spreader, and a compacting
and finishing machine strikes
off the concrete to the correct
level, compacts the concrete
by vibration and/or mechanical tamping, and finishes the
concrete by a transverse oscillating screed.
Transverse expansion joints
Each transverse joint shall be an

expansion joint located at intervals not
exceeding 18 m (60 ft) and at the positions shown on the drawings or where
directed by the Engineer. The joints
shall be 15 mm (! in.) wide, straight and
vertical, and extend the full depth of the
slab at right angles to the axis of the
carriageway. Expansion joints shall be
filled with an approved pre-moulded
filler of a resilient non-extruding type as
specified. This filler shall extend from
the underside of the slab to within
25 mm (1 in.) of the top of the slab. The
arrises to the adjoining concrete slabs
shall be rounded to a radius of 5 mm
162
The provision of transverse

expansion joints is essential
to allow the concrete to
expand with subsequent rises
in temperature.
The width of expansion
joints is usually 15 mm a in.)
or 20 mm (!in.) and the joint
filler, of non-extruding material, normally finishes about
15-25 mm (!-1 in.) from the
top of the slab. The joints are
subsequently sealed with a
rubber/bitumen or other suitable sealing compound.
Dowel bars are often in-
EXPLANATORY NOTES
(i in.), by careful use of a suitable

edging tool, and there must be absolute
truth of level across the joints at all
points.
As soon as possible after completion
all expansion joints shall be brushed
clean, dried and sealed with the specified joint sealer. The sealing compound
shall fill the joints flush with the surface
of the road, protecting and covering
both arrises.
The joints shall be provided with
dowel bars, 600 mm (2ft) in length and
of 20 mm (! in.) diameter, spaced at
mid-depth of the slab parallel to the
road surface and to the centre line of the
road. The dowel bars shall be spaced at
375 mm (15 in.) centres with both end
bars positioned 150 mm (6 in.) from the
edges of the slab. The dowel bars shall
be bonded to the concrete for one-half
of their length and the other half be
coated with bitumen. The free ends shall
be fitted with a closely fitting closed cap
100 mm (4 in.) long, of non-collapsible
metal or waterproof cardboard. A disc
of felt or other compressible material,
20 mm (! in.) thick, shall be inserted
between the end of the dowel bar and
the end of the cap to permit horizontal
movement of the bar in the sleeve. The
bars shall be so fixed that they cannot
be displaced during concreting and the
joint filler shall have holes drilled in it
to accommodate the dowel bars.
corporated to provide load

transmission from one slab
to the next. Provision must be
made for movement of the
slabs by securing the dowel
bars in one slab but leaving
them free to move in the
adjoining slab. The size of
bars used varies from 2030 mm (!-1! in.) in diameter.
Longitudinal joints
With roads exceeding 5 m

When road slabs are constructed of
two-lane or greater width, the carriage- (16 ft) in width it is usual to
way shall be constructed in longitudinal construct the roads in anumstrips each 33 m (11ft) wide. The longi- ber of longitudinal strips
163
EXPLANATORY NOTES
tudinal joints shall be tongued and with suitable joints between

grooved joints of the type shown on the them.
drawings, formed by means of a suitably
shaped timber or metal strip attached to
the forms.
Curing concrete
As soon as the concrete surface is

complete, it shall be cured by the
mechanical application of an approved
resinous curing compound at the rate of
02-03 l/m 2 (20-25 yd 2/gal.). The compound shall be uniformly distributed
over the road surface in the form of a
fine spray.
The concrete surface shall then be
protected against the effects of sun and
rain during the setting period by the
erection of tents of light movable frames
covered with suitable opaque waterproof material, arranged to discharge
any water clear of the newly-laid concrete.
The concrete must not be

allowed to dry out quickly or
it will lose part of its strength
and surface cracks will
develop, particularly in hot
weather or with drying winds.
The curing treatment specified is that recommended by
the Ministry of Transport.
Traffic on finished surface
No vehicular traffic shall be allowed

on the finished concrete surface within
20 days of completion where ordinary
Portland cement is used or 10 days with
rapid-hardening cement, provided that
the joints have been permanently sealed
in both cases. The Contractor shall take
all necessary action to ensure compliance with this clause.
164
The concrete must be given

adequate time to attain sufficient strength before any
vehicles are allowed to pass
over it. The time period can
be reduced by the use of
special cements.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
ANCILLARY WORK
Kerbs, channels, quadrants and edgings
Precast concrete kerbs, channels and

quadrants shall be bedded and jointed
in cement mortar on concrete foundations(classC)ofthedimensionsshownon
the Drawings. Immediately after being
laid, the kerbs and quadrants shall be
haunched on the back face to half their
height in concrete, class C, to the
dimensions shown on the Drawings.
Precast concrete edging shall be supported at the joints by a spadeful of
concrete, class D.
The exposed face of kerbs and quadrants shall be not less than 100 mm
(4 in.) nor more than 105 mm (4! in.)
above the channel of the road, except
where it is necessary to provide an artifi.cial fall in the channel. The exposed
surfaces of kerbs, channels, quadrants
and edgings shall conform to the
required gradients and curves in the
vertical plane and to the required lines
and curves in the horizontal plane.
Kerbs, etc. are sometimes

laid on a semi-dry concrete
foundation, thus dispensing
with the need for a mortar
bed. With concrete roads it is
common practice to lay halfsection kerbs on a mortar
bed, 15-25 mm (i-1 in.)
thick, laid directly on the
concrete road slab. To give
ample support to the kerbs,
it is advisable to provide two
10-15 mm (i-t in.) diameter
steel dowel bars, 125-150 mm
(5-6 in.) long, to each length
of kerb, driven into the concrete while it is still green.
The kerbs are then backed up
with concrete. Concrete class
C would probably be a 1:3:6
mix, and D - 1 : 12.
Road gullies
Road gullies shall be provided in the

positions shown on the Drawings or as
directed by the Engineer. Gully pots
shall be set truly level on a bed of concrete, class C, 150 mm (6 in.) thick and
be surrounded with a minimum of
100 mm (4 in.) of similar concrete. Any
backfill around the concrete casing
shall be thoroughly consolidated.
The frames to gully gratings shall be
set in cement mortar, finishing 5-10 mm
165
Specification requirements
as to the concrete casing of
gully pots vary from job to
job. Some Engineers specify
a 100 mm (4 in.) concrete surround while others require
150 mm (6 in.). In some cases
it is specified that the concrete
surround is to fill the excavated hole entirely.
The introduction of two or
EXPLANATORY NOTES
U-! in.) below the adjoining road surface, on two or three courses of 225 mm
(9 in.) brickwork in engineering bricks
laid in English bond. Once gullies have
been connected to the sewer, the gratings or a temporary cover must be
fixed to prevent earth or other material
gaining access to the gully or sewer.
The Contractor shall clear at his own
expense all gullies and/or sewers which
become silted or blocked due to noncompliance with this requirement.
three courses of brickwork

between the gully pot and the
grating gives a measure of
flexibility in determining the
level at which the gully pot is
to be placed.
Electric cable ducts

Excavate for and lay 75 mm (3 in.)
diameter asbestos cement cable ducts
in the positions shown on the plan or
where directed by the Engineer, to a
depth of 600 mm (2 ft) below the
finished road level. The ducts shall be
jointed with detachable sockets and two
rubber rings to each joint.
The ends of the ducts shall extend
600 mm (2 ft) beyond the face of the
kerb on either side of the carriageway
and be sealed with tile or slate stoppers
set lightly in cement mortar. The ends
of ducts shall be marked with 50 mm x
50 mm (2 in. x 2 in.) timber pegs,
750 mm (2ft 6 in.) long, surrounded in
concrete and extending 150 mm (6 in.)
above ground, and shall be inscribed
with the letter E and painted a distinctive colour.
It is particularly important
to lay service ducts under
concrete roads to accommodate future services and so
eliminate the need to break
up the road slab at a later
date. An alternative material
is second quality clayware
pipes. The ends of the ducts
should be clearly marked to
avoid much abortive labour
in excavation at a later date
to expose the ducts.
FOOTPATHS
Tarmacadam footpaths
Tarmacadam footpaths shall be laid
The tarmacadam consists
on a bed of hardcore with a minimum of crushed rock or slag with a
166
EXPLANATORY NOTES
consolidated thickness of 75 mm (3 in.),

blinded with ashes.
The footpath surfacing shall consist of
two coats of tarmacadam laid to a minimum consolidated thickness of 50 mm
(2 in.) to the required gradients and a
crossfall of 1 in 48 towards the kerb.
The tarmacadam surfacing shall be laid
in accordance with the requirements of
B.S. 1242: Tarmacadam 'Tarpaving' for
Footpaths, Playgrounds and Similar
Works.
The base course shall have a minimum consolidated thickness of 30 mm
(1! in.) and the wearing course shall be
20 mm (!in.) thick, each with grading
and binder content requirements complying with Tables 3 and 4 of B.S. 1242
respectively and each rolled with a
4000 kg (4 ton) roller.
Immediately after consolidation the
surface of the tarpaving shall be lightly
dusted with limestone grit graded 3 mm
(i in.) to dust at a rate of not less than
290 m 2 /1000 kg (350 yd 2 jton). After
dusting the surface shall be lightly
rolled.
binder oftar or a tar-bitumen

mixture.
Tarpaving can be laid in
one or two courses, and in the
case of a single course the
thickness may range from
10 mm (! in.) to 30 mm
(1! in.). In two-course work
total compacted thicknesses
vary from 45 mm (1 i in.) to
75 mm (3 in.).
The dusting grit may be
dry or coated with 2-3 per
cent of suitable tar or bitumen, or alternatively fine
cold asphalt may be used.
Asphalt footpaths
Asphalt footpaths shall be laid on a

75 mm (3 in.) soil cement base as previously specified. The surface of the soil
cement shall be covered with a tack
coat of bitumen emulsion applied at the
rate of 035--055 l/m 2 (10-16 yd 2/gal.).
Fine cold asphalt complying with B.S.
1690 shall then be laid with a minimum
consolidated thickness of 20 mm (i in.),
rolled with a 2000 kg (2 ton) roller.
After initial consolidation, 15 mm (!in.)
pre-coated limestone chippings shall be
167
Suitable bases for fine asphalt surfaced footpaths include hardcore, concrete and
soil cement. The thickness of
the asphalt may vary from
lOmm(iin.)to 25 mm (1 in.).
The tack coat may be omitted
when the surfacing is being
laid on a recently laid base
course. The final application
of chippings is optional.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
rolled into the surface of the asphalt, at

the rate of 80-130 m 2/1000 kg (100-160
yd 2/ton).
Flagged footpaths
Paving flags shall be laid on a 75 mm

(3 in.) consolidated base of ashes, rolled
with a 2500 kg (2! ton) roller, and a
20 mm (!in.) bed of lime mortar.
Precast concrete flags 50 mm (2 in.)
thick, as specified, shall be laid to a
150 mm (6 in.) bond with closely butting
joints to a crossfall of 1 in 48 towards
the kerb, neatly cut to all splays and
around all boxes, etc. Standard size
flags only shall be used with any 600 mm
x 450 mm (2 ft x 1 ft 6 in.) flags used at
the back of the path. Where paths are
circular in plan the flags are to be laid
with cross joints radiating to the point
from which the arc is struck. After laying, flags are to be grouted in lime slurry.
Flags can be of precast

concrete, stone or reconstructed stone. A good even
mortar bed is to be preferred
to the five-pat system of bedding. A much sounder job is
obtained by grouting the
flags on completion.
In situ concrete footpaths

In situ concrete paths are to be laid
on a 50 mm (2 in.) consolidated bed of
ashes or hoggin. The concrete shall be a
1:2:4 mix with a 20 mm (!in.) graded
aggregate, finishing 3 in. thick with a
lightly tamped surface. Expansion joints
shall be provided at 9 m (30ft) intervals
and dummy joints at 2m (6ft) intervals.
All arrises shall be rounded to a radius
of 5 mm (! in.).
168
This is a relatively cheap

form of footpath construction. It should be not less
than 60 mm (2! in.) in thickness and should have ample
expansion and dummy joints.
Various surface finishes are
available.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
OTHER ITEMS
Grass verges
A layer of suitable vegetable soil not

less than 150 mm (6 in.) thick shall be
spread and levelled over the areas to be
grassed to the correct gradients and
crossfalls. The vegetable soil shall be
free from all rubbish, large stones and
other harmful material, shall comply
with B.S. 3882 and shall be finished to a
fine seed tilth, not less than 50 mm
(2 in.) thick.
At an approved time a fertiliser, as
specified, shall be distributed at the rate
of 005 kg/m 2 (1l ozfyd 2), followed by
the specified mixture of grass seed at the
rate of006 kg/m 2 (2 oz/yd 2), which shall
be lightly raked in and lightly rolled if
the surface is dry.
To secure good results at

least 150 mm (6 in.) of good
vegetable soil raked to a fine
tilth is necessary. It is undesirable to lay verges to
gradients in excees of 1 in 4
or less than 15 m (4ft 6 in.)
wide. Where heavy soil is encountered it is advisable to
provide a 100 mm (4 in.)
layer of clinker or gravel
under the verges.
B.S. 3882 details the texture, soil reaction, stone content and method of testing
topsoil. Turf should comply
with B.S. 3969.
Chain-link fencing
Chain-link fencing shall be erected to

the correct lines with the level of the top
of the fencing following roughly the
mean level of the ground. The line wires
shall be pulled drum tight with proper
straining fittings at the straining posts.
Each straining post shall be properly
strutted in the direction of each line of
fence. All straining posts and struts
shall be set in concrete, class C, 100 mm
(4 in.) thick on all sides for half the
depth of the post in the ground.
The chain-link fencing shall comply
with B.S. 1722, Part 1 and shall be green
plastic coated 15 m (5 ft) high x 50 mm
(2 in.) mesh x 10l gauge, tied to four
line wires of 9l gauge with 14 gauge
169
Chain-link fencing is very

popular as it provides a good
durable form of boundary.
It is made in a variety of
heights from 750 mm (2 ft
6 in.) to 2 m (6 ft), with
meshes ranging from 30 mm
(1!) to 75 mm (3 in.). Posts
can be of steel, concrete or
timber.
Cleft chestnut pale fencing
to B.S. 1722, Part 4, is suitable for temporary fencing
for highway jobs and similar
purposes.
Other more permanent
types of fencing include close-
EXPLANATORY NOTES
binding wire ties at 450 mm (18 in.) boarded fences and wooden
centres. The posts shall be mild steel post and rail fencing, both of
angle at 3m (10ft) centres of the follow- which are covered in B.S.
ing dimensions:
1722.
Intermediate posts: 45 mm x 45 mm x
. x 134 m.
. x 136 m.
)
5 mm (1 43 m.
Straining posts. 65 mm x 65 mm x
6 mm (2-l in. x 2! in. x! in.)
Struts: 45 mm x 45 mm x 5 mm
(11 in. x 11 in. x 136 in.)
All shall be 25 m (7ft 6 in.) long.
170
CHAPTER ELEVEN
Specification of Sewers and Drains

THIS chapter is primarily concerned with the drafting of specification
clauses covering the provision, laying and jointing of sewers and drains
in a variety of materials. The specification will also pick up associated
operations such as excavation, timbering, backfill, etc., of sewer trenches,
concrete protection to pipes and testing pipes. Where large-diameter
sewers are to be laid in tunnel, the provision, jointing and grouting of
shaft and tunnel segments will probably arise.
A sewer specification would not be complete unless it included clauses
covering the construction of manholes, which could be of brick, in situ
concrete or precast concrete tube construction. Various items of ancillary
equipment must also be covered where applicable, such as benchings,
channels, covers, boxsteps, step irons, ladders, safety bars and safety
chains.
The chapter will conclude with a few miscellaneous items connected
with sewerage schemes and sewage disposal works, such as media for
filters, filter distributors and ventilating columns.
As with preceding works sections, a logical sequence of items is
advisable and a useful approach follows.
(1) MATERIALS
Various types of pipe and other materials and components such as manhole covers, step irons, bricks, cement, aggregates, steel reinforcement,
etc. The last three classes of material will not be covered in the clauses
produced in this chapter as they have been covered in earlier chapters.
171
(2) EXCAVATION
Typical matters to be covered here include trench excavation, trial holes,

timbering, supports to crossings, keeping excavations clear of water,
excess excavation, backfill and location of pipelines.
{3)
PIPELA YING
A list of matters commonly encountered includes loading and unloading

pipes, laying pipes, building in pipes, jointing various types of pipe, cutting pipes, keeping pipes free from obstruction, stoppers, concrete protection, thrust blocks and testing pipes.
(4) MANHOLES
These can be subdivided into types and include various ancillary features such as channels, benching, ladders, safety chains and bars, etc.
Special provision must be made for any out-of-the-ordinary types of
manhole such as back-drop manholes, dual manholes and overflow
manholes.
(5) TUNNEL AND SHAFT LININGS
Work under this head can normally be conveniently broken down into
three main subdivisions: excavation work; provision of cast iron or precast concrete segments, etc. ; and work in assembling, jointing, grouting,
etc.
(6) ANCILLARY WORK
Sewer outfalls, ventilating columns, storm overflows and small pumping

chambers could come within this category. Many of the detailed specification requirements, such as those relating to excavation, concrete,
shuttering, waterproofing, etc., will have already been covered elsewhere. Similarly, the majority of items in sewage works construction
172
SPECIFICATION OF SEWERS AND DRAINS
have been detailed in earlier chapters under their appropriate works

sections.
A selection of typical specification clauses covering the more usual
sewerage and drainage items now follows.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
MATERIALS
Glazed vitrified clay pipes

Glazed vitrified clay pipes shall be of
British Standard quality complying with
B.S. 65 and the necessary test certificates
shall be supplied to the Engineer. Clay
drain fittings shall comply with B.S. 539,
Part 1.
Concrete pipes
This Standard covers two

types of socket: (1) for use
with manufacturers' special
or flexible joints; (2) grooved
or roughened for use with
users' jointing materials. Clay
pipe diameters range from
75 mm (3 in.) to 900 mm
(36 in.).
Normal effective lengths

Concrete and reinforced concrete
pipes and fittings shall comply with are 1, 125, 2 and 25 m (3, 4,
B.S. 556 and shall be provided with an 6 and 8 ft), and pipe diaapproved type of flexible joint. Straight meters range from 150 mm
pipes shall be centrifugally spun. Test (6 in.) to 125 m (48 in.).
certificates shall be supplied to the Standard tests include hydraulic proof tests, absorption
Engineer.
and crushing proof tests.
Spun-iron pipes
Spun-iron pipes shall comply with the
requirements of B.S. 1211 for class B
pipes and shall have bolted gland joints
of approved design. Test certificates
shall be supplied to the Engineer.
Pipe-diameters range from

75 mm (3 in.) to 600 mm
(24 in.) and the most commonly used lengths are 3 6 m
(12ft) and 55 m (18ft). The
tests are hydraulic, mechanical and for straightness.
Cast iron specials

Class B pipes and fittings
Cast iron specials shall comply with
the requirements of B.S. 78 for class B are tested to a pressure of
pipes and fittings, and shall have bolted 120m (400 ft) head of water.
173
EXPLANATORY NOTES
gland joints of approved design. Test Bolted gland joints give some
certificates shall be supplied to the degree of flexibility, as distinct from caulked lead joints
Engineer.
which are entirely rigid.
Pitch-fibre pipes
Pitch-fibre pipes and fittings shall be

obtained from an approved manufacturer and shall comply with B.S. 2760.
Test certificates shall be supplied to the
Engineer.
This type of pipe is being

used to an increasing extent
for drainage work. Joints are
formed of tapered spigots
fitting tightly into couplings.
Asbestos cement pipes
These pipes are made in

Asbestos cement pipes shall comply
with B.S. 3656, class 3. Test certificates diameters ranging from
shall be supplied to the Engineer.
100 mm (4 in.) to 600 mm
(24 in.) and in four lengths
from 1 m (3ft 3 in.) to 5 m
(16 ft 4 in.).
Porous pipes
Porous concrete pipes shall comply

with B.S. 1194.
Bricks
All bricks used in manholes shall be

class B engineering bricks complying
with B.S. 3921. In addition they shall be
hard, sound, square, well burnt, uniform in texture, and regular in shape,
with true square arrises and even in size.
Care shall be taken in unloading, stacking and handling and no chipped or
damaged bricks shall be used. All bricks
shall be equal to samples submitted to
and approved by the Engineer before any
brickwork is commenced.
174
These pipes are used for

under-drainage and are made
with rebated or O.G. joints
in diameters ranging from
75 mm (3 in.) to 900 mm
(36 in.).
There are two classes of
engineering bricks. Class A
bricks have a minimum average compressive strength of
69 MN/m 2 (10,000 lbf/in. 2),
while that for class B bricks
is 48 3 MN/m 2 (7000 lbfjin. 2).
It is advisable to use only the
engineering type of brick in
manholes owing to the humid
and corrosive atmosphere
prevailing.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Manhole covers
Cast iron manhole covers and frames

shall comply with B.S. 497. Where subject to vehicular traffic they shall be
grade A, heavy duty, double triangular
type with a 550 mm (22 in.) clear opening and weighing 250 kg (5 cwt), as
Table 1 of the Standard. Those not subject to vehicular traffic shall be grade B,
medium duty, rectangular solid type
and weighing 121 kg (2 cwt, 3 qr, 7lb),
as Table 5.
B.S. 497 covers a wide

range of shapes, sizes and
weights of manhole covers to
suit many different sets of
circumstances.
Step irons
Manhole step irons shall be of galvanised malleable cast iron complying

with the requirements of B.S. 1247 for
'general purpose pattern' step irons, for
building into brickwork or in situ concrete.
This British Standard

covers three types of step
iron: general purpose pattern; precast concrete manhole pattern; and round bar
pattern. Minimum weights of
step irons vary from 15 kg
(3! lb) to 25 kg (5! lb) each.
EXCAVATION, ETC.
Trench and manhole excavation
All excavations shall be carried out to

the dimensions, levels and gradients
shown on the Drawings or as directed
by the Engineer, in whatever material
may be encountered. Extra payment
will be made for excavation in rock as
previously defined.
The top-soil shall be excavated separately and be kept separate from the
sub-soil, for subsequent replacement on
175
It is essential that all pipe

trenches should be excavated
to the required lines and
levels. The width of the
trenches is usually determined
by a number of factors, such
as pipe size, depth of trench,
type of soil and plant available.
A suitable definition of
EXPLANATORY NOTES
the ground surface. Paved surfaces disturbed in the course of excavation shall
be set aside for future use as directed by
the Engineer.
Excavation shall not, in the first
instance, proceed closer than 75 mm
(3 in.) to formation level. The remaining
75 mm (3 in.) shall be excavated by
hand on the same day as the laying of
the pipes or concrete bed. The width of
pipe trenches shall be adequate to permit the satisfactory laying and jointing
of pipes.
rock is given in the excavation specification clause in

Chapter IV. Where unstable
conditions are encountered
at formation level, it is good
practice to excavate 75 mm
(3 in.) or 100 mm (4 in.)
below formation level and
:fill with concrete.
Trial holes
The Contractor shall excavate all
necessary trial holes in advance of pipelaying work and shall backfill them and
reinstate and maintain the surfaces.
Where prior approval of the Engineer
has been obtained to the excavation of
trial holes, the Contractor shall receive
payment for this work. The Contractor
shall, however, at his own expense, take
all other reasonable action to determine
the position of all underground services
likely to affect the pipelaying work.
The excavation of trial

holes approved by the Engineer will normally rank for
separate payment to the Contractor. Nevertheless, the
Contractor can be reasonably
expected to obtain all possible information from statutory undertakers about their
services with a view to avoiding the need for trial holes as
far as possible.
Timbering to excavations

expense, provide and fix adequate timbering to support the sides of excavations, and it shall be maintained until
the constructional work is sufficiently
far advanced to permit its removal. The
removal of timbering shall be performed
only under the direct supervision of a
competent foreman. The Contractor
shall be held entirely responsible for any
damage or injury resulting from the
176
The Contractor must provide sufficient timbering to

excavations to ensure the
safety of the workmen and
the permanent works. The
cost of timbering is, as a
general rule, to be covered in
the excavation rates, and
would not normally come
within the category of 'special
items of temporary works'.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
inadequacy or premature removal of

timbering. Where timbering is left in
position on the direction of the Engineer
for the permanent support of services or
structural work, the Contractor shall be
entitled to payment of the additional
cost involved.
Supports for existing pipes, etc.

expense, adequately timber, shore up,
sling or support all pipes or other
services in the vicinity of the new pipelines, and shall ensure their continuous
effective operation.
Pipes and other services

may cross over or under the
new pipelines and will then
need temporary support to
prevent undue strain and
possible damage.
Excavations to be kept free of water

expense, keep all excavations free from
water from any cause by pumping,
draining or other means to the satisfaction of the Engineer and for such period
as he may require. Any sumps and wells
provided for this purpose shall be sited
away from the permanent works and
shall be subsequently filled with concrete, class D.
The water may arise from

a number of sources - watercourses, subsoil water, land
springs, existing drains and
sewers, etc. The method adopted by the Contractor for the
removal of the water will vary
with the circumstances.
Excess excavation
Concrete class D would

Any excess excavation shall be filled
with concrete, class D, at the Contrac- probably be a 1:10 mix, altor's expense.
though some engineers specify 1:3:6.
Back1illing excavations
Excavations for pipe trenches and

Particular care is needed
manholes shall be backfilled in layers in the backfilling of pipe
not more than 225 mm (9 in.) deep with trenches, to avoid any possiwell compacted and suitable material, bility of damage being caused
177
EXPLANATORY NOTES
with particular care being taken at the

sides of pipes. The backfilling material
used at the sides of pipes and for a
height of 450 mm (18 in.) above them
shall be selected material free from large
stones and consolidated with narrow
wooden rammers. Where mechanical
rammers are used to consolidate backfilled material in pipe trenches, the pipes
shall be protected by not less than 1 m
(3 ft) of hand rammed material. No
backfilling shall proceed until the line of
sewer has been approved by the Engineer.
to the pipes. The normal precautions include the use of

selected material around the
pipes and hand ramming in
the lower part of the trench.
Location of pipelines
The finally agreed routes and levels of

pipelines and the number, depths and
locations of manholes may not necessarily coincide precisely with the information given on the Drawings, but will
be determined by the Engineer or his
representative in the light of information resulting from exploratory excavations or obtained from other sources.
The contractor's rates for the permanent work shall be deemed to include
for any delay or extra cost which the
Contractor may incur as a result of
deviations from the planned routes,
depths and locations.
Although the Engineer will

make every attempt to determine accurately the exact
lines and levels of sewers
during the
pre-contract
period, it may, nevertheless
subsequently be necessary to
make adjustments as further
and more positive information concerning the position
of other services, etc., comes
to light.
PIPELAYING
Loading and unloading pipes
Pipes and specials of all kinds shall be

The Contractor must take
handled with approved lifting tackle care in handling all pipes and
when loading or unloading. The Con- specials to prevent damage
tractor shall not roll pipes down timbers to them. Pitch-fibre pipes
178
EXPLANATORY NOTES
or inclined ramps without the Engineer's

special consent.
Pitch-fibre pipes shall be handled
strictly in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations. Pitch-fibre
pipes shall be stacked parallel to one
another on level ground, without couplings, with stack heights not exceeding
2m (6ft).
need special attention and it

is advisable to draw the
Contractor's attention to the
manufacturer's recommendations.
Laying pipes
Each pipe before laying shall be

brushed out and examined, and each
cast iron or spun iron pipe shall be
tested for soundness by striking with a
hammer while the pipe is suspended
clear of the ground. When laying pipes,
adequate precautions shall be taken to
ensure that no bricks, soil or other
materials enter the pipes already laid,
and a close-fitting stopper shall be placed
in the end of the last pipe when work is
interrupted.
Pipes shall be laid with the sockets
leading uphill and shall rest on even and
solid foundations for the full length of
the barrel. Socket holes shall be formed
in the trench bottom, sufficiently deep
to allow the pipe jointer adequate space
to work round the pipes, and as short
as is practicable to accommodate the
socket and permit the joint to be made.
In rock or stony ground the pipes shall
be evenly laid on a bed of sand, not less
than 50 mm (2 in.) thick.
Where pipes are to be laid on a concrete bed, the concrete under and
around the pipes shall be laid in a single
operation. Precast concrete blocks, one
at the back of each socket, or suitably
179
It is imperative that all

sewer pipes should be laid
true to line and level, to prevent any risk of blockages
when in use. Precautions
must be taken to ensure that
the barrel of each pipe bears
evenly upon a solid foundation, whether of soil or concrete.
Sight rails should be not
less than 150 mm (6 in.) deep
with their top edges planed
true and straight. The centreline of the pipe should be
shown by a vertical line on
both front and back faces,
and for greater clarity the
rail should be painted in
contrasting colours.
The boning rods should be
accurately made to the various lengths in even feet, with
a shoe of sufficient projection
to rest on the invert of the last
laid pipe. On large diameter
sewers laid at flat gradients,
the levels of the work should
be frequently checked by
EXPLANATORY NOTES
wedged bricks for the smaller diameter instrument. See Civil Engipipes, shall be used to support the pipes neering Code of Practice, CP
before the concrete is laid. After each 5: Drainage (Sewerage).
block or brick has been properly set and
boned in to the correct level, and the
pipes laid on them and properly centred
and socketed, two hardwood wedges
shall be inserted transversely between
the body of the pipe and the block, and
they shall then be driven together until
the pipe is brought to the exact level
required.
All pipes shall be of the dimensions,
materials and classes shown on the
Drawings or as directed by the Engineer
and shall be accurately laid to the
required lines and gradients. All pipes
shall be laid in dead straight lines in
both horizontal and vertical planes between manholes. Proper sight rails and
boning rods shall be used to ensure that
each pipe is laid to the correct levels, and
sight rails shall be provided at each
change of gradient and not more than
45 m (50 yds) apart.
Bullding-in of pipes
This provlSlon aims at

When pipes are built into brick walls
relieving
the pipe of the
of manholes, semi-circular single ring
of
wall above. An
weight
brick-on-edge arches shall be turned
alternative
is
to use concrete
over them.
lintels.
Jointing of pipes generally
Experienced pipe jointers only shall

be permitted to carry out the work of
pipe jointing. Special instructions of the
pipe manufacturer, such as with flexibly
jointed pipes, shall be followed closely.
Jointing of pipes prior to lowering them
into a trench will not be permitted
180
Jointing of pipes is a
skilled operation and needs
to be performed by experienced workmen. Flexibly
jointed pipes are being used
to an increasing extent and
are particularly well suited
EXPLANATORY NOTES
except under special circumstances with for use in bad ground conditions, in areas subject to
the approval of the Engineer.
mining subsidence, sea outfalls, etc.
Jointing of clayware and concrete pipes
Pipes to be jointed with yarn and

cement mortar shall each be placed well
home into the socket of the previously
laid pipe. Each shall be jointed with one
complete lap of best plain hempen spun
yarn dipped in liquid cement mortar and
tightly driven home by caulking to
occupy not more than one-quarter of
the total depth of the socket. The remaining space in the socket shall then
be filled with cement mortar (1 : 2), which
shall be trowelled on the face to form a
splayed fillet completely covering the
exposed end of each socket.
The mortar for jointing shall be of the
consistency of putty and shall be well
caulked into the socket of the pipe with
a wooden caulking tool. The joints shall
be clean and smooth on the inside face
and the interior surfaces of all pipes
shall be kept perfectly clear of all jointing material and other extraneous matter. Joints shall be left undisturbed until
set and ready for testing.
Many clayware and concrete pipe sewers are still

made with yarn and mortar
joints, despite their numerous
disadvantages. The joints
form the weakest link in the
pipeline and thus need to be
specified in considerable detail with the object of securing sound, watertight joints.
Some engineers specify the
angle which the cement fillet
shall subtend from the face of
the socket (30 or 45) but
the writer prefers the method
used in the accompanying
clause. A mortar mix of 1:2
produces adequate strength
and there is less shrinkage on
setting than with a richer mix.
Jointing of iron pipes
Cast iron and spun iron pipes shall be

jointed with standard plain white hempen spun yarn and good quality soft
blue pig lead. At least one complete lap
of yarn shall be caulked into the back
of the socket to prevent the escape of
molten lead and shall not project inside
the pipe. The lead shall be run at a single
181
Standard spigot and socket

iron pipes are normally jointed with yarn and molten
lead in the manner described
in the accompanying specification clauses. Caulking lead
or lead-sheathed yarn can be
used in place of spun yarn.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Fibrous lead may be used

as a substitute for run lead,
probably in the form of a
Minimum depth
double collar fibrous-lead
Diameter ofpipe
of lead per joint
joint with spun yarn between
mm (in.)
mm (in.)
the two lead collars, occupyNot exceeding 100 (4)
45 (li)
ing not more than one-third
125 to 150 (5 to 6)
50 (2)
of the total depth of the
175 to 200 (7 to 8)
55 (2!)
socket. Fibrous lead is parti60 (2!)
225 to 1070 (9 to 42}
cularly suitable for use under
exceeding 1070 (42}
65 (2!)
wet conditions and in headings where the use of molten
The pipe surfaces to be jointed shall
lead might prove dangerous
be thoroughly cleaned and dried before
to the workmen.
the lead is poured. The lead after pouring shall project 3 mm (!in.) from the
socket to allow for caulking. As soon as
the lead is cool it shall be properly
caulked with caulking irons and 175 kg
(4lb) hammers, finishing with a neat and
even surface flush with the face of the
socket.
Flanged joints shall be properly made
with rubber joint rings complying with
B.S. 2494 and mild steel bolts and nuts
with the bolts projecting two threads
beyond the nuts.
Patent flexible joints shall be made
strictly in accordance with the manufacturer's directions.
pouring to a minimum depth complying
with the following schedule.
Jointing of asbestos-cement pipes

Asbestos-cement pipes shall be jointed
Asbestos-cement pipes are
with approved asbestos-cement screw used occasionally in drainage
collars, and specials with suitable detach- work. They have the advanable joints. All joints shall be made tage of easily-formed joints.
strictly in accordance with the manufacturer's directions. Cut ends of asbestos-cement pipes shall be turned to the
correct external diameter for a length of
at least 75 mm (3 in.).
182
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Jointing of pitch-fibre pipes
Pitch-fibre pipes shall be laid and

jointed in accordance with Appendix C
of B.S. 2760: Pitch-impregnated Fibre
Drain and Sewer Pipes. Particular care
shall be taken to ensure that all spigots
and sockets are absolutely clean and
free from grit immediately prior to
jointing.
The ends of cut lengths of pitch-fibre
pipe shall be finished truly square and
spigots shall be properly turned with
a special tool supplied by the manufacturer.
Pitch-fibre pipes are being

used to an increasing extent
particularly on rural drainage
schemes. They have many
advantages, including long
lengths and easily-formed
joints, and are particularly
well suited for use in bad
ground conditions.
Cutting pipes
The main purpose of this

Pipes shall be cut as necessary to
accommodate valves, bends, junctions, clause is to prevent the use of
etc., and for the proper connection of hammers and chisels for cutpipelines. All cuts shall be performed ting pipes.
with suitable cutting tools and apparatus.
Junction pipes
Junction pipes shall be inserted in the

positions shown on the Drawings or
where directed by the Engineer. Any
branches which are not immediately
connected up shall be closed with joinder caps or clayware discs, set in and
filled up to the ends of the sockets with
puddled clay and a cement fillet. The
position of each junction shall be
accurately recorded on a layout plan
and in a 'junction book'.
Junction pipes will be needed to pick up present and

future connections. The open
ends need to be properly
sealed and their locations
duly recorded.
Concrete protection to pipes
All concrete beds, haunchings and

It is often specified that
surrounds to pipes shall be of class D pipes in heading, with 6 m
183
EXPLANATORY NOTES
and extend for 150 mm (6 in.) from the

outside surface of the pipe. Concrete
beds shall be rectangular in cross section and the concrete shall be carefully
packed under and around the pipes,
taking care not to displace the pipes in
any way. In haunchings the concrete
shall be carried up to the horizontal
diameter of the pipe and then splayed
off tangentially to the top of the pipe.
Surrounds shall be carried over the pipes
to give 150 mm (6 in.) cover to the barrels at all points.
Concrete beds, haunchings and surrounds to pipes shall be discontinued at
flexible joints by the insertion of sheets
of approved compressible joint filler.
(20 ft) or more of cover or

with less than 125 m (4ft) of
cover or 1 m (3ft) elsewhere
shall be surrounded with concrete. Pipes of 450 mm (18 in.)
diameter and over (125-6 m
(4-20 ft) cover) and smaller
pipes (42-6 m (14-20 ft)
cover) are often bedded and
haunched in concrete. A common mix of concrete is 1 : 3 : 6.
It is now becoming the
practice to design the pipes
to take the loads rather than
to surround them with concrete.
Thrust blocks
All pumping mains and other pipelines that are to be tested at high pressure
shall be provided with concrete thrust
blocks at all bends, junctions, blank
ends, etc., all to the approval of the
Engineer. End shuttering may be used
but the other faces of thrust blocks shall
bear directly against undisturbed
ground, and flexible joints must have
freedom of movement.
A common mix of concrete

for thrust blocks is 1: 3: 6. It
is sometimes specified that
the Contractor shall be entirely responsible for any
consequences of lack or inadequacy of thrust blocks.
Testing of pipelines generally
Pipelines shall be tested before any

concrete haunch or surround is laid or
backfilling commenced, except where
the latter is necessary for access purposes
or for testing at high pressure. The Contractor shall at his own expense uncover
any such pipes to remedy leaks or other
faults.
184
As far as possible all pipe

joints should be exposed at
the time of testing, which
must be carried out under
suitable conditions and in the
presence of the Engineer's
representative.
It is good policy to add
EX PLAN A TORY NOTES
All tests shall be carried out in daylight in the presence of the Engineer's
representative, using water which is
coloured substantially with fluoresceine.
Pipelines shall be tested in lengths between manholes or in shorter lengths
with the Engineer's approval.
The Contractor shall supply all necessary testing apparatus and water, and
shall fill and empty the pipes and dispose of the surplus water. Any pipes
showing leaks, sweating or other signs
of porosity, shall be condemned and
shall be replaced and re-tested at the
Contractor's expense.
fluoresceine to the testing

water as the distinctive colour
will immediately draw attention to any leaks. Special
items are sometimes included
in bills of quantities to cover
the cost of testing work, but
in other cases the cost is to be
covered by the pipelaying
rates.
Testing of non-pressure pipelines
All gravitational pipelines shall be

tested with water to a head of not less
than 15 m (5 ft), measured from the
crown of the highest pipe under test. At
no point shall the pressure exceed the
safe pressure specified for the pipes by
the manufacturer.
After allowing a short period for
absorption, the vertical pipe at the head
of the length under test shall be topped
up and the water level observed for not
less than 10 minutes. Should the water
level drop by more than 25 mm (1 in.),
the cause shall be sought and the defect
remedied.
After the test, the water shall be
released from the stopper while a watch
is kept on the vertical pipe, to check that
the pipeline and the vertical pipe are
unobstructed. No testing shall commence within 48 hours of the making of
cement joints.
Where it is difficult to apply a water
test, the Contractor may be permitted
185
The majority of sewers and

drains are tested by a water
test. A quarter bend is jointed
temporarily to the socket of
the last pipe laid and vertical
pipes or tubes are fitted to the
bend to give the desired
head. The Code of Practice
on Sewerage recommends a
minimum head of 600 mm
(2 ft) whereas the Code of
Practice on Building Drainage advocates a minimum
head of 15 m (5 ft).
Some engineers advocate
the fitting of a vertical tube of
not less than half the diameter
of the pipes under test.
Another alternative specification requirement is that the
loss of water under test shall
not exceed 1/1000 of the total
volume of water in the pipeline.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
to apply an air test to gravitational pipelines exceeding 375 mm (15 in.) in

diameter. The air pressure measured in
a manometer tube shall be raised by a
hand pump to 100 mm (4 in.) head of
water. Should the fall of pressure
exceed 25 mm (1 in.) of water in the 5
minutes following the cessation of
pumping, the cause shall be sought and
the defect remedied.
Testing of pressure pipelines

All pressure pipelines shall be tested
by filling with water coloured with
fiuoresceine and raising the pressure by
injecting further water through a manually operated forcepump, fitted with an
accurate pressure gauge, until the following pressures are obtained:
Class D pipes: 18 MN/m2 (260 lbf/in. 2)
Class C pipes: 14 MN/m2 (200 lbf/in. 2)
Class B pipes: 09 MN/m2 (130 lbf/in. 2)
Pumping mains and pipes

in syphons will normally be
subjected to this type of test.
The pressure must vary with
the class of pipe used in the
pipeline. The normal period
of test is 30 minutes.
Alternatively, the pressures
could beexpressedinN/mm 2
The pump shall then be disconnected

from the pipeline and the required pressure shall be maintained for 30 minutes.
Testing of pipelines for obstructions

Pipelines of 525 mm (21 in.) diameter
or less shall be tested to ensure that they
are free from obstruction after having
successfully withstood a water test. A
loose spherical or cylindrical plug of the
diameter shown in the schedule shall be
passed through the whole of the pipeline. Any obstruction encountered shall
be removed or any unevenness of invert
shall be made good to the satisfaction of
the Engineer.
186
Tests for straightness and

obstruction can be carried
out in one of two ways: {1)
by rolling a ball or passing a
plug through the pipeline,
(2) by placing a mirror at one
end of the pipeline and a
lamp at the other. If the pipeline is straight, the full circle
of light can be observed. The
mirror will also show any
Pipe diameter
mm (in.)
100 (4)
150 (6)
225 (9)
250 (10)
300 (12)
375 (15)
450 (18)
525 (21)
Plug diameter
mm (in.)
95 (3!)
145 (5!)
215 (8!)
238 (9!)
288 (11!)
363 (14!)
438 (17!)
513 (20!)
EXPLANATORY NOTES
obstructions in the pipes.

The first method is best
suited for testing sewers.
After the test has been successfully

performed, a close-fitting stopper shall
be placed at the head of the pipeline and
shall be kept there until the manhole has
been constructed.
MANHOLES
Brick manholes
Brick manholes shall be constructed
in accordance with the Drawings and in
the positions shown on the layout plan
or where directed by the Engineer. Concrete bases shall be of concrete class B,
laid on waterproof paper, and of the
thickness shown on the Drawings.
The chamber walls shall be constructed in 225 mm (9 in.) brickwork in
class B engineering bricks laid in English
bond in cement mortar (1 : 3), with the
internal face finished fair and flush
pointed.
No bats or broken bricks will be
permitted except as closers, and all
bricks shall be wetted before use and be
laid with the frogs upwards. All bed
and vertical joints of brickwork are to
be filled solid with mortar and no vertical joint may be flushed up from the top.
187
Brick manholes are best

constructed of engineering
bricks finished with a fair face
internally. The minimum size
of a brick manhole chamber
should be 125 m x 790 mm
(4ft It in. x2 ft 7! in.) and
an access shaft should be not
less than 790 mm x 675 mm
(2ft 7! in. x 2ft 3 in.).
225 mm (9 in.) walls are
usually adequate for manholes up to about 3 m (10ft)
deep. For deeper and larger
manholes, the walls should
be thickened up as the depth
increases to take account of
the ground and/or water
pressure. Channels, benchings, step irons, covers, etc.,
EXPLANATORY NOTES
No joints shall exceed 10 nun (i in.) in are dealt with later in the
thickness.
chapter.
Brick courses shall be level and
straight with perpends kept in vertical
alignment. All brickwork shall be
cleaned off after completion and left
free from deposits of mortar, etc.
Concrete cover slabs shall be of
reinforced concrete, class B, of the
dimensions shown on the Drawings.
Precast concrete manholes
Precast concrete manholes shall be
constructed on a base of concrete,
class B, 150 mm (6 in.) thick laid on
waterproof paper, and a base wall of
similar class concrete of a thickness
equal to the thickness of the chamber
rings plus 150 nun (6 in.).
The chamber rings shall be 11 m
(42 in.) in diameter, jointed in cement
mortar (1 :2), flush pointed internally
and surrounded externally with concrete, class B, to a minimum thickness
of 150 nun (6 in.).
Taper rings reducing from 11 m
{42 in.) to 675 nun (27 in.) diameter shall
be of the straight back type and shall be
placed so that the bottom of the taper
ring is not less than 15 m (5 ft) above
the top of the manhole benching. Where
the chamber is less than 275 m (9 ft)
deep the taper ting shall be replaced by
a precast reinforced concrete slab supplied by the ring manufacturer.
Shaft rings shall be of 675 nun (27 in.)
diameter and making-up pieces shall be
provided where necessary to bring the
precast concrete cover slab to the required level. A brick necking of up to
three courses of 225 mm (9 in.) brick188
Precast concrete manholes

can be quickly constructed by
unskilled labour and are particularly advantageous in bad
ground conditions.
The
chamber rings are made from
920 mm (36 in.) to 2 m
(72 in.) diameter and shaft
rings of 675 mm (27 in.)
diameter are available in
lengths of 150 mm (6 in.) to
125 m (4 ft) in multiples of
150 mm (6 in.), all with step
irons cast in at the factory.
An alternative to in situ
concrete base walls is to use
precast concrete invert blocks
specially made to suit each
individual manhole.
Manholes are occasionally
constructed in in situ concrete, where there is considerable repetition work and shuttering can be standardised
and re-used. The cover slab
should be constructed monolithic with the walls and care
must be taken to make the
concrete watertight.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
work in engineering bricks in cement

mortar (1 : 3) shall be constructed to
bring the manhole cover to the correct
level.
Bencbings and channels
Main channels shall be formed of
glazed vitrified clay half-round channels
jointed in cement mortar (1 : 2) to easy
curves and true levels. Branch channels
shall be curved so as to discharge into
the main channel at an angle of not
more than 45. Branch pipes shall be
arranged to enter the manhole with their
soffits level with the soffit of the main
sewer.
Benchings shall be carried up vertically from the channels to the crown
level of the largest pipe and then
splayed off at a slope of 1 in 12, with the
edges rounded to a radius of 20 mm
(!in.). Benchings shall be constructed of
concrete, class B, finished off with a
rendering coat of fine granolithic concrete (1 :2!), 25 mm (1 in.) thick, trowelled smooth.
There are two methods in

use for the construction of
channels: (1) half-round clayware channels, as described;
(2) fine concrete rendering in
granolithic as described for
the benching.
The slope of 1 in 12 to the
top of the benching permits
workmen to stand on the
benching for inspection, rodding and repair work, and
also enables deposited solid
matter to fall back into the
sewer.
Step irons
Step irons as previously specified shall
be built into brick manhole walls as the
work proceeds, at a spacing of 300 mm
(12 in.) centre to centre vertically and
300 mm (12 in.) apart horizontally, in
staggered formation.
Another way of describing

the positioning of the step
irons is 'built into the brickwork every fourth course and
staggered 150 mm (6 in.)
each side of the centre-line of
the shaft walls.'
Boxsteps
Boxsteps shall be approved galvanThese are needed on large
ised cast iron boxsteps, 225 mm x diameter sewers to enable
189
EXPLANATORY NOTES
150 mm x 160 mm (9 in. x 6 in. x 6! in.), workmen to reach the invert

each weighing 9 kg (20 lb) and built into from the top of the benching.
the concrete benching in the positions
Ladders
Ladders shall be provided to manholes exceeding 45 m (15ft) deep, made

of galvanised wrought iron with 65 mm
x25 mm (2! in. x 1 in.) strings, 300 mm
(12 in.) apart in the clear, drilled and
fitted with 22 mm (i in.) diameter rungs
at 250 mm (10 in.) centres, every fifth
rung to have a shoulder formed on the
ends. The ends of all rungs shall be
neatly riveted over.
The feet of the strings shall be turned
outwards for a length of 50 mm (2 in.)
and recessed into the concrete benching.
At the top of each ladder the strings
shall be bent to a radius of 150 mm
(6 in.), with a straight length of 225 mm
(9 in.) to penetrate the shaft wall, and
turned outwards at the back of the wall.
Wrought iron stays 65 mm (2! in.) x
15 mm (i in.) x425 mm (17 in.) long
shall be set into the manhole walls at
intervals not exceeding 15 m (5 ft) and
fixed to the ladder strings with 20 mm
(! in.) mild steel bolts.
Safety chains
Safety chains for use in manholes
shall be galvanised wrought iron closelink, 10 mm (! in.) thick, complying
with B.S. 781. The chains shall each
have one end fixed to a ring bolt and the
other end shall be provided with a suitable hook for securing to a separate
225 mm (9 in.) ring bolt supplied ragged
for building into brickwork.
190
For manholes exceeding

45 m (15 ft) in depth, the
Code of Practice on Sewerage
recommends the use of galvanised wrought iron ladders
in place of step irons. Strings
or stringers should be not less
than 60 mm x 10 mm (2! in.
xi in.) and rungs not less
than 20 mm (! in.) in diameter. Ladders should be not
less than 300 mm (12 in.)
between strings with rungs at
250 mm (10 in.) centres.
Details of the method of
fixing the ladders must be
given.
Where an access shaft
exceeds 75 m (25 ft) deep,
enlarged
rest
chambers
should be provided at 6 m
(20 ft) intervals, each with a
landing platform incorporating a hinged trap-door under
the ladder.
All manholes on sewers of
1 m (3 ft) diameter and over
should be provided with safety

chains for placing across the
mouth of the sewer on the
downstream side when men
are at work.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Safety bars
Safety bars should be proSafety bars shall be of galvanised pipe

handrail of 40 mm (1! in.) nominal bore vided at the edges of all
with 225 mm (9 in.) ragged ends for benchings, platforms, etc.,
from which a man might
building into brickwork.
possibly fall into the sewer.
Manhole covers
Manhole covers and frames, as previously specified, shall be securely bedded

in cement mortar (1 : 2). The top surface
of the cover and frame shall be flush
with the surface of any road, footpath
or grass verge in which it is situated, or
shall be 75 mm (3 in.) to 150 mm (6 in.)
above adjoining ground level in other
locations.
Manhole covers need to

finish flush with paved surfaces and grassed areas, but
in other cases it is advisable
to finish several inches above
the adjoining ground level
for ease of location.
TUNNEL AND SHAFT LININGS
(Taking cast iron segments to shafts and precast concrete segments

to tunnels).
segments
Shaft
Shaft rings shall be of cast iron of
7 m (23ft 2l in.) internal diameter, with
each ring 450 mm (1 ft 6 in.) long and
consisting of ten ordinary plates, two
top plates and one key. The approximate weight of each ring is 4400 kg
(447 tons). Each plate shall be provided
with a 30 mm (H in.) diameter gas plug.
The cast iron rings are

made up of a number of segments with bolted and
caulked joints between them.
Grout holes and plugs are
provided in each segment or
plate for grouting externally.
Tunnel segments
Tunnel rings shall be of precast reinforced concrete of 44 m (14 ft 6 in.)

internal diameter, with each ring 600
mm (2 ft) long and consisting of seven
ordinary plates, two top plates and one
key. Each plate shall be provided with a
191
Precast concrete rings are

of similar construction. See
Chapter IV for excavation
for tunnel work, tunnel driving and use of compressed
air plant and equipment.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
50 mm (2 in.) diameter grouting hole

and plug.
Bolting cast iron segments
The Contractor shall provide grommets of approved design under the steel
washers to heads and nuts of bolts, to
prevent leakage occurring around the
bolts. The tightening of bolts shall be
carefully performed to ensure that the
grummets are forced well home into the
bevel of the bolt-holes and that the
washers have an even bearing. Where
the rings are erected under compressed
air, the compressed air equipment shall
be retained in working order until the
Engineer is satisfied that the cast iron
lining is watertight.
As soon as possible after

assembly, the segments are
bolted together with mild
steel bolts, washers and grummets, to assist in securing a
watertight joint.
Caulking longitudinal joints of cast iron

segments
Caulking of longitudinal joints shall

be carried out as soon as practicable
after the cast iron lining is erected. Prior
to caulking, the recesses shall be thoroughly cleaned by air jets, water jets,
scraping or by a combination of these.
Metallic lead shall be used for caulking,
of the same width as the width of the
recess. Where leakage occurs after caulking, the lead shall be removed and renewed. The remaining parts of the
caulking recesses shall be tightly filled
and pointed with cement mortar (1 : 3).
All caulking recesses need

to be well cleaned before any
lead is applied to the joints.
After the strips of lead have
been caulked into the joints,
it is usual to fill the remaining
space in the jointing recesses
with cement mortar.
Caulking circumferential joints of cast

iron segments
The process is similar to

Preliminary jointing shall be carried
out with tarred yarn during erection of that specified for the longi192
EXPLANATORY NOTES
the rings. As soon as practicable after

erection, the spun yarn packing shall be
removed, the joints shall be cleaned as
previously described, and a continuous
caulking of metallic lead applied behind
the bolts, with lead block joints connecting the circumferential and longitudinal joints. The recesses shall be
finished off with cement mortar (1 : 3)
after the lead caulking has been checked
for watertightness. The Contractor's
prices for caulking circumferential joints
shall include for taking out and replacing bolts, providing, cutting out and
removing temporary tarred yarn packings, and cleaning out, caulking and
pointing the joints.
tudinal joints, except that

temporary tarred yam packings are placed during erection, to be removed subsequently, prior to cleaning out
and caulking the joints. It is
also necessary to provide a
sound connection between
the circumferential and longitudinal joints with lead
blocks.
When the work is carried
out in compressed air, it is
usual to caulk the joints
temporarily with neat cement
prior to grouting.
Grouting outside cast iron lining
The space between the shaft lining

and the surrounding ground shall be
filled completely with cement grout
(1 : 2), mixed with sufficient water to
permit it to be forced by compressed air
through holes in the castings. The grouting shall be carried out as soon as practicable after the lining is erected and the
joints caulked, and the holes shall be
carefully plugged after grouting.
The void outside the tunnel

or shaft lining is usually filled
with cement grout (1 part
cement to 2 parts sand)
forced through the grout
holes (one to each segment)
under pressure.
Jointing precast concrete segments
The segments of precast concrete rings

shall be bolted together with mild steel
bolts, domed steel washers and approved
grummets. In addition, creosoted deal
or approved filling compound of 3 mm
(l in.) compressed thickness shall be
placed in the circumferential joints, and
approved bitumen filling in the longitudinal joints.
193
The segments of precast

concrete rings are bolted together in a similar manner to
cast iron segments, but strips
of filling material are also
inserted in the joints. The
caulking grooves are filled
completely with cement mortar.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
The caulking groove between the precast concrete segments shall be thoroughly cleaned, wetted and tightly
filled with stiff cement mortar (1 : 3).
The finished work shall be watertight on
completion and any unsatisfactory
caulking or grummetting shall be cut
out and replaced at the Contractor's
expense.
Grouting outside precast concrete lining
Cement grout, as previously specified,

shall be injected under pressure through
the holes in the linings, so as to fill
completely all the voids between the
tunnel lining and the surrounding
ground, and the holes shall be carefully
plugged after grouting. Grouting shall
commence at the invert and proceed upwards, allowing air and moisture to
escape through the upper grout holes.
The tunnel linings will be

grouted up externally to eliminate any voids outside the
linings. Grouting should proceed from the bottom upwards.
Concrete lining to shaft and tunnel rings
A concrete lining of the thickness

shown on the Drawings shall be applied
to the inner face of shaft and tunnel
rings, and finished to produce a dense,
hard and smooth surface. The concrete
shall consist of one part of sulphateresisting cement to not more than four
parts of total dry aggregate by weight,
with a maximum aggregate size of
10 mm (i in.) and a water/cement ratio
not exceeding 050. The concrete shall
have a nominal strength of 35 MN/m 2
(5000 lbf/in. 2) and a minimum batch
cube strength (6 cubes) in accordance
with B.S. 1881 of 33 MN/m 2 (4750
lbf/in. 2) at 28 days. The compacting fac194
With sewers, culverts and

circulating water ducts, it is
important that a sound,
dense, non-corrosive and
smooth interior surface is
obtained to the tunnel lining.
For this reason it is necessary
to specify good quality concrete in every way suited to
this purpose.
The reader is referred to
the Code of Practice on
Sewerage for details of bricklined concrete sewers.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
tor shall not exceed 087 and the slump

shall not exceed 75 mm (3 in.).
The concrete shall be adequately
mechanically vibrated between steel
shuttering of approved design. Fabric
reinforcement of type No. 130 to B.S.
1221 shall be provided where shown on
the Drawings.
ANCILLARY WORK
Ventilating columns
Ventilating columns shall be of reinforced centrifugally spun hollow concrete, 9 m (30 ft) high overall, 85 mm
(3! in.) diameter nominal bore, to stand
7 5 m (25 ft) above the ground, complete with a 150 mm (6 in.) branch connection, 200 mm x 150 mm (8 in. x 6 in.)
galvanised inspection door and frame
and galvanised wire balloon.
Alternative materials are

asbestos cement and lapwelded steel. The latter is
usually coated internally with
Dr Angus Smith's solution
and painted externally with
two coats of bitumastic paint.
Percolating filter distributors
Rotary distributors for percolating

filters shall be of 15 m (50ft) diameter
from an approved manufacturer, with
four pipe arms, patent air lock water
seal, revolving cross head fitted with
steel balls and races, galvanised wire
ropes and shackles and duck foot bends.
The whole shall be erected, tested and
adjusted by the manufacturer.
These are best erected on

the site by the manufacturer,
as they are specialist items of
equipment requiring careful
adjustment. Pumps are normally covered by prime cost
sums and are installed by the
manufacturer.
Media for filters
Filter media generally conThe media for biological filters shall

be air-cooled blast furnace slag or a sists of the most suitable local
natural hard stone such as granite, material such as clinker, slag,
whinstone or basalt, providing that in limestone or granite. The
195
EXPLANATORY NOTES
all cases the material shall conform in

every respect with the requirements of
B.S. 1438, including the sodium sulphate soundness test and all other
chemical tests referred to in that Standard and in B.S. 1047, where applicable.
Sample loads of media shall be delivered
to the site in advance of the main
deliveries for approval by the Engineer.
The medium in the bottom 300 mm
(12 in.) layer of the filter shall be 100 mm
(4 in.) nominal medium kept within the
following grading limits:
grading of the media varies

from 25 mm (1 in.) to 100 mm
(4 in.) in size and the gradings
given in the accompanying
specification clauses have
been extracted from B.S.
1438.
A common depth of filter

is 2 m (6 ft). They are often
circular in shape and up to
33 m (110 ft) in diameter.
B.S. 1438: Media for Biological Percolating Filters,
specifies requirements for
Passing 150 mm (6 in.) sieve
durability, grading of sizes,
100 per cent
shape and cleanness.
The Water Pollution Re95-100 per cent
has
Laboratory
search
recently experimented satis0- 35 per cent
factorily with plastic media.
Passing 60 mm (2t in.) sieve
0- 5 per cent
The remainder of the medium shall be
50 mm (2 in.) nominal medium kept
within the following grading limits:

Passing 60 mm (2t in.) sieve
100 per cent
85-100 per cent
Passing 35 mm (1 t in.) sieve
0- 30 per cent
0- 5 per cent
The 'index of flakiness' of the 100 mm

(4 in.) and 50 mm (2 in.) nominal media
shall not exceed 17 per cent and their
'index of elongation' shall not exceed
35 per cent, when determined in the
manner described in Appendix D of
B.S. 1438.
196
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Testing of filter media

The Contractor shall, as and when
required by the Engineer or his representative, carry out grading analyses,
elongation tests and flakiness tests of
the filter media by the methods described in B.S. 1438. The Contractor shall
supply all the necessary equipment and
keep records of the results of the tests.
The following schedule gives the relevant sizes and gauges of media.
The Contractor is usually

required to carry out tests on
the media in accordance with
B.S. 1438. Sometimes the
Engineer specifies the equipment which the Contractor
is to supply, such as perforated-plate type sieves, thickness gauges, length gauges
and a balance, often weighing
up to 45 kg (1 00 lb) and sensitive to 003 kg (1 oz}, complete with weights.
Nominal size
of medium
Size ofpieces in
sieved fraction
Thickness
gauge
Length
gauge
100 mm (4 in.)
Passing 150 mm (6 in.),

retained on 100 mm
(4 in.)
retained on 75 mm
(3 in.)
68mm
(270 in.)
202mm
(810 in.)
52mm
(210 in.)
158mm
(630 in.)
Passing 75 mm (3 in.},
retained on 50 mm
(2 in.)
retained on 40 mm
(1! in.)
37mm
(150 in.)
117mm
(450 in.)
26mm
(105 in.)
79mm
(315 in.)
50 mm (2 in.)
Placing media in filters

The Contractor shall take special care
to prevent any damage being caused to
under-drains or other parts of the filter
when placing media in the filter. All
filter media shall be screened or handforked on site to remove dust and undersized pieces.
197
The placing of the media

must be done with care to
avoid damage being caused to
the under-drains, the structure of the filter or the media
itself.
Specification clauses cover-
EXPLANATORY NOTES
For a depth of 300 mm (12 in.) above

the under-drains or tiles, the medium
shall be conveyed in wheelbarrows and
spread by hand, but above that level the
Contractor will be permitted to use
narrow gauge light track and small tipping wagons. Alternatively the Engineer
may consider the use of other lightweight
appliances above the lowest 600 mm
(2 ft) of medium. Media shall not be
tipped direct from trucks or lorries into
the filters.
ing most other constructional

work in filters and other
sewage works structures will
be found in the relevant
chapters dealing with earthwork, concrete, brickwork,
masonry, etc.
Fibreglass scumboards
Fibreglass scumboards shall consist

of a 375 mm x25 mm (15 in. x 1 in.)
angle with a small bulb on the edge of
the 375 mm (15 in.) leg, fixed to N 4
aluminium-alloy brackets, 15 mm (!in.)
thick. The fibreglass shall be 2-ply
chopped strand glass-fibre mat, with a
minimum density of 06 kg/m2 (2 oz/ft 2)
for each ply, with a tissue reinforced
resin-rich exterior to all surfaces and a
minimum overall resin/glass rate of 3: 1.
The resin shall be suitable for continuous immersion in sewage with a pH
value of between 70 and 80.
Fibreglass is now beginning

to replace timber for scumboards and baftle boxes in
settlingandothertanks. Typical fibreglass specification
requirements are detailed.
Sewage screens
Manually-raked sewage screens shall

be 165 m (5 ft 6 in.) wide and shall consist of mild steel flat bars 40 mm x
15 mm (1! in. x! in.) with 20 mm (i in.)
clear spaces between them, set at an
angle of 45o and turned over at the top to
facilitate raking, with a transverse bar
fixed at each end to maintain the bar
spacing. The screens shall rest in 75 mm
x75 mmx10 mm (3 in. x3 in. xt in.)
198
This chapter closes with a

specification clause covering
a small manually-raked sewage screen, of a type frequently encountered in small
sewage works, to indicate a
suitable method of approach.
steel angles, built into walls, to permit

easy withdrawal. The height of the
screen measured vertically shall be
215 m (7ft). All parts shall be heavily
galvanised after fabrication.
199
EXPLANATORY NOTES
CHAPTER TWELVE
Specification of Pipelines
THERE IS a certain amount of common ground between this chapter
and the preceding one dealing with sewers and drains. The present
chapter is primarily concerned with the drafting of specification clauses
covering the provision and laying of water mains and ancillary work,
but most of the clauses will be equally applicable to gas mains and oil
pipelines.
Once again the order of presenting the component items of the
specification should follow a logical sequence and that given below has
much in its favour. It must, however, be emphasised that specifications
are peculiar to each job and that while the clauses that follow will form
a useful guide in the drafting of pipeline specifications, they cannot
possibly cover each and every item that could arise in practice. Most
jobs possess some unusual items which need special mention. A schedule
of the principal items in a pipeline specification follows.
(1) MATERIALS
Pipes and fittings in a variety of materials; valves for various purposes
(sluice valves, air valves, washout valves and hydrants); surface boxes,
etc.
(2) PIPELA YING
Excavation, unloading pipes, laying and jointing pipes, watercourse
and other crossings, backfilling trenches, surface reinstatement and
cutting pipes.
200
SPECIFICATION OF PIPELINES
(3) TESTING
Followed by chlorination of mains.

(4) VALVE CHAMBERS
For various purposes, possibly followed by nameplates.

Typical specification clauses covering water mains follow, but in some
cases such as excavation of pipe trenches, where similar work has
already been covered in Chapter Eleven, readers will be referred to
this chapter for detailed specification clauses.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
MATERIALS
Spun iron pipes
Pipes for water mains shall be spun

iron pipes complying with B.S. 1211:
Centrifugally Cast (Spun) Iron Pressure
Pipes for Water, Gas and Sewage, for
class B pipes, tested to 120 m (400 ft)
head of water and coated both inside
and outside with Dr Angus Smith's
solution in 3 6 m (12 ft) lengths. Joints
shall be bolted gland or similar and
approved flexible joints.
Spun iron pipes are made

in three classes - B, C and
D- tested to 120, 180 and
240 m (400, 600 and 800 ft)
head of water respectively.
Varying classes of pipe may
be required on different parts
of a job. Four pipe lengths
are available - 3 6 m, 4 m,
49 m and 55 m (12ft, 13ft
1! in., 16ft and 18ft). Flexible joints are now very
popular.
Special pipes and castings
Special pipes and castings, including

bends, T's and branches, shall comply
with B.S. 78: Cast Iron Spigot and
Socket Pipes (Vertically Cast) and
Spigot and Socket Fittings, class B,
tested to 120 m (400 ft) head of water
and coated inside and outside with Dr
201
The specials will need to be

of the same class as the adjoining pipes. Flanged spigots
and sockets are used for connecting spigot and socket
pipes to flanged valves.
A protective coating of Dr
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Angus Smith's solution. Joints shall be

approved flexible joints unless otherwise specified.
T-pieces for air valves shall be spigot
and socket with a 150 mm (6 in.)
diameter flanged branch drilled to suit
the air valve. T-pieces for washouts
shall be double socketed with a 100 mm
(4 in.) diameter flanged branch, level
with the invert and drilled for a sluice
valve.
Angus Smith's solution or

other approved application
is needed to both internal and
external surfaces of all pipes
and specials to prevent rusting.
Protective coatings on iron pipes, etc.
Provision should be made

Any places on coated iron pipes and
special castings, either on internal or for re-coating iron pipes and
external surfaces, where the coating is specials where the original
chipped or rusted off, shall be wire- coating has become defective.
brushed and be given a substantial
coating of approved rust-inhibiting composition applied hot.
PVC pipes
PVC pipes are being used

PVC pipes shall be unplasticised
an increasing extent, parto
PVC pipes complying with B.S. 3505,
type 1420 and class B with shouldered ticularly in corrosive soils.
Readers are referred to Chapvictaulic joints.
ter XI for concrete pipes and
to B.S. 486 for asbestoscement pipes.
Steel pipes
Steel pipes shall be lap-welded coated

Test pressures for steel
steel pipes complying with B.S. 534, pipes differ considerably bewith approved flexible type joints.
tween welded and seamless
pipes. Pipes can be covered
externally with hessian wrapping or asphalt and may be
lined internally with asphalt
or concrete.
202
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Sluice valves
Sluice valves shall comply in all respects with B.S. 1218 as far as applicable
and shall be class 1. The direction of
closing shall be clockwise.
Main sluice valves shall be 450 mm
{18 in.) diameter and shall, where
directed, be complete with spur gearing
and by-pass with a by-pass valve.
Valves shall be double flanged and shall
have flanged sockets bolted on: 450 mm
(18 in.) diameter sluice valves shall be
connected to pipes of larger diameter
with cast iron spigot and socket taper
pipes, type 1 A.
Sluice valves for pipes smaller than
450 mm (18 in.) diameter shall be double
flanged with flanged spigots and sockets
bolted on.
Sluice valves for washouts shall be
double flanged with a flanged socket
bolted to one side only.
All steel parts shall be sherardised
after machining or fabrication and all
cast iron parts shall be primed with one
coat of red lead primer before despatch.
B.S.1218 covers two classes

of sluice valve for 180 and
240 m (600 and 800 ft) head
test pressures respectively up
to 300 mm {12 in.) diameter.
Double socketed valves are
sometimes used with spigot
and socket pipes; otherwise
it is necessary to use adaptors with the double flanged
valves. The British Standard
details the quality of cast iron,
bronze and gunmetal, and
the jointing and packing to
be used. It also gives the
dimensions of spindles, nuts,
caps and handwheels. Washouts are sometimes referred
to as scours.
Air valves
Double air valves shall be of 150 mm

(6 in.) diameter, with screwdown valve
combined, rubber balls and brass air
vent orifice, supplied by an approved
manufacturer.
A common practice is to
give a manufacturer's catalogue reference number which
provides definite standards
of quality, etc.
Hydrants
The requirements for hydHydrants shall be of screwdown pattern to B.S. 750, type 2, with a minimum rants are usually laid down
flow of 2050 lpm (450 gpm) at the by the Fire Service, using
hydrant outlet with an inlet pressure of B.S. 750 as a basis.
203
EXPLANATORY NOTES
018 MN/m 2 (25lbf/in. 2). Each hydrant

or outlet bend shall be fitted with a suitable boss at the base of the outlet with a
self-operating frost valve or drilled plug.
The hydrants shall have 60 mm (2! in.)
diameter round thread outlets.
Surface boxes
Sluice valve boxes shall be of cast

iron, with a 225 mm (9 in.) square clear
opening, 150 mm (6 in.) deep, with a
hinged lid, as Messrs X S. 86 or equivalent, with the letters S.V. legibly cast on
the top of the cover.
Air valve boxes shall be of cast iron
with a 375m x 325 mm (15 in. x 13 in.)
clear opening, 100 mm (4 in.) deep,
perforated to facilitate air release and
provide ventilation, as Messrs X 14 B or
equivalent, with the letters A.V. legibly
cast on the top of the hinged cover.
Washout valve boxes shall be as
specified for sluice valves, but with the
letters W.O. legibly cast on the top of
the cover.
Hydrant boxes shall be of cast iron
with a 375 mm x 225 mm (15 in. x 9 in.)
clear opening, 150 mm (6 in.) deep, and
with a hinged cover with the letters
F.H.legibly cast on the top of the cover
not less than 75 mm (3 in.) high.
Valve boxes and covers

vary considerably in their
form and dimensions. They
may be manufactured from
cast iron or semi-steel. Sluicevalve covers may be chained
or hinged to the box.
Once again the task of the
engineer is simplified by giving
a manufacturer's catalogue
reference. It is essential that
the appropriate letters be cast
on the tops of covers for ease
of identification.
An alternative with sluice
valve boxes is to refer to B.S.
3461, type D (225 mm x
225 mm) (9 in. x 9 in. opening) or type E (300 mm x
300 mm) (12 in. x 12 in. opening).
Valve keys, etc.
The Contractor shall supply and

It is usual to require the
deliver to the Engineer's representative, Contractor to supply a numthree keys for 100-150 mm (4-6 in.) ber of valve keys and lifting
sluice valves, three keys for 375-450 mm keys for surface boxes.
(15-18 in.) valves and three pairs of
lifting keys for surface boxes.
204
EXPLANATORY NOTES
PIPELAYING
Workmanship
The whole of the workmanship necessary for the execution of the works described in the specification shall be of
good quality and be undertaken by
workmen who are careful, capable and
skilled in their various trades or callings
according to the class of work upon
which they are engaged.
This is a general clause

covering all the pipelaying
work. The main aim is to
ensure that the work is satisfactorily performed by skilled
and experienced workmen.

Excavate trenches to the width necessary for the size of pipe to be laid to
lines shown on the Drawings or as directed by the Engineer and to the depths
required to give cover to the pipes of not
less than 1 m (3ft) from finished levels.
Pockets shall be formed for sockets,
flanges, valves, etc., so as to give the
barrel of each pipe a full bearing
throughout its entire length.
Timber or otherwise support the sides
of the trenches as may be necessary and
keep the trenches free from water.
Detailed pipe trench excavation and trench timbering

clauses are given in Chapter
XI, to which the reader is
referred for more detailed
information. The accompanying clause is kept quite brief
but embodies all the essential information.
Unloading pipes
All iron pipes and specials shall be
unloaded singly from trucks and lorries.
Unless hoists are used, pipes shall be
unloaded by means of skids and check
ropes and no pipe shall be dropped or
allowed to roll unchecked. Pipes shall
not be permitted to roll together and
shall be wedged to prevent further
movement.
In laying out pipes on the site, they
shall not be allowed to impede traffic or
205
It is essential that proper

precautions should be taken
in the unloading of iron pipes
and specials to prevent damage to the pipes, etc., or to
their external protective coatings. Emphasis has been
placed here on cast iron pipes,
as many water mains are laid
in this material.
The accompanying clause
EXPLANATORY NOTES
to obstruct paths and accesses to private

and other property. Pipes shall not be
laid out in beds of ditches and every
precaution shall be taken to preserve
their cleanliness before laying. Should
any pipe become fouled, it shall be
washed out and then brushed through
with an approved chlorine solution at
the Contractor's expense.
also lists the basic requirements to be observed in laying out pipes on the site and
the need, with water mains,
to cleanse and sterilise thoroughly pipes which become
fouled.
Laying and jointing pipes
The pipes shall be laid in straight lines

or regular curves so as to avoid any unnecessary resistance to flow. The insides
of pipes, etc., are to be cleaned thoroughly before jointing and each iron
pipe shall be tested for soundness by
being struck with a hammer while the
pipe is suspended clear of the ground.
Each pipe shall be carefully lowered
onto its prepared bed with slings and
tackle. If the prepared bed is damaged
or stones are dislodged into the trench,
then the pipe shall be raised, and the bed
made good and stones removed before
the pipe is laid. Any fractured pipes
shall be replaced at the Contractor's
expense.
Where it is required to shorten a pipe,
it shall be cut off cleanly and squarely
with an approved pipe cutting machine.
When making screw gland flexible
joints, the spigots shall penetrate into
the sockets for the required depth, the
jointing rings shall be properly fixed and
the joints tightened, all in accordance
with the manufacturer's instructions, to
make thoroughly sound and watertight
joints.
In flanged joints, the rubber jointing
rings shall be properly fixed and the
206
Pipes are to be carefully

lowered into trenches and
laid to the correct lines and
levels. The pipes must be
kept free from mud, debris
or other obstructions during
laying and until completion
of the Contract. It is often
specified that pipes shall be
laid singly and that they shall
not be jointed before being
lowered into the trench.
The accompanying specification clauses cover the
making of screw gland flexible joints and flanged joints
on iron pipes. Typical requirements for caulked lead joints
are detailed in Chapter XI.
The jointing of asbestoscement pipes is also dealt
with in the previous chapter.
It will probably be necessary
to cut pipes to accommodate
some of the valves.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
bolts pulled up uniformly tight, with

two threads projecting beyond the nut
and washer.
PVC pipes shall be laid on a 75 mm
(3 in.) bed of sand and shall be jointed
strictly in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
Sluice valves, air valves, washouts and
hydrants shall be fixed in the positions
shown on the Drawings or where directed by the Engineer and the joints made
as specified.
Laying cable and pumping main in same
trench
The Contractor shall provide and lay

in the same trench as the 525 mm (21 in.)
cast iron pumping main, between pumping station A and reservoir B, a rubberinsulated lead-covered single wire armoured four core cable, each conductor
consisting of 3/07 mm (3/0029 in.)
wires.
After the pipes have been laid and
tested and the trench refilled up to
150 mm (6 in.) above the pipes, the cable
shall be carefully laid in one side of the
trench and covered with 75 mm (3 in.)
of selected fine soil and 225 mm x
115 mm x 50 mm {9 in. x4! in. x2 in.)
interlocking cable protection covers as
manufactured by Messrs X or other
equal and approved. Lengths of cable
are to be left at each end as directed by
the Engineer for future connection to
the transmitting and recording apparatus
and for connecting together separate
lengths of cable.
The cable shall not come into contact
with the main or any other cable or pipe
and the Contractor shall make all
207
The accompanying specification clause covers the

precautions to be taken when
laying a pumping main and
cable in the same trench, as
sometimes happens in practice.
It is important to prevent
contact between the pipe and
cable and to protect the cable
with interlocking cable protection covers or other suitable form of covering.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
arrangements for carrying the cable

under any other cables, pipes, services,
etc., which cross the trench above the
main.
Laying mains near existing pipes
Where new mains are to be laid alongside, over or under existing sewers,
drains, water or gas mains, electric
cables, etc., the Contractor shall take
care not to disturb the existing pipes and
connections to them, and any damage
caused shall be made good at the Contractor's expense.
The Contractor shall make arrangements for supporting existing services
and for temporarily dealing with the flow
in any pipes.
In built-up areas new water

mains will often have to be
laid in close proximity to
other services. In these circumstances it is incumbent
upon the Contractor to take
all reasonable precautions to
avoid damage to the existing
services and to undertake any
temporary work that may be
necessary.
Watercourse and river crossings
Water mains laid under watercourses

and rivers shall be surrounded with concrete, class C, and the remainder of the
trench shall be completely refilled with
clay puddle. The trench through the
watercourse or river banks shall also be
completely refilled with clay puddle for
a length of at least 2 m (6 ft) on each
side of the watercourse or river.
The whole of the necessary associated
work, including any temporary staging,
timbering, cofferdams, piling, pumping,
etc., shall be covered in the billed rates
and shall be carried out in strict accordance with the requirements of any
persons or bodies having jurisdiction
over the watercourse or river or its
banks, and to the satisfaction of the
Engineer.
The Contractor shall be held fully
208
It is a common requirement that pipes shall be laid

under the beds of watercourses and rivers to prevent
obstructions to flow in times
of flood. It is also advisable
to protect the pipe from
scour and make the banks
watertight on the line of the
pipe trench.
A substantial amount of
temporary work is often
necessary when making
watercourse and river crossings.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
responsible for any direct or consequential damage which may arise from his
operations and shall indemnify the
Employer against any claims for damage.
Backfilling and temporary reinstatement
of pipe trenches
After the pipes and specials have been
inspected, tested and approved by the
Engineer or his representative, they shall
be properly packed underneath and at
the sides up to half pipe height with fine
dry material selected from the excavated
material, which shall be well rammed
with narrow wooden rammers. The filling shall then be carried up to 300 mm
(12 in.) above the sockets of pipes with
selected material and well rammed, and
the remainder of the trench, to within
300 mm (12 in.) of the surface of roads
and 150 mm (6 in.) from other surfaces,
shall be refilled in well consolidated
layers not exceeding 225 mm (9 in.)
thick. Mechanical rammers shall not be
used within 1 m (3ft) of pipes.
The tops of trenches shall be filled
with material originally taken from the
surface and set aside for subsequent reinstatement. The surfaces over trenches
shall be maintained relatively level with
the adjoining surfaces, with additional
material added from time to time as
necessary to make up deficiencies due to
settlement. The Contractor shall carry
out any watering or rolling that may be
ordered by the Engineer.
This is an alternative clause

for backfilling of pipe trenches
to that given for sewer and
drain trenches in Chapter XL
The principal aim in both
cases is to ensure the careful
ramming of fine material
round the pipes to prevent
interference with pipes or
their joints, and the adequate
consolidation of the remainder of the backfilled material
in trenches to prevent excessive settlement. Constant
attention to temporary reinstatement is needed to avoid
the creation of dangerous
conditions.
Permanent reinstatement of trench

surfaces
The procedure for the
The permanent reinstatement of
trench surfaces in public highways shall permanent reinstatement of
209
EXPLANATORY NOTES
be carried out by the Highway Authority

at the expense of the Contractor. The
time when the permanent reinstatement
is undertaken shall be entirely at the discretion of the Highway Authority.
In the case of trenches in other locations, after the trenches have become
thoroughly consolidated to the satisfaction of the Engineer, they shall be
permanently reinstated by the Contractor at his own expense, and to the
approval of the Engineer and the owner
of the land.
The Contractor shall assume full responsibility for the safety of surfaces over
all excavations and shall indemnify the
Employer against all damage to persons
or property by reason of the condition
of these surfaces until the expiration of
the period of maintenance.
trench surfaces in public highways (roads, paths and verges)

varies in different localities.
In some cases the Highway
Authority carries out the
work and in other cases the
Contractor is required to do
it to the satisfaction of the
Highway Authority. The
Contractor is usually made
responsible for meeting any
claims arising from badly reinstated surfaces.
TESTING AND STERILISATION
Testing of pipes
All pipes after being jointed and while

uncovered shall be tested with water at
a pressure of 120 m (400 ft) head
(12 MN/m 2) (173 lbfjin. 2), in the presence of the Engineer or his representative. The test head shall be calculated
from the lowest part of the main under
test.
For testing purposes the Contractor
shall provide all necessary labour, water,
hydraulic pumps with gauges, clips and
blank flanges with air outlets and connections for pressure pipes. Adequate
support shall be provided to all blanked
ends and bends by concreting or other
means.
Care shall be taken to release all air
210
It is essential that the pipeline should be satisfactorily

tested with water to the
required pressure. Testing
periods vary from 30 minutes
to 1 hour. The accompanying
specification clauses indicate
the various precautions which
need to be taken.
Some Engineers add a
clause to the effect that this
testing will not relieve the
Contractor from the responsibility of delivering up the
whole of the works in a sound,
clean and perfect condition,
free from leakage or other
EXPLANATORY NOTES
by slowly filling the mains, with air defects under the working
valves open, before the hydraulic pres- pressure.
sure is applied. Mter the full test pressure has been obtained the pump shall
be closed off and the main shall withstand the pressure for one hour. All
defective pipes, fittings, joints, etc.,
shall be made good at the Contractor's
expense, after which the testing shall be
repeated.
Chlorination of mains
After the mains have been tested and

approved by the Engineer, the water
used for testing shall be emptied out and
the mains shall then be thoroughly
flushed with clean water and again
emptied. The mains shall then be
slowly filled with clean water containing
chlorine solution injected by means of
approved portable chlorinating equipment.
Mter all the mains have been charged
with the sterilising solution, they shall
remain filled for not less than 12 hours.
Thereafter they shall be emptied again
and refilled with clean water.
It is essential that all water

mains should be sterilised
after testing and before they
become
operative.
The
clause describes one method
of doing this.
VALVE CHAMBERS, ETC.
Sluice valve chambers
Chambers for 18 in. and larger sluice

valves with spur gearing and by-pass
shall have clear internal dimensions of
14 m x 125 m x 18 m deep (4ft 6 in. x
4 ft 1! in. x 6 ft 0 in. deep). The base
slab shall be constructed of concrete,
class B, 150 mm (6 in.) thick, supporting
brick chamber walls 225 mm (9 in.) thick
in English bond in class B engineering
211
This clause covers a chamber for a large sluice valve

with a by-pass which resembles a manhole in construction.
Smaller sluice valves are
specified as being housed in a
protecting tube of cast iron,
supporting a precast concrete
bricks, flush pointed internally, with the

top courses corbelled to the reinforced
concrete cover slab, 150mm(6in.) thick.
In the end walls, double brick rings shall
be turned over the pipes for the full
thickness of the wall. The cover slab
shall be of concrete, class B, reinforced
with one layer of No. 30 expanded
metal, and where the chambers are
located in roads, the cover slab shall be
further reinforced with two 100 mm x
75 mmx45 kg (4 in.x3 in.x10 lb)
steel joists.
Holes shall be formed in the cover
slab and two surface boxes, as specified,
shall be set on the slab and flaunched up
with cement mortar, with the top of the
covers finishing level with the finished
surface of the road, path or verge in
which the valve is located, and surrounded with class B concrete, 150 mm
(6 in.) wide and 150 mm (6 in.) deep.
Sluice valves shall be supported on hardwood wedges on 600 mm x 225 mm x
150 mm thick (2 ft 0 in. x9 in. x 6 in.
thick) precast concrete pads set on the
chamber base.
Sluice valves smaller than 450 mm
(18 in.) without spur gearing and bypass shall have selected fill well rammed
around the valve up to the top flange.
An approved cast iron protecting tube
shall be supported on the valve flange
and a mild steel extension spindle shall
be fixed as required. A precast concrete
cover slab, 750 mm x750 mm x 150 mm
thick, (2 ft 6 in. x 2 ft 6 in. x 6 in.) suitably holed, shall be set over the protecting tube and shall have a surface box, as
specified, set on the slab and flaunched
up with cement mortar. Surface boxes
shall finish to the required levels and be
212
EXPLANATORY NOTES
cover slab. In both cases surface boxes give access to the

valve spindles.
As an alternative to the
concrete surround to the
surface box, a small area
(!-1! m 2 (yd 2)) of granite or
whinstone blocks set on
rough concrete may be used.
With the smaller sluice
valves, a common alternative
adopted in practice is to
build brick chambers 340 mm
x340 mm (1 ft 1! in. x 1 ft
1! in.) in the clear with
115 mm (4! in.) brick walls
set on a 75 mm (3 in.) concrete base. The top courses
of the brickwork will be corbelled to receive the surface
box, thus eliminating the need
for a precast concrete cover
slab. Yet another alternative
is to use precast chamber
rings.
Note: class B concrete
would probably be a mix of
1:2:4.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
surrounded with concrete as before described.

Air valve chambers
Chambers for double air valves shall

have clear internal dimensions of 12 m
x900 mm x 125 m deep {3 ft 9 in. x
3 ft x 4 ft deep). The base slab shall be
constructed in concrete, class B, 150 mm
(6 in.) thick, supporting brick chamber
walls 225 mm (9 in.) thick in class B
engineering bricks in English bond,
mainly flush pointed internally but with
the bottom four courses laid dry. Double
brick rings shall be turned over pipes.
The cover slab shall be of reinforced
concrete, class B, 150 mm (6 in.) thick
reinforced with one layer of No. 30
expanded metal. An opening shall be
formed in the cover slab and a surface
box, as specified, set on it, flaunched up
with cement mortar and surrounded
with concrete as before described.
Air valve chambers are

normally constructed in a
similar manner to those for
sluice valves, except that it is
common practice to leave a
few of the bottom courses
unjointed to facilitate drainage.
The size of the chamber
will vary with the size of the
air valve. Precast concrete
chamber rings offer a suitable
alternative form of construction.
Washouts
Washouts shall be constructed at the

low points on the main in the approximate positions shown on the Drawings
and where finally determined on the site
by the Engineer. 100 mm (4 in.) double
flanged sluice valves shall be fixed to
double socketed T's having a 100 mm
(4 in.) flanged branch level with the
invert of the main. 100 mm (4 in.) cast
iron pipes shall be laid from the sluice
valve to discharge into a watercourse or
to some other agreed point.
A chamber shall be constructed
around the sluice valve in the manner
previously specified.
213
Washouts or scours are

provided at the low points on
a water main to permit sediment to be flushed out of the
pipes periodically. In some
cases hydrants are installed
for this purpose. Scour pipes
must not be connected to
foul sewers.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Hydrant chambers
Hydrant chambers shall be 340 mm x

340 mm (1 ft 1l in. x 1 ft ll in.) internally, built on a concrete base, class B,
75 mm (3 in.) thick. The walls shall be of
brick, 115 mm (4l in.) thick, built of
class B engineering bricks, flush pointed
internally except for the four bottom
courses which shall be laid dry. The top
courses of the brickwork shall be corbelled to receive the surface box, as
specified, which shall finish level with
the adjoining surfaces and be surrounded with concrete as before described.
Hydrant chambers may

have to be constructed to the
requirementsofthe Fire Service. The accompanying specification clause is a typical
requirement, although it is
sometimes specified that weep
holes, 25 mm (1 in.) in
diameter, are to be provided
in each wall as an additional
measure to facilitate drainage.
Name plates
Cast iron name plates of approved

pattern shall be fixed near all valves.
The distance from the plate to the valve
shall be accurately measured and shown
on the plate to the nearest metre (foot),
together with the type of valve. The
plates shall be secured to walls of buildings, etc., with strong round-headed
spikes driven into wooden plugs, or
shall be bolted to suitable reinforced
concrete posts 125 m (4 ft) long and
driven 450 mm (18 in.) into the ground.
All valve name plates shall be painted
with one coat of red lead primer before
fixing, and after fixing with two coats of
good quality lead paint with letters and
figures picked out in white on a blue
background. Hydrant plates will be supplied to the Contractor by the Fire
Service.
214
All valves need to be clearly

identifiable by the provision
of prominent name plates or
markers on the highway
boundary opposite the valve.
It is customary to use letters
to represent the different
types of valve, such as S.V.
for sluice valve, A.V. for air
valve, W.O. for washout and
H for hydrant. Hydrant plates
are normally yellow in colour, and water fittings are
sometimes indicated by white
letters and figures on a black
background or black letters,
etc., on a white background.
A common practice nowadays is to use loose figures
for valve sizes and distances
which fit into slots in the
plates, all enamelled to avoid
the need for painting.
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
Specification of Railway Trackwork

THE specifying of railway trackwork can be conveniently broken down
into three main processes: {1) preliminary work, {2) track materials and
(3) laying the trackwork or permanent way.
The preliminary work consists of site preparation, excavation and fill,
drainage, compaction and grading. The materials consist of ballast,
sleepers of timber, concrete or steel; rails (bull-head or flat-bottom);
chairs; fishplates and ancillary fixing items. More complicated items of
equipment such as points and crossings may be specified by referring to
specific products of a certain manufacture.
The clauses covering the laying of the permanent way must include
reference to all the labours involved in laying the track to the required
lines, levels and curves. These clauses are usually followed by information on measurement aspects to simplify the subsequent process of
measurement and valuation of the work, and to draw the Contractor's
attention to all the matters for which he is to make allowance in his
prices.
Typical railway trackwork specification clauses follow. It is hoped
that these will form a useful guide in the drafting of specification clauses
for this class of work.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
PRELIMINARY WORK
Site preparation
The whole of the area of the site as
The whole of the site,
shown on the Drawings shall be cleared including the area occupied
of all obstructions, including trees and by slopes to cuttings and
215
EXPLANATORY NOTES
undergrowth with their roots, rubbish,

etc. The resultant debris shall be burnt
or removed from the site and the whole
of the area left to the satisfaction of the
Engineer.
embankments, needs to be
cleared of obstructions. In
particular the roots of trees
and undergrowth must be
removed.
Excavation
Topsoil shall be stripped and stacked
for subsequent re-use on the slopes to
cuttings and embankments.
Excavation shall be performed to the
dimensions shown on the Drawings or
as directed by the Engineer or his representative on the site. Suitable excavated
material shall be used as fill in embankments and all surplus removed from the
site.
The Contractor shall not excavate
below formation level, except to cut out
soft spots. The soft spots shall be refilled
with selected and approved material.
The reader is referred to

Chapter IV for more detailed
specification clauses covering
excavation. The Engineer
usually aims at equalising the
amounts of cut and fill as far
as possible, although this is
more difficult in railway
trackwork than with roads,
due to the flatter gradients
and slower changes of grade
involved.
Surface-water drainage
The Contractor shall keep the formation free from water by pumping, provision of sumps and drainage channels,
etc., all to the approval of the Engineer.
Open trenches shall be cut and porous
drains laid in the positions and to the
details shown on the Drawings.
The formation must be

kept clear of water to prevent
softening and damage. Open
trenches or land drains will
be needed on each side of the
track in cuttings to intercept
and take away the water
running down the slopes.
Compaction of formation, etc.

The formation of the track and the fill
to embankments, deposited in 225 mm
(9 in.) layers, shall be adequately consolidated with a smooth-wheeled roller
weighing 8000-10,000 kg (8-10 tons).
216
The formation and layers

of filled material in embankments must be adequately
compacted. The number of
passes of the roller will
depend on the weight of
roller and type of fill.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Grading of formation and slopes
The formation and slopes to cuttings

and embankments shall be accurately
graded to the required lines and gradients. Sloping surfaces shall be covered
with 150 mm (6 in.) of suitable topsoil
and seeded, as previously specified, or
covered with a 100 mm (4 in.) layer of
approved ballast.
Culverts and pipes under the track
shall be completed before the final preparation of the formation is carried out.
The treatment of the sloping surfaces to cuttings and

embankments may take one
of several forms:
(1) left as excavated or filled;
(2) soiled and seeded;
(3) covered with ballast or
other suitable material.
Intercepting trenches or
land drains will probably be
needed at the tops of cuttings
and bottoms of embankments.
TRACK MATERIALS
Ballast
Ballast for permanent way construction shall consist of clean, hard crushed
stone or other suitable material approved
by the Engineer. Bottom ballast shall be
evenly graded from 200 mm (8 in.) to
100 mm (4 in.) and top ballast from
60 mm (2! in.) to 25 mm (1 in.). Stones
used as ballast shall be roughly cubical
in shape and the use of fiat stones will
not be permitted.
Hard, clean stones are

normally required for ballast,
although slag and clinker are
occasionally used. It is desirable to select a material which
will drain satisfactorily and
will not break down into
dust. The life of sleepers is
affected by the quality of the
ballast.
Timber sleepers
Timber sleepers shall be of creosoted

Douglas fir, Scots pine or other approved timber. They shall be straight,
sound, square cut and free from injuries,
waney edges, shakes, large and dead
knots, decay, insect attack and other
217
Sleepers may be in timber,

steel or concrete. There are
British Standards covering
the latter two categories but
there is not one for timber
sleepers. Nevertheless, steps
EXPLANATORY NOTES
serious defects, and shall contain not

more than 15 per cent sapwood taken as
an average of both end sections.
The moisture content of timber
sleepers shall not exceed 22 per cent of
the dry weight at time of use. The timber
shall, unless otherwise specified, comply
with B.S. Code of Practice 112 (Table 1,
Group 1) and the measurable characteristics and moisture content shall be
assessed in accordance with B.S. 1860:
Structural Timber: Measurement of
Characteristics affecting Strength.
Timber sleepers shall be not less than
26 m (8 ft 6 in.) long and 250 mm x
125 mm (10 in. x 5 in.) in section. Unless
suitably finished the top faces of sleepers
shall be dressed under each rail for a
width of at least 225 mm (9 in.), where
the rails rest directly on the sleepers, and
for a width suitable for chairs or bearing
plates where these are used. Special creosoted timbers of larger section and
greater length shall be used at points
and crossings, as directed by the Engineer, and these shall be dressed or
finished as specified for sleepers.
All timber sleepers shall be creosoted
under pressure in accordance with B.S.
913: Pressure Creosoting of Timber, and
the creosote shall comply with B.S. 144:
Coal Tar Creosote for the Preservation
of Timber.
Holes shall be bored in sleepers and
crossing timbers to receive coachscrews,
bolts and spikes and the holes shall be
5 mm (l- in.) less in diameter than the
coachscrews, etc. The bolts and coachscrews shall be screwed up tight and the
spikes hammered home until a firm bearing on the rails or chairs is obtained, all
to the approval of the Engineer.
have been taken in the accompanying specification clauses

to make the maximum use of
all relevant British Standards,
for the sake of uniformity
and to ensure the use of good
quality materials.
Sound and suitable timber,
creosoted under pressure, is
an essential requirement,
with the object of securing
sleepers with a minimum life
of from 10 to 20 years,
depending on the volume of
traffic carried.
Some engineers specify
joint sleepers of 300 mm x
125 mm (12 in. x 5 in.) cross
section, whereas others require two sleepers of normal
section to be positioned close
to the joint.
The requirements relating
to the characteristics of the
timber vary appreciably. For
instance, some engineers permit up to 25 per cent sapwood
and wanes on each of the two
edges of the wide face.
218
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Steel sleepers
Steel sleepers for flat-bottom rails
shall comply with B.S. 500, and be of
inverted trough form, 280 mm (11i in.)
wide x 85 mm (3! in.) deep overall and
not less than 8 mm (f-6 in.) thick. The
chairs shall be an integral part of the
sleeper or shall be held in position by
suitable metal clips welded to the sleeper.
The weight of steel sleepers shall be not
less than 25 kg/m (140 lb per length of
8 lin. ft).
B.S. 500 gives details of

test samples, templates and
gauges, methods of manufacture, cleaning and dipping,
and inspection during manufacture. It does not however
specify any standard dimensions.
Concrete sleepers
Concrete sleepers shall comply with
the requirements of B.S. 986: Concrete
Railway Sleepers, for reinforced concrete sleepers for secondary tracks and
may be of either block or transverse
type.
This Standard covers both

ordinary reinforced and prestressed sleepers for standard
gauge railway tracks for sidings, tertiary, secondary and
primary tracks.
Ralls
These Standards cover the
Rails shall comply with the requirements of B.S. 9 for bull-head rails and quality of material, chemical
B.S. 11 for flat-bottom rails. Rails shall composition and mechanical
weigh 47 kg/m (96 lb/lin. yd) and shall properties, conditions of finbe supplied in 18 m (60ft) lengths and ished rails, locations of holes,
and dimensions, shapes and
laid to a gauge of It m (4ft 8! in.).
weights. Bull-head rails range
from 30 to 50 kg/m (60 to
100 lb/yd) and flat-bottom
rails from 12 to 55 kg/m (25
to 110 lb/yd).
Fisbplates
Fishplates shall be of mild steel of the
shallow type to suit the section of the
rails and of sufficient length to take four
bolts, all in accordance with B.S. 47:
219
Two :fishplates are required

to each joint between lengths
of rail, made up of one plate
on each side of the rail. B.S.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Steel Fishplates for Bull-head and Flat- 47 covers quality, tests,

bottom Railway Rails. They shall weigh punching of holes, dimennot less than 14 kg (32lb) per pair.
sions and weights.
Rall fixings
All rail fixings shall be of mild steel

and shall be of the types and dimensions
shown on the Drawings or as directed by
the Engineer. Bolts and nuts, coachscrews and spikes, etc., shall comply
with B.S. 64: Steel Fishbolts and Nuts
for Railway Rails, where applicable,
shall be forged from the solid and cleanly
cut and, where appropriate, have Whitworth standard threads of uniform pitch.
All nuts shall accurately fit the threads
of the bolts and shall be hand-tight. The
bolts shall be of sufficient length to project from one to four clear threads beyond the nuts when tightened up. The
shoulders of the heads shall be truly
concentric with the axes of the bolts.
Coachscrews shall be of adequate
length to penetrate the various members
to be joined together, and shall have a
large domed head with a square nut
projecting from it. The heads shall be
truly concentric with the axes of the
coachscrews.
Dog spikes for fixing flat-bottom rails
shall be of mild steel, 16 mm x 15 mm
(i in. x 196 in.) in section and 125 mm
(5 in.) long with cup-shaped heads and
be suitably pointed for driving. The head
shall be formed with a 20 mm (! in.)
projection with the required inclination
to give a satisfactory grip on the rail,
and with suitable ears to facilitate withdrawal.
Mter manufacture and before any
rusting has taken place, bolts, nuts,
220
This clause covers all the

components needed for fixing
the rails. The dimensions of
the various items will be
obtained from the Drawings.
Common sizes are for fishbolts 24 mm G: in.) in diameter and 120 mm (4! in.)
long and for chairbolts
22 mm (t in.) in diameter and
180 mm (7! in.) long.
Reference to B.S. 64 enables the length of the specifi,cation clause to be reduced
considerably. B.S.64 provides
for 22 mm (tin.) and 24 mm
(H in.) bolts and nuts for use
with standard bull-head rails,
and a range of ten bolts and
nuts from 12 mm (! in.) to
28 mm (lt in.) for use with
standard flat-bottom rails.
This Standard also specifies
the quality of steel and the
tests on the finished bolt, as
well as giving requirements
for weight margins, marking,
gauging and protection.
Note the application of
hot linseed oil to facilitate
removal and prevent rusting.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
coachscrews, etc., shall be heated and

dipped in hot linseed oil.
Cast iron separators
Cast iron separators, securing check
rails to running rails, shall be of approved pattern and of the required size
to fit accurately into the webs of the
rails and of the appropriate width to
give a clearance of 45 mm (1! in.) between the inner edges of the running and
check rails. The separators shall be
holed for 22 mm (lin.) diameter distance
bolts.
Cast iron separators are

needed to hold the check rail
in the correct position relative to the running rail on
sharp curves.
Bearing plates
Mild steel bearing plates, 300 mm x
200 mm x 12 mm thick (12 in. x 8 in. x
t in. thick), shall be placed between the
rails and sleepers on each side of rail
joints where directed by the Engineer.
Bearing plates shall comply with B.S.
751: Steel Bearing Plates for Flatbottom Railway Rails, and each plate
shall be suitably holed to permit four
fixings being screwed or driven into the
sleeper to hold the rail.
Bearing plates are used to

give additional support to
rails at joints. B.S. 751 specifies the quality of the steel,
the tests to be performed, the
method of manufacture, holing, freedom from defects,
and branding, cleaning and
dipping.
Chairs and keys

Chairs shall be of cast iron, weighing
not less than 20 kg (46 lb) each, to take
bull-head rails, and of a pattern approved by the Engineer. Chairs shall be
of the three-hole type and they shall be
secured to the sleepers with three coachscrews or spikes or with three bolts
inserted through the full thickness of
the sleeper, with the nut screwed down
tight on to the chair.
221
Chairs are needed to fix

each bull-head rail to each
sleeper. Keys are used to
wedge the rails in the chairs.
Oak keys of good quality
English oak, chamfered and
tapered as required are an
alternative to steel spring
keys.
Special double cast iron
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Keys shall be steel spring keys to railway standard pattern.
chairs will be needed with

bull-head rails where a check
rail is used.
LAYING PERMANENT WAY
Laying ballast
The ballast shall be laid after the

formation has been brought to the correct level and profile and well consolidated with a roller weighing not less
than 5000 kg (5 tons), and be cleared of
all rubbish and loose material. The
width of the ballast for a single track
shall be 3 5 m (11 ft), and the level of the
formation after consolidation shall be
450 mm (18 in.) below the top of ra,il
level.
Prior to the laying of sleepers, bottom
ballast shall be laid to a consolidated
thickness of 150 mm (6 in.). The permanent way shall then be laid and the
sleepers packed up with top ballast for a
width of 375 mm (15 in.) on each side of
each rail. After the rails have been
accurately adjusted, lined and surfaced,
the top ballast shall be filled to the correct dimensions and neatly trimmed and
boxed flush with the sleepers. Any settlement of the ballast prior to the expiration of the maintenance period shall be
made good at the Contractor's expense
and to the approval of the Engineer.
Ballast is laid in two layers,

the bottom ballast of larger
gauge material being consolidated to a depth of about
150 mm (6 in.) to receive the
sleepers. The remaining space
to the top of the sleepers is
made up with top ballast of
smaller material.
The accompanying specification clauses detail the ballast-laying process quite fully,
and include making up any
areas which have settled by
the end of the maintenance
period.
Laying track
The rails shall be accurately laid to

The track must be laid to
line and level, to a gauge of ll m (4 ft the lines, levels, curves and
8-! in.) and to the true radii of the res- super-elevation shown on the
pective curves, with such super-elevation Drawings or as directed by
222
EXPLANATORY NOTES
on the outer rail on curves as required

by the Engineer, and no addition to
billed rates for tracklaying will be
allowed to cover any extra cost involved
in setting out and laying the track to the
required elevation and curvature.
On straight sections of line the rail
joints shall be positioned exactly opposite one another, while on curves the
lengths of rails shall be so arranged that
no joint shall have a lead of more than
100 mm (4 in.) over the joint of the
opposite rail. The Contractor shall,
where necessary to suit these conditions,
cut the rails and bore new holes for the
fishbolts and the cost of this work shall
be included in the tracklaying rates. On
curves less than 240 m (12 chains) in
radius, the rails, prior to laying, shall be
set by the Contractor to the required
curvature with the use of a press.
The sleepers on each side of rail joints
shall be placed close to the joints. The
remainder of the sleepers in each length
of rail shall be spaced equidistantly and
they shall be so arranged that the distance between the centres of sleepers
shall not exceed 750 mm (2 ft 6 in.).
The rails shall be laid as nearly as
possible in correct alignment before they
are secured to sleepers or chairs. One of
the rails shall then be :fishjointed and
secured with the required number of
fixings, keys, etc., as shown on the Drawings, after which the other rail shall be
laid in its correct position with the use
of a standard gauge, and then secured
progressively to the sleepers or chairs.
Metal slips, 7 mm (f6 in.) thick, shall be
inserted in the rail joints to provide
expansion spaces and shall be kept in
the joints until the rails have been lined
the Engineer. Furthermore,

the track must be laid accurately and precisely. Billed
rates for tracklaying must
cover all the work entailed.
Sleepers are normally
placed close to the joint on
either side of rail joints, although an alternative procedure is to use a larger
section sleeper in this position (often 300 mm x 125 mm
(12 in. x 5 in.)). The spacing
of sleepers (centre to centre)
is usually about 750-850 mm
(30-34 in.).
Note the sequence of operations adopted for tracklaying
work as detailed in the
clauses. There are three principal methods of fixing rails,
using bolts and nuts, chairscrews, or spikes. With flatbottom rails no chairs will be
needed as the rails will be
fixed direct to the sleepers.
Bull-head rails have a head
and base or foot of the same
width (about 70 mm (2! in.))
and a height of about 140 mm
(5! in.). With flat-bottom
rails the width of the base is
just over twice the width of
the head. For example, a
common section, weighing
47 kg/m (95 lb/lin. yd), has a
base width of 140 mm (5 196
in.), a head width of 65 mm
(2}~ in.) and a height of
145 mm (5a in.). The bullhead type of rail is the most
223
EXPLANATORY NOTES
and secured. Closing lengths of rail shall

not be less than 45 m (15ft) and all cuts
in rails shall be square and clean. The
Contract rates shall include for all cutting and waste resulting from the tracklaying. All the tracklaying shall be
carried out in accordance with presentday first class railway practice.
Unless otherwise specified, there shall
be at least six steel fixings securing the
rails or chairs to each sleeper (i.e. at
least three to each rail or chair). The
fixings may consist of bolts and nuts,
coachscrews or spikes, or a combination of them in the case of flat-bottomed
rails, all as shown on the Drawings or as
directed by the Engineer. The bolts and
coachscrews must be screwed tight and
the spikes hammered home until a firm
bearing on the rails or chairs is obtained,
all to the approval of the Engineer.
Any loose coachscrews or spikes that
have been rejected by the Engineer shall
be removed and new holes drilled in the
sleepers. New coachscrews or spikes
shall then be screwed or driven at the
Contractor's expense and to the approval of the Engineer. Steel spring keys shall
be used to secure the rails to each chair
and they shall be driven securely home
after the rails have been gauged and
lined.
Should any part of the permanent way
settle, move or stretch prior to the
expiration of the maintenance period,
the Contractor shall perform the necessary remedial works to ensure that the
track is left to the correct level, line and
gauge, at his own expense and to the
approval of the Engineer.
commonly used in this country.

Steel and precast concrete
sleepers are particularly useful in tropical and sub-tropical regions, where timber
sleepers are subject to attack
by white ants.
224
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Check rails
Check rails shall be provided on all
curves of radius sharper than 120 m
(6 chains) or where directed by the
Engineer. They shall consist of a rail of
.the same section as the running rail,
except that in the case of fiat-bottom
rails one flange shall be planed off as
necessary to allow 45 mm (1! in.) clearance between the check rail and the running rail for the flanges of wheels.
Where bull-head rails are used, the
check rails shall be secured to sleepers
with special cast iron chairs, and in the
case of fiat-bottom rails by dog spikes
or coachscrews and cast iron separators,
and bolts and nuts between the webs of
running and check rails at 15 m (5 ft)
centres.
Check rails are needed on

tracks laid to sharp curves as
an additional safeguard to
super-elevation to prevent
locomotives leaving the track
due to centrifugal force.
The form of check rail and
the method of fixing varies
according to whether the
track is of bull-head or fiatbottom rails.
Points and crossings

Points and crossings, together with
check railing, point rods and lever boxes
complete, shall be manufactured by a
firm of repute in this class of work. The
rails shall be of the same section as
previously specified. Prices shall include
for all cutting and waste.
Points and crossings shall be accurately made to the particulars and drawings prepared or approved by the Engineer, and before construction is commenced the Contractor shall submit
detailed working drawings to the Engineer for approval. Points and crossings
shall be carefully and accurately laid to
ensure the safe and smooth running of
traffic.
Hand-lever boxes and tie rods of a
pattern approved by the Engineer shall
225
With these more specialised

forms of equipment, the Contractor is usually required to
produce detailed drawings
based on the information
supplied by the Engineer. In
fact the supply and fixing of
points, crossings, buffer stops
and associated items are frequently covered by a prime
cost item in the Bill of Quantities. It is essential that this
equipment should be in sound
working order and produce
safe running conditions.
EXPLANATORY NOTES
be provided to work the points. They

shall be properly fitted up and securely
fixed to a pair of timber sleepers, all to
the approval of the Engineer. Lever
boxes and tie rods shall be painted with
two coats of red lead paint and all moving parts and sliding plates shall be well
greased and left in good working order.
Measurement of railway work
The billed rates for the supply of railway materials shall include all the costs
involved in the supply, transporting,
unloading, handling, stacking, storing
and protection of the materials on the
site. Payment will be made on the net
theoretical or calculated weights of
materials actually used in the Works in
accordance with the Drawings or as
directed by the Engineer.
The billed rates for ballasting shall
include the cost of packing, surfacing,
trimming and maintaining. No allowance will be made beyond the required
dimensions for the extra material used
in making up any settlement. The ballast
displaced by sleepers will be deducted.
The billed rates for tracklaying shall
include the cost of handling, selecting,
fixing, lining and gauging rails, and also
bending rails in the case of curved track,
the handling and laying of transverse or
block type sleepers, and all expenses
connected with laying and fixing the
permanent way complete, other than
ballasting. The measurement of tracklaying will be taken in metres (linear
yards) of completed track (two rails, all
fixings and sleepers, etc.). The billed
rates for check rails shall include the
cost of handling, selecting and bending
226
It is advisable to indicate
exactly what the billed rates
for supply of railway equipment and ballasting and laying track, check rails and
points and crossings are to
cover, supplementing the
information given in the
Standard Method of Measurement of Civil Engineering
Quantities. For instance,
tracklaying is measured by
the metre (yard) of track complete, including the assembly
of all the component items.
The billed items for points
and crossings are also comprehensive items.
Payment for steel rails and
other metal work, will be on
the basis of theoretical or
calculated weights as detailed
by the manufacturer, and not
on the basis of the actual
weight of metal used on the
job. The separation of the
supply and the fixing of items
is peculiar to railway construction work. Points are
often referred to as switches.
rails, fixing with keys, spikes or coachscrews, drilling running and check rails
for distance pieces, and fixing bolts and
separators.
The billed rates for supply of points
and crossings shall include for the supply of all necessary materials and for
their manufacture complete, with the
check rails, cast iron separators, bearing
and joint plates, lever boxes, tie rods,
etc., whilst the billed rates for laying
points and crossings shall include the
delivery, handling, laying in position,
jointing up to the permanent way and
fixing of all check rails, lever-boxes,
etc., greasing and painting, and all cutting, drilling, machining and fitting of
rails, rods and timbers which may be
necessary for the complete erection of
the points and crossings, measured as
'extra over' the laying of plain track.
227
EXPLANATORY NOTES
Appendix I
LIST OF BRITISH STANDARD CODES OF PRACTICE RELATING
TO CIVIL ENGINEERING WORK
CP
3
Code of basic data for the design of buildings.
Chapter V Loading.
,
VII Engineering and utility services.
,
IX Durability.
98
Preservative treatments for constructional timber.
99
Frost precautions for water services.
101
Foundations and substructures for non-industrial buildings of not
more than four storeys.
102
Protection of buildings against water from the ground.
111
Structural recommendations for load-bearing walls.
112
The structural use of timber in buildings.
114
Structural use of reinforced concrete in buildings.
115
The structural use of prestressed concrete in buildings.
116
The structural use of precast concrete.
117
Composite construction in structural steel and concrete.
121.101
Brickwork.
121.201
Masonry - walls ashlared with natural stone or with cast stone.
121.202
Masomy - rubble walls.
122
Walls and partitions of blocks and slabs.
123.101
Dense concrete walls.
143
Sheet roof and wall coverings.
144.101
Bitumen felt roof coverings.
144 pt. 2
Mastic asphalt roofing.
145.101
Patent glazing.
231
Painting of buildings.
301
Building drainage.
302.100
Small domestic sewage treatment works.
303
Surface water and subsoil drainage.
310
Water supply.
2001
Site investigations.
2003
Earthworks.
2007
Design and construction of reinforced and prestressed concrete structures for the storage of water and other aqueous liquids.
2010
Pipelines.
Civil Engineering Code of Practice
No. 5 (1950) Drainage (Sewerage).
229
Appendix II
LIST OF BRITISH STANDARDS RELATING TO
CIVIL ENGINEERING WORK
BS
4
9
10
11
12
15
18
47
51
63
64
65
76
78
105
144
146
153
217
221
239
275
308
327
340
348
357
368
373
417
434
435
437
Structural steel sections.

Bull-head railway rails.
Flanges and bolting for pipes, valves and fittings.
Flat-bottom railway rails.
Portland cement (ordinary and rapid-hardening).
Mild steel for general structural purposes.
Methods for tensile testing of metals.
Steel fishplates for bull-head and flat-bottom railway rails.
Wrought iron for general engineering purposes.
Single-sized roadstone and chippings.
Steel fishbolts and nuts for railway rails.
Glazed vitrified clay drain and sewer pipes.
Tars for road purposes.
Cast iron spigot and socket pipes (vertically cast) and spigot and
socket fittings.
Light and heavy bridge-type railway rails.
Coal tar creosote for the preservation of timber.
Portland blast furnace cement.
Steel girder bridges.
Red lead for paints and jointing compounds.
Special zinc.
White pigments for paints.
Dimensions of rivets 10 mm to 45 mm (!in. to 1 in.) diameter.
Engineering drawing practice.
Power-driven derrick cranes.
Precast concrete kerbs, channels, edgings and quadrants.
Compressed natural rock asphalt.
Power-driven travelling jib cranes (rail-mounted low carriage type).
Precast concrete flags.
Testing small clear specimens of timber.
Galvanised mild steel cisterns and covers, tanks and cylinders.
Bitumen road emulsion (anionic).
Granite and whinstone kerbs, channels, quadrants and setts.
Cast iron spigot and socket drain pipes.
230
BS
449
APPENDIX TWO
The use of structural steel in building (incorporating B.S. Code of

Practice CP 113).
Doors (various types).
459
Asbestos cement pressure pipes.
486
Cast manhole covers, road gully gratings and frames for drainage
497
purposes.
Welding terms and symbols.
499
Steel railway sleepers for flat-bottom rails.
500
Road traffic control (electric) light signals.
505
Steel spigot and socket pipes for water, gas and sewage.
534
Dimensions of drain fittings.
539
Glass (vitreous) enamelled salt-glazed fireclay drain and sewer
540
pipes.
Linseed oil putty (for wooden frames).
544
556
Concrete cylindrical pipes and fittings including manholes, inspection
chambers and street gullies.
Glossary of terms relating to timber and woodwork.
565
Rolled asphalt (hot process).
594
598
Sampling and examination of bituminous mixtures for roads and
buildings.
Pump tests.
599
Methods for sampling coal tar and its products.
616
Arc welding plant and equipment.
638
Covered electrodes for the metal-arc welding of mild steel.
639
Schedule of weights of building materials.
648
Pneumatic tools and accessories.
673
Sandstone kerbs, channels, quadrants and setts.
706
Borehole and well pump tests.
722
Sewage pump tests.
723
Zinc coatings on iron and steel articles.
729
Materials for damp-proof courses.
743
Roofing felts.
747
Underground fire hydrants and dimensions of surface box openings.
750
Steel bearing plates for flat-bottom railway rails.
751
Steel pipes and flanged joints for hydraulic purposes.
778
Wrought iron chain slings and rings.
781
Rolled steel bars and hard drawn steel wire for concrete reinforce785
ment.
802
Tarmacadam with crushed rock or slag aggregate.
812
Methods for sampling and testing of mineral aggregates, sands and
fillers.
The construction of road traffic signs and internally illuminated
873
bollards.
Foamed blast furnace slag for concrete aggregate.
877
Water well casing.
879
881,589 Nomenclature of commercial timbers, including sources of supply.
882, 1201 Aggregates from natural sources for concrete (including granolithic).
Building limes.
890
Glossary of highway engineering terms.
892
Pressure creosoting of timber.
913
231
BS
915
952
986
High alumina cement.

Classification of glass for glazing and terminology for work on glass.
Concrete railway sleepers.
Mastic asphalt for roofing (limestone aggregate).
988
Air-cooled blast furnace slag coarse aggregate for concrete.
1047
Mastic asphalt for tanking and damp-proof courses (limestone
1097
aggregate).
Schedule of cast iron drain fittings, spigot and socket type, for use with
1130
drain pipes to B.S. 437.
Mild steel refuse storage containers.
1136
Metal scaffolding.
1139
Fibre building boards.
1142
Salt-glazed ware pipes with chemically resistant properties.
1143
Cold twisted steel bars for concrete reinforcement.
1144
Form of time and wages sheet and pay packet for the building and
1151
civil engineering contracting industries.
Aluminium and aluminium alloy sections.
1161
Mastic asphalt for roofing (natural rock asphalt aggregate).
1162
Clinker aggregate for plain and precast concrete.
1165
Milled lead sheet and strip for building purposes.
1178
Concrete bricks and fixing bricks.
1180
Part 1. Quality of timber in joinery.
1186
Part 2. Quality of workmanship in joinery.
Gypsum building plasters.
1191
Concrete porous pipes for under-drainage.
1194
Clayware field drain pipes.
1196
1198-1200 Building sands from natural sources.
Wire nails and cut nails for building purposes.
1202
Synthetic resin adhesives (phenolic and aminoplastic) for plywood.
1203
Semi-rotary pumps, hand operated, double acting for water.
1208
Wood screws.
1210
Centrifugally cast (spun) iron pressure pipes for water, gas and sewage.
1211
Cast stone.
1217
Sluice valves for waterworks purposes.
1218
Steel fabric for the reinforcement of concrete.
1221
Gypsum plasterboard.
1230
Sills and lintels.
1236-40
Tarmacadam and tar carpets (gravel aggregate).
1241
Tarmacadam tarpaving for footpaths, playgrounds and similar work.
1242
Metal ties for cavity wall construction.
1243
Metal door frames (steel).
1245
Manhole step irons (malleable cast iron).
1247
Cast iron columns for street lighting.
1249
Classification of wood preservatives and their methods of application.
1282
Batch-type concrete mixers.
1305
Concrete street lighting columns.
1308
Guide to civil land aerodrome lighting.
1332
Acid resisting silicon iron pipes and pipe fittings.
1333
Knotting.
1336
Methods of testing soils for civil engineering purposes.
1377
232
BS
1386
1387
1410
1418
1438
1446
1447
1455
1478
1521
1553
1563
1564
1569
1573
1579
1621
1622
1623
1634
1639
1676
1690
1703
1707
1710
1722
1788
184{)
1853
1856
1860
1881
1924
1926
1984
2015
2017
2028
2035
2040
2494
2499
2521-4
2525-32
2539
APPENDIX TWO
Copper tubes to be buried underground.

Steel tubes and tubulars suitable for screwing to B.S. 21 pipe threads.
Mastic asphalt for flooring (natural rock asphalt aggregate).
Mastic asphalt for tanking and damp-proof courses (natural rock
asphalt aggregate).
Media for biological percolating filters.
Mastic asphalt (natural rock asphalt aggregate) for roads and footways.
Mastic asphalt (limestone aggregate) for roads and footways.
Plywood manufactured from tropical hardwoods.
Bending dimensions and scheduling of bars for the reinforcement of
concrete.
Waterproof building papers.
Graphical symbols for pipes and valves.
Cast-iron sectional tanks (rectangular).
Pressed steel sectional tanks (rectangular).
Copper sheet and strip for roofing and other building purposes.
Road studs and plates (stainless steel).
Connectors for timber.
Bitumen macadam with crushed rock or slag aggregate.
Winter gritters for roads.
Hand-rollers for road and constructional engineering.
Dimensions for stoneware pipes and pipe fittings for chemical purposes.
Methods for bend testing of metals.
Heaters for tar and bitumen (mobile and transportable).
Cold asphalt.
Refuse chutes for multi-storey buildings.
Hot binder distributors for road surface dressing.
Identification of pipelines.
Fences.
Street-lighting lanterns for use with electric lamps.
Steel columns for street lighting.
Tubular fluorescent lamps for general lighting service.
General requirements for the metal-arc welding of mild steel.
Structural timber - measurement of characteristics affecting strength.
Methods of testing concrete.
Methods of test for stabilised soils.
Ready-mixed concrete.
Single-sized gravel aggregates for roads.
Glossary of paint terms.
Copper tubes for general purposes.
Precast concrete blocks.
Cast iron flanged pipes and flanged fittings.
Bitumen macadam with gravel aggregate.
Rubber joint rings for gas mains, water mains and sewers.
Tests to assess the properties of hot applied joint sealing compounds
for concrete pavements.
Ready-mixed oil-based priming paints.
Ready-mixed oil-based undercoating and finishing paints (exterior
quality).
Preferred dimensions of reinforced concrete structural members.
233
BS
2542
2569
2573
2591
2594
2596
2691
2760
2762
2787
2853
2855
2994
3049
3051
3083
3136
3138
3139
3148
3178
3224
3235
3247
3251
3262
3294
3327
3373
3428
3429
3461
3505
3572
3656
3680
3681
3690
3698
3699
3706
3717
3767
3797
3798
3809
Recommendations for the use of bitumen emulsion (anionic) for roads.

Sprayed metal coatings.
Permissible stresses in cranes.
Glossary for valves and valve parts (for fluids).
Horizontal mild steel welded storage tanks.
Components of crawler tractors and earth-moving equipment.
Steel wire for prestressed concrete.
Pitch-impregnated fibre drain and sewer pipes.
Notch ductile steel for general structural purposes.
Glossary of terms for concrete and reinforced concrete.
The design and testing of steel overhead runway beams.
Corrugated aluminium sheets for general purposes.
Cold rolled steel sections.
Pedestrian guard rails (metal).
Coal tar oil types of wood preservatives.
Hot-dipped galvanised corrugated steel sheets for general purposes.
Emulsion spraying machines for roads.
Glossary of terms in work study.
High strength friction grip bolts for structural engineering.
Tests for water for making concrete.
Playground equipment for parks.
Lighting fittings for civil land aerodromes.
Test methods for bitumen.
Salt for spreading on highways for winter maintenance.
Hydrant indicator plates.
Road marking materials.
The use of high strength friction grip bolts in structural steelwork.
Stationery for quantity surveying.
Wrought magnesium alloys for general engineering purposes - bars
and sections.
Troughed aluminium building sheet.
Sizes of drawing sheets.
Surface boxes for waterworks purposes.
Unplasticised PVC pipe (type 1420) for cold water supply.
Access fittings for chimneys and other high structures in concrete or
brickwork.
Asbestos-cement pipes and fittings for sewerage and drainage.
Methods of measurement of liquid flow in open channels.
Methods for the sampling and testing of lightweight aggregates for
concrete.
Bitumens for road purposes.
Calcium plumbate priming paints.
Calcium plumbate for paints.
Mild steel for general engineering purposes.
Asbestos cement decking.
Schedule of sodium discharge lamps.
Lightweight aggregates for concrete.
Coping units.
Wood wool permanent formwork and infill units for reinforced concrete floor and roof slabs.
234
BS
3829
3882
3892
3921
3969
3981
3989
3998
4011
4016
4027
4043
4047
APPENDIX TWO
Principal external dimensions of centrifugal pumps.

Recommendations and classification for topsoil.
Pulverised-fuel ash for use in concrete.
Bricks and blocks of fired brick earth, clay or shale.
Recommendations for turf for general landscape purposes.
Iron oxide pigments for paints.
Aluminium street lighting columns.
Recommendations for tree work.
Recommendations for co-ordination of dimensions in building. Basic
sizes for building components and assemblies.
Building papers (breather type).
Sulphate-resisting Portland cement.
Recommendations for transplanting semi-mature trees.
Grading rules for sawn home-grown hardwood.
235
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TYPICAL PROGRAMME OF WORKS COVERING TUNNELS AND SHAFTS TO A CIRCULATING WATER SYSTEM
TO A POWER STATION
Appendix III
Appendix IV
METRIC CONVERSION TABLE (ANALOGUE)
LINEAR
ft
in.
t
t
1
1!
It
1
1
1
2
2
3
4
5
6
10
11
15
20
30
40
100
2
3
4
4!
.2
6
7
8
9
10
0
2
6
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
m mm
3
10 (15)
20
25
30
40
50
75
100
115
150
175
200
225
250
300
350
450
CUBE
600
750
1
125
15
2
3
33
45
6
9
12
30
PRESSURE
1000 lbf/in 2 = 7 MN/m 2
10 tonf/in 2 = 155 MN/m 2
NOTE. MN = meganewton.
SQUARE
WEIGHT
LIQUID
237
ft2 in.2
36
48
1 0
3 0
4 0
10 0
12 0
3
6
m2
0025
003
01
03
04
1
125
2000mm 2
4000mm 2
yd2
1
100
1000
m2
1
80
840
Jt3
ma
003
015
025
05
25
1
6
10
20
100
lb
kg
1
10
100
045
45
45
cwt
1
kg
ton
1
kg
gal
litre
45
45
1
10
50
1000
Index
AccEss TO SITE 36
Accommodation for employees 45
Acts and regulations 32
Advertising 37-8
Aggregate
coarse 68
fine 67-8
for granular bases 144
for surface dressing 144
samples 69
stocks 69
Air chambers 213
Aluminium sheeting 124-5
Angle fillet 100
Asbestos cement
pipes 174
sheeting 124
Ashes 143
Asphalt 100-1
cold 145-6, 157
footpaths 167-8
rolled 145, 156-7
BACKFILL 54-5, 177-8
Ballast 217
laying 222
Base
lean concrete 152-3
sub- 152
water-bound granular 152
Benchings 189
Bending reinforcement 81
Bill of quantities 3-5
Bitumen
cut-back 144
felt d.p.c. 93-4

macadam 145, 155-6
road emulsion 144
sheeting 101-2
Blinding coat 76
Bollards 133
Bolts 115, 117-18, 131-2
to railway trackwork 220-1
to segments 192
Borings 50
Boxsteps 189-90
Braces 129-30
Bricklaying 91-2
in frosty weather 93
Bricks
commons 89
engineering 90, 174
facing 90
generally 89
Brickwork
bonding 92
faced 94
labours to 92-3
pointing 94
reinforced 94-5
to manholes 187-8
British Standards 21, 22-4
166
Capstans 134
Carpentry work 128
Cast iron specials 173-4, 201-2
Caulking joints to cast iron segments
192-3
Cement 67
CABLE DUCTS
239
INDEX
Central Electricity Generating Board 3

Certificates 43-4
Chairs 221-2
Channel
manhole 189
road 148, 165
Check rails 225
Chimney shaft linings 95
Chlorination of mains 211
Coacbscrews 220
Codes of Practice 22, 24-5
Cofferdams 62-3
Compacting
concrete 161-2
factor 72-3
Compressed air plant 59-60
Concrete
blinding 76
compacting 161-2
consistency 72-3
construction joints 76-7
curing 79, 164
expansion joints 77, 162-4
flags 148, 168
footpaths 168
gauging 70--1
in cold weather 78-9
lean base 152-3
lining to shaft and tunnel rings 194-5
manholes 188-9
mixes 69-70, 159-60
mixing 71-2
percolation tests 73-4
piles 105-9
pipes 173
placing 74-6, 160--1
precast 85-6
prestressed 86-7
protection to pipes 183-4
records 80--1
reinforcement 81-2
roads 158-64
shuttering 82-5
sleepers 219
slump 72-3
surface finish 77-8
tensioning 86-7
test cubes 73
transporting 74
vibrated 76
Construction joints 76-7
Contract
ail-in 14
bill of quantities 12
cancellation of 30--1
cost plus fixed fee 13
cost plus fluctuating fee 13
cost plus percentage 13
documents 1
drawings 5-6, 21, 30
extent of 29-30
form of 1-2
General Conditions 2-3
I.C.E. 7-9
I.Struct.E. 9-12
lump sum 12
schedule 12-13
target 13-14
Contractor to visit site 35-6
Co-ordination with other contractors 45
Coping stones 98
Costs, matters affecting 33-6
Cover
to manhole 175, 191
to reinforcement 82
Coverings to walls and roofs 124-5
Cramps 98-9
Creosoting
piles 110
timberwork 131
Crossings (railway) 225-6, 227
Cupboards 140
Curing
concrete 79, 164
piles 106-7
DAMAGE TO ADJOINING PROPERTIES
Damp-proof courses 93-4, 100--1

Demolition work 52
De-watering 57
Disposal of surplus soil 54
Diversion of services 38
Dog spikes 220
Doors 138-9
Dowels 98-9
bars 146, 163
Drawings 5-6, 21, 30
Dredging 63-4
Dressed stonework 95-6
Dry rubble walling 98
EDGINGS
240
148, 165
42
INDEX
Electric cable ducts 166

Electricity supply 34-5
Electrodes 119
Embankments 55-6
Employer's requirements 21
Engineering bricks 90, 174
Excavation 52-3
backfilling 54-5, 177-8, 209
excess 177
for railways 216
for roads 150
of pipe trenches 54, 205
of trenches and for manholes 175-6
to be kept free of water 57, 177
Existing services 39, 208
Expansion joints 77, 162-4, 168
Grass seed 149

spreading 56
verges 169
Guardrails
timber 130
tubular steel121-2
Gully
gratings 149
pots 149
road 165-6
FABRIC REINFORCEMENT 146

Fencing 169-70
Fender piles 128-9
rubber buffers to 132-3
Fertiliser 149, 169
Fibreglass scumboards 198
Fill55-6
Filling to roads 151-2
Fishplates 219-20
Flags 148, 168
Flush doors 139
Footbridge 135-6
Footpath
asphalt 167-8
concrete 168
edgings 148, 165
flagged 148, 168
surfacings 144-6
tarmacadam 166-7
Form of agreement 2
Form of contract 1-2
Form of tender 6-7
Forms 147, 159
Formation preparation
railways 216
roads 150-1
Framing of joinery 137-8
I.C.E. CoNDmoNs 7-9

lronmongery 139
I.Struct.E. Conditions 9-12
GALVANISING 123-4
General Conditions of Contract 2, 29
General contractual matters 28-31
General requirements 28
General working requirements 44-7
Granular bases 144
HANDRAILS 121-2
Hardcore 143
Hedge removal 51
Hydrants 203-4
chambers 214
JETTIES 127-35
bollards 133
capstans 134
decking 130
lighting installation 132
mooring rings 134-5
rescue chains 134
Joinery work 136-40
quality of 137-8
Joint
filler 146
sealer 147
Jointing
asbestos cement pipes 182
cast iron segments 192-3
clayware and concrete pipes 181
flanged pipes 206
iron pipes 181-2
pipes generally 180-1
pitch-fibre pipes 183
precast concrete segments 193-4
screw gland pipes 206
KERBS 147-8, 165
Keys 221-2
Knotting 140
LABOUR EXPENSES 33
Ladders 121, 190
Legal provisions 32-3
241
INDEX
MANHOLE
benchings and channels 189
boxsteps 189-90
brick 187-8
covers 175, 191
excavation 175-6
ladders 190
precast concrete 188-9
safety bars 191
safety chains 190
step irons 175, 189
Marker plates 214
Masonry 95-100
Mastic asphalt 100-1
Materials descriptions 18-20, 43
Measurement 46
railway work, 226-7
steelwork 119-20
timberwork 132
Media 196
placing 197-8
testing 197
Metric conversions 237
Ministry of Transport 3
Mooring rings 134-5
Mortar 90-1
NAME PLATES 214
Navigation lights 132
OFFICE FOR RESIDENT ENGINEER 40-1
Open steel flooring 122
PAINTING
steelwork 122-3, 140-1
woodwork 140-1
Percolating filters
distributors 195
media 195-8
Percolation tests 73-4
Photographs 46-7
Pile
casting 106
concrete 105-9
creosoting 110
curing, stripping and stacking 106-7
cutting off heads 111
cutting steel sheet 112-13
damaged or misplaced 113
drilling 113
fender 128-9
frames 108
handling 107
lengthening of 109
pitching and driving 108-9, 111,
112-13
ready-made 107
reinforcement 105-6
rings 110-11
shoes 106, 110-11
steel sheet 112-13
tarring 110
timber 109-11
trial107
Pipe trench
backfilling 54-5, 177-8, 209
excavation 54, 205
reinstatement 209-10
Pipes
asbestos cement 174
building in 180
chlorination of 211
concrete 173
concrete protection to 183-4
cutting 183
glazed vitrified clay 173
in river crossings 208
jointing 180-3, 206-7
junction 183
laying 179-80, 206-8
loading and unloading 178-9, 205-6
location 178
pitch-fibre 174
porous 174
protective coatings on 202
P.V.C. 202
spun iron 173, 201
steel202
support to 177
testing 184-7, 210-11
trench excavation 54, 205
Plant 42
restricted use of 56
Plywood 139
Pointing of brickwork 94
Points (railway) 225-6, 227
Port regulations 32-3
Portland cement 67
Precast concrete 85-6
manholes 188-9
Prestressed concrete 86-7
Price variations 30
242
INDEX
Primers 140-1
Programme and progress record 47-8,
236
Protection of work 47
Protective coatings on pipes 202
Pumping 57
emulsion 144
filling 151-2
forming preparation 150-1
forms 147
kerbs 147-8, 165
lean concrete base 152-3
quadrants 148-165
sub-base 152
surface dressing 157-8
surfacing 144-6
tar 144
tarmacadam 154
water-bound granular base 152
Rubble walls 97-8
QUADRANTS 148, 165
RAILS 219
check 225
fixings 220-1
laying 222-4
Railway
ballast 217, 222
bearing plates 221
chairs 221-2
check rails 225
excavation 216
fishplates 219-20
formation preparation 216-17
keys 221-2
measurement 226-7
points and crossings 225-6, 227
rails 219
separators 221
sleepers 217-19
tracklaying 222-4
Random rubble 97-8
Records 47-8
concreting 80-1
Reinforcement 68-9, 81-2
bending 81
cover to 82
fabric 146
placing 81-2, 160-1
to piles 105-6
Reinstatement of trench surfaces
permanent 209-10
temporary 209
Rescue chains 134
River authority regulations 32-3
River crossings 208
Riveting 118
Road
asphalt 156-7
base 143-4
bitumen macadam 155-6
channels 148, 165
concrete 158-64
SAFETY
bars 191
chairs 190
precautions 33-4
Samples 43-4
of aggregate 69
Sanitary conveniences 41
Screens 198-9
Scumboards 136
Separators 221
Sequence of works 34
Setting out 40
Sewage works
filter distributors 195
filter media 196-8
screens 198-9
scumboards 136, 198
Shaft
excavation 60-1
grouting 193
jointing 192-4
linings 191-5
segments 191
Sheet piling 57-8
Shelving 139
Shield-driving 61-2
Shuttering 82-5
design and construction of 82-3
preparation of 84
striking 84-5
to beams and slabs 84
to vibrated concrete 83
Side slopes, trimming, 56
Site
clearance 51-2, 215-16
investigations 21, 50-1
243
INDEX
levels 51
tidiness 45-6
Skirtings
asphalt 101
wood 140
Sleepers
concrete 219
steel219
timber 217-18
Slope formation 217
Sluice valves 203
chambers 211-13
Slump tests 72-3
Soil-cement 153
Specification
drafting clauses 18-20
general arrangement 17
general clauses 26-48
functions 16-17
sources of information 20-2
Squared rubble 97
Steel
bolting 117-18
corrugated sheeting 125
erection 117
fabrication 115-16
flooring 122
galvanising 123-4
guardrails 121-2
inspection and marking 116
ladders 121
measurement 119-20
painting 122-3
pipes 202
reinforcement, 68-9, 81-2, 105-6
riveting 118
sheet piles 112-13
sleepers 219
structural 115-20
testing 120
welding 118-19
Step irons 175-89
Steps 135
Stonework
cast 99-100
dressed 95-6
Stopping 140
Storage 37
Sub-base 152
Subsoil investigations 36
Supports for existing pipes 177
Surface
boxes 204
dressing 151, 157-8
finish of concrete 77-8
soil stripping 52, 150
water drainage 216
Suspension of works during bad weather
44
TANKING 100-1
Tar for surface dressing 144
Tarmacadam 144-5
footpaths 166-7
roads 154
Tarring
piles 110
timberwork 130-1
Telephone 41
Temporary works 38-42
Tender, sufficiency of 31
Tests 43-4
compaction 72-3
cubes 73
filter media 197
of steelwork 120
percolation 73-4
pipes 184-7, 210-11
slump 72-3
watertightness of tanks 80
Thrust blocks, 184
Ties to hollow walls, 92
Thrust blocks, 184
Timber 127-8
creosoting 131
cupboards 140
decking 130
doors 138-9
footbridge 135-6
guardrail 130
labours 128, 137-8
measurement 132
painting 140-1
piles 109-11
quality for joinery 136
scumboards 136
shelving 139
skirtings 140
sleepers 217-18
steps 135
tarring 130-1
windows 138
244
INDEX
Timbering 57-8, 176-7

Tracklaying 222-4
Trade catalogues 22
Traffic control 38
Tree removal51-2
Trial
holes 51, 176
piles 107
Tunnel
grouting 193
jointing 192-4
linings 191-5
segments 191-2
work 58-62
Turf 52
sluice 203
surface boxes 204
Valve chambers
air 213
hydrant 214
sluice 211-13
washout 213
Ventilating columns 195
Verges 169
Voussoirs 98
WAUNGS 129-30
Washout valve chambers 213
Water 68
content of concrete 72
levels 51
supply 35
Water-bound granular base 152
Waterproof underlay 146, 158
Welding 118-19
Wharves 127-35
Windows 138
Work prepared off site 44
Working area 37
Working rule agreement 33
Workmanship clauses 20, 43
UsE
of public highways 42
of site 37
VALVE
air 203
hydrant 203-4
keys 204
marker plates 214
To the Reader
Author and publisher would welcome suggestions towards future editions of

this book, or the pointing out of any misprint or obscurity. Please write to the
Technical Editor, Macmillan and Co. Ltd., Little Essex Street, W.C.2
245

Civil Engineering Specification

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Civil Engineering Specification

By the same author

B.Sc., M.A., C.Eng., M.I.Mun.E., F.R.I.C.S., F.I.Q.S.

Ivor H. Seeley 1968

MACMILLAN & CO LTD

Little Essex Street London WC2

First published 1968

6" trimmed, viii + 245 pp.

author expresses his indebtedness to the various consulting and

CIVIL ENGINEERING CONTRACTS

Contract Documents: Form of Contract; General Conditions of Contract;

PuRPOSE AND ARRANGEMENT OF AND SOURCES OF

Functions of Specification - General Arrangement - Drafting of

GENERAL CLAUSES IN SPECIFICATIONS

General Contractual Matters - Legal Provisions - General Matters

SPECIFICATION OF CONCRETE WORK

SPECIFICATION OF BRICKWORK, MASONRY AND

Brickwork: Bricks; Mortars; Brickwork; Damp-proof Courses; Faced

SPECIFICATION OF IRON AND STEELWORK

SPECIFICATION OF ROADS AND PAVINGS

SPECIFICATION OF SEWERS AND DRAINS

SPECIFICATION OF RAILWAY TRACKWORK

Appendix I List of British Standard Codes of

Appendix II List of British Standards relating to

Appendix III Typical Programme of Works covering

Appendix IV Metric Conversion Table

Civil Engineering Contracts