Design Environment for Low-amplitude

Thermoacoustic Energy Conversion

DeltaEC
Version 6.3b11
Users Guide
Bill Ward, John Clark, and Greg Swift
Los Alamos National Laboratory
LA-CC-01-13
February 13, 2012
For the latest version, visit www.lanl.gov/thermoacoustics

Contents
Contents

1 Introduction
1.1 What DeltaEC does .
1.2 The Users Guide . . .
1.3 Obtaining DeltaEC .
1.4 Installing DeltaEC .
1.5 Acknowledgments . . .
1.6 Copyright . . . . . . .

1
1
6
7
7
8
8

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

PART I: TUTORIAL

2 Acoustics & user interface

2.1 Acoustics in DeltaEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 I/o le structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Running DeltaEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 State plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Guesses and targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 Other acoustics features . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.1 Simple segment types . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.2 Gases and solids . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.3 Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7 Other useful features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7.1 Keeping parameters equal . . . . . . . .
2.7.2 Masterslave links . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7.3 Schematic view . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7.4 Highlights display . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7.5 Structured branches, loops, and networks
2.7.6 Manipulating entire segments . . . . . .
2.7.7 Thermophysical properties . . . . . . . .
3 More about plotting
3.1 State plots . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Cloning . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2 Legs . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3 Phasor plotting options

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
3

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. .
. .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

10
10
12
14
17
18
25
25
27
28
28
28
29
32
33
34
39
39

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

41
41
42
43
43

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

3.2 Incremental plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2.1 One-dimensional incremental plots . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 Two-dimensional incremental plots . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3 Rewinding incremental plots . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.4 Incremental plots when more than one model is run
4 RPN
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8

math
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Simple non-standard results . . .
Non-standard inputs . . . . . . .
Non-standard targets . . . . . . .
Changing an integration variable
Non-standard guesses . . . . . . .
Inter-model linking . . . . . . . .
Other math segments . . . . . . .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

45
46
48
49
49

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

51
51
52
53
54
56
57
57
59

5 Engines & refrigerators

5.1 Principles of calculation . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Hoers refrigerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Choosing guesses and targets . . . . . . . .
5.4 Meeting targets in an elaborate model . . .
5.4.1 Basic rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.2 Developing a substantially new model
5.4.3 Modifying an existing model . . . . .
5.5 Standing-wave engine . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6 More thermoacoustic segments . . . . . . . .
5.7 More user-interface features . . . . . . . . .
5.8 Stirling and pulse-tube refrigerators . . . . .
5.8.1 Alpha Stirling cryocooler . . . . . . .
5.8.2 Beta or gamma cryocooler . . . . . .
5.8.3 Pulse-tube refrigerator . . . . . . . .
5.9 Exergy ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

61
61
63
71
77
77
78
79
80
84
86
87
88
91
95
99

6 Steady ow, too

6.1 Principles of calculation . . .
6.2 Reids refrigerator . . . . . . .
6.3 TASHE . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Self-circulating heat exchanger

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

101
101
103
107
113

7 Mixture separation
7.1 Principles of calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Continuous HeAr separator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

123
123
124
127

PART II: REFERENCE

131

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.

8 General principles
8.1 Integration from BEGIN to **END .
8.1.1 Additional details for N_ and
8.2 Shooting method . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Numerical options . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1 Integration options . . . . .
8.3.2 Shooting options . . . . . .
8.4 Error messages . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5 Inherent limitations . . . . . . . . .

. . . .
p2;0;HL
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .
. . . .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

9 Good design habits

9.1 Attention to details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.1 Imperfect external heat exchange . . . . . . . .
9.1.2 Internal 2-D eects from imperfect external heat
9.1.3 Heat leaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.4 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.5 Actual operating conditions . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.6 Thermophysical properties . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Component conservatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1 Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.2 Adiabaticisothermal mixing . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.3 Stacked screen regenerators . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.4 Pulse tubes and thermal buer tubes . . . . . .
9.2.5 Standing-wave engine stacks . . . . . . . . . . .
10 Physical segments
10.1 Ducts and cones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.1 DUCT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.2 CONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 Lumped elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.1 COMPLIANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.2 SURFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.3 IMPEDANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.4 MINOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Series transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.1 VESPEAKER, IESPEAKER, VEDUCER, and IEDUCER
10.4 Side-branch transducers and side-branch impedances .
10.4.1 BRANCH, OPNBRANCH, and PISTBRANCH . . . . . .
10.4.2 VSPEAKER, ISPEAKER, VDUCER, and IDUCER . . .
10.5 Stacks and regenerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.1 STKSLAB, STKCIRC, STKRECT, and STKPIN . . . .
10.5.2 STKSCREEN and STKPOWERLW . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6 Pulse tubes and thermal buer tubes . . . . . . . . . .
10.6.1 STKDUCT and STKCONE . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

. . . . . .
. . . . . .
exchange
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

132
132
134
134
136
136
137
138
139

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

141
141
141
142
142
143
143
143
143
143
144
144
144
145

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

147
147
147
152
156
156
157
158
159
163
163
167
167
169
172
173
178
183
183

10.7 Heat exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.7.1 HX and TX . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7.2 SX and PX . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7.3 VXQ1, VXQ2, VXT1, and VXT2 . . .
10.8 Adiabaticisothermal interface loss . . .
10.8.1 JOIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.9 Mixture separation . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.9.1 MIXBL, MIXSLAB, and MIXCIRC . .
10.9.2 MIXTBL, MIXTSLAB, and MIXTCIRC
11 Logistical segments
11.1 Starting and ending . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.1 TITLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.2 BEGIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.3 HARDEND and SOFTEND . . . . . .
11.2 Structured branches and unions . . . . .
11.2.1 TBRANCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.2 UNION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.1 ANCHOR and INSULATE . . . . . .
11.4 Math segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4.1 RPN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4.2 VOLUME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4.3 CONSTANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5 Interfaces to external programs and les
11.5.1 BLKDATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5.2 SYSEXEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

12 Gases (and liquids)

12.1 Helium (helium) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2 Heliumargon mixtures (HeAr) . . . . . . . . .
12.3 Heliumxenon mixtures (HeXe) . . . . . . . .
12.4 Neon (neon) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5 Air (air) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.6 Humid air and fog (HumidAir) . . . . . . . . .
12.7 Nitrogen (nitrogen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.8 Hydrogen (hydrogen) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.9 Deuterium (deuterium) . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.10Carbon dioxide (CO2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.11Neonxenon mixtures (NeXe) . . . . . . . . . .
12.12Natural-gas combustion products (NGCbProd)
12.13Liquid sodium (sodium) . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.14Liquid sodiumpotassium eutectic (NaK-78) .
12.15User-dened gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

186
186
190
195
208
208
210
210
213

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

219
219
219
219
222
224
224
227
229
229
230
230
238
239
239
239
241

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

243
243
244
244
244
244
244
245
245
245
246
246
246
247
247
248

12.15.1 User-dened pure gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

12.15.2 User-dened gas mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
13 Solids
13.1 Ideal solid (ideal) . . . . .
13.2 Copper (copper) . . . . . .
13.3 Nickel (nickel) . . . . . . .
13.4 Stainless steel (stainless) .
13.5 Molybdenum (molybdenum)
13.6 Tungsten (tungsten) . . . .
13.7 Kapton (kapton) . . . . . .
13.8 Mylar (mylar) . . . . . . . .
13.9 Celcor (celcor) . . . . . . .
13.10User-dened solids . . . . .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

251
251
251
251
251
252
252
252
252
252
252

BACK MATTER

257

14 Derivations

257

15 Symbols

266

Bibliography

270

Alphabetical indexes
275
Segment index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Subject index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

1. Introduction
DeltaEC Design Environment for Low-Amplitude ThermoAcoustic Energy Conversion
is a computer program that can calculate details of how thermoacoustic equipment performs,
or can help the user to design equipment to achieve desired performance. Input data can be
modied or entered via DeltaECs user interface or by using any text editor. Results can
be examined via the user interface, built-in graphics displays, the operating systems text
utilities, or any spreadsheet or graphics software.
For good portability, the computational core of DeltaEC is compiled from FORTRAN77 and the user interface is built on Python. The current code for IBM-compatibles requires
at least a 386 processor, because it uses a DOS extender to create a at 32-bit memory
environment. All calculations are performed in double precision. Version 6 is currently
running on Windows-based PCs and Macintosh. We hope that our use of Python will
soon yield true operating-system independence, so Linux and Unix variants will soon be
supported, too.
The transition from DeltaE version 5 to DeltaEC version 6 marked the inclusion of
thermoacoustic mixture separation and steady-ow eects, as well as the transition from
a DOS-keyboard user interface to a Python graphical, keyboard-and-mouse user interface
with a built-in plotter.

1.1. What DeltaEC does

DeltaEC numerically integrates in one spatial dimension using a low-amplitude, acoustic
approximation and sinusoidal time dependence. It integrates the wave equation and sometimes other equations such as the energy equation, in a gas (or a very compressible, thermodynamically active liquid), in a geometry given by the user as a sequence of segments
(no more than 200) such as ducts, compliances, transducers, and thermoacoustic stacks or
regenerators. A glance through the gures below will orient the new user to the broad range
of situations that DeltaEC can handle.
DeltaEC always assumes a time dependence of ei!t , so its waveequation is essentially
the second-order Helmholtz dierential equation for the complex pressure amplitude p1 (x);
which can be regarded as two coupled rst-order dierential equations for p1 (x) and the
complex volume ow rate amplitude U1 (x): An integration of these dierential equations
is performed for each segment, with pressures, volume ow rates, and some other variables
matched at the junctions between segments. In stacks and regenerators, the acoustic solution
for pressures and volume ow rates is found simultaneously with the solution of the energyow equation in order to obtain the mean-temperature prole as well. The energy ow
through stacks and regenerators is controlled by temperatures and/or heat ows at adjacent
1

Figure 1.1: Driven, lossy plane-wave resonator.

Figure 1.2: Driven, radiating Helmholtz resonator.

Figure 1.3: Driven duct network.

Figure 1.4: Standing-wave thermoacoustic refrigerator (Hoer style [1, 2]).

Figure 1.5: Standing-wave thermoacoustic refrigerator (TALSR style [3]).

Figure 1.6: John Wheatleys heat-driven refrigerator, aectionately called the beer coolerin the
early 1980s [4].

Figure 1.7: Thermoacoustic-Stirling hybrid engine [5].

Figure 1.8: Double-inlet pulse-tube refrigerator [6, 7].

Figure 1.9: Resonant self-circulating heat exchanger with one gas diode. [8, 9]

Figure 1.10: Half-wavelength helium-argon mixture separator [10].

heat exchangers. With binary gas mixtures in mixture-separation channels, the solution
of the wave equation is found simultaneously with that of the equation describing the mole
uxes of the components of the mixture, inverted to nd the light mole fraction as a function
of position. Modeling of acoustics superimposed on steady ows is also supported.
With its multi-parameter shooting method to satisfy a variety of mixed boundary conditions, DeltaEC gives the user considerable freedom in choosing which variables are computed as solutions.For example, in a simple acoustic resonator (the rst example below),
DeltaEC can compute the input impedance as a function of frequency, or the resonance
frequency for a given geometry and gas, or the length required to give a desired resonance
frequency, or even the concentration in a binary gas mixture required to give a desired
resonance frequency in a given geometry.
DeltaEC includes few of the nonlinear eects that arise at high amplitudes, so be cautious using it when Mach numbers or Reynolds numbers are high. The principal exceptions
to this rule are the turbulence algorithm in ducts and cones (introduced briey in Chapter 2 and described in detail in Section 10.1.1) and the minor-loss segment, which models
lumped-element dissipation where pressure dierence is proportional to the square of the
velocity (introduced briey in Chapter 6 and described in detail in Section 10.2.4).

1.2. The Users Guide

This Users Guide is a <.pdf> document, compatible with Adobe Acrobat 6.0 and later
versions. Its internal hyperlinking is convenient for online navigating. Its overall organization
makes it suitable for studying a printed copy, and a few blank pages have been inserted so
that double-sided printing yields a copy with all chapters starting on odd-numbered pages,
so chapter tabs in a three-ring binder can be used. If some of the gures are garbled or
missing from your printed version, your printer may not be postscript-compatible, and you
should nd the Advanced options button in Adobe Acrobats print dialog, click it, and select
Print as imageat 300 dpi.
In Part I, Tutorial, we teach the use of DeltaEC by increasingly complicated examples in Chapters 27. Chapter 2 is just acoustics, without thermoacoustics. It serves
to introduce DeltaECs input/output formats and editing, running, and plotting features.
Chapter 5 gives the most complete discussion of the overall principles behind the thermoacoustics computations, and the simplest thermoacoustic engine and refrigerator examples.
The agreement of such examples with published experimental data serves as validation of
the code. Chapter 6 introduces the eects of superimposed steady ows, and Chapter 7
introduces separation mole uxes and concentration gradients in binary-gas mixtures.
Part II, Reference,includes segment-by-segment reference sections for the experienced
user, documenting the assumptions built into the computations for each segment and the
data format for each segment. Referencealso includes chapters with calculation formulas
for thermophysical properties. It is our hope that experienced users can quickly nd the
information they need in Part II, especially using the index and the internal hyperlinks,
while new users will nd the wordier explanations of the Tutorial chapters helpful.
The examples weve included are simpler than DeltaEC les we use in our own research.
Weve maintained this simplicity in the Users Guide to avoid clutter. Experienced users will
6

nd that the number of segments in their DeltaEC les grows and grows, as small eects
are included and non-standard results are displayed with RPN segments.
Some of the examples here were run in MS-DOS, others on a Mac, others with Windows.
Many of the examples were created using earlier versions of DeltaE and DeltaEC, so
there may be some formatting irregularities. In Chapter 2, screen shots of the user interface
are often shown, but in later chapters most examples are displayed as they appear in a text
editor after DeltaEC has saved them to the disk. This keeps the Users Guide <.pdf> le
size smaller.
We assume that the reader of the Users Guide is very comfortable with basic linear
acoustics [11] and reasonably familiar with thermoacoustics. The choices of which variables
to regard as independent and integrable reects the philosophy of Ref. [12], extended here
to accommodate mixture separation and superimposed steady ow. We use variables as
dened, for example, in the lists of symbols in Refs. [12] and [4], and Chapter 15.

1.3. Obtaining DeltaEC

The latest version of DeltaEC is freely available for noncommercial, educational, and
evaluation use from www.lanl.gov/thermoacoustics/. DeltaEC is under continual development, so regular users should update their copies occasionally. Users contemplating
commercial use of the software should contact Bill Ward (ww@lanl.gov) for an update on
the current policy.
There is no formal registration for DeltaEC, no fee, and no formal support or warranty
of any kind (please read the copyright notice and disclaimer in Section 1.6). We are interested
in hearing from users so that we can x any bugs that are found. Please report any bugs
related to platform compatibility and the user interface to Bill Ward (ww@lanl.gov), with
a cc to Greg Swift (swift@lanl.gov); please report any bugs related to thermoacoustic
computations to Greg with a cc to Bill.
News of your successes using this code will encourage us and our sponsors to consider this
eort worthwhile and will enable us to continue DeltaECs development and freely-shared
status. We are especially grateful when you acknowledge DeltaEC in publications and
reports and when you mention it to individuals at agencies that support acoustics research.
This improves our chances to create and distribute improvements to DeltaEC in the future.

1.4. Installing DeltaEC

Download the installation le from the Los Alamos thermoacoustics website, and run it.
DeltaEC should automatically install itself in <d:nProgram FilesnDeltaEC> or some
other sensible default folder. This Users Guide (<UsersGuide.pdf>) appears in the folder
<DeltaEC>. A subfolder includes the example les discussed in the rest of the Users Guide.
In Windows, this all appears as a program group accessible in the usual way through the
Start button, and a desktop icon for launching the program should appear. The le extension <.out> should be automatically associated with DeltaEC, so double clicking any
<.out> le should also launch the program (after performing the standard rebooting of the
7

computer that Windows always requires for establishing such le association after program
installation).
DeltaEC can be uninstalled via the Windows Control Panel, Add or Remove Programs; or by running <d:nProgram FilesnDeltaECnDE-uninst.exe>. To install a new
version of DeltaEC, it shouldnt be necessary to un-install a previous version, but uninstalling the previous version (or manually deleting all the les and subfolders in <d:nProgram
FilesnDeltaEC>) will help clean up unwanted junk such as test les that you might have created in the <Examples> folder. If a re-installation of DeltaEC does not work as it should,
even after uninstalling the previous version, look for ghost processes named <DeltaEC.exe>
in the Windows task manager, and kill them; or reboot your computer to kill such ghosts.
(If you can reproducibly create such ghosts, please let us know how, so we can prevent them
in future versions.)

1.5. Acknowledgments
The development of DeltaE and DeltaEC has been supported in part by many agencies and entities: Tektronix Corporation, SPAWAR, the Naval Postgraduate School, ONR,
Praxair, and, most importantly, by several o ces of the Department of Energy: Advanced
Industrial Concepts, Materials Science (a part of Basic Energy Sciences in the O ce of
Science), the Technology Transfer Initiative O ce, and the O ce of Fossil Energy. Local
support at Los Alamos has also been provided, via our Industrial Partnership O ce (now
called the Technology Transfer Division), our Locally Directed R&D program, and our group
management.
In the 1990s, a long discussion with Pat Arnott helped us dene the initial scope of this
work, and comparisons with the results of parallel-plate-stack codes (written by Al Migliori
and Dick Martin) were useful in the early stages. Suggestions by Kim Godshalk, Charles
Jin, Tom Hoer, Je Olson, Scott Backhaus, Vince Kotsubo, and Jalal Zia led to signicant
improvements in capability and usability through the years. A project-kicko meeting at
Penn State motivated the development of the RPN segment. Charles Jin, Ray Radebaugh,
and the code regen3.1 were indispensable in development of the stacked-screen algorithm.
Scott Backhaus, David Gardner, Matt Poese, and Steve Garrett have helped shape the
DeltaEC user interface.

1.6. Copyright
This Software was produced under a U.S. Government contract (DE-AC52-06NA25396) by
Los Alamos National Laboratory, which is operated by the Los Alamos National Security,
LLC (LANS) for the U.S. Department of Energys National Nuclear Security Administration. The U.S. Government is licensed to use, reproduce, and distribute this Software.
Permission is granted to the public to copy and use this Software without charge, provided
that this Notice and any statement of authorship are reproduced on all copies. Neither the
Government nor the LANS makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any liability
or responsibility for the user of this Software.

Part I: Tutorial

2. Acoustics & user interface

In this Chapter we use the simplest acoustic segments, especially ducts and cones, to introduce DeltaECs most basic acoustics and user-interface features.

2.1. Acoustics in DeltaEC

DeltaEC deals with one-dimensional sequences of acoustic and thermoacoustic elements,
called segments, so DeltaECs wave equation is one-dimensional. We always assume
a time dependence of Re[ei!t ], so the wave equation can be taken as the second-order
Helmholtz dierential equation for the complex pressure amplitude p1 (x): In its most familiar
form, for an x-independent cross-sectional area A, without viscous or thermal-hysteresis
losses, it is
a2 d2 p1
p1 + 2 2 = 0:
(2.1)
! dx
It is often easier to think of this second-order equation as two coupled rst-order equations
in pressure p1 and volume ow rate U1 :
i! m
U1 ;
A
i!A
p:
2 1
ma

dp1
=
dx
dU1
=
dx

(2.2)
(2.3)

This point of view is taken in Ref. [12]. The dp1 =dx equation is derived from the momentum
equation of uid mechanics and the dU1 =dx equation is derived from the continuity equation of uid mechanics. In this form, the equations are ready for simultaneous numerical
integration along the axial position coordinate x to generate solutions p1 (x) and U1 (x):

DeltaEC uses more complicated momentum and continuity equations that include additional eects such as dissipation of acoustic power along the sides of ducts. It uses dierent
equations in dierent segments to suit local circumstances. For example, in boundary-layer
10

approximation in large-diameter ducts and shallow cones, the governing equations are
dp1
=
dx
dU1
=
dx

i! m
1 i
1
U1 ;
A
2 A
i!A
1 i
1
1+
p1 :
2
2 A1+ s
ma

(2.4)
(2.5)

where A is the cross-sectional area, is the perimeter, and are the viscous and thermal
penetration depths, respectively, is the ratio of isobaric and isochoric specic heats, and
s is a correction for thermal properties of the solid wall that is usually negligible. The
equations for each DeltaEC segment are given in Chapters 10 and 11.
DeltaEC uses continuity of p1 and U1 to pass from the end of one segment to the
beginning of the next. Within each segment, wave propagation depends on local parameters
such as area and perimeter as well as on global parameters such as frequency. Although
DeltaEC uses analytic solutions to the governing equations for some of the simplest segment
types, it usually must integrate the equations numerically, so it is generally correct to imagine
DeltaEC beginning at the beginning of a series of segments and numerically integrating
a momentum equationFmomentum ; such as Eq. (2.2) or (2.4), and a continuity equation
Fcontinuity ; such as Eq. (2.3) or (2.5), through each segment, sequentially, to the end of the
series of segments, always using the local values of variables such as area, perimeter, and p1
and U1 themselves:
dp1
= Fmomentum (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; pm ; !; geometry, gas properties, solid properties, etc.),
dx
(2.6)
dU1
= Fcontinuity (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; pm ; !; geometry, gas properties, solid properties, etc.),
dx
(2.7)
where most variables on the right-hand sides of these equations are functions of x:
The solution p1 (x), U1 (x) is only determined uniquely if four real boundary conditions
are imposed, because the governing equations can be expressed as two coupled rst-order
equations in two complex variables or as four coupled rst-order equations in four real
variables. This is true whether considering a single segment or a one-dimensional series of
segments with each joined to its neighbor(s) by continuity of p1 and U1 . If all four boundary
conditions are given at the initial end of the apparatus (i.e., if we know the magnitude and
phase of p1 and the magnitude and phase of U1 at the initial end) then the integration is
straightforward, proceeding from the initial end to the nal end. But usually one or more
boundary conditions are instead given at the nal end. In such circumstances DeltaEC
uses a shooting method,1 by guessing any unknowns among the four numbers dening p1
1

Precisely speaking, DeltaEC forms a system of nonlinear equations from the model using the guesses
and targets that the user selects, and manipulates the guesses to make the integration results match
the targets. The routine incorporated in the code is called DNSQ, and it is part of the SLATEC
Common Mathematical Library, which is freely available through the internet software repository at
http://www.netlib.org. Its algorithm is a modication of the Powell hybrid method. See Chapter 8 for
details.

11

Figure 2.1: A simple open-topped bottle for the rst example, <bottle0.out>. (a) Conventional
representation. (b) DeltaEC representation.

and U1 at the initial end of the integration, integrating to the other end, comparing the
results with the target boundary conditions imposed at that other end or elsewhere, and
adjusting its guesses until the integration results meet the targets.
One of DeltaECs most powerful features is that the guesses are not limited to the
conventional choices consisting of real and imaginary parts of p1 and U1 (or, equivalently,
magnitudes and phases) at the initial end of the numerical integration along x: Any variables
that have an eect on the downstream target variables can be used. This enables DeltaEC
to calculate a resonance frequency, a geometrical dimension, a temperature, or even the
concentration in a binary gas mixture in order to satisfy given boundary conditions.

2.2. I/o le structure

We begin this tutorial with an open-topped bottle. This example introduces the basic
input/output le structure of DeltaEC and how to runthe numerical integration.
DeltaEC recognizes all of its own output les as valid input les. In practice, users
rarely make a new le from scratch; it is much more common to start with an existing
le and modify it as needed. Thus, we begin with a le called <bottle0.out> (included in the <ExamplesnAcoustics> directory or folder that DeltaEC installs, usually in <d:nProgramFilesnDeltaECnExamplesnAcoustics>), which we created earlier from
DeltaECs user interface. Figure 2.1 shows the acousticians usual cartoon of this bottle
and a pictorial representation of how we modeled it for DeltaEC. For now, examine this
le in a text editor. A DeltaEC model le must always be a plain text le, in the native
text format of the machine on which it is running.
TITLE
Model of 1982 Penn State Championship Bottle
!->E:\deltaec\TEXFILES\examples\acoust\BOTTLE0.OUT
!Created@10:24:32 01-Jun-2007 with DeltaEC Vers. 6.0a0 under win32
!Using Win 5.1.2600 (Service Pack 2) under Python DeltaEC.
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
The mouth
1.0000E+05 a Mean P Pa
300.00
b Freq
Hz
300.00
c TBeg
K
1.0000 d |p|
Pa
0.0000 e Ph(p) deg
1.0000E-04 f |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 g Ph(U) deg
air
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------DUCT
the neck
2.1410E-04 a Area
m^2
0.0000 A |p|
Pa
5.1870E-02 b Perim m
0.0000 B Ph(p) deg

12

1.7780E-02 c Length m

0.0000 C |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 D Ph(U) deg
0.0000 E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
0.0000 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------CONE
Transition from neck to volume
2.1410E-04 a AreaI m^2
0.0000 A |p|
Pa
5.1870E-02 b PerimI m
0.0000 B Ph(p) deg
0.1003 c Length m
0.0000 C |U|
m^3/s
1.8680E-03 d AreaF m^2
0.0000 D Ph(U) deg
0.1532 e PerimF m
0.0000 E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
0.0000 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 3 --------------------------------DUCT
Bottle volume
1.8680E-03 a Area
m^2
0.0000 A |p|
Pa
0.1532 b Perim m
0.0000 B Ph(p) deg
0.1270 c Length m
0.0000 C |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 D Ph(U) deg
0.0000 E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
0.0000 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 4 --------------------------------SURFACE
Bottom End
1.8680E-03 a Area
m^2
0.0000 A |p|
Pa
0.0000 B Ph(p) deg
0.0000 C |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 D Ph(U) deg
0.0000 E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
0.0000 F Edot
W

Several features of DeltaEC model les are illustrated here. Model les should be named
<something.out>. These les consist of a set of segments whose order and format are
important. After a TITLE (with an optional heading where the user can type notes), the
initial (or zeroth) segment is always a BEGIN segment. This is one of the logistical
segments of DeltaEC, usually having no actual geometrical correspondence to parts of the
hardware being modeled. Subsequent segments describe the geometry and other properties
of the physicalhardware parts of the acoustic system here, DUCTs, a CONE, and a SURFACE.
All units are MKS. The number and order of data in each segment is crucial. Within each
line, the rst number (e.g., 1.e5 or 100.) or word (e.g., helium or BEGIN) is the
most important to DeltaEC as input.2 Subsequent elds on each line give the units or
name of the variable whose value appears. Lines that begin with ! are comments with
no impact on the integrations. Numbers can be in xed or exponential format.3 Segment
names are stored uppercase, and only the rst ve characters are interpreted.
The column of zeroes on the right side shows where DeltaECs calculated results will
appear. At the moment, they are all zero because DeltaEC has not yet calculated anything.
BEGIN sets the stage, in this case, with 1-bar room-temperature air being driven at 300
Hz with a pressure amplitude of 1 Pa and a volume ow rate amplitude of 0.0001 m3 /s,
in phase with the pressure oscillation. A few of these variables, such as frequency, extend
unchanged through all subsequent segments. Other variables, such as pressure amplitude,
are initial conditions for DeltaECs numerical integration through subsequent segments.
p A lossy duct segment, DUCT, comes next. Here, we have made the perimeter equal to
4
area, to make this a circular duct. A CONE and another DUCT come next, completing
the shape of the bottle. The le ends with a SURFACE to account for oscillatory-pressure
thermal-hysteresis dissipation at the bottom.
2
Exceptions: The le reader looks beyond the rst eld of characters to resolve ambiguity about optional
parameters, described later.
3
In some computers, integers must be followed by a decimal point. Also, some computers require the last
line in the le to be followed by an end-of-line character, before the end-of-le character occurs.

13

2.3. Running DeltaEC

As children, most of us learn that blowing across the mouth of a bottle produces a pleasant
audible tone. With this example, the new user of DeltaEC will obtain the frequency of
that tone for a bottle of specied dimensions, while exploring the user interface and learning
to runthe numerical integration.
Open the le <bottle0.out>, using whichever of these three methods you prefer:
1. Open the folder <d:nProgramFilesnDeltaECnExamplesnAcoustics> (or whatever
other path your installation has created), and double click on the le <bottle0.out>.
2. In Windows, nd DeltaEC through the Start button at the bottom-left corner of
your desktop, via Programs and the DeltaEC group. Double click on the program
to launch it. Then open the le <bottle0.out> via the DeltaEC Files pulldown
menu or by clicking the icon that looks like a manila folder. In either case, nd your
way to the <ExamplesnAcoustics> folder in the usual way.
3. Double click on the Desktop DeltaEC icon to launch DeltaEC, and open the le
<bottle0.out> as described in method 2.
After opening <bottle0.out>, DeltaEC displays the list of segments, like this:

Clicking on the + next to any segments name exposes that segments details. For
example, to see the dimensions of the neck, click on the +next to 1 DUCT:

14

Blue text (numbers or words) means you can double click or right click to make a change
or see more options. Italic red numbers indicate what will be a result, as soon as the
calculation is run, but at the moment these numbers are probably inconsistent with the blue
input numbers. Green numbers that you will see shortly indicate good results: calculated
by DeltaEC and consistent with all the other numbers in the model.
You can change the size of the font in DeltaECs main display by spinning your mouse
wheel while holding down the Ctrl key, or by using Ctrl n, Ctrl b, and Ctrl /. (Be sure the
computers focus is on the DeltaEC main display click it if necessary.)
Now show all the segments in the model, by clicking on the +for each segment or on
the big += on the toolbar. What you see should look like this:4
Model of 1982 Penn State Championship Bottle
TITLE
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
The mouth
1.0000E+05 a Mean P
Pa
300.00
b Freq
Hz
300.00
c TBeg
K
1.0000 d |p|
Pa
0.0000 e Ph(p)
deg
1.0000E-04 f |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 g Ph(U)
deg
air
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------DUCT
the neck
2.1410E-04 a Area
m^2
0.0000
A |p|
Pa
5.1870E-02 b Perim
m
0.0000
B Ph(p)
deg
1.7780E-02 c Length
m
0.0000
C |U|
m^3/s
0.0000
D Ph(U)
deg
0.0000
E Hdot
W
ideal
Solid type
0.0000
F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------CONE
Transition from neck to volume
2.1410E-04 a AreaI
m^2
0.0000
A |p|
Pa
5.1870E-02 b PerimI
m
0.0000
B Ph(p)
deg
0.1003 c Length
m
0.0000
C |U|
m^3/s
1.8680E-03 d AreaF
m^2
0.0000
D Ph(U)
deg
0.1532 e PerimF
m
0.0000
E Hdot
W
ideal
Solid type
0.0000
F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 3 --------------------------------DUCT
Bottle volume
1.8680E-03 a Area
m^2
0.0000
A |p|
Pa
0.1532 b Perim
m
0.0000
B Ph(p)
deg
0.1270 c Length
m
0.0000
C |U|
m^3/s
0.0000
D Ph(U)
deg
0.0000
E Hdot
W
ideal
Solid type
0.0000
F Edot
W
(etc.)

The BEGIN segment establishes that the bottle is full of air at atmospheric pressure and
room temperature, and it launches a 300-Hz wave into the bottle with a pressure amplitude
of 1 Pa and a volume-ow-rate amplitude of 10 4 m3 /s. (We will examine its optional
parameters in later chapters, when we encounter them.)
Now, run the le, by typing r, by clicking the blue Runbutton, or by accessing Run
in the Tools pulldown menu. (To encourage users to get in the habit of using the keyboard
shortcuts, the Users Guide summarizes all such options in the briefest possible way, with
the shortcut letter underlined, e.g., run. Infrequently used operations whose shortcuts the
user has not memorized can be found by browsing the pulldown menus.)
4
Please ignore minor formatting dierences between what you see on your computer screen and what is
present in the Users Guide. Much of the Users Guide was written before the user interface was complete,
and its much easier for us to let text-formatted results page-break automatically in the Users Guide than
to manage large gures that show the actual computer-screen display. Text-formatted results also minimize
the Users Guide le size.

15

Upon running, the Run Monitor appears at the bottom of the display, indicating with
its cheerful green color and the word Success that the run has succeeded, in this case
taking only a fraction of a second. (Typing btoggles the Run Monitor display o and on,
and resets it to default size.) Now the results in the right column of the model display are
nonzero, and they have changed from red italic to green, indicating that they are consistent
with one another and with the blue input numbers:

DeltaEC has integrated through the model and calculated some results, in particular p1 (x)
and U1 (x): The results in the right column of the <.out> le show values for p1 (x) and
U1 (x) and other results at the end of each segment. If a few numbers are all you want to
see, you are done!
One of the other results is the acoustic power Edot,
1 h ei
_
E = Re p1 U1 ;
(2.8)
2
which is always listed at line F.
The total power Htot, listed at line E, is introduced in Chapter 5; it can safely be
ignored in this chapter, and for all purely acoustic problems in which heat exchangers and
time-averaged temperature gradients in the x direction are of no concern.
16

2.4. State plots

State plots allow the user to view graphs showing the distribution of temperature, pressure,
volume ow rate, energy, and many other variables as functions of x along the entire length
of a model or any subset of that length. After each successful run, DeltaEC creates a
state-plot le, <.sp>, with this information in tabular format. You can open this le
from your hard disk folder with any text editor or spreadsheet program, or display it with
DeltaECs plotter, using Plot SP lein the Display pulldown menu. The example below,
<bottle2.sp> (<bottle2> is identical to <bottle0>, except that it includes the <.ssv>
le, described below), does not show all of the available columns of data; a text editor or
spreadsheet would let you scroll across to view more columns to the right.
->bottle2.sp
!Created@15:28:56 7-Apr-07 with DeltaE Vers. 6.0g7 for the IBM/PC-Compatible
-= Model of 1982 Penn State Championship Bottle
=Leg:Seg x(m) GasA(m^2)
T(K)
Re[p](Pa)
Im[p](Pa)
Re[U](m3/s) Im[U](m3/s) Edot(W)
Htot(W)
Xdot(W)
H2k(W)
0: 1 0.000 2.1410E-04 300.0
1.0000
0.0000
1.0000E-04
0.0000
5.0000E-05 5.0000E-05 5.0000E-05 5.0000E-05
0: 1 0.002 2.1410E-04 300.0
0.9704
-1.8463
9.9995E-05 -5.0520E-09 4.8524E-05 5.0000E-05 4.8524E-05 5.0000E-05
0: 1 0.004 2.1410E-04 300.0
0.9408
-3.6924
9.9981E-05 -9.8803E-09 4.7049E-05 5.0000E-05 4.7049E-05 5.0000E-05
0: 1 0.005 2.1410E-04 300.0
0.9111
-5.5381
9.9957E-05 -1.4485E-08 4.5574E-05 5.0000E-05 4.5574E-05 5.0000E-05
0: 1 0.007 2.1410E-04 300.0
0.8813
-7.3833
9.9924E-05 -1.8864E-08 4.4099E-05 5.0000E-05 4.4099E-05 5.0000E-05
0: 1 0.009 2.1410E-04 300.0
0.8514
-9.2278
9.9881E-05 -2.3019E-08 4.2625E-05 5.0000E-05 4.2625E-05 5.0000E-05
0: 1 0.011 2.1410E-04 300.0
0.8215
-11.071
9.9828E-05 -2.6949E-08 4.1152E-05 5.0000E-05 4.1152E-05 5.0000E-05
0: 1 0.012 2.1410E-04 300.0
0.7915
-12.914
9.9766E-05 -3.0653E-08 3.9680E-05 5.0000E-05 3.9680E-05 5.0000E-05
0: 1 0.014 2.1410E-04 300.0
0.7615
-14.755
9.9695E-05 -3.4132E-08 3.8208E-05 5.0000E-05 3.8208E-05 5.0000E-05
0: 1 0.016 2.1410E-04 300.0
0.7314
-16.595
9.9614E-05 -3.7385E-08 3.6738E-05 5.0000E-05 3.6738E-05 5.0000E-05
0: 1 0.018 2.1410E-04 300.0
0.7013
-18.434
9.9523E-05 -4.0412E-08 3.5269E-05 5.0000E-05 3.5269E-05 5.0000E-05
0: 2 0.018 2.1410E-04 300.0
0.7013
-18.434
9.9523E-05 -4.0412E-08 3.5269E-05 5.0000E-05 3.5269E-05 5.0000E-05
0: 2 0.028 3.0593E-04 300.0
0.5705
-27.065
9.8705E-05 -5.6940E-08 2.8928E-05 5.0000E-05 2.8928E-05 5.0000E-05
0: 2 0.038 4.1411E-04 300.0
0.4906
-33.188
9.7222E-05 -7.4046E-08 2.5078E-05 5.0000E-05 2.5078E-05 5.0000E-05
0: 2 0.048 5.3864E-04 300.0
0.4382
-37.707
9.4923E-05 -9.2334E-08 2.2540E-05 5.0000E-05 2.2540E-05 5.0000E-05
0: 2 0.058 6.7951E-04 300.0
0.4021
-41.129
9.1662E-05 -1.1242E-07 2.0741E-05 5.0000E-05 2.0741E-05 5.0000E-05
0: 2 0.068 8.3673E-04 300.0
0.3762
-43.761
8.7296E-05 -1.3494E-07 1.9373E-05 5.0000E-05 1.9373E-05 5.0000E-05
0: 2 0.078 1.0103E-03 300.0
0.3570
-45.799
8.1690E-05 -1.6053E-07 1.8260E-05 5.0000E-05 1.8260E-05 5.0000E-05
0: 2 0.088 1.2002E-03 300.0
0.3425
-47.373
7.4714E-05 -1.8986E-07 1.7293E-05 5.0000E-05 1.7293E-05 5.0000E-05
0: 2 0.098 1.4065E-03 300.0
0.3313
-48.576
6.6246E-05 -2.2360E-07 1.6404E-05 5.0000E-05 1.6404E-05 5.0000E-05
(etc., etc.)

State-plot les have the following features:

Numbers are lined up in columns. The initial columns are leg number (relevant when
TBRANCH and/or multiple BEGIN segments are used; described in Section 11.2.1), segment number, and x.
DeltaEC writes Nint + 1 lines of data for each segment that it integrates (e.g., ducts,
cones, and stacks). Nint is the number of Runge-Kutta integration steps see Section
8.1 for details.
DeltaEC writes two lines of data for lumped elements (e.g., SURFACE) and other short
segments that do direct end-to-end calculations (e.g., most heat exchangers): one line
before and one line after the segment is computed.
Logistical segments (e.g., BEGIN) that do not correspond to any hardware parts generate nothing in the <.sp> le.
The le <bottle2.ssv> instructed DeltaECs plotter that we would like to see graphical plots of p1 (x) and U1 (x) after each run. These graphs, shown in Fig. 2.2, should have
appeared on your computer after the run, and will automatically refresh after each new run,
as the user makes changes to the model.
17

Figure 2.2: State plots of p1 and U1 for <bottle2>.

The real parts of p1 and U1 show the values of oscillating pressure and oscillating volume
ow at times !t = 0; 2 ; 4 ; ... and the imaginary parts show their values at times
!t =
=2; 2
=2; 4
=2; ...
DeltaECs plotter lets the user select other plots easily. The time-averaged product
_ which is also interesting. To change the display for this
of p1 and U1 is acoustic power E,
_
model to E vs x; check the y box under Edot, and uncheck the Re[p], Im[p], Re[U], and
Im[U] boxes, to obtain Fig. 2.3. Chapter 3 explains much more about DeltaECs plot
capabilities.
Now use Save Copy As to save this le with a new name, <bottle3.out>. Examine
the resulting le with a text editor. Note that the output results giving p1 and U1 at the
ends of the DUCT, CONE, DUCT, and SURFACE are now part of the le. The fact that we want
to plot E_ vs x from now on has also been included in the associated <bottle3.ssv> le.

2.5. Guesses and targets

The astute reader may have noticed that U1 was not zero at the SURFACE above. (In fact,
we left a hole in the bottom of Fig. 2.1(b) to indicate the possibility of this leakage.) This
shows that our choice of initial values for p1 and U1 at the BEGIN was incompatible with a
bottle that is supposed to be sealed at the bottom. In this section we introduce DeltaECs
shooting method to resolve this issue, allowing boundary conditions at the end of a model
(or anywhere else in a model) to be targetedto desired values.
Start DeltaEC again, opening le <bottle2.out>. As a matter of good habit, run it,
and check some plots for sanity (your own sanity, as well as DeltaECs). Now open the
Guesses and Targetssummary display box. You can open this box through the pull-down
menus by clicking on Display, then Guesses Targets. Alternatively, just type g(the g
stands for guesses). The guesstarget summary should look like this:
18

Figure 2.3: E_ vs x for <bottle2>.

The table is blank: At this point DeltaEC has no guesses and no targets. Each time we
have run DeltaEC thus far in the tutorial, it has integrated along x only once, starting
from the values of p1 and U1 that we gave it in the BEGIN segment.
To set up this model with appropriate targets, we need to insert an additional segment
at the end of the model. To insert a segment, pull down the Edit menu and click on Insert
Seg, or type i, or right click below the last segment and select Append. Whichever way
you choose to do it, insert a HARDEND, at the end of the model, after the SURFACE.
Now establish 5a and 5b in the HARDEND as targets by clicking on Possible targets in
the HARDEND itself or through Add Targ in the guesstarget summary. Inspect your work
thus far by examining the guesstarget summary:
19

Figure 2.4: The bottle. (a) HARDEND untargeted, so U1 can be nonzero at the bottom. (b) HARDEND
targeted to (0.00, 0.00), to seal the bottom.

Also notice how the targets are agged with yellow markers in the main display.
(We could have programmed HARDEND segments with the real and imaginary parts of U1
as our targets, but experience has shown that the DeltaEC shooting-method algorithm
usually works without extra attention from us if we normalize the targeted U1 by dividing
by area and p1 : The rare occasions when more attention is needed are described in Section
8.3.2.)
We have two targets, which will soon enforce complex U1 = 0 at the bottom end of
the model, appropriate for the sealed end of the bottle. We must choose two guesses that
DeltaEC can adjust in order to meet those targets. Basically, DeltaEC integrates from
BEGIN to HARDEND. DeltaEC will rene whatever two guess variables we allow it to vary,
to nd a solution to this acoustics problem that arrives at the HARDEND with zero complex
volume ow rate.5 What to choose as these guesses depends on exactly what situation you
5

Users sometimes ask why we need two targets and two guesses when we are really only trying to impose

20

are trying to model. Do you have in mind a resonator driven by a xed volume ow rate
amplitude, or one that is driven by a xed pressure amplitude? Neither answer is wrong; it
depends on the circumstances.
In the present example, we arbitrarily choose to keep jU1 j xed at 0.0001 m3 /s, and let
DeltaEC adjust p1 : Begin to accomplish this by adding 0d and 0e as guesses, by double
clicking or right clicking on their values and selecting guess,or through Add Guess in the
guesstarget summary. Inspect the resulting situation by looking at the summary.

The target values are red italic, indicating that DeltaEC does not know whether results
are consistent with input variables; it knows that it has not yet run with the most recent
changes of input variables. The guesses (1 Pa, 0 degrees) are still just the values that are
left over from before. DeltaEC has not yet adjusted the guesses to try to hit the targets,
but it is ready to do so, because there are equal numbers of guesses and targets: two each
in this case.
With an equal number of guesses and targets, lets run. After running, DeltaECs
Run Monitor at the bottom of the display reports that it integrated along x 28 times while
adjusting guesses and coming ever closer to the targets, and it spent 0.08 seconds doing so.
(The numbers that are reported by the Run Monitor may vary from computer to computer
one constraint at the HARDEND, namely jU1 j = 0: The answer to this question can be appreciated by imagining
a blindfolded archer trying to hit a bulls-eye. If an observer tells the archer Your last attempt missed by
2.5 meters,which way is the archer supposed to revise her aim for her next attempt to hit the target? More
useful information is conveyed if the observer tells the archer Your last attempt struck 1.5 meters above
the bulls-eye and 2.0 meters to the left of the bulls-eye. Like the blindfolded archers target, DeltaECs
HARDEND is a point target in a two-dimensional space, namely the complex plane of U1 . DeltaEC needs to
adjust its aim (its guesses) in two dimensions to hit the target, and DeltaEC can hit the target in a small
number of attempts if it gets two-dimensional information about how far o-target it is.

21

and version to version. How close to the targets is judged to be close enoughis described
in Section 8.3.2.)
Inspect the results:

The value of the phase shown in 0e, 7288.6 ; might seem strange until we realize that
DeltaEC does not understand that integer multiples of 360 can be subtracted from any
phase angle without consequence. With the initial guessed value of 0d so far from reality,
DeltaECs shooting method wandered far, looking for a solution; under normal circumstances, we might have given it a more plausible starting point (such as the result of a
previous run). Subtracting 7200 from the value of 0e for the sake of our human sanity and
running again yields

The targets are accurately met, because DeltaEC has adjusted the two guesses to be 31.870
Pa, 88.622 degrees. The state plots in Fig. 2.5 also show that the targets have been met,
because they show that jU1 j = 0 at the end.
Save the <.out> le with a new lename of your choosing, and examine it with a text
editor to see how DeltaEC has indicated which variables are guesses and targets, next to
the guesses and targets themselves and in the restart table at the bottom of the le.
Most of the thought required to successfully use DeltaEC occurs while trying to gure
out which of the variables are appropriate targets and guesses, i.e., what constraints must
be imposed on results of a single DeltaEC integration pass, and what variables are needed
22

Figure 2.5: State plots for the bottle, with HARDEND targets met so U1 = 0 at the bottom.

as inputs by a single DeltaEC integration pass but are in fact unknown to us when we
ask DeltaEC to run. While many choices are possible, as long as the number of guesses
equals the number of targets, some choices are physically nonsensical and cannot succeed.
For example, asking DeltaEC to try to achieve resonance in a given bottle by guessing
the mean pressure of the air would be futile, because the speed of sound in an ideal gas is
independent of pressure. In the examples in subsequent Chapters, and in advanced use of
DeltaEC, the choice of good target and guess variables is not always as easy as it is in this
simple example.
Notice the use of columnar location and color in the display: Columns organize variables
according to DeltaECs most short-sighted internal needs, while colors organize variables
according to usersneeds. The numbers in the left column (ordinary blue numbers, and the
guesses, and the bulls-eye target values) are variables needed by DeltaEC in each pass of
its integration, as it integrates repeatedly, adjusting the guesses to try to hit the bulls-eyes.
Variables in the right column are computed as results in each pass, and are displayed green
when targets are met. We users, however, often wish to forget that DeltaEC must adjust
guesses and hit targets. From our perspective, blue numbers are what we give DeltaEC as
known quantities, and green numbers are the results that we want DeltaEC to give us. If
the green numbers are indeed green, DeltaEC feels condent of its results, but when those
numbers are red DeltaEC is not displaying a consistent set of results, for any of a number
of reasons usually because we have not yet run it or because it has missed the targets.
Now lets nd the resonance frequency f , which is the frequency at which the bottle
sings when we blow across its top. Look at the guesstarget summary to get oriented.
Guess-Target Summary:
GUESS
0d
0e
name BEGIN: |p| BEGIN:Ph(p)
units
Pa
deg
value 31.870
88.587

23

Figure 2.6: State plot with HARDEND targeted and resonance achieved, so U1 = 0 at the bottom
and p1 and U1 are in phase at the mouth.

TARGET
5a
5b
name HARDE:R(1/z HARDE:I(1/z
value
0.0000
0.0000
result -5.6504E-13 4.1801E-14

First, think about the physics long enough to realize that having p1 and U1 in phase at
the mouth is a suitable, approximate condition for resonance.6 Now make the corresponding
changes in the DeltaEC model: modify 0e to be 0 instead of 41:5 and remove 0e from
the guess list so DeltaEC cannot change it any more. Next, add 0b, the frequency, in the
guess list. Inspect the guesstarget summary again. Now, run the calculation. Inspect
the results in the main display or the guesstarget summary, nding that the resonance
frequency is 194.99 Hz. Inspect the state plots in Fig. 2.6, to see that the desired boundary
conditions at both ends are met. Save this version as bottle5, for use later in this Chapter.
As acousticians, we know that this resonator has more than one resonance mode. To nd
another one, modify 0b to be 600 Hz, and run again. With this starting guess, DeltaEC
converges on the 2nd mode, resembling 3/4 of a wavelength from end to end, at 1029.6 Hz.
DeltaEC can use any physically appropriate input variable as a guess. We could have
learned what temperature makes the system resonate at 180.00 Hz, by using 0c instead of
0b as a guess. (The answer is 255 Kelvin.) Or, by using 1c as a guess, we could have found
out what length the neck needs to be to put the resonance at 180 Hz at 300 K.
DeltaECs gas library contains three binary mixtures of gases: He-Xe, He-Ar, and
6

That short sentence is an example of where novice users of DeltaEC who have insu cient acoustics
knowledge can have a great deal of trouble. Please do not expect to learn everything you need to know
about acoustics from DeltaEC. Take a university acoustics course or study an acoustics textbook! Remember that DeltaEC cannot understand physical acoustics better than you do. It merely calculates,
accurately and quickly. N.b.: we said approximate condition for resonancebecause some users might want
to include radiation impedance. See Section 10.4.1.

24

Ne-Xe. These introduce another real variable in BEGIN: the mole fraction of helium in the
mixture (for example, HeAr with nL = 0:889 indicates 88.9% helium and 11.1% argon).
The helium fraction in one of these mixtures can be used as a guess variable for resonance.
Simply add 0j as a guess. Thus, we could learn the helium concentration that would have
to be added to argon in the bottle to make the resonance equal 180.00 Hz.

2.6. Other acoustics features

Here we briey describe some additional DeltaEC features that are relevant to a simple
acoustic apparatus for which Fmomentum and Fcontinuity in Eqs. (2.6) and (2.7) are the only
equations that we want DeltaEC to integrate.
2.6.1. Simple segment types
A list of the most commonly used purely acoustic segment types (including those introduced
above) is given below. More detailed descriptions and the calculations performed by each
are given in Chapter 10 and Chapter 11.
TITLE Required at the top.
BEGIN Required immediately after TITLE. The zerothsegment must be BEGIN. It contains
global variables such as mean pressure, gas type, and frequency, and initial conditions
for variables that can vary with x; including p1 , U1 ; and mean temperature (whose x
dependence is introduced in Chapter 5). See details in Section 11.1.2.
SURFACE A surface area with pressure-hysteresis loss in its thermal penetration depth. Usually used at ends of ducts. See details in Section 10.2.2.
DUCT A duct, with viscous and thermal losses at the wall if the perimeter is realistically
nonzero. Separate entry of area and perimeter accommodates ducts of any crosssectional shape. Laminar or turbulent. See details in Section 10.1.1.
CONE A cone, often used to adapt between ducts of dierent sizes. Uses lossy Webster horn
equation. Laminar or turbulent. See details in Section 10.1.2.

COMPLIANCE An acoustic compliance, i.e., a volume full of gas. Pressure-hysteresis losses on

surface. See details in Section 10.2.1.

IMPEDANCE A lumped-parameter, series impedance. Resistance and inertial reactance are

specied. See details in Section 10.2.3.
25

IDUCER and VDUCER Current-driven and voltage-driven transducers, with parameters independent of frequency, connected from the side of the DUCTs or other segments. See
Fig. 2.7. See details in Section 10.4.2.
ISPEAKER and VSPEAKER Current-driven and voltage-driven electrodynamic transducers, parameterized by mass, B-l product, etc., so that impedance coe cients depend on frequency. Connected from the side of a sequence of DUCTs or other segments. See
Fig. 2.7. See details in Section 10.4.2.
IEDUCER and VEDUCER, IESPEAKER and VESPEAKER The four transducers that were described
above, which do not have E as the second letter in their names, are connected in
side-branched congurations, where the back sideof the transducer hangs outside of
DeltaECs computation space. The four Enclosed versions are their series counterparts, with one side of the transducer facing the previous segment and the other side
facing the subsequent segment, so that the volume ow rate remains constant across
the segment. See Fig. 2.8. See details in Section 10.3.1.

Figure 2.7: IDUCER, VDUCER, ISPEAKER, and VSPEAKER are attached as side branches to the series
of DeltaEC segments.

Figure 2.8: IEDUCER, VEDUCER, IESPEAKER, and VESPEAKER are acoustically in series with the
adjacent DeltaEC segments.

BRANCH A frequency-independent side-branch impedance. See details in Section 10.4.1.

OPNBRANCH and PISTBRANCH Frequency-dependent side-branch impedances with the frequency characteristics of the radiation impedance of an opening into 4 or 2 solid
angle, respectively. See details in Section 10.4.1.
HARDEND A logistical nal segment, used to enforce U1 = 0 through use of the inverse of the
acoustic impedance in the target list. See details in Section 11.1.3.
26

SOFTEND A logistical nal segment. Can be used to set p1 = 0 through use of the acoustic
impedance in the target list. Useful for dening a mirror-image plane in symmetric
apparatus with a pressure node at a center of symmetry. Also used for loops and
networks of segments, to mark a location that will be reconnected elsewhere in the
model. See details in Section 11.1.3.

2.6.2. Gases and solids

DeltaEC recognizes many gases7 and solids, and routinely calculates their properties such
as density, specic heat, and viscosity. Gases are specied in BEGIN segments, and solids
are specied in each physically realistic segment. As described in detail in Chapter 12,
DeltaEC includes the following gases: dry air, humid air and fog, helium, neon, He-Xe
mixtures, He-Ar mixtures, Ne-Xe mixtures, hydrogen, deuterium, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
natural-gas combustion products (i.e., ue gas), liquid sodium, and eutectic liquid sodiumpotassium. The ideal-gas equation of state is used for the gases, while sodium and eutectic
sodium-potassium have their own equations of state.
Solids, described in detail in Chapter 13, include Kapton, Mylar, stainless steel, molybdenum, tungsten, copper, nickel, Celcor, and ideal. An ideal solid has extremely high heat
capacity, density, and thermal conductivity.
DeltaEC also allows users to specify external, user-dened gases or solids that are
not part of its own internal library. Properties are calculated, according to local Tm and pm ,
from coe cients read from a user-written text le. Up to ve user-dened gases and ve
user-dened solids can be used at one time. Details of user-dened pure gases and binary
mixtures are described in Sections 12.15.1 and 12.15.2, respectively. Details of user-dened
solids are described in Section 13.10.
To illustrate the use of a single-component user-dened gas, consider the example below.
To replace DeltaECs internal ideal helium gas (see Section 12.1) with a more accurate representation that calculates density and sound speed including the rst coe cient
of the virial expansion for helium, we can create the following le in a text editor, call it
<helium.tpf>, and put it in the same folder as our model:
!
!
!
!

user-defined gas; He with first virial coeff for (B=12cc/mole)

Equation is:
C0 + C1*pm/(T+C2*pm) + C3*T + C4*T^2 + C5*T^C6 + pm^2 *C7*T^C8 + pm*C9
Density, rho (m^3):
0. 4.814e-4 1.44e-6
! isobaric heat capacity, cp (J/kg-K):
5192.
! Thermal conductivity, k (W/m-K):
0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.0025672 0.716
! Square of sound speed, a^2 (m^2/s^2):
0. 0. 0. 3461.92 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. .0100
! Viscosity, mu (kg/m-s):
0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.412e-6 0.68014
7

A uid is a gas or a liquid. Gases are the most commonly used uids in thermoacoustics and
DeltaEC. However, liquid sodium and eutectic liquid sodium-potassium are included in DeltaEC because
they are thermodynamically powerful, with non-negligible thermal expansion coe cients and non-negligible
(@s=@p)T ; when close enough to their critical points. For further details on the use of these liquids in thermoacoustics, see Ref. [13]. Perhaps we should refer to the gases used in DeltaEC as uids, but for
simplicity we always call them gases despite the fact that some liquids are included.

27

The coe cients for density in this le are used by DeltaEC in Eq. (12.1) and were
determined by a user who knew that
m

pm m
;
Runiv (Tm + Bpm =Runiv )

(2.9)

where Runiv = 8:314 J/mole-K, the molar mass m = 0:0040026 kg/mole, and the rst virial
coe cient B = 1:2 10 5 m3 /mole. Thus, the user set C1 = m=Runiv and C2 = B=Runiv in
the density line in the <.tpf> le. For squared sound speed, the user knew that
a2 =

Runiv T
m

1+2

Bpm
Runiv Tm

(2.10)

yielding C3 = Runiv =m, and C9 = 2B =m in the square-of-sound-speed line in the <.tpf>

le, where = 5=3.
User-dened gas mixtures (described in Section 12.15.2) and user-dened solids (described in Section 13.10) follow similar formats.
It is a good idea to check your implementation of a new user-dened gas or solid very
carefully by using one of the two ways of displaying or plotting thermophysical properties
described in Section 2.7.7.
2.6.3. Turbulence
A turbulence algorithm can be enabled in DUCT and CONE, by double clicking on Optional
parameters. Checking the Turbulence box brings up parameter d in DUCT and parameter f
in CONE, which specify the relative roughness (roughness height divided by pipe diameter).
Set the roughness equal to a small value greater than zero for rough walls. (We usually use
5 10 4 ; even if this is larger than the actual relative roughness of the channel. ) To ensure
a laminar calculation, check the laminar box for the segment (which causes the roughness
parameter to be hidden from view in the <.out> le).
The turbulence algorithm, which is described in detail in Section 10.1.1, follows the quasisteady approximation, (the spirit of the assumptions of Iguchi et al., Ref. [14]), assuming
that oscillatory-ow losses can be calculated by using the steady-ow Moody friction factor
at each instant of time during the oscillatory ow, with the surface roughness used as an
experimentally determined tting parameter. The quasi-steady assumption has only a little
experimental validation for DUCTs and CONEs in the range of Reynolds number and R= of
interest in thermoacoustics (where R is radius), but we believe it provides a useful estimate,
much better than no estimate at all.

2.7. Other useful features

2.7.1. Keeping parameters equal
The sameas nl feature ties an input parameter in one segment to a value elsewhere. This
helps prevent typographical errors in the <.out> le, and is especially useful in linking
dimensions of adjacent segments that you might want to vary all together while modifying
28

or plotting, such as areas of adjacent segments when increasing the size of the apparatus.
Specify the segment number and line letter (e.g., sameas 3a).
The following example is for the bottle we modeled above:
!--------------- 1 -----------------------DUCT
The neck
2.141e-4
a Area
m
5.187E-2
b Perim
m
1.778E-2
c Length
m
ideal
Solid type
!--------------- 2 -----------------------CONE
transition from neck to volume
sameas 1a
a AreaI
m^2
sameas 1b
b PerimI
m
.100
c Length
m
sameas 3a
d AreaF
m^2
sameas 3b
e PerimF
m
ideal
Solid type
!--------------- 3 -----------------------DUCT
Bottle volume
1.868e-3 a Area
m^2
0.1532
b Perim
m
0.1270
c Length
m
ideal
Solid type
!--------------- 4 -----------------------SURFACE
Second End
sameas 3a a Area
m^2
ideal
Solid type

When you add a parameter specied by sameas to the guess list, you must rst sever the
sameas relationship. This is required because the value at this point will be controlled by
DeltaECs shooting method. But if a variable that is the root of several sameas references
is caused to change by DeltaEC itself in any ways, e.g., as a guess, all sameas references
to this root within the model will change with it.
2.7.2. Masterslave links
When geometric variables are changed, whether by the user, by DeltaECs shooting method,
or by DeltaECs incremental plot routine, there are often geometric relationships with other
parameters that should be maintained. For example, if the area of a duct increases, we should
usually increase the associated perimeter as well. Another common wish is to lengthen one
segment while simultaneously shortening another segment to keep overall length constant.
Masterslave links are available in some segments for just these purposes; a Master-Slave
Links option appears in a segment whenever a built-in parameter-linking capability is possible for variables in that segment.

Figure 2.9: When the area of a DUCT is changed and perimeterarea linking is in use, the perimeter
is automatically recalculated to maintain the DUCTs shape.

29

For example, consider a DUCT whose cross section is a half circle attached to a square, as
shown in Fig. 2.9. The cross-sectional area is
A=

1 2
d + d2 ;
24

(2.11)

and the perimeter is

=
Notice that

c=

d + 3d:

( + 6)2
' 15:001
=2 + 4

(2.12)

(2.13)

is a constant, independent of the size d of the DUCT, but depending on the half-circle-plussquare character of its shape. Additional examples are c = 4 for a circular duct, c = 16 for
a square duct. When perimeterarea linking is established in a DUCT, DeltaEC remembers
the value of this constant c, and uses it thereafter in
p
= cA
(2.14)
to update the perimeter based on the area, thereby maintaining the cross-sectional shape.
Thus, as area is changed, this link keeps a circular duct circular and maintains the aspect
ratio of a rectangular duct.
Below is a list of all parameter-link options and the segment types for which they are
available, including some for segments that have not yet been introduced in this tutorial.
The numbers in parentheses at the end indicate how the link is recorded in the restart table
at the bottom of the <.out> le. Figure 2.10 illustrates these links.
Adjust length in segment n when the length here changes, to keep their sum constant: All
segments with length. (In the restart table, this is indicated as n > 0:)
Adjust porosity (i.e., GasA/A) when gas gap or solid thickness changes in STKSLAB, keeping
constant area and constant fraction of the area devoted to support ribs. Adjust porosity
(i.e., GasA/A) when hole radius or area changes in STKCIRC or TX, keeping constant
number of holes. Set porosity (i.e., GasA/A) equal to ab=(a + l)(b + l) in STKRECT. For
details, see Section 10.5.1. (In the restart table, this is indicated as 1:)
Adjust perimeter when area changes, to maintain shape: DUCT and STKDUCT. Adjust initial
perimeter when initial area changes, to maintain initial ends shape: CONE and STKCONE.
(In the restart table, this is indicated as 2:)
Adjust nal perimeter when nal area changes, to maintain shape of nal end: CONE and
STKCONE. (In the restart table, this is indicated as 3:)
Adjust length and both perimeters, to maintain end shapes and taper angle: CONE and
STKCONE. (In the restart table, this is indicated as 4:)
Adjust surface area when volume changes, to maintain shape: COMPLIANCE. (In the restart
table, this is indicated as 5:)
30

Figure 2.10: Illustration of some masterslave linking. (a) Two lengths can be linked so that the
total length remains constant when one length is changed. (b), (c), (d) Perimeters can be linked
to areas so that shapes remain constant when areas are changed. (e) In STKSLAB, porosity can be
linked to pore size and solid thickness, to keep the fraction of the stack thats devoted to support
structure constant. The plane of this illustration is perpendicular to x: (f) In STKCIRC and TX,
porosity can be linked to hole radius, to keep the number of holes constant. The plane of this
illustration is perpendicular to x: (g), (h) In segments with impedances, the imaginary part can be
linked to the real part so that either phase or magnitude remains constant when the real part is
changed. (i) In STKDUCT, maintain shape and volume when length is changed. (j) In CONE, adjust
length to maintain taper angle when areas are changed.

Adjust area and perimeter when length changes, to maintain constant volume and crosssectional shape: STKDUCT. (In the restart table, this is indicated as 6:)
Adjust imaginary part when real part changes, to maintain constant magnitude (when
possible): IMPEDANCE, BRANCH, and TBRANCH. (In the restart table, this is indicated as
7:)
Adjust imaginary part when real part changes, to maintain constant phase angle: IMPEDANCE,
BRANCH, and TBRANCH. (In the restart table, this is indicated as 8:)
Adjust initial and nal perimeters in CONE and STKCONE as initial and nal areas change,
maintaining the shapes on both ends. (In the restart table, this is indicated as 9:)
Masterslave links can be tracked by status elds in the center of the <.out> le,
between the input and output columns. The master parameter the one through which
the mode is controlled is labeled Mstr. The slave parameter, i.e., the one that cannot be
modied independently when it is controlled by a link, has a status indicator of the form
nnp to indicate its masters address (e.g., 2a).
31

Newly inserted DUCT and CONE segments automatically initialize with their perimeters
linked to their areas on the basis of a circular shape, with a radius of 1 meter.
With each of the <bottle> models perimeters slaved to its local area, and adjacent
areas that must be identical connected by sameas, the <bottle> model looks like this:

so it is apparent that the bottle has only ve independent geometrical dimensions neck area,
bulb area, and the lengths of the neck, cone, and bulb whose independence is indicated
by their blue color. All other dimensions depend on those ve. The user who is interested
in studying the resonance frequency as a function of geometry can now change those ve
dimensions at will, condent that self-consistent geometry will be maintained by the master
slave and sameas links.
2.7.3. Schematic view
A schematic view of the geometry of a DeltaEC model can be turned on by clicking on view
schematicin the Display pulldown menu. As an example, the schematic of the <bottle>
model is shown in Fig. 2.11. The schematic is to scale: Dimensions in the x direction are
proportional to the
p lengths of segments with length, and dimensions perpendicular to x are
proportional to 4A= in segments having area and length. A glance at this display can
help you catch order-of-magnitude typographical errors in a model and keep track of the
topology of large models. Left click and drag up to zoom in for a closer view, and right
click to bring up a menu of segment operations similar to the right-click segment menu in
the main model.
When both a schematic view and a state plot are active, phasor information from the
state plot can be displayed on the schematic, based on the position of the mouse cursor
within the schematic. Click Alt when the cursor is over the desired position in a highlighted
physical segment in the schematic, to create a small phasor plot showing both p1 and U1 at
that position. The magnitude of each phasor is scaled by the maximum magnitude found in
the model. The colors are the same as the default colors in the state plot: black for p1 , blue
32

Figure 2.11: (a) The schematic display of the <bottle> model. Dimensions are to scale, assuming
that areas are circular. Right-clicking on any segment brings up a menu of options, similar to
right-clicking on a segment in the main model display. (b) Some phasor diagrams added to the
schematic.

for U1 . Drag the phasor circle or its anchor point with the mouse to reposition them. In
integrable segments like DUCTs, Nint unique x locations are available; nonintegrable segments
like COMPLIANCE have only one location.
To delete a phasor circle, move the mouse over the anchor point and press the Alt or
Delete key. To delete all phasor circles, close and reopen the schematic window.

2.7.4. Highlights display

DeltaEC models often have many dozens of segments. The user is usually not interested
in examining every numerical result after every run typically, we examine the guesses (and
perhaps targets) to ensure that DeltaEC has not gotten completely lost, and we examine a
small number of other results of particular interest. The highlights display shows a compact,
user-customized list of such variables of particular interest, which is updated after every run.
Any input or output variables can be added to the highlight list.
Returning to the bottle as an example, we might be particularly interested in the pressure
amplitude at the mouth of the bottle and at the bottom of the bottle, and the resonance
frequency, as we explore dierent dimensions of the neck by modifying its area and/or length
and running. A convenient setup for such an investigation looks something like the gure
below, just after lengthening the neck and running. In ordinary use, we would type mto
modify one or more parameters, then rto run, examine the results, and repeat.
33

2.7.5. Structured branches, loops, and networks

Although BRANCH and OPNBRANCH can be useful, they are often inadequate for describing the
variations in branch impedance with operating conditions. For example, the branch might
be a Helmholtz resonator whose impedance changes signicantly with frequency. Further,
BRANCH and OPNBRANCH are wholly inadequate when networks include reconnecting topology,
as in Fig. 1.3. The TBRANCH and UNION segments overcome these inadequacies.
When it encounters a TBRANCH, DeltaEC treats subsequent segments as the sequential
members of the branch, integrating until it reaches a HARDEND or SOFTEND. It then returns
to the trunk, treating further segments as trunk members. The logic of this is shown in
Fig. 2.12. At the TBRANCH, the branch impedance determines how the (complex) volume ow
rate splits up. Usually we use the branch impedance as a pair of guesses that DeltaEC
adjusts in its usual way to hit two targets elsewhere. TBRANCHed models tend to have many
guesses and targets, since every **END contributes two targets (and a few more targets are
almost always needed for temperatures and other variables). Of course, branches can have
sub-branches of their own.
Networks with loops, like Fig. 1.3, can also be handled by DeltaEC, through use of
TBRANCH and UNION. The UNION segment is used to tell DeltaEC to connecta TBRANCHs
SOFTEND back to the trunk at the location of the UNION segment. The branchs SOFTEND
potential targets are not used. However, at least two input variables (b and c) of the UNION
segment should always be used as targets. As DeltaEC processes the UNION segment, it
assigns the current values of the complex pressure at the SOFTEND referenced by the number
34

Figure 2.12: TBRANCH allows DeltaEC to integrate in branched geometries like this.

in parameter a of the UNION segment. These values are compared to the local complex
pressure result, at this UNION, in the trunk, and DeltaECs shooting-method iteration
should run until their dierence is zero. This assures that the end of the branch and the
trunk share the same complex p1 where they meet at the UNION. As before, a guessed branch
impedance usually determines how the (complex) volume ow rate splits up at the TBRANCH.
Volume ow rates are summed at the UNION. (Note that the UNION targets are somewhat
dierent from HARDEND targets discussed above, because targetnumerical values in UNION
are not specied by the user they vary from run to run, depending on what is happening
at the associated SOFTEND.)
Figure 2.13 and the DeltaEC models below show three ways to use TBRANCH and UNION
to model a parallel LRC network. The reader is encouraged to invent one or more additional
ways to model this network, and try them.
Here is the DeltaEC model corresponding to Fig. 2.13(b):
TITLE
Example LRC1
! lrc1.out
!Created@19:30:01 9-Jul-06 with DeltaE Vers. 5.5b6 for the IBM/PC-Compatible
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
Initialize things
1.0000E+05 a Mean P
Pa
6.1460E-03 A |U|
G( 0f)
P
60.000
b Freq
Hz
80.940
B Ph(U) G( 0g)
P
300.00
c TBeg
K
3.7260E+05 C Re(Zb) G( 1a)
P
2000.0
d |p|
Pa
-2.7012E+05 D Im(Zb) G( 1b)
P
0.0000 e Ph(p)
deg
6.1460E-03 f |U|
m^3/s
G
80.940
g Ph(U)
deg
G
air
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------TBRANCH
the split
3.7260E+05 a Re(Zb) Pa-s/m^3
G
2000.0
A |p|
Pa
-2.7012E+05 b Im(Zb) Pa-s/m^3
G
0.0000 B Ph(p)
deg
4.3459E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
35.940
D Ph(U)
deg
3.5185 E Hdot
W
3.5185 F Edot
W
-2.5508 G EdotTr
W
!--------------------------------- 2 ---------------------------------

35

Figure 2.13: A driven, parallel LRC network. (a) Schematic. (b) One way to model the LRC
network in DeltaEC, with the L and C in the TBRANCH and the R in the trunk, rejoined at the
UNION, whose downstream end must be sealed by a targeted HARDEND. (c) Another way to model the
LRC, with the L in the TBRANCH and the R in the trunk, rejoined at the UNION, whose downstream
end feeds the C, whose exit must be sealed by a targeted HARDEND. (d) A third way, with the L,
R, and C all in the TBRANCH. Returning to the trunk, DeltaEC encounters no segment before the
UNION, so the UNION eectively connects the initial and nal ends of the branch to each other. The
UNIONs exit must be sealed by a targeted HARDEND.

IMPEDANCE pure inertance

0.0000 a Re(Zs) Pa-s/m^3
1.0000E+05 b Im(Zs) Pa-s/m^3

2282.4
A |p|
Pa
-8.8682 B Ph(p)
deg
4.3459E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
35.940
D Ph(U)
deg
3.5185 E Hdot
W
3.5185 F Edot
W
3 ---------------------------------

!--------------------------------COMPLIANCE
a compliance tank
4.8360E-02 a SurfAr
m^2
Fn( 3b)
1.0000E-03 b Volume
m^3
S= -5

2282.4
A |p|
Pa
-8.8682 B Ph(p)
deg
4.3459E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
-54.060
D Ph(U)
deg
3.4951 E Hdot
W
ideal
Solid type
3.4951 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 4 --------------------------------SOFTEND
this will reconnect at the UNION
0.0000 a Re(z)
(t)
2282.4
A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b Im(z)
(t)
-8.8682 B Ph(p)
deg
4.3459E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
-54.060
D Ph(U)
deg
3.4951 E Hdot
W
3.4951 F Edot
W
44.392
G Re(z)
44.690
H Im(z)
!--------------------------------- 5 --------------------------------IMPEDANCE pure resistance
1.0000E+05 a Re(Zs) Pa-s/m^3
2282.4
A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b Im(Zs) Pa-s/m^3
-8.8682 B Ph(p)
deg
4.3459E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
125.94
D Ph(U)
deg
-3.4951 E Hdot
W
-3.4951 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 6 --------------------------------UNION
close the loop here
4.0000 a SegNum
2282.4
A |p|
Pa
2282.4
b |p|End
Pa
= 6A?
-8.8682 B Ph(p)
deg
-8.8682 c Ph(p)E
deg
= 6B?
7.0901E-17 C |U|
m^3/s
-82.266
D Ph(U)
deg
2.3118E-14 E Hdot
W
!--------------------------------- 7 --------------------------------HARDEND
seal the final end of the resonator
0.0000 a R(1/z)
= 7G?
2282.4
A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b I(1/z)
= 7H?
-8.8682 B Ph(p)
deg
7.0901E-17 C |U|
m^3/s
-82.266
D Ph(U)
deg
2.3118E-14 E Hdot
W

36

2.3118E-14 F Edot
7.4001E-17 G R(1/z)

And here is the DeltaEC model corresponding to Fig. 2.13(c):

TITLE
Example LRC2
lrc2.out
!Created@19:31:13 9-Jul-06 with DeltaE Vers. 5.5b6 for the IBM/PC-Compatible
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
Initialize things
1.0000E+05 a Mean P
Pa
6.1460E-03 A |U|
G( 0f)
P
60.000
b Freq
Hz
80.940
B Ph(U) G( 0g)
P
300.00
c TBeg
K
3.7260E+05 C Re(Zb) G( 1a)
P
2000.0
d |p|
Pa
-2.7012E+05 D Im(Zb) G( 1b)
P
0.0000 e Ph(p)
deg
6.1460E-03 f |U|
m^3/s
G
80.940
g Ph(U)
deg
G
air
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------TBRANCH
the split
3.7260E+05 a Re(Zb) Pa-s/m^3
G
2000.0
A |p|
Pa
-2.7012E+05 b Im(Zb) Pa-s/m^3
G
0.0000 B Ph(p)
deg
4.3459E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
35.940
D Ph(U)
deg
3.5185 E Hdot
W
3.5185 F Edot
W
-2.5508 G EdotTr
W
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------IMPEDANCE pure inertance
0.0000 a Re(Zs) Pa-s/m^3
2282.4
A |p|
Pa
1.0000E+05 b Im(Zs) Pa-s/m^3
-8.8682 B Ph(p)
deg
4.3459E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
35.940
D Ph(U)
deg
3.5185 E Hdot
W
3.5185 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 3 --------------------------------SOFTEND
this will reconnect at the UNION
0.0000 a Re(z)
(t)
2282.4
A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b Im(z)
(t)
-8.8682 B Ph(p)
deg
4.3459E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
35.940
D Ph(U)
deg
3.5185 E Hdot
W
3.5185 F Edot
W
44.690
G Re(z)
!--------------------------------- 4 --------------------------------IMPEDANCE pure resistance
1.0000E+05 a Re(Zs) Pa-s/m^3
2282.4
A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b Im(Zs) Pa-s/m^3
-8.8682 B Ph(p)
deg
4.3459E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
125.94
D Ph(U)
deg
-3.4951 E Hdot
W
-3.4951 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 5 --------------------------------UNION
close the loop here
3.0000 a SegNum
2282.4
A |p|
Pa
2282.4
b |p|End
Pa
= 5A?
-8.8682 B Ph(p)
deg
-8.8682 c Ph(p)E
deg
= 5B?
6.1460E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
80.940
D Ph(U)
deg
2.3429E-02 E Hdot
W
2.3429E-02 F Edot
W
300.00
G End-T
K
!--------------------------------- 6 --------------------------------COMPLIANCE a compliance tank
4.8360E-02 a SurfAr
m^2
Fn( 6b)
2282.4
A |p|
Pa
1.0000E-03 b Volume
m^3
S= -5
-8.8682 B Ph(p)
deg
2.8686E-14 C |U|
m^3/s
119.89
D Ph(U)
deg
-2.0495E-11 E Hdot
W
ideal
Solid type
-2.0495E-11 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 7 --------------------------------HARDEND
seal the final end of the resonator
0.0000 a R(1/z)
= 7G?
2282.4
A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b I(1/z)
= 7H?
-8.8682 B Ph(p)
deg
2.8686E-14 C |U|
m^3/s
119.89
D Ph(U)
deg
-2.0495E-11 E Hdot
W
-2.0495E-11 F Edot
W
-6.5606E-14 G R(1/z)

And nally, here is the DeltaEC model corresponding to Fig. 2.13(d):

TITLE

Example 1:

Plane-wave resonator

37

lrc3.out
!Created@19:32:21 9-Jul-06 with DeltaE Vers. 5.5b6 for the IBM/PC-Compatible
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
Initialize things
1.0000E+05 a Mean P
Pa
6.1460E-03 A |U|
G( 0f)
P
60.000
b Freq
Hz
80.940
B Ph(U) G( 0g)
P
300.00
c TBeg
K
3.7260E+05 C Re(Zb) G( 1a)
P
2000.0
d |p|
Pa
-2.7012E+05 D Im(Zb) G( 1b)
P
0.0000 e Ph(p)
deg
6.1460E-03 f |U|
m^3/s
G
80.940
g Ph(U)
deg
G
air
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------TBRANCH
the split
3.7260E+05 a Re(Zb) Pa-s/m^3
G
2000.0
A |p|
Pa
-2.7012E+05 b Im(Zb) Pa-s/m^3
G
0.0000 B Ph(p)
deg
4.3459E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
35.940
D Ph(U)
deg
3.5185 E Hdot
W
3.5185 F Edot
W
-2.5508 G EdotTr
W
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------IMPEDANCE pure inertance
0.0000 a Re(Zs) Pa-s/m^3
2282.4
A |p|
Pa
1.0000E+05 b Im(Zs) Pa-s/m^3
-8.8682 B Ph(p)
deg
4.3459E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
35.940
D Ph(U)
deg
3.5185 E Hdot
W
3.5185 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 3 --------------------------------COMPL
a compliance tank
4.8360E-02 a SurfAr
m^2
Fn( 3b)
2282.4
A |p|
Pa
1.0000E-03 b Volume
m^3
S= -5
-8.8682 B Ph(p)
deg
4.3459E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
-54.060
D Ph(U)
deg
3.4951 E Hdot
W
ideal
Solid type
3.4951 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 4 --------------------------------IMPEDANCE
pure resistance
1.0000E+05 a Re(Zs) Pa-s/m^3
2000.0
A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b Im(Zs) Pa-s/m^3
-3.4849E-13 B Ph(p)
deg
4.3459E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
-54.060
D Ph(U)
deg
2.5508 E Hdot
W
2.5508 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 5 --------------------------------SOFTEND
this will reconnect at the UNION
0.0000 a Re(z)
(t)
2000.0
A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b Im(z)
(t)
-3.4849E-13 B Ph(p)
deg
4.3459E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
-54.060
D Ph(U)
deg
2.5508 E Hdot
W
2.5508 F Edot
W
32.398
G Re(z)
!--------------------------------- 6 --------------------------------UNION
close the loop here
5.0000 a SegNum
2000.0
A |p|
Pa
2000.0
b |p|End
Pa
= 6A?
0.0000 B Ph(p)
deg
-3.4849E-13 c Ph(p)E
deg
= 6B?
1.3999E-16 C |U|
m^3/s
-73.811
D Ph(U)
deg
3.9031E-14 E Hdot
W
!--------------------------------- 7 --------------------------------HARDEND
seal the final end of the resonator
0.0000 a R(1/z)
= 7G?
2000.0
A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b I(1/z)
= 7H?
0.0000 B Ph(p)
deg
1.3999E-16 C |U|
m^3/s
-73.811
D Ph(U)
deg
3.9031E-14 E Hdot
W
3.9031E-14 F Edot
W

A topologically similar model of a complicated thermoacoustic system using TBRANCH and

UNION is given in the traveling-wave-engine example in Section 6.3. Some more complicated
examples of heirarchically nested structured branches and loops are shown in Figs. 6.9 and
11.1.
38

2.7.6. Manipulating entire segments

An entire segment, or a block of segments, can be copied, cut, pasted, and killed, much
like copying and pasting an entire paragraph or a contiguous block of paragraphs in a text
editor. Dragging the cursor over the segment or segments indicates their selection via a
background color change, and right clicking brings up the cut/copy/paste menu. DeltaEC
retains sameas addresses, RPN addresses, and masterslave links inside the copied block,
while replacing any such addresses that point outside the block with appropriate numerical
values. Segments and blocks of segments can be moved from one model to another using
this feature, if both models are open in the same DeltaEC window.
2.7.7. Thermophysical properties
The Tools / thermophysical properties pulldown-menu selection gives the user keyboard
access to DeltaECs library of gas and solid properties for a given mean pressure and
temperature. This feature is so convenient that we often start DeltaEC simply to look up
the transport properties of air, helium, and other common gases.
RPN segments, introduced in Chapter 4 and described fully in Section 11.4.1, can also
be used to access thermophysical properties. These segments can be inserted anywhere in a
model where the user wants to know the gas or solid properties at the local temperature and
pressure. By using the incremental plot feature described in Section 3.2, tables and graphs
of properties can be generated over ranges of temperature and pressure, by using Tm and
pm as independent plot variables in a BEGIN segment upstream of such RPN segments.

39

This blank page forces the next chapter to begin on an odd-numbered page.

40

3. More about plotting

DeltaECs built-in plotter, which is accessible in DeltaECs Display pulldown menu,
provides convenient graphical displays of DeltaEC results.
In state plots, the state of the wave and other thermoacoustic variables such as temperature and energy ux are displayed vs location x in the model whenever a run has converged
properly. Data are tabulated in a le with the extension <.sp>.
In incremental plots, the relationships among a number of DeltaEC variables are displayed for a set of many converged runs, as one or two independent variables are automatically incremented between runs. Data are tabulated in a le with the extension <.ip>.
Incremental plotting is also used to let DeltaEC automatically accomplish a large change
in some variable via a series of many smaller changes, to avoid target-convergence problems,
as described in Section 5.4.3.
DeltaECs plotter has many built-in, rudimentary formatting features. Curves can be
identied by color, line width, or line type. Default axis labels can be overwritten, and
the units on axes can be changed by factors of 10. The view can be changed by zooming,
and logarithmic scales can be used. Curves can be examined closely by moving the mouse
cursor onto them and reading the horizontal and vertical coordinates. Segment numbers
can be displayed on graphs, showing where each segment ends. The graphical results can be
exported as <.jpg>, <.bmp>, or other graphics les.
DeltaEC saves the users most recent plotting and formatting preferences for each
DeltaEC output le in auxiliary les with the extensions <.ssv> and <.isv>, for the
<.sp> and <.ip> les, respectively. (If the plotter is not working, close DeltaEC, delete
the <.ssv> and <.isv> les associated with your model, and try again.)

3.1. State plots

State plots show the current state of the DeltaEC model. DeltaECs plotter makes state
plots from the <.sp> le that is created by DeltaEC after every successful run. If the
user modies a parameter in the model, and re-runs it, DeltaEC quickly updates its plot
displays to reect the new reality, just like it updates its numerical displays. This feature
was introduced in Section 2.4, where the <bottle> model awoke with a state plot showing
p1 and U1 vs x; and we changed it to display E_ vs x:
DeltaEC subdivides integrable segments like DUCTs and STK**s into Nint pieces, writing
Nint +1 lines of numbers to the <.sp> le for each segment. On the <.sp> plot display,
each segment is then represented by Nint short, straight lines connecting those Nint +1
points. The accuracy of the underlying calculation is generally better than what is indicated
by the kinkiness of the plot, because the fourth-order Runge-Kutta integration technique
41

[15] essentially simulates the physics on a ner length scale than the <.sp> le actually
tabulates.
3.1.1. Cloning
The experienced user will soon want to display more than one plot simultaneously. Cloning
DeltaEC plots lets this occur. Return to <bottle6> of Chapter 2, which awakens displaying
p1 vs x: Format this curve for visual appeal, and then clone it twice from the plotters
File pulldown menu, editing each clone to arrive at something that looks like this layout:

All ve curves displayed here (on three graphs) are updated every time the model runs
successfully, and all our eort of formatting and cloning is saved in the <.ssv> le if we
save when closing the model, so these formatted graphs will reappear if we return to the
<bottle6.out> model weeks later.
Sometimes it is useful to include Agas vs x in one or more of the state plots, to have a
sort of drawingof the apparatus lined up with the data graphs. The SegEndMarks option
in the plotters Options menu puts segment numbers on the graphs, at the end of each
segment, as another indication of apparatus locations on the data graphs. The schematic
view, available on DeltaECs Display pulldown menu, also gives a picture of the geometry
42

(see Fig. 2.11 and the Users Guides cover for examples).
3.1.2. Legs
Models with one or more TBRANCHes and/or two or more BEGINs are topologically complicated, so DeltaECs <.sp> le breaks them down into legs,with each leg starting over at
x = 0 for purposes of displaying graphs of data. For example, Fig. 3.2 shows a branched resonator, which we modeled with <legs.out> (available in the <ExamplesnPlotting> folder).
Figure 3.3 shows the standing-wave part of the pressure in that resonator. The side-branch
parts of the data form one curve, and the trunk parts of the data form another curve.
Using clone plots and the Legs pulldown menu, the user can show one variable per graph,
with all legs plotted in each graph; or can show one leg per graph with all variables of interest
plotted in each graph.
3.1.3. Phasor plotting options
The complex variables p1 and U1 are usually of the greatest interest in thermoacoustic
systems, so DeltaEC oers several ways of displaying them graphically.
State plots awaken by default with Re[p1 ] and Im[p1 ] displayed, and Re[U1 ] and Im[U1 ]
easily accessible by checking the appropriate boxes at the top of the state-plot display. The
real and imaginary parts of the ratio Z = p1 =U1 are also easily accessible. All three of these
complex functions can also be displayed in terms of magnitude and phase, through the small
pulldown menus assocated with each real or imaginary variable, as illustrated in Fig. 3.4.
In standing-wave systems, the state plots that display variables such as p1 and U1 as
functions of x are usually the most useful. However, for traveling-wave systems, phasor
diagrams often oer vital insight, so they are included among DeltaECs standard stateplot options. To enable a phasor plot, check Re[p1 ] or Re[U1 ] instead of x as the x axisof
the plot, and then use Im[p1 ] or Im[U1 ] as the y axis. Alternatively, check Phasor Mode
in the plotters Options pulldown menu, to ensure equal scaling on the real and imaginary
axes and to allow both p1 and U1 phasors on the same graph.
Phasor diagrams are only used for complex variables, here p1 and U1 : (Other examples
include transducer current and voltage, but these are not available in DeltaECs <.sp>
les.) In a phasor diagram, these complex variables are plotted on the complex plane, with
the real part plotted along the horizontal axis and the imaginary part plotted along the

Figure 3.1: The bottle, used as an example in both Chapter 2 and the present chapter.

43

Figure 3.2: A branched resonator. In the model of this resonator, p1 and U1 have the same phase
at BEGIN, and the frequency is a guess. The magnitude of p1 in BEGIN is xed and the magnitude
of U1 in BEGIN is a guess. Both TBRANCH impedances are guesses, and the four targets in the two
HARDENDs are used.

Figure 3.3: The standing-wave part of the pressure oscillation in the branched resonator of Fig.
3.2. There are two curves because the resonator has two legs and both legs have been selected in
the Legs pulldown menu. The kink in the upper curve occurs at the same pressure as the start of
the lower curve, because these are the same location: the TBRANCH.

44

Figure 3.4: A traveling wave with jp1 j nearly constant at 100 Pa and the phase of p1 starting at
zero and going down by 360 ; resetting from 180 to +180 near x = 5 m. The little menus to
convert the real and imaginary parts of p1 to the magnitude and phase are indicated here by the
red boxes. Similar features are available for U1 and Z:

vertical axis. Conventionally, arrows from the origin point to each such complex value. One
can imagine all of the phasors on a phasor diagram rotating counterclockwise around the
origin at radian frequency !: Then the actual variables represented by the phasors are the
time-dependent projections of the phasors on the horizontal axis. Thus a phasor diagram
shows the relative magnitudes and time-phase relationships of a number of phasors. The
dierence between phasors at adjacent places in an apparatus also oers insight into the
impedance of what lies between. The dierence between pressure phasors is related to the
volume ow rate phasor via the momentum equation, which can include resistance and
inertance; the dierence between volume-ow-rate phasors is related to the pressure phasor
via the continuity equation and the compressibility of the intervening gas [12].
Figure 3.5 shows the U1 phasors for the bottle.
Another way to look at phasors, based on mouse cursor position in the schematic view,
is described in Section 2.7.3.

3.2. Incremental plotting

DeltaEC allows for incremental plotting by automatically incrementing (or decrementing) an independent variable (or two independent variables) and running repeatedly. This
can be used either to let DeltaEC automatically stay converged while changing a single
independent variable by many small, safesteps when a single leap to a desired new value
would fail to converge (see Section 5.4.3), or to tabulate the changing independent variable(s) together with one or more changing output variables in a le named <.ip>. Users
can then manipulate and/or plot the <.ip> le with DeltaECs built-in plotter (or with
45

Figure 3.5: The phasor plot displays complex p1 and/or U1 on the realimaginary plane. With
SegEndMarks selected in the Options pulldown menu, segment numbers are displayed at the end
of each segment.

their favorite graphics or spreadsheet software). We illustrate these features by continuing

two previous examples.
3.2.1. One-dimensional incremental plots
A driven, parallel LRC network was used as an example of structured branches and unions
in Section 2.7.5. Here, we use the same example to illustrate a simple incremental plot
in DeltaEC. The system is illustrated in the gure below, and the le we start with
is <lrc1.out> from the <ExamplesnAcoustics> folder. Open that le, and save it as
<lrc1b.out> so subsequent changes dont aect the original. Review the model, to understand that this LRC network is driven at 60 Hz and 2 kPa. Under these circumstances,
the pressure amplitude in the COMPLIANCE is 2.28 kPa higher than at the driver.

Lets see how the pressure amplitude in the COMPLIANCE depends on frequency, using an
incremental plot. Unroll the BEGIN segment, double click on the frequency, and check the
Plot box. Let the frequency incrementing start from 40 Hz, end at 800 Hz, and do so in
77 steps so the increments are 10 Hz. Now unroll the COMPLIANCE segment, double click on
output A the pressure amplitude and select it as a dependent plot variable. Note that 0b
46

and 3A are agged in the main display as plot variables now. Open the Incremental Plot
Summary from the Tools pulldown menu, and see what information is presented. (Note that,
in addition to our selection of 3A, all four guesses are listed as dependent plot variables to
let the user return to any incrementally plotted point easily, as described in Section 3.2.3.)

Now start the repetitive run. DeltaEC begins at the initial value of the frequency,
40 Hz, and performs an ordinary run, adjusting the guesses until the targets are met. It
writes a line to the incremental-plot le <lrc1b.ip>, recording on one line the independent
variable (f ), the guesses, and the chosen dependent variables (jp1 j in the COMPLIANCE in the
present case). Then DeltaEC increments the independent variable by its step (10 Hz in
this case), performs another ordinary run, and records the results on the next line in the
<.ip> le...repeating until the nal value of the independent variable is reached. In a text
editor, the <.ip> le shows this:
BEGIN:Freq
Hz
0b
40.00
50.00
60.00
...

BEGIN:|U|
BEGIN:Ph(U) TBRAN:Re(Zb TBRAN:Im(Zb COMPL:|p|
m^3/s
deg
Pa-s/m^3
Pa-s/m^3
Pa
0A
0B
0C
0D
3A
3.9237E-03
84.11
5.5931E+05 -4.5475E+05
2186.
5.0127E-03
82.56
4.4726E+05 -3.4400E+05
2234.
6.1460E-03
80.94
3.7260E+05 -2.7012E+05
2282.

and opening <lrc1b.ip>, and choosing to plot 3A vs 0b, displays this:

The pressure amplitude starts at 2 kPa at low frequency, and rises with frequency at rst,
peaking near 200 Hz. Could it be a resonance? The user could now change a parameter
such as the resistance in segment 5, repeat the repetitive run, and examine the eects of
such a change on the resonance frequency and quality factor. (Dont forget that a frequencyindependent Im[Zs ] in segment 2 is not the same as a frequency-independent inertance!)
47

3.2.2. Two-dimensional incremental plots

We use the bottle example from Chapter 2 again, starting from <bottle6.out> in the
<ExamplesnAcoustics> folder. Make the guesstarget summary look like this:
Guess-Target Summary:
GUESS
0f
0g
name BEGIN:|U|
BEGIN:Ph(U)
value
1.00E+03
90.
units
m^3/s
deg
TARGET
5a
5b
name HARDEND :R(1/z HARDEND
value
.00
.00

:I(1/z

Now display the Incremental Plot Summary:

Dependent Variables (outputs):
PLOTS
0f
0g
name BEGIN:|U|
BEGIN:Ph(U)
units
m^3/s
deg

Keep these parameters as two of the dependent variables to be plotted (they are copies
of the guesses).
We will watch these variables as functions of two independent variables: frequency f and
mean temperature Tm : To set up these two independent variables to be incremented, modify
each of them, checking the Plot box in the Parameter Edit dialog and then entering initial
and nal values, and the number of steps. Use only three values of mean temperature in the
outerloop 300, 400, and 500 K by letting Tm go from 300 to 500 K in three steps of 100
K, and let f go from 100 Hz to 1200 Hz in 551 steps to get exactly 2-Hz increments in the
inner loop. Also add the pressure in the bottom of the bottle, 5A, as another dependent
plot variable, by double clicking on it and selecting it for plotting. After these actions, check
the Incremental Plot Summary again:
Outer:
addr desc unit
0c
TBeg K
Start: 300.0
End: 500.0
Step: 100.0
Points: 3

Inner:
addr desc unit
0b
Freq Hz
Start: 100.0
End: 1200.0
Step: 2.0
Points: 551

Dependent:
addr desc unit
0f
|U|
m^3/s
0g
Ph(U) deg
5A
|p|
Pa

Now start a repetitive run. DeltaEC steps through the frequency and mean temperature, taking several seconds. For each value of frequency and mean temperature, it adjusts
guesses until targets are met, and then writes one line to the <.ip> le, recording the values
of the independent and dependent plot variables, including all guesses. When it has nished,
use the pcs operating system to nd the new le, <bottle6.ip>:
BEGIN:TBeg
K
0c
300.000
300.000
300.000
.
.
.
500.000
500.000

BEGIN:Freq
Hz
0b
100.000
102.000
104.000

1198.00
1200.00

BEGIN:|U|
m^3/s
0f
2.0250E-06
2.0953E-06
2.1682E-06

BEGIN:Ph(U)
deg
0g
-8.8471E+04
-8.8471E+04
-8.8471E+04

HARDEN:|p|
Pa
5A
1.38690
1.40830
1.43090

1.6259E-07 -8.8481E+04
1.7641E-07 -8.8480E+04

0.61493
0.62388

The results are displayed by DeltaECs plotter as shown in Fig. 3.6. The plotters
pulldown menu must be used to get all three curves to show on the plot.
48

Figure 3.6: Pressure amplitude at the bottom of the bottle as a function of drive frequency, with
the pressure amplitude at the mouth held constant at 1 Pa, for three dierent temperatures.

3.2.3. Rewinding incremental plots

The rewind feature takes DeltaEC quickly back to a user-selected, previously calculated
state that has been saved in the <.ip> le. This is useful for:
Selecting a new operating point after using incremental plotting to explore a broad range
of behaviors. For example, the user could select a point at the top of one of the peaks
in Fig. 3.6.
Selecting a recent well-converged operating point from an incremental plot that contains
both converged and unconverged operating points and/or from a long incremental plot
that seemed to go awry and was canceled by the user.
The rewind feature is available whenever an <.ip> le exists. It is accessible in the Tools
pulldown menu or through a button on the toolbar near the top of the main display.
3.2.4. Incremental plots when more than one model is run
Two or more models can be open in DeltaEC at the same time. If these models are run
separately, any incremental plots in any of those models will run separately, just as if they
were open in separate DeltaEC windows.
Linking two or more models together in a single DeltaEC window and running them
together with Run All is described in Section 4.7. The interaction between incremental plots
and multi-model running is described near the end of that section.
49

This blank page forces the next chapter to begin on an odd-numbered page.

50

4. RPN math
4.1. Summary
The RPN segment lets the user create nonstandard guesses, targets, and simple algebraic
calculations anywhere in a DeltaEC model. The format of the segment is shown in this
example:
!--------------------------------- 10 --------------------------! The result(s) of the second lines calculations show up as output(s) in the right column.
RPN
Dimensionless magnitude of specific acoustic impedance
16.200
a
7.8540E-05 A Znorm
p1 U1 / mag 9a * rho / a /

Input a is a real number, which can be a guess, a target, and/or a number used
subsequently in calculations via sameas links that point to it. The second line (line b) is
a formula expressing a user-dened algebraic procedure in Reverse Polish Notation (RPN),
a parenthesis-free algebra encoding technique.
A complete lesson in Reverse Polish Notation can be found in instruction manuals for
most HP pocket calculators and on many websites, including Refs. [16] and [17]. DeltaEC
users who are unfamiliar with RPN notation are encouraged to consult such a resource.
Briey, as numbers (including pointers to numbers elsewhere in the model, and including
variables introduced below) are encountered in the instruction line, these numbers are pushed
down onto a stack. Any numbers already present on the stack are pushed deeper into the
stack. When a unary operator such as cos, log, or sqrt is encountered in the formula, it
takes a single number o the stack (pops it), acts on it, and pushes the result back onto
the stack. When a binary operator such as + or * is encountered, it pops two numbers o
the stack, combines them appropriately, and pushes the result back onto the stack. Other
numbers that may be on the stack but are not involved in the current operation simply move
up and down during the operation so that no gaps appear in the stack and no uninvolved
numbers get lost. (Some of us nd it helpful to visualize a spring-loaded stack of dishes at
a cafeteria, which adjusts itself so that the top dish is always at the most convenient height
no matter how many dishes are hidden underneath it.)
After a simple formula has been processed, there may be only one number remaining on
the stack; if so, this number is the result of the RPN segment and is displayed as a single
output, A. However, it is often desirable to leave additional results on the stack to be
accessed elsewhere or viewed by the user. Whatever is left on the stack after the instruction
line is processed is displayed as outputs A, B, C,... For example, if the instruction line is 1 2
3 4 + 45 cos, the segments output values will be A = 0.7071, B = 7, C = 2, D = 1. To assist
in human readability, DeltaEC recognizes the semicolon as a punctuation mark that the
user can insert anywhere without aecting the calculation. Thus, the instruction line given
above could also be written 1 ; 2 ; 3 4 + ; 45 cos. (Note that blanks must both precede
51

and follow the semicolon.) Three shades of colored highlighting in the main display of RPN
segments also help human readability.
DeltaECs RPN segment recognizes the common trigonometric, logarithmic, exponential,
and algebraic functions present on most pocket calculators, as well as hyperbolic and Bessel
functions that are not available on most calculators. Most of these functions accept complex
arguments. Other functions convert between complex numbers and real numbers in the usual
ways (e.g., real, imaginary, magnitude, phase). For complete lists and short descriptions of
DeltaECs RPN operations, see the tables in Section 11.4.1.
Whenever the command string of an RPN is being modied, clicking the ShowOps button
displays a reminder of available operations and variables similar to the following:
Valid RPN commands listed below.
(It is OK to type lower case, except Bessel functions.)
Basic: +
log
Trig: cos
cosr
sinh
Bessel: J0
RPN stack: #
Complex: mag

log10
acos
acosr
cosh
J1
lstx
real

Gas: gamma a
Mixture: nL
kT
Solid: rhos cs
State:
Thermodyn:
Mean flow:
Cumulative:
Change:

*
exp
sin
sinr
tanh
Y0
a<>b
imag

/
tenx
asin
asinr

^
sqrt
tan
tanr

~
sqrd
atan
atan2

inv
abs
atanr pi
atan2r

Y1
sto
arg

rcl
argr

min
conj

max
i

rho
D12
ks

cp
mL
ds

k
mH

mu
beta enth
NLdot nLzero

Tm
w
f
pm
Edot Htot H2k
Xdot
Ndot p20HL p20tot
F1
vol
x
=Tm
=p1
=U1
=H2k
=pm
=f
=nL
=F1
=Tzero =nLzro

inp
cmplx cmplxr
dk

dn

p1
U1
Tzero
=Ndot =NLdot
=vol =p20HL

Clicking on one of these reminders will save the user a little typing.
Where capital letters appear in the preferred spelling of an RPN operation, DeltaEC
will usually accept lower-case typing.
The rest of this chapter introduces many ways that RPN segments can be used.

4.2. Simple non-standard results

The RPN segment is often used to display interesting results for the user.
For example, to calculate and display the gas displacement amplitude
j 1j =

jU1 j
!A

(4.1)

at the end of, for example, a DUCT at segment 5, an RPN after segment 5 could be written
!-------------------------- 6 -----------------RPN
magU1 over omega A (units: meters)
0.00
5C 2 / pi / 0b / 5a /

The 0.00in line a is not used in this example. 5C points to jU1 j in segment 5, 0b points to
the frequency in segment 0, and 5a points to the duct area in segment 5. Alternative ways
to arrive at the same result in DeltaEC RPN formulas include
5C 2 pi * 0b * 5a * /

or
52

5C 2 pi 0b 5a * * * /

or
U1 mag w / 5a /

These examples show how DeltaEC recognizes numbers (e.g., 2), pointers to input and
output numbers (e.g., 0band 5C), special constants (here pi), and local complex and
real variables (here U1 and !):
As a second example, the user could display the local values of several thermophysical
properties of the gas, namely m ; cp ; a; and ; by inserting this RPN segment into a model:
RPN
A=rho, B=cp, C=sound speed, D=viscosity (MKS units)
0.00
mu a cp rho

DeltaEC can perform complex arithmetic in RPNs. For example, it can calculate
fk =

tanh [(1 + i) y0 = ]
(1 + i) y0 =

(4.2)

for a parallel-plate geometry [e.g., see the rst of Eqs. (10.103)]. We let the input parameter,
line a, be equal to the plate half-spacing y0 so we can change it easily later:
RPN Thermal function for parallel plate geom. "a"=y0 (meters)
2.0000E-04 a
(t)
(
0.9244 , -0.2392 ) A
inp dk / (1,1) * tanh lstx /

Here (1,1) illustrates the entry of a complex constant, (1 + i). This complex constant
could just as well have been made by entering 1 i + . The input variable of the segment,
line a, is referenced via inp in the RPN command string, and the thermal penetration depth
is accessed via dk.
For complicated algebra that wont t in one RPN, the user can cascade two or more RPNs,
each relying on the output(s) of the previous one(s).
It can be dangerous to link the master of a masterslave set to the result of an RPN
segment through a sameas link. Such an arrangement works ne until the model is saved
to the disk and later re-opened by DeltaEC. While opening such a model, DeltaEC
calculates the constant associated with the masterslave link during le parsing, before the
model is run and thus before the numerical value of the master is accurately calculated.
Thus, the constant might be set inaccurately. If the <.out> le has been modied in a text
editor, values of the output parameters read from the disk, which are usually irrelevant to
subsequent model behavior, can aect such masterslave linkages severely.

4.3. Non-standard inputs

Line a of an RPN segment can be used as an input variable that is unavailable in any other
segment. This is convenient for a variable that the user wants to manipulate in non-MKS
units, a variable that is frequently changed by the user, or a variable that is changed by
DeltaEC as a guess or an independent incremental-plot variable .
For example, suppose that a user is concerned with the volume of a cylindrical resonator,
and wants to nd out what shape of cylinder requires the lowest drive power for a given
53

pressure amplitude. The user also prefers to work with the resonators diameter instead of
its area.
TITLE
Example 1: Plane-wave resonator
!Created@13:21:32 8-Jul-06 with DeltaE Vers. 5.5b6 for the IBM/PC-Compatible
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
Initialize things
1.0000E+05 a Mean P
Pa
7903.3
A Freq
G( 0b)
P
7903.3
b Freq
Hz
G
3.9873E-05 B |U|
G( 0f)
P
300.00
c TBeg
K
1000.0
d |p|
Pa
0.0000 e Ph(p)
deg
3.9873E-05 f |U|
m^3/s
G
0.0000 g Ph(U)
deg
helium
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------RPN
a=diam (cm), A=cross-sectional area (square meters)
1.0000 a G or T
(t)
7.8540E-05 A Area
3.1372E-02 B Perim
inp 100 / sto pi * rcl sqrd pi * 4 /
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------RPN
a=volume (cubic cm). A=length (meters)
10.000
a G or T
(t)
0.1273 A length
inp 1E6 / 1A /
!--------------------------------- 3 --------------------------------SURFACE
top end cap of resonator (imagine its a moving driver)
sameas
1A a Area
m^2
1000.0
A |p|
Pa
0.0000 B Ph(p)
deg
3.9203E-05 C |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 D Ph(U)
deg
1.9602E-02 E Hdot
W
ideal
Solid type
1.9602E-02 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 4 --------------------------------DUCT
the most important piece of this resonator
sameas
1A a Area
m^2
996.65
A |p|
Pa
sameas
1B b Perim
m
5.8368E-04 B Ph(p)
deg
sameas
2A c Length
m
6.6737E-07 C |U|
m^3/s
5.8368E-04 D Ph(U)
deg
3.3257E-04 E Hdot
W
ideal
Solid type
3.3257E-04 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 5 --------------------------------SURFACE
End of the pipe
sameas
1A a Area
m^2
996.65
A |p|
Pa
5.8368E-04 B Ph(p)
deg
2.2261E-19 C |U|
m^3/s
-104.32
D Ph(U)
deg
-2.7438E-17 E Hdot
W
ideal
Solid type
-2.7438E-17 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 6 --------------------------------HARDEND
seal the final end of the resonator
0.0000 a R(1/z)
= 6G?
996.65
A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b I(1/z)
= 6H?
5.8368E-04 B Ph(p)
deg
2.2261E-19 C |U|
m^3/s
-104.32
D Ph(U)
deg
-2.7438E-17 E Hdot
W
-2.7438E-17 F Edot
W
-1.1503E-16 G R(1/z)
-4.5062E-16 H I(1/z)

With this le, the user can modify the diameter (in cm) and the volume (in cm3 ) conveniently in 1a and 2a, and could use those as independent plot variables or as guesses. RPN
instruction 1b calculates the area (in m2 ) and puts it in output 1A for use in segments 3,
4, and 5. RPN instruction 2b calculates the length from the given diameter and volume,
putting it in output 2A for use in segment 4.
Note that segments 3, 4, and 5 show how sameas can point to DeltaEC outputs (capital
letters) as well as inputs (small letters).

4.4. Non-standard targets

DeltaEC has a few specially assigned input parameters that hold target values in segment
types that have outputs very commonly used in targets. Some of these were introduced
54

in Chapter 2: the complex normalized impedances zn in HARDEND and SOFTEND, and the
complex pressure p1 in UNION. Other routine, built-in targets are the solid temperatures in
heat exchangers, which will be introduced in Chapter 5. DeltaEC knows which output
variables in these segments should be associated with their defaulttarget values when the
shooting-method algorithm is using them.
The experienced user will soon hunger for more possibilities. An application may call
for specifying piston stroke, acoustic power, or pressure or velocity (magnitude or phase)
somewhere other than BEGIN. The RPN segment is used to establish such variables as targets.
The rst of the RPN outputs, A, is recognized by DeltaEC as paired with the RPN input
ato comprise a potential target/result.
For example, the stroke of a linear motor is often limited by the exure characteristics
of its suspension. Here is an example using the RPN segment to nd out how much current
must be delivered to a motor to keep the motors stroke targeted at 2 mm while driving a
resonator. The usual HARDEND targets are also used, with complex U1 in BEGIN being the
corresponding guesses. The RPN segments input, 2a, which is set by the user at 2.000, is the
users desired target, and the RPN formula yields the motor stroke, which is written in 2A.
DeltaEC has adjusted guess 1h, the motor current, until the motor stroke met its target.
TITLE
Example 1: Plane-wave resonator
!Created@14:22:59 8-Jul-06 with DeltaE Vers. 5.5b6 for the IBM/PC-Compatible
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
Initialize things
1.0000E+05 a Mean P
Pa
150.00
b Freq
Hz
300.00
c TBeg
K
0.0000 d |p|
Pa
0.0000 e Ph(p)
deg
9.4483E-03 f |U|
m^3/s
G
147.39
g Ph(U)
deg
G
helium
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------IESPEAKER a linear motor and piston
sameas
3a a Area
m^2
2443.2
A |p|
Pa
1.0000 b
R
ohms
-177.67
B Ph(p)
deg
3.0000E-03 c L
H
9.4248E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
5.0000 d BLProd
T-m
147.29
D Ph(U)
deg
1.0000E-02 e
M
kg
9.4267 E Hdot
W
1.0000E+04 f
K
N/m
9.4267 F Edot
W
0.1000 g
Rm
N-s/m
20.919
G WorkIn
W
4.7776 h |I|
A
G
14.031
H Volts
V
0.0000 i Ph(I)
deg
4.7776 I Amps
A
51.381
J Ph(V/I) deg
2443.2
K |Px|
Pa
ideal
Solid type
-177.67
L Ph(Px)
deg
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------RPN
peak to peak stroke of the motor (mm)
2.0000 a G or T
= 2A?
2.0000 A stroke
U1 mag 1a / w / 2 * 1000 *
!--------------------------------- 3 --------------------------------DUCT
the most important piece of this resonator
1.0000E-02 a Area
m^2
S= -2
2441.6
A |p|
Pa
0.3540 b Perim
m
Fn( 3a)
-177.56
B Ph(p)
deg
6.7000 c Length
m
2.8677E-05 C |U|
m^3/s
-177.56
D Ph(U)
deg
3.5009E-02 E Hdot
W
ideal
Solid type
3.5009E-02 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 4 --------------------------------SURFACE
End of the pipe
sameas
3a a Area
m^2
2441.6
A |p|
Pa
-177.56
B Ph(p)
deg
8.8927E-15 C |U|
m^3/s
-36.711
D Ph(U)
deg
-8.4187E-12 E Hdot
W
ideal
Solid type
-8.4187E-12 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 5 --------------------------------HARDEND
seal the final end of the resonator
0.0000 a R(1/z)
= 5G?
2441.6
A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b I(1/z)
= 5H?
-177.56
B Ph(p)
deg
8.8927E-15 C |U|
m^3/s
-36.711
D Ph(U)
deg

55

-8.4187E-12
-8.4187E-12
-4.6190E-14
3.7606E-14

E
F
G
H

Hdot
Edot
R(1/z)
I(1/z)

W
W

! The restart information below was generated by a previous run

! You may wish to delete this information before starting a run
! where you will (interactively) specify a different iteration
! mode. Edit this table only if you really know your model!
guessz
0f 0g 1h
xprecn -1.1737E-08 4.2373E-03 -2.9847E-05
targs
2a 5a 5b
Mstr-slave
1
3 -2

The target parameter of an RPN, like any other target, can be used as the independent
variable in a plotting loop.
An RPN segment should usually be placed downstream of all the results and guesses that
it depends on, so that the RPN will have current values during each DeltaEC integration
sequentially through the segments especially if the RPN is used as a target or if its results
are used elsewhere in the model.

4.5. Changing an integration variable

It is occasionally necessary to abruptly change the value of one or more of DeltaECs
integration variables in the middle of its integration. The RPN segment lets the user change
these in response to a simple algebraic calculation, by using an RPN operator of the form
=variable, where variable is one of the integration variables. For example, one might have
a resonator whose top half is wrapped in a water bath at one temperature and whose bottom
half is bathed at another temperature. Splitting the resonator duct into two sequential DUCTs
and inserting an RPN with an appropriate command string between the two DUCTs will change
the gas temperature Tm halfway along the resonator. To change the temperature from 300
Kelvin (set in the BEGIN) to 320 Kelvin, the segment between the DUCTs could be
RPN
0.00
320 =Tm

or
RPN
320.0
inp =Tm

To increment the temperature by 20 Kelvin, use either

RPN
0.00
Tm 20 + =Tm

or
RPN
20.0
Tm inp + =Tm

Used in this way, RPNs can essentially act like a user-created lumped-element segment,
changing the integration variables in ways not available in DeltaECs built-in segments.
For a complicated example of a custom segmentimplemented with RPNs that change three
integration variables, see pulsed combustionin Chapter 14.
56

4.6. Non-standard guesses

Like most other DeltaEC inputs, parameter a in an RPN segment can be used as a guess. For
example, to let DeltaEC guess the temperature increment needed at the present location
to hit a target downstream, guess input a in an RPN segment like this:
RPN
20.0
G
Tm inp + =Tm

As a contrived example, suppose that the magnetic eld B in a speaker depends on

temperature Tm according to a strange equation such as
B3

5B 2 + 3 = Tm ;

(4.3)

and we want DeltaEC to correctly incorporate a temperature-dependent Bl product in a

SPEAKER segment. We dont know how to solve Eq. (4.3) for B analytically, but we can
make DeltaEC nd the root of the cubic equation numerically by guessing B and targeting
Eq. (4.3):
!--------------------14------------------------RPN (a)=magnetic field (tesla), guessed. 1.6 meters
12.863
a
G or T
A 20.581
B x L
inp 1.6 *
!---------------------15-----------------------RPN
Target this:
0.00
a
G or T
A 0.000 A zero
14a 3 ^ 14a 2 ^ 5 * - 3 + Tm !--------------------16----------------------IESPEAKER a linear motor and piston
sameas
3a a Area
m^2
2443.2
1.0000 b
R
ohms
-177.67
3.0000E-03 c L
H
9.4248E-03
sameas 14A d BLProd
T-m
147.29
1.0000E-02 e
M
kg
9.4267
1.0000E+04 f
K
N/m
9.4267
0.1000 g
Rm
N-s/m
20.919
4.7776 h |I|
A
G
14.031
0.0000 i Ph(I)
deg
4.7776
51.381
2443.2
ideal
Solid type
-177.67

of wire.

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L

(A)= BL product.

|p|
Pa
Ph(p)
deg
|U|
m^3/s
Ph(U)
deg
Hdot
W
Edot
W
WorkIn
W
Volts
V
Amps
A
Ph(V/I) deg
|Px|
Pa
Ph(Px)
deg

4.7. Inter-model linking

Two or more models can be open simultaneously in a single DeltaEC window, and it is
sometimes useful to bring a number from one model into another model. This is accomplished
with an extended RPN address of the form filename:addr in an RPN formula. For example,
we have sometimes been interested in a few unequal engines and many unequal refrigerators
sharing a common resonator, requiring so many segments and so many guesses and targets
that several models are needed to hold them all. Inter-model linking lets such multiple
models communicate with one another.
For example, suppose that three models, named <engine1.out>, <engine2.out>,
and <engine3.out>, which represent a cascade engine [18], are simultaneously open in
DeltaEC. Suppose that hot-heat-exchanger heats are given at address 12e in all three
models. An RPN segment near the end of <engine3.out> could calculate the total heat
required by the set of three engines with the following formula which brings results from
<engine1.out> and <engine2.out> into <engine3.out>:
57

engine1:12e engine2:12e + 12e +

Extending this example, if the beginning of the <engine2.out> model is supposed to

be fed by the end of the <engine1.out> model, where segment 87 is a STK** and 88 is a
HX**, the key variables can be shared if the beginning of <engine2.out> looks like
! engine2.out
!-------------------------- 0 -----------------------------BEGIN This segment is required, even though these variables are re-initialized below!
999.
Pa a Mean P
999.
Hz b Freq
999.
K c TBeg
999.
Pa d |p|
999. deg e Ph(p)
999. m3/s f |U|
999. deg g Ph(U)
helium
Gas type
!-------------------------- 1 -----------------------------RPN bring pm and f from the other model
engine1:0a =pm %:0b =f
!-------------------------- 2 -----------------------------RPN bring Tm from the other model
engine1:87H =Tm
!-------------------------- 2 -----------------------------RPN bring p1 and U1 from the other model
engine1:88B %:88A cmplx =p1 %:88D %:88C cmplx =U1

(The notation % in an interlinked RPN formula signies the previously named model.)
To run all of the models open in DeltaEC together, use Run All, with capital-R as its
keyboard shortcut. The order of running will be left to right in the sequence in which the
model tabs are laid out. Use the mouse to drag tabs from side to side to change that order.
(Drag a tab o the side, top, or bottom of the panel to split the panel into two or more
displays so two or more models can be seen simultaneously.) Choose the order of running
carefully, so that each model has up-to-date values of any numbers that it gets from other
models.
If two or more models are run separately, any incremental plots in any of those models will
run separately, just as if they were open in separate DeltaEC windows. However, Run All
changes this behavior dramatically, disabling any incremental plots in the separate models
and following the choices established by the user in the Master Plot Summary dialog, which
is available in the Display pulldown menu. The Master Plot Summary lets the user choose
one or two of the independent plot variables that exist in the individual models as the Master
independent plot variable (1-dimensional plot) or variables (2-dimensional plot), and choose
from among the established dependent plot variables (including guesses) in the individual
models too. A Run All will then run all the models, increment an independent plot variable,
run all the models again, etc., creating a table of results in a le called <Master.ip>. For
example, a set of linked models often share the same frequency, linked together via RPN
formulas similar to firstmodelname:0b =f . If parameter 0b in model firstmodelname is
chosen as the independent Master Plot variable, then a Run All will sequentially increment
the frequency in all of the linked models.
To view graphs of <Master.ip> after such a Run All, click the appropriate button in
the Master Plot Summary.
Please do not create more than one set of such inter-linked models with Master Plotting
in a single folder, because DeltaEC can have only one <Master.ip> le per folder.
58

4.8. Other math segments

The CONSTANTS segment allows the user to insert up to a dozen real constants in one segment.
These can then be referred to by other segments (via sameas) and can be modied, used as
guesses, or used as independent incremental-plot variables. See details in Section 11.4.3.
The VOLUME segment automatically adds up the volume in a series of segments. See
details in Section 11.4.2. VOLUME adds up the volume of gas plus the volume of the solids in
porous structures such as heat exchangers, so it gives one estimate of the size of an apparatus.
(The RPN variable vol, described in Section 11.4.1, is similar to the segment VOLUME, but
it accesses the cumulative gas volume in the model, without involving the solid.)

59

This blank page forces the next chapter to begin on an odd-numbered page.

60

5. Engines & refrigerators

The examples given in the previous Chapters were relatively simple cases of linear acoustics.
In this Chapter, we introduce the full thermoacoustic computing power of DeltaEC with
some simple engines and refrigerators. After discussing the principles and assumptions that
are built into the computation, we present example calculations.

5.1. Principles of calculation

DeltaEC processes one-dimensional strings
of acoustic and thermoacoustic elements (or
networks of such strings see Section 2.7.5
and Chapter 11 for TBRANCHs and UNIONs),
so the one-dimensional waveequation is of
the greatest importance. We always assume a
time dependence of ei!t , so the waveequation is the second-order Helmholtz dierential
equation for the complex pressure amplitude
p1 (x): As was described at the beginning of Chapter 2, we nd it easiest to think of this
as two coupled rst-order equations in pressure p1 and volume ow rate U1 : This point of
view is taken in Refs. [12] and [19]. In coupled, rst-order form, the equations are ready for
numerical integration along x:
In Chapter 2, we introduced such equations for DUCTs and CONEs, in which Tm did not
vary with x: Nicholas Rott [20] derived the corresponding equation when dTm =dx 6= 0 :
1+

1)f
1+ s

p1 +

ma
!2

d
dx

f dp1
dx
m

a2
(f
f ) dTm dp1
= 0;
2
! (1
)(1 + s ) dx dx

(5.1)

which can be rewritten as two coupled rst-order equations:

dp1
=
dx
dU1
=
dx

i! m
U1 ;
A (1 f )
(
1)f
i!A
1+
2
1+ s
ma

p1 +

(f
(1

f )
dTm
U1 :
)(1 + s ) dx

(5.2)

These equations are used in most of the STK** segments introduced below, which accommodate dTm =dx 6= 0 in engines and refrigerators. The complex variables f and f depend on
the size and shape of the pores and on the gas properties. Of course the right sides of these
61

equations depend implicitly on the local value of Tm ; because gas properties such as m and
a depend on Tm :
To complete this picture for many thermoacoustic engines and refrigerators, only two
more equations are required, i.e., those for the temperature Tm (x) and the total power
H_ tot (x): As for p1 (x) and U1 (x), the equations for Tm (x) and H_ tot (x) depend on the type of
segment, and continuity of Tm and H_ tot are imposed at the junctions between segments.
In DeltaEC, the total power is treated as the sum of two terms,
H_ tot = H_ 2;k + H_ N_ :

(5.3)

The rst term, H_ 2;k ; represents power carried in the x direction by second-order thermoacoustic eects, generally proportional to the lateral spatial average of Re[T1 u
e1 ] ; and by
_
zeroth-order thermal conduction. The second term, HN_ ; represents power carried by nonzero
time-averaged ow of gas in the x direction. In the present chapter, we consider only zero
time-averaged ow, so H_ tot = H_ 2;k : (Nonzero H_ N_ is introduced in Chapter 6.)
Most segments, such as DUCTs and CONEs described in Chapter 2, obey simply dTm =dx = 0
and dH_ tot =dx = 0: STK** segments have a more complicated dierential equation for Tm (x),
which is derived from Rotts energy equation [21],
"
!#
~
f
f
1
Re p1 U~1 1
H_ 2;k =
2
(1 + s )(1 + )(1 f~ )
"
#
2
~
(f
f
)(1
+
f
=f
)
c
jU
j
dT
s
m
m p 1
+
Im f~ +
2
2Agas !(1
)j1 f j dx
(1 + s )(1 + )
(Agas k + Asolid ks )

dTm
;
dx

(5.4)

by solving it algebraically for dTm =dx: The total power ow H_ tot through a STK** segment is
assumed to be independent of x; because the side walls are assumed to be rigid and thermally
insulated. The total power H_ tot changes with x in heat exchanger segments, according to
dH_ tot
= q;
_
dx

(5.5)

where q_ is the heat added per unit length in the heat exchanger.
_
(There is also a thermally anchoredmode in which dH_ 2;k =dx = dE=dx
in DUCTs, CONEs,
etc. to reect the assumption that such segments are immersed in heat sinks; this exception
to the normal circumstances will be described in Section 11.3.1.)
So, for thermoacoustic calculations, DeltaEC integrates from the BEGINning through
the sequence of subsequent segments, with respect to two complex and two real variables:
p1 (x), U1 (x); Tm (x), and H_ tot (x). DeltaEC uses continuity of p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; and H_ tot to pass
from the end of one segment to the beginning of the next. Within each segment, it uses
equations appropriate to that segment type, governed by local parameters, such as area
and perimeter, by global parameters, such as frequency and mean pressure, and by evolving
parameters such as p1 ; U1 , Tm ; and H_ tot themselves and the properties of the gas and solid.
62

Mathematically, the DeltaEC integration can be regarded as

dp1
= Fmomentum (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; H_ tot ; pm ; !; geometry, gas properties, etc.),
dx
(5.6)
dU1
= Fcontinuity (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; H_ tot ; pm ; !; geometry, gas properties, etc.),
dx
(5.7)
dTm
= Fx-energy (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; H_ tot ; pm ; !; geometry, gas properties, etc.),
dx
(5.8)
dH_ tot
= Flateral energy (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; H_ tot ; pm ; !; geometry, gas properties, etc.).
dx
(5.9)
In reality, as documented here and in Chapter 10, most of the equations for specic
segments are simpler than whats suggested by the fully general forms of Eqs. (5.6)(5.9).
For example, the right-hand side of the momentum equation never depends explicitly on
p1 or H_ tot ; many segment types have simply dU1 =dx = 0 or dTm =dx = 0 or can calculate
p1 algebraically instead of with a numerical integration; and dHtot =dx is usually zero or
as simple as Eq. (5.5). Nevertheless it is useful to keep in mind the fully general picture of
Eqs. (5.6)(5.9), to help remember what DeltaEC needs to know at each location x as it
proceeds with its numerical integration.

5.2. Hoers refrigerator

Tom Hoers thermoacoustic refrigerator was described in detail in his Ph.D. thesis [1] and
was briey summarized in Ref. [2]. We use this case to further illustrate capabilities of
DeltaEC, generating curves similar to Figs. 16 and 17 in Ref. [1] (Figs. 5 and 6 in Ref. [2]).
The apparatus is shown in Fig. 5.1. We begin with a le (<hofler1.out>, in the
<ExamplesnEnginesAndRefr> folder) whose geometry is that of Hoers longapparatus.
(We originally typed this le in a Notepad text editor while studying Ref. [1].) The list of
segments serves as an outline of the model:
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

BEGIN:
SURFACE: driver end
DUCT : ambient temperature duct
HX : ambient temperature heat exchanger
STKSLAB: Stack
HX : Cold heat exchanger
DUCT : Cold Duct
CONE :
COMPLIANCE: end bulb

and clicking the toolbar +shows details:

63

Figure 5.1: Hoers thermoacoustic refrigerator.

TITLE
Hoflers 1986 thermoacoustic refrigerator, hofler1.out
!Created@16:29:08 1-Oct-06 with DeltaE Vers. 6.0g2 for the IBM/PC-Compatible
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
1.0000E+06 a Mean P
Pa
500.00
b Freq
Hz
300.00
c TBeg
K
3.0000E+04 d |p|
Pa
0.0000 e Ph(p)
deg
5.0000E-04 f |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 g Ph(U)
deg
helium
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------SURFACE
driver end
1.1340E-03 a Area
m^2
0.0000 A |p|
Pa
0.0000 B Ph(p)
deg
0.0000 C |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 D Ph(U)
deg
0.0000 E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
0.0000 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------DUCT
ambient temperature duct
sameas
1a a Area
m^2
0.0000 A |p|
Pa
0.1190 b Perim
m
0.0000 B Ph(p)
deg
4.2600E-02 c Length
m
0.0000 C |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 D Ph(U)
deg
0.0000 E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
0.0000 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 3 --------------------------------HX
ambient temperature heat exchanger
sameas
1a a Area
m^2
0.0000 A |p|
Pa
0.6000 b GasA/A
0.0000 B Ph(p)
deg
6.3500E-03 c Length
m
0.0000 C |U|
m^3/s
1.9000E-04 d y0
m
0.0000 D Ph(U)
deg
-9.6400 e HeatIn
W
0.0000 E Htot
W
300.00
f Est-T
K
(t)
0.0000 F Edot
W
0.0000 G GasT
K
copper
Solid type
0.0000 H SolidT
K
!--------------------------------- 4 --------------------------------STKSLAB
Stack
sameas
1a a Area
m^2
0.0000 A |p|
Pa
0.7240 b GasA/A
0.0000 B Ph(p)
deg
7.8500E-02 c Length
m
0.0000 C |U|
m^3/s
1.8000E-04 d y0
m
0.0000 D Ph(U)
deg
4.0000E-05 e Lplate
m
0.0000 E Htot
W
0.0000 F Edot
W
0.0000 G TBeg
K
kapton
Solid type
0.0000 H TEnd
K
!--------------------------------- 5 --------------------------------HX
Cold heat exchanger
sameas
1a a Area
m^2
0.0000 A |p|
Pa
0.6700 b GasA/A
0.0000 B Ph(p)
deg
2.5400E-03 c Length
m
0.0000 C |U|
m^3/s
2.5500E-04 d y0
m
0.0000 D Ph(U)
deg
3.0000 e HeatIn
W
0.0000 E Htot
W
200.00
f Est-T
K
(t)
0.0000 F Edot
W
0.0000 G GasT
K
copper
Solid type
0.0000 H SolidT
K

64

!--------------------------------DUCT
Cold Duct
3.8400E-04 a Area
m^2
6.9400E-02 b Perim
m
0.1670 c Length
m
ideal
Solid type
!--------------------------------CONE
sameas
6a a AreaI
m^2
sameas
6b b PerimI
m
6.6800E-02 c Length
m
1.1600E-03 d AreaF
m^2
0.1210 e PerimF
m
ideal
Solid type
!--------------------------------COMPLIANCE end bulb
4.9000E-02 a SurfAr
m^2
1.0600E-03 b Volume
m^3

ideal

Solid type

6 --------------------------------0.0000 A |p|
Pa
0.0000 B Ph(p)
deg
0.0000 C |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 D Ph(U)
deg
0.0000 E Htot
W
0.0000 F Edot
W
7 --------------------------------0.0000 A |p|
Pa
0.0000 B Ph(p)
deg
0.0000 C |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 D Ph(U)
deg
0.0000 E Htot
W
0.0000 F Edot
W
8 --------------------------------0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000

A
B
C
D
E
F

|p|
Ph(p)
|U|
Ph(U)
Htot
Edot

Pa
deg
m^3/s
deg
W
W

The segments that were not introduced in Chapter 2 are HX and STKSLAB.
HXs have parallel-plate geometry, with plate spacing 2yo . Wave propagation through
heat exchangers is computed using the momentum and continuity equations, including both
viscous and thermal dissipation, much like the calculations in DUCTs. There is one additional
input: the heat added to the thermoacoustic wave from an external thermal reservoir (or, if
negative, the heat rejected to the external reservoir). The heat ow determines the change
in total energy ow H_ tot in the heat exchanger. As an input variable, heat ow can either
be specied by the user (and, optionally, an independent plot variable) or it can be a guess.
There is also a potential target: the temperature of the solid in the heat exchanger, which
is assumed to be spatially uniform and which diers from the temperature in the gas in
proportion to the heat, as described in Chapter 10. The temperature dierence between gas
and solid can presently be computed only with an accuracy of about a factor of 2, even in
the acoustic approximation; nevertheless, it is included in DeltaEC, to prevent naive users
from being led to designs with heat exchangers of negligible surface area that have negligible
losses and that would appear to have no disadvantages if this temperature dierence were not
included. We hope that future revisions of DeltaEC will have a more accurate calculation
algorithm for this eect. Meanwhile, however, if you prefer not to use this feature, watch or
target the gas mean temperature instead of the solid temperature by using RPN (see Chapter
4) or observing the gas temperature in the adjacent stack segment (parameter G or H).
STKSLAB also has parallel-plate geometry. This is the rst segment we have encountered
in the Tutorial in which Tm can depend on x: DeltaEC obtains the x dependence by
integrating the thermoacoustic energy equation, schematically given by Eq. (5.8) and in
detail in Eqs. (5.4) and the equations given in Section 10.5.1, with H_ tot independent of x:
Using the lessons we learned in Chapter 2, we recognize that we do not know all the
initial conditions at BEGIN, so we must introduce some necessary guesses and targets. We
know that zero U1 must ow through the bottom of the refrigerator, so we insert a HARDEND
there and use its two impedance targets. Corresponding to those targets, well guess two
variables in BEGIN. These might be complex U1 ; but Hoer always ran his refrigerator on
resonance, so well guess jU1 j and frequency f as guesses to get started, leaving the phases
of p1 and U1 equal (both zero) as the condition for resonance at the driver. After adding
these variables, the guesstarget list looks like
65

GUESS
0b
0f
name BEGIN:Freq BEGIN:|U|
units
Hz
m^3/s
value
5.00E+02
5.00E-04
TARGET
9a
9b
name HARDE:R(1/z HARDE:I(1/z
value
.00
.00

Running this case yields f = 498 Hz and jU1 j = 5:50 10 4 m3 /s. We are gratied that
none of the results thus far appear crazy. If you are running this le for yourself, note also
that the solid is cooler than the gas in the ambient heat exchanger, where the (negative)
heat ows from gas to solid, and that the solid is warmer than the gas in the cold heat
exchanger, where the (positive) heat ow is from solid to gas.
Now consider what guesses and targets might be required by the heat and temperature
aspects of this model. We know that the bottom of the apparatus was thermally insulated,
so no energy can ow in or out there. We also note from Ref. [1] that Hoer maintained the
solid temperature in the ambient heat exchanger at 300 K by vigorous ow of temperatureregulated water through it. These two constraints, not at the BEGINning, call for the use
of two targets: 9c and 3f. Hoer applied a known electrical heater power to the cold heat
exchanger, so we need not guess that; we leave its value at 3.00 W for now. However, he did
not control the heat removed at the ambient heat exchanger, nor the temperature of the gas
at the ambient end; so DeltaEC must guess those two variables: 0c and 3e. After making
the necessary changes, the guesstarget summary looks like
GUESS
0b
0c
0f
name BEGIN:Freq BEGIN:TBeg BEGIN:|U|
units
Hz
K
m^3/s
value
498.02
300.0
5.054E-04
TARGET
3f
9a
9b
name
HX:Est-T HARDE:R(1/z HARDE:I(1/z
units
K
value
300.0
0.00
0.00

3e
HX:HeatI
W
-9.640
9c
HARDE: Hdot
W
0.00

before running, and

GUESS
0b
0c
0f
3e
name BEGIN:Freq BEGIN:TBeg BEGIN: |U|
HX:HeatI
units
Hz
K
m^3/s
W
value
504.22
300.80
5.4172E-04
-11.126
TARGET
3f
9a
9b
9c
name
HX:Est-T HARDE:R(1/z HARDE:I(1/z HARDE:Htot
units
K
W
value
300.00
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
result
300.00
-6.0493E-12 -1.0355E-10 1.7764E-15

after running. By examining segment 5 in the <.out> le, we see that DeltaEC predicts
a cold temperature of 223.76 K with this 3.00 W heat load on the cold heat exchanger.
All of these results are reasonable, so now we examine Ref. [1] very closely to consider what else we should do to compare DeltaEC results directly to the published results
of Hoers experiments. Hoer added the calculated dissipation in the DUCT, CONE, and
COMPLIANCE to his electrically applied heat load, to plot the gross cooling power instead of
the net cooling power. So we do the same, with an RPN segment at the end of the model. We
add another RPN to display another of his plotted variables, the temperature ratio. On the
basis of the gross cooling power and the measured acoustic power delivered to the resonator
_ relative
by the driver, Hoer also plotted the coe cient of performance, COP = Q_ C;gross =E;
to Carnots COP, COPCarnot = TC = (T0 TC ), so we calculate COP/COPCarnot with a third
RPN at the end. These additions look like
66

+ 0 BEGIN
+ 1 SURFACE
driver end
+ 2 DUCT
ambient temperature duct
+ 3 HX
ambient temperature heat exchanger
+ 4 STKSLAB
Stack
+ 5 HX
Cold heat exchanger
+ 6 DUCT
Cold Duct
+ 7 CONE
+ 8 COMPLIANCE end bulb
+ 9 HARDEND
target this to seal the end
!--------------------------------- 10 --------------------------------RPN
gross cooling power is net power plus tail dissipation
0.0000 a G or T
(t)
3.8487 A Qg (W)
5e 5F +
!--------------------------------- 11 --------------------------------RPN
temperature ratio, Tc/T0
0.0000 a G or T
(t)
0.7459 A ratio
5H 3H /
!--------------------------------- 12 --------------------------------RPN
COP / Carnots COP
0.0000 a G or T
(t)
0.1614 A COP rel
10A 1F / 5H 3H 5H - / /

We let the net cooling power, i.e., heat 5e at the cold heat exchanger, be the independent
plot variable in DeltaEC, ranging from 1 to 7 W in 0.5 W steps. To obtain the variables
we want to display, we add 10A, 11A, and 12A to the list of dependent plot variables. After
running this case, we changed jp1 j to 0.015 of pm , and changed 5e to 0.5 W, making those
changes by hand in a couple of steps to make sure DeltaEC did not get lost. Then we
again used 5e as the independent plot variable, over the range of Q_ C to 0.53.5 W in steps
of 0.25 W, and ran it again, appending the results to the previous plot run. We imported
the resulting <.ip> le into a spreadsheet so we could display it together with Hoers
experimental data. The results are shown in Figs. 5.2. The DeltaEC calculations come
reasonably close to the measurements presented in Figs. 16 and 17 of Hoers thesis [1].
Lets modify this example a little more, using it to illustrate some points about sidebranch and series transducers and about DeltaECs consistency with the rst law of thermodynamics. First, lets add a more realistic driver to the system, using VSPEAKER. We
insert VSPEAKER at the beginning, using Ref. [1] for approximate numerical values for the
mass, resistance, and force constant for the speaker, and we delete the SURFACE segment
that was previously near the beginning because VSPEAKER accounts for the oscillatory pressurization losses on its surface area. We use the drive voltage as a guess, so we are asking
DeltaEC what voltage we must supply to maintain jp1 j = 30 kPa in front of the speaker;
we estimate it will take about 20 V to drive it, so we use that as our starting value for the
guess. Well also add an RPN target after the VSPEAKER, to enforce resonance by ensuring
that the phases of p1 and U1 are equal at the driver. We do this by forcing their dierence,
computed by subtracting the values appearing as results 1B and 1L, to be zero, which is the
value given in line 2a.
With this change, BEGIN is no longer at a position of nonzero jU1 j; BEGIN is now at a
place where U1 = 0 and p1 is nonzero, and the subsequent side-branch VSPEAKER adds all
the volume ow rate that ows into the subsequent segments. We change guesses and initial
values accordingly. With these changes, but before running, the guesstarget list becomes
GUESS
0b
0c
0e
1h
4e
name BEGIN:Freq BEGIN:TBeg BEGIN:Ph(p) VSPEA:AplVo
HX:HeatI
units
Hz
K
deg
V
W
value
504.22
300.80
100.00
20.000
-11.126
TARGET
2a
4f
10a
10b
10c
name
RPN:Targe
HX:Est-T HARDE:R(1/z HARDE:I(1/z HARDE:Htot
units
K
W
value
0.0000
300.00
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
result
0.0000
300.00
-7.8635E-15 5.8006E-14 -1.7764E-15

67

Figure 5.2: Hoer refrigerator results. Lines are DeltaEC results; points are from experimental
data presented in Hoers thesis. Squares, p1 = 0:015pm . Circles, p1 = 0:03pm .

68

and when we run it the guesstarget list becomes

GUESS
0b
0c
0e
1h
4e
name BEGIN:Freq BEGIN:TBeg BEGIN:Ph(p) VSPEA:AplVo
HX:HeatI
units
Hz
K
deg
V
W
value
505.59
302.60
152.52
23.385
-36.043
TARGET
2a
4f
10a
10b
10c
name
RPN:Targe
HX:Est-T HARDE:R(1/z HARDE:I(1/z HARDE:Htot
units
K
W
value
0.0000
300.00
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
result 1.7536E-11
300.00
2.5373E-12 -2.5260E-11 -4.2633E-12

and the <.out> le becomes

TITLE
Hoflers 1986 thermoacoustic refrigerator
!Created@21:47:02 2-Oct-06 with DeltaE Vers. 6.0g2 for the IBM/PC-Compatible
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
1.0000E+06 a Mean P
Pa
505.59
b Freq
Hz
G
302.60
c TBeg
K
G
3.0000E+04 d |p|
Pa
152.52
e Ph(p)
deg
G
0.0000 f |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 g Ph(U)
deg
helium
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------VSPEAKER
electrodynamic driver
6.0000E-04 a Area
m^2
3.0000E+04 A |p|
Pa
6.0000 b
R
ohms
152.52
B Ph(p)
deg
0.0000 c L
H
5.4225E-04 C |U|
m^3/s
8.0000 d BLProd
T-m
152.52
D Ph(U)
deg
5.0000E-03 e
M
kg
33.043
E Htot
W
0.0000 f
K
N/m
8.1337 F Edot
W
0.0000 g
Rm
N-s/m
33.043
G WorkIn
W
23.385
h AplVol
V
G
23.385
H Volts
V
2.8804 I Amps
A
-11.156
J Ph(V/I) deg
5.4348E-04 K |Ux| m^3/s
ideal
Solid type
152.52
L Ph(-Ux
deg
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------RPN
enforce resonance
0.0000 a G or T
= 2A?
1.7536E-11 A null
1B 1L + 3 DUCT
ambient temperature duct
+ 4 HX
ambient temperature heat exchanger
+ 5 STKSLAB
Stack
+ 6 HX
Cold heat exchanger
+ 7 DUCT
Cold Duct
+ 8 CONE
+ 9 COMPLIANCE end bulb
+ 10 HARDEND
target this to seal the end
+ 11 RPN
gross cooling power is net power plus tail dissipation
+ 12 RPN
temperature ratio, Tc/T0
+ 13 RPN
COP / Carnots COP

Comparing the values of the guesses here with those before we inserted the VSPEAKER
shows two big dierences: the phase of the pressure and the heat rejected at the ambient
heat exchanger.
The change in the phase of the pressure is essentially trivial: The VSPEAKER segment sets
the overall time phase of everything in the model, because the phase of its voltage is xed
at zero. Previously, the phase of U1 at the top of the model was arbitrarily set to zero by
the BEGIN segment. Now, the VSPEAKER controls the overall time phase of the model, and
the nonzero imaginary part of the speakers mechanical impedance causes a large phase shift
between V1 and U1 . This simply shifts all p1 and U1 phasors by about 30 : A further 180
phase shift enters because of the sign convention for positive voltage built into the segment.
The increase in the heat rejected at the ambient heat exchanger from 11.1 W to 36.0
W is meaningful. The extra heat comes from the VSPEAKER, and illustrates how DeltaEC
handles energy for **SPEAKERs and **DUCERs: They are treated as thermally insulated, so
all of the electrical energy going into them shows up either as acoustic power or as heat. This
transducer is not remarkably e cient at converting electrical power into acoustic power; most
69

of its electrical power becomes heat, which is rejected at the ambient heat exchanger in this
model. The extra load on the ambient heat exchanger increases the temperature dierence
in that heat exchanger a little, which leads to the small increase in gas temperature seen in
0c, which in turn leads to the small increase in resonance frequency seen in 0b.
The speaker can also be included in the model in series, using a VESPEAKER segment,
with yet another reconguration of the BEGIN and associated guesses and targets to reect
new circumstances. As shown below, we include the cavity above the speaker, which appears
from Ref. [1] to have a volume of approximately a liter. Above that volume, the BEGIN starts
with U1 = 0 and with a guessed p1 : We arbitrarily set the time phase of the entire model
by setting the phase of p1 in that volume to zero in the BEGIN. We note that Hoer had
cooling-water tubes attached to the driver housing, to try to remove as much of the drivers
electrical and other dissipation as possible. To crudely model the eect of these tubes, we
insert an RPN below the driver, which we craft so that it removes 75% of the drivers heat,
to illustrate the use of RPN for such purposes. With these changes, and after running, the
guesstarget list becomes
GUESS
0b
0c
0d
2h
2i
7e
name BEGIN:Freq BEGIN:TBeg BEGIN: |p| VESPE: |V| VESPE:Ph(V)
HX:HeatI
units
Hz
K
Pa
V
deg
W
value
504.56
301.24
284.59
23.271
116.88
-17.243
TARGET
3a
4a
7f
13a
13b
13c
name
RPN:Targe
RPN:Targe
HX:Est-T HARDE:R(1/z HARDE:I(1/z HARDE:Htot
units
K
W
value
0.0000
3.0000E+04
300.00
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
result -5.5422E-13 3.0000E+04
300.00
1.7565E-14 1.8398E-13 2.4869E-14

and the <.out> le becomes

TITLE
Hoflers 1986 thermoacoustic refrigerator
!Created@18:52:37 3-Oct-06 with DeltaE Vers. 6.0g2 for the IBM/PC-Compatible
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
1.0000E+06 a Mean P
Pa
504.56
b Freq
Hz
G
301.24
c TBeg
K
G
284.59
d |p|
Pa
G
0.0000 e Ph(p)
deg
0.0000 f |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 g Ph(U)
deg
helium
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------COMPLIANCE the space above the speaker
0.1000 a SurfAr
m^2
284.59
A |p|
Pa
1.0000E-03 b Volume
m^3
0.0000 B Ph(p)
deg
5.4133E-04 C |U|
m^3/s
-90.206
D Ph(U)
deg
0.0000 E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
-2.7680E-04 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------VESPEAKER electrodynamic driver
6.0000E-04 a Area
m^2
3.0000E+04 A |p|
Pa
6.0000 b
R
ohms
-90.207
B Ph(p)
deg
0.0000 c L
H
5.4010E-04 C |U|
m^3/s
8.0000 d BLProd
T-m
-90.207
D Ph(U)
deg
5.0000E-03 e
M
kg
32.668
E Htot
W
0.0000 f
K
N/m
8.1015 F Edot
W
0.0000 g
Rm
N-s/m
32.668
G WorkIn
W
23.271
h |V|
V
G
23.271
H Volts
V
116.88
i Ph(V)
deg
G
2.8605 I Amps
A
-11.041
J Ph(V/I) deg
3.0002E+04 K |Px|
Pa
-90.751
L Ph(Px)
deg
!--------------------------------- 3 --------------------------------RPN
enforce resonance
0.0000 a G or T
= 3A?
-5.5422E-13 A null
2B 2D !--------------------------------- 4 --------------------------------RPN
enforce desired pressure amplitude
3.0000E+04 a G or T
= 4A?
3.0000E+04 A |p1|
p1 mag
!--------------------------------- 5 ---------------------------------

70

RPN

(a)= % of driver heat removed by water tubes on driver box

a G or T
(t)
14.243
A ChngeMe
18.425
B ChngeMe
Htot Edot - inp * sto Htot rcl - =H2k
!--------------------------------- 6 --------------------------------DUCT
ambient temperature duct
1.1340E-03 a Area
m^2
2.9736E+04 A |p|
Pa
0.1190 b Perim
m
-90.401
B Ph(p)
deg
4.2600E-02 c Length
m
2.8084E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
-169.43
D Ph(U)
deg
14.243
E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
7.9452 F Edot
W
+ 7 HX
ambient temperature heat exchanger
+ 8 STKSLAB
Stack
+ 9 HX
Cold heat exchanger
+ 10 DUCT
Cold Duct
+ 11 CONE
+ 12 COMPLIANCE end bulb
+ 13 HARDEND
target this to seal the end
+ 14 RPN
gross cooling power is net power plus tail dissipation
+ 15 RPN
temperature ratio, Tc/T0
+ 16 RPN
COP / Carnots COP
0.7500

Notice how the DeltaEC RPN operator =H2k has been used to override DeltaECs
normal continuity of H_ between segments, to simulate the removal of 18.425 W of heat by
the water-cooled tubing on Hoers driver housing.
The standing-wave components of the pressure and volume-ow-rate waves in this refrigerator model are shown in Fig. 5.3 it is essentially a quarter-wave device. In DeltaEC
models of thermoacoustic engines and refrigerators, it is often also worthwhile to examine
graphs of H_ and E_ and to think about their consistency with the laws of thermodynamics,
e.g., to reveal possible fuzzy thinking about how BEGIN and **END are set up in the model.
In the present case, shown in Fig. 5.4, the acoustic power delivered by the driver drops most
rapidly in the stack and more slowly in the bottom part of the resonator, and the constancy
of H_ tot in each insulated segment (i.e., everywhere but in heat exchangers) is evident. The
positive signs of these power ows indicate ows in the positive-x direction, i.e., from the
BEGIN toward the HARDEND in the model.
Another instructive graph displays gas temperature Tm and solid temperature Tsolid as
functions of x; as illustrated for the present example in Fig. 5.5. In heat exchangers, the
dierence Tsolid Tm is due to the time-averaged heat owing from solid to gas. In other
segments, where there is no time-averaged heat owing from solid to gas, these two temperatures are equal.

5.3. Choosing guesses and targets

The nal example in the previous section used six targets and six guesses the most complicated guesstarget summary table we have yet encountered in the Users Guide. In this
section, we discuss how we chose its members, and explain some general guidelines for guess
target choices.
Recall the purpose of guesses and targets. DeltaEC is numerically integrating equations
71

Figure 5.3: Standing-wave parts of the p1 and U1 wave in Hoers refrigerator.

Figure 5.4: Acoustic power E_ (dashed blue) and total power H_ (solid red) as a function of x in the
refrigerator model. The BEGIN, COMPLIANCE, and VSPEAKER are all crowded into x = 0: The drop
in H_ marks the ambient heat exchanger and the smaller rise in H_ marks the cold heat exchanger.

72

Figure 5.5: DeltaEC results for gas temperature Tm and solid temperature Tsolid as functions
of x in the uppermost part of Hoers refrigerator. These temperatures dier only in the heat
exchanger.

for p1 ; U1 ; and Tm , which can generally be regarded as

dp1
dx
dU1
dx
dTm
dx
dH_ tot
dx

= Fmomentum (local and global parameters and variables);

(5.10)

= Fcontinuity (local and global parameters and variables);

(5.11)

= Fx-energy (local and global parameters and variables);

(5.12)

= q_ in heat exchangers; = 0 elsewhere.

(5.13)

from the BEGIN segment to the end of the model. Some of the results of that integration
are actually known a priori by the user, and some of the variables needed by DeltaEC
to perform that integration are not known a priori by the user. These exceptional variables are specied by the user as targets and guesses, respectively, and DeltaEC uses a
shooting-method algorithm, attempting to meet the targets by nding suitable values for
the guesses. Initial values for guesses are usually left over from a previous run of DeltaEC,
but sometimes they are provided by the user.
For the refrigerator example of the previous section, we chose targets and guesses by
considering what integration results were known by us a priori and what input variables
were not known by us a priori. We looked rst near the end of the model for possible
targets. We denitely needed the three HARDEND variables Re[1=zn ], Im[1=zn ], and H_ tot in
the target list, all targeted to zero, because there is no hole in the end of the apparatus that
would allow nonzero U1 or H_ tot to escape these are integration results that are known to
us a priori. Experimentally, Hoer maintained the hot heat exchanger at 300 Kelvin; but
DeltaEC computes that as a result of each integration pass, so it also had to be a target.
73

We looked rst at the BEGIN segment for candidate guesses. The beginning gas temperature
was not known a priori by us: DeltaEC had to adjust the beginning Tm to arrive at the
rst HX Tsolid correctly, so 0c had to be a guess. Next, we did not know the frequency
needed to maintain resonance a priori, so it too had to be a guess. But how was resonance
determined experimentally? By comparing the phases of p1 and U1 at the driver. These
phases are computed by DeltaEC as results. Hence, we added their dierence = 0 as a fth
target. While we were thinking about the driver, we realized that we wanted to imagine that
jp1 j just below the driver was xed, because Hoer adjusted his driver voltage to achieve
a desired amplitude. Thus jp1 j at that location a calculated result in DeltaEC had to
be a target, and the driver voltage had to be a guess. The heat rejected in the rst heat
exchanger had to be guessed because we didnt know it or control it experimentally, yet it is
required by DeltaEC for each numerical integration. By now we had six targets and four
guesses, so we needed two more guesses. One guess must be jp1 j at the beginning, which
is in the cavity above the loudspeaker, where we had no a priori knowledge of pressure.
One more guess was needed. The overall time phase of a DeltaEC model is meaningless;
somewhere there is always one time-phase variable that can be chosen arbitrarily. However,
here we still had two phases set arbitrarily: the phase of p1 at the BEGIN and the phase of
V1 in the driver. One of these had to be used as a guess. We chose to use the phase of V1 as
that guess.
We chose a point of view where we wanted to learn the cold solid temperature 9H for a
given cooling power 9e. Had we wanted to have DeltaEC tell us the cooling power at a
known cold temperature, we would have used an additional guesstarget pair, targeting TC
and guessing Q_ C .
Although some situations that we model in DeltaEC are not this confusing, choosing the
guesses and targets is never easy for a complicated thermoacoustic system. To choose them
wisely, two things are essential: careful thought about the particular thermoacoustic system
itself, and an appreciation of what variables are results of a single DeltaEC integration
from BEGIN to **END and what variables are needed by DeltaEC for each such integration.
We introduce a few general guidelines for this thought process here.
To understand which variables are candidate targets, you must know which variables
are computed as results by DeltaEC during each pass. To understand which variables are
candidate guesses, you must know which variables are needed by DeltaEC for each pass
of its integration. To aid this understanding, look at Eqs. (5.10)(5.13), where computed
results are the variables on the left-hand sides, and variables needed are on the right-hand
sides. Print these equations (or the more complete versions at the beginning of Chapter 10)
and post them near your workstation, so you can look at them for inspiration when you
are trying to gure out guesses and targets for a new or modied model. Also look at the
columnar structure of the <.out> le, where variables needed by DeltaEC for each pass of
its integration are in the left column (as are potential targets) and variables that DeltaEC
computes as results during each pass are in the right column. For a perfect understanding,
there is no good substitute for studying the summaries of the computation algorithms for
each segment, as discussed briey in the tutorial chapters of the Users Guide, and more fully
in Chapter 10.
To understand what variables should be regarded as known a priori by the user, it is
74

Table 5.1: Choosing guesses and targets.

Variables we think of
as known

Variables we think of
as results

Variables that DeltaEC needs

as inputs for each pass of
integration. Includes Tm -begin,
p1 -begin, U1 -begin, pm , f , all
dimensions, ducer coe cients,
heat at heat exchangers,
gas-mixture mole fraction.

simply xed

guess

Variables that DeltaEC

calculates as results of each pass
of integration. Includes all Tm ,
p1 , U1 , H_ tot except in BEGIN;
combinations of above such as
_ RPN results, and zn at ends.
E,

target

simply results in
<.out> and <.sp> les

sometimes helpful to think about what variables are (or could be, in principle) experimentally controlled, in contrast to what variables are experimentally observed. These must be
compared with the variables that DeltaEC computes as results during each integration
pass and those that DeltaEC needs as inputs during each integration pass through the
system. Note that our denition of an experimental result is more general than usual. In the
Hoer refrigerator case, we considered the drive voltage an experimental result because it
is determined experimentally by the condition that the pressure amplitude have the desired
value. The viewpoint expressed in Table 5.2 is appropriate for comparison of DeltaEC
and experimental data. In this case, geometrical parameters are simply xed. Targets are
experimentally xed or controlled variables that are results of a single pass of numerical
integration, chosen from among Tm , p1 , and U1 (everywhere but in BEGIN); current magnitudes and phases in VDUCERs and voltage magnitudes and phases in IDUCERs; etc. Guesses
may be unknown parameters chosen from among f , the magnitude and phase of U1 -BEGIN
and p1 -BEGIN, Tm -BEGIN, heats at heat exchangers, the magnitude and phase of voltage at
VEDUCERs, etc.
When designing hardware instead of analyzing it, a dierent viewpoint may be adopted.
In this case, many geometrical parameters are not yet xed, but desired operating temperatures, powers, frequency, etc. have been chosen. Often, several geometrical parameters
are included as guesses, and more temperatures and other numerical results are included
as targets. Hence, another useful way to think about guesses and targets is represented by
Table 5.3.
As we did in our description of the choices of guesses and targets for the refrigerator
example above, it is useful to look for targets at the end or middle of the model, then
75

Table 5.2: Interpreting input and result variables: experimental viewpoint.

Variable needed as input

for each pass of
DeltaECs integration
Variable computed as a
result of each pass of
DeltaECs integration

Experimentally
controlled variable

Experimental result

simply xed

guess

target

simply a result
in <.out> and <.sp>
les

Table 5.3: Interpreting input and result variables: design viewpoint.

Variable we want to think Variable we want to think

of as xed
of as a result
Variable needed as input
for each pass of
DeltaECs integration
Variable computed as a
result of each pass of
DeltaECs integration

simply xed

guess

target

simply a result
in
<.out>
<.sp> les

76

and

look for guesses in the beginning or middle of the model. Sometimes it is easy to mentally
associate each target with a corresponding guess, as we did for some of them in the discussion
above. A few targets, such as the HARDEND targets in the example above, may be utterly
obvious and necessary, depending only on the model but not on the users point of view.
However, many targets depend on the users point of view. Does the user want to consider
an electrically driven refrigerator to be driven at xed frequency, or to be kept on resonance
by active control? Is the user interested in cooling power at a given cold temperature, or
in the cold temperature that is reached for a given cooling load? Thus, it is essential to
think carefully about what we want to think of as known and what we want to think of
as unknownfor every model and for every use of that model.
It is also important to remember that the overall time phase of a DeltaEC model is
arbitrary, to nd the one and only one location in the model where that time phase is set
(usually in the BEGIN, but sometimes in a side-branch transducer), and to make sure there
are no other conicting time-phase input variables (e.g., multiple side-branch transducers
are often problematic).

5.4. Meeting targets in an elaborate model

5.4.1. Basic rules
Guesses must precede targets: At least one guess must precede the rst target; at least
two guesses must precede the rst two targets; etc. DeltaEC warns if this rule is
violated.
Avoid a sameas or RPN that points to a downstream result, if it aects an integration
result that is compared with a target. This would confuse DeltaEC by making the
targeted result depend on a result left over from the previous integration instead of
only on the upstream results of the present integration. (When several sameass and
RPNs point to one another, it can be di cult to see whether they are all independent
of downstream results. DeltaEC should warn if this rule is violated.) For example,
this will not work, but changing the RPN formula from 3A to 1A will x it:
!--------------------------------BEGIN
the setup
5.5400E+06 a Mean P Pa
94.000
b Freq
Hz
300.00
c TBeg
K
2.9938E+05 d |p|
Pa
-514.8
e Ph(p) deg
1.5400E-03 f |U|
m^3/s
G
125.00
g Ph(U) deg
1.0000 j nL
HeAr
Gas type
!--------------------------------DUCT
bypass tube
1.6417E-05 a Area
m^2
1.4363E-02 b Perim m
1.8290 c Length m
etc. ...
!--------------------------------RPN p1 magnitude
6.1800E+05 a G or T
=2A
3A
!--------------------------------COMPLIANCE
next
8.3000E-04 a SurfAr m^2
9.2000E-05 b Volume m^3

0 ---------------------------------

1 --------------------------------6.1161E+05 A |p|
18.320
B Ph(p)
1.2280E-03 C |U|

Pa
deg
m^3/s

2 --------------------------------6.1161E+05

A ChngeMe

3 --------------------------------6.1161E+05 A |p|
18.320
B Ph(p)

77

Pa
deg

1.2280E-03 C |U|
136.39
D Ph(U)

m^3/s
deg

etc. ...

5.4.2. Developing a substantially new model

Occasionally the user can create a completely new model, establish several targets and
guesses, hit the blue run button, and enjoy instant success. However, it is much more
common to nd that this approach yields no more than a message from DeltaEC explaining
that it has failed to meet targets. Several strategies can be used to overcome this situation:
Understand approximately what to expect from your model before you even begin working
with DeltaEC, so you can provide reasonable initial estimates for guesses. For example, use your knowledge of acoustics to make reasonable initial estimates of values
for TBRANCH impedances to give DeltaEC a plausible starting point.
Proofread your model carefully. One of the most common problems in DeltaEC models
is an order-of-magnitude typographical error in an input variable. Use the schematic
view for a quick check of dimensions.
clear all guesses and targets, then run the model and examine the results for approximate
sanity. (Better yet, do this sanity check before you establish any guesses and targets in
the rst place.) If you see a result that is wildly unrealistic, such as a temperature of
10,000 Kelvin, modify something upstream to x it, so DeltaECs shooting-method
algorithm begins in the correct ballpark.
Even though you may have chosen guesses and targets by thinking about the end of the
model rst, introduce the guesses and targets starting near the beginning, one target
and one guess at a time. To be sure that your rst guess will be a suitable partner for
your rst target, think about the physics of cause and eect. Modify the candidate
guesss value by hand before you establish it as a guess, running to conrm that
changing the candidate guess has a signicant eect on the intended target. Then add
that guess and target, run, and conrm that the target is met. If successful, repeat
this process for the next candidate guess and target.
Save your model frequently, so you can backtrack if things go awry. You can save
a le with any lename extension, and we frequently nd ourselves naming saved
les to indicate the order they are created, e.g., <bottle.001>, <bottle.002>,
<bottle.003>, or to indicate what they represent to us, e.g., <bottle1targ.out>,
<bottle2targs.out>, etc. We keep notes to show what each saved le represents.
As the number of guesses and targets increases, DeltaECs shooting method has more
and more work to do. Be kind. Before adding the Nth target and guess, modify the
candidate guess by hand to make the intended target variable very close to the desired
value before asking DeltaEC to take over responsibility for that target and guess.
If an overly bold change has gotten DeltaEC lost, use Restore all guessez, described in
Section 5.7, to recover the previous set of guesses.
78

If DeltaEC seems to be missing targets by only a little, reduce the convergence tolerance
or adjust one of the other shooting-method tuneup parameters, which are accessible
through the Edit pulldown menu as Options, described in Section 8.3.2.
Consider whether the number of guesses and targets could be reduced by beginning at the
**END and ending at the BEGINning. If so, Flip the model as described in Section 5.7.
Consider other ways to reduce the number of guesses and targets. For example use
VSPEAKER instead of VESPEAKER if possible. Or avoid a transducer by using a nonzero
U1 in BEGIN.
Change the guess-list membership, if you can think of an appropriate alternative to one or
more existing guesses.
If convergence seems strangely problematical, consider changing the relative importance of
dierent targets. If some targets (such as heat-exchanger temperatures) are aimed at a
nonzero number while others (such as **END impedance) are aimed at zero, DeltaEC
sometimes has trouble deciding how close is close enough. The relative weight can
be changed via the Normalization Mode parameter described in Section 8.3.2, but it
is sometimes more productive to change the weight of an individual target by incorporating it into an RPN segment that is aimed at zero and multiplying (or dividing)
the calculated target result by a large number to emphasize (or de-emphasize) it; or
adding 1 to what would otherwise be a zero target, to de-emphasize it.
If convergence seems strangely problematical, also consider whether some guesses might
essentially have large xed osets. The shooting method begins by calculating the
sensitivities of the results to changes in the guesses by changing each guess by a xed
percentage (described in Section 8.3.2). If a part-per-million change in one guess causes
part-per-million changes in targeted results, but a part-per-million change in a second
guess causes an order of magnitude change in one or more targeted results, the shooting
method will fail. In such cases, it helps to use an RPN input parameter as small guess,
add a large oset to it in the RPNs line b to make a number thats the size of the
original guess, and sameas the original guess to the RPN result. This will ensure that
ppm changes in all guesses cause ppm changes in all targeted results.
5.4.3. Modifying an existing model
Purely acoustic models with only a few guesses and targets, like the bottle in Chapter
2, are usually robust: From a state with all targets met, the user can often change any
variable by a factor of two or so, and DeltaECs shooting method will once again hit the
targets. However, DeltaECs shooting method gets lost more easily for thermoacoustic
models with more than about ve targets and ve guesses, especially with STKDUCT and
STKCONE segments. Some strategies for successful routine modications of complex models,
starting from a state in which targets are met, include:
If an overly bold change has gotten DeltaEC lost, use Restore all guessez, described in
Section 5.7, to recover the previous set of guesses.
79

Use the incremental plot feature to change a variable by small steps. In practice, this
usually means: Observe that a big change led to failure to converge; Restore guessez
and un-do the big change manually to return to the secure starting condition; Try a
smaller change (such as 1/10 of the original change); If the smaller change still led to
failure to converge, then restore and undo again, and try an even smaller change; When
a small-enough change has been found, use that change as the step in the incremental
plot feature to let DeltaEC accomplish the desired big change in 10, 100, or more
small steps. (If DeltaEC gets part way through these small steps and then loses its
ability to hit targets, use the plot rewind feature, described in Section 3.2.3, to recover
a meaningful operating point that is at least part way toward the desired change.)
Insert a new segment gradually, by rst inserting it with near-zero volume and near-zero
impedance, then gradually increasing these with the incremental plot feature. Often
this entails inserting a new segment with near-zero length and gradually increasing the
length. Similarly, the heat of a new heat exchanger can be increased gradually from
zero; the impedance of a new side-branch impedance can be reduced gradually from a
very large value; the impedance of a series impedance can be increased gradually from
zero.
Kill an undesired segment gradually by reducing its length with the incremental plot feature
before Killing it.
Save your model frequently, so you can recover from the unexpected. Not all oating-point
errors are successfully trapped on all operating systems; some can cause the program
to crash and lose unsaved work.
The shooting method within DeltaEC can sometimes get stuck around an inappropriate
local minimum. Try manually changing one of the guesses slightly and see if DeltaEC
will loose its fondness for this particular sticky point.
Always check results carefully for reasonableness, particularly when modeling complicated
systems or using any of DeltaECs more elaborate features. While DeltaEC is a
useful tool, it is far from foolproof for example, the shooting method can easily end
up generating devices that are several wavelengths long or wander into the completely
unrealistic realm of negative values for guessed frequency or length.

5.5. Standing-wave engine

This standing-wave-engine example is described in detail in Ref. [22]. The device described
there is used here to illustrate the thermoacoustic capabilities of DeltaEC in the context
of an engine. We will reproduce some of the gures in that paper here.
The apparatus is shown in Fig. 5.6. After running the le <5inch.out>, the result is:
80

Figure 5.6: Five-inch-diameter standing-wave engine.

TITLE
Five-Inch Standing-wave Thermoacoustic Engine
!Created@16:56:43 5-Oct-06 with DeltaE Vers. 6.0g2 for the IBM/PC-Compatible
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
Initial
1.3800E+06 a Mean P
Pa
121.16
b Freq
Hz
G
557.92
c TBeg
K
G
7.3549E+04 d |p|
Pa
G
0.0000 e Ph(p)
deg
0.0000 f |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 g Ph(U)
deg
helium
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------SURFACE
Hot End
1.2920E-02 a Area
m^2
7.3549E+04 A |p|
Pa
0.0000 B Ph(p)
deg
3.3316E-05 C |U|
m^3/s
180.00
D Ph(U)
deg
0.0000 E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
-1.2252 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------DUCT
Hot Duct
sameas
1a a Area
m^2
7.2686E+04 A |p|
Pa
0.4030 b Perim
m
5.5059E-03 B Ph(p)
deg
0.2790 c Length
m
8.7694E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
-90.209
D Ph(U)
deg
0.0000 E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
-11.907
F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 3 --------------------------------HX
Hot HX
sameas
1a a Area
m^2
7.1519E+04 A |p|
Pa
0.3930 b GasA/A
0.3876 B Ph(p)
deg
6.0000E-02 c Length
m
9.6763E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
4.8300E-04 d y0
m
-91.200
D Ph(U)
deg
2210.0
e HeatIn
W
2210.0
E Htot
W
999.00
f Est-T
K
(t)
-95.846
F Edot
W
557.92
G GasT
K
ideal
Solid type
563.81
H SolidT
K
!--------------------------------- 4 --------------------------------STKCIRC
Honey Stack
sameas
1a a Area
m^2
6.5700E+04 A |p|
Pa
0.8100 b GasA/A
2.7530 B Ph(p)
deg
0.2790 c Length
m
0.1599 C |U|
m^3/s
5.0000E-04 d radius
m
-85.386
D Ph(U)
deg
5.0000E-05 e Lplate
m
2210.0
E Htot
W
170.63
F Edot
W
557.92
G TBeg
K
stainless Solid type
306.39
H TEnd
K
!--------------------------------- 5 --------------------------------HX
Ambient HX
1.2670E-02 a Area
m^2
6.3081E+04 A |p|
Pa
0.4860 b GasA/A
3.2510 B Ph(p)
deg
5.0800E-02 c Length
m
0.1676 C |U|
m^3/s
4.0600E-04 d y0
m
-85.829
D Ph(U)
deg
-2125.1
e HeatIn
W
G
84.898
E Htot
W

81

303.00

f Est-T

5H?

84.898
F Edot
W
306.39
G GasT
K
ideal
Solid type
303.00
H SolidT
K
!--------------------------------- 6 --------------------------------ANCHOR
subsequent duct is water jacketed. dHdot/dx = dEdot/dx
!--------------------------------- 7 --------------------------------DUCT
Ambient Duct
sameas
5a a Area
m^2
6.9652E+04 A |p|
Pa
0.3990 b Perim
m
-176.59
B Ph(p)
deg
3.6500 c Length
m
1.8500E-05 C |U|
m^3/s
-176.59
D Ph(U)
deg
0.6443 E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
0.6443 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 8 --------------------------------SURFACE
Ambient End
sameas
5a a Area
m^2
6.9652E+04 A |p|
Pa
-176.59
B Ph(p)
deg
1.7385E-16 C |U|
m^3/s
95.222
D Ph(U)
deg
1.9100E-13 E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
1.9100E-13 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 9 --------------------------------HARDEND
target this to seal the end
0.0000 a R(1/z)
= 9G?
6.9652E+04 A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b I(1/z)
= 9H?
-176.59
B Ph(p)
deg
1.7385E-16 C |U|
m^3/s
95.222
D Ph(U)
deg
1.9100E-13 E Htot
W
1.9100E-13 F Edot
W
1.3878E-17 G R(1/z)
-4.3970E-16 H I(1/z)
!--------------------------------- 10 --------------------------------RPN
ensure all ambient-duct dissipation goes to water jacket
0.0000 a G or T
= 10A?
-5.6843E-14 A zero
5E 5F -

Examining the guesstarget summary, we nd

GUESS
0b
0c
0d
5e
name BEGIN:Freq BEGIN:TBeg BEGIN: |p|
HX:HeatI
units
Hz
K
Pa
W
value
121.16
557.92
7.3549E+04 -2125.1
TARGET
5f
9a
9b
10a
name
HX:Est-T HARDE:R(1/z HARDE:I(1/z
RPN:Targe
units
K
value
303.00
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
result
303.00
1.3878E-17 -4.3970E-16 -5.6843E-14

and some <.sp> graphs show the wave, power, and temperature proles in Fig. 5.7.
Targets 9a and 9b, the real and imaginary parts of 1=zn ; are of course necessary to impose
U1 = 0 at the closed ambient end of the resonator. Our choices of other targets and guesses
were made to reect the perspective of Ref. [22], in which the as-built hardware was driven
by a xed heat input (ordinary input 3e) and the ambient heat exchanger was held at xed
temperature (target 5f). Frequency 0b is a guess, because we want DeltaEC to tell us the
frequency at which it thinks the system should spontaneously oscillate. Initial temperature
0c and initial pressure amplitude 0d are also guesses, because we want DeltaEC to tell us
the hot temperature and the pressure amplitude at which it thinks the system should oscillate
for the given hot heat input. The nal target and guess, 10a and 5e, allow DeltaEC to tell
us the heat rejected at the ambient temperature, under the constraint that E_ = H_ tot at the
interface between the ambient heat exchanger and the long ambient resonator duct. We judge
this to be a reasonable energy-closure condition for the model because the resonator duct was
water-cooled in this apparatus, so the heat arising from E_ dissipated in it might be expected
to be carried away locally by water. (This is of course not strictly true; boundary-layer
thermoacoustic processes redistribute energy along x; as was dramatically demonstrated in
Ref. [23] long ago.) Consistent with this energy-closure condition, the ANCHOR segment just
before the nal DUCT overrides the default behavior of the subsequent segments (thermally
insulated, except in heat exchangers), ensuring that H_ 2,k = E_ thereafter.
82

Figure 5.7: Graphs of the wave (left), total power and acoustic power (top right), and temperature
(bottom right) as functions of x in <5inch.out>. Changing temperature and constant H_ tot show
the location of the stack. The heat exchanger locations are indicated by the steep changes in H_ tot :

83

Other choices could be made for the guesses and targets. For instance, the cold-duct
length could be substituted for the frequency as one of the guesses, if we were designing
an apparatus to operate at a desired frequency. The hot-heat-exchanger temperature 3f
could be added to the target list and, simultaneously, the hot-heat-exchanger heat 3e could
be added to the guess list, if we were designing an apparatus to operate at a desired hot
temperature. For now, however, the guesses and targets will be left as they are, since they
reect the point of view adopted in Ref. [22].
To plot some results for this 5-inch engine case, we started DeltaEC with this le again
and prepared parameters so that the plot summary became
Dependent Variables (outputs):
PLOTS
0A
0B
0C
0D
name BEGIN:Freq BEGIN:TBeg BEGIN:|p| BEGIN:HeatI
units
Hz
K
Pa
W
Independent Variables (inputs):
Outer loop:
3e
HX:HeatI Beg= 9.50E+02 End=
50.

3H
8A
HX:Solid HARDE:|p|
K
Pa
Step=

-33.

by adding 3H and 8A to the dependent-plot-variable list and establishing 3e as an independent

plot variable, setting its initial, nal, and step values. (Some other variables such as TBeg are
of minor interest now, but cannot be deleted from the list of plot variables because guesses
appear here by default.)
Next, we modied mean pressure to be 19.2 bar, and ran the code. When completed,
we modied mean pressure to 13.8 bar, and ran it again, appending the new results to the
<.ip> le. Three more runs with mean pressures of 9.6, 6.9, and 5.2 bar completed the
data set. We exited from DeltaEC, and read the <.ip> le into a spreadsheet/graphics
program for a little massaging: converting pressure amplitude at the cold end from Pascals
to bar, and then squaring that number; subtracting 303 Kelvin from TH , and adding the
measured heat leak to the room to Q_ H . Plotting these results then yields the curves shown in
Fig. 5.8, resembling Figs. 5, 6, and 7 in Ref. [22]. These curves dier slightly from those in the
reference, because of DeltaECs inclusion of the small gas-to-solid temperature dierences
in the heat exchangers.
More detailed comparison between DeltaEC computations and measurements with this
apparatus can be found in Ref. [24]. The agreement is excellent at low amplitude, but
disagreement grows large at high amplitude typical of our experience with standing-wave
engines up to jp1 j =pm ' 0:1:

5.6. More thermoacoustic segments

In this section we list thermal segments that are commonly used for engines and refrigerators:
the several types of heat exchangers, stacks, and regenerators. More details on each can be
found in Chapter 10 and Chapter 11.
STKCIRC A stack or regenerator with circular pores. We also use this to model hexagonal
honeycomb stacks.
STKSLAB A stack or regenerator with parallel-plate geometry.
STKRECT A stack or regenerator with rectangular (or square) pore geometry.
84

Figure 5.8: Standing-wave engine results. Lines are DeltaEC results; points are from experimental
data in Ref. [22].

Figure 5.9: More thermoacoustic segments: stacks, regenerators, and heat exchangers.

85

STKPIN A stack or regenerator comprised of an array of pins aligned parallel to x.

STKDUCT A stack with lateral dimensions much larger than , computed in boundarylayer approximation. (Used for pulse tubes and thermal buer tubes.)
STKCONE A tapered stack with lateral dimensions much larger than , computed in
boundary-layer approximation. (Used for pulse tubes and thermal buer tubes.)
STKSCREEN A screen regenerator for Stirling systems.
STKPOWERLW A porous medium with friction factor and heat-transfer coe cient specied as
power-law functions of Reynolds number.
HX A parallel-plate heat exchanger.
TX Tube-array heat exchanger, with the thermoacoustic working gas inside the tubes.
SX Stacked-screen heat exchangers, valid only for

greater than hydraulic radius.

PX Power-law heat exchangers, with friction factor and heat-transfer coe cient characterized
by power laws in Reynolds number.
VXT1 and VXT2 Heat exchangers with xed solid temperature, in which gas temperature
can vary with x:
VXQ1 and VXQ2 Heat exchangers with xed heat per unit length, in which gas temperature
can vary with x:
ANCHOR This segment overrides what would otherwise be default thermal-insulation mode in
subsequent DUCTs, CONEs, COMPLIANCEs, IMPEDANCEs, SURFACEs, etc., so that DeltaEC
treats those segments as if they are immersed in a thermal bath at T = Tm :
INSULATE This segment is used to re-establish the default thermal-insulation condition if it
was previously overridden by ANCHOR.

5.7. More user-interface features

These options oer substantial power and convenience for experienced users.
Restore all guessez. Before beginning iterations during a run, DeltaEC saves copies of
the guess values. Whenever an unsuccessful run overwrites the guesses (leaving you
and DeltaEC lost), you can use this option to restore all the parameters that were
changed to their starting point. Simply Restore guessez, modify some variables (e.g.,
returning anything you recently changed to earlier, more successful values), and try
again.
Comment lines. If the heading on the rst line of a segment does not provide enough
space for the users notes, additional comment lines can be added below it. Examples
are shown at the beginning of the next section, Section 5.8.1.
86

Split segment. This option, available by right clicking on the top line of a segment or in
the Edit pulldown menu, automates the process of splitting any segment with length
(e.g., a DUCT, CONE, or STK**) into two segments, each having half of the original length,
correcting the sameas and RPN references everywhere in the model, and correcting the
guess, target, and plot lists. (To partition the lengths unequally while keeping the
correct total length, you can use masterslave linking (Section 2.7.2) after splitting
a segment in equal halves: slave the rst length to the second, then modify the rst
length, then clear the length link to allow the two pieces to be modied independently.)
AutoLayout. Sometimes auxiliary windows such as plots and the highlight display become
lost o the edge of the computers screen. (For example, undocking a laptop from
a larger screen can cause this.) The AutoLayout option, available in the Display
pulldown menu, brings all of DeltaECs auxiliary displays close to DeltaEC itself.
Flip model. (Not yet implemented, October 2010.) The number of guesses and targets
can sometimes be reduced by beginning the integration of a model from what you had
previously considered the end.Orice pulse-tube refrigerators (described in Section
5.8) are a particularly good example because we naturally think of them as beginning
at the driver, but they endwith an accurately known impedance in the COMPLIANCE
tank, while the driver impedance is usually less well known; BEGINning in the tank can
often reduce the number of guesses and targets. The Flip modeloperation automates
switching back and forth between these two directions of integration, sparing the user
from an otherwise very tedious and error-prone process. Flip reverses the order of
every segment between the BEGIN and the last HARDEND or SOFTEND. Segments within
TBRANCHes are left in their original order, however. Flip takes care of sameas pointers,
RPN segment pointers, CONEs and STKCONEs, and plot references, and an attempt is made
to reform the guess and target lists. Always proofread very carefully after a Flip; in
complicated models there is usually something that DeltaE handled incorrectly.

5.8. Stirling and pulse-tube refrigerators

Rotts equations implemented in DeltaEC are valid for any phase dierence between p1
and U1 , and any degree of thermal contact in the stack. Hence, DeltaEC can be used
to model Stirling thermodynamic systems, in which p1 and U1 are substantially in phase, as
well as standing-wave thermoacoustic devices, in which the phases p1 and U1 dier by nearly
90 as described in Sections 5.2 and 5.5. The principal additional DeltaEC segment that is
often needed for Stirling systems is one for stacked screen beds, STKSCREEN, because stackedscreen regenerators are more common than parallel-plate, circular-pore, or rectangular-pore
regenerators in Stirling systems. In our opinion, the principal shortcomings of DeltaEC
for Stirling applications are DeltaECs acoustic approximation (which leads to reduced
accuracy at high pressure amplitudes) and its inability to predict two-dimensional eects
and streaming-driven convective heat transport in pulse tubes (shortcomings shared by many
other design programs). DeltaECs main virtues are speed and easy inclusion of some
auxiliary components such as ducts, dead volumes, and linear motors in the model.
87

Harmonic analysis of Stirling systems is introduced by I. Urieli and D. M. Berchowitz in

Ref. [25] and by A. J. Organ in Ref. [26].
5.8.1. Alpha Stirling cryocooler
The example le <Stirling.out> represents a simple 55-Hz, 2-MPa helium Stirling cryocooler with stacked-screen regenerator and heat exchangers. This apparatus is illustrated
in Fig. 5.10. (It does not resemble any real cryocooler known to us; we created it only to
illustrate DeltaECs capabilities.) First, we examine <Stirling.out>:
TITLE
Bare bones Stirling cryocooler
! The user can type a few lines of notes here, describing the model.
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
Initialize things.
! Use values that seem reasonable, but are not drawn from
! anything specific in our experience.
2.0000E+06 a Mean P
Pa
55.000
b Freq
Hz
300.14
c TBeg
K
G
2.8459E+05 d |p|
Pa
G
-43.119
e Ph(p)
deg
G
3.6500E-04 f |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 g Ph(U)
deg
helium
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------SX
aftercooler
! Use an SX because this is low enough power that copper screens
!
will be work ok.
sameas
2a a Area
m^2
2.8085E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.6000 b VolPor
-43.835
B Ph(p)
deg
1.0000E-03 c Length
m
3.6265E-04 C |U|
m^3/s
sameas
2d d
rh
m
-0.3900 D Ph(U)
deg
-35.833
e HeatIn
W
G
2.0781 E Htot
W
300.00
f Est-T
K
= 1H?
36.973
F Edot
W
300.14
G GasT
K
copper
Solid type
300.00
H SolidT
K
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------STKSCREEN
regenerator
1.1670E-04 a Area
m^2
2.2845E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.6860 b VolPor
-53.179
B Ph(p)
deg
5.0000E-02 c Length
m
6.2225E-05 C |U|
m^3/s
1.3900E-05 d
rh
m
-49.487
D Ph(U)
deg
0.3000 e ksFrac
2.0781 E Htot
W
7.0929 F Edot
W
300.14
G TBeg
K
stainless Solid type
79.960
H TEnd
K
!--------------------------------- 3 --------------------------------SX
cold heat exch
! See the file Stirling.xls in this folder for an estimate of
! the temperature difference from the edge to the center of this
! heat exchanger, due to finite conductivity of copper.
sameas
2a a Area
m^2
2.2804E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.6000 b VolPor
-53.184
B Ph(p)
deg
1.0000E-03 c Length
m
6.2000E-05 C |U|
m^3/s
sameas
2d d
rh
m
-52.000
D Ph(U)
deg
4.9896 e HeatIn
W
G
7.0677 E Htot
W
80.000
f Est-T
K
= 3H?
7.0677 F Edot
W
79.960
G GasT
K
copper
Solid type
80.000
H SolidT
K
!--------------------------------- 4 --------------------------------RPN
enforce Htot = Edot here
0.0000 a G or T
= 4A?
-4.5359E-12 A
Htot Edot !--------------------------------- 5 --------------------------------RPN
U sub 1 at cold end
6.2000E-05 a G or T
= 5A?
6.2000E-05 A |U1|
3C
!--------------------------------- 6 --------------------------------RPN
phase(U) at cold end
-52.000
a G or T
= 6A?
-52.000
A ph(U1)
3D

The physical segments consist of a rst heat exchanger, at 300 K, the regenerator, and a
second heat exchanger at 80 K. All three are stacked screens. The other segments BEGIN
and the RPNs dene the end conditions.
88

Figure 5.10: A Stirling cryocooler.

Figure 5.11: Total power (solid black) and acoustic power (dashed blue) vs position in the Stirling
cryocooler example. The total power H_ tot is constant and small in the regenerator, and changes in
the heat exchangers.

89

The hydraulic radius rh and volumetric porosity for the screens can be calculated from
the screen manufacturers specs, using expressions from Ref. [26]:
q
md
= 1
1 + (md)2 ;
(5.14)
4
d
rh =
;
(5.15)
41
where d is wire diameter and m is mesh number (i.e., number of wires per unit length). The
second equation results from the conventional denition of hydraulic radius: Gas volume
divided by gassolid interface area. This regenerator is a little over 1 cm in diameter and is
5 cm long. The heat exchangers are the same diameter but only 1 mm long.
DeltaEC estimates the temperature dierence between the helium gas and the copper
screen wires in the heat exchangers, but it has no provision for estimating the temperature dierence between the screen wires and the housing in which they are mounted (a
temperature dierence caused by the nite thermal conductance of the screen wires themselves). This is not a serious concern for small machines, but should be checked by hand on
a case-by-case basis.
Line e in the regenerator segment, ksFrac, is the fudge factor by which longitudinal
conduction through the regenerator is adjusted due to the spatially intermittent thermal
contact between adjacent screens and due to the conduction of the pressure-vessel wall.
Following Ref. [27], we often set ksFrac somewhere between 0.1 and 0.3, the lower end of
the range being appropriate if the conduction of the pressure-vessel wall is negligible.
Our point of view with respect to boundary conditions in this example is most easily
displayed by running DeltaEC on this le and examining the guesstarget summary,
GUESS
0c
0d
0e
name BEGIN:TBeg BEGIN: |p| BEGIN:Ph(p)
units
K
Pa
deg
value
300.14
2.8459E+05
-43.119
TARGET
1f
3f
4a
name
SX:Est-T
SX:Est-T
RPN:Targe
units
K
K
value
300.00
80.000
0.0000
result
300.00
80.000
-2.2675E-12

1e
SX:HeatI
W
-35.833
5a
RPN:Targe
6.2000E-05
6.2000E-05

3e
SX:HeatI
W
4.9896
6a
RPN:Targe
-52.000
-52.000

and the BEGIN segment. We are considering the complex volume ow rates at the two ends
to be given, as if we have in mind an alpha Stirling machine, with the motions of the
two pistons determining the volumes of the compression and expansion spaces. The volume
ow rate at the hot end is set by lines 0f and 0g in the BEGIN segment. The 0 phase of
line 0g essentially determines the zero of phase for the entire system. The volume ow rate
3:65 10 4 m3 /s of line 0f (together with the frequency set in line 0b) implies a volumetric
stroke of 2.1 cm3 peak-to-peak at the hot end. The RPNs at the cold end ensure that
DeltaECs shooting method arrives there with the desired cold piston stroke and phase.
To arrive at these two targets, DeltaEC adjusts two guesses: the pressure amplitude and
phase in the BEGIN segment (and hence throughout the cooler). We also insist that the solid
temperatures in the two heat exchangers be 300 K and 80 K; DeltaEC achieves these two
targets by adjusting two more guesses: the heat extracted at the hot heat exchanger, and
the temperature in the BEGIN segment. We also insist that the acoustic power and total
power leaving the cold heat exchanger are equal, implying that the cold piston is thermally
90

insulated. (Acoustic power and total power are also equal at the ambient piston, because
the BEGIN segment assigns H_ 2;k = E_ by default.)
DeltaEC predicts that, under these circumstances, the cooler will reject 36 W at the
hot heat exchanger and will have a cooling power of 5 W. This cooling power accounts for
heat conduction and enthalpy ow through the regenerator, but does not account for any
heat load imposed by frictional irreversibilities in the cold piston, nor any heat load imposed
by the regenerator case conduction except to the extent that it is included in ksFrac.
We now make or suggest a few simple modications to this le to illustrate additional
features of DeltaEC.
To discover what temperature the cooler would maintain with a heat load of 10 W
instead of 5 W, we remove 3f the cold heat exchanger temperature from the target list,
and we remove 3e the cooling power from the guess list, and modify it to 10 W. Running
DeltaEC shows that the shooting method is lost with such a dramatic change, so we Restore
guessez, modify 3e back to 5 W, and use an incremental plot of 3e from 5 W to 10 W, step
0.2 W, to reach the desired heat load. Under these circumstances the cold temperature will
be 232 K.
Using 3e as an independent plot variable running from 10 W to 2 W with steps of, say,
0.2 W, and using 3H (cold solid temperature) as a dependent plot variable will generate a
table of cold temperature (and other defaults) vs heat load.
Insertion of two *ESPEAKER segments, before the aftercooler and after the cold heat
exchanger, would model use of linear motors and pistons there.
In the next subsection, we will use TBRANCH and UNION to change this model from an
alpha Stirling machine to a beta or gamma machine, with one power piston on the
hot end and a displacer piston in parallel with the heat exchange elements.
5.8.2. Beta or gamma cryocooler
The use of TBRANCH and UNION for hardware with branches and loops was introduced in
Section 2.7.5. Recall the method of computation: At a TBRANCH, the branch impedance
determines how the (complex) volume ow rate splits up; volume ow rates are added at
the UNION. In purely acoustic models, the complex branch impedance is most often used as
a pair of guesses that DeltaEC adjusts in its usual way to get the complex pressure at
the SOFTEND of the TBRANCH to come out to be the same as it is at the UNION. In models
with thermoacoustic components, a third guesstarget pair is also employed: The fraction
of the energy ow H_ tot going down the TBRANCH is guessed, and the temperature at the
SOFTEND of the TBRANCH is targeted to equal the temperature at the UNION. Models with
TBRANCHs and UNIONs tend to have many guesses and targets, since every SOFTEND and
UNION contributes two or three targets (and a few more targets are almost always needed
for temperatures, heats, etc.). Keep in mind that UNION targets dier from the usual RPN,
**END and heat-exchanger-temperature targets because their actual values are not specied
by the user they vary from one integration to the next, depending on what is happening
at the associated SOFTEND segment, as the shooting method varies the guesses.
As an example of use of TBRANCH and UNION in a thermoacoustic setting, we return to the
Stirling cryocooler example above, and convert it to a displacer-style [25] Stirling machine,
91

Figure 5.12: Gamma-style Stirling machine.

with a compressor piston at the hot end and a driven displacer piston connecting the hot
and cold ends. In the previous example, P U power (i.e., E_ in DeltaEC vocabulary) owed
in at the BEGIN and out at the end; no explicit segments indicated the pistons there. Here,
with a displacer piston, the cold-end P U power is returned automatically to the hot end,
reducing the hot-end P U power requirement.
The apparatus layout is illustrated in Fig. 5.12. The corresponding display of segment
headings is
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

BEGIN:G P Initialize things

COMPLIANCE:
space around power-piston motor
IESPEAKER:
the power piston
COMPLIANCE:
a little space in front of the power piston
TBRANCH:G
branch to displacer
IESPEAKER:
a spring-mounted, driven moving mass
COMPLIANCE:
a little volume for the connection
SOFTEND:
reconnect at UNION
SX
:GT
aftercooler
STKSCREEN:
regenerator
SX
:GT
cold heat exch
UNION: T
displacer cold end
HARDE: T
close the end
RPN : T
simulate insulation in the displacer piston

and the guesstarget summary is the largest we have yet encountered in the Users Guide:
GUESS
0c
0d
0e
4a
4b
4c
8e
10e
name BEGIN:TBeg BEGIN: |p| BEGIN:Ph(p) TBRAN:Re(Zb TBRAN:Im(Zb TBRAN:HtotB
SX:HeatI
SX:HeatI
units
K
Pa
deg
Pa-s/m^3
Pa-s/m^3
W
W
W
value
300.22
6373.3
114.43
-3.0131E+09 -3.2836E+09
-6.7651
-45.267
4.5794
TARGET
8f
10f
11b
11c
12a
12b
12c
13a
name
SX:Est-T
SX:Est-T UNION:|p|SO UNION:Ph(p) HARDE:R(1/z HARDE:I(1/z HARDE:Htot
RPN:Targe
units
K
K
Pa
deg
W
value
300.00
80.000
2.5375E+05
-44.127
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
result
300.00
80.000
2.5375E+05
-44.127
8.9507E-14 2.8896E-13 -2.4998E-11 -4.8383E-11

One can think of these guesses and targets as paired up in the following way. The TBeg
guess lets DeltaEC hit the T-ambient target. (These two are so nearly equal, and so
trivially related, that they could easily be omitted.) The two branch-impedance guesses let
DeltaEC reach the two p1 targets at the UNION. The branch-Htot guess lets DeltaEC
hit the RPN target at segment 13, which enforces thermal insulation on the cold end of the
displacer piston. The heat removed at the hot heat exchanger lets DeltaEC reach the
target temperature at the cold heat exchanger. Finally, the two p1 guesses in the BEGIN
92

segment and the heat in the cold heat exchanger allow DeltaEC to achieve U1 = 0 and
H_ tot = 0 at the HARDEND at the end of the apparatus.
The corresponding <.out> le is
TITLE
Stirling cooler w displacer piston, illustrating TBRANCH--UNION
!-gamma.out
!Created@14:22:52 7-Oct-06 with DeltaE Vers. 6.0g2 for the IBM/PC-Compatible
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
Initialize things
2.0000E+06 a Mean P
Pa
55.000
b Freq
Hz
300.22
c TBeg
K
G
6373.3
d |p|
Pa
G
114.43
e Ph(p)
deg
G
0.0000 f |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 g Ph(U)
deg
helium
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------COMPLIANCE space around power-piston motor
0.1000 a SurfAr
m^2
6373.3
A |p|
Pa
5.0000E-04 b Volume
m^3
114.43
B Ph(p)
deg
3.3041E-04 C |U|
m^3/s
23.550
D Ph(U)
deg
0.0000 E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
-1.6157E-02 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------IESPEAKER the power piston
2.0000E-04 a Area
m^2
2.9239E+05 A |p|
Pa
1.0000 b
R
ohms
-39.277
B Ph(p)
deg
0.0000 c L
H
3.3020E-04 C |U|
m^3/s
10.000
d BLProd
T-m
23.620
D Ph(U)
deg
8.3000E-02 e
M
kg
40.076
E Htot
W
1.0000E+04 f
K
N/m
21.992
F Edot
W
0.0000 g
Rm
N-s/m
40.076
G WorkIn
W
6.0000 h |I|
A
19.931
H Volts
V
140.00
i Ph(I)
deg
6.0000 I Amps
A
-312.09
J Ph(V/I) deg
2.9812E+05 K |Px|
Pa
-39.820
L Ph(Px)
deg
!--------------------------------- 3 --------------------------------COMPLIANCE a little space in front of the power piston
1.0000E-03 a SurfAr
m^2
2.9239E+05 A |p|
Pa
2.0000E-06 b Volume
m^3
-39.277
B Ph(p)
deg
2.7635E-04 C |U|
m^3/s
18.316
D Ph(U)
deg
40.076
E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
21.652
F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 4 --------------------------------TBRANCH
branch to displacer
-3.0131E+09 a Re(Zb) Pa-s/m^3
G
2.9239E+05 A |p|
Pa
-3.2836E+09 b Im(Zb) Pa-s/m^3
G
-39.277
B Ph(p)
deg
-6.7651 c HtotBr
W
G
6.5609E-05 C |U|
m^3/s
93.262
D Ph(U)
deg
-6.7651 E HtotBr
W
-6.4850 F EdotBr
W
28.137
G EdotTr
W
!--------------------------------- 5 --------------------------------IESPEAKER a spring-mounted, driven moving mass
5.0000E-05 a Area
m^2
2.5375E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.5000 b
R
ohms
-44.127
B Ph(p)
deg
0.0000 c L
H
6.5762E-05 C |U|
m^3/s
1.0000 d BLProd
T-m
93.396
D Ph(U)
deg
7.0000E-03 e
M
kg
-6.1541 E Htot
W
1190.0
f
K
N/m
-6.1538 F Edot
W
0.0000 g
Rm
N-s/m
0.6110 G WorkIn
W
1.0000 h |I|
A
1.6425 H Volts
V
-30.000
i Ph(I)
deg
1.0000 I Amps
A
-41.930
J Ph(V/I) deg
4.4991E+04 K |Px|
Pa
169.20
L Ph(Px)
deg
!--------------------------------- 6 --------------------------------COMPLIANCE a little volume for the connection
1.0000E-06 a SurfAr
m^2
2.5375E+05 A |p|
Pa
5.0000E-07 b Volume
m^3
-44.127
B Ph(p)
deg
5.7703E-05 C |U|
m^3/s
103.08
D Ph(U)
deg
-6.1541 E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
-6.1541 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 7 --------------------------------SOFTEND
reconnect at UNION
0.0000 a Re(z)
(t)
2.5375E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b Im(z)
(t)
-44.127
B Ph(p)
deg

93

0.0000

c Htot

(t)

5.7703E-05 C |U|
m^3/s
103.08
D Ph(U)
deg
-6.1541 E Htot
W
-6.1541 F Edot
W
-56.531
G Re(z)
-36.427
H Im(z)
300.22
I
T
K
8 ---------------------------------

!--------------------------------SX
aftercooler
sameas
9a a Area
m^2
0.6000 b VolPor
1.0000E-03 c Length
m
sameas
9d d
rh
m
-45.267
e HeatIn
W
G
300.00
f Est-T
K
= 8H?
copper
Solid type
!--------------------------------STKSCREEN
regenerator
1.1670E-04 a Area
m^2
0.6860 b VolPor
5.0000E-02 c Length
m
1.3900E-05 d
rh
m
0.3000 e ksFrac

2.8988E+05 A |p|
Pa
-39.755
B Ph(p)
deg
2.6449E-04 C |U|
m^3/s
4.0408 D Ph(U)
deg
1.5747 E Htot
W
27.670
F Edot
W
300.22
G GasT
K
300.00
H SolidT
K
9 ---------------------------------

2.5407E+05 A |p|
Pa
-44.169
B Ph(p)
deg
5.6226E-05 C |U|
m^3/s
-74.284
D Ph(U)
deg
1.5747 E Htot
W
6.1785 F Edot
W
300.22
G TBeg
K
stainless Solid type
79.962
H TEnd
K
!--------------------------------- 10 --------------------------------SX
cold heat exch
sameas
9a a Area
m^2
2.5375E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.6000 b VolPor
-44.127
B Ph(p)
deg
1.0000E-03 c Length
m
5.7703E-05 C |U|
m^3/s
sameas
9d d
rh
m
-76.923
D Ph(U)
deg
4.5794 e HeatIn
W
G
6.1541 E Htot
W
80.000
f Est-T
K
= 10H?
6.1541 F Edot
W
79.962
G GasT
K
copper
Solid type
80.000
H SolidT
K
!--------------------------------- 11 --------------------------------UNION
displacer cold end
7.0000 a SegNum
2.5375E+05 A |p|
Pa
2.5375E+05 b |p|SOF
Pa
= 11A?
-44.127
B Ph(p)
deg
-44.127
c Ph(p)S
deg
= 11B?
1.4140E-15 C |U|
m^3/s
300.22
d T_SOFT
K
(t)
28.663
D Ph(U)
deg
-2.4998E-11 E Htot
W
5.3083E-11 F Edot
W
79.962
G T
K
!--------------------------------- 12 --------------------------------HARDEND
close the end
0.0000 a R(1/z)
= 12G?
2.5375E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b I(1/z)
= 12H?
-44.127
B Ph(p)
deg
0.0000 c Htot
W
= 12E?
1.4140E-15 C |U|
m^3/s
28.663
D Ph(U)
deg
-2.4998E-11 E Htot
W
5.3083E-11 F Edot
W
8.9507E-14 G R(1/z)
2.8896E-13 H I(1/z)
!--------------------------------- 13 --------------------------------RPN
simulate insulation in the displacer piston
0.0000 a G or T
= 13A?
-4.8383E-11 A null
6E 6F ! The restart information below was generated by a previous run
! You may wish to delete this information before starting a run
! where you will (interactively) specify a different iteration
! mode. Edit this table only if you really know your model!
guessz
0c 0d 0e 4a 4b 4c 8e 10e
xprecn -3.8009E-03 2.3931E-03 -4.4166E-04 1.2042E+04 -4.9579E+04
hilite
10e
targs
8f 10f 11b 11c 12a 12b 12c 13a

3.1353E-05

1.1774E-04

9.4330E-06

We are using IESPEAKER segments for both the displacer and the driver, because linear
motors and loudspeakers share the same physical transduction mechanism.
The user will soon discover that this is a surprisingly robust model, considering the large
number of guesses and targets: The model tolerates steps in many independent variables of
several percent without getting lost. The user might next generate cooling-power curves by
using the cold-temperature target as an independent plot variable and the cooling power as
dependent plot variable; or the user might explore the frequency dependence of the cooler,
by using frequency as an independent plot variable.
94

5.8.3. Pulse-tube refrigerator

Changing a Stirling cryocooler into an orice pulse-tube refrigerator (OPTR) is a simple
matter of replacing the cold piston with a pulse tube, heat exchanger, orice, inertance
(optional), and compliance volume in series. Figure 5.13 represents such a cooler. The
example le <optr.out> represents a 300 Hz, 3 MPa helium orice pulse-tube refrigerator.
(It is not representative of any real hardware known to us. In fact, it is deliberately ine cient,
to serve as a lesson in the next section.) The <.out> le is:
TITLE
a crude cooler design, not optimal
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
Start with 8% p osc
3.0000E+06 a Mean P
Pa
300.00
b Freq
Hz
300.10
c TBeg
K
G
2.4000E+05 d |p|
Pa
0.0000 e Ph(p)
deg
6.9787E-03 f |U|
m^3/s
G
52.898
g Ph(U)
deg
G
helium
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------SX
Aftercooler
1.0290E-03 a Area
m^2
2.3018E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.6900 b VolPor
-3.5084 B Ph(p)
deg
1.2500E-02 c Length
m
5.8509E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
6.4500E-05 d
rh
m
46.900
D Ph(U)
deg
-454.47
e HeatIn
W
G
50.700
E Htot
W
300.00
f Est-T
K
= 1H?
429.15
F Edot
W
300.10
G GasT
K
copper
Solid type
300.00
H SolidT
K
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------STKSCREEN
Regenerator
sameas
1a a Area
m^2
1.7241E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.7300 b VolPor
-19.695
B Ph(p)
deg
5.5000E-02 c Length
m
1.2191E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
2.4000E-05 d
rh
m
-29.387
D Ph(U)
deg
0.3000 e ksFrac
50.700
E Htot
W
103.59
F Edot
W
300.10
G TBeg
K
stainless Solid type
149.90
H TEnd
K
!--------------------------------- 3 --------------------------------SX
Cold heat exchanger
sameas
4a a Area
m^2
1.1527E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.6900 b VolPor
-15.367
B Ph(p)
deg
2.0000E-03 c Length
m
1.2192E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
6.4500E-05 d
rh
m
-29.702
D Ph(U)
deg
14.510
e HeatIn
W
G
65.210
E Htot
W
150.00
f Est-T
K
= 3H?
68.082
F Edot
W
149.90
G GasT
K
copper
Solid type
150.00
H SolidT
K
!--------------------------------- 4 --------------------------------STKDUCT
Pulse tube
5.6870E-05 a Area
m^2
S= -2
1.0482E+05 A |p|
Pa
2.6740E-02 b Perim
m
Fn( 4a)
-44.000
B Ph(p)
deg
0.2000 c Length
m
1.3018E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
1.0000E-05 d WallA
m^2
-51.089
D Ph(U)
deg
65.210
E Htot
W
67.704
F Edot
W
149.90
G TBeg
K
stainless Solid type
300.20
H TEnd
K
!--------------------------------- 5 --------------------------------SX
Hot heat exchanger
sameas
4a a Area
m^2
2.2288E+04 A |p|
Pa
0.6900 b VolPor
-19.900
B Ph(p)
deg
5.0000E-03 c Length
m
1.3025E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
6.4500E-05 d
rh
m
-51.420
D Ph(U)
deg
-65.210
e HeatIn
W
G
-2.8422E-14 E Htot
W
300.00
f Est-T
K
= 5H?
12.373
F Edot
W
300.20
G GasT
K
copper
Solid type
300.00
H SolidT
K
!--------------------------------- 6 --------------------------------IMPEDANCE The orifice
1.0000E+07 a Re(Zs) Pa-s/m^3
1.3094E+04 A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b Im(Zs) Pa-s/m^3
11.433
B Ph(p)
deg
1.3025E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
-51.420
D Ph(U)
deg
-2.8422E-14 E Htot
W
3.8908 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 7 --------------------------------DUCT
inertance

95

Figure 5.13: An orice pulse tube refrigerator (OPTR). The orice can be purely resistive, as
shown here, but adding inertance in series with the resistive orice improves performance.

1.0000E-05
1.1210E-02
3.0000E-02
5.0000E-04

a
b
c
d

Area
Perim
Length
Srough

m^2
m
m

S= -2
Fn( 7a)

2.3020E+04 A |p|
Pa
-141.30
B Ph(p)
deg
1.3017E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
-51.434
D Ph(U)
deg
-2.8422E-14 E Htot
W
3.3976E-02 F Edot
W
8 ---------------------------------

ideal
Solid type
!--------------------------------COMPLIANCE Reservoir volume
1.2680E-02 a SurfAr
m^2
Fn( 8b)
1.5000E-04 b Volume
m^3
S= -5

2.3020E+04 A |p|
Pa
-141.30
B Ph(p)
deg
2.1371E-13 C |U|
m^3/s
-178.84
D Ph(U)
deg
-2.8422E-14 E Htot
W
1.9505E-09 F Edot
W
9 ---------------------------------

ideal
Solid type
!--------------------------------HARDEND
The end
0.0000 a R(1/z)
= 9G?
0.0000 b I(1/z)
= 9H?
0.0000 c Htot
W
= 9E?

2.3020E+04
-141.30
2.1371E-13
-178.84
-2.8422E-14
1.9505E-09
3.6105E-09
-2.7741E-09

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H

|p|
Ph(p)
|U|
Ph(U)
Htot
Edot
R(1/z)
I(1/z)

Pa
deg
m^3/s
deg
W
W

! The restart information below was generated by a previous run

! You may wish to delete this information before starting a run
! where you will (interactively) specify a different iteration
! mode. Edit this table only if you really know your model!
guessz
0c 0f 0g 1e 3e 5e
xprecn -3.3810E-03 -1.7732E-08 2.2426E-04 -2.7531E-03 3.4751E-04
hilite
3e
targs
1f 3f 5f 9a 9b 9c
mstr-slave
3
4 -2
7 -2
8 -5

7.8445E-05

The Stirling part of the system is modeled as a stacked-screen regenerator STKSCREEN and
two stacked-screen heat exchangers SX. We model the pulse tube itself as a STKDUCT, using
Rotts wave equation and enthalpy ux equation in boundary-layer approximation, because
the pulse-tube diameter is
: The heat exchanger at the hot end of the pulse tube is
the HX. The orice, inertance, and compliance are easily modeled as DeltaEC IMPEDANCE,
DUCT, and COMPLIANCE, respectively. Our use of zero for the imaginary part of the IMPEDANCE
reects our intention that this orice should truly be resistive, with its pressure drop in phase
with mass ux.
For purposes of illustration here, we will regard the geometry of the apparatus as given,
and will explore its performance for a given, xed input jp1 j. The guesstarget summary
indicates our point of view:
GUESS
0c
0f
0g
1e
3e
5e
name BEGIN:TBeg BEGIN: |U| BEGIN:Ph(U)
SX:HeatI
SX:HeatI
SX:HeatI
units
K
m^3/s
deg
W
W
W
value
300.10
6.9787E-03
52.898
-454.47
14.510
-65.210
TARGET
1f
3f
5f
9a
9b
9c
name
SX:Est-T
SX:Est-T
SX:Est-T HARDE:R(1/z HARDE:I(1/z HARDE:Htot

96

Figure 5.14: Plotting <optr.sp> using Re[p1 ] as the horizontal axis and Im[p1 ] as the vertical axis
yields a pressure-phasor plot. The SegEndMarks option tags the curve with numbers indicating
the ends of the segments. Cloning the plot and switching p1 to U1 yields a volume-ow-rate phasor
plot. These can also be created with Phasor Mode in the plotters Options pulldown menu.

97

units
value
result

K
300.00
300.00

K
150.00
150.00

K
300.00
300.00

W
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
3.6105E-09 -2.7741E-09 -2.8422E-14

Three of the six targets x the hot and cold temperatures at 300 K and 150 K. We leave the
amplitude of the oscillatory pressure at the BEGINning at 8% of mean pressure, and leave
the frequency xed at 300 Hz. Hence, we are asking: What is the cooling power at 150
K, and how much input power, volume ow rate, etc. are required, for xed frequency and
pressure amplitude, and for this geometry? The result, given in the le listings above: 14.5
W of cooling power, requiring over 500 W of input power from the compressor.
As with most OPTR models we have worked with in DeltaEC, this one is not particularly robust. An abrupt change of a typical variable by 20% or 30% will likely cause
DeltaEC to get hopelessly lost, unable to adjust its guesses to hit the targets. Part of the
fragility of OPTR models (and other models with a STKDUCT or STKCONE) in DeltaEC
is due to the fact that small changes in variables near the BEGINning, such as p1 ; U1 ; and
the heat removed at a heat exchanger, have a large eect on temperatures at the end of
the pulse tube. Some of the fragility is due to the fact that OPTR models typically have a
large number of guesses and targets. When you encounter a fragile DeltaEC model, try to
reduce the number of guesses and targets as much as possible (particularly in initial design
explorations when you are changing things dramatically) and, once you have a convergent
model, make only small changes in variables. Try reducing DeltaECs convergence tolerance (Section 8.3.2) if you have to use more than 5 guesses and 5 targets. Remember to
subdivide a large change in a variable into a series of small changes, using an incremental
plot. A fast computer and frequent hard-disk saving of satisfactory converged models will
minimize frustration. See Section 5.4 for additional tips.
Examination of the pulse tube segment STKDUCT above shows a possible problem: The
_ which can theoretically be as high as 1.000 but is usupulse tube gure of merit H_ tot =E;
ally more like 0.8, may be unrealistically high: H_ tot =E_ ' 65 W=68 W' 0:96. DeltaEC
knows nothing about jet- or streaming-driven convection, and pulse-tube experimentalists
are only beginning to learn how to reliably avoid such convection. (For a discussion of
streaming-driven convection, see Refs. [28] or [29], and [30] and [12].) To force DeltaEC
to accommodate a reduced pulse-tube gure of merit, the user can introduce an RPN and an
additional guesstarget pair. The RPN instruction line can compute the ratio of H_ tot to E_
in the pulse tube, and the target value in line a can be set to something like 0.8. The user
can simulate the thermal loading of streaming-driven convection, etc. by letting DeltaEC
guess an unphysically large value for the cross section of the pulse tube solid wall (line 4d),
which then conducts signicant heat from hot to cold, allowing DeltaEC to meet its target
of 0.8. We will not do so here.
The JOIN segment should be used at the ends of a pulse tube to model the temperature
overshoots and adiabaticisothermal interface losses there, adding more reality to DeltaEC
modeling of the pulse tube itself. See Section 10.8.
Our choices for nearly all input variables in this model were random, not guided by
good design sense or any real cryocooler. In particular, our choice of Re[Zs ] = 1 107 for
the orice impedance above was random. To nd a better orice setting, use Re[Zs ] as an
independent plot variable, letting it range from 1 107 to 1 108 . The cooling power peaks
at 14.75 W for Re[Zs ] = 2:2 107 : This is not much improvement. For guidance on what to
98

try changing next to improve the performance, we consider exergy in the next section.

5.9. Exergy ow
Among the many important thermodynamic variables having units of power (e.g., Watts)
is exergy ow. In thermodynamics, exergy represents the ability to do useful work, in
principle, assuming unlimited access to an innitely large thermal reservoir at an ambient
temperature T0 at which heat has no value [31].
Novice thermoacousticians sometimes suppose that the acoustic power E_ represents the
ability to do useful work, because the treatment of intensity and power in adiabatic waves in
introductory acoustics courses implies that the face of a moving piston is a perfect interface
between mechanical power (F u) and acoustic power (pU ): However, thermoacoustic waves
are generally not adiabatic. The heat carried near solid surfaces by the s1 u
e1 term in the
second-order enthalpy ow represents an ability to do useful work that is separate from
_ because this term in the enthalpy ow can be usefully coupled to the assumed thermal
E,
reservoir at T0 through a heat engine if s1 u
e1 is owing at a temperature dierent from T0 .
Taking this into account [12], the exergy ow associated with a thermoacoustic wave is
T0 _
E+ 1
X_ =
Tm

T0
Tm

H_ 2;k :

(5.16)

_ so this reduces to X_ = E;
_ independent of Tm ; as
(For an adiabatic sound wave, H_ 2;k = E;
expected.) The ambient temperature T0 is set to 300 K by default in the BEGIN segment;
this default can be overridden by using =Tzero in a subsequent RPN segment.
The usefulness of the concept of exergy arises from its relationship to irreversible entropy
generation, expressed by the Guoy-Stodola theorem [31],
X_ = T0 S_ gen :

(5.17)

In this simplied expression of the theorem, X_ represents the dierence in exergy ow

between two locations in an apparatus between which exergy cannot ow in or out laterally,
and the theorem says that this dierence is the product of T0 and the rate of irreversible
entropy generation between those two locations. In a perfectly e cient apparatus, there is
no irreversible entropy generation, so X_ = 0 (except where X_ ows in or out, e.g., at a
heat exchanger or a **DUCER or **SPEAKER). Thus, a graph of X_ vs x can help show the
user what parts of an apparatus are responsible for its ine ciency.
_ H_ tot ;
For example, consider the OPTR described in Section 5.8.3. The <.sp> plot of E;
_
and X is shown in Fig. 5.15. Most of the exergy is lost in the regenerator, and the rate of
exergy loss is steepest near the ambient end of the regenerator. This suggests that viscous
losses in the regenerator may be severe. Indeed, the <.out> le shows a large pressure
drop in the regenerator. The user might try changing the dimensions of the regenerator
to improve the performance. Figure 5.15 also shows signicant drops in X_ in the ambient
and cold heat exchangers. There, the analysis of the situation is a little more complicated,
because the heats owing into a heat exchanger contribute exergy according to [12]
X_ = Q_ (1
99

T0 =Tm ) ;

(5.18)

Figure 5.15: Graph of total power (black solid line), acoustic power (blue dashed line), and exergy
ow (green dot-dashed line) in the OPTR example. The locations where H_ tot changes are the three
heat exchangers.

where T0 is ambient temperature and Tm is the local temperature. At the ambient heat
exchanger, Tm = T0 ; so the drop in exergy there is entirely lossy. At the cold heat exchanger,
Tm 6= T0 ; but the loss in thermoacoustic exergy due to Q_ is only 15 W, so most of the drop
in X_ in Fig. 5.15 at the cold heat exchanger is lossy. Thus, the heat exchangers are also
contributing signicantly to the poor performance in this OPTR. At this point, the user
might suspect that the poor performance of this OPTR arises from trying to force too much
ow through pores that are too tight or an area that is too small.
Subsequent chapters describe additional steady-ow and mixture-separation features in
_ and the terms that they add to Eq. (5.16)
DeltaEC. These phenomena also contribute to X;
are given in Eq. (8.9).

100

6. Steady flow, too

The superposition of steady ow and oscillating ow creates many interesting and important
eects that can be modeled with DeltaEC. A nonzero steady ow profoundly aects Tm (x)
in stacks and regenerators, creates Doppler shifts [32] and increases the turbulent dissipation
of acoustic power in DUCTs, and causes a small x dependence in the time-averaged pressure.
In systems such as Reids refrigerator (shown below in Fig. 6.1), externally forced steady
ow provides the ability to deliver cold gas from a thermoacoustic refrigerator without
a cold heat exchanger. In more conceptually subtle situations, the acoustic oscillations
themselves cause the steady ow, which is then called streaming by acousticians [33]. In
some circumstances, such as the thermoacoustic-Stirling hybrid engine shown in Fig. 1.7 or
6.4, we try to understand the streaming well enough to eliminate it. In other circumstances,
such as the self-circulating heat exchanger shown in Fig. 1.9, we try to make streaming as
large as possible without undue dissipation of acoustic power.

6.1. Principles of calculation

DeltaEC accounts for steady ow as N_ ; the moles per second1 owing through the segments
in the positive-x direction. It can be specied or guessed in BEGIN, and it splits up at
TBRANCHs, adds up at UNIONs, and can be abruptly changed in RPNs. Otherwise, N_ ows
unchanged through segments. (But note that it seldom makes sense to imagine that nonzero
N_ could ow through one of the enclosed *EDUCER or *ESPEAKER segments.)
Steady ow carries power
H_ N_ = N_ mwm ;
(6.1)
where m is the molar mass and wm is the mean enthalpy per unit mass. The total power
H_ tot = H_ 2;k + H_ N_

(6.2)

is the power that obeys the rst law of thermodynamics for open control volumes. It is the
sum of the second-order time-averaged thermoacoustic enthalpy ux, the ordinary thermal
conduction in the x direction, and H_ N_ = N_ mwm :
In DeltaEC, mean enthalpy is referenced to zero at temperature T0 , which is set to 300
Kelvin by default in the rst BEGIN segment of a model. (This default can be overridden
1
DeltaECs moles are gram-moles: 6:022 1023 particles (e.g., heliums molar mass is 0.004002 kg/mol).
We might have chosen to use mass ow or volume ow instead of molar ow as DeltaECs steady-ow
parameter. We rejected volume ow because it changes with x when Tm depends on x; which seemed
unnecessarily confusing. We chose molar ow instead of mass ow for convenience in the context of mixture
separation, which is introduced in Chapter 7.

101

by using the =Tzero operation in an RPN segment.) For an ideal gas, Eq. (6.1) can then be
regarded as
H_ N_ = N_ mcp (Tm T0 ) :
(6.3)
Nonzero N_ also contributes a term
N_ (mwm

T0 msm )

(6.4)

_ Like the enthalpy per unit mass wm ; the entropy per unit mass sm is
to exergy ow X:
2
referenced to zero at T0 :
DeltaEC also introduces a new integration variable, the second-order time-averaged
head-loss pressure p2;0;HL ; to keep track of the small but important eects of steady ow
on the time-averaged pressure. The second-order head-loss pressure p2;0;HL is initialized
at zero in BEGIN and evolves with x in most other segments. When N_ and p2;0;HL are
involved in a DeltaEC calculation, the numerical-integration picture that is summarized
in Eqs. (5.6)(5.9) for thermoacoustics with N_ = 0; namely
dp1
dx
dU1
dx
dTm
dx
dH_ tot
dx

= Fmomentum (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; H_ tot ; pm ; !; geometry, gas properties, etc.),

= Fcontinuity (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; H_ tot ; pm ; !; geometry, gas properties, etc.),
= Fx-energy (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; H_ tot ; pm ; !; geometry, gas properties, etc.),
= Flateral energy (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; H_ tot ; pm ; !; geometry, gas properties, etc.).

must be replaced by this slightly more complicated picture:

dp1
= Fmomentum (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; H_ tot ; pm ; !; N_ ; geometry, gas properties, etc.),
dx
(6.5)
dU1
= Fcontinuity (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; H_ tot ; pm ; !; N_ ; geometry, gas properties, etc.),
dx
(6.6)
dTm
= Fx-energy (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; H_ tot ; pm ; !; N_ ; geometry, gas properties, etc.),
dx
(6.7)
dH_ tot
= Flateral energy (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; H_ tot ; pm ; !; N_ ; geometry, gas properties, etc.),
dx
(6.8)
dp2;0;HL
= Fhead loss (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; H_ tot ; pm ; !; N_ ; geometry, gas properties, etc.).
dx
(6.9)
2
Entropy per unit mass is referenced to zero at T = T0 and p = pm : Since all parts of a thermoacoustic
apparatus share the same pm ; this unconventional reference pressure does not aect any entropy or exergy
di erences [e.g., Eq. (5.17)] within a DeltaEC model.

102

Our condence in the accuracy of the DeltaEC implementation of these equations is

lower than in the equations described in Chapters 2 and 5. We are very condent of the eect
of nonzero N_ on Fx-energy and Flateral energy under all circumstances we have encountered, and
condent of the eect of nonzero N_ on all the equations when the steady and oscillating ows
are both laminar, but for turbulent ow our understanding of Fhead loss and of the eects of
nonzero N_ on Fmomentum and Fcontinuity are still evolving, and are mostly based on the quasisteady approximation, namely that the behavior at any instant of time t is the same as it
would be for steady ow with volume ow rate U = N_ m= m +Re[U1 ei!t ]; an approximation
with obvious shortcomings in acoustics where inertial eects of gas acceleration are usually
as important as anything else. The complicated details of the current steady-ow DeltaEC
implementation are given in Chapter 10.
One other variable is sometimes useful in the context of nonzero N_ : The (total) secondorder, time-averaged pressure p2;0;tot corresponds to pressure changes as measured by sidewall pressure transducers [34], because p2;0;tot is given by
p2;0;tot = p2;0;rev + p2;0;HL

(6.10)

where the reversible part of the second-order time-averaged pressure [35] is given by
jp1 j2
p2;0;rev (x) =
4 m a2

jU1 j2
:
4A2gas

(6.11)

The variable p20tot is available in RPN segments.

User-dened gases specied by <.tpf> les cannot be used with nonzero N_ , because Eq.
(6.1) requires m, which is not available in <.tpf> format. To circumvent this shortcoming
when a user-dened gas must be used with nonzero N_ , use a <.tpm> le and set the mole
fraction of one component to zero.
In the rest of this chapter, we illustrate DeltaECs steady-ow features with three
examples. In the rst example, nonzero N_ is externally driven and p2;0;HL is of little interest.
In the second example, N_ = 0 is desired, but must be accomplished through careful balancing
of small p2;0;HL eects. In the third example, nonzero N_ is driven by large p2;0;HL eects.

6.2. Reids refrigerator

Bob Reids standing-wave refrigerator, shown in Fig. 6.1 and described in Refs. [36, 37, 38],
was built for the study of large nonzero N_ through the stacks. The standing wave in the
resonator had pressure nodes at the top-center and bottom-center locations, and out-of-phase
pressure antinodes near the left and right speaker pairs. Steady ow of ambient-temperature
working gas was injected into the resonator at the upper pressure node. This ow was cooled
as it passed through the stacks, so cold gas owed out of the resonator at the lower pressure
node. There was no concern that acoustic power might ow out into the steady-ow piping
because the steady-ow connections were made at pressure nodes.
To model this apparatus in DeltaEC, we will consider only one half of the apparatus,
because the other half is identical (though shifted in time phase by 180 ): Focusing only on
the thermal aspects, we begin the model just below the speakers in the right half, and end
103

Figure 6.1: Standing-wave refrigerator with nonzero steady ow through the stacks, studied by
Reid [36, 37, 38]. Steady ow was injected at the upper pressure node at ambient temperature and
removed at the lower pressure node at a cold temperature.

it where the right half joins the left half, at the exit port at the bottom. The BEGIN and
the guesstarget summary reect the following perspective: The refrigerator is driven at a
known frequency and with a known pressure amplitude near the drivers; a known steady
ow of gas at a known temperature goes down through the apparatus; the ambient heat
exchanger solid is held at a known temperature by cooling water. We want to learn the
temperature of the exiting steady ow of cold gas, among other things.
GUESS
0f
0g
2e
2g
name BEGIN:|U|
BEGIN:Ph(U)
HX:HeatI
HX:FracQ
units m^3/s
deg
W
value -5.5064E-02
188.72
-135.67
6.4297E-02
TARGET
2f
12a
12b
12c
name
HX:Est-T SOFTE:Re(z) SOFTE:Im(z) SOFTE:Htot
units K
W
value
300.00
0.0000
0.0000
-66.741
result
300.00
-5.3646E-17 3.9259E-16
-66.741
TITLE
segments 1-7 < Bob 9/97; segs 8-14 < Hiller ntbk, pg one, 10/97
!->reid4.out
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
Initialize in main duct where drivers are attached
3.2388E+05 a Mean P Pa
92.000
b Freq
Hz
303.00
c T-beg K
6500.0
d |p|
Pa
90.000
e Ph(p) deg
-5.5064E-02 f |U|
m^3/s
G
188.72
g Ph(U) deg
G
0.6700 i Ndot
mol/s
0.9200 j nL
HeAr
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------DUCT
Pre-stack Duct
1.8430E-02 a Area
m^2
6234.1
A |p|
Pa
0.4813 b Perim m
89.694
B Ph(p) deg
0.1494 c Length m
7.3748E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
6.4137 D Ph(U) deg
68.925
E Htot
W

104

ideal
Solid type
26.898
F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------HX
Ambient Heat exchanger
1.7211E-02 a Area
m^2
6169.1
A |p|
Pa
0.5227 b GasA/A
89.800
B Ph(p) deg
1.2700E-02 c Length m
7.4625E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
6.3500E-04 d y0
m
6.2375 D Ph(U) deg
-135.67
e HeatIn W
G
-66.741
E Htot
W
300.00
f Est-T K
= 2H?
25.808
F Edot
W
6.4297E-02 g FracQN
G
302.37
G GasT
K
300.00
H SolidT K
copper
Solid type
-99.799
I H_2k
W
!--------------------------------- 3 --------------------------------STKRECT
rectangular-pore stack
1.8824E-02 a Area
m^2
5547.7
A |p|
Pa
0.7050 b GasA/A
93.316
B Ph(p) deg
0.1524 c Length m
9.1542E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
4.0640E-04 d a
m
3.8407 D Ph(U) deg
1.1811E-04 e Lplate m
-66.741
E Htot
W
6.3500E-03 f b
m
2.3231 F Edot
W
302.37
G T-beg K
295.21
H T-end K
kapton
Solid type
-6.8212E-13 I H_2k
W
+ 4 DUCT
From cold hx to bolt flange, + a half inch
+ 5 DUCT
Duct, beginning 1/2 in below big bolt flange
+ 6 DUCT
Elbow, 6 inch diam, 5 inch radius of curvature on centerline
+ 7 DUCT
straight part of big black cone
+ 8 CONE
The long black plastic cone
+ 9 DUCT
little straight section of black cone
+ 10 DUCT
half the white "tee", up to the symmetry midpoint
!--------------------------------- 11 --------------------------------RPN
Expect Htot = Edot + Ndot*m*enth
0.0000 a Target
(t)
-66.741
A RPNval
Edot Ndot m * enth * +
!--------------------------------- 12 --------------------------------SOFTEND
pressure node
0.0000 a Re(z)
= 12G?
4.5144E-12 A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b Im(z)
= 12H?
101.31
B Ph(p) deg
sameas 11A c Htot
W
= 12E?
0.1597 C |U|
m^3/s
3.5311 D Ph(U) deg
-66.741
E Htot
W
-4.8796E-14 F Edot
W
-5.3646E-17 G Re(z)
3.9259E-16 H Im(z)
295.21
I T
K
-23.968
J p20hl Pa
!--------------------------------- 13 --------------------------------RPN
U mean here (liter/sec)
999.00
a Target
(t)
5.0775 A RPNval
Ndot m * rho / 1000 *

Output 3H tells us that the refrigerator cools the gas to 295 Kelvin. The <.sp> plots
shown in Figs. 6.2 and 6.3 show details of the temperature prole in the stack and the
heat exchanger upstream of it, and how the energy ow is independent of x in the stack
even as energy shifts from N_ mcp Tm to H_ 2;k : The temperature prole is so severely curved
essentially horizontal near the ambient end that an increase in ow above the present value
of 0.67 mol/s (segment 0), which is about 5 liters per second (segment 13), would probably be
undesirable. Note that the solid temperature equals the gas temperature everywhere except
in the heat exchanger, where the solid is cooler than the gas so it can remove ambient heat
from the gas.
When N_ 6= 0; the energy boundary conditions at the BEGINning and END of a model often
require careful thought. The most commonly desired boundary condition is
H_ tot = E_ + N_ mwm :

(6.12)

On its face, this condition sets total power equal to the sum of acoustic power and steady-ow
enthalpy. Comparison of this expression with Eqs. (6.1) and (6.2) here and with Eq. (5.29) in
Ref. [12] shows what this condition deliberately omits: axial thermal conduction in the gas
and solid, and boundary-layer, bucket-brigade thermoacoustic entropy transport in the gas.
105

Figure 6.2: Temperatures vs x in Reids refrigerator. Red line, gas temperature Tm (x): Black line,
solid temperature Tsolid (x):

_ Solid black line is H_ tot .

Figure 6.3: Power ows in Reids refrigerator. Blue dashed line is E:
Dot-dashed red line is H_ 2;k :

106

Thus, this boundary condition is appropriate whenever a long, large-diameter, unremarkable

DUCT or other segment starts or ends a model with N_ 6= 0. This condition is encountered so
frequently that it is taken to be the default in BEGIN, which can be overridden by accessing
the Default Htot / Other Htot choice in the Optional Parameters in BEGIN. The Default
Htot choice sets the initial value of H_ tot according to Eq. (6.12). This condition must also
sometimes be enforced in subsequent SOFTENDs, where an RPN that expresses Eq. (6.12) can
be used, as illustrated above in segments 11 and 12.
A new input, FracQN, has appeared in the HX segment now that N_ 6= 0. This variable,
FQ_ N_ ; tells DeltaEC what fraction of the heat exchangers heat Q_ should be allocated to
changing energy in the steady ow through the heat exchanger; the remainder is allocated
to H_ 2;k : We often use FQ_ N_ as a guess, to let DeltaEC meet temperature and energy-ow
targets. If it is not needed as a guess, it can be set to a simple value like 0 or assigned a
1
varying value like 1 + mjN_ j= m jU1 j
by sameasing it to the result of an RPN calculation.
Output J in segment 12 gives p2;0;HL = 24 Pa. Since p2;0;HL is initialized to zero in
BEGIN, this shows that only 24 Pa of steady pressure is needed to push the 5 liters per
second through the stack and heat exchanger. To learn how much of that falls across the
heat exchanger and how much falls across the stack, we could insert an RPN segment between
the heat exchanger and the stack, with p20HL in line b, or display p2;0;HL in a <.sp> plot.

6.3. TASHE
The thermoacoustic-Stirling hybrid engine (TASHE), shown in Fig. 6.4 and described in detail in Refs. [5, 39], will be used to illustrate the use of DeltaEC to design a toroidal thermoacoustic apparatus without Gedeon streaming [40]. Without intelligent design, Gedeon
streaming around the loop of the TASHE can convect an enormous amount of heat away
from the hot heat exchanger.
We created this DeltaEC model starting from Backhauss 1998 DeltaE model (Appendix B4 of Ref. [12]; also www.lanl.gov/thermoacoustics/Tashe.out). We removed some
inessential segments to reduce the total number, in an eort to save room in the Users
Guide. We modied some segment types to bring the model up to date in DeltaEC version
6. For selecting guesses and targets, we have adopted the following perspective: At what
frequency, amplitude, and hot temperature will this engine run, for a given Q_ H applied
at the hot heat exchanger? Ambient temperature and gas mean pressure are given, and
hardware dimensions are xed. In anticipation of adding more targets and guesses later, we
make a special eort to minimize their numbers here. Thus, we do not use gas temperature
0c as a guess and ambient heat-exchanger solid temperature 12f as a target; we simply set
0c manually to a value that brings 12H near 25 C. We also avoid guessing heat-exchanger
heat 20e and targeting HARDEND H_ tot = 0 by using an RPN calculation at segment 19 to
anticipate what the heat-exchanger heat must be based on global rst-law considerations.
With those simplications, we still have 31 segments, 5 targets, and 5 guesses. This le is
in the <ExamplesnSteadyFlow> folder, as <tashe1.out>.
107

Figure 6.4: Illustrations of the TASHE. (a) Scale drawing of the toroidal part of the TASHE,
containing the heat exchangers. (b) Overall scale drawing, with the toroidal part at the left end.
(c) DeltaECs Schematic view of the TASHE, with some phasor diagrams inserted to illustrate
the wave.

108

!Created@11:41:05 9-Oct-06 with DeltaE Vers. 6.0g2 for the IBM/PC-Compatible

!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
the setup
3.1030E+06 a Mean P
Pa
85.748
b Freq
Hz
G
325.00
c TBeg
K
3.1748E+05 d |p|
Pa
G
0.0000 e Ph(p)
deg
0.0000 f |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 g Ph(U)
deg
helium
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------TBRANCH
Split up the flow
-1.8483E+07 a Re(Zb) Pa-s/m^3
G
3.1748E+05 A |p|
Pa
1.3735E+07 b Im(Zb) Pa-s/m^3
G
0.0000 B Ph(p)
deg
-1263.0
c HtotBr
W
1.3787E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
-143.38
D Ph(U)
deg
-1263.0
E HtotBr
W
-1756.6
F EdotBr
W
1756.6
G EdotTr
W
+ 2 DUCT
180 bend plus brass connecting flange (pg 27 book 4)
+ 3 CONE
4" to 3" Concentric reducer (pg 36 book 4)
+ 4 DUCT
3" FB Duct - Length given in concept.skf
+ 5 CONE
3.5" to 3" Long radius reducing elbow (pg 36 book 4)
+ 6 MINOR
minor loss, small end of elbow
+ 7 DUCT
FB connector/part of tee (Pg 55 book 4 concept.skf)
!--------------------------------- 8 --------------------------------SOFTEND
End of feedback branch
0.0000 a Re(z)
(t)
2.6397E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b Im(z)
(t)
1.1149 B Ph(p)
deg
0.0000 c Htot
W
(t)
0.2056 C |U|
m^3/s
-92.896
D Ph(U)
deg
-1263.0
E Htot
W
-1897.7
F Edot
W
-0.1143 G Re(z)
1.6308 H Im(z)
325.00
I
T
K
+ 9 CONE
gas diode plate
!--------------------------------- 10 --------------------------------MINOR
minor loss here
sameas
9d a Area
m^2
3.0872E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.8000 b
K+
-1.9125 B Ph(p)
deg
7.0000E-02 c
K1.3576E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
35.646
D Ph(U)
deg
1263.0
E Htot
W
1661.2
F Edot
W
+ 11 DUCT
jetting space
!--------------------------------- 12 --------------------------------TX
Main room temp water HX (pg 90 book 3)
6.6580E-03 a Area
m^2
3.0885E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.2275 b GasA/A
-2.0019 B Ph(p)
deg
2.0400E-02 c Length
m
1.1093E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
1.2700E-03 d radius
m
13.880
D Ph(U)
deg
-1594.9
e HeatIn
W
G
-331.91
E Htot
W
300.00
f Est-T
K
(t)
1647.6
F Edot
W
325.00
G GasT
K
stainless Solid type
292.83
H SolidT
K
+ 13 DUCT
Regen cold end dead space due to ribs (pg 91 book 3)
!--------------------------------- 14 --------------------------------STKSCREEN Regenerator (pg 92 book 3) (Ks frac est:pg 20 book 4)
6.2070E-03 a Area
m^2
2.6942E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.7190 b VolPor
1.5875 B Ph(p)
deg
7.3000E-02 c Length
m
3.2517E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
4.2200E-05 d
rh
m
-38.620
D Ph(U)
deg
0.3000 e ksFrac
-331.91
E Htot
W
3345.2
F Edot
W
325.00
G TBeg
K
stainless Solid type
825.00
H TEnd
K
+ 15 DUCT
All regen hot end dead space (pg 92 book 3)(area is avg)
!--------------------------------- 16 --------------------------------HX
HHX (pg 93 book 4) heat xfer area used/not acoustic area
5.6970E-03 a Area
m^2
2.6933E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.9867 b GasA/A
1.5724 B Ph(p)
deg
6.3500E-03 c Length
m
3.3918E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
7.9400E-04 d y0
m
-41.855
D Ph(U)
deg
3700.0
e HeatIn
W
3368.1
E Htot
W
0.0000 f Est-T
K
(t)
3317.3
F Edot
W
825.00
G GasT
K
stainless Solid type
917.21
H SolidT
K
+ 17 DUCT
hhx dead space (pg 94 book 3) stainless used for Qdot
+ 18 STKDUCT
Straight section of pulse tube (pg 101 bk 4)
!--------------------------------- 19 --------------------------------RPN
how much heat must be rejected here? Resonator is insulated
0.0000 a G or T
(t)
-2105.1
A Heat
16e 12e + ~

109

!--------------------------------- 20 --------------------------------TX
Small water Xger
6.6580E-03 a Area
m^2
2.6551E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.2690 b GasA/A
1.2238 B Ph(p)
deg
1.0160E-02 c Length
m
7.5413E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
2.2860E-03 d radius
m
-69.552
D Ph(U)
deg
sameas 19A e HeatIn
W
1263.0
E Htot
W
290.00
f Est-T
K
(t)
3296.6
F Edot
W
325.00
G GasT
K
ideal
Solid type
195.21
H SolidT
K
+ 21 DUCT
PT connector (see pg 55 book 4 and concept.skf)
+ 22 UNION
Rejoin
+ 23 DUCT
Section of 3.5" tee
+ 24 CONE
3.5" to 4" cone to adapt to resonator (pg 93 book 4)
+ 25 DUCT
Initial section of resonator
+ 26 BRANCH
RC dissipator
+ 27 DUCT
Continuation of resonator
+ 28 CONE
7 degree cone - 10.02" final diameter
+ 29 DUCT
10" duct
P8
+ 30 SURFACE
end cap of resonator
!--------------------------------- 31 --------------------------------HARDEND
end of duct
0.0000 a R(1/z)
= 31G?
9.5273E+04 A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b I(1/z)
= 31H?
-178.61
B Ph(p)
deg
0.0000 c Htot
W
(t)
1.0381E-15 C |U|
m^3/s
-82.323
D Ph(U)
deg
-4.5475E-13 E Htot
W
-5.4178E-12 F Edot
W
-1.1441E-16 G R(1/z)
1.0380E-15 H I(1/z)
GUESS
0b
0d
1a
1b
12e
name BEGIN:Freq BEGIN: |p| TBRAN:Re(Zb TBRAN:Im(Zb
TX:HeatI
units
Hz
Pa
Pa-s/m^3
Pa-s/m^3
W
value
85.748
3.1748E+05 -1.8483E+07 1.3735E+07 -1594.9
TARGET
22b
22c
22d
31a
31b
name UNION:|p|SO UNION:Ph(p) UNION:T_SOF HARDE:R(1/z HARDE:I(1/z
units
Pa
deg
K
value 2.6397E+05
1.1149
325.00
0.0000
0.0000
result 2.6397E+05
1.1149
325.00
-1.1441E-16 1.0380E-15

With 3700 W applied to the hot heat exchanger, the apparatus resonates at 85.7 Hz
with an amplitude of 317 kPa at BEGIN. The hot gas temperature is 825 K and the hot solid
temperature is 917 K.
One strange-looking number appears above: Segment 1, TBRANCH, input c, 1263 W,
HtotBr. DeltaEC arrives at the TBRANCH with some value for H_ tot : (It is zero in the present
example, but not always.) H_ tot,br tells DeltaEC how much H_ tot to send into the branch;
the balance goes into the trunk. Neither we nor DeltaEC may know the right value for this
number in the present model, because the contribution of Rayleigh- and jet-driven streaming
to heat convection in the part of the torus that connects the main ambient heat exchanger
(segment 12) and the secondary ambient heat exchanger (segment 20) is unknown. Such
streaming helps determine how much of the heat that comes from dissipation of E_ in the
load and resonator (assumed insulated here) shows up in each of those heat exchangers.
Fortunately, the performance of the apparatus is insensitive to H_ tot,br : If we change its value
from 1263 W to 1763; the resonance frequency, pressure amplitude, and hot temperature
change by less than 0.1%, even though the heat rejected at the main ambient heat exchanger
increases by 500 W and that in the secondary ambient heat exchanger decreases by the same
amount. In the absence of any evidence to the contrary, it is sometimes reasonable to set
H_ tot,br = E_ br + N_ br mwm ;

(6.13)

and this is available as a check-box option in the TBRANCH segment. Another reasonable
option here would be to add H_ tot,br to the guess list, using it to allow DeltaEC to maintain
equal solid temperatures in the two ambient-temperature heat exchangers. Since we are
trying to minimize the number of guesses and targets right now, we choose the rst option.
110

Now we let DeltaEC begin to consider Gedeon streaming, by checking the allow steady
ow box in BEGIN. This enables nonzero N_ and the calculation and display of p2;0;HL
throughout the model. For now, we leave N_ = 0 and examine the UNION at segment 22:
!--------------------------------- 22 ----------------------------UNION
Rejoin
8.0000 a SegNum
2.6479E+05 A |p|
Pa
2.6479E+05 b |p|Sft
Pa
= 22A?
1.1020 B Ph(p)
deg
1.1020 c Ph(p)S
deg
= 22B?
0.2861 C |U|
m^3/s
325.00
d TSoft
K
= 22G?
-86.769
D Ph(U)
deg
-0.6445 e p20HLS
Pa
(t)
2.2737E-13 E Htot
W
1407.3
F Edot
W
325.00
G T
K
-4128.8
H p20HL
Pa

Allowing steady owhas turned on the calculation of p2;0;HL . Parameter e here shows
that p2;0;HL = 0:6 Pa at SOFTEND segment 8, which is the end of the TBRANCH and is
supposedly reconnected to the trunk here at segment 22. However, parameter H shows that
p2;0;HL = 4129 Pa here in the trunk.
There is a mismatch of 4 kPa in second-order time-averaged pressure in this UNION
segment. We have already targeted p1 and Tm in the UNION, to satisfy acoustic and thermodynamic boundary conditions; now we must add p2;0;HL in the UNION to the target list.
Our corresponding guess will be N_ br in segment 1: We ask DeltaEC how much Gedeon
streaming will ow around the torus, and what eects that will have on operation of the
apparatus.
We make a small increase in N_ br and watch segment 22, to make sure p2;0;HL changes in
the right direction, to make sure we understand what were doing. We note that DeltaEC
gets lost if we change N_ br by 0.1 mol/s, so we make smaller changes of 0.01 mol/s until
p2;0;HL in segments 8 and 22 are nearly matched. Then we add 1d and 22e to the guess and
target lists, respectively.
Making those changes and running, we notice that the state plot of Tm (x) is not smooth
in the thermal buer tube. We increase the number of steps in the numerical integration
of STKDUCT (and the other integrated segments), by increasing Nint. The irregularities in
Tm (x) go away above Nint = 30. Running with Nint = 40, the guesstarget summary
becomes
GUESS
0b
0d
1a
1b
1d
12e
name BEGIN:Freq BEGIN: |p| TBRAN:Re(Zb TBRAN:Im(Zb TBRAN:Ndotb TX:HeatI
units
Hz
Pa
Pa-s/m^3
Pa-s/m^3
mol/s
W
value
86.111
2.0298E+05 -2.0040E+07 1.3489E+07 0.29709
-3197.8
TARGET
22b
22c
22d
22e
31a
31b
name UNION:|p|SO UNION:Ph(p) UNION:T_SOF UNION:p20HL HARDE:R(1/z HARDE:I(1/z
units
Pa
deg
K
Pa
value 1.7115E+05
1.0374
325.00
-0.9237
0.0000
0.0000
result 1.7115E+05
1.0374
325.00
-0.9237 -1.2258E-13 -1.4742E-13

and the interesting characteristics of the engine become f = 86 Hz, jp1 j = 203 kPa, Tm;H =
726 K, and Tsolid,H = 816 K. This estimate of performance is probably much more realistic
than the values of 317 kPa, 825 K, and 917 K we found earlier, because now we have included
the Gedeon streaming, which is carrying away a lot of heat from the hot heat exchanger
without contributing to any thermoacoustic power generation.
To decide what to do about the Gedeon streaming, we can either look at the sign of N_ br
or examine temperatures and p2;0;HL in the state plot shown in Fig. 6.5. The regenerator is
running far on the hot side of a linear temperature prole, and N_ is streaming through it
from hot to cold. Apparently the gas diode is too tight, overcompensating for the tendency
111

Figure 6.5: State plot of the TASHE example, with steady-ow calculations enabled but Gedeon
streaming not properly eliminated. Solid black curve is Tsolid ; dashed red curve is Tm ; and dotdashed green curve is p2;0;HL : The locations of the three heat exchangers are evident as short
plateaus in Tsolid :

_ No other segments contribute signicantly

of the regenerator to stream in the direction of E:
to p2;0;HL : Examination of the gas-diode segments,
!--------------------------------- 9 -----------------------------CONE
gas diode plate
5.8880E-04 a AreaI
m^2
2.0362E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.4210 b PerimI
m
-0.54813 B Ph(p)
deg
2.5399E-02 c Length
m
8.2830E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
1.1400E-04 d AreaF
m^2
32.908
D Ph(U)
deg
0.1850 e PerimF
m
553.06
E Htot
W
5.0000E-04 f Srough
703.55
F Edot
W
ideal
Solid type
!--------------------------------- 10 -----------------------------MINOR
minor loss here
sameas
9d a Area
m^2
2.0012E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.8000 b
K+
-1.2126 B Ph(p)
deg
7.0000E-02 c
K8.2830E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
32.908
D Ph(U)
deg
553.06
E Htot
W
686.12
F Edot
W

shows that they are qualitatively in order, with the minor-loss coe cient larger in the +x
direction than in the x direction, as necessary to ght Gedeon streaming. We surmise
that the area at the small end of the gas diode, 1:14 cm2 ; may be too small. We tentatively
increase that area about 1% (leaving its perimeter constant, since this was an adjustable
slit in the experimental hardware), and we are pleased to see that DeltaEC converges
on a solution with reduced streaming, higher amplitude, and lower hot temperatures. We
use the incremental plot to continue increasing that area, watching N_ br and stopping the
sequence when it gets close to zero. We then clear N_ br from the guess list and set it
equal to zero, and add the gas-diodes small-end area to the guess list. A run then yields
<tashe5.out> in the <ExamplesnSteadyFlow> folder, which shows that an area of 2.54
cm2 stops Gedeon streaming, and with this area the apparatus runs with f = 86 Hz,
112

Figure 6.6: (a) The TASHE of the previous section, with a traditional hot heat exchanger between
the regenerator and the thermal buer tube. (b) The same TASHE, with the hot heat exchanger
replaced by a mixing chamber, self-circulating loop, and ow straightener.

jp1 j = 300 kPa, Tm;H = 701 K, and Tsolid,H = 791 K much better than before. A quick
glance at the state plot shows near-linear temperature proles in the stack and thermal
buer tube, even with Nint back down at its default value of 10.

6.4. Self-circulating heat exchanger

References [8] and [41] describe the use of a gas diode in a resonant loop to induce a large
N_ for deliberate heat transfer. This gives us the freedom to design heat exchangers that are
not constrained by geometrical proximity to a regenerator or stack. In the present section,
we will continue to explore the use of nonzero N_ in DeltaEC by replacing the hot HX in
the TASHE example of the previous section with a self-circulating hot heat-transfer loop.
This replacement is illustrated in Fig. 6.6, which builds on Fig. 6.4. The heat-transfer loop
here bears a qualitative resemblance to the system described in Ref. [8], but the quantitative
details here are entirely made up and no details have been optimized or even thoughtfully
chosen. The purpose of this section is only to illustrate the development of a topologically
complicated DeltaEC model.
We began with the realization that this is going to be a complicated model, so initial
simplication is important. To begin that simplication, we stripped <tashe5.out>, described at the end of the previous section, down to only a few segments in the vicinity of
the hot heat exchanger:
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
the setup
3.1030E+06 a Mean P
Pa
85.825
b Freq
Hz
325.00
c TBeg
K
2.9866E+05 d |p|
Pa
-0.9297 e Ph(p)
deg
1.3553E-02 f |U|
m^3/s
13.134
g Ph(U)
deg
-302.68
h Htot
W
0.0000
i Ndot
mol/s
helium
Gas type
+ 1 STKSCREEN Regenerator (pg 92 book 3) (Ks frac est:pg 20 book 4)
+ 2 DUCT
All regen hot end dead space (pg 92 book 3)(area is avg)
+ 3 HX
HHX (pg 93 book 4) heat xfer area used/not acoustic area
+ 4 DUCT
hhx dead space (pg 94 book 3) stainless used for Qdot
+ 5 STKDUCT
Straight section of pulse tube (pg 101 bk 4)

113

We set the initial conditions in BEGIN to match the conditions of the segment just upstream of the STKSCREEN in <tashe5.out>, so the integration proceeds through the rest of
the model as it did in <tashe5.out>, with no need for guesses and targets.
Next, we install a hot self-circulating loop instead of the hot heat exchanger. In place
of the HX, we insert, as a side-branch loop, in sequence: a quarter wavelength of duct, a gas
diode, an adapter cone, a VXQ1 heat exchanger, another adapter, and a quarter-wavelength
return duct. We also insert a ow straightener above the thermal buer tube. We keep
guesses and targets at a minimum: those that are necessary at the UNION and TBRANCH, and
one additional guesstarget pair, guessing the input heat and targeting the thermal buer
tubes nal temperature.
!->E:\DeltaEC\TeXFiles\examples\SteadyFlow\hotloop3.out
!Created@17:18:20 25-Dec-2007 with DeltaEC version 6.1a17 under win32,
using Win 5.1.2600 (Service Pack 2) under Python DeltaEC.
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
the setup
3.1030E+06 a Mean P Pa
85.825
b Freq
Hz
325.00
c TBeg
K
2.9866E+05 d |p|
Pa
-0.9297 e Ph(p) deg
1.3553E-02 f |U|
m^3/s
13.134
g Ph(U) deg
-302.68
h Htot
W
0.0000 i Ndot
mol/s
helium
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------STKSCREEN Regenerator (pg 92 book 3) (Ks frac est:pg 20 book 4)
6.2070E-03 a Area
m^2
2.5423E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.7190 b VolPor
1.9555 B Ph(p) deg
7.3000E-02 c Length m
3.1876E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
4.2200E-05 d rh
m
-31.288
D Ph(U) deg
0.3000 e ksFrac
-302.68
E Htot
W
3388.9
F Edot
W
325.00
G TBeg
K
702.66
H TEnd
K
stainless
Solid type
-302.68
I H2k
W
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------DUCT
top half of mixing chamber
6.2000E-03 a Area
m^2
Mstr
2.5420E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.2791 b Perim m
2a
1.9444 B Ph(p) deg
1.0000E-02 c Length m
3.2804E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
-33.708
D Ph(U) deg
-302.68
E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
3387.9
F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 3 --------------------------------TBRANCH
branch into hot loop
8.8445E+07 a Re(Zb) Pa-s/m^3 G
2.5420E+05 A |p|
Pa
4.5827E+06 b Im(Zb) Pa-s/m^3 G
1.9444 B Ph(p) deg
0.77977 d NdotBr mol/s
G
2.8702E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
-1.0217 D Ph(U) deg
6890.7
E HtotBr W
364.32
F EdotBr W
3023.6
G EdotTr W
!--------------------------------- 4 --------------------------------DUCT
quarter-wave duct from engine to diode
7.0000E-04 a Area
m^2
Mstr
9632.4
A |p|
Pa
9.3748E-02 b Perim m
4a
-162.74
B Ph(p) deg
4.6000 c Length m
5.4063E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
5.0000E-04 d Srough
-87.786
D Ph(U) deg
6890.7
E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
67.606
F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 5 --------------------------------RPN
calculate Borda-Carnot minor loss here
0.0000 a G or T
0.18367
A ChngeMe
1 6a 4a / - sqrd
!--------------------------------- 6 --------------------------------MINOR
asymmetric flow at gas diode
4.0000E-04 a Area
m^2
9324.3
A |p|
Pa
5.0000E-02 b K+
-173.83
B Ph(p) deg
sameas
5A c K5.4063E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
-87.786
D Ph(U) deg
6890.7
E Htot
W
17.401
F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 7 --------------------------------CONE
expansion to plenum

114

sameas
6a a AreaI m^2
Mstr
1.9369E+04 A |p|
Pa
7.0899E-02 b PerimI m
7a
-176.76
B Ph(p) deg
0.4000 c Length m
4.9458E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
sameas
9a d AreaF m^2
Mstr
-87.861
D Ph(U) deg
0.4342 e PerimF m
7d
6890.7
E Htot
W
5.0000E-04 f Srough
9.1879 F Edot
W
ideal
Solid type
!--------------------------------- 8 --------------------------------RPN
watch that angle
5.0000 a G or T
16.125
A ChngeMe
7e 7b - pi / 7c / atan
!--------------------------------- 9 --------------------------------VXQ1
plenty of room for heat transfer
1.5000E-02 a Area
m^2
1.6733E+04 A |p|
Pa
0.4000 b GasA/A
-176.06
B Ph(p) deg
0.1000 c SolA/A
5.6533E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
1.0000E-02 d rh
m
92.036
D Ph(U) deg
1.0000E-02 e LenTS1 m
9816.2
E Htot
W
6.0000 f Len P1 m
-15.696
F Edot
W
1.0000E-02 g LenTS2 m
705.49
G TSolBeg P1 K
2925.4
h HeatP1 W
G
886.08
H TSolEnd P1 K
1.0000 i FracQN
364.32
I H2k
W
stainless
Solid type
!--------------------------------- 10 --------------------------------CONE
adapt between heat exchanger and quarter-wave tube
sameas
7d a AreaI m^2
9914.8
A |p|
Pa
sameas
7e b PerimI m
-174.13
B Ph(p) deg
sameas
7c c Length m
6.0744E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
sameas 11a d AreaF m^2
92.157
D Ph(U) deg
sameas 11b e PerimF m
9816.2
E Htot
W
5.0000E-04 f Srough
-19.515
F Edot
W
ideal
Solid type
!--------------------------------- 11 --------------------------------DUCT
quarter wave connection tube
sameas
4a a Area
m^2
2.5420E+05 A |p|
Pa
sameas
4b b Perim m
1.9444 B Ph(p) deg
5.0000 c Length m
4.4245E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
sameas
4d d Srough
138.07
D Ph(U) deg
9816.2
E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
-405.38
F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 12 --------------------------------SOFTEND
end of the branch; this will reconnect to trunk at UNION
0.0000 a Re(z)
2.5420E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b Im(z)
1.9444 B Ph(p) deg
0.0000 c Htot
W
4.4245E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
138.07
D Ph(U) deg
9816.2
E Htot
W
-405.38
F Edot
W
-9.8025 G Re(z)
-9.4244 H Im(z)
883.14
I T
K
1603.6
J p20HL Pa
!--------------------------------- 13 --------------------------------UNION
reconnect the "final" end of the loop here
12
a SegNum
2.5420E+05 A |p|
Pa
sameas 12A b |p|Sft Pa
=13A
1.9444 B Ph(p) deg
sameas 12B c Ph(p)S deg
=13B
2.6026E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
sameas 12I d TSoft K
-35.728
D Ph(U) deg
sameas 12J e p20HLS Pa
=13H
2622.7
E Htot
W
2618.2
F Edot
W
702.66
G T
K
1603.6
H p20HL Pa
!--------------------------------- 14 --------------------------------DUCT
bottom half of mixing chamber
sameas
2a a Area
m^2
2.5417E+05 A |p|
Pa
sameas
2b b Perim m
1.9358 B Ph(p) deg
sameas
2c c Length m
2.7060E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
-38.505
D Ph(U) deg
2622.7
E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
2617.3
F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 15 --------------------------------SX
flow straightener (no heat input)
sameas 14a a Area
m^2
2.5397E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.6500 b VolPor
1.9618 B Ph(p) deg
5.0000E-03 c Length m
2.7301E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
5.0000E-04 d rh
m
-39.682
D Ph(U) deg
0.0000 e HeatIn W
2622.7
E Htot
W
0.0000 f SolidT K
2590.6
F Edot
W
0.0000 g FracQN
702.66
G GasT
K
702.66
H SolidT K
ideal
Solid type
2622.7
I H2k
W
!--------------------------------- 16 --------------------------------STKDUCT
Straight section of pulse tube (pg 101 bk 4)
7.0000E-03 a Area
m^2
2.5136E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.2963 b Perim m
1.6872 B Ph(p) deg

115

Figure 6.7: Second-order head-loss pressure vs x in the heat-exchange loop. The abrupt rise marks
the location of the gas diode.

0.2400 c Length m
1.1600E-03 d WallA m^2

6.5671E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
-70.112
D Ph(U) deg
2622.7
E Htot
W
2578.0
F Edot
W
702.66
G TBeg
K
300.00
H TEnd
K
stainless
Solid type
2622.7
I H2k
W
!--------------------------------- 17 --------------------------------RPN
temperature target
300.00
a G or T
=17A
300.00
A ChngeMe
Tm
GUESS
3a
3b
3d
9h
name TBRAN:Re(Zb TBRAN:Im(Zb TBRAN:Ndotb VXQ1:HeatP
units Pa-s/m^3
Pa-s/m^3
mol/s
W
value 8.8445E+07 4.5827E+06
0.77977
2925.4
TARGET
13b
13c
13e
17a
name UNION:|p|SO UNION:Ph(p) UNION:p20HL
RPN:Targe
units
Pa
deg
Pa
value 2.5420E+05
1.9444
1603.6
300.00
result 2.5420E+05
1.9444
1603.6
300.00

Several features that have not been previously encountered or discussed in the Users
Guide are displayed in this le. Details about each of these features are given in Chapter
10.
Segment MINOR is employed here with unequal minor-loss coe cients, as appropriate for
an asymmetrical geometry and as necessary to create a pumping eect to move N_ ' 0:8
mole/sec around the loop [41]. Figure 6.7 shows the state plot of p2;0;HL around the loop.
The rise near x = 4 m is the abrupt eect of the gas diodes MINOR segment. The gradual
decreases elsewhere are the pressure gradients in the DUCTs (and, much smaller, in the VXQ1),
which the gas-diode pump is overcoming. The gradient dp2;0;HL =dx varies along each DUCT,
despite the constancy of the area and ow rate, because of the nonlinear interaction between
U1 and N_ ; which increases dp2;0;HL =dx where jU1 j is largest. The nature of that nonlinear
interaction is controlled in part by the value of the roughness parameter in DUCT segments
4 and 11. As described in detail in Section 10.1.1, the interaction between turbulent steady
ow and turbulent oscillating ow is also governed by which of the Optimistic, Average,
or Pessimistic boxes are checked in a DUCT. The p20HL target in the UNION ensures that
p2;0;HL (x = 16:5 m) = p2;0;HL (x = 0): Recall that the zero of p2;0;HL is set arbitrarily in the
BEGIN segment, so the vertical oset of this graph is meaningless for the present discussion;
it only indicates p2;0;HL across the regenerator when N_ = 0 in the regenerator.
116

Figure 6.8: Temperatures around the hot loop. Solid black line, solid temperature. Dashed red
line, gas temperature. The velocity-dependent gassolid heat-transfer coe cient in VXQ1 is evident
in the dierence between the two curves. (Nint = 20 for this plot.)

Segment 9, VXQ1, is one of the family of variable heat exchanger, VX, segments. The
other types of heat exchanger segments HX, TX, SX, and PX are assumed to be short, to
have x-independent solid temperatures, and to have constant dTm =dx: The VX** segments
are numerically integrated with Nint steps, so they can be long. VXT1 and VXT2 are intended
to model long heat exchangers with shell-side heat transfer such that the solid surfaces
are held essentially isothermal. The gas temperature Tm (x) and heat transfer per unit
length q(x)
_
are obtained numerically in the VXT** segments. VXQ1 and VXQ2 are intended to
model long heat exchangers with shell-side heat transfer such that the heat input per unit
length is independent of x: The gas temperature Tm (x) and and solid temperature Tsolid (x)
are obtained numerically in the VXQ** segments. VXQ2 and VXT2 allow for two-part heat
exchangers, such as heat exchangers with two passes on the shell side. Additional lengths
for tubesheets, where no heat transfer occurs, are built into both ends of the VX** segments.
For more details, see Section 10.7.3. In the present example, Fig. 6.8 shows temperatures
around the loop. Outside of the heat exchanger, gas and solid temperatures are equal, as
usual. Inside the heat exchanger, Tm increases linearly with x because this is an ideal gas
owing though a VXQ1 segment, with cp and q_ independent of x: The dierence Tsolid Tm
peaks in the center of the VX, where jU1 j is the smallest and hence turbulent heat transfer
is the least eective at transferring heat from the solid to the gas.
The logistical segments in <hotloop3.out> also have a few peculiar features. In the
BEGIN, H_ tot is set to the value that it had just upstream of the regenerator in <tashe5.out>,
and N_ is enabled and set to zero, to turn on p2;0;HL and steady-ow calculations in the rest
of the model. N_ is, of course, zero or negligible in the regenerator, since <tashe5.out>
properly suppressed Gedeon streaming with its gas diode. However, N_ br in the TBRANCH is
large. DeltaEC adjusts this guess to hit the p2;0;HL target at the UNION. We dont know
exactly what H_ tot,br should be, because we dont know exactly how much heat might be
convected into the loop by N_ here, but the measurements reported in Ref. [8] indicate that
any such convected heat is much smaller than what is convected out of such a loop at the
other end, so we simply set H_ tot,br = E_ br in the TBRANCH. At the UNION, we do not use the
117

Figure 6.9: Sketch of the <combo.out> model. The TASHE feedback loop hangs to the left of the
trunk, and the hot self-circulating heat exchanger loop hangs to the right.

temperature target, because this would force the gas temperature at both ends of the loop
to be equal, which would contradict the entire purpose of the circulating loop. Instead, we
essentially let the 883-K gas coming out of the SOFTEND of the loop pour into the UNION
where Tm = 703 K. We rely on the energy-conserving feature of DeltaECs UNION to add
the heat picked up in the loop into the H_ tot leaving the UNION.
Next, as shown in Fig. 6.9, we combine <hotloop3.out> and <tashe5.out>, to make
a complete DeltaEC model of the TASHE, the hot self-circulating heat-exchange loop, and
the resonator. We run <tashe5.out>, Kill its traditional hot heat exchanger, and then
copy and paste the appropriate segments from <hotloop3.out>. We x a few things that
DeltaEC did not do correctly. A run fails to converge, so we Restore guessez and then clear
all guesses and targets, intending to introduce them one pair at a time. With no guesses
and targets, a run shows mostly sensible results, except at the HARDEND at the end of the
model, where energy is owing out but acoustic power is owing in, in the x direction.
118

We introduce guesses and targets beginning with the four each that were involved in the
hot loop, since they are closest to being on target already. Then we add three of the four
UNION targets that were used in <tashe5.out> (skipping the temperature target for the
moment), and three corresponding guesses, two Zbr in the segment-1 TBRANCH and the third
being the slot width in the gas diode in segment 9. At this point, we have 7 targets and 7
guesses, and each change we make is requiring small, gentle steps. We remove the temporary
RPN target we had been using in <hotloop3.out> to keep the temperature near ambient
at the end of <hotloop3.out>, adding instead the segment-34 UNION temperature target.
We add frequency as a guess, and Im(1=zn ) at the HARDEND as a target. Pause to think. In
<tashe5.out>, our perspective was to give the engine a known hot heat input, and observe
performance. Here, we are currently guessing the hot heat input, because that is what we
did in <hotloop3.out>. Clear that guess, and try guessing the main ambient heat instead.
With that change, DeltaEC still tolerates changes to variables reasonably well, given the
fact that we have 8 targets and 8 guesses. In <tashe5.out>, we injected 3700 W of hot
heat; lets increase the heat in our hot loop to the same value here, for a fair comparison
to the earlier model. We begin incremental plotting to higher hot heat, in 5-W steps which
are small enough that DeltaEC stays converged at each step. Along the way, we notice
that the E_ owing in at the as-yet-incompletely-targeted HARDEND is steadily decreasing,
approaching zero at about 3500 W. We stop there, and add the HARDENDs Re[1=zn ] to the
target list and the BEGINs jp1 j to the guess list, and resume our increase of Q_ H up to 3700.
The resulting le, <combo2.out>, appears below. Whereas <tashe5.out> ran at
an amplitude (in segment 0) of 299 kPa, <combo2.out> runs at 311 kPa. However,
<tashe5.out> required only Tsolid,H = 795 K; <combo2.out> requires solid temperatures
from 1079 K to 1171 K.
This example may not be practical, but it does demonstrate the creation of a DeltaEC
model for a topologically complicated apparatus with 9 targets and 9 guesses.
GUESS
name
units
value
GUESS
name
units
value
TARGET
name
units
value
result
TARGET
name
units
value
result

0b
BEGIN:Freq
Hz
88.306
16a
TBRAN:Re(Zb
Pa-s/m^3
2.8393E+06
26b
UNION:|p|SO
Pa
2.5686E+05
2.5686E+05
33e
UNION:p20hl
Pa
-0.50122
-0.50122

0d
BEGIN:|p|
Pa
3.1131E+05
16b
TBRAN:Im(Zb
Pa-s/m^3
1.2187E+07
26c
UNION:Ph(p)
deg
1.6651
1.6651
42a
HARDE:R(1/z
0.0000
-1.3244E-14

1a
1b
9d
12e
TBRAN:Re(Zb TBRAN:Im(Zb CONE:AreaF
TX:HeatI
Pa-s/m^3
Pa-s/m^3
m^2
W
-1.4974E+07 1.3764E+07 2.1000E-04 -2220.4
16d
TBRAN:Ndotb
mol/s
1.9517
26e
33b
33c
33d
UNION:p20hl UNION:|p|SO UNION:Ph(p) UNION:T_SOF
Pa
Pa
deg
K
-0.72644
2.5490E+05
1.2058
325.00
-0.72644
2.5490E+05
1.2058
325.00
42b
HARDE:I(1/z
0.0000
3.5147E-12

TITLE
Backhaus 1998 TASHE
!->E:\DeltaEC\TeXFiles\examples\SteadyFlow\combo2.out
!Created@17:30:29 25-Dec-2007 with DeltaEC version 6.1a17 under win32,
using Win 5.1.2600 (Service Pack 2) under Python DeltaEC.
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
the setup
3.1030E+06 a Mean P Pa
88.306
b Freq
Hz
G
325.00
c TBeg
K
3.1131E+05 d |p|
Pa
G
0.0000 e Ph(p) deg
0.0000 f |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 g Ph(U) deg
0.0000 i Ndot
mol/s
helium
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 1 ---------------------------------

119

TBRANCH
Split up the flow
-1.4974E+07 a Re(Zb) Pa-s/m^3 G
1.3764E+07 b Im(Zb) Pa-s/m^3 G
0.0000 d NdotBr mol/s

3.1131E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.0000 B Ph(p) deg
1.5306E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
-137.41
D Ph(U) deg
-1754.0
E HtotBr W
-1754.0
F EdotBr W
1754.0
G EdotTr W
+ 2 DUCT
180 bend plus brass connecting flange (pg 27 book 4)
+ 3 CONE
4" to 3" Concentric reducer (pg 36 book 4)
+ 4 DUCT
3" FB Duct - Length given in concept.skf
+ 5 CONE
3.5" to 3" Long radius reducing elbow (pg 36 book 4)
+ 6 MINOR
minor loss, small end of elbow
+ 7 DUCT
FB connector/part of tee (Pg 55 book 4 concept.skf)
!--------------------------------- 8 --------------------------------SOFTEND
End of feedback branch
0.0000 a Re(z)
2.5490E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b Im(z)
1.2058 B Ph(p) deg
0.0000 c Htot
W
0.20875 C |U|
m^3/s
-92.879
D Ph(U) deg
-1754.0
E Htot
W
-1895.0
F Edot
W
-0.11073
G Re(z)
1.5506 H Im(z)
325.00
I T
K
-0.50122
J p20HL Pa
!--------------------------------- 9 --------------------------------CONE
gas diode plate
5.8880E-04 a AreaI m^2
3.1278E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.4210 b PerimI m
-0.43187
B Ph(p) deg
2.5399E-02 c Length m
1.5039E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
2.1000E-04 d AreaF m^2
G
41.660
D Ph(U) deg
0.1850 e PerimF m
1754.0
E Htot
W
5.0000E-04 f Srough
1745.2
F Edot
W
ideal
Solid type
!--------------------------------- 10 --------------------------------MINOR
minor loss here
sameas
9d a Area
m^2
3.0956E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.8000 b K+
-0.97177
B Ph(p) deg
7.0000E-02 c K1.5039E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
41.660
D Ph(U) deg
1754.0
E Htot
W
1712.5
F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 11 --------------------------------DUCT
jetting space
6.8250E-03 a Area
m^2
3.0962E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.2930 b Perim m
-0.98637
B Ph(p) deg
1.9000E-02 c Length m
1.2515E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
5.0000E-04 d Srough
26.993
D Ph(U) deg
1754.0
E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
1711.0
F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 12 --------------------------------TX
Main room temp water HX (pg 90 book 3)
6.6580E-03 a Area
m^2
3.0978E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.2275 b GasA/A
-1.0673 B Ph(p) deg
2.0400E-02 c Length m
1.1962E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
1.2700E-03 d radius m
22.469
D Ph(U) deg
-2220.4
e HeatIn W
G
-466.4
E Htot
W
300.00
f SolidT K
1698.6
F Edot
W
0.0000 g FracQN
325.00
G GasT
K
280.87
H SolidT K
stainless
Solid type
-466.4
I H2k
W
!--------------------------------- 13 --------------------------------DUCT
Regen cold end dead space due to ribs (pg 91 book 3)
4.9700E-03 a Area
m^2
3.0978E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.7400 b Perim m
-1.0706 B Ph(p) deg
3.1750E-03 c Length m
1.1757E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
20.116
D Ph(U) deg
-466.4
E Htot
W
stainless
Solid type
1698.0
F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 14 --------------------------------STKSCREEN Regenerator (pg 92 book 3) (Ks frac est:pg 20 book 4)
6.2070E-03 a Area
m^2
2.5688E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.7190 b VolPor
1.6746 B Ph(p) deg
7.3000E-02 c Length m
3.8856E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
4.2200E-05 d rh
m
-26.444
D Ph(U) deg
0.3000 e ksFrac
-466.4
E Htot
W
4401.7
F Edot
W
325.00
G TBeg
K
1074.8
H TEnd
K
stainless
Solid type
-466.4
I H2k
W
!--------------------------------- 15 --------------------------------DUCT
top half of mixing chamber
6.2000E-03 a Area
m^2
Mstr
2.5686E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.2791 b Perim m
15a
1.6651 B Ph(p) deg

120

1.0000E-02 c Length m
6.0000E-04 d Srough

3.9686E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
-28.642
D Ph(U) deg
-466.4
E Htot
W
stainless
Solid type
4400.3
F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 16 --------------------------------TBRANCH
branch into hot loop
2.8393E+06 a Re(Zb) Pa-s/m^3 G
2.5686E+05 A |p|
Pa
1.2187E+07 b Im(Zb) Pa-s/m^3 G
1.6651 B Ph(p) deg
606.94
c HtotBr W
2.0526E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
1.9517 d NdotBr mol/s
G
-75.22
D Ph(U) deg
606.94
E HtotBr W
598.14
F EdotBr W
3802.1
G EdotTr W
+ 17 DUCT
quarter-wave duct from engine to diode
+ 18 RPN
calculate Borda-Carnot minor loss here
+ 19 MINOR
asymmetric flow at gas diode
+ 20 CONE
expansion to plenum
+ 21 RPN
watch that angle
!--------------------------------- 22 --------------------------------VXQ1
plenty of room for heat transfer
1.5000E-02 a Area
m^2
2.4607E+04 A |p|
Pa
0.4000 b GasA/A
-174.95
B Ph(p) deg
0.1000 c SolA/A
6.6004E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
1.0000E-02 d rh
m
92.200
D Ph(U) deg
1.0000E-02 e LenTS1 m
4306.9
E Htot
W
6.0000 f Len P1 m
-40.422
F Edot
W
1.0000E-02 g LenTS2 m
1078.9
G TSolBeg P1 K
3700.0
h HeatP1 W
1170.6
H TSolEnd P1 K
1.0000 i FracQN
-3.0825E+04 I H2k
W
stainless
Solid type
+ 23 CONE
adapt between heat exchanger and quarter-wave tube
+ 24 DUCT
quarter wave connection tube
!--------------------------------- 25 --------------------------------SOFTEND
end of the branch; this will reconnect to trunk at UNION
0.0000 a Re(z)
2.5686E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b Im(z)
1.6651 B Ph(p) deg
0.0000 c Htot
W
1.7790E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
107.09
D Ph(U) deg
4306.9
E Htot
W
-607.82
F Edot
W
-1.0446 G Re(z)
-3.7851 H Im(z)
1166.0
I T
K
-0.72644
J p20HL Pa
!--------------------------------- 26 --------------------------------UNION
reconnect the "final" end of the loop here
25
a SegNum
2.5686E+05 A |p|
Pa
sameas 25A b |p|Sft Pa
=26A
1.6651 B Ph(p) deg
sameas 25B c Ph(p)S deg
=26B
3.0191E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
sameas 25I d TSoft K
36.195
D Ph(U) deg
sameas 25J e p20HLS Pa
=26H
3233.6
E Htot
W
3194.3
F Edot
W
1074.8
G T
K
-0.72644
H p20HL Pa
!--------------------------------- 27 --------------------------------DUCT
bottom half of mixing chamber
sameas 15a a Area
m^2
2.5688E+05 A |p|
Pa
sameas 15b b Perim m
1.6581 B Ph(p) deg
sameas 15c c Length m
2.9241E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
33.430
D Ph(U) deg
3233.6
E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
3192.9
F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 28 --------------------------------SX
flow straightener (no heat input)
sameas 27a a Area
m^2
2.5674E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.6500 b VolPor
1.6303 B Ph(p) deg
5.0000E-03 c Length m
2.8634E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
5.0000E-04 d rh
m
32.328
D Ph(U) deg
0.0000 e HeatIn W
3233.6
E Htot
W
0.0000 f SolidT K
3160.6
F Edot
W
0.0000 g FracQN
1074.8
G GasT
K
1074.8
H SolidT K
ideal
Solid type
3233.6
I H2k
W
!--------------------------------- 29 --------------------------------STKDUCT
Straight section of pulse tube (pg 101 bk 4)
7.0000E-03 a Area
m^2
Mstr
2.5617E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.2963 b Perim m
29a
1.3980 B Ph(p) deg
0.2400 c Length m
3.9947E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
1.1600E-03 d WallA m^2
-50.915
D Ph(U) deg
3233.6
E Htot
W
3128.1
F Edot
W
1074.8
G TBeg
K
325.00
H TEnd
K
stainless
Solid type
3233.6
I H2k
W
!--------------------------------- 30 --------------------------------RPN
how much heat must be rejected here? Resonator is insulated

121

0.0000 a G or T
-1479.6
A ChngeMe
22h 12e + ~
!--------------------------------- 31 --------------------------------TX
Small water Xger
6.6580E-03 a Area
m^2
2.5567E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.2690 b GasA/A
1.3207 B Ph(p) deg
1.0160E-02 c Length m
4.0349E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
2.2860E-03 d radius m
-51.394
D Ph(U) deg
sameas 30A e HeatIn W
1754.0
E Htot
W
290.00
f SolidT K
3124.6
F Edot
W
0.0000 g FracQN
325.00
G GasT
K
235.11
H SolidT K
ideal
Solid type
1754.0
I H2k
W
!--------------------------------- 32 --------------------------------DUCT
PT connector (see pg 55 book 4 and concept.skf)
6.2070E-03 a Area
m^2
2.5490E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.2790 b Perim m
1.2058 B Ph(p) deg
5.1000E-02 c Length m
4.7540E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
6.0000E-04 d Srough
-57.78
D Ph(U) deg
1754.0
E Htot
W
stainless
Solid type
3121.9
F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 33 --------------------------------UNION
Rejoin
8
a SegNum
2.5490E+05 A |p|
Pa
sameas
8A b |p|Sft Pa
=33A
1.2058 B Ph(p) deg
sameas
8B c Ph(p)S deg
=33B
0.24915 C |U|
m^3/s
sameas
8I d TSoft K
=33G
-86.58
D Ph(U) deg
sameas
8J e p20HLS Pa
=33H
-3.2287E-11 E Htot
W
1226.9
F Edot
W
325.00
G T
K
-0.50122
H p20HL Pa
+ 34 DUCT
Section of 3.5" tee
+ 35 CONE
3.5" to 4" cone to adapt to resonator (pg 93 book 4)
+ 36 DUCT
Initial section of resonator
+ 37 BRANCH
RC dissipator
+ 38 DUCT
Continuation of resonator
+ 39 CONE
7 degree cone - 10.02" final diameter
+ 40 DUCT
10" duct
P8
+ 41 SURFACE
end cap of resonator
!--------------------------------- 42 --------------------------------HARDEND
end of duct
0.0000 a R(1/z)
=42G
8.7575E+04 A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b I(1/z)
=42H
-178.58
B Ph(p) deg
0.0000 c Htot
W
1.5638E-12 C |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 d Ndot
mol/s
-88.448
D Ph(U) deg
-3.2287E-11 E Htot
W
-1.6197E-10 F Edot
W
-4.0481E-15 G R(1/z)
1.7114E-12 H I(1/z)
0.0000 I Ndot
mol/s

122

7. Mixture separation
A sound wave in a binary gas mixture in a channel causes time-averaged molar uxes of
the two components of the mixture in opposite directions, and can create a signicant molefraction gradient along the channel. Oscillating lateral thermal diusion causes the light and
heavy components of the mixture to take turns enriching the central region of the channel,
where the oscillating motion is the greatest; the time phasing is best when the oscillating
enrichment and oscillating velocity are in phase, causing the velocity oscillations to carry
light-enriched gas in one direction and heavy-enriched gas in the other direction [42, 43, 44].
_
The light component usually ows in the direction of E:
The thermoacoustic mixture-separation mole ux and mole-fraction gradient are in some
ways analogous to the time-averaged enthalpy ux and temperature gradient that a sound
wave creates in a stack in a standing-wave thermoacoustic refrigerator.
DeltaEC can model this eect accurately [10].

7.1. Principles of calculation

Consider a binary gas mixture owing steadily in the x direction through a channel, with a
molar ow rate N_ : Let the mole fraction of the lighter component be nL and let its molar
ow rate be N_ L ; similarly nH and N_ H for the heavy component. It is always true that
nL + nH = 1

(7.1)

N_ L + N_ H = N_ :

(7.2)

and
In a simple bulk ow of the gas mixture (i.e., ow that does not involve mass diusion,
mole-fraction gradients, or thermoacoustic mixture separation), it is also true that
N_ L = nL N_ :

(7.3)

Combining Eqs. (7.1)(7.3) algebraically shows that

N_ H = nH N_

(7.4)

is also true in a bulk ow, as expected from the symmetry of the equations. Thus, bulk
ow in a binary mixture can be uniquely described by assigning values to just two variables,
which can be chosen as N_ and nL :
Nontrivial ows arise in binary mixtures whenever mass diusion or thermoacoustic
mixture separation occurs. For example, for N_ = 0 and no thermoacoustics, a nonzero N_ L
123

and an equal and opposite N_ H arise from ordinary diusion in the x direction whenever a
mole-fraction gradient dnL =dx
dnH =dx exists; Eq. (7.3) is obviously not satised. Thus,
DeltaEC must routinely handle nontrivial mixture ows, which must be specied by three
independent variables. DeltaEC takes those three variables to be N_ ; N_ L ; and nL :1
For dTm =dx = 0, DeltaEC allows the mole fraction to evolve with x in segment types
MIXBL (boundary-layer approximation), MIXSLAB (between parallel plates), and MIXCIRC
(circular channel), according to the theory described in Ref. [10] and references therein.
Nonzero dnL =dx is supported for three of DeltaECs gas mixtures: He-Ar, He-Xe, and
Ne-Xe. The user can create an external le to specify the properties of other gas mixtures,
as described in Section 12.15.2. The equations being integrated in these MIX** segments are
dp1
dx
dU1
dx
dTm
dx
dnL
dx

= Fmomentum (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; pm ; !; geometry, gas properties, etc.),

(7.5)

= Fcontinuity (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; pm ; !; geometry, gas properties, etc.),

(7.6)

= 0,

(7.7)

= Fmix sep (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; N_ ; N_ L ; pm ; !; geometry, gas properties, etc.).

(7.8)

The similar segment types MIXTBL, MIXTSLAB, and MIXTCIRC allow dTm =dx 6= 0; so the
equations being integrated in these segments are
dp1
dx
dU1
dx
dTm
dx
dnL
dx

= Fmomentum (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; pm ; !; geometry, gas properties, etc.),

(7.9)

= Fcontinuity (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; pm ; !; geometry, gas properties, etc.),

(7.10)

= Fenergy (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; pm ; !; geometry, gas properties, etc.),

(7.11)

= Fmix sep (p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; N_ ; N_ L ; pm ; !; geometry, gas properties, etc.). (7.12)

In DeltaECs BEGIN segment, we specify N_ and nL : If the bulk NLdotbox is checked,

DeltaEC calculates N_ L using Eq. (7.3); if the bulk NLdot box is not checked, the user must
specify N_ L (perhaps as a guess).
Continuity of nL between segments is enforced. N_ and N_ L split up at TBRANCHs, add at
UNIONs, and are independent of x in all physical segments.

7.2. Boundary conditions

Deciding how to handle N_ , N_ L ; and nL at BEGINs, SOFTENDs, etc. is subtle and depends on
exactly what the user wants to model. A feedstock with a given nL might be injected into
1
DeltaEC focuses on the light component because DeltaEs rst mixture, HeAr, was set up many years
ago with its input parameter representing the helium fraction. This convention causes a minor bookkeeping
nuisance now, since Refs. [10, 42, 43, 44] focus on the heavy component.

124

the middle or end of a mixture separator whose vigorous thermoacoustic processes maintain
a locally dierent nL ; in this case, nL might be regarded as discontinuous [10], and Eq. (7.3)
would not apply if the local thermoacoustic channels nL were used, even while the feedstock
ow itself is bulk [i.e., the feedstock mole fraction and feedstock ows satisfy Eq. (7.3)]. In
other circumstances, one location of the mixture separator might be rmly connected to an
essentially innite bath of feedstock, so nL would be maintained by net molar or partialmolar ows to or from the bath that might not satisfy Eq. (7.3). If a **END represents a
location where the acoustics stops and an enriched product ows out of the system, Eq. (7.3)
must apply to the outow.
Here are several possible situations, with discussions of how to initialize variables in BEGIN
and how to choose guesses and targets for each of them in DeltaEC. We only discuss the
mixture-specic guesses and targets here; realistic mixture-separation models typically also
include guesses and targets related to p1 and U1 :
Sealed system
The steady-state conditions of Refs. [42, 43] represent sealed systems with N_ = 0 everywhere. Those experiments had no steady inow or outow, but were constrained by the
mole fractions present in the original charge of gas mixture, so getting the right answer
from DeltaEC depends on constraining DeltaECs solution with an integral of nL over
the volume of the apparatus to match the total number of moles of light component that
was present in the original charge. Getting the correct answer to that integral would be
the target corresponding to the guessed value of nL in the BEGIN. In practice, we might
approximate such an integral in DeltaEC with a simple, volumetrically weighted average
of values at a small number of locations. The BEGIN should have N_ = 0 (and, by default,
N_ L = 0); because nothing ows in or out there.
Firm connection to feedstock bath, no steady ow
If one end of a mixture-separation channel is rmly connected to a feedstock bath, then the
system could be modeled starting at that end with a BEGIN having a known mole fraction
and a guessed N_ L , and integrating along the channel. If the BEGIN is not at a location
where the system is rmly connected to a feedstock bath, then nL could be guessed at the
BEGIN and the mole fraction could be targeted wherever the system is rmly connected to a
feedstock bath.
Inject feedstock at one end, withdraw product at the other end
Now consider a slow injection of feedstock at one end of the acoustic separation channel,
and a removal of product at the other end, through capillaries [9]. When the system reaches
steady state, the ow variables at the exit N_ L and N_ must equal their incoming values.
Yet, if the ow is weak enough, we feel condent that a mole-fraction gradient must exist
from end to end. Thus, the ow cannot satisfy N_ L = nL N_ at both ends. What happens?
The exit ow is bulk, the mole fraction in the exit ow must be the same as the mole fraction
125

in the feedstock, and the feedstock mixes abruptly into a locally dierent mole fraction at
the feedstock-end of the apparatus.
To model that situation with DeltaEC, the easiest approach is to put the BEGIN at
the exit end, because the exit ow is bulk so we have fewer unknowns to guess there.
Suppose we know the incoming N_ and nL . We use these values in the BEGIN (with a minus
sign for the molar ux), check the bulk ow box to set N_ L appropriately, and integrate
straightforwardly to the other end of the channel, where we learn what the mole fraction
in the channel is where the feedstock mixes into it. This approach is the easiest because it
involves only two segments BEGIN and MIXBL and it involves no targets or guesses.
A seemingly more logical and readable approach to this situation is to begin at the
feedstock end, but then we need more DeltaEC baggage, to work around the fact that we
know less information a priori at that end:
0. BEGIN with the known p1 ; U1 ; feedstock N_ ; and feedstock nL . Since the feedstock
capillary ow is bulk, check the bulk box in the BEGIN segment to establish the correct
N_ L .
1. RPN with 1a a guessed mole fraction at the feedstock end of the separation channel
and 1b having inp =nL .
2. MIXCIRC.
3. RPN expressing the bulk condition, Eq. (7.3), for the exit ow, and target it. This
target is associated with the guess in segment 1. For example, put 0. in 3a and nL Ndot
* NLdot - in 3b.
Feedstock in the middle of a long tube, products extracted at both ends
Lets assume that we know the molar ow rate and mole fraction of the feedstock injected
into the middle of a long separation tube, and that external control of the capillary ow
impedances forces a known fraction of that molar ow out the top and the remainder out
the bottom. Well begin at one of the places where the steady ow goes out, because we can
count on bulk ow there. This situation is modeled in Ref. [10] and shown in the example
in Section 7.3 below.
0. BEGIN with the acoustic conditions at one end of the channel, with guessed nL . Set
N_ equal to the known rate of product extraction here. Check the bulk box in the BEGIN
segment so that N_ L is automatically assigned the appropriate, bulk value at this productoutow location.
1. MIXBL for the rst part of the channel.
2. RPN with the helium mole fraction of the injected feedstock in 2a. (not targeted!)
3. RPN with the injected molar ow rate in 3a and with the following instructions in
3b to add the correct increment to both N_ and N_ L : 3a Ndot + =Ndot 3a 2a * NLdot +
=NLdot
4. MIXBL for the second part of the channel.
At this point, we have the correct N_ and N_ L , but we are not necessarily guaranteed the
bulk condition needed for outow into a capillary. Hence, we need the next segment:
5. RPN expressing the bulk condition, Eq. (7.3), and target it. For example, put 0. in 5a
and nL Ndot * NLdot - Ndot / in 5b. (We often multiply the bulk-ow-enforcement
126

expression 0 = nL N_ N_ L by a large number, or divide it by N_ , to give DeltaEC a weighty

enough target.) This target corresponds to the guessed value of nL in segment 0.
Firm connection to feedstock bath in the middle of a long tube, products extracted at both ends
This time, lets assume that we know the two exiting molar ow rates and the mole fraction
of the feedstock bath in the middle. The feedstock bath must supply N_ and N_ L in the
center, but not necessarily in bulk proportions.
In hardware, how might we make a rm connection to a xed mole fraction in the middle
of a tube? We could have two capillaries there, and pump a huge mole ux into one of them
and a nearly equal mole ux at a slightly dierent mole fraction out of the other one. The
net ow the sum of these two is not a bulk ow.
0. BEGIN at one end of the channel with a guessed nL and the known N_ : Check the bulk
owbox to get the known N_ L ; because this is a location of product outow.
1. MIXBL for the rst part of the channel.
2. RPN Target the feedstock baths mole fraction here, with the target value in 2a and
nL in 2b.
3. RPN Guess the incremental N_ in 3a. Add the incremental N_ and N_ L to the separation
tube in 3b using inp Ndot + =Ndot inp 2a * NLdot + =NLdot .
4. MIXBL for the second part of the channel.
5. RPN expressing the bulk condition, Eq. (7.3), and target it. For example, put 0. in 5a
and nL Ndot * NLdot - Ndot / in 5b.
We have 2 targets (segments 2, 5) and 2 guesses (segments 0, 3).

7.3. Continuous HeAr separator

Guidance for choosing the guesses and targets related specically to mixture separation was
given above. Here is an extended example from Ref. [10] including the targets and guesses
relating to the acoustic wave. The apparatus is shown in Fig. 7.1.
First, we use DeltaEC to predict the shape of nH (x) for steady ow injected at the
tube midpoint and extracted at the ends, for one particular operating point, namely
N_ feedstock = 1:59 mol/s of 5050 HeAr at x = 0:5 m,
N_ product = 20% 1:59 mol/s at x = 0:0 m,
N_ product = 80% 1:59 mol/s at x = 1:0 m,
jp1 j = 3:00 kPa at x = 0:50 m,
z = Ap1 =U1 = m a, purely real, at x = 0:5 m.
The DeltaEC model for the hardware dimensions given in Ref. [10] and the conditions
listed above uses the mixture-specic guess and target described above under the heading
Feedstock in the middle of a long tube, products extracted at both ends, plus three
additional guesses and targets to enforce the acoustic conditions specied in that paper.
The <.out> le is
TITLE
planned first expt in fy 06
!---05081220.out
!Created@14:57:50 28-Oct-06 with DeltaE Vers. 6.0g2 for the IBM/PC-Compatible
!--------------------------------- 0 ---------------------------------

127

Figure 7.1: Apparatus for heliumargon separation used in Ref. [10] and in this example.

128

BEGIN
in front of top driver
7.9907E+04 a Mean P
Pa
200.00
b Freq
Hz
298.15
c TBeg
K
3882.6
d |p|
Pa
G
0.0000 e Ph(p)
deg
9.6980E-05 f |U|
m^3/s
G
-0.9501 g Ph(U)
deg
G
-2.6300E-08 h Htot
W
-3.1800E-07 i Ndot
mol/s
0.3406 j nL
G
HeAr
Gas type
!--------------------------------MIXCIRC
tube #1 (bottom)
8.5630E-06 a Area
m^2
1.0000 b GasA/A
0.5000 c Length
m
1.6510E-03 d radius
m

1 ---------------------------------

3000.0
A |p|
Pa
-101.23
B Ph(p)
deg
8.1411E-05 C |U|
m^3/s
-101.23
D Ph(U)
deg
-2.6300E-08 E Htot
W
0.1221 F Edot
W
0.3406 G nL Beg
0.4661 H nL End
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------RPN
pressure amplitude in center
3000.0
a G or T
= 2A?
3000.0
A |p1|
p1 mag
!--------------------------------- 3 --------------------------------RPN
set Re[z]= rho a
0.0000 a G or T
= 3A?
3.6028E-16 A null
rho a * p1 U1 / 1a * real - rho a * /
!--------------------------------- 4 --------------------------------RPN
set Im[z] = 0
0.0000 a G or T
= 4A?
1.8585E-16 A Im z
p1 U1 / 1a * imag rho a * /
!--------------------------------- 5 --------------------------------RPN
feedstock concentration
0.5000 a G or T
(t)
0.0000 A nL Feed
0
!--------------------------------- 6 --------------------------------RPN
[a]=injection (micromol/sec)
1.5900 a G or T
(t)
6.8668E-07 A ChngeMe
1.2720E-06 B ChngeMe
6a 1e-6 * Ndot + =Ndot 6a 1e-6 * 5a * NLdot + =NLdot
!--------------------------------- 7 --------------------------------MIXCIRC
tube #2 (bottom)
sameas
1a a Area
m^2
2350.2
A |p|
Pa
sameas
1b b GasA/A
163.69
B Ph(p)
deg
sameas
1c c Length
m
6.7249E-05 C |U|
m^3/s
sameas
1d d radius
m
163.84
D Ph(U)
deg
-6.1169E-05 E Htot
W
7.9026E-02 F Edot
W
0.4661 G nL Beg
0.5398 H nL End
!--------------------------------- 8 --------------------------------RPN
exit bulk condition
0.0000 a G or T
= 8A?
-3.3295E-16 A null
nL Ndot * NLdot - Ndot /

The <.sp> le from that run was imported into a spreadsheet to convert nL to nH = 1 nL
for plotting in Ref. [10]. Figure 7.2 shows the result, compared with measurements of the
heavy mole fraction nH that were made at 7 locations along the separation tube.
Next, an incremental plot was made, with feedstock N_ as the independent variable and
with an RPN segment maintaining the molar ow rate in the BEGIN segment equal to 20%
of the feedstock ow. The result is shown in Fig. 7.3.

129

Figure 7.2: Heavy mole fraction nH vs position in tube for one particular operating condition that
is described in the text. The points are measurements from Ref. [10] and the curve is the result of
DeltaECs calculation as described in the text.

Figure 7.3: Heavy mole fractions nH at x = 0 and x = 1 m, at various feedstock molar ows,
with one product ow equal to 20% of the feedstock ow and the other product ow equal to 80%
of the feedstock ow. The points are measurements from Ref. [10] and the curves are DeltaEC
calculations as described in the text.

130

Part II: Reference

131

8. General principles
8.1. Integration from BEGIN to **END
Except for trivial cases (e.g., IMPEDANCE) that are handled algebraically, each of DeltaECs
physical segments numerically integrates two or more of the following dierential equations
from its initial end to its nal end:
dp1
dx
dU1
dx
dTm
dx
dTsolid
dx
dH_ tot
dx
dp2;0;HL
dx
dnL
dx

= Fmomentum (local and global parameters and variables);

(8.1)

= Fcontinuity (local and global parameters and variables);

(8.2)

= Fx-energy (local and global parameters and variables);

(8.3)

= Fsolid (local and global parameters and variables);

(8.4)

= Flateral energy (local and global parameters and variables);

(8.5)

= Fhead loss (local and global parameters and variables);

(8.6)

= Fmix sep (local and global parameters and variables):

(8.7)

The rst of these equations, involving p1 and U1 ; are su cient for users who are interested
only in acoustics, without thermoacoustics. For these users, the other equations can be
ignored. Users who are interested in ordinary thermoacoustic and Stirling engines and
refrigerators must also concern themselves with Tm ; Tsolid ; and H_ tot : Very few users have to
consider all seven of these equations simultaneously.
In most segments that employ numerical integration of these equations, Nint steps of
fourth-order Runge-Kutta integration [15] are employed. However, HX, TX, SX, and PX, which
are most often used for heat exchangers whose lengths are only of the order of j 1 j ; employ
only one step of fourth-order Runge-Kutta integration.
For each integration through the segments in the model, the initial values of the integration variables, p1 ; U1 ; Tm ; H_ tot ; p2;0;HL ; and nL ; are set in the BEGIN segment. Except for
Tsolid ; all of these variables are taken to be continuous between segments; but Tsolid is usually
discontinuous at the ends of heat exchangers.
A few additional variables, such as N_ , are also initialized in the BEGIN segment but are
independent of x unless they are changed abruptly at a logistical segment such as a TBRANCH.
The total power ow H_ tot is often independent of x; but there are important exceptions.
In heat exchangers, H_ tot changes by the amount of heat added (or removed), and in transduc132

ers it changes by the amount of power added (or removed). If the ANCHOR logistical segment
(described in Section 11.3.1) is used upstream, H_ tot also changes in every component except
STK**s, because ANCHOR means that acoustic power dissipation is removed locally as heat in
each such component.
Usually the initial values of at least some of these integration variables are unknown at
the BEGIN, so DeltaEC uses a shooting method to nd initial values that are consistent
with targeted results that are identied by the user elsewhere in the model. The shooting
method is described in the next section.
After the shooting method has met its targets, DeltaEC knows the complete solution
p1 (x); U1 (x); Tm (x); Tsolid (x); H_ tot (x); p2;0;HL (x); and nL (x): Three additional useful func_ the
tions of x are calculated straightforwardly from that solution: the acoustic power E,
_
exergy ow X, and the total second-order time-averaged pressure p2;0;tot :
1 h ei
_
Re p1 U1 ;
E(x)
=
2
T0 _
T0
_
X(x)
=
E+ 1
Tm
Tm
+N_ L Runiv T0 ln

(8.8)
H_ 2;k + N_ (mwm

nL
nL;0

+ N_

jp1 j
4 m a2

N_ L Runiv T0 ln

1 nL
1 nL;0

(8.9)
(8.10)

p2;0;tot (x) = p2;0;rev + p2;0;HL

2

T0 msm )

jU1 j
+ p2;0;HL :
4A2gas

(8.11)

The expression for acoustic power is discussed in Ref. [12] and should be familiar to most
acousticians.
The expression for X_ is an amalgam of the basic thermoacoustic exergy ow derived in
Ref. [12], a steady-ow component derived in Ref. [31], and the N_ 6= 0 extension of the thermoacoustic mixture-separation expression derived in Ref. [43]. The reference temperature
T0 ; which is the ambient temperature at which heat has no value, is set to 300 K by default
in BEGIN segments and can be changed thereafter by using the operation =Tzero in an RPN
segment. Steady pressure makes no contribution to the steady-ow component because we
assume that the reference pressure for exergy is pm : The second line of Eq. (8.9) is relevant
only for mixtures. The zero-exergy mixture mole fraction, nL;0 ; is the mole fraction for
which the mixture has no value, typically the feedstocks mole fraction. It is set to 0.500 by
default in BEGIN segments, and can be changed to another value by using =nLzro in an RPN
segment soon after the BEGIN.
The reversible part of the second-order time-averaged pressure, p2;0;rev ; is derived in Ref.
[35], and measurements of p2;0;tot are described in Ref. [34].
These ten functions of x, as well as many others (e.g., the mean density m , the vibration
force F1 described in Section 11.4.1) are available to the user in tabular and graphical forms
via the <.sp> le, at the end of each segment in the <.out> le, and/or at any location
via RPN segments.
133

8.1.1. Additional details for N_ and p2;0;HL

DeltaECs input parameter Ndot, denoted in the Users Guide by N_ , represents the true
time-averaged molar ow, which is the steady-ow quantity under the most direct experimental control and the quantity that carries steady enthalpy ux
H_ N_ = N_ mwm ;

(8.12)

where m is the molar mass and wm is the mean enthalpy per unit mass. The total power
H_ tot = H_ 2;k + H_ N_

(8.13)

is the power that obeys the rst law of thermodynamics for open control volumes. The total
power H_ tot is the sum of the second-order time-averaged thermoacoustic enthalpy ux, the
ordinary thermal conduction in the x direction, and H_ N_ = N_ mwm :
In DeltaEC, mean enthalpy is referenced to zero at temperature T0 , which is set to 300
Kelvin by default in the rst BEGIN segment of a model. (This default can be overridden
by using the =Tzero operator in an RPN segment.) For an ideal gas, Eq. (8.12) can then be
regarded as
H_ N_ = N_ mcp (Tm T0 ) :
(8.14)
To second order,

Z
1
_
e1 ] dAgas + m U2;0 ;
(8.15)
N m ' Re [ 1 u
2
where m is the molar mass. However, the second-order time-averaged momentum equation
shows that second-order time-averaged head-loss gradients are generated by U2;0 ; with no
2
_
contribution from 1 u
e1 : Dening
m U2;0 =m; substituting 1 = ( =a ) p1
m T1 in
R N2;0
1
e1 ] dAgas in the standard thermoacoustic expression for
Eq. (8.15), and solving for 2 Re [T1 u
H_ 2;k ; it is easy to show that Eq. (8.15) is equivalent to
N_ 2;0 = N_ +

mcp

dTm
H_ 2;k + (Agas k + Asolid ks )
dx

1
+
ma2 mcp

_
E;

(8.16)

which is the molar ow that is used in most of DeltaECs p2;0;HL calculations.1 Note that
N_ 2;0 is often nonzero when N_ = 0; which means that interesting second-order, time-averaged
head losses arise in many circumstances having N_ = 0, such as in the regenerators of TASHEs
and pulse-tube refrigerators. Click the Enable Ndot button in the BEGIN segments Optional
parameters to turn onthe display of p20HL even when N_ = 0.

8.2. Shooting method

If initial values of all of the integration variables of interest [chosen from among p1 (x);
U1 (x); Tm (x); Tsolid (x); H_ tot (x); p2;0;HL (x); and nL (x)] are known at the BEGINning end
In a few expressions for the dissipative parts of dp1 =dx below, our choice of whether to use N_ 2;0 or N_ is
based as much on history or convenience as on careful thought. In those cases, N_ N_ 2;0 is of second order
and aects dp1 =dx only to third order.
1

134

of the thermoacoustic apparatus, then DeltaECs numerical integration is straightforward,

proceeding from the initial end to the nal end. But usually one or more boundary conditions
are instead specied at the nal end or somewhere in the middle. In such circumstances
DeltaEC uses a shooting method [15], by guessing any unknowns at the BEGIN, integrating
to the **END, comparing the results with the target boundary conditions imposed at that
end and/or elsewhere, and adjusting its guesses until the targets are met. Up to eighteen
guesses and eighteen targets are allowed. One of DeltaECs most powerful features is
that the guesses and targets are not limited to the conventional choices, which would be
the initial values of integration variables at the BEGIN as guesses and calculated values of
integration variables at the **END as targets. Any results can be used for targets, and
any upstream variables that have eects on downstream target variables can be used as
guesses. This enables DeltaEC to calculate a resonance frequency, a geometrical dimension,
a temperature, or even the concentration in a binary gas mixture in order to satisfy desired
boundary conditions.
DeltaEC treats its collection of n guesses and n targets as a system of n nonlinear
equations,
F1 = r1 (g1 ; g2 ; g3 :::gn )
F2 = r2 (g1 ; g2 ; g3 :::gn )
F3 = r3 (g1 ; g2 ; g3 :::gn )
:::
Fn = rn (g1 ; g2 ; g3 :::gn )

(8.17)
(8.18)
(8.19)
(8.20)
(8.21)

t1 ;
t2 ;
t3 ;
tn ;

where gi is the ith guess, ti is the ith target value, and ri is the ith calculated result, which
we hope can be made equal to the ith target ti by suitable choices of the n guesses gi : Thus,
DeltaEC must seek values of the n guesses gi that make Fi = 0 for all i: Several methods for nding the simultaneous zeroes of complicated, simultaneous functions exist. The
routine incorporated in DeltaEC is called DNSQ, and it is part of the SLATEC Common
Mathematical Library, which is freely available through the internet software repository at
http://www.netlib.org. The algorithm used is a modication of the Powell hybrid method
[45, 46]. The ordinary DeltaEC user can just as well imagine that DNSQ is the Newton
Raphson method, which is easy to understand and is described in Ref. [15] and many tutorial
websites. The description below is based on that slight oversimplication.2
A NewtonRaphson algorithm
with initial guessed values of the guesses, and
X begins
2
calculates the n values of Fi . If
(Fi ) is not close enough to zero, the algorithm estimates
2
the n local slopes
Fi (g1 ; g2 ; ... gj + gj ; ... gn )
@Fi
'
@gj
gj

Fi (g1 ; g2 ; ... gj ; ... gn )

(8.22)

The algorithm forms a betterset of guesses based on the assumption that these functions
Fi are linear, and repeats the process, until it judges the results to be close enough to the
2
Sometimes Newton-Raphson gets hung up because the matrix @Fi =@gj is singular or nearly so. Then the
hybridaspect of Powells method is invoked, blending Newton-Raphson with a gradient descent toward a
minimum of Eq. (8.23).

135

targets, according to
qX

(wi Fi )

Tolerance

qX

(wi ti )2 ,

(8.23)

where the weighting factors wi passed from DeltaEC to DNSQ are given by
1
if the target is a phase angle,
360
1
if jti j 10 4 and the target is not a phase angle,
=
jti j
= 104 if jti j 10 4 and the target is not a phase angle

wi =

(8.24)
(8.25)
(8.26)

in the default Normalization Mode = 1.When Tolerance = 10 N ; this should ensure N

digits of accuracy for most targets like temperatures and pressure amplitudes, and values
< 10 (N +4) for zerotargets such as normalized **END impedances.
In complicated models, choosing appropriate guesses and targets and getting DeltaEC
to hit the targets are the most challenging aspects of using DeltaEC. Guidance for choosing
guesses and targets and for meeting targets appear in Secs. 5.3 and 5.4, respectively.

8.3. Numerical options

DeltaEC has many internal parameters that can be altered by the experienced user to
control the behavior of DeltaECs numerical integration and shooting method. These
parameters are accessible via Options in the Edit pulldown menu.
If any of the parameters described below are modied from their default values, it is
usually desirable to keep the new values for all subsequent runs, even after exiting from
DeltaEC and restarting. Therefore, whenever the default settings are changed, all of the
tunable parameters are written to a special le when the model is saved. This le has the
same base lename as the model, ending with <.ini>. Whenever a new model is loaded,
DeltaEC checks in the same folder for a <.ini> le with a matching base lename and
loads these settings if it is found. This le is written in NAMELIST format which makes it
easy to examine and modify using any text editor.
Frequently, a collection of similar models will reside in a single folder, and these les
will share identical custom settings. For these situations, any <.ini> le can be copied (or
renamed) to <default.ini> and DeltaEC will use the settings within <default.ini>
for any model run from that folder. If a model has its own individual <.ini>, the individual
settings take precedence over <default.ini>.
8.3.1. Integration options
Runge-Kutta steps. Default: 10. Recommended range: 1 50: This is an integer Nint
that determines the number of integration steps used to span each STK**, DUCT, CONE,
MIX**, and VX** segment. It does not aect other segment types. It also determines
the resolution in state plots: Nint +1 points per integrable segment. Larger values
will cause a slower, more accurate computation. Small values will increase speed at
the price of integration accuracy and possible convergence problems.
136

Minimum Temperature. Default: 10 K. This is a temperature oor to prevent DeltaECs

shooting method from exploring unphysical temperatures such as negative temperatures. Brave users with special needs at lower temperatures (and with their own, userdened thermophysical properties les!) can set this oor to a lower value. (Some of
DeltaECs internal gases use a higher temperature oor. See Chapter 12.)
8.3.2. Shooting options
Most of these parameters are described more fully in the online documentation for DNSQ at
the SLATEC software repository. More tips on successful shooting in complicated DeltaEC
models are in Section 5.4.
Convergence Tolerance. Default: 10 8 . Recommended range: 10 8 or smaller. This
parameter governs the accuracy at which DeltaEC considers its shooting-method
iterations nished. See Eq. (8.23). At 10 N ; this should ensure N digits of accuracy
for most targets, and values < 10 (N +4) for zero targets if the Normalization Mode
is 1.
Normalization Mode. Default: 1. In a numerical problem in which the output variables
used in the target list dier greatly in magnitudes, a di culty arises in choosing how
much to weigh the errors between each target and corresponding result. This particularly aects **END segments. A 0.001 K error in a heat-exchanger temperature is fairly
benign to us, but an error of 0.001 in the normalized complex end impedance zn could
leave us with tens of watts of power ow where there must be zero. In the standard
Normalization Mode (1), DeltaEC uses the target weighting described in Eqs. (8.24)
(8.26) to normalize targets, which usually does a reasonable job. For unusual cases,
set Normalization Mode to an integer 6= 1: Then Eqs. (8.24)(8.26) become
wi = min
= min

1
; 103+Mode
360
1
; 103+Mode
jti j

if the target is a phase angle,

if the target is not a phase angle,

so a higher Mode assigns greater weight to targets jti j 10 4 : See also the strategy
for changing the weights of individual targets described near the end of Section 5.4.2.
EpsFcn. Default: 10 10 . Recommended range: > 5 10 15 . To estimate @Fi =@gj using
p
p
Eq. (8.22), DeltaEC sets gj = gj EpsFcn: (But if gj = 0; then gj = EpsFcn:)
A large value of EpsFcn can sometimes speed iterations when initial values of guesses
are very inaccurate. Too small a value can cause the solver to lose its way completely,
as roundo error in the computer ruins the accuracy with which @Fi =@gj is calculated.
The optimal value is computer-dependent and model-dependent. To guard against
too-small values, EpsFcn has a built-in oor of 2 10 16 ; twice the double-precision
roundo bound (see Wikipedia, Machine epsilon).
137

Step Bound Factor. Default: 100. Recommended range: 0.01100. This parameter controls the boldness with which DeltaEC rst tries to adjust the gi , after the @Fi =@gj
have been calculated for the rst time. Some di cult cases can benet from a smaller
Step Bound Factor.

8.4. Error messages

Sometimes exiting from DeltaEC will produce an error message informing you to See
DeltaEC.exe.log for details.If you encounter this message, please look for that le in folder
<d:nProgramFilesnDeltaEC> and email it to ww@lanl.gov and swift@lanl.gov, with
a brief explanation of what you were doing. (Instead of looking for this information in
DeltaECs installation folder, you can also nd it in the Help pulldown menu the next
time you run DeltaEC.)
Sometimes DeltaEC will produce a wxWidgets Debug Alert. If you see this alert,
please copy the cryptic message in the top of the box and send it to ww@lanl.gov and
swift@lanl.gov, with a brief explanation of what you were doing. Please also check for a
<DeltaEC.exe.log> le in folder <d:nProgramFilesnDeltaEC> or in the Help pulldown
menu.
Most of DeltaECs other diagnostics are meant to be self-explanatory, but some of the
obscure messages may require additional explanation:

Warnings were generated while parsing... This warning message may indicate a problem with the <.out> le. This usually occurs when a version-5 model is opened in
version 6 for the rst time, or when the savvy user has made a minor mistake when editing a <.out> le with a text editor instead of using DeltaECs internal parameterand segment-modication methods. Examine the <.err> le for specic information.
When translating a model from version 5 to version 6, DeltaEC gives warnings whenever it is unsure of itself, even though it usually makes the right assumptions about
the translation.
Success, Partial convergence, or FAILED. The Run Monitor at the bottom of the
main display gives one of these three messages after every run, on a panel of green, yellow, or red, respectively. Successindicates that targets were met (or no targets and
guesses exist at all). FAILED and Iteration is complete, but some results
may not be near their targets indicate that targets have denitely not been met
to DeltaECs satisfaction. If the error occurs on a model that has displayed good
convergence under other conditions, this may simply be one pathological point. The
user may be able to jump-start it by manually (somewhat intelligently) changing the
value of one or two members of the guess list to put the solver on the right track. Otherwise, consider the tactics described in Section 5.4. Partial convergence indicates
that targets are almost met to DeltaECs satisfaction, and in most cases the user can
also be satised. Usually Partial convergence can quickly be changed to Success
138

simply by running again. If the frequent appearance of Partial success becomes a

nuisance, try changing the Tolerance, described in Section 8.3.2.
Plot non-convergence indicators. When a convergence error occurs during an incremental plotting operation, a is prepended to the plot line for that point, followed by a
single digit representing the infovariable at that point. A typical line in the <.ip>
le might then look like this:
*4

2.990

98.61

528.2

45.36

559.3

3219.

The plotter indicates such suspicious and failed convergence by plotting the point in red.
Below is a key to interpreting the infocodes:
info= Signicance
1
Partial convergence: The solver considers the iteration successful,
but the residual error is suspiciously large.
The solver was making progress, but the maximum number of iterations
2
has been reached. Another run might make further progress.
4
FAILED: The solver was unable to converge.
There are some cases when the user may want to delete the prepended asterisk and
number. For example, if the code is info=2, and the remaining error that the solver was
working on was already quite small, it might be quite valid to use this plot point instead of
discarding it.

8.5. Inherent limitations

Users should be aware of fundamental, inherent limitations in DeltaECs ability to model
real hardware:
DeltaEC assumes that p1 depends only on x; that u1 depends only on x except within
the viscous boundary layer, and that Tm depends only on x: Thus, DeltaEC cannot
accurately model ow in short-radius elbows, ow and pressure at abrupt transitions
between DUCTs of dierent areas (as shown in Fig. 8.1), or inertial or thermal eects
in thermal buer tubes and pulse tubes suering from signicant Rayleigh streaming.
(For example, in STKDUCT, Tm (x) and Tsolid (x) are equal for all x; which is a very
bad approximation if signicant Gedeon streaming, Rayleigh streaming, or jet-driven
streaming is present.) We often use MINOR segments, RPN segments, IMPEDANCE segments, and o-line hand calculations to try to account for 2- and 3-dimensional eects
like these.
The derivations of most thermoacoustic equations rely on the assumption that the gas displacement amplitude jU1 j =!A is much smaller than all other relevant dimensions in
the x direction. This assumption is often violated in thermoacoustic components, especially heat exchangers, whose length in the x direction is seldom larger than 2 jU1 j =!A:
139

Figure 8.1: (a) Naive and (b) more-realistic sketches of streamlines where two large-diameter DUCTs
join. DeltaEC performs inherently one-dimensional calculations, so it naively imagines that the
streamlines are as shown in (a). In reality, some high-velocity ow extends into the large-diameter
duct as shown in (b), adding inertance that DeltaEC does not automatically account for, and
resistive minor losses also occur at high Reynolds numbers. Even (b) may not be su ciently
realistic, because the ow at such a transition is seldom leftright symmetrical. These eects can
and usually should be modeled with RPN calculations, MINOR and/or IMPEDANCE segments, and
human intelligence.

The turbulence algorithms in DUCT, CONE, and VX** are based on the quasi-static approximation, namely that the pressure gradient at any instant of time in time-dependent
ow is the same as that which would be present for steady ow at the same rate. This
is known to be naive [47, 48, 49, 50].
Harmonics are often present in p(t) and U (t); but DeltaEC works exclusively with the
fundamentals p1 and U1 : This limitation usually has little impact on the accuracy of
power calculations [12], but experiments being compared to DeltaEC calculations
must use instruments that measure the fundamental components of the wave, not rms
or peak values.
DeltaECs shooting method is very e cient at converging to solutions for complicated
systems; however, it knows nothing about acoustics, or any other aspect of physical
reality. DeltaEC does not know that negative frequencies, negative pressures, or
negative lengths are improper; it simply does the math. Thus, the reasonableness of
the answers produced by DeltaECs shooting method often depend on the quality
of the initial guesses, which in turn depend on the thermoacoustics knowledge of the
user.
VXQ1 and VXQ2 rely on assumptions that may be invalid in some circumstances. See Section
10.7.3 for details.

140

9. Good design habits

When we study fundamental thermoacoustics issues, we try to design experiments to minimize unrelated eects so the issues being studied stand out clearly. In contrast, when we
apply what we know about thermoacoustics to design a practical device for a goal-oriented
sponsor, we often nd ourselves forced by the sponsors goals into operating conditions with
great complexity and signicant uncertainty, and yet we must account for everything as well
as possible. This chapter outlines some habits that we use at Los Alamos, as of 2008, to make
complex DeltaEC design models as realistic as possible, so that we and our goal-oriented
sponsors are not disappointed when hardware is built and tested.
Our philosophy: (1) Attention to details, because there are many details and their eects
add up. (2) Component-by-component conservatism, based on experimental evidence when
it diers from rawDeltaEC results. Ignoring these considerations can lead to factor-oftwo overprediction of performance.
We try to be honest with ourselves about these issues: If there are enough such issues
present in a given design, then any uncertainties about these issues should average out, so
well end up with hardware that works approximately like we predict, with equal probability
of working a little better or a little worse. In contrast, neglecting these issues early in a
design process can produce misleading optimization that does not represent reality, and
neglecting them in the nal stages of a design usually leads to disappointment when hardware
is tested.
Note that some of these details can be neglected at low amplitudes.
(Thanks to Scott Backhaus for contributions to this chapter.)

9.1. Attention to details

9.1.1. Imperfect external heat exchange
We pay attention to the interfaces between DeltaEC-modeled heat exchangers and their
environment. Even though DeltaEC is not set up to model anything outside the skin
of the solid that is in contact with the thermoacoustic gas in heat exchangers, many eects
beyond that boundary are important, and should be modeled, either using RPN segments
within DeltaEC or using calculations elsewhere (e.g., spreadsheets). For example, in a
water-cooled heat exchanger, non-negligible temperature dierences usually exist across the
water boundary layer (due to the nite thermal conductivity of the water) and between the
inlet and outlet streams (due to the nite specic heat and ow rate of the water). Our
sponsors usually care about the water inlet temperature, not DeltaECs heat-exchanger
internal temperature. Similar considerations apply in a drilled metal-block heat exchanger
141

that relies on conductivity of metal to transfer heat between the thermoacoustic gas in the
drilled channels and an external heat source or sink at the perimeter of the block.
9.1.2. Internal 2-D eects from imperfect external heat exchange
DeltaEC assumes that p1 ; U1 ; and Tm are independent of coordinates perpendicular to x:
Sometimes the low heat capacity and/or low ow rate of an external heat-transfer uid (especially combustion products from a burner owing through an engines hot heat exchanger)
ruin this laterally-uniform-Tm assumption in a cross-ow heat exchanger, thereby ruining
the same assumption in an adjacent stack or regenerator, which in turn can cause lateral
nonuniformity in U1 and/or internal streaming in the stack or regenerator. DeltaEC is
fundamentally ill suited to modeling such issues, yet we must consider them. To get a rough
idea of the impact of such nonuniformity, we have sometimes used TBRANCH and UNION to
split a hx-regen-hx (or hx-stack-hx) package into two (or even three) parallel subsets, each
with half (or a third) of the total area, allowing dierent Tm (x) in each. RPN calculations
can be used to keep the heat-exchanger temperatures consistent with the heat-transfer uids
ow rate and heat capacity. (Such split models usually require so many guesses and targets that other guesses and targets in the model must be disabled while this issue is being
explored.)
9.1.3. Heat leaks
We include axial thermal conduction of the pressure vessel surrounding any STK** components that have nonzero axial temperature gradients. This is built in to STKDUCT and
STKCONE segments, but it is not built in to the other STK** segments used for stacks and
regenerators. In STKSCREEN regenerators, we often tie ksFrac to an RPN calculation that
knows the vessel wall geometry, so the vessel wall conduction shows up directly in HX or other
*X segmentsresults. If the screens and the pressure vessel are made of the same material,
the expression is
Awall
;
(9.1)
ks;Frac,eective = ks;Frac,Lewis +
(1
) Ascreen
where ks;Frac,Lewis = 0:1 is recommended by Lewis et al. [27] for stacked screens. In other
cases, we use RPN segments to add and subtract appropriate conduction estimates to HX and
other *X heats, yielding net heats as RPN results. In the early stages of a design, such
RPNs can keep wall thickness proportional to STK** diameter, making this heat leak track
the reality of ASME pressure-vessel design.
We model black-body radiation heat leaks along pulse tubes and thermal buer tubes
using RPNs, adding them to DeltaECs built-in *X calculations to obtain net heats. We
assume that the walls of such tubes are fairly good infrared reectors and the ow straighteners at the ends are fairly good black-body surfaces, so we use Stefan-Boltzmann A (TH4 TC4 ) =2
where A is the inside area of the STKDUCT and the factor of 2 accounts very roughly for the
fairly goodsurfaces. We neglect black-body radiation in STKSCREENs, which are optically
opaque. We still debate whether and how to account for black-body radiation in standingwave stacks, where the long aspect ratio of the channels gives radiation ample opportunity
for absorption and re-emission at intermediate temperatures.
142

We also account for unavoidable heat ow through insulation layers wrapped around
components, with RPNs or separate spreadsheets.
In systems with toroidal topology (e.g., TASHE [39, 5]), we suppress Gedeon streaming,
or account for it with nonzero N_ .
9.1.4. Geometry
As a design evolves towards its nal state, we add more and more geometrical detail to the
DeltaEC model. Even including the short gaps between regenerators and heat exchangers,
or accounting for weld shrinkage that shortens such gaps, is not too much attention to detail.
When shop drawings are being prepared, we modify the DeltaEC model to reect machineshop realities (e.g., inch-based dimensions; available drill sizes). While assembling parts, we
often check measured dimensions against the DeltaEC model one more time.1
9.1.5. Actual operating conditions
Actual operating conditions are seldom identical to the nal design condition, especially
for ambient temperature. When comparing experimental results with DeltaEC calculations
to decide whether hardware is working acceptably well, we always use actual, experimental
conditions for parameters like ambient temperature. (See also Section 5.3 in this Users
Guide, and Section 9.4 in Ref. [12], to consider what variables to regard as given.)
In high-power systems, dierent parts of an ambient-temperature resonator can have
signicantly dierent temperatures. We often use RPN expressions like inp =Tm or Tm
inp + =Tmto make our DeltaEC models follow this reality.
9.1.6. Thermophysical properties
DeltaECs built-in thermophysical properties may not be accurate in the temperature
(or pressure) range of interest for a new design. If we are going to work far from room
temperature and/or with a new gas or solid, we check DeltaECs gas and solid properties
against some reliable reference, and create our own <.tpf> le if necessary.

9.2. Component conservatism

We rely on best-estimate headroomassociated with every segment in the DeltaEC models
wherever our previous experience shows that experimental performance falls a little short of
the built-in rst-principles calculations.
9.2.1. Turbulence
We habitually use a value of 5 10 4 for the relative surface roughness in DUCTs and CONEs,
even when it is greater than the actual roughness, because this gives results that t a lot of
1
If a heat exchangers GasA/A is small and its pores are large compared with those of the adjacent STK**,
a gap is absolutely necessary to prevent U1 from getting crowded into a reduced area in the beginning of
the STK**. DeltaECs naive one-dimensional calculations do not show the user the need for such gaps.

143

N_ = 0 data over the past 15 years. When steady ow is superimposed, we use the average
turbulence setting, which is consistent with halfway in between the two lines in Fig. 9 in
Ref. [41].
We use MINOR segments generously wherever appropriate, e.g., corner turning, TBRANCHs
and UNIONs, and area changes (except very gently tapered cones), with Idelchiks book [51]
for estimates of the K coe cients. We even check the need for MINOR segments at transitions
between heat exchangers and open ducts, where abrupt changes in GasA/A occur. In toroidal
TASHEs [39, 5], we might include almost a dozen MINOR segments.
9.2.2. Adiabaticisothermal mixing
We use JOIN segments wherever appropriate, e.g., on both ends of pulse tubes, thermal buer
tubes, and hx-regen-hx packages. JOIN segments are usually negligible around hx-stack-hx
packages in standing-wave systems, but we always check anyway.
We know that some of the same dissipative physics is present if the gap between a heat
exchanger and an adjacent regenerator or stack is an appreciable fraction of the volumeow-rate amplitude and is spatially stratied, so we strive to keep such gaps small and/or
well-mixed by jets.
9.2.3. Stacked screen regenerators
We determine the nominal hydraulic radius rh of a stacked-screen regenerator using the
manufacturers specied wire diameter, the volumetric porosity determined by weighing
the complete regenerator, and Eq. (10.119). We have never seen a pressure drop across
a stacked-screen regenerator that is smaller than DeltaEC predicts using this nominal
rh . Our measured pressure drops have ranged from 0% to 15% above DeltaEC predictions
using the nominal value. Thus, taking the middle of that range, and noting that the pressure
drop goes like rh 2 ; we usually set the DeltaEC rh equal to 0.930.95 times the nominal
value.
We set ksFrac equal to 0.1 to account for screen-to-screen conduction, as recommended
by Ref. [27], unless we are using this parameter to account for pressure-vessel-wall conduction
[see Eq. (9.1)] as well as the screen-to-screen conduction.
9.2.4. Pulse tubes and thermal buer tubes
We know that jet-driven streaming in pulse tubes and thermal buer tubes can carry a lot
of heat, so we always use screen ow straighteners on both ends, using SX segments to model
their acoustic characteristics in DeltaEC and using the guidance near Eq. (7.86) in Ref.
[12] to choose the screen size and number of layers. Since this design process does not ll
us with condence, we sometimes double the number of layers, because it is often easier to
remove unnecessary layers later than to add layers later.
Rayleigh streaming can also carry a lot of heat in these tubes. In the experiment described
in Ref. [30], very careful tuning of the phase of Z in a pulse tube could bring that streaming
heat leak to zero, but we generally dont expect to keep pulse tubes so accurately tuned at
all times. Thus, we try to work as close as possible to the zero-Rayleigh-streaming condition
144

described in Ref. [28] while avoiding cone angles that might create ow separation, and even
then we usually deduct 10% of E_ at the cold heat exchanger from DeltaECs raw prediction
of cooling power in pulse-tube refrigerators, and add 10% of E_ at the hot heat exchanger to
the heater power in engines having thermal buer tubes. (This correction also aects the
ambient heat exchangers at the other ends of the tubes.)
Large-aspect-ratio refrigerator regenerators can suer from regenerator internal streaming, as described in Ref. [52], which must be accounted for, even if only approximately.
(See also Adiabaticisothermal mixingand Heat leaks black-body radiationabove.)
9.2.5. Standing-wave engine stacks
At low amplitudes, standing-wave engines have worked in agreement with DeltaEC predictions, so we trust that the calculations are correct to lowest order (i.e., energy expressions are
correct to second order in acoustic amplitude). However, at higher amplitude, measurements
on standing-wave engines are always worse than calculations: higher hot temperature TH
and higher heater power Q_ H for a given p1 and Z: Thus, until research brings understanding
to this situation, we build some headroom into our DeltaEC designs of standing-wave
engines.
Figures 2 and 3 in Ref. [24] show that the extra, unaccounted-for heater power is proportional to jp1 j3 and the extra, unaccounted-for hot temperature is proportional to jp1 j2 :
In the absence of any evidence to the contrary, we assume that these dependences on jp1 j
are applicable to all standing-wave engines.
Figure 9.1 summarizes our experience with several standing-wave engines, with all data
extrapolated to jp1 j =pm = 0:10 at the hot end of the stack using the pressure dependences
described in the previous paragraph. The honeycomb data (small symbols) are more reliable
than the parallel-plate data (large triangles), so we trust the honeycomb t (dashed curves)
more than the parallel-plate t (solid curves). We believe that putting some headroom
in standing-wave designs as suggested by Fig. 9.1 and the pressure dependences described
above is much better than putting in no headroom at all.

145

Figure 9.1: The vertical axis shows the experimentally observed extra TH (blue) or Q_ H (pink), in
excess of DeltaECs calculations, divided by DeltaECs values, for standing-wave engines that
we have used. The horizontal axis is
at the ambient end of the stack, divided by rh : All data
are scaled to jp1 j =pm = 0:10 at the hot end of the stack, using jp1 j3 scaling for extra Q_ H and jp1 j2
scaling for extra TH : Data from three honeycomb (STKCIRC) stacks are shown: simil honeycomb
is Ref. [24], cascade honey is Ref. [18], and Tex honeycomb is Ref. [53]. Unpublished data
from two spiral (STKSLAB) stacks are shown: Cryenco 100 gpd is from the engine shown in Fig.
4 of Ref. [54], corroborated by measurements on a half-scale model at Los Alamos, and with the
range of data for heater power indicating low acoustic load (more excess heat) vs. heavy acoustic
load (less excess heat), and Tek spiral is from the engine described in Ref. [53] but with the
honeycomb stacks replaced by spiral stacks as shown in Fig. 1.11 in Ref. [12].

146

10. Physical segments

All of DeltaECs physically meaningful segment types are listed in this chapter, organized
by function. Logistical and management segments appear in the next chapter. An alphabetical index of all segment types is in the Segment Index at the end of the Users Guide.

10.1. Ducts and cones

10.1.1. DUCT
General description:
Use DUCT for circular ducts of any diameter, and for large ducts (i.e., with rh
; )
of any cross-sectional shape by giving suitable area and perimeter. Mean temperature is
independent of x; while p1 and U1 evolve with x.
DeltaECs turbulence algorithm is controlled through optional parameter d, the relative
roughness ", whose denition for steady ow can be found in uid-mechanics textbooks [55]:
roughness height divided by pipe diameter. We have found that " = 0:0005 works well
in high-amplitude acoustics, even if the geometrical roughness is smaller than this value.
Omitting this parameter forces the calculation to be laminar at all Reynolds numbers, no
matter how large.
(See also STKDUCT in Section 10.6.1, which allows a temperature gradient along a duct
in boundary-layer approximation.)

Input variables:
Area (m2 ) Cross-sectional area A available to the gas, based on inside dimensions of the
DUCT.
Perim (m) Perimeter
Length (m) The length

of the inside cross section described above.

x of the DUCT.

Laminarnturbulent Whenever the laminar box is checked, the calculations of dp1 =dx and
dp2;0;HL =dx in the DUCT are based on noninteracting ow, using laminar ow for dp1 =dx
and either laminar or turbulent ow for dp2;0;HL =dx, depending on the steady-ow
Reynolds number. The laminar condition is identied in the <.out> le as a blank
line where input d would otherwise be.
147

Srough This input variable appears if the turbulent box is checked. Srough is "; the surface
roughness inside the DUCT, relative to the diameter. This is called relative roughness
in many uid-mechanics books, for steady ow. However, for oscillating ow, we
usually regard Srough as a tting parameter, with a typical value of " = 5 10 4 :
_
Larger values yield higher turbulent dissipation of E:
Optimistic/Normal/Pessimistic These choices appear if the turbulence box is checked
and if the Steady ow box is checked in the BEGIN segment. These choices control the nonlinear interaction between oscillating ow and steady ow in the DUCT.
Optimisticand Pessimisticrefer to the two calculation schemes described in Ref.
[41], and Normal is the average of the two. For the optimistic case, the turbulent steady and turbulent oscillating ows are assumed to be independent, simply
superimposed. For the pessimistic case, the turbulent steady ow and turbulent oscillating ow are assumed to interact with each other and to increase each others
resistive eects according to the quasi-steady approximation. In the <.out> le, Optimistic/Normal/Pessimistic is recorded with SrOptm, Srough, or SrPess to indicate
the name of ".
Solid The solid material on the inside surface of the DUCT. (This is used only in the calculation of s ; which is seldom signicant in DUCTs.)
Potential targets:
None.
Masterslave links:
The perimeter of a DUCT can be slaved to its area to keep the cross-sectional shape the same
when area is varied.
The length of a DUCT can be slaved to that of another segment to keep the total length
constant.
(For an introduction to masterslave links, and a complete listing of linking options for
all segments, see Section 2.7.2.)
Format and examples:
Many examples of DUCT occur throughout Chapters 2, 5, and 6.
Calculation of p1 (x) and U1 (x) with N_ = 0 :
In DUCTs with no superimposed steady ow, p1 and U1 evolve according to
dp1
=
dx
dU1
=
dx

i!

m
U1 ;
(1 f )A
iA!
1
1+
f
2
1+ s
ma

148

(10.1)
p1 ;

(10.2)

which are equivalent to

1+
In laminar DUCTs of length

1
1+

p1 +

a2
(1
!2

f )

d2 p1
= 0:
dx2

(10.3)

x, these are equivalent to

p1;out = p1;in cos k x

U1;out = U1;in cos k x
with complex wave number k given by
s
! 1+(
k=
a

i! m
U1;in sin k x;
(1 f )kA
i(1 f )kA
p1;in sin k x;
! m

1)f =(1 + s )
:
1 f

(10.4)

(10.5)

In DUCTs, we dene the eective radius to be r0 = 2A= : (For circular cross sections, this
is indeed the radius of the circle. For other cross sections, it is twice the hydraulic radius.)
In narrow DUCTs, for r0 = j < 25, f and f are calculated using complex Bessel functions
fj =
Where r0 =

(i

2J1 [(i 1)r0 = j ]

for j =
1)(r0 = j )J0 [(i 1)r0 = j ]

or :

(10.6)

> 30; the boundary-layer approximation is used:

fj = (1

i)

j =2A

for j =

or :

(10.7)

For intermediate values, linear interpolation is used to make a smooth match between the
two regimes. While the narrow-duct solution assumes a circular cross section, the shape of
the duct is irrelevant in the boundary-layer approximation. A square duct with dimensions
p
much larger than the penetration depth can be modeled simply by choosing = 4 A, for
example.
When turbulent, p1 and U1 are numerically integrated according to Eqs. (10.1) and
(10.2) above, with f and f modied as described below to account for the turbulence.
DeltaECs turbulence algorithm is described in detail in Chapter 7.2 of Ref. [12] and is
based on the quasi-steady approximation: that turbulent oscillatory ow is described by
the Moody friction factor at each instant of time during the oscillatory ow. (See any
engineering uid mechanics textbook, such as Ref. [55], to review the Moody friction factor
as a function of Reynolds number and relative roughness of the pipe wall.) This assumption
must be excellent in the low-frequency limit, in which r0 = ! 0: This limit is approached in
the inertances of the lowest-power pulse-tube refrigerators. We have learned by experience
with a few large systems that the assumption is reasonable for large r0 = ; which is of interest
in the resonators of standing-wave thermoacoustic systems. For experimental validation of
the assumption for intermediate r0 = ; see Ref. [14].
149

To account for turbulence, DeltaEC increases the resistive component of the pressure
gradient, and hence the viscous power dissipation, by
2

m=

NR [fM
24 rh2

(1

9 =32) NR dfM =dNR ]

:
Re [i= (1 f )]

(10.8)

DeltaEC evaluates the Moody friction factor fM and its derivative with respect to Reynolds
number, dfM =dNR ; as functions of Reynolds number and " using the iterative expression
1
p
= 1:74
fM

18:7
p
NR fM

2 log10 2" +

(10.9)

which is a remarkably good approximation [56]. (In our own work at Los Alamos, we have
set roughness equal to 5 10 4 for many years, as representative of most turbulent acoustic
losses in ducts, even when the actual surface roughness over pipe diameter is smaller than
this value.) DeltaEC decreases the inertial pressure gradient by
0

m =

1
1

=r0
=mr0

(10.10)

to correct approximately for the steeper velocity gradient at the wall, which increases the
eective area open to gas that contributes to inertial eects. It also multiplies the thermal
penetration depth by m; in an attempt to account very approximately for changes in thermal
relaxation losses due to increased heat transfer.
At low enough velocities, m ! 1 and DeltaEC reverts to a laminar calculation. The
m = 1 boundary between the laminar and turbulent zones in DeltaEC occurs roughly at
NR ' 2000 for r0 =

< 2;

(10.11)

' 1000 for r0 =

> 2:

(10.12)

NR
2rh =

Whether laminar or turbulent, and in both small and large DUCTs, the boundary-layer
approximation is used for the eect of the solid on thermal-hysteresis loss:
s

k m cp
ks s c s

1=2

(10.13)

Calculation of p1 (x) and U1 (x) with N_ =

6 0:
Nonzero N_ in a DUCT creates a Doppler-shift eect on p1 and U1 ; an increased resistive eect
on p1 if the ows are turbulent, and a time-averaged resistive head loss. Whether the ows
are treated as laminar or as one of three varieties of turbulent is controlled by the user. The
pressure and volume ow rate change with x according to
dp1
=
dx
dU1
=
dx

i! m
i!mN_ 1 + (
1)f =(1 + s )
U1 +
p1 ;
2
A(1 f )
(1 f )
ma A
i!A 1 + (
1)f
i!mN_
p
+
U1 ;
1
2
2
1+ s
f )
ma
m a A(1
150

(10.14)
(10.15)

which can be derived using standard results of thermoacoustics combined with Eqs. (11.1.3)
in Morse and Ingards Theoretical Acoustics, Ref. [32]. (In CONEs, A is a function of x:)
Reference [41] describes two approaches to the calculation of the resistive eects on f ;
f ; and dp2;0;HL =dx if the ow is turbulent. These two approaches, which we call optimistic
and pessimistic, bracket the experimental results in that paper. In DeltaEC the user
can select either of these two approaches, or their average. Until more physics is learned, we
recommend selecting the average by checking the Normal box, because the experimental
results in Ref. [41] were roughly the average of the optimistic and pessimistic calculations.
For the optimistic case, the turbulent steady and turbulent oscillating ows are assumed to be independent, simply superimposed. Turbulent f and f are calculated with
Eqs. (10.8)(10.10).
For the pessimistic case, the turbulent steady ow and turbulent oscillating ow are
assumed to interact with each other and to increase each others resistive eects, as described
in the appendix of Ref. [41]. In this case, f and f are calculated according to the procedure
described near Eqs. (10.8)(10.10), but with the turbulent multiplier m enhanced by the
steady ow according to
m=

(3 2 j"2;0 j) (1 2 j"2;0 j) dfM

NR;max
j"2;0 j fM;max +
NR;max ; j"2;0 j 1 ; (10.16)
16rh
8(1 + j"2;0 j)
dNR
"22;0 q
NR;max
3
=
1+
1 "22;0 + "2;0 sin 1 "2;0 fM;max
12 rh
2
2
q
2
"2;0
3
9 1 + 4"22;0 dfM
1 "22;0 + "2;0 sin 1 "2;0
NR;max ; j"2;0 j 1;
1+
2
2
32 1 + j"2;0 j dNR
(10.17)

where the friction factor and its slope are based on the peak Reynolds number
NR;max =
and "2;0 = mN_ 2;0 =
of Ref. [41].

mjN_ 2;0 j=

+ jU1 j 4rh

(10.18)

jU1 j. The derivations of these expressions can be found in the appendix

Calculation of p2;0;HL (x) with N_ 6= 0:

How the ow is treated depends on the roughness parameter in the DUCT. There are three
cases: optimistic, pessimistic, and normal,which is the average of the other two.
For the optimistic case, the turbulent steady and turbulent oscillating ows are assumed
to be independent, simply superimposed. The steady-ow pressure drop is calculated using
!2
_ 2;0
dp2;0;HL
1
m
N
fMoody,steady
= sign(N_ 2;0 ) m
:
(10.19)
dx
2
4rh
mA
The steady-ow Moody friction factor fMoody,steady is calculated with a Reynolds number
based on the steady velocity:
mjN_ 2;0 j4rh
NR;2;0 =
:
(10.20)
A
151

For the pessimistic case, the turbulent steady ow and turbulent oscillating ow are
assumed to interact with each other and to increase each others resistive eects, as described
in the appendix of Ref. [41] ignoring any dependence on p1 and in Chapter 14 including the
lowest-order dependence on p1 : From Chapter 14, the steady-ow pressure drop is calculated
using
dp2;0
=
dx

sign(N_ 2;0 )

2
m2 N_ 2;0
8 m r h A2

1+

1
jp1 j cos
+
2
2"2;0
pm "2;0

fM;max

2"22;0 2 j"2;0 j + 1 dfM

NR;max ;
j"2;0 j 1;
2"22;0 (1 + j"2;0 j) dNR
2 nh
q
m jU1 j
1
2
=
sin
"
+
3"
1
+
2"
1 "22;0
2;0
2;0
2;0
2
8 rh A
2 + "22;0 q
2 jp1 j
1
+
cos
1 "22;0 fM;max
"2;0 sin "2;0 +
pm
3
q
3=2 + "22;0
dfM
3"2;0 1 "22;0
1 + 2"22;0 sin 1 "2;0
NR;max ;
"2;0
1 + j"2;0 j
dNR
j"2;0 j

where "2;0 = mN_ 2;0 =

(10.21)

1; (10.22)

jU1 j.

_
Calculation of Tm (x) and H:
Tm is not aected by DUCTs.
The exiting energy ow is left as H_ 2;k;out = H_ 2;k;in in insulated mode, described in Section
11.1.2. This essentially assumes that the side walls are thermally insulated, so that the heat
generated by acoustic power dissipation nds its way to a heat exchanger somewhere else.
If several DUCTs (and/or CONEs) are strung together in insulated mode, the power dissipated
in all of them must show up at one or two nearby heat exchangers.
The exiting energy ow is computed as H_ 2;k;out = E_ out in anchored mode, described
in Section 11.1.2. This essentially assumes that the duct wall is thermally anchored, e.g.,
by a water bath, so heat generated by acoustic-power dissipation is carried away locally.
Thermoacoustic heat transport in the boundary layer along the perimeter, which in fact
contributes a small dierence between H_ 2;k and E_ in ducts, is neglected in anchored
mode.
10.1.2. CONE
General description:
Use CONE to nd the evolution of p1 and U1 with x in tapered channels of any cross-sectional
shape (e.g., square, circular) by giving suitable areas and perimeters. The perimeter is
linearly interpolated between its initial and nal values, and the area is quadratically interpolated between its initial and nal values. Use this segment only when Tm is independent
152

of x: (See STKCONE in Section 10.6.1, to allow nonzero dTm =dx.) The calculation is identical
to that for a DUCT if the initial and nal areas are equal and the initial and nal perimeters
are equal. As discussed below, the laminar calculation is accurate for circular cones of any
diameter, and for large cones (i.e., with r0
; ) of any cross-sectional shape.
In a CONE, DeltaECs turbulence algorithm is controlled through optional parameter f,
the relative roughness ", whose denition for steady ow can be found in uid-mechanics
textbooks [55]: roughness height divided by pipe diameter. We have found that " = 0:0005
works well in high-amplitude acoustics, even if the geometrical roughness is smaller than
this value. Omitting this parameter forces the oscillatory calculation to be laminar at all
Reynolds numbers.
At high enough amplitudes, we believe that a steeply tapered CONE experiences separation
during the half of the cycle when the ow goes from small toward large radius, just like the
separation at high Reynolds number in a too-steeply-tapered diuser. DeltaEC does not
warn of this condition. To account for such separation, the user could include minor loss,
described in Section 10.2.4.
Input variables:
AreaI (m2 ) Cross-sectional area AI available to the gas at the initial end of the CONE, based
on inside dimensions.
PerimI (m) Perimeter
Length (m) The length

of the initial inside cross section described above.

x of the CONE.

AreaF (m2 ) Cross-sectional area AF available to the gas at the nal end of the CONE, based
on inside dimensions.
PerimF (m) Perimeter

of the nal inside cross section described above.

Laminarnturbulent Whenever the laminar box is checked, the calculations of dp1 =dx and
dp2;0;HL =dx in the CONE are based on noninteracting, laminar ow. The laminar condition is identied in the <.out> le as a blank line where parameter f would otherwise
be.
Srough This input parameter appears if the turbulent box is checked. Srough is "; the
surface roughness inside the CONE, relative to the diameter. This is called relative
roughness in many uid-mechanics books, for steady ow. However, for oscillating
ow, we often regard Srough as a tting parameter, with a typical value of 5 10 4 :
_
Larger values yield higher turbulent dissipation of E:
Optimistic/Normal/Pessimistic These choices appear if the turbulence box is checked
and if the Steady ow box is checked in the BEGIN segment. These choices control the nonlinear interaction between oscillating ow and steady ow in the CONE.
Optimisticand Pessimisticrefer to the two calculation schemes described in Ref.
[41], and Normal is the average of the two. For the optimistic case, the turbulent steady and turbulent oscillating ows are assumed to be independent, simply
153

superimposed. For the pessimistic case, the turbulent steady ow and turbulent oscillating ow are assumed to interact with each other and to increase each others
resistive eects according to the quasi-steady approximation. In the <.out> le, Optimistic/Normal/Pessimistic is recorded with SrOptm, Srough, or SrPess to indicate
the name of ".
Solid The solid material on the inside surface of the CONE. (This is used only in the calculation of s ; which is seldom signicant in CONEs.)
Potential targets:
None.
Masterslave links:
The initial perimeter of a CONE can be slaved to the initial area, to keep the cross-sectional
shape the same when area is changed.
The nal perimeter of a CONE can be slaved to the nal area to keep the cross-sectional
shape the same when area is changed.
Both perimeters of a CONE can be slaved to their respective areas to keep the crosssectional shapes the same when either or both areas are changed.
The length and both perimeters of a CONE can be slaved to its two areas, to keep the
cross-sectional shapes of the ends and the wall taper angle constant when either or both
areas are changed.
The length of a CONE can be slaved to that of another segment to keep the total length
constant.
(For an introduction to masterslave links, and a complete listing of possible links for all
segments, see Section 2.7.2.)
Format and examples:
Examples of the use of CONE appear throughout Chapters 2, 5, and 6.
Calculation of p1 (x) and U1 (x) with N_ = 0 :
In CONEs, p1 and U1 evolve according to
dp1
=
dx
dU1
=
dx

i!

U1 ;
(1 f )A
iA!
1
1+
f
2
1+ s
ma

p1 ;

(10.23)

which are equivalent to the Webster horn equation [57] with losses included:
1+

1
1+

p1 +

a2 1 d
(1
! 2 A dx
154

f )A

dp1
= 0:
dx

(10.24)

The perimeter varies linearly from its initial value to its nal value, and area varies quadratically:
x xo
(x) =
;
(10.25)
I +( F
I)
x
2
p
p
p
x xo
A(x) =
AI +
AF
AI
;
(10.26)
x

where xo is the x coordinate of the initial end of the CONE. Hence, CONEs that are circular at
both ends have circular cross sections everywhere in between, with diameter varying linearly
with axial position.
In CONEs, we dene the eective radius to be r0 (x) = 2A= : (For circular cross sections,
this is indeed the radius of the circle. For other cross sections, it is twice the hydraulic
radius.) For r0 = j < 25, f and f are calculated using complex Bessel functions:
fj =
Where r0 =

(i

2J1 [(i 1)r0 = j ]

for j =
1)(r0 = j )J0 [(i 1)r0 = j ]

or :

(10.27)

> 30; the boundary-layer approximation is used:

fj = (1

i) j =r0 :

(10.28)

For intermediate values, linear interpolation is used to make a smooth match between the
two regimes. While the narrow solution assumes a circular cross section, the cross-sectional
shape of the cone is irrelevant in the boundary-layer approximation.
In all cases, boundary-layer approximation is used for the eect of the solid:
s

k m cp
ks s c s

1=2

(10.29)

Calculation of p1 (x); U1 (x); and p2;0;HL (x) with N_ 6= 0 :

In CONE, these calculations are exactly the same given above for DUCT, except that area A is
a function of x in the equations for CONE.
_
Calculation of Tm and H:
Tm is not aected by CONE. (But see also STKCONE in Section 10.6.1, which allows nonzero
dTm =dx:)
The exiting energy ow is computed as H_ 2;k;out = H_ 2;k;in in insulated mode, described in
Section 11.1.2. This essentially assumes that the side walls are thermally insulated, so that
the heat generated by acoustic power dissipation is deposited in an adjacent heat exchanger.
If several CONEs (and/or DUCTs) are strung together in insulated mode, the power dissipated
in all of them should show up in a nearby heat exchanger.
The exiting energy ow is computed as H_ 2;k;out = E_ out in anchored mode, described in
Section 11.1.2. This mode essentially assumes that the cone wall is thermally anchored,
e.g., by a water bath, so heat generated by acoustic-power dissipation is carried away externally. Thermoacoustic heat transport along the perimeter, which in fact contributes a small
dierence between H_ 2;k and E_ in CONEs, is neglected.
155

10.2. Lumped elements

10.2.1. COMPLIANCE
General description:
A COMPLIANCE is a lumped acoustic volume element, with adiabatic volumetric compressibility and surface thermal-hysteresis dissipation.
Input variables:
Area (m2 ) The surface area S inside the COMPLIANCE.
Volume (m3 ) The volume V inside the COMPLIANCE.
Solid The solid material on the inside surface of the COMPLIANCE. (This is used only in
the calculation of s ; which seldom diers signicantly from its value for a solid with
innite conductivity and specic heat in COMPLIANCEs.)
Potential targets:
None.
Masterslave links:
The surface area of a compliance can be slaved to its volume, so the shape remains the same
when the volume is changed.
(For an introduction to masterslave links, and a complete listing of link options for all
segments, see Section 2.7.2.)
Format and examples:
COMPLIANCE this one is a sphere, R = 0.01 m
0.1257
m2 Area
4.189e-3 m3 Volume
nickel
solid

Other examples of COMPLIANCE can be found in Sections 5.2 and 5.8.2.

Calculations:
Pressure amplitude and mean temperature are unchanged by COMPLIANCE. Volume ow
changes according to
U1;out = U1;in

!p1
V
2
ma

1
1+

(10.30)

with the thermal-hysteresis contribution of the solid calculated in boundary-layer approximation:

1=2
k m cp
=
:
(10.31)
s
ks s c s
156

The exiting energy ow is computed as H_ 2;k,out = H_ 2;k,in in insulated mode. This essentially assumes that the component is thermally insulated, so that the heat generated by
acoustic power dissipation must somehow be deposited elsewhere, either upstream or downstream, such as in an adjacent heat exchanger (or owing out through a BEGIN or **END
segment).
The exiting energy ow is computed as H_ 2;k,out = E_ in anchored mode. This is intended
to model a component that is thermally anchored, e.g., by a water bath, so heat generated
by acoustic power dissipation is carried away locally.
COMPLIANCE behaves the same whether N_ = 0 or not. Since Tm is unchanged in
COMPLIANCE, H_ N_ ,out = H_ N_ ,in .
10.2.2. SURFACE
General description:
A SURFACE is a surface area with thermal-hysteresis dissipation. It always absorbs acoustic
power. It has no volume. It is often used at the end of a DUCT, before a HARDEND. (See
Fig. 10.1 for two other typical uses for SURFACE.)
Input variables:
Area (m2 ) The surface area S exposed to oscillating pressure in the SURFACE segment, not
accounted for in other segments nearby.
Solid The solid material on the exposed surface. (This is used only in the calculation of s ;
which seldom diers signicantly from its value for a solid with innite conductivity
and specic heat on SURFACEs.)
Potential targets; Masterslave links:
None.
Format and examples:
SURFACE
a surface with thermal hysteresis dissipation
1.134e-3 m2 Area
ideal
solid

Examples of SURFACE also occur throughout Chapter 2 and Sections 5.2 and 5.5.
Calculations:
A SURFACE does not aect temperature or pressure amplitude. Volume ow changes according to
!p1
1
U1;out = U1;in
S :
(10.32)
2
2
ma 1 + s
157

(This is the same calculation as would occur in a COMPLIANCE with zero volume.) The
inuence of the solid on thermal hysteresis is calculated in boundary-layer approximation:

k m cp
ks s c s

1=2

(10.33)

The exiting energy ow is computed as H_ 2;k,out = H_ 2;k,in in insulated mode. This essentially assumes that the component is thermally insulated, so that the heat generated
by acoustic power dissipation must somehow be deposited elsewhere, either upstream or
downstream, such as in an adjacent heat exchanger (or ow out through a BEGIN or **END
segment).
The exiting energy ow is computed as H_ 2;k,out = E_ out in anchored mode. Thus, in a
series of such anchored segments, heat generated by acoustic power dissipation is carried
away locally.
SURFACE behaves the same whether N_ = 0 or not. Since Tm is unchanged in SURFACE,
H_ N_ ,out = H_ N_ ,in .
10.2.3. IMPEDANCE
General description:
An IMPEDANCE is a lumped series complex impedance.
Input variables:
Re(Z) (Pa s/m3 ) The real part of the series acoustic impedance Z. If the impedance has
resistance, this number is positive.
Im(Z) (Pa s/m3 ) The imaginary part of the series acoustic impedance Z. If the impedance
has inertance L; this number is equal to !L:
Potential targets:
None.
Masterslave links:
In an IMPEDANCE, Im[Z] can be slaved to Re[Z] so that jZj remains constant when Re[Z] is
changed. Note, however, that this becomes impossible if Re[Z] is changed to a value that is
too large.
Alternatively, Im[Z] can be slaved to Re[Z] so that phase(Z) remains constant when
Re[Z] is changed.
(For an introduction to masterslave links and a complete listing of linking options for
all segments, see Section 2.7.2.)
158

Format and examples:

IMPEDANCE
1.0 Pa-s/m3
0.2 Pa-s/m3

just a lumped series impedance, i.e., resistance plus inertance

Re(Z)
Im(Z)

Linked to one or more RPN calculations, IMPEDANCE gives the user the freedom to create nonlinear impedances. The following example shows an impedance with its resistance
proportional to the square of the ow and its inertance proportional to the ow:
!-------------2
RPN real part of impedance
12.0
U1 mag sqrd inp *
!-------------3
RPN imaginary part of impedance
3.0E-4
U1 mag inp *
!-------------4
IMPEDANCE
sameas 2A
sameas 3A

Another example of IMPEDANCE, in the context of the orice of a pulse-tube refrigerator,

is in Section 5.8.3.
Calculations:
At an IMPEDANCE, volume ow rate and temperature are unchanged. Pressure changes
according to
p1;out = p1;in ZU1 :
(10.34)
The exiting energy ow is computed as H_ 2;k;out = H_ 2;k;in in insulated mode, described
in Section 11.1.2. This assumes that the component is thermally insulated, so that the
heat generated by acoustic power dissipation must somehow be deposited elsewhere, either
upstream or downstream, such as in a nearby heat exchanger (or ow out through a BEGIN
or **END segment).
The exiting energy ow is computed as H_ 2;k;out = E_ out for anchored mode, described in
Section 11.1.2. This essentially assumes that the component is thermally anchored, such as
by a water bath, so heat generated by acoustic power dissipation is carried away locally.
If N_ 6= 0 in IMPEDANCE, the steady ow and the oscillating ow are assumed to be
independent, simply superimposed, as if the ows are laminar. Thus, the dierence in p1
across an IMPEDANCE is unaected by the presence of the steady ow, and the change in
p2;0;HL is given by
p2;0;HL;out p2;0;HL;in = Re[Z]N_ 2;0 m= m :
(10.35)
Since an IMPEDANCE has no dened area, p2;0;rev is calculated based on the area of the most
recent upstream segment having area.
10.2.4. MINOR
General description:
Segment type MINOR accounts conveniently for minor-loss eects. The basic equation for a
minor loss for steady ow [55, 51] is simply
1
p=
K u2 ;
(10.36)
2
159

where K is the minor-loss coe cient and u is the velocity. DeltaECs treatment of minor
loss in MINOR is based on this equation.
Equations (10.37)(10.44) were derived using the quasi-steady approximation, in which
it is assumed that Eq. (10.36) is obeyed at each instant of time as u varies in time, with K
independent of time except for its dependence on the direction of ow. This approximation
is very good when j 1 j
rh : For j 1 j
rh or j 1 j
rh ; actual pressure drops may dier
signicantly from values calculated in MINOR.
Since DeltaEC uses U1 to characterize ow, MINOR has an area for converting U1 to
velocity. Because DeltaEC treats oscillating ow, MINOR has two inputs for Ks: K+ for the
minor-loss coe cient in the +x direction, and K for the minor-loss coe cient in the x
direction. The coe cient in the N_ = 0 equations below diers from the 1=2 in Eq. (10.36)
because of the sinusoidal time dependence of the velocity.
As shown in the second example below, the gas diodes in Ref. [41] can be modeled as a
MINOR and a CONE in series.
We often obtain K+ and K from Ref. [51], even though that reference is for steady ow.
This approximation should be fairly accurate when the Reynolds number is large and j 1 j is
much greater than any dimensions of the component.
Input variables:
Area (m2 ) The area A used in the equations below. This is the area on which the minorloss coe cients are based. Conventionally, this is usually the smallest area for areachanging geometries such as diusers, but it is sometimes the nominal pipe area for
valves and ttings.
K+ Minor-loss coe cient K+ for ow in the positive-x direction.
K

Minor-loss coe cient K for ow in the negative-x direction.

Potential targets:
None.
Masterslave links:
None. (Use sameas if you want to keep K+ and K equal to one another.)
Format and examples:
This is an example of a small orice plate mounted in a pipe, as illustrated in Fig. 10.1(a):
!--------------------------------- 9 --------------------------------DUCT
Pre-orifice pipe
1.8000E-02 a Area
m^2
S= -2
2.2139E+04 A |p|
Pa
0.4756 b Perim
m
Fn( 9a)
-141.30
B Ph(p)
deg
0.1500 c Length
m
2.3148E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
128.66
D Ph(U)
deg
4.1756E-09 E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
-0.1923 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 10 --------------------------------RPN
calculate area difference (m2)
0.0000 a G or T
(t)
1.6000E-02 A ChngeMe

160

Figure 10.1: Examples of the use of MINOR. (a) Orice plate in a channel. (b) Conical gas diode.

9a 12a !--------------------------------- 11 --------------------------------SURFACE

surface area on top of orifice plate
sameas 10A a Area
m^2
2.2139E+04 A |p|
Pa
-141.30
B Ph(p)
deg
2.3148E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
128.65
D Ph(U)
deg
4.1756E-09 E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
-0.2320 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 12 --------------------------------MINOR
minor loss in orifice plate
2.0000E-03 a Area
m^2
2.2140E+04 A |p|
Pa
1.0000 b
K+
-140.59
B Ph(p)
deg
1.0000 c
K2.3148E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
128.65
D Ph(U)
deg
4.1756E-09 E Htot
W
-3.3973 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 13 --------------------------------SURFACE
surface area on bottom of orifice plate
sameas 11a a Area
m^2
2.2140E+04 A |p|
Pa
-140.59
B Ph(p)
deg
2.3148E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
128.64
D Ph(U)
deg
4.1756E-09 E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
-3.4370 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 14 --------------------------------DUCT
Post-orifice pipe
sameas
9a a Area
m^2
1.9565E+04 A |p|
Pa
sameas
9b b Perim
m
-140.52
B Ph(p)
deg
sameas
9c c Length
m
4.4525E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
129.01
D Ph(U)
deg
4.1756E-09 E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
-3.6358 F Edot
W

This is an example of a conical gas diode, such as is described in Ref. [41] and illustrated
in Fig. 10.1(b).
!--------------------------------- 4 --------------------------------DUCT
quarter-wave duct from engine to diode
7.0000E-04 a Area
m^2
S= -2
7705.2
A |p|
Pa
9.3748E-02 b Perim
m
Fn( 4a)
-161.41
B Ph(p)
deg
4.6000 c Length
m
5.4080E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
9.0500E-02 d Srough
-87.804
D Ph(U)
deg
354.15
E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
58.812
F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 5 --------------------------------RPN
surface area of adapter plate
0.0000 a G or T
(t)
3.0000E-04 A ChngeMe
4a 8a !--------------------------------- 6 --------------------------------SURFACE
surface area of adapter plate
sameas
5A a Area
m^2
7705.2
A |p|
Pa
-161.41
B Ph(p)
deg
5.4080E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
-87.804
D Ph(U)
deg
354.15
E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
58.812
F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 7 --------------------------------RPN
calculate Borda-Carnot minor loss here
0.0000 a G or T
(t)
0.1837 A ChngeMe
1 8a 4a / - sqrd
!--------------------------------- 8 --------------------------------MINOR
asymmetric flow at gas diode

161

4.0000E-04 a Area
5.0000E-02 b
K+
sameas
7A c
K-

m^2

!--------------------------------CONE
expansion to plenum
sameas
8a a AreaI
m^2
S=
7.0899E-02 b PerimI
m
Fn(
0.4000 c Length
m
1.5000E-02 d AreaF
m^2
S=
0.4342 e PerimF
m
Fn(
5.0000E-04 f Srough
ideal
Solid type

7402.7
A |p|
Pa
-174.70
B Ph(p)
deg
5.4080E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
-87.804
D Ph(U)
deg
354.15
E Htot
W
10.829
F Edot
W
9 ---------------------------------9
9b)

1.7471E+04
-177.49
4.9949E-02
-87.809
354.15
2.4219

-9
9d)

A
B
C
D
E
F

|p|
Ph(p)
|U|
Ph(U)
Htot
Edot

Pa
deg
m^3/s
deg
W
W

Other examples of MINOR are found in Sections 6.3 and 6.4.

Pressure calculations for N_ = 0 :

In the N_ ! 0 limit, changes in p1 across segment type MINOR are given by
p1,out

p1,in =

(K + K+ )

jU1 j
U1 ;
3 A2
m

(10.37)

and changes in p20HL are given by

p2;0;HL;out

p2;0;HL;in = (K

K+ )

jU1 j2
.
8A2

(10.38)

Pressure calculations for N_ =

6 0:
For N_ 6= 0; changes in p1 across segment type MINOR are given by
p1,out

jU1 j
U1 for "
1;
A2
"2 p
3
1+
1 "2 + " sin
2
2
2 m jU1 j
U1 for j"j 1;
3 A2
jU1 j
"K+ m 2 U1 for " 1;
A

p1,in = "K
=

162

(10.39)
1

"

K
K+ 3 "
(K + K+ )
K + K+ 4
(10.40)
(10.41)

where " = mN_ =

p2;0;HL;out

jU1 j. Changes in p20HL are given by

p2;0;HL;in

2
m2 N_ 2;0
= K
2 m A2

jU1 j2
8A2

1+

for "2;0

K+ ) 1 + 2"22;0 + 2"2;0

(K

1;

(10.42)

jp1 j
cos
pm

jp1 j
cos
sin 1 "2;0
pm
q
4
jp1 j
2
+ 3"2;0 + 1 + "2;0 =2
cos
1 "22;0
3
pm
for j"2;0 j 1; (10.43)
2 _2
m N2;0
1
jp1 j cos
K+
for "2;0 1; (10.44)
1+ 2 +
2
2 mA
2"2;0
pm "2;0
(K+ + K )

1
jp1 j cos
+
2
2"2;0
pm "2;0

1 + 2"22;0 + 2"2;0

where "2;0 = mN_ 2;0 = m jU1 j and is the phase angle between p1 and U1 . Derivations of these
equations neglecting the terms in p1 are given in Ref. [41]; and derivations including the p1
terms appear in Chapter 14.
Other calculations
Segment MINOR leaves Tm and U1 unchanged.
The exiting energy ow is computed as H_ 2;k;out = H_ 2;k;in in insulated mode, described
in Section 11.1.2. This assumes that the component is thermally insulated, so that the
heat generated by acoustic power dissipation must somehow be deposited elsewhere, either
upstream or downstream, such as in a nearby heat exchanger (or can ow out through
a BEGIN or **END segment). The exiting energy ow is computed as H_ 2;k;out = E_ out for
anchored mode, described in Section 11.1.2. This essentially assumes that the component is
thermally anchored, such as by a water bath, so heat generated by acoustic power dissipation
is carried away locally.

10.3. Series transducers

10.3.1. VESPEAKER, IESPEAKER, VEDUCER, and IEDUCER
General description:
The *EDUCERs and *ESPEAKERs are electroacoustic transducers with both ends Enclosed
in the DeltaEC model, so that they are in series between the previous segment and the
subsequent segment.
*ESPEAKERs let the user specify mass, spring constant, force constant, resistance, and
inductance, so that frequency-dependent (even resonant) electrodynamic transducers (e.g.,
linear motors, linear alternators) can be modeled easily. These *ESPEAKER segments can be
used to model moving-magnet transducers as well as moving-coil transducers; in the former
163

Figure 10.2: Enclosed *EDUCER or *ESPEAKER.

case, set the Bl product equal to the moving-magnet transducers force constant, expressed
in newtons per amp.
*EDUCERs have specied transduction coe cients, which can be linked to the results of
RPN calculations upstream to create the frequency or amplitude dependences of piezoelectric
or any other type of transducer.
With IEDUCER and IESPEAKER, the user species the complex current, and each pass of
DeltaEC calculates the complex voltage; with VEDUCER and VESPEAKER, the user species
complex voltage, and DeltaEC computes complex current. VEDUCER and VESPEAKER cannot
be used with zero electrical impedance because this would lead to a division by zero (see
below). Hence, use IEDUCER or IESPEAKER for electrically idealtransducers.
*ESPEAKERs incorporate thermal-hysteresis losses on their upstream and downstream
areas, as if they included two SURFACEs of equal areas but generally dierent pressure amplitudes. The *EDUCER segments, which have no area parameter, have no built-in thermalhysteresis losses, so use SURFACEs upstream and downstream if needed.
See also Chapter 14 for a discussion of the saturation of magnetic ux in *ESPEAKERs.
See also the side-branch transducers described in Section 10.4.2 below, which have their
backsides hanging outside the DeltaEC model.
Input variables, VESPEAKER and IESPEAKER:
Area (m2 ) The surface area A of the moving part of the *ESPEAKER. An area A is exposed
to oscillating pressures on both the back side and the front side. The velocity of the
moving element is U1 =A:
R (ohm) The electrical resistance Re of the coil.
L (henry) The electrical inductance L of the coil when it is prevented from moving.
BLProd (tesla m, which is equivalent to N/amp) For a traditional moving-coil loudspeaker,
the product of the magnetic eld B and the wire length l that is immersed in B.
For other electrodynamic transducers, the force in newtons exerted when one amp of
current is applied and nothing is allowed to move.
M (kg) The moving mass M of the transducer.
K (N/m) The spring constant K of the transducer. This should include zero-current magnetic forces (present in moving-magnet, stationary-iron transducers) and forces from
mechanical springs, but not the gas-pressure forces on the front and back of area A.
164

Rm (N s/m) The mechanical resistance Rm of the transducer.

jVj or jIj (volts or amps) In VESPEAKER, the amplitude of the oscillating voltage, jV1 j : In
IESPEAKER, the amplitude of the oscillating current, jI1 j :
ph(V) or ph(I) (degrees) In VESPEAKER, the phase of the oscillating voltage V1 : In IESPEAKER,
the phase of the oscillating current I1 :
Solid The solid material on the leading and trailing surfaces A: (This is used only in the
calculation of s ; which seldom diers signicantly from its value for a solid with innite
conductivity and innite specic heat in *SPEAKERs.)
Input variables, VEDUCER and IEDUCER:
Re(Ze) (ohm) The real part of the transducers electrical impedance Ze when it is prevented
from moving.
Im(Ze) (ohm) The imaginary part of the transducers electrical impedance Ze when it is
prevented from moving.
Re(T1) (V s/m3 ) The real part of the complex transduction coe cient
below.

in the equations

Im(T1) (V s/m3 ) The imaginary part of the complex transduction coe cient
equations below.
Re(T2) (Pa/A) The real part of the complex transduction coe cient
below.

in the

in the equations

Im(T2) (Pa/A) The imaginary part of the complex transduction coe cient
tions below.

in the equa-

Re(Zm) (Pa s/m3 ) The real part of the mechanical impedance Zm of the transducer.
Im(Zm) (Pa s/m3 ) The imaginary part of the mechanical impedance Zm of the transducer.
jVj or jIj (volts or amps) In VEDUCER, the amplitude of the oscillating voltage V1 : In IEDUCER,
the amplitude of the oscillating current I1 :
ph(V) or ph(I) (degrees) In VEDUCER, the phase of the oscillating voltage V1 : In IEDUCER,
the phase of the oscillating current I1 :
Potential targets:
None.
Masterslave links:
None. The use of sameas is sometimes convenient in *EDUCERs, to keep
165

= :

Format and examples:

VEDUCER
1.000E-09
.000
1.000E+04
.000
-1.000E+04
.000
1.000E-09
1.000E-09
10.0
45.0

Enclosed driver
a Re(Ze)
ohms
b Im(Ze)
ohms
c Re(T1) V-s/m^3
d Im(T1) V-s/m^3
e Re(T2)
Pa/A
f Im(T2)
Pa/A
g Re(Zm) Pa-s/m^3
h Im(Zm) Pa-s/m^3
i Vin
V
j Ph(Vin) deg

IEDUCER: same as VEDUCER, except that current appears in lines i and j instead of voltage.
VESPEAKER
6.000E-04
6.00
.000
8.00
5.000E-03
1.000E+04
.000
62.0
-37.2
kapton

a Area
m^2
b
R
ohms
c L
H
d BLProd
T-m
e
M
kg
f
K
N/m
g
Rm
N-s/m
h Vin
V
i Ph(Vin) deg
Solid type

IESPEAKER: same as VESPEAKER, except that current appears in line h and i instead of
voltage.
Other examples of series *ESPEAKERs are in Sections 5.2 and 5.8.2.
Calculations:
An Enclosed transducer IEDUCER, VEDUCER, IESPEAKER, VESPEAKER is an object attached in
series with other segments, as shown in Fig. 10.2. Volume ow rate U1 is nearly unchanged
(except for surface thermal-hysteresis losses see below), but pressure is changed by the
force exerted by the transducer, obeying the complex canonical equations

p1;out

V1 = Ze I1
0
p1;in =
I1

U1 ;
Zm U1 :

(10.45)
(10.46)

If current I1 is specied, then use IESPEAKER or IEDUCER, and nd p1;out = p1;in +

0
I1 Zm U1 and V1 = Ze I1
U1 .
If voltage V1 is specied, then use VESPEAKER or VEDUCER, and nd I1 = (V1 + U1 )=Ze
and p1;out = p1;in + 0 I1 Zm U1 .
If a xed electrical load impedance Zext is attached to the transducer, it can be modeled
using an IMPEDANCE segment instead of a *ESPEAKER or *EDUCER segment, with Zimp =
0
Zm
=(Ze + Zext ) ; or use an Enclosed transducer segment with an RPN target to
maintain the impedance.
For *EDUCERs, the complex electrical impedance Ze =Re[Ze ] + iIm[Ze ] and the complex
mechanical impedance Zm =Re[Zm ] + iIm[Zm ] are given explicitly by the user.
0
In the case of *ESPEAKERs, Ze = Re + i!L ;
=
= Bl=A ; Zm = Rm =A2 +
i(!M K=!)=A2 . Thermal surface losses are computed for area A using the same approach
as for a SURFACE, but Enclosed speakers have area A exposed to p1;in and area A exposed
166

to p1;out , because typically both sides of the speaker experience oscillatory pressure. This
thermal hysteresis on those two surfaces manifests itself as a small change in volume ow
rate, according to
!
1
A (p1;in + p1;out ) ;
(10.47)
U1;out = U1;in
2
ma 1 + s 2
and U1 in Eqs. (10.45) and (10.46) is actually the value after the rst thermal-hysteresis
loss:
!
1
U1 = U1;in
Ap1;in :
(10.48)
2
ma 1 + s 2
The Px outputs for these segments give the complex pressure dierence across the transducer.
None of these segments aects Tm .
_ elec in insulated mode,
The exiting energy ow is computed as H_ 2;k;out = H_ 2;k;in + W
described in Section 11.1.2. This assumes that the component is thermally insulated, so that
the electrical energy added at the transducer must ow out of the segment, either upstream or
downstream. The exiting energy ow is computed as H_ 2;k;out = E_ out for thermally anchored
mode, described in Section 11.1.2.
It is hard for us to anticipate what a user might intend if nonzero N_ were to ow through
a series transducer, so these segments behave the same whether N_ = 0 or not.

10.4. Side-branch transducers and side-branch impedances

10.4.1. BRANCH, OPNBRANCH, and PISTBRANCH
General description:
BRANCH, OPNBRANCH, and PISTBRANCH are side branches with specied impedances. With
BRANCH, the user species the real and imaginary parts of the impedance, assumed independent of frequency (unless linked by sameas to results of frequency-dependent RPN calculations). OPNBRANCH and PISTBRANCH incorporate the frequency dependence of radiation
impedance. Radiation impedance at the end of an open tube radiating into 4 solid angle
can be modeled as an OPNBRANCH, while PISTBRANCH approximates the radiation impedance
of a ba- ed piston of the given radius.
(If a side-branch transducer has nonzero N_ owing past it, the user might consider what
fraction of the energy added by the transducer goes into raising the temperature of the steady
ow passing by and what fraction is added to the thermoacoustic wave. In a heat-exchanger
segment, FQ_ N_ ; (FracQN) determines these fractions, but with a side-branch transducer an
RPN segment can be used, with user-specied assignment of these fractions using =Tm and
=H2k.)
Input variables, BRANCH:
Re(Z) (Pa s/m3 ) The real part of the branch impedance Zbr :
Im(Z) (Pa s/m3 ) The imaginary part of the branch impedance Zbr :
167

Figure 10.3: BRANCH, OPNBRANCH, or PISTBRANCH.

HtotBr (W) How much power H_ ows out of the trunk into the branch.
Input variables, OPNBRANCH:
Re(Z)/k^2 (Pa s/m) The real part of the branch impedance Zbr ; divided by the square of
the wave number k = !=a:
Im(Z)/k (Pa s/m2 ) The imaginary part of the branch impedance Zbr ; divided by the wave
number k = !=a:
HtotBr (W) How much power H_ tot ows out of the trunk into the branch.
Input variables, PISTBRANCH:
Radius (m) The radius r of the circular, ba- ed radiating surface.
Potential targets:
None.
Masterslave links:
The imaginary part of a BRANCH impedance can be slaved to the real part, to hold the
magnitude constant or to hold the phase constant when the real part is changed.
No masterslave options are available for OPNBRANCH and PISTBRANCH.
(For an introduction to masterslave links, and a complete listing of linking options for
all segments, see Section 2.7.2.)
Format and examples:
BRANCH
1 Pa-s/m3 Re(Z)
1. Pa-s/m3 Im(Z)
12.5 W
HtotBr
OPNBRANCH
0.05 Pa-s/m Re(Z)/k^2
0.20 Pa-s/m2 Im(Z)/k
12.5
W
HtotBr

PISTBRANCH
0.05 Radius

Baffled Piston
m

168

Figure 10.4: The side-branched transducers: IDUCER, ISPEAKER, VDUCER, or VSPEAKER.

Calculations:
A BRANCH is a side branch with complex impedance Zbr . Pressure is unchanged, but volume
ow rate changes according to U1;out = U1;in p1 =Zbr .
For an OPNBRANCH, the numbers in lines a and b are multiplied by (!=a)2 and !=a;
respectively, to obtain the impedance Zbr . These dependences on frequency [11] are correct
in the low-frequency limit, !r=a
1.
For a ba- ed piston of radius r where the wave number is k = !=a locally, the PISTBRANCH
radiation impedance is given by [58]
8
1
0
p
8= sin(2kr 3 =4)
>
4=
<
+
if 2kr > 2:68; C
aB
2J1 (2kr)
2kr
(2kr)3=2
Zbr = m @1
+i
A (10.49)
>
A
2kr
: (4= )2kr 1 (2kr)2
otherwise.
3
15

Note the implicit assumption that the outside and inside gases have the same density and
sound speed.
Output EdotBr gives the acoustic power E_ br owing into the branch.
None of these segments aects Tm . In BRANCH and OPNBRANCH, the exiting energy ow
is computed as H_ 2;k;out = H_ 2;k;in H_ br in insulated mode, described in Section 11.1.2. The
exiting energy ow is computed as H_ 2;k;out = H_ 2;k;in E_ br in PISTBRANCH in insulated mode.
In thermally anchored mode, described in Section 11.1.2, H_ 2;k;out = E_ out in all three of these
segments.
The behavior of these segments is independent of N_ .
10.4.2. VSPEAKER, ISPEAKER, VDUCER, and IDUCER
General description:

The *DUCERs and *SPEAKERs without Eas their second character are electroacoustic transducers mounted as side branches to the apparatus. *DUCERs have frequency-independent
parameters; *SPEAKERs let the user specify mass, spring constant, force constant, resistance,
and inductance, so that frequency-dependent (even resonant) transducers can be modeled.
With IDUCER and ISPEAKER, the user species the (real) current, and each pass of DeltaEC
calculates the complex voltage; with VDUCER and VSPEAKER, the user species the (real) voltage, and DeltaEC computes complex current. IDUCER and ISPEAKER cannot be used with
169

zero mechanical impedance because this would lead to a division by zero (see below). Hence,
use VDUCER or VSPEAKER for lossless resonant or massless-and-springless transducers.
*SPEAKER segments incorporate thermal-hysteresis losses on their area as if they included
a SURFACE, but *DUCER segments, which have no area parameter, do not.
Side-branched transducer elements, which accept only the magnitude of voltage or current applied as an input, but not the phase, eectively x the overall time phase of the
entire DeltaEC model by enforcing zero time phase for that voltage or current. The phase
of pressure or volume ow rate (or both, if both jp1 j and jU1 j are nonzero), as given in
the BEGIN statement, must usually be allowed to vary (i.e., guessed) to accommodate this
condition. This eectively limits a model to only one V or ISPEAKER (or *DUCER), unless
they are wired exactly in phase (or 180 out of phase, which can be accommodated with a
minus sign).
See also Chapter 14 for a discussion of the saturation of magnetic ux in *SPEAKERs.
See also the series transducers described in Section 10.3.1 above.
Input variables, VSPEAKER and ISPEAKER:
Area (m2 ) The surface area S of the moving part of the *SPEAKER. An area S is exposed
to oscillating pressure on the front side. The velocity of the moving element is U1 =S:
R (ohm) The electrical resistance Re of the coil.
L (henry) The electrical inductance L of the coil when it is prevented from moving.
BLProd (tesla meter, which is equivalent to newton/amp) For a traditional moving-coil
loudspeaker, the product of the magnetic eld B and the wire length l immersed in
B. For other electrodynamic transducers, the force in newtons exerted when one amp
of current is applied and nothing is allowed to move.
M (kg) The moving mass M of the transducer.
K (N/m) The spring constant K of the transducer. This should include mechanical-spring
forces and zero-current magnetic forces, but not gas-pressure forces exerted on area S.
Rm (N s/m) The mechanical resistance Rm of the transducer.
jVj or jIj (volts or amps) In VSPEAKER, the amplitude of the oscillating voltage V1 ; which
is taken to be real. In ISPEAKER, the amplitude of the oscillating current I1 ; which is
taken to be real.
Solid The solid material on the surface S: (This is used only in the calculation of s ; which
seldom diers signicantly from its value for a solid with innite conductivity and
innite specic heat in *SPEAKERs.)
170

Input variables, VDUCER and IDUCER:

Re(Ze) (ohm) The real part of the transducers electrical impedance Ze when it is prevented
from moving.
Im(Ze) (ohm) The imaginary part of the transducers electrical impedance Ze when it is
prevented from moving.
Re(T1) (V s/m3 ) The real part of the complex transduction coe cient
below.

in the equations

Im(T1) (V s/m3 ) The imaginary part of the complex transduction coe cient
equations below.
0

Re(T2) (Pa/A) The real part of the complex transduction coe cient
below.

in the

in the equations

Im(T2) (Pa/A) The imaginary part of the complex transduction coe cient
tions below.

in the equa-

Re(Zm) (Pa s/m3 ) The real part of the mechanical impedance Zm of the transducer.
Im(Zm) (Pa s/m3 ) The imaginary part of the mechanical impedance Zm of the transducer.
jVj or jIj (volts or amps) In VDUCER, the amplitude of the oscillating voltage V1 ; which is
taken to be real. In IDUCER, the amplitude of the oscillating current I1 ; which is taken
to be real.
Potential targets:
None.
Masterslave links:
None. The use of sameas is sometimes convenient in *DUCERs, to keep
Format and examples:
VDUCER
1.000E-09 a Re(Ze)
ohms
.000
b Im(Ze)
ohms
1.000E+04 c Re(T1) V-s/m^3
.000
d Im(T1) V-s/m^3
-1.000E+04 e Re(T2)
Pa/A
.000
f Im(T2)
Pa/A
1.000E-09 g Re(Zm) Pa-s/m^3
1.000E-09 h Im(Zm) Pa-s/m^3
10.0
i AplVol
V
VSPEAKER
6.000E-04 a Area
m^2
6.00
b
R
ohms
.000
c L
H
8.00
d BLProd
T-m
5.000E-03 e
M
kg
.000
f
K
N/m
.000
g
Rm
N-s/m
-22.5
h AplVol
V
ideal
Solid type

Another example of VSPEAKER is in Section 5.2.

171

= :

Calculations:
A side-branch transducer IDUCER, VDUCER, ISPEAKER, VSPEAKER is an object attached as
shown Fig. 10.4 like a branch impedance, but obeying the complex equations V1 = Ze I1 + Ux ,
p1 = 0 I1 + Zm Ux . Pressure is unchanged, but volume ow rate changes according to
U1;out = U1;in Ux . The volume ow rate of the transducer, Ux ; is displayed in the output
column.
If current I1 is specied (note! its phase must be real), then use ISPEAKER or IDUCER,
0
and nd Ux = (p1
I1 )=Zm and V1 = Ze I1 + Ux .
If voltage V1 is specied (note! its phase must be real), then use VSPEAKER or VDUCER,
0
and nd I1 = (Zm V1
p1 )=(Ze Zm
) and Ux = (V1 Ze I1 )= .
If a xed electrical load impedance Zext is attached to the transducer, it can be modeled
using a BRANCH segment instead of a *SPEAKER or *DUCER segment, with Zbr = p1 =Ux =
0
Zm
=(Ze + Zext ) .
0
In the case of speakers, Ze = Re + i!L ; =
= Bl=S ; Zm = Rm =S 2 + i(!M
2
K=!)=S . Side-branch speakers are assumed to have area S exposed to the oscillating
pressure. Thermal-hysteresis surface losses are computed for that area S using the same
formula as for a SURFACE, Eqs. (10.32) and (10.33). As described in Section 10.2.2, thermalhysteresis losses manifest themselves as a small change in volume ow rate.
Note that IDUCER and ISPEAKER will crash if Zm is zero, so it is best to use VDUCER or
VSPEAKER for mechanically ideal or lossless resonant transducers.
None of these segments aects Tm .
_ elec in insulated mode,
The exiting energy ow is computed as H_ 2;k;out = H_ 2;k;in + W
described in Section 11.1.2. This assumes that the component is thermally insulated, so the
electrical energy added at the transducer must ow out of the segment, either upstream or
downstream. The exiting energy ow is computed as H_ 2;k;out = E_ out for thermally anchored
mode, described in Section 11.1.2.
These segments behave the same whether N_ = 0 or not.

10.5. Stacks and regenerators

The rst three letters STK indicate a segment1 that can develop a nonzero dTm =dx: These
segments are used to model the stacks of standing-wave thermoacoustic engines and refrigerators, the regenerators of Stirling engines and refrigerators (including pulse-tube refrigerators), the thermal buer tubes of thermoacoustic-Stirling hybrid engines and refrigerators,
and the pulse tubes of pulse-tube refrigerators. They are collected into three groups here:
the smooth porous media STKSLAB, STKRECT, STKCIRC, and STKPIN, which can be used for
either stacks or regenerators and are described in Section 10.5.1, the tortuous porous media
STKSCREEN and STKPOWERLW for modeling regenerators, described in Section 10.5.2, and the
boundary-layer STKDUCT and STKCONE segments, mostly used for pulse tubes and thermal
1

Segments MIXT**, described in Section 10.9.2, also develop nonzero dTm =dx:

172

Figure 10.5: Common smooth-stack geometries, with the x axis perpendicular to the page. (a)
STKSLAB. (b) STKRECT. (c) STKCIRC.

buer tubes and described in Section 10.6.1. If pore size or plate separation is much greater
than thermal and viscous penetration depths, use STKDUCT or STKCONE.
10.5.1. STKSLAB, STKCIRC, STKRECT, and STKPIN
General description of smooth stacks and regenerators:
Use STKSLAB for parallel-plate or spiral stacks or regenerators. Use STKRECT for square pores
or rectangular pores whose aspect ratio is not large enough to justify the use of STKSLAB (see
Ref. [59]). Use STKCIRC for circular or hexagonal pores. Use STKPIN for stacks comprised of
pin arrays (see Ref. [60] for geometrical details of pin arrays).
In STKSLABs, STKRECTs, STKCIRCs, and STKPINs, the Area(the rst line of the segment)
is the total cross sectional area of the stack assembly, including both gas cross section and
solid cross section.
In STKSLABs, STKRECTs, and STKCIRCs, Agas = (Area) (GasA=A) and Asolid = (Area)
(1 GasA=A). Plate half thickness (the 4th line of the segment) is used only for computing
s , not for computing heat conduction along x or what fraction of the Area is available to the
gas. This allows separate accounting for area blocked by idealns and by support struts
or other structure as shown in Fig. 2.10(e). In most cases, s is near 0, so plate thickness
need not be specied with much accuracy; GasA/A is far more important.
Because of the need to compute specialized functions, STKCIRCs compute more slowly
than STKSLABs or STKDUCTs; STKPINs are slower still, and STKRECTs are very slow, especially
for large aspect ratios. Hence, in the latter case, it may be convenient to use STKSLABs, at
least until a design is almost nalized.
Input variables, STKSLAB:
Area (m2 ) The total cross-sectional area A = Agas + Asolid .
GasA/A The areal porosity = Agas =A = y0 = (y0 + l) ; where Agas is the thermoacoustic
area. The solid fraction 1
is used for the calculation of axial thermal conduction
by the solid.
Length (m) The length

x of the stack or regenerator.

y0 (m) Half the plate spacing is y0 : In other words, 2y0 is the gap available to the gas not
the center-to-center spacing of the plates. See Fig. 10.5(a).
173

Lplate (m) Half the thickness of the solid plate is l: Thus, 2l is the plate thickness. See
Fig. 10.5(a). This variable is used in the calculation of s to account for any imperfection in the imposition of the isothermal boundary condition imposed on the gas by
the solid.
Solid The solid of which the plates are made.
Input variables, STKRECT:
Area (m2 ) The total cross-sectional area A = Agas + Asolid .
GasA/A The areal porosity
= Agas =A: The solid fraction 1
is used for the calculation of axial thermal conduction by the solid. Often, the user intends
=
2
ab= (ab + al + bl + l ) ; this can be enforced with a masterslave link (see below).
Length (m) The length

x of the stack or regenerator.

a (m) Half of pore width. Thus, 2a is the small dimension of the rectangular pore available
to the gas. See Fig. 10.5(b).
Lplate (m) Half the thickness of the solid plate: Thus, 2l is the plate thickness. This variable
is used for the calculation of s to account for any imperfection in the imposition of
the isothermal boundary condition imposed on the gas by the solid. See Fig. 10.5(b).
b (m) Half of pore breadth 2b: Thus, 2a
in a single pore. See Fig. 10.5(b).

2b is the cross-sectional area available to the gas

Solid The solid of which the stack is made.

Input variables, STKCIRC:
Area (m2 ) The total cross-sectional area A = Agas + Asolid .
GasA/A The areal porosity = Agas =A: The solid fraction 1
of axial thermal conduction by the solid.
Length (m) The length

is used for the calculation

x of the stack or regenerator.

radius (m) The radius r0 of the circular pore. Thus, r02 is the cross-sectional area available to the gas in a single pore. (When we use STKCIRC to model hexagonal honeycomb
we choose r0 so that the pore has the correct cross-sectional area:
p pores,
p
r0 = 4 3= 2 b ' 0:525038b; where b is the at-to-at distance across the hexagonal
pore.)
Lplate (m) Half the thickness of the solid sheet between pores: Thus, 2l is the plate thickness. This variable is used in the calculation of s to account for any imperfection in
the imposition of the isothermal boundary condition imposed on the gas by the solid.
Solid The solid of which the sheets are made.
174

Input variables, STKPIN:

Area (m2 ) The total cross-sectional area A = Agas + Asolid ; but usually not intended to
include the cross-sectional area of the pressure-vessel wall.
2y0 (m) 2y0 is the center-to-center, nearest-neighbor pin-to-pin distance in the hexagonal
lattice of pins. See Ref. [60].
Length (m) The length

x of the stack or regenerator.

R pin (m) The radius ri of each pin.

Solid The solid of which the pins are made.
Potential targets:
None.
Masterslave links:
The porosity (= GasA/A) of some of these segments can be slaved to other parameters:
In STKSLAB, the porosity can be slaved to other parameters through the equation
=c

y0
;
y0 + l

(10.50)

where c is calculated when the link is rst enabled, using

c=

y0 + l
:
y0

(10.51)

If c = 1; this simply means that all of the cross section is full of gas and plate, with no
struts, support members, or pressure-vessel wall. Otherwise, c 6= 1 indicates that a fraction
of the area is occupied by such structure; the link keeps that fraction a constant.
In STKRECT, the porosity can be slaved to other parameters through the equation
=

ab
;
(a + l)(b + l)

(10.52)

so the geometry looks exactly as shown in Fig. 10.5. No constant c is used.

In STKCIRC, the porosity
can be slaved to other parameters through the equation
2
= min(cr0 =A; 1); with c calculated when the link is rst enabled using c = A=r02 : This
link maintains a constant number of holes, but with the porosity clipped at a maximum
value of 1.
The length of any of these segments can be slaved to the length of another segment to
keep the total length constant.
(For an introduction to masterslave links, and a complete listing of linking options for
all segments, see Section 2.7.2.)
175

Format and examples:

STKSLAB
sameas 1
0.724
7.85e-2 m
1.8e-4 m
4.0e-5 m
kapton

parallel-plate stack
Area
GasA/A
Length
y0 (half the plate spacing)
Lplate (half the plate thickness)
Solid

STKRECT rectangular-pore stack

sameas 1 Area
0.694
GasA/A
7.85e-2 m Length
2.0e-4 m
a (half of pore width)
4.0e-5 m Lplate (half the plate thickness)
4.0e-4 m
b (pore area is 2a times 2b)
stainless Solid
STKCIRC approximates hexagonal honeycomb stack
sameas 1 (m^2) total area
0.81
gas area/total area
0.279
(m) length
0.50e-3 (m) radius of circular pore
0.05e-3 (m) L:half of sheet thickness
stainless
stack material
STKPIN Muller/Keolian pinstack invention
sameas 2a a area
m^2
3.2e-4
b 2y0
m
2y0 = nearest-neighbor center-to-center distance
!
in the hexagonal lattice
0.1
c Length m
4.e-5
d R pin
m
pin radius
stainless

Another example of STKSLAB is in Section 5.2. STKCIRC is used in Section 5.5, and
STKRECT is used in Section 6.2.
Calculations in smooth stacks and regenerators for N_ = 0 :
Pressure propagates according to Rotts wave equation, written in the form
dp1
=
dx
dU1
=
dx

i! m
U1 ;
(1 f )Agas
i!Agas
(
1)f
1+
2
1+ s
ma

(10.53)
p1 +

(1

(f
f )(1

f )
dTm
U1 ;
)(1 + s ) dx

(10.54)

subject to the condition that the total energy ow H_ 2;k is independent of x, which imposes
the following condition on Tm (x):
h
i
Tm (f f~ )
_ 2;k 1 Re p1 U~1 1
H
2
dTm
(1+ s )(1+ )(1 f~ )
h
i
=
:
(10.55)
2
(f f~ )(1+ s f =f )
dx
m cp jU1 j
~
Agas k Asolid ks
2 Im f +
2!Ag a s (1

(1+ s )(1+ )

)j1 f j

For STKSLAB,

fj =

tanh[(1 + i)y0 = j ]
; for j =
(1 + i)y0 = j
s

k m cp
ks s c s

1=2

176

or ;

tanh[(1 + i)y0 = ]
:
tanh[(1 + i)`= s ]

(10.56)
(10.57)

For STKRECT,
64 X

fj = 1

m;n
odd

1
m2 n2 Y

k m cp
ks s c s

1=2

mn ( j )

; for j =

or ;

f (1 + i)ab= (a + b)
;
tanh[(1 + i)`= s ]

(10.58)

(10.59)

2 2

where Ymn ( ) = 1

8a2 b2

(b2 m2 + a2 n2 ):

(10.60)

For STKCIRC,

fj =

2J1 [(i 1)r0 = j ]

; for j =
1)(r0 = j )J0 [(i 1)r0 = j ]

(i
s

k m cp
ks s c s

1=2

or ;

f (1 + i)r0 =2
:
tanh[(1 + i)`= s ]

(10.61)
(10.62)

For STKPIN,

fj =

2ri

(i

1) ro2

k m cp
ks s c s

1=2

ri2

Y1 [(i
Y1 [(i

1)ro = j ]J1 [(i

1)ro = j ]J0 [(i

1)ri = j ]
1)ri = j ]

p
J0 (
i!= s ri ) p
r2 ri2
p
f
i!= o
;
2ri
J1 (
i!= s ri )

J1 [(i 1)ro = j ]Y1 [(i

J1 [(i 1)ro = j ]Y0 [(i
for j = or ;

1)ri = j ]
1)ri = j ]
(10.63)
(10.64)

p
3=2 (2yo )2 with 2yo being
where = k= m cp ; s = ks = s cs ; ri is pin radius, and ro2 =
the center-to-center distance between nearest-neighbor pins in the hexagonal array of pins.

Calculations in smooth stacks and regenerators for N_ =

6 0:
To turn on steady-ow calculations, check the appropriate box in the BEGIN segment. In
the aected STK** segments, the dependence of Tm on x can be changed signicantly by the
nonzero N_ :
The display of information is slightly changed. H2k is the acoustic-plus-longitudinalconduction part of the total energy ux not including the steady-ow part of the total
energy ux, N_ mwm ; where wm is the enthalpy per unit mass. Htot is the sum of H2k and
N_ mwm :
Nonzero N_ changes the temperature prole in smooth stacks according to Refs. [37, 38,
12]: The temperature gradient in stacks is computed using constancy of total energy ux
177

H_ tot . In other words, we solve this equation for dTm =dx :

2
0
13
e
T
f
f
m
1 4 e @
A5
Re p1 U1 1
H_ tot =
2
e
(1 + s )(1 + ) 1 f
"
#
e
dT
c
(f
f
)(1
+
f
=f
)
m
s
m p
+
jU1 j2 Im fe +
(1 + s )(1 + )
2Agas !(1
) j1 f j2 dx
(Agas k + Asolid ks )

dTm
+ N_ mwm
dx

(10.65)

and DeltaEC uses H_ tot = constant to integrate with respect to x through a stack. The only
N_ 6= 0 feature in this equation is the nal term, N_ mwm ; where wm is the mean enthalpy
per unit mass. The mean enthalpy is referenced to zero at the environment temperature T0 ,
which is 300 K by default and can be set to another value in an RPN segment. As usual,
the value of H_ tot is determined by conditions in segments other than the stack, such as the
value of N_ set in the BEGIN segment and the heat ows in adjacent heat exchangers.
The stack energy equation, Eq. (10.65), is reasonable only if N_ is essentially of second
order, and hence only if N_ is formally negligible in the rst-order momentum and energy
equations [37, 38, 12]. Hence, we have not implemented any Doppler eect on dp1 and dU1
in stacks.
In the smooth stacks, dp2;0;HL =dx is calculated with simple laminar expressions based on
_
N2;0 :
dp2;0;HL
=
dx
=
=
=

8 mN_ 2;0
for STKCIRC,
2
m Agas r0
3 mN_ 2;0
for STKSLAB,
2
m Agas y0
3 mN_ 2;0
for STKRECT,
2
m Agas a Fshape
8 mN_ 2;0
2
m Atotal ro

[3 + ri4 =ro4

4ri2 =ro2

(10.66)
(10.67)
(10.68)

4 ln (ri =ro )]

where the STKRECTs shape factor in Eq. (10.68) is given by

192 a X tanh(n b=2a)
Fshape = 1
5 b
n5
n=1;3;5;:::
' 1

for STKPIN,

192 a
tanh(3 b=2a) tanh(5 b=2a)
+
+ 0:000088536
tanh ( b=2a) +
5 b
35
55

(10.69)

(10.70)
for a

b.

(10.71)
10.5.2. STKSCREEN and STKPOWERLW
(For a general description of all of the STK** segments, see the rst paragraph of Section
10.5.)
178

General description of tortuous regenerators:

Use STKSCREEN for stacked-screen regenerators (see Ref. [61]). Use STKPOWERLW for any
other regenerator for which friction factor and heat-transfer coe cients follow power laws
in Reynolds number. The algorithms for these segments assume reasonably good internal
thermal contact, so do not trust these segments for rh
k and certainly not for rh > k :
DeltaEC has no capability to model the physics of oscillating ow through tortuous porous
media except in the small-pore, nearly isothermal limit.
Input variables, STKSCREEN:
Area (m2 ) The total cross-sectional area A = Agas + Asolid ; including the screens but not
including the cross-sectional area of the pressure-vessel wall.
VolPor The volumetric porosity : This is the ratio of the volume of gas in the regenerator
to the total volume of the regenerator. For plain square-weave screen with m wires
per unit length and wire diameter dwire ; we use
'1

mdwire
;
4

(10.72)

as recommended by Organ [26], or we weigh the regenerator and use its A,

the known density of its wire material to calculate . [See also Eq. (5.14).]
Length (m) The length

x, and

x of the regenerator.

rh (m) The hydraulic radius rh of the regenerator. This is the ratio of the gas volume to
the gassolid contact area. For plain square-weave screen with wire diameter dwire ; we
use
rh ' dwire

4 (1

(10.73)

as recommended by Organ [26].

ksFrac If the solid material in the regenerator were arranged in smooth columns parallel with the x axis, as in the smooth stacks described above in Section 10.5.1,
then the contribution of ordinary thermal conduction in the solid to H_ 2;k would be
(1
) A dTm =dx: However, in STKSCREEN the solid conduction is reduced by the random point contacts between wires. ksFrac is the reduction factor. Reference [27]
recommends a value of 0.1. We often use a larger value, in order to include the conductance of the pressure-vessel wall around the regenerator. [See Eq. (9.1).]
Solid The solid of which the wires are made.
Input variables, STKPOWERLW:
Area (m2 ) The total cross-sectional area A = Agas + Asolid ; not including the cross-sectional
area of the pressure-vessel wall.
179

VolPor The volumetric porosity : This is the ratio of the volume of gas in the regenerator
to the total volume of the regenerator.
Length (m) The length

x of the regenerator.

rh (m) The hydraulic radius rh of the regenerator. This is the ratio of the gas volume to
the gassolid contact area.
ksFrac If the solid material in the regenerator were arranged in smooth columns parallel with the x axis, as in the smooth stacks described above in Section 10.5.1,
then the contribution of ordinary thermal conduction in the solid to H_ 2;k would be
(1
) A dTm =dx: However, in STKSCREEN the solid conduction is reduced by the random point contacts between wires. ksFrac is the reduction factor. Reference [27]
recommends a value of 0.1. We often use a larger value, in order to include the conductance of the pressure-vessel wall around the regenerator.
f con The friction-factor parameter fcon in the equations below.
f exp The friction-factor parameter fexp in the equations below.
h con The heat-transfer parameter hcon in the equations below.
h exp The heat-transfer parameter hexp in the equations below.
Solid The solid with which the regenerator is made.
Potential targets:
None.
Masterslave links:
The length of either of these segments can be slaved to the length of another segment to
keep the sum of the two lengths constant.
(For an introduction to masterslave links, and a complete listing of linking options for
all segments, see Section 2.7.2.)
Format and examples of tortuous regenerators:
STKSCREEN
a screen regenerator
sameas 1a a Area
m^2 cross section of regenerator
.673
b VolPor
volumetric porosity
5.500E-02 c Length
m
1.830E-05 d
rh
m
hydraulic radius
.300
e ksFrac
fudge factor F for solid conduction
stainless Solid type
STKPOWERLW
an etched foil regenerator
sameas 1a a Area
m^2 cross section of regenerator
.700
b VolPor
volumetric porosity
0.04
c Length
m
40.e-6
d
rh
m
hydraulic radius
.300
e ksFrac
fudge factor for solid conduction
36.
f f_con
1.0
g f_exp
24.
h h_con
0.8
i h_exp
stainless Solid type

180

Other examples of the use of STKSCREEN are in Sections 5.8 and 6.3.
Calculations in tortuous regenerators for N_ = 0 :
In STKSCREEN regenerators, the pressure, volume ow rate, and mean temperature evolve
according to
dp1
=
dx
d hu1 i
=
dx

i!

1+

(1
2(2

)2
hu1 i
1)

c1 ( ) c2 ( )NR;1
+
8
3

rh2

i!
dTm
hu1 i +
p1 +
2
dx
ma
2i p
Tm
gv ) h
s + (gc + e
i!
p1
2i
Tg )
v h
m cp 1 + s + (gc + e

1 dTm
i! dx 1 +

hu1 i ;

(10.74)

+ (gc gv ) h
2i
s + (gc + e T gv )
s

hu1 i ;
(10.75)

dTm
=
dx

Re
=

+ e2i p gv )
+1
1 + s + h (gc + e2i T gv )
s

Tm
m cp

Im

h (gc

Tm

g
p1 hu
1i

2H_ 2;k
A

+ h (gc gv )
1
g
hu1 i hu
1 i + 2 ks;e
2i
1 + s + h (gc + e T gv )
s

)
+k

;
(10.76)

using
3545 + 2544 2 ;

c1 ( ) = 1268

c2 ( ) =

NR;1 = 4 jhu1 ij rh
=

m cp =(1
2

= phase(hu1 i) phase (p1 ) ;

Z =2
2
dz
gc =
;
3=5
1 + NR;1 cos3=5 (z)
0
p

8:6 2 ;

11:29 + 9:47 2 ;

b( ) = 3:81

2:82 + 10:7

m=

= 2k=!

m cp ;

(10.78)
(10.79)

= 8irh2 =b( )

) s cs ;

1=3 2

= phase(hu1 i) phase hT iu;1 ;

Z =2
cos(2z) dz
2
gv =
:
3=5
1 + NR;1 cos3=5 (z)
0

(10.77)

(10.80)
(10.81)
(10.82)
(10.83)

These expressions were derived [61] with the assumption that viscous and thermal penetration depths are much larger than rh . The spatial average oscillatory velocity hu1 i =
hU1 i = A, where is volumetric porosity and A is regenerator cross-sectional area; and
ke = (ksFrac) ks where ksFrac is a factor to reduce thermal conduction along x due to the
poor thermal contact between adjacent screen layers (Reference [27] recommends ksFrac
0:1). ksFrac can also be used to account for conduction in the case surrounding the
regenerator. The trigonometric integrals in Eqs. (10.83) are not evaluated by DeltaEC;
181

these integrals were performed once, o-line, to obtain simple functional ts that DeltaEC
uses during computation.
STKPOWERLW segments are calculated in the same manner as STKSCREEN, with a few
exceptions. The steady-ow friction factor and heat transfer coe cients are parameterized
by
f = fcon NR
NSt

2=3

= hcon NR

fe x p

he x p

(10.84)
(10.85)

where NSt is the Stanton number and the Reynolds number NR is dened in the usual way
as
4U rh
:
(10.86)
NR =
A
[Note: Equation (10.84) is Fanning friction factor, the friction factor used by Kays and
London [62], so that instantaneously dp=dx = (f =rh ) 12 u2 :] The pressure equation is
replaced by
dp1
1 f
= i! m hu1 i If 2 fcon NR;1 e x p hu1 i ;
(10.87)
dx
8rh
where
Z
2
sin3 fe x p (z)dz:
(10.88)
If =
0

In the volume-ow-rate and mean-temperature equations, these parameters are redened for
the power-law stack:
Z =2
he x p 1 2
gc = NR;1
coshe x p 1 (z)dz;
(10.89)
0
Z =2
he x p 1 2
gv =
NR;1
cos 2z coshe x p 1 (z)dz;
(10.90)
0

(10.91)

b( ) = hcon :

The trigonometric integrals in Eqs. (10.89) and (10.90) are not evaluated by DeltaEC;
these integrals were performed once, o-line, to obtain simple functional ts that DeltaEC
uses during computation.
Calculations in tortuous regenerators for N_ =
6 0:
The temperature gradient in STKSCREEN and STKPOWERLW is computed using constancy of
total energy ux H_ tot = H_ 2;k + N_ mwm . In other words, we solve this equation for dTm =dx :
"
!#
e
1
T
(f
f
)
m
f1 1
H_ tot =
Re p1 U
2
(1 + s )(1 + )(1 fe )
"
#
e
c
dT
(f
f
)(1
+
f
=f
)
p
s
m
m
+
jU1 j2 Im fe +
(1 + s )(1 + )
2Agas !(1
) j1 f j2 dx
(Agas k + Asolid ks;e)

dTm
+ N_ mwm ;
dx
182

(10.92)

and DeltaEC uses H_ tot = constant to nd Tm (x) through the regenerator. The only term
with nonzero N_ in this equation is the nal one, N_ mwm : As usual, the value of H_ tot is
determined by conditions in segments other than the regenerator, such as the heat ows in
adjacent heat exchangers.
The rst-order pressure gradient dp1 =dx is unchanged by nonzero N_ ; and d hu1 i =dx is
changed only indirectly through its dependence on dTm =dx:
In STKSCREEN, the expression for head-loss gradient is a straightforward result of using
the quasi-steady approximation, as outlined in Chapter 14:
mN_ 2;0
1
jp1 j cos
dp2;0
=
c1 ( ) + c2 ( )NR;2;0 1 + 2 +
; j"2;0 j 1;
2
dx
8rh m A
2"2;0
pm "2;0
(10.93)
c2 ( )NR;2;0
jp1 j
mN_ 2;0
2
c
(
)
+
1
+
2"
+
2"
=
cos
sin 1 j"2;0 j
1
2;0
2;0
2
2
8rh m A
"2;0
pm
q
2
jp1 j
cos
+ sign("2;0 ) 3"2;0 +
2 + "22;0
1 "22;0 ; j"2;0 j 1; (10.94)
3
pm
where the steady-ow Reynolds number is

m N_ 2;0 4rh
NR;2;0 =

(10.95)

and "2;0 = mN_ 2;0 = m jU1 j :

In STKPOWERLW, the expression for head-loss gradient is the same as the pessimistic case in
turbulent DUCTs, but with fM and dfM =dNR given by the STKPOWERLW expression, Eq. (10.84),
and with jp1 j = pm replaced by jp1 j =pm to model isothermal oscillations.

10.6. Pulse tubes and thermal buer tubes

(For a general description of all of the STK** segments, see the rst paragraph of Section
10.5.)
10.6.1. STKDUCT and STKCONE
General description:
If dTm =dx 6= 0 and pore size or plate separation is much greater than thermal and viscous
penetration depths, use STKDUCT or STKCONE. These segments are used mostly for pulse tubes
and thermal buer tubes.
In a STKCONE, the variable fwall (parameter f) species the wall thickness. If fwall< 1,
the wall thickness is constant, but if fwall> 1, the wall thickness is proportional to the
local cone radius (so that the wall stress can be constant, which is the minimum-weight,
minimum-thermal-conductance design).
The one-dimensional nature of DeltaEC calculations can be particularly unrealistic in
STKDUCT and STKCONE, because DeltaEC assumes that Tm (x) and Tsolid (x) are equal at all
x; despite the fact that these are likely to be very dierent if any type of streaming occurs.
183

Input variables, STKDUCT:

Area (m2 ) Cross-sectional area Agas available to the gas, based on inside dimensions of the
STKDUCT.
Perim (m) Perimeter

of the inside cross section described above.

Length (m) The length

x of the STKDUCT.

WallA (m2 ) The cross-sectional area Asolid of the wall material.

Solid The solid material comprising the walls.
Input variables, STKCONE:
AreaI (m2 ) Cross-sectional area Agas,I available to the gas at the initial end of the STKCONE,
based on inside dimensions.
PerimI (m) Perimeter
Length (m) The length

of the initial inside cross section described above.

x of the STKCONE.

AreaF (m2 ) Cross-sectional area Agas,F available to the gas at the nal end of the STKCONE,
based on inside dimensions.
PerimF (m) Perimeter

of the nal inside cross section described above.

f_wall For fwall < 1, wall thickness = fwall initial perimeter, and is independent of
x. For fwall > 1, wall thickness = local perimeter=fwall, so local wall cross-sectional
area = (local perimeter)2 =fwall.
Solid The solid material comprising the walls.
Potential targets:
None.
Masterslave links:
In STKDUCT, the perimeter can be slaved to the area to maintain the shape when the area is
changed.
In STKDUCT, the perimeter and the area can also be slaved to the length, to maintain a
constant volume and constant shape when the length is changed.
In STKCONE, the initial perimeter can be slaved to the initial area, the nal perimeter can
be slaved to the nal area, or both perimeters can be slaved to both areas, so that shapes
are maintained when areas are changed.
The length and both perimeters of a STKCONE can be slaved to its two areas, to keep the
cross-sectional shapes of the ends and the wall taper angle constant when either or both
areas are changed.
184

The length of either of these segments can be slaved to the length of another segment to
keep the sum of the two lengths constant.
(For an introduction to masterslave links, and a complete listing of linking options for
all segments, see Section 2.7.2.)
Format and examples:
STKDUCT boundary-layer approx
0.01 m2 area of gas
0.4 m perimeter (this duct is square)
1. m length
0.001 m2 wall materials cross-sectional area
stainless
STKCONE boundary-layer w/ taper
0.01 m2 area of gas
0.35 m perimeter
1. m length
sameas 8a
sameas 8b
0.001
fwall
stainless

Other examples of STKDUCT are in Sections 5.8.3 and 6.3.

Calculations for N_ = 0:
In STKDUCT and STKCONE, pressure propagates according to Rotts wave equation, written in
the form
i! m
U1 ;
(1 f )Agas
i!Agas
(
1)f
+
1
2
1+ s
ma

dp1
=
dx
dU1
=
dx

(10.96)
p1 +

(1

(f
f )(1

f )
dTm
U1 ;
)(1 + s ) dx

(10.97)

subject to the condition that energy ow H_ 2;k is independent of x, which imposes the following condition on Tm (x):
i
h
Tm (f f~ )
1
_
~
H2;k 2 Re p1 U1 1 (1+ )(1+ )(1 f~ )
dTm
s
h
i
=
:
(10.98)
2
~
c
jU
j
(f
f
)(1+
f
=f )
s
dx
m p 1
~
Agas k Asolid ks
2 Im f +
2!Ag a s (1

(1+ s )(1+ )

)j1 f j

For STKDUCT or STKCONE,

fj = (1
s

i)

k m cp
ks s c s

j =2A;
1=2

for j =

or ;

(10.99)

1
wall cross-sect area
, where ` =
; (10.100)
tanh[(1 + i)`= s ]
perimeter

so long as 2A= j > 30. For 2A= j < 25, the functions are the same as for STKCIRC, with
r0 (x) = 2A(x)= (x): In between, a linear combination is used.
Calculation with N_ =
6 0:
STKDUCT treats nonzero N_ in the same way as STKCIRC. STKCONE is similar, with the additional variation of A with x:
185

10.7. Heat exchangers

DeltaEC heat exchangers are used to inject or remove heat. The rst law of thermodynamics insists that this heat must equal the dierence between upstream and downstream H_ tot :
DeltaEC heat exchangers necessarily have surface area, so they experience both viscous
and thermal dissipation of acoustic power.
Heat exchangers are collected into three groups here. The smooth, short HX and TX have
parallel-plate and tubular geometry, respectively, and are described in Section 10.7.1. The
short, tortuous porous heat exchangers SX and PX, for screens and power-law structures,
respectively, are described in Section 10.7.2. The long, smooth, variable-temperature and
variable-heat-density exchangers VXT1, VXT2, VXQ1, and VXQ2 are described in Section 10.7.3.
10.7.1. HX and TX
General description:
For a general description of all DeltaEC heat exchangers, see the initial paragraphs of the
heat-exchanger documentation, Section 10.7.
In HX the thermoacoustic working gas is between parallel plates; in TX it is inside cylindrical tubes. Heat Q_ is positive when it ows from the solid into the thermoacoustic gas,
adding to H_ tot : The temperature dierence between the solid temperature Tsolid and the gas
_ The proportionality constant is not well validated,
temperature Tm is proportional to Q:
either theoretically or experimentally; we nd that it seems to be accurate within a factor
of 2.
HX and TX are assumed to be so short that the numerical integration from one end to
the other is performed with a single fourth-order Runge-Kutta step. (Most other integrated
segments, i.e., DUCT, CONE, MIX**, STK**, and VX**, are integrated with Nint fourth-order
Runge-Kutta steps.) See VX** in Section 10.7.3 below for longer tubular heat exchangers.
Input variables, HX:
Area (m2 ) The total cross-sectional area A = Agas + Asolid .
GasA/A The areal porosity
Length (m) The length

= Agas =A:

x of the heat exchanger.

y0 (m) The plate spacing is 2y0 : In other words, 2y0 is the gap available to the gas not
the center-to-center spacing of the plates.
HeatIn The heat Q_ added to the thermoacoustic gas in the heat exchanger. Positive Q_
indicates heat ow from solid to gas.
FracQN If Enable Ndotis checked in an upstream BEGIN, this variable, FQ_ N_ ; determines
what fraction of the heat Q_ is added to H_ N_ = N_ mwm : (The remainder is added to
H_ 2;k :)
186

Solid The solid material on the inside surface of the HX. This is used only in the calculation of
s ; which seldom diers signicantly from its value for a solid with innite conductivity
and specic heat.
Input variables, TX:
Area (m2 ) The total cross-sectional area A = Agas + Asolid .
GasA/A The areal porosity
Length (m) The length

= Agas =A:

x of the heat exchanger.

radius (m) The radius of each tube, r0 :

HeatIn The heat Q_ added to the thermoacoustic gas in the heat exchanger. Positive Q_
indicates heat ow from solid to gas.
FracQN If Enable Ndotis checked in an upstream BEGIN, this variable, FQ_ N_ ; determines
what fraction of the heat Q_ is added to H_ N_ = N_ mwm : (The remainder is added to
H_ 2;k :)
Solid The solid material on the inside surface of the TX. This is used only in the calculation of
s ; which seldom diers signicantly from its value for a solid with innite conductivity
and specic heat.
Potential targets:
TSolid If used as a target, DeltaECs shooting method compares Tsolid to this value.
Masterslave links:
In TX, the porosity can be slaved to other parameters via the equation = min(cr02 =A; 1);
with c calculated when the link is rst enabled via c = A=r02 : This link maintains a constant
number of holes, up to a maximum porosity of 1.
The length of HX or TX can be slaved to the length of another segment to keep the sum
of the two lengths constant.
(For an introduction to masterslave links, and a complete list of linking options for all
segments, see Section 2.7.2.)
Format and examples:
HX
sameas 1
0.600
6.35e-3 m
1.9e-4 m
-20.0
W
300.
K
copper

parallel-plate heat exchanger

Area
GasA/A
Length
y0 = half of plate spacing
HeatIn
Est-T
Target
solid

187

TX

tube-in-shell heat exchanger

0.2
a Area
m^2
.188
b GasA/A
.400
c Length
m
6.350E-03 d radius
m
(radius of each tube)
1.818E+05 e HeatIn
W
possible target
nickel
Solid type

Other examples of HX appear in Chapter 5.

Calculations:
In HX and TX, wave propagation is calculated using
dp1
=
dx
dU1
=
dx

i! m
U1 ;
(1 f )Agas
(
1)f
i!Agas
1+
2
1+ s
ma

HX uses parallel plate geometry in computing f , f , and

fj =
s

p1 :

(10.102)

or ;

(10.103)

s:

tanh[(1 + i)y0 = j ]
; for j =
(1 + i)y0 = j
k m cp
ks s c s

(10.101)

1=2

(10.104)

Similarly, TX uses cylindrical geometry in computing f , f , and

f are calculated using complex Bessel functions
fj =
For r0 =

(i

2J1 [(i 1)r0 = j ]

for j =
1)(r0 = j )J0 [(i 1)r0 = j ]

s:

For r0 =

or :

< 25, f and

(10.105)

> 30; the boundary-layer approximation is used:

i) j =r0 for j =

fj = (1

or :

(10.106)

For intermediate values, linear interpolation is used to make a smooth match between the
two regimes. In both cases, s is calculated using

k m cp
ks s c s

1=2

(10.107)

In TX, the radius r0 is that of one circular pore, so that for a heat exchanger comprised
of N circular pores, the total cross-sectional area available to the working gas is N r02 =
(Area)(GasA=A).
HX and TX have no turbulence algorithms.
188

For N_ = 0; temperature and power change according to

dTm
= 0;
dx
dH_ 2;k
Q_
dH_ tot
=
=
;
dx
dx
x
Q_
Tsolid = Tm +
;
h Agas xe=rh

(10.108)
(10.109)
(10.110)

where x is the heat exchanger length and Q_ is the heat added to the heat exchanger.
Positive heat Q_ (parameter e) ows into the apparatus. The heat ow Q_ is an input for
each pass of DeltaEC, and it is often used as a guess for the shooting method described
in Section 2.5. The heat-transfer coe cient h is estimated with
h=

k
;
ye

(10.111)

and
xe = min[2 j 1 j , x]
ye = min[ ; rh ];

(10.112)
(10.113)

with hydraulic radius rh equal to y0 for HX and equal to r0 =2 for TX. These expressions may
be quite inaccurate, but we believe they are more useful than nothing. A little experimental
evidence for Tsolid Tm is presented in Ref. [22]. A user who mistrusts these expressions
can use the gas temperature (available through RPN, and as an output in the adjacent stack
segment) instead of the solid temperature for plotting or targeting, and/or use RPNs to
construct custom expressions instead of Eqs. (10.110)(10.113).
For N_ 6= 0; the steady and oscillating ows are assumed to be independent and simply
superimposed. Equations (10.101) and (10.102) are unchanged by N_ 6= 0; and the gradients
in p2;0;HL are calculated using Eq. (10.67) for HX and Eq. (10.66) for TX. Temperature and
power change according to
_ x
Q=
dTm
;
= FQ_ N_
dx
N_ mcp
dH_ tot
Q_
dH_ 2;k
=
; so
= 1
dx
x
dx
Tsolid

(10.114)

Q_
;
x
Q_
= max [Tm (0); Tm ( x)] +
if Q_ > 0;
h Agas xe=rh
Q_
= min [Tm (0); Tm ( x)] +
if Q_ < 0;
h Agas xe=rh
FQ_ N_

(10.115)
(10.116)
(10.117)

where FQ_ N_ = FracQN is input parameter g, which establishes what fraction of Q_ heats
the steady ow. FQ_ N_ is often guessed, to give DeltaEC enough exibility to meet nearby
temperature and energy boundary conditions. It can also be set equal to zero without serious
189

consequences in many models, or set equal to a simple expression like 1 + m jU1 j =jN_ jm
in an RPN, supplying an experimentally unsupported but plausible estimate of how power
divides itself between the steady ow and the acoustic ow.
10.7.2. SX and PX
General description:
For a general description of all DeltaEC heat exchangers, see the initial paragraphs of the
heat-exchanger documentation, Section 10.7.
In SX, the thermoacoustic working gas ows through a pile of woven screens. The PX
segment allows the user to specify heat-exchanger parameters for which the steady-ow
friction factor and heat transfer coe cient are known power laws in Reynolds number.
The SX calculations assume fairly good thermal contact between gas and solid, so these
calculations are valid only for hydraulic radius smaller than thermal and viscous penetration
depths. There is no warning if this condition is not met.
Heat Q_ is positive when it ows from the solid into the thermoacoustic gas, adding to
H_ tot : In SX, typically the screen material has high thermal conductivity and the area is small,
because typically the heat must ow radially through the screen wires, from the pressure
vessel around the screens to the thermoacoustic gas.
The temperature dierence between the solid temperature Tsolid and the gas tempera_ The proportionality constant is not well supported, either
ture Tm is proportional to Q:
theoretically or experimentally; we nd that it seems to be accurate within a factor of 2.
SX and PX are assumed to be so short that the numerical integration from one end to
the other is performed with a single fourth-order Runge-Kutta step. (Most other integrated
segments, i.e., DUCT, CONE, MIX**, STK**, and VX**, are integrated with Nint fourth-order
Runge-Kutta steps.)
Input variables, SX:
Area (m2 ) The total cross-sectional area A = Agas + Asolid .
VolPor The volumetric porosity : This is the ratio of the volume of gas in the SX to the
total volume of the heat exchanger. For plain square-weave screen with m wires per
unit length and wire diameter dwire ; we sometimes use
'1

mdwire
;
4

(10.118)

as recommended by Organ [26], or we weigh the pile of screens, measure its overall
dimensions A and x; and use the known density of its wire material to calculate .
Length (m) The length

x of the heat exchanger.

rh (m) The hydraulic radius rh of the SX. This is the ratio of the gas volume to the gassolid
contact area. For plain square-weave screen with wire diameter dwire ; we sometimes
190

use
rh ' dwire

4 (1

(10.119)

as recommended by Organ [26].

HeatIn The heat Q_ added to the thermoacoustic gas in the heat exchanger. Positive Q_
indicates heat ow from solid to gas.
FracQN If Enable Ndotis checked in an upstream BEGIN, this variable, FQ_ N_ ; determines
what fraction of the heat Q_ is added to H_ N_ = N_ mwm : (The remainder is added to
H_ 2;k :)
Solid The solid material of the wires. This is used only in the calculation of s ; which
seldom diers signicantly from its value for a solid with innite conductivity and
specic heat in SXs.
Input variables, PX:
Area (m2 ) The total cross-sectional area A = Agas + Asolid .
VolPor The volumetric porosity : This is the ratio of the volume of gas in the heat
exchanger to the total volume of the heat exchanger.
Length (m) The length

x of the heat exchanger.

rh (m) The hydraulic radius rh of the heat exchanger. This is the ratio of the gas volume
to the gassolid contact area.
HeatIn The heat Q_ added to the thermoacoustic gas in the heat exchanger. Positive Q_
indicates heat ow from solid to gas.
f con The friction-factor parameter fcon in the equations below.
f exp The friction-factor parameter fexp in the equations below.
h con The heat-transfer parameter hcon in the equations below.
h exp The heat-transfer parameter hexp in the equations below.
FracQN If Enable Ndotis checked in an upstream BEGIN, this variable, FQ_ N_ ; determines
what fraction of the heat Q_ is added to H_ N_ = N_ mwm : (The remainder is added to
H_ 2;k :)
Solid The solid with which the PX is made. This is used only in the calculation of s ; which
seldom diers signicantly from its value for a solid with innite conductivity and
specic heat in heat exchangers.
191

Potential targets:
TSolid If used as a target, DeltaECs shooting method compares Tsolid to this value.
Masterslave links:
The length of either of these segments can be slaved to the length of another segment to
keep the sum of the two lengths constant.
(For an introduction to masterslave links, and a complete listing of linking options for
all segments, see Section 2.7.2.)
Format and examples:
SX

Hot heat exchanger

1.029E-03 a Area
m^2
0.690
b VolPor
2.000E-02 c Length
m
6.450E-05 d
rh
m
-284.
e HeatIn
W
300.
f Est-T
K
copper
Solid type

total cross sectional area

volumetric porosity
hydraulic radius
(t)

PX
1.0E-4
a Area
0.70
b GasA/A
0.04
c Length
4.000E-05 d
rh
900.
e HeatIn
0.07
f f_con
0.22
g f_exp
0.035
h h_con
0.22
i h_exp
copper
Solid type

m^2
m
m
W

total cross-sectional area

volumetric porosity
hydraulic radius = gas volume / gas-solid contact area

Examples of SX occur throughout Sections 5.8 and 6.3.

Calculations:
In SX, dp1 =dx and d hu1 i =dx are calculated in the same way as in STKSCREEN, as described
in [61]:
dp1
=
dx

i!

(1
1+
2(2

d hu1 i
=
dx

)2
hu1 i
1)

c1 ( ) c2 ( )NR;1
+
8
3

rh2

hu1 i ;

2i p
gv ) h
i!
i!Tm 2
s + (gc + e
p
+
p1 ;
1
2
2i T g )
v h
ma
m cp 1 + s + (gc + e

(10.120)

(10.121)

using
3545 + 2544 2 ;

c1 ( ) = 1268

b( ) = 3:81

c2 ( ) =

2:82 + 10:7

11:29 + 9:47 2 ;

NR;1 = 4 jhu1 ij rh
s

m cp =(1
2

8:6 2 ;

m=

= 2k=!

m cp ;

192

(10.123)
(10.124)

= 8irh2 =b( )

) s cs ;

(10.122)

1=3 2

(10.125)
(10.126)

= phase(hu1 i) phase (p1 ) ;

Z =2
2
dz
gc =
;
3=5
1 + NR;1 cos3=5 (z)
0

= phase(hu1 i) phase hT iu;1 ;

Z =2
2
cos(2z) dz
gv =
:
3=5
1 + NR;1 cos3=5 (z)
0

(10.127)
(10.128)

The spatial average oscillatory velocity hu1 i = hU1 i = A, where is volumetric porosity and
A is heat-exchanger cross-sectional area. These expressions were derived with the assumption
that the thermal and viscous penetration depths are much larger than rh .
The PX segment can be used when the steady-ow friction factor and heat-transfer coefcient are known power laws in Reynolds number NR . The derivation assumes fairly good
thermal contact between gas and solid. Area A is the total cross-sectional area of the heat
exchanger, VolPor is its volumetric porosity, and x is its length, so that A x is the
total volume of gas in the heat exchanger. The steady-state friction factor and heat-transfer
coe cients must be known by the user in power-law forms:
NSt

f = fcon (NR )
2=3
= hcon (NR )

fe x p
he x p

(10.129)
(10.130)

;
;

where NSt = NN u = NR is the Stanton number, and the Reynolds number NR is dened in
the usual way as
4 hui rh m
4U rh m
=
:
(10.131)
NR =
A
Note: this is Fanning friction factor, the friction factor used by Kays and London, so that
instantaneously
dp
f 1
=
hui2 = 2 f NR hui :
(10.132)
dx
rh 2
8rh
The complex pressure gradient is computed using
dp1
=
dx

i!

where
If =

hu1 i
2

If

8rh2

sin3

fcon jNR;1 j1

fe x p

fe x p

hu1 i

!t d(!t):

(10.133)

(10.134)

Thermal-relaxation eects due to oscillating pressure are computed using the same equations
for d hu1 i =dx as for screen heat exchangers but with
Z =2
he x p 1 2
gc = jNR;1 j
coshe x p 1 !t d(!t);
(10.135)
0
Z =2
he x p 1 2
gv =
jNR;1 j
cos 2!t coshe x p 1 !t d(!t);
(10.136)
0

(10.137)

b( ) = hcon :

The solid temperature is computed relative to the gas mean temperature using
T = Ih

Q_
k hcon jNR;1 j1
193

he x p

rh2
;
Axe

(10.138)

where xe = minf2 jhu1 ij =!; xg ; NR;1 is the Reynolds number amplitude (based on the
amplitude of the velocity), and
Z =2
Z =2
4
hexp 4
he x p +1
Ih =
cos
!t d(!t) =
coshe x p 1 !t d(!t):
(10.139)
h
+
1
exp
0
0

(The second form of Ih ; obtained from the rst via integration by parts, expresses Ih in
terms of gc above.) To maintain DeltaECs high speed, the trigonometric integrals are not
evaluated by DeltaEC; we use simple functional ts to these integrals in DeltaEC.
The head-loss pressure gradient dp2;0 =dx in SX is calculated in the same way as for
STKSCREENs. The nonlinear nature of the screen friction factor f = c1 ( )=NR + c2 ( ) also
causes the mean ow to aect dp1 =dx in SX, according to
dp1
=
dx
=

U1
[c1 ( ) + 2c2 ( )NR;2;0 ] ; j"2;0 j 1;
A
"22;0 q
U1 c1 ( ) c2 ( )NR;1
+
1
+
1
rh2 A
8
3
2

(10.140)

8rh2

3
"22;0 + "2;0 sin 1 "2;0 ;
2
j"2;0 j 1; (10.141)

where the acoustic Reynolds-number amplitude is

NR;1 =

jU1 j 4rh
A

(10.142)

[Note NR;2;0 in Eq. (10.140) but NR;1 in Eq. (10.141) not a typographical error.] We did
not incorporate a mean ow eect on dp1 =dx in STKSCREEN because the energy equation restricts the magnitude of N_ in stacks. No such restriction exists in heat exchangers (although
were not sure why anyone would use a heat exchanger without an adjacent stack).
In PX, dp2;0 =dx is calculated just as in STKPOWERLW. The mean ow aects dp1 =dx in PX
according to
dp1
= i! m hu1 i
dx
(3 2 j"2;0 j) (1 2 j"2;0 j) dfM
m jhu1 ij hu1 i
j"2;0 j fM;max +
NR;max ; j"2;0 j 1;
4rh
8(1 + j"2;0 j)
dNR
(10.143)
q
2
"2;0
3
m jhu1 ij hu1 i
= i! m hu1 i
1+
1 "22;0 + "2;0 sin 1 "2;0 fM;max
3 rh
2
2
q
2
2
"2;0
3
9 1 + 4"2;0 dfM
1 "22;0 + "2;0 sin 1 "2;0
NR;max ; j"2;0 j 1:
1+
2
2
32 1 + j"2;0 j dNR
(10.144)
which is a hybrid of Eq. (10.133) here and Eqs. (A13) and (A14) in Ref. [41].
For N_ = 0; temperature and power change according to
dTm
= 0;
dx
dH_ tot
Q_
=
;
dx
x
194

(10.145)
(10.146)

where x is the heat exchanger length and Q_ is the heat added to the heat exchanger.
Positive heat Q_ (parameter e) ows into the apparatus. The heat ow Q_ is an input for
each pass of DeltaEC, and it is often used as a guess for the shooting method described
in Section 2.5.
For N_ 6= 0; temperature and power change according to
_ x
Q=
dTm
= FQ_ N_
;
dx
N_ mcp
Q_
dH_ 2;k
dH_ tot
=
; so
= 1
dx
x
dx

(10.147)
FQ_ N_

Q_
;
x

(10.148)

where FQ_ N_ = FracQN is the input parameter that establishes what fraction of Q_ heats
the steady ow. FQ_ N_ is often guessed, to give DeltaEC enough exibility to meet nearby
temperature and energy boundary conditions. It can also be set equal to zero without serious
consequences in many models, or set equal to a simple expression such as 1 + m jU1 j =m N_
in an RPN.
In SXs, the solid temperature is computed relative to gas mean temperature using
T =

Q_ rh2 (gc gv )
k b( ) Axe

(10.149)

where xe = minf2 jh 1 ij, xg. In PXs, the solid temperature is computed relative to the
gas mean temperature using
T = Ih

Q_
1 he x p

k hcon NR;1

rh2
;
Axe

(10.150)

where xe = minf2 jh 1 ij ; xg ; NR;1 is the Reynolds number based on the amplitude of the
velocity, and Ih is dened above. Then
Tsolid = max [Tm (0); Tm ( x)] + T
= min [Tm (0); Tm ( x)] + T

if Q_ > 0;
if Q_ < 0;

(10.151)
(10.152)

These expressions may be very inaccurate, but we believe they are more useful than nothing.
The user who mistrusts them can use the gas temperature (available as an output in the
adjacent stack segment, and through RPN) instead of the solid temperature for plotting or
targeting, and/or use RPNs to construct customized expressions for Eqs. (10.149)(10.152).
10.7.3. VXQ1, VXQ2, VXT1, and VXT2
General description:
For a general description of all DeltaEC heat exchangers, see the initial paragraphs of the
heat-exchanger documentation, Section 10.7.
Beginning in DeltaEC version 6.0, the variableheat exchanger segments VXT1, VXT2,
VXQ1, and VXQ2 are included, allowing gas temperature Tm and heat ux per unit length q_
195

Figure 10.6: Example results from VXT1, STKSCREEN, VXQ1 segments in series in a Stirling engine.
The VXT1 extends from x = 0 to x = 0:05 m, with tubesheets 0.005 m long at each end. The
STKSCREEN extends from x = 0:05 m to x = 0:10 m. The VXQ2 extends from x = 0:10 m to
x = 0:24 m, with tubesheets 0.02 m long on each end. Temperatures in upper panel. The gas
temperature (solid line) varies with x in all three segments. The solid temperature (dashed line)
does not vary with x in the VXT1 segment. Lower panel shows H_ tot (solid line) and E_ (dashed line).

196

to vary with x: The two VXQ* segments further allow Tsolid to depend on x: Hence, these
segments combine some features of previous heat-exchanger segments with some features of
previous stack segments.
The third character in the segment name, T or Q, determines which of two extreme,
limiting heat-transfer conditions is assumed for the non-thermoacoustic side of the heat
exchanger. In VXT*, Tsolid is independent of x. Thinking of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger
in which the thermoacoustic processes take place inside the tubes while a heat-transfer liquid
passes through the shell, the idea is that VXT* should be used when the shell-side ow has
such a high heat-transfer coe cient (e.g., vigorous ow of water) that the solid surfaces of
the heat exchanger tubes are xed in temperature, independent of x: In VXQ*, the heat ux
delivered to/from the heat exchanger per unit length is independent of x: In the shell-andtube situation, the idea is that VXQ* should be used when the shell-side gas is weakly coupled
to the solid (e.g., combustion products at low Reynolds number) so that the temperature
dierence between the shell-side gas and the solid surface can be much larger than any
changes in temperature along the solid surface. To decide which case is most appropriate for
individual circumstances, use a standard heat-transfer book to estimate the heat-transfer
coe cients on the shell side and on the thermoacoustic side. If the heat transfer is much
better on the shell side, use VXT*. If the heat transfer is much better on the thermoacoustic
side, use VXQ*.
The fourth character in the segment name, 1 or 2, allows the segment to be formed of
1 or 2 separate heat-transfer pieces along x (in addition to the two tubesheets at either
end). Thus, 2is intended for heat exchangers with two passeson the shell side. Figure
10.7 shows some of the geometry parameters for a VXT2 (or VXQ2).
To understand the philosophy behind the VX** calculations, consider Fig. 10.8, which
shows a length dx of this segment. In contrast with the STK** segments, where the mean
temperature of the solid is assumed to be the same as the mean temperature of the gas, here
those time-mean temperatures can be dierent, so that large time-averaged heat ows can
be driven from one to the other. Let Tm (x) be the mean temperature of the gas and Tsolid (x)
be the mean temperature of the solid. Both may be functions of x: Articially, assume that
Tm in the gas is independent of the coordinate perpendicular to x: This is equivalent to
assuming that the heat-transfer bottleneck for the time-averaged heat transfer occurs in a
thin layer adjacent to the surface.
Input variables, VXQ1 and VXQ2:
Area (m2 ) The total cross-sectional area A = Agas + Asolid + Ashell-side .
GasA/A The fraction of the total area that is available to gas, Agas =A:
SolA/A The fraction of the total area occupied by solid that contributes to solid thermal
conduction in the x direction, Asolid =A:
rh (m) The hydraulic radius rh of the gas channels. Hydraulic radius is dened as the
ratio of the gas volume to the gassolid contact area. For the present case of an xindependent channel cross section, rh = Agas = where is the inside perimeter of the
channel.
197

Figure 10.7: Two perpendicular cross sections through a VXT2, sandwiched between a duct above
and a regenerator below. Thermoacoustic oscillations in the vertical direction pass through the
insides of 33 tubes, of which 7 are exposed in the lower part of this gure. Cooling water passes
through the shell in two passes: rightward across the lower half, and then leftward across the
upper half.

198

Figure 10.8: Schematic of a short section of a VX** segment. The solid lines show the edges
of the solid and the gas. The dashed box is the short control volume, dx long, used to write the
conservation laws for this situation. The space above the solid represents the external heat-transfer
gas such as water or combustion gases, which transfer heat at rate dQ_ to the control volume.

LenTS1 (m) The length of the rst tubesheet in the heat exchanger. This region experiences viscous and thermal-hysteresis loss, but not time-averaged heat transfer.
Len P1 (m) The length of the heat-transfer region in VXQ1; the length of the rst of two
heat-transfer regions in VXQ2.
Len P2 (m) The length of the second heat-transfer region in VXQ2. (Not present in VXQ1.)
LenTS2 (m) The length of the second tubesheet in the heat exchanger. This region experiences viscous and thermal-hysteresis loss, but not time-averaged heat transfer.
HeatP1 The heat added to the thermoacoustic gas in VXQ1. The heat added to the thermoacoustic gas in the rst heat-transfer region in VXQ2. Positive heat indicates heat
ow from solid to gas.
HeatP2 The heat added to the thermoacoustic gas in the second heat-transfer region in
VXQ2. (Not present in VXQ1.) Positive heat indicates heat ow from solid to gas.
FracQN If Enable Ndotis checked in an upstream BEGIN, this variable, FQ_ N_ ; determines
what fraction of heat is added to H_ N_ = N_ mwm : (The remainder is added to H_ 2;k :) In
VXQ2, the same value of FQ_ N_ is applied to both passes.
Solid The solid material in the heat exchanger.
Input variables, VXT1 and VXT2:
Area (m2 ) The total cross-sectional area A = Agas + Asolid + Ashell-side .
GasA/A The fraction of the total area that is available to gas, Agas =A:
199

SolA/A The fraction of the total area occupied by solid that contributes to solid thermal
conduction in the x direction, Asolid =A:
rh (m) The hydraulic radius rh of the gas channels. Hydraulic radius is dened as the
ratio of the gas volume to the gassolid contact area. For the present case of an xindependent channel cross section, rh = Agas = where is the inside perimeter of the
channel.
LenTS1 (m) The length of the rst tubesheet in the heat exchanger. This region experiences viscous and thermal-hysteresis loss, but not time-averaged heat transfer.
Len P1 (m) The length of the heat-transfer region in VXT1; the length of the rst of two
heat-transfer regions in VXT2.
Len P2 (m) The length of the second heat-transfer region in VXT2. (Not present in VXT1.)
LenTS2 (m) The length of the second tubesheet in the heat exchanger. This region experiences viscous and thermal-hysteresis loss, but not time-averaged heat transfer.
TSolP1 The solid temperature in the heat-transfer region in VXT1. The solid temperature
in the rst heat-transfer region in VXT2.
TSolP2 The solid temperature in the second heat-transfer region in VXT2. (Not present in
VXT1.)
FracQN If Enable Ndotis chekced in an upstream BEGIN, this variable, FQ_ N_ ; determines
what fraction of heat is added to H_ N_ = N_ mwm : (The remainder is added to H_ 2;k :) In
VXT2, the same value of FQ_ N_ is applied to both passes.
Solid The solid material in the heat exchanger.
Potential targets:
HeatP1 or HeatP2 If used as a target in VXT1 or VXT2, DeltaECs shooting method
compares its calculated total heat for the corresponding heat-transfer region to this
value.
There are no built-in potential targets in VXQ1 and VXQ2. Use RPN targets as needed.
Masterslave links:
None.
200

Format and examples:

VXT2
compare to segment 13
sameas 13a a Area
m^2
sameas 13b b GasA/A
sameas 13c c SolA/A
sameas 13d d
rh
m
sameas 13e e LenTS1
m
sameas 13f f Len P1
m
sameas 13g g Len P2
m
sameas 13h h LenTS2
m
0.00
i HeatP1
W
(t)
0.00
j HeatP2
W
(t)
321.70
k TSolP1
K
408.00
l TSolP2
K
1.0000 m FracQN
stainless Solid type

1.9116
-0.1565
9.9874E-07
90.003
7.0105
-2.6557E-09
1.0009
5.0097
1605.5
8034.8
0.0000

A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K

|p|
Ph(p)
|U|
Ph(U)
Htot
Edot
HeatP1
HeatP2
qmaxP1
qmaxP2
H2k

Pa
deg
m^3/s
deg
W
W
W
W
W/m^2
W/m^2
W

Section 6.4 gives an example of the use of VXQ1.

Calculations for N_ = 0:
The rst-order continuity and momentum equations are taken to be unchanged by the timeaveraged heat transfer. Hence, p1 and U1 evolve according to
dp1
=
dx
dU1
=
dx

i! m
U1 ;
(1 f )Agas
i!Agas
(
1)f
1+
2
1+ s
ma

(10.153)
p1 +

(1

(f
f )(1

f )
dTm
U1 ;
)(1 + s ) dx
(10.154)

in all four VX** segments, just the same as in stacks. However, the energy equation used
in stacks does not su ce here: H_ 2;k;gas and H_ solid should be considered separately instead of
only considering their sum H_ 2;k ; and the gas mean temperature Tm and solid temperature
Tsolid might sometimes evolve separately with x. So, here there are four equations related to
energy ux and energy conservation:
"
!#
~
T
(f
f
)
1
m
Re p1 U~1 1
H_ 2;k =
2
(1 + s )(1 + )(1 f~ )
"
#
2
~
c
jU
j
dT
(f
f
)(1
+
f
=f
)
1
m
s
m p
+
Im f~ +
2
dx
(1
+
)(1
+
)
2!Agas (1
) j1 f j
s
dTm
Agas k
+ H_ solid ;
(10.155)
dx
dTsolid
H_ solid =
Asolid ks
;
(10.156)
dx
dH_ 2;k
q(x)
_
=
;
(10.157)
dx
dH_ solid Agas k
q(x)
_
=
+
NN u (Tsolid Tm ) ;
(10.158)
dx
4rh2
where q_ is the heat per unit length externally delivered to the heat exchanger (if negative,
its the heat removed).
201

The rst of these four equations describes the total energy transport in the x direction,
and the second describes the energy transport (via heat conduction) in the x direction in
the solid.
The third equation expresses conservation of energy for the dashed-line control volume
in Fig. 10.8, showing that the heat input dQ_ = q(x)
_
dx equals the dierence (dH_ 2;k =dx) dx
between energy transport in and out along x.
The fourth equation similarly expresses conservation of energy for the solid separately
within the control volume.
Equations (10.155)(10.158) are used to obtain the evolution of the temperatures Tm (x)
and Tsolid (x); and the energy ows H_ 2 (x); H_ solid (x); and q(x);
_
as functions of x; simultaneously with the use of Eqs. (10.153) and (10.154) to obtain p1 (x) and U1 (x): Some details are
dierent in VXT* segments and VXQ* segments:
In the VXT* segments, Tsolid is independent of x and is a users input. Then H_ solid = 0;
Eq. (10.155) is solved for dTm =dx to yield the evolution of Tm (x); Eqs. (10.157) and (10.158)
together yield dH_ 2;k =dx; and Eq. (10.157) yields q(x)
_
= dH_ 2;k =dx: The heat transfer per
_ (In
unit length q(x)
_
is integrated with respect to x to obtain the total heat transfer rate Q:
VXT2, the two passescan have dierent values of Tsolid :) Thus, Eqs. (10.153)(10.158) are
regarded as rst-order dierential equations for dp1 =dx; dU1 =dx; dTm =dx; and dH_ 2;k =dx (and
q(x)
_
is obtained trivially from dH_ 2;k =dx) :
h
i
Tm (f f~ )
_ 2;k 1 Re p1 U~1 1
H
2
dTm
(1+ s )(1+ )(1 f~ )
i
h
;
(10.159)
=
2
(f f~ )(1+ s f =f )
dx
m cp jU1 j
~
Agas k
2 Im f +
2!Ag a s (1

dp1
=
dx
dU1
=
dx

dH_ 2;k
dx

(1+ s )(1+ )

)j1 f j

i! m
U1 ;
(1 f )Agas
i!Agas
(
1)f
p1 +
1+
2
1+ s
(1
ma
dTm
given by Eq. (10.159),
with
dx
Agas k
=
3:7 mk (Tsolid Tm ) :
4rh2

(10.160)

(f
f )(1

f )
dTm
U1 ;
)(1 + s ) dx
(10.161)
(10.162)

The factor 3.7in Eq. (10.162) is the laminar, isothermal-wall Nusselt number for a circular
channel (Ref. [62], Table 6-1), so except for the presence of mk this is just the simplest
laminar, circular heat-transfer equation. The multiplier mk accounts for the enhancement
of the Nusselt number due to turbulence, as is described below.
Starting conditions are straightforward for VXT* segments: The starting p1 ; U1; Tm ; and
_
H2;k are obtained directly from the end of the previous segment, and Tsolid is given by the
user (or as a guess, of course).
In the VXQ* segments, the heat exchange per unit length q_ is independent of x and is set
by the user, as the segments heat parameter divided by the appropriate length parameter.
In VXQ2, the two passescan, of course, have dierent values of heat and length, and hence
dierent values of q.
_ To make progress, it is necessary to make a couple of assumptions
to simplify the starting equations. Solving Eqs. (10.155)(10.158) for dTm =dx; dTsolid =dx;
202

dH_ 2;k =dx; and dH_ solid =dx and integrating them would require initial values for Tsolid and
H_ solid ; in addition to the initial values of Tm and H_ 2;k that are passed into the VXQ* segment
from the end of the previous segment. To avoid having to specify or guess the initial values
of Tsolid and H_ solid , we assume that most of q_ goes into the thermoacoustic gas in cases
of interest to us, so that the rst term on the right side of Eq. (10.158) can be neglected
there. This assumption probably leads only to a slight overestimation of the temperature
dierence jTsolid Tm j in cases of interest to us. Second, we assume that dTsolid =dx =
dTm =dx: Examination of Eq. (10.158) (with the aforementioned rst assumption, and with
q_ independent of x here for a VXQ* segment) shows that this assumption is equivalent to
d(kNN u )=dx = 0; which seems reasonable enough (until someone gures out a better way to
do all this). Then the starting equations can be rearranged as

H_ 2;k

dTm
=
dx

m cp jU1 j

2!Ag a s (1

dp1
=
dx
dU1
=
dx

)j1 f j

i
Tm (f f~ )
~
Re p1 U1 1 (1+ )(1+ )(1 f~ )
s
i
h
~
f )(1+ s f =f )
Agas k
Im f~ + (f (1+
s )(1+ )
1
2

i! m
U1 ;
(1 f )Agas
i!Agas
(
1)f
p1 +
1+
2
1+ s
(1
ma
dTm
given by Eq. (10.163),
with
dx

dH_ 2;k
= q;
_
dx
Tsolid = Tm +

;
Asolid ks
(10.163)
(10.164)

(f
f )(1

f )
dTm
U1 ;
)(1 + s ) dx
(10.165)
(10.166)

4rh2
q;
_
4:4 mk Agas k

(10.167)

The factor 4.4 in Eq. (10.167) is the laminar, constant-heat-ux-density Nusselt number
for a circular channel (Ref. [62], Table 6-1), so except for the presence of mk this is just
the simplest laminar, circular heat-transfer equation. The multiplier mk accounts for the
enhancement of the Nusselt number due to turbulence, as is described below.
Because of the assumptions in the previous paragraph, the starting conditions for the
numerical integration are unambiguous: the four integrated variables Tm ; p1 ; U1 ; and H_ 2;k
all start with the values left over from the previous segment of the DeltaEC model.
203

Tubesheets are treated exactly like stacks, with H_ 2;k constant and
h
i
Tm (f f~ )
_ 2;k 1 Re p1 U~1 1
H
2
dTm
(1+ s )(1+ )(1 f~ )
h
i
=
2
(f f~ )(1+ s f =f )
dx
m cp jU1 j
~
Agas k
2 Im f +
2!Ag a s (1

dp1
=
dx
dU1
=
dx

(1+ s )(1+ )

)j1 f j

i! m
U1 ;
(1 f )Agas
i!Agas
(
1)f
1+
p1 +
2
1+ s
(1
ma
dTm
given by Eq. (10.168);
with
dx

;
Asolid ks
(10.168)
(10.169)

(f
f )(1

f )
dTm
U1 ;
)(1 + s ) dx
(10.170)

but with Asolid = Atotal Agas .

The important viscous and thermal functions f and f needed in Eqs. (10.153)(10.155)
and their variants are calculated as described here. For large displacement amplitudes, the
eective length of the tube is its geometrical length (the total geometrical length, i.e., the
sum of tubesheet and heat-transfer-region lengths). For small displacement amplitudes, the
eective length is innite. In between, this interpolation is used:
xe =

4 xgeom
10 j 1 j = xgeom

when

xgeom
< j 1j <
10

xgeom
:
2

(10.171)

(The choices of this functional form, and of 1/10 and 1/2 as transitions, are arbitrary and
without justication, but these details have little eect on the nal results.) With this eective length, shown along the x axis in Fig. 10.9, the top half of Fig. 7-1 in Kays and London
is used to estimate the eect of turbulence on f and f in the tube. (That gure shows
friction factor as a function of Reynolds number, for a few values of x=D:) DeltaECs
internal approximations to the Kays and London data are shown here in Fig. 10.10. Power
laws
F = g10 BNR
(10.172)
are t to Kays and Londons high-NR straight lines, and similar power laws with osets are
t to their low-NR straight lines, with interpolations for 2450 < NR < 10; 000 using a cubic
polynomial matched to the inner ends of the two straight lines in both slope and value.
(Here F is the Moody friction factor, four times the Fanning friction factor that Kays and
London call f:) Then, using the peak Reynolds number, a multiplier
2

m = max 1;

F
NR
2
24 rh Re [i= (1

f )]

(10.173)

gives the estimate of how turbulence (including entrance eects) aects what would otherwise
be a laminar boundary layer. This expression is easily derived from the discussion about
turbulence in Section 10.1.1.
Bessel-function (or, for large R; boundary-layer) expressions are used for starting values of f and f : Then m as described above is used to generate modied f and f
204

Figure 10.9: Eective length as a function of displacement amplitude j 1 j : For N_ disabled, only
the horizontal axis is relevant. For N_ enabled, this plot displays Eqs. (10.188)(10.190).

Figure 10.10: DeltaECs ts for Kays and Londons Fig. 7-1. The upper set of curves is the
Fanning friction factor [Fanning = Moody /4 = F=4 in Eqs. (10.172) and (10.173)], and the lower
set is for the heat-transfer coe cient. Within each set, the dierent curves are for dierent L=D :
innity, 100, 50, 25, 15, and 1 from bottom to top.

205

for the momentum and continuity equations above, exactly as described in Section 10.1.1:
DeltaEC increases the resistive component of the pressure gradient, and hence the viscous
power dissipation, by m : It decreases the inertial pressure gradient by
1

m =

=R
=m R

(10.174)

to correct approximately for the steeper velocity gradient at the wall, which increases the
eective area open to gas contributing to inertial eects. It applies the same turbulence
correction to f as to f ; with no justication other than the idea that turbulent eddies
carry heat and momentum similarly. For both f s,
Im
Re

1
1

fj
1

fj

= m Im
= m0 Re

fj = 1

Re

(10.175)

;
fj, laminar
1
;
fj, laminar

fj

+ i Im

(10.176)
1

1
1

fj

(10.177)

[Note that, perhaps somewhat inconsistently, m enhances heat transfer in f in Eqs. (10.154)
and (10.155) while mk is used in the time-averaged heat-transfer Eqs. (10.162) and (10.167).]
The value of mk needed in Eq. (10.158) is obtained as follows. Power laws
= A10

BNR

(10.178)

are t to the low-NR and high-NR straight lines in the lower half of Kays and London
Fig. 7-1, with interpolations for 2450 < NR < 10; 000 using a cubic polynomial matched
to the inner ends of the two straight lines in both slope and value. (That gure shows
heat-transfer factor as a function of Reynolds number, for a few values of x=D: Here
is the heat-transfer factor that Ref. [62] calls NSt 2=3 :) Figure 10.10 shows these ts. Since
time-averaged heat transfer is desired, these equations are evaluated using the time-averaged
Reynolds number (2= ) jNR;1 j. Finally, a multiplier
mk =

laminar (

xe = 1)

(10.179)

gives the turbulence correction factor in the otherwise laminar Eqs. (10.162) and (10.167).
Modications to calculations for N_ =
6 0:
In the presence of nonzero steady ow N_ ; the starting equations are modied and augmented
as follows:
dp1
i! m
i!mN_ 1 + (
1)f =(1 + s )
=
U1 +
p1 ;
(10.180)
2
dx
(1 f )Agas
1 f
m a Agas
i!Agas
(
1)f
(f
f )
dTm
dU1
1
+
=
p
+
U1
1
2
dx
1+ s
(1 f )(1
)(1 + s ) dx
ma
i!mN_
U1 ;
(10.181)
+
2
f )
m a Agas (1
206

!#
Tm (f
f~ )
1
(1 + s )(1 + )(1 f~ )
"
#
2
~
dT
c
jU
j
(f
f
)(1
+
f
=f
)
m
1
s
m p
+
Im f~ +
2
dx
(1
+
)(1
+
)
2!Agas (1
) j1 f j
s
dTm
+ H_ solid + N_ mwm ;
(10.182)
Agas k
dx
dTsolid
Asolid ks
;
(10.183)
dx
dH_ tot
N_ mcp dTm
in a pass, but = 0 in a tubesheet,
(10.184)
=
dx
FQ_ N_ dx
Agas k
NN u (Tsolid Tm ) ;
(10.185)
4rh2
v
!2
!2
u
u1
_
1
m
N
F
jU
j
2;0
1
m
t +
sign(N_ 2;0 ) m
(10.186)
_
2
A
4r
2
mN2;0
h
m gas

"
1
=
Re p1 U~1
2

H_ tot

H_ solid =
q(x)
_
=
q(x)
_
=
dp2;0;HL
dx

where N_ 2;0 and N_ are related by

N_ 2;0 = N_ +

mcp

H_ tot

N_ mwm

1
+
ma2 mcp

E_ 2 :

(10.187)

Important: Equation (10.187) omits the (Agas k + Asolid ks ) dTm =dx term that is present in
Eq. (8.16) because we expect it to be negligible most of the time and because DeltaEC
needs N_ 2;0 before it knows dTm =dx in each pass of its numerical
q integration. In Eqs. (10.180)

2
; and it evaluates
(10.186), DeltaEC evaluates m and F on the basis of jNR;1 j2 + NR;2;0
q
2
: The square-root factor at the end of the equam on the basis of 4 jNR;1 j2 = 2 + NR;2;0
tion for dp2;0;HL =dx is a rough empirical match to steady-ow DUCT results; this factor helps
counteract the fact that high jU1 j biases the friction factor F toward values that are unrealistically low for use in this equation. The friction and heat-transfer factors are based on an
eective tube length xe plotted in Fig. 10.9 and given by

xe = 1
=

when
r

10

xgeom

4 xgeom
j 1j
xg e o m

NR;2;0
1000

j 1j
xgeom

NR;2;0
1000

j 1j
xgeom

1
when
100

1
; (10.188)
100

NR;2;0
1000

1
;
4
(10.189)

when
207

j 1j
xgeom

NR;2;0
1000

1
: (10.190)
4

10.8. Adiabaticisothermal interface loss

10.8.1. JOIN
General description:
The JOIN segment accounts for small discontinuities in thermoacoustic variables at the
interface between a heat exchanger or other isothermal segment and an unmixed, thermally
stratied, adiabatic region such as a pulse tube. The discontinuity Tm in mean temperatures
is rst order in the acoustic amplitude, the discontinuity U1 in volume ow rate is second
order, and there is no discontinuity in pressure. See Ref. [63, 64] for Tm ; Ref. [65] for U1 ;
and Ref. [12] and references therein for both Tm and U1 .
When it encounters a JOIN segment, DeltaEC looks both upstream and downstream
(ignoring merely logistical segments such as RPN) to gure out whether the heat exchanger
is upstream and the pulse tube is downstream, or vice versa. Both A and dTm =dx are
obtained from the pulse tubeor other open duct, with dTm =dx = 0 for ordinary DUCTs and
CONEs, and dTm =dx nonzero for STKDUCTs or STKCONEs. (If the relevant duct is a STKDUCT or
STKCONE downstream of the JOIN segment, DeltaEC actually integrates ahead momentarily
to evaluate dTm =dx:)
The JOIN feature is not yet implemented for nonzero N_ .
Input variables; Potential targets; Masterslave links:
None.
Format and examples:
!--------------------------------SX
p.t. hot h.x.
1.1675E-04 a Area
m^2
0.6470 b VolPor
3.0000E-03 c Length
m
1.2000E-05 d
rh
m
2.8164 e HeatIn
W
G
Possible targets
copper
Solid type
!--------------------------------JOIN
first join example

8 --------------------------------1.3507E+05 A |p|
Pa
-17.664
B Ph(p)
deg
2.9183E-04 C |U|
m^3/s
138.51
D Ph(U)
deg
-13.711
E Hdot
W
-18.030
F Edot
W
300.00
H SolidT
K
9 ---------------------------------

1.3507E+05 A |p|
Pa
-17.664
B Ph(p)
deg
2.9863E-04 C |U|
m^3/s
138.51
D Ph(U)
deg
-13.711
E Hdot
W
-18.450
F Edot
W
300.00
G TBeg
K
324.67
H TEnd
K
!--------------------------------- 10 --------------------------------STKDUCT
the pulse tube
1.1675E-04 a Area
m^2
S=-2
1.3511E+05 A |p|
Pa
3.8307E-02 b Perim
m
Fnc(10a)
-17.530
B Ph(p)
deg
7.0000E-02 c Length
m
2.7164E-04 C |U|
m^3/s
5.8678E-05 d WallA
m^2
166.83
D Ph(U)
deg
-13.711
E Hdot
W
-18.298
F Edot
W
324.67
G TBeg
K
57.932
H TEnd
K
stainless Solid type
0.1518 I StkEdt
W
!--------------------------------- 11 --------------------------------RPN ratio of cold end displacement to p.t. length
0.1000 a G or T
(t)
9.2000E-02 A ChngeMe
10C 2 / pi / 0b / 10a / 10c /
!--------------------------------- 12 --------------------------------JOIN
second example; note that RPNs can go between

208

1.3511E+05 A |p|
Pa
-17.530
B Ph(p)
deg
2.7854E-04 C |U|
m^3/s
166.83
D Ph(U)
deg
-13.711
E Hdot
W
-18.763
F Edot
W
57.932
G TBeg
K
89.997
H TEnd
K
!--------------------------------- 13 --------------------------------RPN ratio of warm end displacement to p.t. length
6.0000 a G or T
(t)
9.8838E-02 A ChngeMe
8C 2 / pi / 0b / 10a / 10c /
!--------------------------------- 14 --------------------------------SX
cold heat exchanger adj rh
1.1675E-04 a Area
m^2
1.5473E+05 A |p|
Pa
0.6470 b VolPor
-16.785
B Ph(p)
deg
5.7150E-03 c Length
m
2.7985E-04 C |U|
m^3/s
1.2000E-05 d
rh
m
169.37
D Ph(U)
deg
7.1278 e HeatIn
W
G
-6.5828 E Hdot
W
Possible targets
-21.525
F Edot
W
7.1278 G Heat
W
copper
Solid type
90.000
H SolidT
K

Calculations:
The discontinuity in temperature at JOIN is:
Tm;out

Tm;in =

Tm
jp1 j sin
m cp

jU1 jin dTm

!Agas dx

F;

(10.191)

where is the angle by which p1 leads U1 ; dTm =dx is evaluated on the thermally stratied,
adiabatic side of the JOIN, and the factor F is given by
F =

Agas k dTm =dx

:
H_ 2;k E_

(10.192)

The factor F is a crude attempt to account for the two-dimensional nature of the JOIN
problem within DeltaECs inherently one-dimensional character. The derivation of the Tm
discontinuity joining condition in the references cited above neglects the thermal conductivity
of the wall of the tube and the boundary-layer shuttle entropy ux. If these are zero, then
F = 1 and Eq. (10.191) represents the joining condition derived in the references cited
above. At the other extreme, if the solid wall of the duct or the boundary layer is eectively
a thermal short circuit compared to bulk gas conductivity, then F = 0 and no temperature
discontinuity appears in the JOIN segment.
The discontinuity in jU1 j at JOIN is
jU1 jout = jU1 jin
= jU1 jin

1)
8 (
jp1 j jU1 jin cos
2
3
ma
16
1 _
E:
2
3 ma

There is no discontinuity in p1 ; in the phase of U1 ; or in H_ 2;k :

209

(10.193)

10.9. Mixture separation

10.9.1. MIXBL, MIXSLAB, and MIXCIRC
General description:
The MIXBL, MIXSLAB, and MIXCIRC segments calculate dp1 =dx; dU1 =dx; and dnL =dx for
sound propagation in gas mixtures, with or without steady ow, according to the theory
described in Ref. [10], which builds on the theory described in Refs. [43, 66]. MIXBL performs
the calculations in boundary-layer approximation, MIXSLAB in parallel-plate geometry of
arbitrary gap 2y0 , and MIXCIRC in circular pores of arbitrary radius R. The solid is assumed
to be ideal, so it imposes a perfect isothermal boundary condition on the gas.
Input variables, MIXBL:
Area (m2 ) Cross-sectional area Agas available to the gas, based on inside dimensions.
Perim (m) Perimeter
Length (m) The length

of the inside cross section described above.

x of the segment.

Input variables, MIXSLAB:

Area (m2 ) Total cross-sectional area A including gas and solid.
GasA/A The areal porosity
the gas area.)
Length (m) The length

= Agas =A: (We often x this at 1.000 and set Area equal to

x of the segment.

y0 (m) Half the plate spacing is y0 : Thus, 2y0 is the gap available to the gas.
Input variables, MIXCIRC:
Area (m2 ) Total cross-sectional area A including gas and solid.
GasA/A The areal porosity
the gas area.)
Length (m) The length

= Agas =A: (We often x this at 1.000 and set Area equal to

x of the segment.

radius (m) The radius R of the pores.

Potential targets:
None.
210

Masterslave links:
The length of any of these segments can be slaved to the length of another segment to keep
the sum of the two lengths constant.
(For an introduction to masterslave links, and a complete listing of linking options for
all segments, see Section 2.7.2.)
Format and examples:
!--------------------------------MIXBL
boundary-layer approx
4.0000E-04 a Area
m^2
8.0000E-02 b Perim
m
0.1000 c Length
m

1 ---------------------------------

3670.4
A |p|
Pa
-0.2884 B Ph(p)
deg
1.4715E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
-87.558
D Ph(U)
deg
-2.6300E-08 E Htot
W
0.1286 F Edot
W
0.3406 G nL Beg
0.3463 H nL End
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------MIXCIRC
an array of circular pores
2.2000E-05 a Area
m^2
5637.2
A |p|
Pa
1.0000 b GasA/A
162.98
B Ph(p)
deg
0.1000 c Length
m
1.4540E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
1.0000E-03 d radius
m
-86.581
D Ph(U)
deg
-2.6300E-08 E Htot
W
-1.4313 F Edot
W
0.3463 G nL Beg
0.3452 H nL End
!--------------------------------- 3 --------------------------------MIXSLAB
an array of parallel plates
1.0000E-03 a Area
m^2
5460.3
A |p|
Pa
0.8000 b GasA/A
165.32
B Ph(p)
deg
0.1000 c Length
m
4.0475E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
5.0000E-04 d y0
m
53.191
D Ph(U)
deg
-2.6300E-08 E Htot
W
-4.1618 F Edot
W
0.3452 G nL Beg
0.2560 H nL End

Section 7.3 has an example DeltaEC le using MIXCIRC.

Calculations:
The evolution of p1 with x in MIXBL, MIXSLAB, and MIXCIRC is given by the same integration
as in DeltaECs other ducts,
dp1
=
dx

i! m
U1 ;
(1 f )Agas

(10.194)

because Ref. [67] showed that the rst-order thermoacoustic momentum equation is unchanged by mixture-separation eects. The evolution of U1 with x is given by Eq. (8) in
Ref. [67], but they didnt write the result explicitly [10]. The explicit result, in DeltaECs
notation, is
dU1
=
dx

i!Agas
f1 + (
2
ma

1) [Bf + Cf

+ (1

C) fD ]g p1 ;

(10.195)

where B and C are given in Ref. [43], and the other variables carry their usual DeltaEC
meanings or are dened below.
211

The evolution of the light fraction nL with x is given by solving Eq. (7) in Ref. [10] for
dnH =dx, and integrating numerically for xed N_ L ; which is equivalent to xed N_ H and xed
N_ = N_ H + N_ L . Solving Eq. (7) for dnH =dx yields
N_ H
dnH
=
dx

nH N_

1
4rh

kT
Ru n iv Tm
2

m jU1 j
4rh mav g !Agas

jp1 j jU1 j (Ftrav cos + Fstand sin )

Fgrad

m
mav g

(10.196)

Agas D12

and then DeltaEC uses dnL =dx = dnH =dx to obtain the desired result.
=
p In addition to thepusual denitions of the viscous and thermal penetration depths
2 =! m and
= 2k=! m cp ; two new penetration depths are dened for mixtures:
2
D
2
D

1
2
1
=
2
=

1 + (1 + ") =L +

1 + (1 + ") =L

[1 + (1 + ") =L]2
q
[1 + (1 + ") =L]2

4=L ;

(10.197)

4=L ;

(10.198)

where
1

"=

kT2
;
nL (1 nL )

(10.199)

kT is the thermal diusion ratio, L = k= m cp D12 , and D12 is the binary mass-diusion
coe cient.
In MIXBL, DeltaEC uses the boundary-layer results of Ref. [43]. For f ; f D ; and fD ;
the boundary layer result is
fj = (1

i)

2rh

(10.200)

where j is ; D; or D : For the three F s, the boundary-layer results are

Ftrav =

Fstand

Fgrad

L(

D=

= )

;
1 + L [(1 + )(1 + L) + " ]
p
p
p
L+
L ( D= + D = )
=
;
p
1 + L [(1 + )(1 + L) + " ]
h
p
p
p p
2
L (1
) 1+ L +"
L 1 + ( 2
=
p
1 + L [(1 + )(1 + L) + " ] [(1
p

(10.201)

(10.202)
1) L + "
)(1

p i
L (

L)

D=

= )
:

" ]=
(10.203)

212

In MIXSLAB and MIXCIRC, DeltaEC uses the following expressions:

2
3
2rh 4
G
5;
Ftrav =
Re
1 f~
3
2
2rh 4
G
5;
Fstand =
Im
~
1 f
Fgrad =

(10.204)

(10.205)

2rh

1
j1 f j2 (1
(1
)
f
Im
S

) (1

L)

2
D

"

2
D
2
D

fD +

(1 + ) LQ ~
f +S
M

+ "G ;
(10.206)

where rh is the hydraulic radius and

2

S =

1 fD

2
D

(10.207)

D;

Q =

1 f

2
D

D
2

(10.208)

M = (1 + )(1 + L) + " ;
LQ
f~
f D
G =
f D fD +
MS
S 1 + 2=

(10.209)
2
D

fD
1 + 2=

(10.210)

These expressions appear in Ref. [10] in the context of a circular tube.2 In MIXCIRC the
three f s are given by
2J1 [(i 1)R= j ]
;
(10.211)
fj =
(i 1)(R= j )J0 [(i 1)R= j ]
where R is the circle radius, rh = R=2; and j is ; D; or D : In MIXSLAB, the three f s are
given by
tanh[(1 + i)y0 = j ]
fj =
;
(10.212)
(1 + i)y0 = j
where the plate separation is 2y0 = 2rh and j is ; D; or D :
The head-loss pressure gradient dp2;0;HL =dx is calculated on the basis of laminar ow.
See Eqs. (10.66) and (10.67).
10.9.2. MIXTBL, MIXTSLAB, and MIXTCIRC
General description:
The MIXTBL, MIXTSLAB, and MIXTCIRC segments calculate dp1 =dx; dU1 =dx; dnL =dx; and
dTm =dx for sound propagation in gas mixtures, with or without steady ow, according to
2
There was a typographical error in Eq. (10.206) in the Version 6.0 Users Guide. The same typographical
error appears in Eq. (A12), Ref. [10], for which an erratum was published in J. Acoust. Soc. Am. in 2008.

213

the theory described in Ref. [68], which builds on the theory described in Refs. [43, 66, 10].
MIXTBL performs the calculations in boundary-layer approximation, MIXTSLAB in parallelplate geometry of arbitrary gap 2y0 , and MIXTCIRC in circular pores of arbitrary radius
R.
The solid is assumed to be laterally ideal, so it imposes a perfect isothermal boundary
condition on the oscillating temperature of the gas. This assumption would correspond to
s = 0 in a STK** segment. However, the solids nite thermal conductivity in the x direction
is included in the calculation of dTm =dx in MIXT** segments, in the same way as in STK**
segments.
Input variables, MIXTBL:
Area (m2 ) Cross-sectional area Agas available to the gas, based on inside dimensions.
Perim (m) Perimeter
Length (m) The length

of the inside cross section described above.

x of the segment.

WallA (m2 ) The cross-sectional area Asolid of the wall material.

Solid The material comprising the walls.
Input variables, MIXTSLAB:
Area (m2 ) Total cross-sectional area A including gas and solid.
GasA/A The areal porosity
Length (m) The length

= Agas =A:

x of the segment.

y0 (m) Half the plate spacing is y0 : Thus, 2y0 is the gap available to the gas between the
plates.
Solid The material comprising the walls.
Input variables, MIXTCIRC:
Area (m2 ) Total cross-sectional area A including gas and solid.
GasA/A The areal porosity
Length (m) The length

= Agas =A:

x of the segment.

radius (m) The radius R of the pores.

Solid The material comprising the walls.
Potential targets:
None.
214

Masterslave links:
The length of any of these segments can be slaved to the length of another segment to keep
the sum of the two lengths constant.
(For an introduction to masterslave links, and a complete listing of linking options for
all segments, see Section 2.7.2.)
Format and examples:
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------MIXTCIRC
an array of circular pores
2.2000E-05 a Area
m^2
5637.2
A |p|
Pa
0.9100 b GasA/A
162.98
B Ph(p)
deg
0.1000 c Length
m
1.4540E-03 C |U|
m^3/s
1.0000E-03 d radius
m
-86.581
D Ph(U)
deg
-2.6300E-08 E Htot
W
-1.4313 F Edot
W
0.3463 G nL Beg
0.3452 H nL End
310.00 I TBeg
stainless
Solid type
451.23 J TEnd

Calculations:
In MIXTBL, MIXTSLAB, and MIXTCIRC, the integration variables evolve according to
H_ tot

dTm
=
dx

N_ mwm

m cp jU1 j

2!Ag a s (1

)j1 f

1
Re
2

h
f~ +
Im
j2

dp1
=
dx

dnH
=
dx
N_ H nH N_

( 1)kT
4rh Ru n iv Tm

p1 U~1 1
i
~

(f f )
(1+ )

Agas k

i! m
U1 ;
(1 f )Agas

4rh

jU1 j2

Fg ra d
!Ag a s

(10.213)

Asolid ks

(10.214)

jp1 j jU1 j (Ftrav cos + Fstand sin ) +

m

f f~
(1+ )(1 f~ )

m kT dTm
m Tm dx

Agas D12

jU1 j2 FrT
4rh j1 f j2 !Ag a s

Agas D12
(10.215)

dU1
=
dx

i!Agas

p1
pm

hT1 i mH mL
1 dTm
+
hnH;1 i +
U1
Tm
mavg
Tm dx

215

mH mL dnH
U1 ;
mavg
dx
(10.216)

where
hT1 i
=
Tm
hnH;1 i =

[1

Bf

Cf

(1

1 m L kT
B 1
mavg "

C) fD ]

p1
pm

(1 fD )
1 dTm
U1 ;
i!Agas (1 f ) Tm dx
2

f +C 1

+ (1

C) 1

D
2

1 dnH
m L kT
1
U1 +
i!Agas dx
mavg " i!Agas (1

f )

(10.217)

fD

2
D

2
D

1 dTm
U1 ;
Tm dx

fD

(10.218)

and
ie i
1 f (1
) (1
p
L D
D
C =
p
1+ L ( D

B =

+
rTcrit =
rncrit =

L)

1)

B 1

1
p

"
1

p
ie i
p
1+
1 f
L
1 jp1 j !Agas
Tm ;
pm jU1 j
1 jp1 j !Agas
kT :
pm jU1 j

dTm =dx
dnH =dx
+"
; (10.219)
rTcrit
rncrit

( L

+
D

dTm =dx
;
rTcrit

(10.220)
(10.221)
(10.222)

In
=
p addition to the usual
p denitions of the viscous and thermal penetration depths
2 =! m and
= 2k=! m cp ; two new penetration depths are dened for mixtures:
2
D
2
D

1
=
2
1
=
2

1 + (1 + ") =L +

1 + (1 + ") =L

[1 + (1 + ") =L]2
q
[1 + (1 + ") =L]2

4=L ;

(10.223)

4=L ;

(10.224)

where
"=

kT is the thermal diusion ratio, L = k=

coe cient.
For MIXTBL,

kT2
;
nL (1 nL )
m cp D12 ,

fj = (1

i)

2rh

(10.225)

and D12 is the binary mass-diusion

(10.226)

where j is ; ; D; or D and rh is the hydraulic radius, and the four F s are given by
216

p1
pm

Ftrav =

Fstand

Fgrad

L(

D=

= )

;
1 + L [(1 + )(1 + L) + " ]
p
p
p
L+
L ( D= + D = )
=
;
p
1 + L [(1 + )(1 + L) + " ]
h
p
p
p p
2
L (1
) 1+ L +"
L 1 + ( 2
=
p
1 + L [(1 + )(1 + L) + " ] [(1
p

(10.227)

(10.228)
1) L + "
)(1

p i
L (

L)

D=

= )
;

" ]=
(10.229)

FrT =
p
p
L 1+ L

hp
p
3
p1 +
L + 2L + "
L (1
L
p
1 + L [(1 + )(1 + L) + " ] [(1
)(1
2

1+

" )
L)

i
L(1 + )

" ]=

(10.230)
In MIXTSLAB and MIXTCIRC, DeltaEC uses the following expressions:
2rh

Ftrav =

Fstand =

2rh

Re 4
2

Im 4

G
f~

G
f~

2rh

1
j1 f j2 (1
(1
)
Im
f
S

Fgrad =

5;

(10.231)

5;

(10.232)

) (1
2

L)

2
D

"

2
D
2
D

fD +

(1 + ) LQ ~
f +S
M

+ "G ;
(10.233)

FrT =

2rh

1
j1 f j2 (1
2
f
Im
2
S
+

) (1
2
D
2
D

L)

"

2
D
2
D

fD +

(1 + ) LQ ~
f +S
M

"

G ;

(10.234)
217

where rh is the hydraulic radius and

2

S =

1 fD

2
D

(10.235)

D;

D
2
D

Q =

1 f

D
2

(10.236)

M = (1 + )(1 + L) + " ;
LQ
f~
f D
G =
f D fD +
MS
S 1 + 2=

(10.237)
2
D

fD
1 + 2=

(10.238)

These expressions appear in Refs. [10, 68] in the context of a circular tube.
In MIXTCIRC the four f s are given by
fj =

(i

2J1 [(i 1)R= j ]

;
1)(R= j )J0 [(i 1)R= j ]

(10.239)

where R is the circle radius, rh = R=2; and j is ; D; or D :

In MIXTSLAB, the four f s are given by
fj =

tanh[(1 + i)y0 = j ]
;
(1 + i)y0 = j

(10.240)

where the plate separation is 2y0 = 2rh and j is ; D; or D :

The head-loss pressure gradient dp2;0;HL =dx is calculated on the basis of laminar ow in
MIXT** segments.

218

11. Logistical segments

Details about DeltaECs physically realistic thermoacoustics segments were described in
Chapter 10. Here, we detail the logistical segments, which perform only trivial computations
or no computations but are used to coordinate other segments, impose boundary conditions,
and display non-standard results.
The behavior of some of these segments depends on whether the DeltaEC model using
the segments is pure acoustics or thermoacoustics or includes nonzero N_ or includes separation eects in gas mixtures. The discussion of N_ L and nL only applies when MIX** segments
and gas mixtures are in use. The discussion of N_ and p2;0;HL only applies when nonzero
time-averaged ow is involved. Users who are interested only in acoustics can focus entirely
_ Tm ; N_ ; p2;0;HL ; N_ L ; and nL .
on p1 and U1 here, and can safely ignore all discussion of H;
An alphabetical listing of segments is in the Segment Index at the end of the Users Guide.

11.1. Starting and ending

11.1.1. TITLE
General description:
TITLE has no numerical inputs. It must come at the very beginning of a DeltaEC le, and
its heading and (optional) notes should be descriptive, to remind the user what the le is
about.
Format and examples:
TITLE

July 2006 engine with Petes modifications.

11.1.2. BEGIN
General description:
After the TITLE segment, BEGIN is counted as the zeroth segment of the le. It is used
to initialize global variables that are shared among subsequent segments (e.g., frequency
and mean pressure) and the integration variables required by each pass of DeltaEC to get
started (e.g., real and imaginary parts of p1 and U1 ).
BEGIN segments can be used anywhere in a DeltaEC le, in order to set any or all of
DeltaECs integration variables or global variables to new values. This can be useful for
packing two or more related DeltaEC models into a single le or for changing from one gas
to another in the middle of a model. (Do not use such a BEGIN within a teebranch; instead,
219

use RPN change assignments to set or reset variables in a teebranch.) When more than
one BEGIN is used in a model, each BEGIN starts a new leg. (Legs are described in Section
11.2.1.)
Starting with DeltaEC version 6.0, BEGIN causes subsequent DUCTs, CONEs, SURFACEs,
and IMPEDANCEs to set H_ tot;out = H_ tot;in ; so the user should imagine such segments to be
thermally insulated. ANCHOR, described in Section 11.3.1, can be used to override this deafault, and the user should imagine segments downstream of ANCHOR to be attached to a heat
sink at the local temperature Tm : (ANCHOR is useful for very low power systems and simple
systems where total energy ow is irrelevant, and of course for systems with DUCTs and other
components that actually are well-attached to a heat sink.)
Input variables:
Mean P (Pa) The mean pressure of the gas, pm :
Freq (Hz) The frequency f of the sinusoidal oscillations in subsequent segments. Most
equations in the Users Guide use ! = 2 f:
TBeg (K) The initial temperature Tm of the gas.
jpj (Pa) The initial value of jp1 j :
Ph(p) (deg) The initial phase of p1 :
jUj (m3 /s) The initial value of jU1 j :
Ph(U) (deg) The initial phase of U1 :
Gas The gas type, e.g., helium or air.
Default Htot / Other Htot (W) With this choice, the user can let DeltaEC assign the
default value to the total energy ow H_ tot or can assign a numerical value or let it be
a guess.
Enable Ndot / Disable Ndot This check box controls some calculations and results in
many subsequent segments.
Ndot (mol/s) If Enable Ndotis checked, the user can specify the steady molar ow rate
N_ :
nL If the gas type is a gas mixture, this parameter initializes the light-component mole
fraction nL :
Bulk NLdot / Other NLdot (mol/s) If the gas type is a gas mixture, this check box
controls whether DeltaEC assigns the default, bulk value to the light components
steady molar ow rate N_ L or lets the user assign a dierent value.
220

Potential targets; Masterslave links:

None.
Format and examples:
BEGIN This example is the minimal format, as saved in an out file.
1.0e6 Pa
a Mean P
500. Hz
b Freq
300. K
c TBeg
3.0e4 Pa
d |p|
0.00 deg
e Ph(p)
0.00 m3/s
f |U|
0.00 deg
g Ph(U)
helium
Gas type

BEGIN This example is the most complicated possible format, as saved in an out file.
1.0e6 Pa
a Mean P
500. Hz
b Freq
300. K
c TBeg
3.0e4 Pa
d |p|
0.00 deg
e Ph(p)
0.00 m3/s
f |U|
0.00 deg
g Ph(U)
2000.
h Htot
1.00E-8
i Ndot
0.800
j nL
1.00E-9
k NLdot
HeAr
Gas type
TITLE
Argon cover on top of sodium-potassium column, illustrating two BEGINs in one model
!->2beg.out
!Created@10:20:31 29-Mar-07 with DeltaE Vers. 6.0g7 for the IBM/PC-Compatible
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
Initialize in the argon
1.0000E+05 a Mean P
Pa
3.9676E-05 A |U|
G( 0f)
P
100.00
b Freq
Hz
87.799
B Ph(U) G( 0g)
P
400.00
c TBeg
K
1000.0
d |p|
Pa
0.0000 e Ph(p)
deg
3.9676E-05 f |U|
m^3/s
G
87.799
g Ph(U)
deg
G
0.0000 h Htot
W
0.0000 j nL
HeAr
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------DUCT
the argon on top
1.0000E-04 a Area
m^2
S= -2
1015.7
A |p|
Pa
3.5449E-02 b Perim
m
Fn( 1a) -7.9065E-02 B Ph(p)
deg
0.1000 c Length
m
1.9924E-08 C |U|
m^3/s
89.527
D Ph(U)
deg
0.0000 E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
6.9504E-08 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------BEGIN
transition from argon to Na-K
sameas
0a a Mean P
Pa
sameas
0b b Freq
Hz
sameas
0c c TBeg
K
sameas
1A d |p|
Pa
sameas
1B e Ph(p)
deg
sameas
1C f |U|
m^3/s
sameas
1D g Ph(U)
deg
sameas
1E h Htot
W
NaK-78
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 3 --------------------------------DUCT
The sodium-potassium column
sameas
1a a Area
m^2
1069.7
A |p|
Pa
sameas
1b b Perim
m
-0.1210 B Ph(p)
deg
1.0000 c Length
m
3.7365E-13 C |U|
m^3/s
-0.1156 D Ph(U)
deg
0.0000 E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
1.9984E-10 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 4 --------------------------------SURFACE
Bottom end
sameas
1a a Area
m^2
1069.7
A |p|
Pa
-0.1210 B Ph(p)
deg
3.5753E-17 C |U|
m^3/s
83.367
D Ph(U)
deg
0.0000 E Htot
W

221

ideal
Solid type
2.1686E-15 F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 5 --------------------------------HARDEND
terminate in the liquid metal
0.0000 a R(1/z)
= 5G?
1069.7
A |p|
Pa
0.0000 b I(1/z)
= 5H?
-0.1210 B Ph(p)
deg
3.5753E-17 C |U|
m^3/s
83.367
D Ph(U)
deg
0.0000 E Htot
W
2.1686E-15 F Edot
W
6.3787E-11 G R(1/z)
5.5883E-10 H I(1/z)

Calculations:
BEGIN establishes initial values of pm ; f; Tm , p1 , U1 , H_ 2;k , N_ ; and (if applicable) nL and
N_ L : It establishes the gas type. Unless subsequently overridden by an ANCHOR segment, it
establishes insulate mode, eectively putting thermal insulation around all subsequent
segments except heat exchangers.
If Htot is omitted from the <.out> le, or if the Default Htot box is checked in the
user interface, BEGIN sets an initial value of
H_ tot = E_ + N_ mwm ;

(11.1)

_ Otherwise, Htot is an ordinary input parameter, which can be

which implies that H_ 2;k = E:
set by the user or guessed.
If the Disable Ndot box is checked or the Ndot input parameter is missing from the
<.out> le, DeltaEC assigns N_ = 0, skips all subsequent p2;0;HL calculations, and ignores
any possible eect of nonzero N_ 2;0 on dp1 =dx. If the Enable Ndotbox is checked, p2;0;HL is
initialized to zero and its dependence on x is calculated in all subsequent segments. This also
allows input parameter N_ to appear in BEGIN, and allows other input and output parameters
that are relevant to steady ow to appear in subsequent segments. When this box is checked,
nonnegligible dp2;0;HL =dx and nonlinear eects on dp1 =dx can occur in subsequent segments
even if N_ ' 0; because of the dierence between N_ and N_ 2;0 described in Eq. (8.16).
If the gas type is a binary mixture, the initial mole fraction of the light component, nL ;
appears as an input parameter, which can only change in MIX** segments downstream.
Other, less-commonly-used variables are invisibly initialized in BEGIN:
vol = 0, described in Section 11.4.1.
F1 = 0, described in Section 11.4.1.
Tzero = 300 Kelvin, described above Eq. (6.3) in the context of H_ and below Eq. (8.9)
_
in the context of X.
_
nLzero = 0:5, described below Eq. (8.9) in the context of X.
N_ L = nL N_ ; if the gas is a binary gas mixture and the Bulk NLdotbox is checked.
Tsolid = Tm :
11.1.3. HARDEND and SOFTEND
General description:
Often, the nal segment (except possibly RPN segments) will be either HARDEND or SOFTEND.
These contain three or four potential targets.
222

HARDEND targets are appropriate when the user wants the complex volume ow rate
somewhere to be zero. This is the usual case at the end of a closed thermoacoustic system.
SOFTEND targets are appropriate when the user wants the complex pressure amplitude
somewhere to be zero. This is often useful for symmetrical systems, where SOFTEND indicates
that the remainder of the apparatus is a mirror image of what is in the <.out> le and forces
a complex-pressure node. Also use the SOFTEND segment, but without using its targets, to
signal the end of a TBRANCHed sequence of segments that will be reattached elsewhere at a
UNION. The third default target in these segments, H_ tot , can be targeted to zero to represent
thermal insulation at a HARDEND or the energy aspect of a mirror-image symmetry location
in SOFTEND.
In both **ENDs, the complex specic impedances are made dimensionless by dividing by
a
m evaluated at the local temperature.
Disabling the targets in **ENDs is often useful in debugging a new model that doesnt
readily converge. Set these targets nonzero to model a known, nonzero end impedance or
use BRANCH (followed by a zero-targeted HARDEND) to work with Z instead of z= a:
Input variables:
None.
Potential targets, HARDEND:
R(1/z) If targeted, this number is compared with DeltaECs calculation of the real part
of the inverse of the normalized specic impedance, Re[1=zn ], at the HARDEND.
I(1/z) If targeted, this number is compared with DeltaECs calculation of the imaginary
part of the inverse of the normalized specic impedance, Im[1=zn ], at the HARDEND.
Htot (W) Total energy ow H_ tot . This potential target appears in insulated mode. If
targeted, this number is compared with DeltaECs calculation of H_ tot at the HARDEND.
Ndot (mol/s) Steady molar ow rate N_ . This potential target appears when Enable
Ndot is checked in an upstream BEGIN. If targeted, this number is compared with
DeltaECs calculation of N_ at the HARDEND.
Potential targets, SOFTEND:
R(z) If targeted, this number is compared with DeltaECs calculation of the real part of
the normalized specic impedance, Re[zn ], at the SOFTEND.
I(z) If targeted, this number is compared with DeltaECs calculation of the imaginary
part of the normalized specic impedance, Im[zn ], at the SOFTEND.
Htot (W) Total energy ow H_ tot . This potential target appears in insulated mode. If
targeted, this number is compared with DeltaECs calculation of H_ tot at the SOFTEND.
223

Masterslave links:
None.
Format and examples:
HARDEND
0.000
0.000
0.000

looks like this if steady-flow calculations are turned off

R(1/z)
I(1/z)
Htot

SOFTEND
0.000 R(z)
0.000 I(z)

Calculations:
The normalized impedance in HARDEND and SOFTEND is calculated according to
zn =

Ap1
;
m aU1

with A from the most recent segment having an area (or A = 10

exists), and with m and a evaluated at the local Tm .

(11.2)
6

m2 if no such segment

11.2. Structured branches and unions

Figure 11.1 shows how TBRANCH and UNION can be used to model complicated branched and
multiply connected thermoacoustic equipment.
11.2.1. TBRANCH
General description:
Use TBRANCH for branched systems that are too complicated for BRANCH or OPNBRANCH.
When it encounters a TBRANCH, DeltaEC treats subsequent segments as the sequential
members of a side branch (which we call a teebranchin the Users Guide), until it reaches
a HARDEND or SOFTEND. Then it returns to the trunk,treating the rest of the segments as
trunk members. The HARDEND termination of a teebranch is appropriate for a closed-end leg.
The SOFTEND termination of a teebranch is appropriate for reconnection to the trunk at a
UNION.
To manage the plotter display of results from models with one or more TBRANCHes, the
<.sp> les initial column, leg number, is incremented each time a TBRANCH or BEGIN is
encountered, and decremented when a SOFTEND or HARDEND is encountered. The user can
display plots of one or more selected legs, suppressing results from uninteresting legs.
The complex impedance in the TBRANCH segment tells DeltaEC how to split up the
volume ow rate between the teebranch and the trunk. Usually this complex impedance is
used as two guesses to hit two downstream targets, often either complex 1=zn in a HARDEND
at the end of a dead-ended teebranch or complex p1 at a subsequent UNION for a multiply
224

Figure 11.1: (a) Example of an 18-segment DeltaEC model of a linear array of thermoacoustic
components. (b) Example of a model of a multiply branched apparatus. (c) Example of a model
of a multiply connected apparatus. Line a of UNION 17 must point to SOFTEND 13, line a of UNION
31 must point to SOFTEND 20, and line a of UNION 32 must point to SOFTEND 26.

connected teebranch. Unless ANCHOR appears upstream, HtotBr tells DeltaEC how to split
up the total power H_ tot between the branch and the trunk. This is often used as a guess
to hit a downstream temperature target, such as at a UNION. The parameter NdotBr tells
DeltaEC how to split any nonzero time-averaged molar ow N_ between the branch and the
trunk. Similarly, NLdotB species the portion of the time-averaged mole ux of the lighter
component of a mixture, N_ L ; that goes into the branch.
For duct networks in which temperature is constant and p1 and U1 are the only integration
variables of interest, use ANCHOR after the BEGIN segment, so that TBRANCH will not worry
about how to split H_ tot and UNION will not think of temperature as a potential default target.
Nested teebranches are allowed, as shown in Figs. 11.1(b) and (c). However, never use a
BEGIN segment within a teebranch to re-initialize variables.
The incoming values of the RPN variables F1 and vol are retained for the trunk, and
these variables are initialized to zero for the teebranch.
Input variables:
Re(Zb) (Pa s/m3 ) The real part of the branch impedance Zbr :
Im(Zb) (Pa s/m3 ) The imaginary part of the branch impedance Zbr :
HtotBr (W) This optional input variable, H_ br ; can be used in insulated mode. It species
225

how much total power ows into the teebranch. The default value is simply equal to
E_ br :
NdotBr (mol/s) This input variable, N_ br ; appears when Enable Ndot is checked in an
upstream BEGIN. It species how much steady ow goes into the teebranch.
NLdotB (mol/s) This input variable, N_ L;br ; appears when Enable Ndotis checked in an
upstream BEGIN and when a gas mixture and MIX** segments are in use. It species
how much steady ow of the light component of the mixture goes into the teebranch.
The default value represents bulk ow into the branch, N_ L;br = nL N_ br .
Potential targets:
None.
Masterslave links:
The imaginary part of the branching impedance can be linked to the real part in two possible
ways: to preserve either the magnitude or the phase while the real part is changed.
(For an introduction to masterslave links, and a complete listing of these link options
for all segments, see Section 2.7.2.)
Format and examples:
TBRANCH
the fork in the road, in the default "insulated" mode
4.412E+07 a Re(Zb) Pa-s/m^3 G
-3.528E+06 b Im(Zb) Pa-s/m^3 G
0.49
c HtotBr
G
TBRANCH
the fork in the road, if "ANCHOR" segment appears somewhere upstream
4.412E+07 a Re(Zb) Pa-s/m^3 G
-3.528E+06 b Im(Zb) Pa-s/m^3 G

Calculations:
The TBRANCH segment leaves Tm ; p1 ; and p20HL unchanged. Other variables change according
to
U1;br =
U1;trunk =
H_ br =
H_ trunk =
N_ br =
N_ trunk =
N_ L;br =
N_ L;trunk =

p1 =Zbr ;
U1;in U1;br ;
H_ br ;
H_ in H_ br ;
N_ br ;
N_ in N_ br ;
N_ L;br ;
N_ L;in N_ L;br ;
226

(11.3)
(11.4)
(11.5)
(11.6)
(11.7)
(11.8)
(11.9)
(11.10)

F1;br =
F1;trunk =
volbr =
voltrunk =

0;
F1;in ;
0;
volin :

(11.11)
(11.12)
(11.13)
(11.14)

TBRANCH has an extra output, EdotTr, to display the acoustic power owing past the branch
in the trunk.
11.2.2. UNION
General description:
A UNION is used in concert with a TBRANCH and a SOFTEND somewhere upstream, to create
loops of segments as illustrated in Fig. 11.1(c). In this arrangement, when it encounters
a TBRANCH, DeltaEC treats subsequent segments as the sequential members of a branch
until it reaches a SOFTEND; then it returns to the trunk,treating the rest of the segments
as trunk members. Subsequently, a UNION segment in the trunk tells DeltaEC where to
connect the teebranchs SOFTEND back to the trunk.
When reconnected with a UNION, the teebranchs SOFTEND impedance targets should not
be used; instead, enable the UNIONs targets to ensure that p1 (complex) at the UNION is equal
to p1 (complex) at the SOFTEND of the teebranch. Often, guessing the teebranch impedance
determines how the (complex) volume ow rate splits up at the TBRANCH and allows the
complex p1 target to be met.
In all but the simplest acoustic duct network, additional potential targets can be used at
a UNION to properly tie the teebranchs SOFTEND to the trunk at the UNION with continuity
of relevant variables. These include Tm ; p2;0;HL ; and nL :
UNION targets are unusual, because their target values are dynamically rewritten by
DeltaEC during each iteration, so they always reect the current result at the referenced
SOFTEND. (When the user enables a UNIONs target, the target input parameters, e.g., magnitude and phase of pressure, can be initialized to any values, because DeltaEC will overwrite
them during each integration pass with the current magnitude and phase of pressure at the
referenced SOFTEND via automatic sameas links from the UNION to the SOFTEND.)
Oscillating volume ow rates are added at the UNION, as are time-averaged energy ows
and mole uxes. The RPN variables F1 and vol are also added.
When TBRANCH and UNION are used for duct networks, where temperature is constant
and hence p1 and U1 are the only variables of interest, an ANCHOR segment upstream of
the TBRANCH will eliminate confusion that might arise from the display of uninteresting,
irrelevant variables.
Input variables:
SegNum The segment number of a SOFTEND, upstream of the UNION, which terminates a
teebranch and which should be connected to the trunk here. See Fig. 11.1(c).
227

Potential targets:
jpjSft (Pa) If used as a target, DeltaECs shooting method compares its calculation of
jp1 j here in the trunk with its calculation of jp1 j at the SOFTEND identied by SegNum.
DeltaEC updates the value of this variable continuously.
Ph(p)S (deg) If used as a target, DeltaECs shooting method compares its calculation of
the phase of p1 here in the trunk with its calculation of the phase of p1 at the SOFTEND
identied by SegNum. DeltaEC updates the value of this variable continuously.
TSoft (K) This potential target appears in insulated mode. If used as a target, DeltaECs
shooting method compares its calculation of Tm here in the trunk with its calculation of
Tm at the SOFTEND identied by SegNum. DeltaEC updates the value of this variable
continuously.
p20HLS (Pa) This potential target appears when Enable Ndotis checked in an upstream
BEGIN. If used as a target, DeltaECs shooting method compares its calculation of
p2;0;HL here in the trunk with its calculation of p2;0;HL at the SOFTEND identied by
SegNum. DeltaEC updates the value of this variable continuously.
nLSoft This potential target appears when a gas mixture is in use and any MIX** segment
appears in the model. If used as a target, DeltaECs shooting method compares its
calculation of nL here in the trunk with its calculation of nL at the SOFTEND identied
by SegNum. DeltaEC updates the value of this variable continuously.

Masterslave links:
None.

Format and examples:

!--------------------------------- 13 --------------------------------UNION
reconnect the "final" end of the loop, segment 8, here
8.000
a SegNum
2.5420E+05 A |p|
Pa
2.5420E+05 b |p|Sft
Pa
= 13A?
1.9444 B Ph(p)
deg
1.9444 c Ph(p)S
deg
= 13B?
3.0515E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
781.66
d TSoft
K
(t)
-44.624
D Ph(U)
deg
1603.6
e p20HLS
Pa
= 13H?
2674.7
E Htot
W
2666.4
F Edot
W
702.66
G T
K
1603.6
H p20HL
Pa
UNION
connect two
4.000
a segment
3.e4
b |p|Sft
1.234
c ph(p)S

paths together, matching complex pressure without worrying about any other variables
number of SOFTEND of the TBRANCH somewhere upstream
Pa
deg

228

Calculations:
Calculations at UNION are simple arithmetic:
Tm;out
p1;out
U1;out
H_ tot;out
N_ out
N_ L;out
F1;out
volout

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

Tm;in ;
p1;in ;
U1;in + U1;end ;
H_ tot,in + H_ tot,end ;
N_ in + N_ end ;
N_ L;in + N_ L;end ;
F1;in + F1;end ;
volin + volend ;

(11.15)
(11.16)
(11.17)
(11.18)
(11.19)
(11.20)
(11.21)
(11.22)

where the subscript in refers to the segment immediately preceding the UNION and the
subscript endrefers to the SOFTEND that is identied by SegNum in the rst input parameter
of the UNION, i.e., the SOFTEND that terminates the teebranch that is being joined to the
trunk at the UNION. Note that Eq. (11.18) implies H_ 2;k;out = H_ 2;k;in + H_ 2;k;end only if Tm is
successfully targeted.
_
In thermally anchored mode, Eq. (11.18) is replaced by H_ tot;out = E:

11.3. Insulation
11.3.1. ANCHOR and INSULATE
General description:
By default, DeltaEC assumes that the only places total power can ow into or out of a
model are
heat exchangers, where heat can be added to the total power (or, if heat is negative,
subtracted from the total power),
electroacoustic transducers, where electrical power can be added to or subtracted from
the total power,
BRANCH, OPNBRANCH, and PISTBRANCH,
BEGIN, unless H_ tot is explicitly set equal to zero (or is set equal to E_ + mwm N_ which in
turn happens to equal zero),
SOFTEND and HARDEND, unless H_ tot is targeted to zero.
Other segments stacks and regenerators, ducts and cones, and compliances, surfaces, and
impedances are assumed to have insulation wrapped around their side-wall boundaries by
default, so whatever total power H_ tot ows into them from the previous segment must ow
out of them to the subsequent segment.
229

However, sometimes it is useful to change the behavior of ducts, cones, compliances,

surfaces, and impedances so that the total power owing out of them is equal to the acoustic
power out of them. In a series of such segments, acoustic power dissipation in each segment
disappearsfrom the model, as it might if the segment were thermally anchored to a heat
sink at the same temperature as the local gas temperature Tm : This behavior can be started
by an ANCHOR segment before the segments that are supposed to be thermally anchored.
Thereafter, such segments obey H_ 2;k;out = E_ out . The complementary INSULATE segment, or
a BEGIN segment, can be used to return the computation to the default, thermally insulated
mode in which H_ 2;k;out = H_ 2;k;in . ANCHOR is most useful for very low power systems and
simple systems where total energy ow is irrelevant, and of course for components that
actually are immersed in a heat sink.
Stacks and regenerators remain insulated when ANCHOR is in eect.
Some users who are interested only in acoustics, not thermoacoustics, habitually put
ANCHOR immediately after BEGIN, to reduce irrelevant clutter.
Use the default, insulated mode for ducts, compliances, or impedances that come between stacks and heat exchangers, and for modeling insulated acoustic networks attached to
thermoacoustic devices.
Format and examples:
ANCHOR
INSULATE

this segment has no inputs or outputs

this segment also has no inputs or outputs

11.4. Math segments

Use this class of segments to access or display variables that DeltaEC would not otherwise
display, to perform simple arithmetic operations, and to create targets other than DeltaEC
default targets. See Chapter 4 for many examples.
11.4.1. RPN
General description:
Results of the RPN segment are computed by interpreting the formula (line b) in Reverse
Polish Notation, as described in [16, 17] and especially in all of Chapter 4. The formula
is a sequence of numbers, addresses, internal DeltaEC variables, and algebraic operators.
Variables such as Htot can be typed as lower case; DeltaEC will automatically convert to
its preferred case. The formula in an RPN must not be longer than 80 characters. (Note that
DeltaEC stores the line so that each segment number occupies 3 characters. The practical
typed length is therefore a little shorter than 80 characters.) As with RPN calculators, when
operators do not consume all numbers on the stack,more than one output is generated a
feature that can be exploited to display multiple results. The stack, whose members may be
complex numbers, grows downward, from AJ. Valid operators and inputs are summarized
in Tables 11.111.6.
230

Table 11.1: List of RPN number-entry methods. Each number is piled on top of the stack.

Item
<Constant>
pi
i
<Input address>
<Output address>
<lename:addr>
<%:addr>
inp
rcl
#
lstx

Description
Real or complex number
3.14159265
p
1
Segment number and l.c. letter
Segment number and cap letter
Filename:segment number and letter
(linking two or more les together)
% = shortcut for previous lename
Parameter aof this RPN segment
Recall from Storage Register
Put a copy of the stacks top number
on top of the stack.
Recall what was on top of the stack
before the most recent math operation,
and put it on top of the stack.

Comment or example
8.3; 6.02e23; (-0.01, 1.3)
complex
3c
3F
bottle:3F
bottle:3A %:3a * %:3C /
see also sto

Format and examples of RPN:

!---------------------6-------------------------RPN
magU1 over 2 pi freq Area (meters)
! gas displacement amplitude after duct in segment five
0.00
0.0153
A ChngeMe
5C 2 / pi / 0b / 5a /
! -----------------23 --------------------RPN efficiency divided by Carnots efficiency
! electrical power out of alternator is 19G
! heat into engine is 6e
! hot temperature is 6f
! ambient temperature is 8f
1.00
0.2438
19G 6e / 1 8f 6f / - /
! ----------- 21 ----------------RPN
B=diam. A= Reynolds number amplitude here
! 20a is the area in segment 20
0.0000
2838.5
0.123
20a 4 * pi / sqrt # U1 mag * rho * 20a / mu /
! --------- 128 -----------------RPN some gas properties here
0.0000 a G or T

1.6667
519.22
0.6625

A ChngeMe

A NR1
B D(m)

A gamma
B rho c
C Prandtl

mu cp * k / ; rho a * ; gamma

Potential targets in RPN:

Input line a is the potential target to which output line A can be compared. If line a is used
as a target, A should be real.
231

Table 11.2: RPN variable-entry methods. Each number is piled on top of the stack.

Item Description
Thermophysical properties
a
a; sound speed
beta
; expansion coe cent
cp
cp ; heat capacity
cs
cs ; solid heat capacity
dk
; thermal penetration depth
dn
; viscous penetration depth
ds
;
s solid thermal penetration depth
D12
D12 ; binary mass diusion coe cient
enth
wm ; enthalpy per unit mass
gamma
= cp =cv
ks
ks ; solid thermal conductivity
kT
kT ; thermal diusion ratio
k
k; thermal conductivity
m
mavg ; molar mass (avg. mass of mixture)
mu
; viscosity
mL
mL ; molar mass of light comp. of mixture
mH
mH ; molar mass of heavy comp. of mixture
nLzero nL;0 ; reference mole fraction for X_
rho
m ; density
rhos
s ; solid density
Tzero T0 ; reference temperature for wm and X_
State variables
_ acoustic power ow
E;
Edot
f
f ; frequency
F1
F1 ; cumulative force phasor
H2k
H_ 2;k ; thermoacoustic plus conduction power ow
Htot
H_ tot ; total power ow, incl. steady ow
Ndot
N_ ; time-averaged molar ow
nL
molar fraction of light gas in mixture
NLdot N_ L ; time-avg. molar ow, light comp. of mixt.
pm
pm ; mean pressure
p1
p1 ; oscillatory pressure
p20HL p2;0;HL ; time-averaged head-loss pressure
p20tot p2;0;tot ; time-averaged pressure [Eq. (8.11)]
Tm
Tm ; mean temperature
U1
U1 ; oscillatory volume ow rate
vol
cumulative gas volume
w
!; radian frequency
x
integration coordinate
_ exergy ow
Xdot
X;
232

Comment or units
m/s
1/K
J/kg K
J/kg K
m
m
m
m2 /s, for gas mixtures
J/kg
W/m K
for gas mixtures
W/m K
kg/mol
kg/m s
kg/mol
kg/mol
kg/m3
kg/m3
K
W
Hz
N; complex; see text
W
W
mol/s
mol/s
Pa
Pa; complex
Pa
Pa
K
m3 =s; complex
m3 ; see text
rad/s
m
W

Table 11.3: List of RPN unary functions. Each function removes a number from the top of the stack,
acts on it, and puts the result on top of the stack. These functions accept and return complex
numbers, unless otherwise noted. Whether phase angles are treated as radians or degrees is noted.

Item
Algebra
sqrt
sqrd

Description
p
x= x
x=x x
x= x
x = jxj
x = 1=x
x =real(x)
x =imag(x)
x = jxj
x = x~

abs
inv
real
imag
mag
conj
arg
argr
Trigonometry in degrees
sin; asin x = sin(x);x = sin 1 (x)
cos; acos x = cos(x);x = cos 1 (x)
tan; atan x = tan(x);x = tan 1 (x)
Trigonometry in radians
sinr
x = sin(x)
asinr
x = sin 1 (x)
cosr
x = cos(x)
acosr
x = cos 1 (x)
tanr
x = tan(x)
atanr
x = tan 1 (x)
Hyperbolic functions
sinh
x = sinh(x)
cosh
x = cosh(x)
tanh
x = tanh(x)
Bessel functions
J0
x = J0 (x)
J1
x = J1 (x)
Y0
x = Y0 (x)
Y1
x = Y1 (x)
Logarithms and exponentials
log
x = loge (x)
exp
x = ex
log10
x = log10 (x)
tenx
x = 10x

Comment or explanation

change sign
absolute value

magnitude of complex x
complex conjugate of x
phase of complex x (degrees)
phase of complex x (radians)
real argument only
real argument only
real argument only

real argument only

real argument only
real argument only

Bessel function of zero order

Bessel function of rst order
Neumann function of zero order
Neumann function of rst order

real argument only

233

Table 11.4: Ordinary RPN binary operations and functions. Each operation or function removes
two numbers from the top of the stack, combines them, and puts the result on top of the stack. In
this table, xrefers to the number on top of the stack, and yrefers to the number second from
the top of the stack.

Item
+
*
/
^
min; max
cmplx
cmplxr
atan2
atan2r

Description
Comment or example
x=y+x
x=y x
x=y x
x = y=x
x = yx
x = min[x; y]; x = max[x; y]
real arguments only
x = x(cos y + i sin y)
y in degrees
x = x(cos y + i sin y)
y in radians
x = tan 1 (x=y);
2-argument, 4-quadrant arctangent degrees
x = tan 1 (x=y);
2-argument, 4-quadrant arctangent radians

Table 11.5: RPN actions that have no eect on the RPN stack, but have an eect elsewhere.

Item
sto
=f
=F1
=H2k
=Ndot
=nL
=NLdot
=NLzro
=pm
=p1
=p20HL
=Tm
=Tzero
=U1
=vol

Description Comment
S=x
Store the number thats on top of the stack
in the Storage Register. (See also rcl)
f =x
Set f equal to the number thats on top of the stack.
F1 = x
Set the accumulated-force phasor equal to
the number thats on top of the stack.
H_ 2;k = x
Set H_ 2;k equal to the number thats on top of the stack.
N_ = x
Set N_ equal to the number thats on top of the stack.
nL = x
Set nL equal to the number thats on top of the stack.
_
NL = x
Set N_ L equal to the number thats on top of the stack.
nL;0 = x
Set nL;0 equal to the number thats on top of the stack.
pm = x
Set pm equal to the number thats on top of the stack.
p1 = x
Set p1 phasor equal to the number thats on top of the stack.
p2;0;HL = x
Set p2;0;HL equal to the number thats on top of the stack.
Tm = x
Set Tm equal to the number thats on top of the stack.
T0 = x
Set T0 equal to the number thats on top of the stack.
U1 = x
Set U1 phasor equal to the number thats on top of the stack.
vol = x
Set the accumulated volume equal to
the number thats on top of stack.

234

Table 11.6: RPN actions that aect the top two numbers on the RPN stack.

Item Description Comment or example

a<>b x = y; y = x Interchange top two numbers on the stack.
Table 11.7: RPN tokens that have no eect.

Item Description Comment or example

;
No eect
Punctuation mark for human readability.
Details of F1 calculation in RPN:
Using the F1 variable in RPN segments, DeltaEC can calculate the net oscillating force
exerted by the oscillating gas (and oscillating parts of speakers) on the surrounding pressure
vessel, which is assumed to be rigid. As far as we know, the approach is not published
anywhere, so the theory behind it is derived in Chapter 14. Here, we describe the implementation in DeltaEC, and we give two examples of its use.
DeltaEC always keeps track of the integral on the right-hand side of
Z
Z
F1 = i! ( m u1 ) dV = i!
(11.23)
m (x)U1 (x) dx
during the course of its other integrations. The derivation in Chapter 14 shows that this
integral gives the total force amplitude exerted by the gas on the pressure vessel. The result
is accessible to the user at any location by putting F1in line b of an RPN segment, which
displays the complex number F1 and makes it available for further RPN calculations. (As
usual, lower-case typing is accepted.)
DeltaEC initializes F1 to zero at BEGIN and at the beginning of the teebranch of every
TBRANCH. The trunks F1 and the referenced-SOFTENDs F1 are added in UNION. Any other
segment adds its own F1 contribution [according to Eq. (11.23)] to whatever total F1 has
accumulated before it.
These defaults can be overridden via RPN segments that include the change command
=F1. The defaults must often be overridden for thermoacoustic systems with elbows or side
branches sticking out at dierent angles, to resolve the components of the force-amplitude
vector in dierent directions and to take care of minus signs in toroidal acoustic paths.
For a 90 miter elbow, split the elbow into two segments. Displaying and then rezeroing
the force variable between those segments (with F1 and =F1, respectively) is a useful
approach. For a smoothly radiused 90 elbow, strictly speaking we ought to do an integral
of a vector velocity around the corner to obtain a vector force. This is beyond DeltaECs
current capability. However to the extent that U1 does not vary from one end of such
an elbow to the other, that integral yields simply 2= times DeltaECs full-elbow DUCT
integral for the vertical direction and 2= times DeltaECs full-elbow DUCT integral for the
horizontal direction. The user who requires F1 in such an elbow can use RPN calculations
to implement the factor of 2= ; as shown in the second example below.
235

R
For IESPEAKER and VESPEAKER segments, DeltaEC evaluates
m U1 dx in Eq. (11.23)
as simply the speakers moving mass times its velocity phasor.
Example 1
To nd the oscillating velocity of a freely suspended, 14-kg pressure vessel enclosing a
half-wavelength resonance driven by a noncompliant transducer at the far end, use this series
of segments.
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN no transducer at this end
2.000E+06 a Mean P Pa
173.53
b Freq
Hz
300.00
c TBeg
K
1.0000E+05 d |p|
Pa
0.0000
e Ph(p) deg
0.0000
f |U|
m/s
0.0000
g Ph(U) deg
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------SURFACE first end
sameas 2a a Area
m^2
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------DUCT
1.0000E-02 a Area
m^2
0.3545
b Perim m
1.0000
c Length m
!--------------------------------- 3 --------------------------------SURFACE noncompliant transducer at this end
sameas 2a a Area
m^2
!--------------------------------- 4 --------------------------------HARDEND
0.0000
a R(1/z) (t)
0.0000
b I(1/z) = 4H?
!--------------------------------- 5 --------------------------------RPN (a)=mass of pressure vessel (kg). [A]= velocity phasor of pressure vessel (m/s).
14.000
a G or T (t)
(-8.8680E-05, 0.1309 ) A
F1 5a / i / w /
!--------------------------------- 6 --------------------------------RPN viscous drag force phasor (newtons)
0.0000
a G or T (t)
( 1.3536 , -1.3536 ) A
F1 p1 3a * 0d 1a * - guessz 0b
targs 4b

We arbitrarily dened zero phase to be that of the pressure at segments 0 and 1. Segment
5 shows that the phase of the velocity is almost 90 , which is consistent with the phases of
the pressure on the two ends of the half-wavelength resonator at segments 1 and 3. Segment
6 subtracts the normal end-cap forces from the total force to display whats left over, which
must be the integrated viscous shear force on the side walls.
Example 2
To nd oscillating forces and torques on the half-wavelength refrigerator shown in Fig. 11.2,
we use a DeltaEC model like this:
TITLE symmetric speaker-driven refrigerator, example2.out
BEGIN in the motor enclosure. Guess temperature and complex p1.
INSULATE
SURFACE top lid
DUCT backside of piston = motor enclosure
SURFACE extra surface area for motor parts
IESPEAKER motor-driven piston. Guess phase of current.
RPN annular surface area around piston
SURFACE annular surface area around piston
DUCT short duct
HX ambient heat exchanger. Guess heat rejected and target temperature.
STKSLAB the stack
HX cold heat exchanger
CONE adapter to small-diam resonator
RPN capture F1 here, and reset it to zero
0.0000 a G or T (t)
0.0000 A ChngeMe
( 9.2386 , -113.62 ) B ChngeMe
F1 0 =F1
14 DUCT 90 degree elbow
15 RPN vertical and horizontal forces on elbow; then set F1=0
0.0000 a G or T (t)
0.0000 A ChngeMe
( 3.0179E-03, -3.6644 ) B ChngeMe
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13

236

Figure 11.2: Example 2. Left, a sketch of a half-wavelength, two-speaker, standing-wave refrigerator. Right, force diagram, in which the directions of the arrows indicate the positive direction
of calculated forces. In both parts of the gure, c.g. indicates the center of gravity.

16
17
18
19
20

( 3.0179E-03, -3.6644 ) C ChngeMe

F1 2 * pi / # 0 =F1
DUCT horizontal run of pipe, to mirror-image location
SOFTEND mirror-image plane. Target zero complex impedance and zero Hdot.
RPN for aesthetics, enforce phase(U1)=0 here. Target this.
0.0000 a G or T = 18A?
-2.5791E-14 A ChngeMe
U1 arg
RPN force due to horizontal segment
0.0000 a G or T (t)
( 6.9004E-04, -6.0857 ) A ChngeMe
F1
RPN [A]=net vertical force; [B]=net horizontal force (newtons)
0.0000 a G or T (t)
( 9.2416 , -117.29 ) A ChngeMe
( 3.7079E-03, -9.7501 ) B ChngeMe
15C 19A + 13B 15B +

Most of the input and output have been eliminated from the listing for clarity, leaving
only the relevant RPN segments fully displayed. Segment 13 captures F1 for the vertical
components, segment 15 captures F1 for the elbow using the approximation that U1 is
uniform in the elbow, and segment 19 captures F1 for the horizontal part of the resonator.
Then segment 20 adds up the previous results to yield the net horizontal and vertical F1 s
for this half of the full refrigerator.
Considering the symmetry of the full refrigerator as shown in the gure (only half of
which is modeled above with DeltaEC ) to get the minus signs and factors of two correct,
we see that the total horizontal force exerted on the pressure vessel is 2 [20B], the total
vertical force is zero, and the total counter-clockwise torque around the center of gravity
c.g. is 2 ([20A]LH + [20B]LV ) where LH and LV are distances between the center of
gravity and the axes of the parts of the refrigerator as shown in the gure. Both the total
horizontal force and the torque have time phases of about 90 , relative to the time phase
of the velocity at the mirror-image plane, which is set to 0 with segment 18.
Details of vol calculation in RPN:
Beginning with version 6, DeltaEC keeps track of the cumulative gas volume in a series
of segments while performing its other integrations. The result is accessible to the user at
any location by putting vol in line b of an RPN segment. (A similar result is accessible
237

through the VOLUME segment, described in Section 11.4.2, which calculates the volume in a
range of segments, including both gas volume and the volume of ns, plates, and struts in
STK**s and heat exchangers.)
By default, DeltaEC initializes vol to zero at BEGIN and at the beginning of a
TBRANCHs teebranch, and adds the branch vol and trunk vol at UNIONs. Any other
segment adds its own contribution to whatever total volhas accumulated before it. These
defaults can be overridden via RPN segments that include the change command =vol.
Example
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

TITLE symmetric speaker-driven refrigerator, example2v.out

BEGIN in the motor enclosure. Guess temperature and complex p1.
INSULATE
SURFACE top lid
DUCT backside of piston = motor enclosure
SURFACE extra surface area for motor parts
IESPEAKER motor-driven piston. Guess phase of current.
SURFACE annular surface area around piston
DUCT short duct
HX ambient heat exchanger. Guess heat rejected and target temperature.
STKSLAB the stack
HX cold heat exchanger
CONE adapter to small-diam resonator
DUCT 90 degree elbow
DUCT horizontal run of pipe, to mirror-image location
SOFTEND mirror-image plane. Target zero complex impedance and zero Hdot.
RPN for aesthetics, enforce phase(U1)=0 here. Target this.
RPN volume of gas (cubic meters) in segments 01 through 14
0.0000 a G or T (t)
6.857E-02 A ChngeMe
vol

The vol operator in segment 16 causes the cumulative volume to be displayed: The total
volume of gas in the DUCTs, HXs, STKSLAB, and CONE. (The other segments in this example
have no gas volume.)
11.4.2. VOLUME
General description:
Result A of a VOLUME segment is the sum of the volumes in all duct, cone, stack, compliance,
and heat exchanger segments beginning with BegAddr and ending with EndAddr (parameter
letters are inconsequential). Porosity is ignored in calculating this volume, so the result
is the volume of the gas plus the volume of internal ns, plates, etc. in heat exchangers
and stacks. (In contrast, the vol variable, accessible in RPN segments, gives the cumulative
gas volume, not including internal ns and plates.) This segment is intended to give an
indication of the overall size of an apparatus for doing trade-o analysis during design.
Input variables:
BegSeg The rst of the segments whose volumes are to be summed.
EndSeg The last of the segments whose volumes are to be summed.
Potential targets:
Line ais the target at which VOLUME output line Acan be aimed.
238

Masterslave links:
None.
Format and examples:
VOLUME
0.50
1
10

a targeted volume (cubic meters)

b BegSeg
c EndSeg

11.4.3. CONSTANTS
General description:
The CONSTANTS segment allows the user to input a dozen real numbers in one segment.
This is useful when a subsequent RPN segment depends on a large number of nonstandard
parameters that the user must control or that DeltaEC must guess. (Without CONSTANTS,
a dozen RPN segments would be required.) This segment performs no calculations and has
no potential targets.
Format and examples:
CONSTANTS
1.55
a
2.00
b
3.22
c
4.00
d
5.00
e
6.00
f
7.00
g
8.00
h
9.0E6
i
-0.048
j
11.01
k
12.02
l

test of CONSTANTS

11.5. Interfaces to external programs and les

11.5.1. BLKDATA
General description:
BLKDATA is a specialized segment designed for users who have a quantity of tabular data that
they want DeltaEC to follow. The data may represent experimental results, the results
from other computational methods, or simply an irregular parameter space to be explored
that is not well served by DeltaECs incremental-plot capability (e.g., irregular step size
or parametric plotting). The data le is in text format, delimited with spaces or tabs, and
it may contain up to 14 columns and any number of lines, all with the same number of
entries. The rst one or two lines can optionally contain descriptive strings that are read
into the parametersdescription and unit elds, respectively. Only one BLKDATA segment per
model is allowed. The data le must have the su x <.blk> and its root name is supplied
in the heading of the BLKDATA segment. When the le is opened, the number of lines and
columns are counted, and initial column headings are read in, if present. The number of
input parameters for the segment is equal to the number of columns in the <.blk> le.
239

During a run, each numeric line of the <.blk> le is read sequentially, and DeltaEC runs
the model once for each line. Each line of the le is inserted into the input parameters of
the BLKDATA segment, one line per data point. The use of sameas provides a direct means
to tie the values of DeltaEC input parameters to the tabulated data.
Enforcing values that normally appear as DeltaEC outputs is a little more subtle. This
requires an RPN target to be sameased to an input parameter in the BLKDATA segment, so
that the RPNs calculated output value can be forced to hit the targeted value. This target
must be used, of course, and an appropriately related input parameter must be added to
the guess list. Segment 5 in the example below illustrates such a target.
Input variables:
The heading eld, which is to the right of BLKDATA, must contain the root name of the
<.blk> le. For example, if the users data is in <mydata.blk>, the BLKDATA segment
looks like the example below.
Potential targets; Masterslave links:
None.
Format and examples:
If the BLKDATA segment looks like this:
BLKDATA

mydata

and the le <mydata.blk> looks like this:

Freq
Hz
511.4
511.0
511.9

|p|@0
Pa
6653.
14401.
9872.

SkrAmp
A
0.031
0.076
0.055

then DeltaEC will immediately transform the BLKDATA segment to this:

!--------------------------------BLKDATA
mydata
511.40
a Freq
Hz
6653.0
b |p|@0 Pa
3.1000E-02 c SkrAmp A

1 ---------------------------------

and will read subsequent lines of <mydata.blk> into place in subsequent iterations of the
run. If the le <mydata.blk> is a log of experimental data, we can ask DeltaEC to
emulate the experimental conditions by inserting appropriate sameas statements, as in the
following fragment that matches the experimental applied frequencies, pressure amplitudes,
and speaker currents:
!--------------------------------BEGIN
the setup
7.8000E+04 a Mean P
Pa
sameas 1a b Freq
Hz
300.00
c TBeg
K
sameas 1b d |p|@0
Pa
0.0000 e Ph(p)0
deg
0.0000 f |U|@0
m^3/s
0.0000 g Ph(U)0
deg
air
Gas type

0 ---------------------------------

240

ideal
Solid type
!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------BLKDATA
mydata
511.40
a Freq
Hz
6653.0
b |p|@0 Pa
3.1000E-02 c SkrAmp A
+ 2 SURFACE
cavity back surface
+ 3 DUCT
back duct
!--------------------------------- 4 --------------------------------VESPEAKER ...using an IESPEAKER would be simpler,
!
but would not illustrate BLKDATA plus target.
1.5000E-04 a Area
m^2
68.286
A |p|
Hz
4.6000 b
R
ohms
-91.445
B Ph(p)
deg
5.5000E-05 c L
H
5.2965E-06 C |U|
m^3/s
3.3000 d BLProd
T-m
-90.455
D Ph(U)
deg
4.0000E-04 e
M
kg
1.8081E-04 E Hdot
W
8560.0
f
K
N/m
1.8081E-04 F Edot
W
0.8000 g
Rm
N-s/m
1.8597E-03 G EdotIn
W
P
0.1945 h |V|
V
0.1945 H Volts
V
243.00
i Ph(V)
deg
2.2615E-02 I Amps
V
32.263
J Ph(V/I) deg
sameas 0 Gas type
121.99
K |Px|
Pa
ideal
Solid type
-145.97
L Ph(Px)
deg
!--------------------------------- 5 --------------------------------RPN
use to match speaker current output to measured value
sameas 1c a
= 5A?
2.2615E-02 A
4I

11.5.2. SYSEXEC
General description:
The SYSEXEC segment is not yet working in DeltaEC, as of version 6.3. We retain the
documentation here, hoping that future versions will have this feature.
The SYSEXEC segment allowed DeltaE to send data to an external program via the
computers le-handling system, execute that external program, and bring any results of that
external program back into DeltaE. The use of sameas allowed any input or output numbers
in DeltaE to be brought into the SYSEXEC segments input parameters so they could be
sent to the external program, and subsequently allowed any DeltaE input parameters to
be set equal to results of the external program.
The rst action taken by SYSEXEC was to write all of its 14 real input parameters to a text
le called <sysin.dat> in single-column format. SYSEXEC then called an external program
using the entire command string specied in the heading eld of the segment. The external
program may or may not have made use of the numbers in sysin.dat. If the external
programs results had to be brought back in to DeltaE, the external program would have
generated those results in a le named <sysout.dat> in the same ASCII, single-column
format. (If more than 14 values were required, the leftovers could be read in through
a BLKDATA segment.) When the external program had nished running, control returned
to DeltaE, which would then read up to 14 parameters from the le <sysout.dat> if
it existed, put those numbers in the output list of the SYSEXEC segment, and resume its
numerical integrations.
Format and examples:
The following is a trivial example showing how a set of integers assigned to SYSEXEC input
parameters could be sorted by the MS-DOS sort command. The SYSEXEC segment was
initially prepared like this:
!-----------------------------------1----------------------------------

241

RPN a silly example

87.0
a
13.000 A
5 8 +
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------SYSEXEC
sort sysin.dat > sysout.dat
3.0000 a In 1
4.0000 b In 2
6.0000 c In 3
7.0000 d In 4
2.0000 e In 5
sameas 1a
f In 6
2.0000 g In 7
1.0000 h In 8
10.000
i In 9
sameas 1A
j In 10
5.0000 k In 11
4.0000 l In 12
11.000
m In 13
9.0000 n In 14

When the SYSEXEC segment was encountered by DeltaE during a run, DeltaE created
the le <sysin.dat> containing the parameters a through n, like this:
3.0000
4.0000
6.0000
7.0000
2.0000
87.000
2.0000
1.0000
10.000
13.000
5.0000
4.0000
11.000
9.0000

and passed the segments heading eld, sort sysin.dat > sysout.dat, to the operating
system as a command string. Next, the operating system piped the newly created le
<sysin.dat> to the sort function. The MS-DOS sort command sorted the numbers
into ascending order. The results of the sort were piped into the <sysout.dat> le using
the greater than character, i.e., the > character, in the command string. Finally, the
SYSEXEC segment read the <sysout.dat> le and put the results in the output column of
the segment, so the segment ended up looking like this:
! Sort input parameters into output parameters (DOS version)
!-----------------------------------1---------------------------------RPN a silly example
87.0
a
13.000 A
5 8 +
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------SYSEXEC
sort sysin.dat > sysout.dat
3.0000 a In 1
1.0000 A Out 1
4.0000 b In 2
2.0000 B Out 2
6.0000 c In 3
2.0000 C Out 3
7.0000 d In 4
3.0000 D Out 4
2.0000 e In 5
4.0000 E Out 5
sameas 1a
f In 6
4.0000 F Out 6
2.0000 g In 7
5.0000 G Out 7
1.0000 h In 8
6.0000 H Out 8
10.000
i In 9
7.0000 I Out 9
sameas 1A
j In 10
9.0000 J Out 10
5.0000 k In 11
10.000
K Out 11
4.0000 l In 12
11.000
L Out 12
11.000
m In 13
13.000
M Out 13
9.0000 n In 14
87.000
N Out 14

Then an RPN or sameas in a subsequent segment that pointed to output 2N would access
the largest number in the original list, which was 87.000 in this example.

242

12. Gases (and liquids)

We provide an articial temperature oor of 10 Kelvin to prevent DeltaEC from trying
to use negative temperatures when it is really lost. Consequently, no temperature below 10
Kelvin can be used. (Most of the equations for the gases are very inaccurate when this limit
is reached anyway.) This oor can be modied within Options in the Edit pulldown menu.
In what follows, ta is temperature in Kelvin, t1 is temperature in Celsius.
DeltaEC looks for a 10-character eld in the BEGIN segment to determine gas type. If
you are modifying a model with a text editor, be sure to use plenty of trailing spaces after
short gas names like airto get gas-typeout of the 10-character eld.
A uidis a gas or a liquid. Gases are the most commonly used uids in thermoacoustics
and DeltaEC. However, liquid sodium and eutectic liquid sodium-potassium are included
in DeltaEC because they are thermodynamically powerful, with non-negligible thermal
expansion coe cients and non-negligible (@s=@p)T ; when close enough to their critical points.
For further details on the use of these liquids in thermoacoustics, see Ref. [13] and references
therein. Perhaps we should refer to the gases used in DeltaEC as uids, but for
simplicity we always call them gases despite the fact that some liquids are included.
Equations used here accurately cover ranges of T and p that have been of interest to the
Los Alamos thermoacoustics team. No warning is issued by DeltaEC if it goes outside the
accurate range. It is up to the user to study the equations here, or examine the results of
these equations via the properties tokens in an RPN segment or the thermophysical-properties
dialog, and decide if these equations are accurate enough or if a user-dened gas is called
for.
To change gases in the middle of a model (e.g., after a exible membrane), insert a BEGIN
segment with the new gas, linking most or all other variables in the BEGIN to the previous
BEGIN (to get pm and f ) and to the results of the previous segment (e.g., to get p1 and U1 )
using sameas. See example in Section 11.1.2.

12.1. Helium (helium)

Ideal gas approximation for equation of state (including sound speed and expansion coe cient) and specic heat. Transport from Ref. [69].

k0=0.0025672*ta**0.716
mu=0.412e-6*ta**0.68014

243

12.2. Heliumargon mixtures (HeAr)

Number in 0j is helium fraction. Ideal gas approximation for equation of state and specic
heat. Transport from Refs. [70, 71].
k0he=0.0025672*ta**0.716
amuhe=0.412e-6*ta**0.68014
k0ar=(1.39e-4*ta**0.852-1.5e-8*(ta-300.)*(ta-300.))*(1.+2.e-8*pm)
amuar=(1.77e-7*ta**0.852-25.e-12*(ta-300.)*(ta-300.))*(1.+2.e-8*pm)
k0=x1*k0ar+x2*k0he-(k0ar+k0he)*x1*x2**1.5
mu=x1*amuar+x2*amuhe+0.2*(amuar+amuhe)*x1*x2
diff12= 7.49d0*(1.d0 - 0.05d0*x2)*(ta/295.d0)**1.66d0/pm
ktherm= 0.38d0 * x2**1.2d0 * x1**0.8d0

12.3. Heliumxenon mixtures (HeXe)

Number in 0j is helium fraction. Ideal gas approximation for equation of state and specic
heat. Transport from Refs. [70, 71]. Our ts to the published transport data are only
accurate for frxe < 0.5 or for frxe = 1.000.
k0he=0.0025672*ta**0.716
amuhe=0.412e-6*ta**0.68014
k0xe=4.75e-5*ta**0.84*(1.+1.e-7*pm)
amuxe=0.187e-6*ta**0.85*(1.+25.e-9*pm)
frxe=1.-fhe
k0=k0he*fhe+k0xe*frxe-2.*(k0he+k0xe)*frxe*fhe*fhe
mu=amuhe*fhe+amuxe*frxe+(amuhe+amuxe)*frxe*fhe*fhe*(0.8+3.7*fhe*fhe*(0.25-frxe))
diff12=5.9d0*(1.d0-0.074d0*litefrac)*(ta/300.d0)**1.72d0/0.96d0/pm
ktherm= 0.4d0 * litefrac**1.3d0 * frxe**0.7d0

12.4. Neon (neon)

Ideal gas approximation for equation of state and specic heat. Transport from Ref. [69].
k0=0.001149*ta**0.65907
mu=0.735e-6*ta**0.66065

12.5. Air (air)

Ideal gas approximation for equation of state and specic heat. Transport from Ref. [57].
parameter (tps=110.4,tpa=245.4,tpb=27.6,tp0=300.,tpexp=223.8306)
k0=2.624e-2*(ta/tp0)**1.5*(tp0+tpexp)/(ta+tpa*exp (-tpb/ta))
mu=1.846e-5*(ta/tp0)**1.5*(tp0+tps)/(ta+tps)

12.6. Humid air and fog (HumidAir)

The number in 0j is the water mole fraction in a mixture of air and water. As with other gas
mixtures, the water mole fraction can be modied or used as an independent plot variable.
However, unlike other gas mixtures, the MIX** segments do not act on humid air. We
worry that future improvements to understanding will bring dramatic change to this part of
DeltaEC. Nevertheless, for the present:
In DeltaEC, we think of humid and wet air as a sort of single gas, having two or three
interpenetrating components: dry air, water vapor, and sometimes liquid water.
244

The molar volume v and molar enthalpy w are DeltaECs primary dependent variables,
as functions of three independent variables: mean pressure pm ; mean temperature Tm ; and
mole fraction of water nwat : To determine whether a given mixture is wet or merely humid,
DeltaEC compares nwat with psat =pm ; where psat (Tm ) is the saturated vapor pressure at
temperature Tm :
For humid air, DeltaEC uses the ideal-gas equation of state for v and a slightly nonlinear temperature dependence for w (due to the T dependence of cp for water vapor in
the ASHRAE tables). Also in accordance with ASHRAE recommendations, we set and k
equal to their dry-air values.
In wet air, in accordance with Hillers measurements [72], the oscillating thermodynamics
is that of humid air at saturation, while the mean ow thermodynamics includes the enthalpy
of the liquid when N_ 6= 0. In other words, if there is no mean ow, the calculation proceeds
exactly as for an ideal-gas mixture and ignores the condensate, but if mean ow is nonzero
DeltaEC performs stack integrations with ideal-gas-mixture properties in the momentum
and continuity equations but with the heat of condensation/evaporation (plus the small
enthalpy of the condensate itself) included in the energy equation as it is integrated to nd
dTm =dx: In all cases, we ignore any dynamic eects of oscillating diusion of the water vapor
through the air.
Although the enthalpy of wet air calculated in DeltaECs gas-properties algorithm
includes the latent heat of freezing and melting as the condensate passes through 0 C, we
have not yet incorporated this latent heat, of the liquid-to-solid phase transition, into the
numerical integrations in STK** segments, so integrating through Tm = 0 C in wet air is of
dubious value. (Anyway, we have not thought of any good reason to use wet air in DeltaEC
below 0 C, because we believe the stack would simply plug up with ice.)
The saturated vapor pressure is accurate from 100 C to 370 C; other properties are
reasonably accurate from 50 C to 150 C.

12.7. Nitrogen (nitrogen)

Ideal gas approximation for equation of state and specic heat. Transport from Ref. [69].
k0=0.0003609*ta**0.7512
mu=0.3577e-6*ta**0.6885

12.8. Hydrogen (hydrogen)

Ideal gas approximation for equation of state and specic heat. Transport from Ref. [69].
k0=0.002627*ta**0.744
mu=0.19361e-6*ta**0.6723

12.9. Deuterium (deuterium)

Ideal gas approximation for equation of state and specic heat. Transport from Ref. [69].
k0=0.002795*ta**0.686
mu=0.2726e-6*ta**0.6721

245

12.10. Carbon dioxide (CO2)

These equations provide a 1% match to the webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/uid/ data from
300 K to 1100 K at 1 bar, 5 bar, and 10 bar.
DATA cpco2/ 560.0d0, 1.13d0, -0.00045d0, 4.0d-9, 1.5d0, 100.0d0 /
DATA aco2/ -0.015d0, 7.0d0, 1.0d-5, 400000.0d0 /
DATA rhoco2/ 4.3d-9, 1.7, 70.0 /
DATA kco2/ 2.8d-5, 1.1395d0, 4.0d-4, 4.0d-10, -2.2d-8, 625.0d0 /
DATA muco2/ 1.4187d-7, 0.8216d0, 1.5416d-7, 0.8094d0, -8.0d-12, 650.0d0, 8.0d-7 /
oldgam=1.2857d0
massavg=0.04401d0
r=runiv/massavg
cp=cpco2(1)+cpco2(2)*ta+cpco2(3)*ta**2+cpco2(4)*pm**cpco2(5)*ta*dexp(-ta/cpco2(6))
enth=cpco2(1)*(ta-tzero)+cpco2(2)/2.*(ta**2-tzero**2)+cpco2(3)/3.*(ta**3-tzero**3)
& -cpco2(4)*pm**cpco2(5)*cpco2(6)
& *(dexp(-ta/cpco2(6))*(1+ta/cpco2(6))-dexp(-tzero/cpco2(6))*(1+tzero/cpco2(6)))
entro=cpco2(1)*dlog(ta/tzero)+cpco2(2)*(ta-tzero)
& +cpco2(3)/2.*(ta**2-tzero**2)-cpco2(4)*pm**cpco2(5)*cpco2(6)
& *(dexp(-ta/cpco2(6))-dexp(-tzero/cpco2(6)))
a=dsqrt(oldgam*r*ta)+aco2(1)*(1+dexp(-pm/aco2(4)))*ta+aco2(2)-aco2(3)*pm
rho=pm/r/ta+rhoco2(1)*pm**rhoco2(2)*dexp(-ta/rhoco2(3))
beta=(pm/r/ta**2+rhoco2(1)/rhoco2(3)*pm**rhoco2(2)*dexp(-ta/rhoco2(3)))/rho
gamma=ta*beta**2 * a**2/cp + 1.0d0
k0=kco2(1)*ta**kco2(2)+kco2(3)+kco2(4)*pm+ kco2(5)*(ta-kco2(6))**2
mu=muco2(1)*ta**muco2(2)+(pm/1.0d6-1.0d0)*(muco2(3)*ta**muco2(4)
& -muco2(1)*ta**muco2(2))+muco2(5)*(ta-muco2(6))**2+muco2(7)

12.11. Neonxenon mixtures (NeXe)

Number in 0j is neon fraction. Ideal gas approximation for equation of state and specic
heat. Transport from Refs. [70, 71]. (Thermal conductivity not very accurate for high xenon
concentrations.)
k0he=0.001149*ta**0.65907
amuhe=0.735e-6*ta**0.66065
k0xe=4.75e-5*ta**0.84*(1.+1.e-7*pm)
amuxe=0.187e-6*ta**0.85*(1.+25.e-9*pm)
frxe=1.-fhe(ns)
k0=k0he*fhe(ns)+k0xe*frxe-1.3*(k0he+k0xe)*frxe*fhe(ns)**2.5
mu=amuhe*fhe(ns)+amuxe*frxe+0.12*(amuhe+amuxe)*frxe*fhe(ns)**4
diff12=2.21d0*(1.d0+0.0326d0*frxe/(1.d0+0.531d0*frxe))*(ta/300.d0)**1.71d0/pm
ktherm= 0.258d0 * litefrac**1.31d0 * frxe**0.69d0

12.12. Natural-gas combustion products (NGCbProd)

Natural Gas combustion products with 5% excess air. Use around 1 atm only. Our 1993
notes say Data supplied by British Gas (private communication from R. J. Tucker to Bill
Ward) for typical North-Sea gas. Molar weight is a t to data in Ref. [73] between 288 K
and 4000 K.
gamma=1.4
cp=gasprop(ta,1392.02d0,39.3769d0,-3.89819d0,-0.0317961d0,
&
0.0327554d0,-1.44149d-3)
if (ta.gt.2000.) then
mass=27.9495-7.81175*dexp(-((ta-4151.85)/1047.42)**2)
else
mass=27.84
endif
r=8314.
a=dsqrt(gamma*r*ta/mass)
rho=pm*mass/(r*ta)
beta=1./ta
k0=gasprop(ta,0.0997279d0,0.0125516d0,6.73728d-5,4.22761d-4,
&
1.43198d-4,1.35508d-5)
mu=gasprop(ta,50.2973d0,4.68523d0,-0.12061d0,0.0140082d0,
&
-0.001488951d0,4.97968d-5)*1.d-6

246

goto 900
real*8 function gasprop(ta,a,b,c,d,e,f)
real*8 z,ta,a,b,c,d,e,f
z=(ta-1400)/200
gasprop=a+z*(b+ z*(c + z*(d +z*(e+f*z))))
return
end

12.13. Liquid sodium (sodium)

Data for sodium from Ref. [74].
a0=2578.
at1=-.52
ap=6.1e-7
r0=950.1
rt1=-2.2976e-1
rt2=-1.46e-5
rt3=5.638e-9
c0=1.4361e3
ct1=-5.8024e-1
ct2=4.6208e-4
k0=.918e2-4.9e-2*t1
if(t1.le.500.) then
e1=.697
e2=1.235e-5
else
e1=1.04
e2=8.51e-6
endif
a=a0+at1*t1
rho=r0+rt1*t1+rt2*t1**2+rt3*t1**3
beta=(-rt1-2.*rt2*t1-3.*rt3*t1**2)/rho
bt=beta**2-(2.*rt2+6.*rt3*t1)/rho
cp=c0+ct1*t1+ct2*t1**2
rp=1./a/a+ta*beta**2/cp
bp=-beta/(rho*a**2)+2.*at1/(rho*a**3)-beta**2/rho/cp
bp=bp-2.*ta*beta*bt/rho/cp-ta*beta**3/rho/cp
bp=bp+ta*beta**2*(ct1+2.*ct2*t1)/rho/cp/cp
cpp=-ta*(beta**2+bt)/rho
c So far, everything is evaluated at p=0.
a=a+ap*pm
rho=rho+rp*pm
beta=beta+bp*pm
cp=cp+cpp*pm
gamma=1.+ta*beta**2*a**2/cp
mu=e2*rho**(1./3.)*exp (e1*rho/ta)

12.14. Liquid sodiumpotassium eutectic (NaK-78)

This is for eutectic sodiumpotassium; data from Ref. [74].
a0=2051.
at1=-.53
ap=0.
r0=876.4
rt1=-2.183e-1
rt2=-2.982e-5
rt3=0.
c0=970.69
ct1=-.36903
ct2=3.4309e-4
k0=21.4+2.07e-2*t1-2.2e-5*t1**2
if(t1.le.400.) then
e1=.688
e2=1.16e-5
else
e1=.979
e2=8.2e-6
endif
a=a0+at1*t1
rho=r0+rt1*t1+rt2*t1**2+rt3*t1**3
beta=(-rt1-2.*rt2*t1-3.*rt3*t1**2)/rho
bt=beta**2-(2.*rt2+6.*rt3*t1)/rho
cp=c0+ct1*t1+ct2*t1**2
rp=1./a/a+ta*beta**2/cp
bp=-beta/(rho*a**2)+2.*at1/(rho*a**3)-beta**2/rho/cp
bp=bp-2.*ta*beta*bt/rho/cp-ta*beta**3/rho/cp

247

bp=bp+ta*beta**2*(ct1+2.*ct2*t1)/rho/cp/cp
cpp=-ta*(beta**2+bt)/rho
c So far, everything is evaluated at p=0.
a=a+ap*pm
rho=rho+rp*pm
beta=beta+bp*pm
cp=cp+cpp*pm
gamma=1.+ta*beta**2*a**2/cp
mu=e2*rho**(1./3.)*exp (e1*rho/ta)

12.15. User-dened gases

12.15.1. User-dened pure gases
Files that dene non-standard gases can have any name valid under the operating system
under which DeltaEC is running, and should end with the extension <.tpf>. If the root
lename is the same as any pre-dened gases, DeltaEC replaces its internal calculations
for that gas with those given in the users le. The <.tpf> le should be in the same
directory or folder as the model le. The name of the gas is set to the root lename of the
user-dened gas le. Up to ve distinct user-dened gases can be active at one time. Please
limit the root of the le name to eight characters.
Each of ve gas properties is specied by a line containing 110 real coe cients to be
read in as C0 C1 ... C9 , where trailing unspecied parameters are taken to be zero. The
order of the property lines is m , cp , k, a2 , and . Comment lines can be inserted anywhere
in the <.tpf> le with an initial !, and blank lines are not allowed.
It is critical that the properties be arranged in this order:
line 1: m
line 2: cp
line 3: k
line 4: a2
line 5:
Each of the ve properties is derived from its 10 coe cients using the following equation:
gas property = C0 + C1

pm
+ C3 Tm + C4 Tm2 + C5 TmC6 + C7 p2m TmC8 + C9 pm ; (12.1)
Tm + C2 pm

where Tm and pm are the absolute temperature (K) and mean pressure (Pa). An example
<.tpf> le is shown in Section 2.6.2.
Equation (12.1) is a compromise between simplicity and exibility; it is intended for
use with a variety of simple expressions for gases and liquids and has a uniform syntax for
specifying all ve properties. There is only a limited mean-pressure dependence, suitable for
nearly ideal gases; for more complicated mean-pressure dependence, multiple <.tpf> les
should be written for each range of mean pressure used.
DeltaEC also needs the ratio of specic heats, , and the expansion coe cient , but
these are calculated internally from
=

1@
and
@T

=1+

2 2

cp

(12.2)

To employ a user-dened gas, select its lename as the gas type in a BEGIN segment.
248

User-dened gases specied by <.tpf> les cannot be used with nonzero N_ , because Eq.
(6.1) requires m, which is not available in <.tpf> format. To circumvent this shortcoming
when a user-dened gas must be used with nonzero N_ , use a <.tpm> le as described in
the next Section, and set the mole fraction of the unused component to zero in the BEGIN
segment of the model.
12.15.2. User-dened gas mixtures
The user can dene the properties of his/her own binary ideal-gas mixture that is not a
member of DeltaECs internal library of mixtures, by using a le <filename.tpm> in the
folder in which the DeltaEC model is running. If filename is one of DeltaECs known
gases, DeltaEC will replace its own properties with the users properties. Please limit
filename to eight characters.
The le format, shown below, is similar to that of <.tpf> les for pure gases. Blank
lines are not allowed, and extra lines beginning with ! are regarded as comments, which
are very useful for keeping track of which line is which.
Properties are functions of mean pressure pm (Pa), absolute temperature Tm (K), and
mole fraction nL : Each function is specied by a line containing a sequence of real coe cients
(separated by blanks) which are read sequentially. Unused trailing parameters are set to
zero. The properties must be arranged in this order:
line 1: mL mH L H
line 2: kpure L
line 3: kpure H
line 4:
pure L
line 5:
pure H
line 6: kmix
line 7:
mix
line 8: D12
line 9: kT
The four numbers in line 1, which are mL ; mH ; L ; and H ; are used to calculate state
properties based on ideal-gas behavior as follows:
mavg = mL nL + mH (1 nL ) ;
pm mavg
;
m =
Runiv Tm
1
nL
1 nL
=
+
;
1
1
1
L
H
Runiv Tm
a2 =
;
mavg
Runiv
cp =
:
1 mavg

(12.3)
(12.4)
(12.5)
(12.6)
(12.7)

The pure-gas transport properties, kpure L ; kpure H ; pure L ; and pure H , are calculated
from numbers C0 C1 ... C9 in each of lines 2 through 5 using the following equation:
pm
property = C0 + C1
+ C3 T + C4 T 2 + C5 T C6 + C7 p2m T C8 + pm C9 :
(12.8)
T + C2 pm
249

Equation (12.8) is a compromise between simplicity and exibility. It is intended for use
with most coe cients set to zero in a variety of simple expressions. Finally, the numbers in
lines 6 through 9 are used in these equations:
line 6:
line 7:

kmix = nL kpure L + (1
mix

= nL

pure L

+ (1

C0
=
(1
pm =[105 Pa]

line 8:

D12

line 9:

1
kT = C0 nC
L (1

nL )C2

3
nL ) kpure H + C0 + C1 TmC2 nC
L (1

nL )

pure H

C1 nL )
Tm
[300 K]

3
+ C0 + C1 TmC2 nC
L (1

Tm
[300 K]

nL )C4 ; (12.9)
nL )C4 ;(12.10)

C2

+ C3 ;

(12.11)

C3

+ C4 :

(12.12)

As an example of the use of these coe cients, consider the example below for neon, a mixture
of two isotopes.
! user-defined mixture: neon, a mixture of two isotopes, 20 and 22.
! Natural abundance is nL = 0.91
! mL(kg/mole) mH(kg/mole) gammaL gammaH:
0.01999 0.02199 1.6667 1.6667
! k pure L (W/m-K):
0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.00122 0.65
! k pure H (W/m-K):
0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.00116 0.65
! mu pure L (kg/m-s):
0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 7.41E-7 0.66
! mu pure H (kg/m-s):
0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 7.70E-7 0.66
! k mixture (W/m-K):
0.
! mu mixture (kg/m-s):
0.
! D12 (m2/s):
0.53E-4 0. 1.72
! kT:
0.0267 1.0 1.0

To employ a user-dened mixture, select its lename as the gas type in a BEGIN segment.

250

13. Solids
We provide an articial temperature oor of 10 Kelvin to prevent DeltaEC from trying
to use negative temperatures when it is really lost. Consequently no temperature below 10
Kelvin can be used.
In what follows, ta is temperature in Kelvin, t1 is temperature in Celsius.
DeltaEC looks for a 10-character eld to determine solid type. When editing a <.out>
le with a text editor, be sure to use plenty of trailing spaces after short solid names like
mylarto get solid-typeout of the 10-character eld.
Equations used here accurately cover ranges of T and p that have been of interest to the
Los Alamos thermoacoustics team. No warning is issued by DeltaEC if it goes outside the
accurate range. It is up to the user to study the equations here, or examine the results of
these equations via the properties tokens in an RPN segment or the thermophysical-properties
dialog, and decide if these equations are accurate enough or if a user-dened solid is necessary.

13.1. Ideal solid (ideal)

ks, rhos, and cs are eectively innite, so

= 0.

ks=1.d8
rhos=1.d8
cs=1.d8

13.2. Copper (copper)

ks=398.-.0567*(ta-300.)
rhos=9000.
cs=420.

13.3. Nickel (nickel)

if (ta.lt.631) then
ks=63.8+.08066*(631.-ta)
else
ks=63.8+.02156*(ta-631.)
endif
rhos=8700.
cs=530.

13.4. Stainless steel (stainless)

rhos=8274.55 -1055.23 *dexp(-((T1-2171.05)/2058.08)**2)
ks=(266800*ta**(-5.2)+0.21416*ta**(-1.6))**(-0.25)
cs=(1.7054e-6*ta**(-0.88962)+23324/ta**6)**(-1/3) + 15/ta

251

Prior to version 3.5b2, DeltaEs stainless steel properties were very inaccurate at cryogenic temperatures.

13.5. Molybdenum (molybdenum)

rhos= 10868.6 -2637.52 * exp (-((T1-11383.7)/9701.36)**2)
cs= 253.791 +0.0583812 *T1-2.73919e-06*T1**2
ks= (33.9616 -0.00947953 *T1-4.12809e-08*T1**2)*4.186

13.6. Tungsten (tungsten)

cs=.13576e3*(1.-4805./ta**2)+.0091159*ta+2.31341e-9*ta**3
ks=135.5+1.05e4/ta-.023*ta
rhos=19254*(1.-3.*(-8.69e-5+3.83e-6*t1+7.92e-10*t1**2))

13.7. Kapton (kapton)

ks=0.2*(1.-exp(-ta/100.))
rhos=1445.-0.085*ta
cs=3.64*ta

13.8. Mylar (mylar)

ks=0.11+1.7e-4*ta
rhos=1400.-0.175*ta
cs=3.7*ta

13.9. Celcor (celcor)

Properties from Steve Garrett, Penn State University (private communication).
ks=2.5
rhos=2510.
cs=262.5 + 1.864*ta - 0.001011*ta**2

13.10. User-dened solids

User-dened solids, like user-dened gases, are derived from coe cients in user-written text
les that must be named <filename.tpf>. Please limit filename to eight characters. Up
to ve user-dened solids can be active at once. Each of three properties is specied by a
line containing 110 real coe cients to be read in as C0 C1 C2 ... C9 , where unspecied
parameters are taken to be zero. The order of the property lines is
line 1: s
line 2: cs
line 3: ks
Comment lines can be added with an initial !, and blank lines are not allowed.
Each of the three properties is derived from its 10 coe cients using the following equation:
property = C0 + C1 exp( C2 Tm ) + C3 Tm + C4 Tm2 + C5 TmC6 + C7 p2m TmC8 + C9 pm :
252

(13.1)

To request a user-dened solid, simply use the root le name as the solid type. The
<.tpf> le should be in the same directory or folder as the model le. If the name matches
any pre-dened solid name, the (constant) user-dened properties will replace DeltaECs
internal calculations.
User-dened gases and user-dened solids share the <.tpf> le extension. DeltaEC
can tell the dierence between a solid and a uid via the number of non-comment lines in
the le.

253

This blank page forces the next chapter to begin on an odd-numbered page.

254

Back Matter

255

14. Derivations
Here we present our derivations of a few equations that are used in DeltaEC but are not
derived in the archival thermoacoustics literature.
Force F1 on pressure vessel
Consider a rigid, uniaxial pressure vessel containing a thermoacoustic gas oscillation at
angular frequency !. Newtons laws of motion show that the force exerted by the gas (and
by moving parts of transducers, if present) on the rigid pressure vessel equals the force
exerted on the gas (and optional transducers) by the rigid vessel, and this force equals the
rate of change of momentum v of the gas (and optional transducers). Consider only forces
and motion at !: Then the total rst-order oscillating force exerted on the rigid pressure
vessel by the oscillations inside it, in the x direction, is
Z
Z
F1 = i! ( m u1 ) dV = i!
(14.1)
m (x)U1 (x) dx:

The right-hand side of this equation is what DeltaECs RPN force operator, F1, calculates;
this operator is described in Section 11.4.1. If F1 = 0; the vessel does not vibrate. Otherwise,
if the vessel is freely suspended and we want to learn its acceleration amplitude, we simply
divide by its mass M ; if we want its velocity amplitude, we divide by i!M ; its displacement
amplitude, we divide by ! 2 M:
Equation (14.1) includes both the normal force exerted by gas pressure on the vessel and
the shear force exerted by viscosity and gas velocity on the vessel. Newtons laws say that
this must be true, but it can also be veried directly, as follows. Calculus shows that
@v
@
@
( v) =
+v :
(14.2)
@t
@t
@t
Switching to sum over repeated indicesnotation (as in Ref. [35]), the continuity equation
is
@
@
=
( vk )
(14.3)
@t
@xk
and the momentum equation is
@vi
=
@t

vk

@vi
@xk

@p
@
+
@xi @xk

0
ik ;

(14.4)

where 0ik is the viscous stress tensor. Substituting Eqs. (14.3) and (14.4) into (14.2) and
doing a little algebra to combine terms yields
@
( vi ) =
@t

@
( vi v k + p
@xk
257

ik

0
ik ) :

(14.5)

Now integrate over the whole volume of gas, and use Greens formula to convert the volume
integral of the divergence on the right side into a surface integral:
Z
I
@
0
( vi ) dV =
( vi vk + p ik
(14.6)
ik ) dSk ;
@t
where dV is a dierential element of the volume and dSk is a vector normal to an element
of surface with area dS: The velocity is zero on the unmoving surface, so
Z
I
@
0
( vi ) dV =
(p ik
(14.7)
ik ) dSk :
@t
The right side is the total force exerted on the gas by the solid vessel bounding the gas. It
is the sum of the pressure forces and the viscous forces. The x component of the left side is
Eq. (14.1), which is what DeltaECs F1 operator calculates.
Third-order p1 dependence in dp2;0;HL =dx
Derivations of dp2;0;HL =dx in publications of the Los Alamos thermoacoustics team through
2006, such as Refs. [41, 12], kept terms only through second order. In 2006, Scott Backhaus
found one example (a stacked-screen regenerator with a small u2;0 ) in which a third-order
term, proportional to j 1 j ju1 j2 ; contributed signicantly to dp2;0;HL =dx. This led us to include that term in DeltaECs STKSCREEN calculations, and for consistency we have included
similar third-order contributions in other segments, including MINOR, DUCT, and CONE. This
section outlines the derivations of these expressions for dp2;0;HL =dx; which include these small
terms proportional to p1 . Scott Backhauss contributions to these derivations are gratefully
acknowledged.
MINOR
The time-averaged pressure drop across a minor-loss component is, by denition, given
by
1
K u juj;
(14.8)
2
where u is the spatially averaged velocity, is the density, K is the minor-loss coe cient,
and all three of these variables can be time dependent. In previous derivations, such as in
Ref. [12], we have taken to be independent of time, because we were satised with results
to second order. Here we retain the fundamental component of s time dependence.
Write Eq. (14.8) as
p=

pminor =
=

1
K(t) [ m + j 1 j cos (!t + )] (ju1 j cos !t + u2;0 ) jju1 j cos !t + u2;0 j
(14.9)
2
Z2
1
K(t) [ m + j 1 j cos (!t + )] (ju1 j cos !t + u2;0 ) jju1 j cos !t + u2;0 j d(!t):
4
0

(14.10)
258

In the interval 0 < !t < 2 ; the argument of the absolute value changes sign at
!t = Arccos( u2;0 = ju1 j)
Arccos( u2;0 = ju1 j) = 2
0 and !t = 2
0 if ju2;0 =u1 j < 1;
at these zero crossings, the value of K changes from K+ to K and back again. Thus
1
0
2Z 0
Z0
1 @
A [ m + j 1 j cos (!t + )] (ju1 j cos !t + u2;0 )2 d(!t)
K
K+
pminor =
4
0

(14.11)
if u2;0 = ju1 j < 1: Evaluating this (e.g., with the symbolic-mathematics software Mathematica) yields
pminor =

ju1 j2
4

(K

K+ )

1 + 2"22;0 + 2"2;0

cos

1 + 2"22;0 + 2"2;0

(K+ + K )

j 1j

j 1j
m

4
j j
+ 3"2;0 + 1 + "22;0 =2 1 cos
3
m

cos

sin

q
1

"22;0

"2;0
(14.12)

if j"2;0 j 1; where "2;0 = u2;0 = ju1 j :

If j"2;0 j 1; the integral is less complicated because the argument of the absolute value
never crosses zero; the results are
m

pminor =
=

ju1 j2
j j
K+ 1 + 2"22;0 + 2"2;0 1 cos
4
m

ju1 j2
K
4

1 + 2"22;0 + 2"2;0

j 1j

cos

for "2;0
for "2;0

1;

(14.13)

1:

(14.14)

We take the density oscillations to be adiabatic, so

in Section 10.2.4.

1= m

= p1 = pm : These results appear

STKSCREEN and SX
The momentum equation in a screen bed is [61, 12]
dp
=
dx

c1
u
8rh2

where u is the spatially averaged velocity,

hydraulic radius. We take

c2
u juj ;
2rh

(14.15)

is the density,

is the viscosity, and rh is the

u = ju1 j cos !t + u2;0 ;

= m + j 1 j cos(!t + ):

(14.16)
(14.17)

We might also write = m + j 1 j cos(!t + ); but the oscillations in a regenerator are

nearly isothermal and viscosity is independent of pressure, so we neglect 1 in the rst term
in Eq. (14.15).
The time average of the left-hand side, to second order, is dp2;0;HL =dx:
259

The time average of the rst term on the right-hand side, to second order, is
c1
8rh2

(14.18)

m u2;0 :

Taking the time average of the second term involves the integral
Iscreen = [
=

+ j 1 j cos (!t + )] (ju1 j cos !t + u2;0 ) jju1 j cos !t + u2;0 j

Z2

1
2

(14.19)

+ j 1 j cos (!t + )] (ju1 j cos !t + u2;0 ) jju1 j cos !t + u2;0 j d(!t):

(14.20)
In the interval 0 < !t < 2 ; the argument of the absolute value near the end of the equation
changes sign at !t = Arccos( u2;0 = ju1 j)
Arccos( u2;0 = ju1 j) = 2
0 and !t = 2
0
if ju2;0 =u1 j < 1; so we can write
Iscreen =

1 @
2

Z0

2Z

A[

+ j 1 j cos (!t + )] (ju1 j cos !t + u2;0 )2 d(!t):

(14.21)

Evaluating this with the symbolic-mathematics software Mathematica yields

Iscreen

q
i
2
1+
=
sin "2;0 + 3"2;0 1 "2;0
2 + "22;0 q
j j
+2 1 cos "2;0 sin 1 "2;0 +
1 "22;0 :
3
m
m

ju1 j2 nh

2"22;0

where "2;0 = u2;0 = ju1 j :

Combining all of these intermediate results and taking
isothermal oscillations yields
dp2;0;HL
=
dx

c1
8rh2

m u2;0

c2
2 rh

ju1 j2

2
jp1 j
+ 3"2;0 +
2 + "22;0
cos
3
pm
for j"2;0 j 1:
In SX, j"2;0 j
dp2;0;HL
=
dx

1= m

= p1 =pm for approximately

1 + 2"22;0 + 2"2;0
q

(14.22)

jp1 j
cos
pm

sin

"22;0

"2;0
(14.23)

1 may sometimes be of interest. In that case,

c1
8rh2

m u2;0

c2
4rh

ju1 j2 sign ("2;0 ) 1 + 2"22;0 + 2"2;0

These results appear in Sections 10.5.2 and 10.7.2.

DUCT and CONE
260

jp1 j
cos
pm

(14.24)

We follow the outline in the appendix of Ref. [41], but we change the time dependence
from sine to cosine, to be consistent with other results in this section, and we keep some
dependence on 1 by writing Eq. (A6) in Ref. [41] as
+ j 1 j cos(!t + )
dp
= fM (t) m
u(t) ju(t)j ;
dx
2D
where u = U=S in Ref. [41]. Using Eq. (A4) in Ref. [41] for fM yields
1
0
2Z 0
Z0
2
dp2;0;HL
ju
j
1
1
m
A fM;max + dfM NR;max jcos !t + "2;0 j
@
=
dx
2D 2
dNR
1 + j"2;0 j
0

1+

j 1j

(14.25)

cos (!t + ) (cos !t + "2;0 )2 d(!t);

(14.26)

where "2;0 = u2;0 = ju1 j and 0 = Arccos( u2;0 = ju1 j) as for the STKSCREEN derivation above.
We neglect ju1 j2 NR;max j 1 j because it is fourth order. Then
0
1
2Z 0
Z0
2
1
dp2;0;HL
m ju1 j
A 1 + j 1 j cos (!t + ) (cos !t + "2;0 )2 d(!t)
=
fM;max @
dx
2D
2
m
0
0
0
1
2Z 0
Z0
2
1
m ju1 j dfM
A jcos !t + "2;0 j 1 (cos !t + "2;0 )2 d(!t):
NR;max @
2D dNR
2
1 + j"2;0 j
0

(14.27)

The integral in the rst line was evaluated above, in Eqs. (14.21)(14.22). The integral in
the second line was evaluated to obtain the bottom line in Eq. (A10) in Ref. [41]. Pulling
all the pieces together, and using 1 = m = p1 = pm for adiabatic oscillations, yields
q
ju1 j2 nh
1 + 2"22;0 sin 1 "2;0 + 3"2;0 1 "22;0 fM;max
2 D
2 + "22;0 q
2 jp1 j
1
+
cos
"2;0 sin "2;0 +
1 "22;0
pm
3
q
3=2 + "22;0
dfM
"2;0
3"2;0 1 "22;0
1 + 2"22;0 sin 1 "2;0
NR;max ;
1 + j"2;0 j
dNR
j"2;0 j

dp2;0
=
dx

dp2;0
=
dx

sign(u2;0 )

2
m u2;0

2D

1
jp1 j cos
1+ 2 +
2"2;0
pm "2;0

fM;max

1; (14.28)

2"22;0 2 j"2;0 j + 1 dfM

NR;max ;
2"22;0 (1 + j"2;0 j) dNR
j"2;0 j 1;
(14.29)

These results appear in Section 10.1.1 for DUCT and 10.1.2 for CONE.

STKPOWERLW and PX
The result for dp2;0;HL =dx in STKPOWERLW and PX is the same as for DUCT and CONE above,
except that we replace pm with pm to model isothermal oscillations.
261

Pole-tip ux in linear motor or alternator, **SPEAKER

The pole-tip magnetic-ux phasor is the sum of the ux phasor due to current and the ux
phasor due to motion:
(14.30)
pt;1 = I;1 + bEM F;1
where the subscript 1indicates a complex phasor as usual. Obviously
I;1

LI1 :

(14.31)

We use instead of +here Hbecause we always write jV j = jL dI=dtj and basic-physics

books write V = d =dt and E dl = L dI=dt with minus signs expressing Lenzs
law (induced EMF opposes changes in current). Similarly, we know that the unmeasurable
internal voltage VbEM F;1 = d bEM F;1 =dt = i! bEM F;1 , and in the linear operating
regime we express this as VbEM F;1 = (Bl)v1 = (Bl)U1 =A in DeltaECs language of
Blproduct and velocity. (Note DeltaECs electromechanical sign convention, described
in Sections 10.3.1 and 10.4.2, diers from some others conventions, e.g., Ref. [11], via
V1 ! V1 ; I1 ! I1 ; and Bl ! Bl: Basically, this amounts to a rotation of all electrical
and magnetic phasors by 180 relative to all mechanical and acoustic phasors.) Hence
=

bEM F;1

i(Bl)U1 =!A:

(14.32)

Combining these three equations gives us

pt;1

LI1

i(Bl)U1 =!A:

(14.33)

Using the law of cosines for triangles, we obtain the magnitude of the pole-tip ux
q
(14.34)
j pt;1 j = [L jI1 j]2 + [(Bl) jU1 j =!A]2 2 [L jI1 j] [(Bl) jU1 j =!A] sin

where is the phase angle by which U1 leads I1 : (Note: cos(

90 ) = sin .)
(Thanks to John Corey for help with this section.)
Example
Heres a DeltaEC fragment giving j pt;1 j as the result of RPN segment 17, while segment
16 displays j I;1 j = L jI1 j and j bEM F;1 j = (Bl) jU1 j =!A:
!----------------------------- 15 ---------------------IESPEAKER the driver 7.5 diam
2.8500E-02 a Area
m^2
9.7598E+04 A |p| Pa
0.5200
b R
ohms
154.96 B Ph(p) deg
3.2200E-02 c L
H
7.3587E-02 C |U| m^3/s
84.700
d BLProd T-m
-115.16 D Ph(U) deg
15.000
e M
kg
7.4617 E Hdot W
7.3300E+04 f K
N/m
7.4617 F Work W
105.00
g Rm
N-s/m
6602.7 G WorkIn W
59.466
h |I|
A
G
654.43 H Volts V
93.911
i Ph(I) deg
G
59.466 I Amps A
70.164 J Ph(V/I)deg
4.3376E+05 K |Px| Pa
174.36 L Ph(Px) deg
ideal
Solid type
-1273.9 M HeatIn W
!------------------------------------ 16 --------------RPN A = IL flux [weber]; B = bEMF flux [weber]; C = alpha [degree]
0.0000 a Target (t)
1.9148 A ChngeMe
0.5801 B ChngeMe
150.93 C ChngeMe
15D 15i - 15d 15C * 2 / pi / 0b / 15a / 15c 15h *
!------------------------------------ 17 --------------RPN peak pole-tip flux. [weber = tesla.m^2]
0.0000 a Target (t)
1.7099 A ChngeMe
16A sqrd 16B sqrd + 2 16A * 16B * 16C sin * - sqrt

Dividing by pole-tip eective area would turn 17A into the magnetic eld, in tesla.
262

Pulsed combustion
Suppose fuel is injected into an air stream in a duct, and combustion occurs. If the injection
and combustion are steady, then conservation of matter applied to a small region around
the combustion zone implies that
N_ out = N_ in +

N_ ;

(14.35)

where N_ in and N_ out are the molar ow rates of the incoming fresh air and the outgoing combustion products, respectively, and N_ is the additional molar ow rate due to the injection
of the fuel and the change in mole numbers accompanying the combustion. Similarly,
Tout = Tin +

Q_
;
mcp N_ out

(14.36)

where Tin and Tout are the temperatures of the incoming and outgoing streams, respectively,
Q_ is the rate at which the combustion releases heat, and m and cp are the average molar
mass and the heat capacity per unit mass of the outgoing stream.
In a thermoacoustic system, the combustion might be time dependent, because of either
the pressure dependence of the chemical reaction rate or a time dependence in the fuel
injection. Suppose that the region of interest in the duct is small enough that the pressure
is spatially uniform at every instant of time. Let the instantaneous heating rate be q(t);
_
so
the average heating rate must be
2Z =!

!
Q_ =
2

q(t)
_ dt:

(14.37)

Similarly, let the instantaneous rate of increase of moles in the region of interest, due to fuel
injection and combustion, be n(t);
_
whose average must be
!
N_ =
2

2Z =!

n(t)
_
dt:

(14.38)

Assuming ideal gases, the local rate of change of temperature due to q(t)
_ is
q(t)
_
T_ (t) =
=
V m cp

q(t)
_
;
V pm =Tm

(14.39)

where V is the volume in which the combustion occurs, and the rate of change of that volume
due to this heating is
V_ q (t) = V T_ (t)=Tm
1 q(t)
_
=
:
pm
263

(14.40)
(14.41)

Similarly, n(t)
_
contributes a time-dependent volume change
V_ n (t) = m n(t)=
_
:

(14.42)

The fundamental Fourier component of V_ q + V_ n contributes to the acoustic power E_ if

the time phasing relative to p1 is favorable. In the DeltaEC paradigm, it causes a local
increment in U1 which in turn causes a local increment in E_ or a decrement, depending
on the time phasing. The real function V_ q (t) + V_ n (t) can be written as a Fourier series of
sins and coss at !; 2!; 3!; etc. and in the DeltaEC paradigm we are only interested in
the ! components, which we can express in dimensionless form as 1 :
V_ q (t) + V_ n (t)
;
_ pm
(
1) Q=
Z2
1
(!t)ei!t d(!t):
=

(t) =

(14.43)

(14.44)

Depending on the circumstances, the phase of the complex variable might be related to
the local phase of either p1 or U1 :
Thus, the change in DeltaECs complex volumetric-ow-rate amplitude across the region of interest is
1 Q_
(14.45)
U1 =
1;
pm
and the local increment in acoustic power at the fundamental frequency is
E_ =

1 Q_ 1 h f i
Re p1 1 :
pm 2

(14.46)

For air, (
1) = = 2=7; and we might hope for jp1 j =pm
0:2: If j 1 j
1; then the
_
e ciency of conversion of Q to acoustic power could be roughly 3%. This is small, but not
negligible, compared with normal thermoacoustic-engine e ciencies.
(This derivation, new in the 6.3 Users Guide, might benet from critical analysis by
users! Feedback will be appreciated.)
To implement this in DeltaEC via RPN segments, the user will have to know Q_ and
_
N ; make an estimate of the time dependence for q(t)
_ and n(t)
_
(including the time phase
relative to p1 or U1 ), and do the math (or eyeball it graphically) to obtain a numerical value
for 1 : Then put all those values into RPN segments, and use Eqs. (14.35), (14.36), and
(14.45) above to impose local changes in DeltaECs integration variables N_ ; Tm ; and U1 :
Here is one way to implement it:
!--------------------------------- 0 --------------------------------BEGIN
at a pressure node, where fresh air is easily injected.
1.0000E+05 a Mean P Pa
60.000
b Freq
Hz
900.00
c TBeg
K
0.0000 d |p|
Pa
0.0000 e Ph(p) deg
2.0000 f |U|
m^3/s
0.0000 g Ph(U) deg
2.0000E-02 i Ndot
mol/s
air
Gas type

264

!--------------------------------- 1 --------------------------------DUCT
pipe from pressure node to somewhere more interesting
3.0000E-02 a Area
m^2
Mstr
1.5548E+04 A |p|
Pa
0.6140 b Perim m
1a
-90.098
B Ph(p) deg
2.5000 c Length m
2.0572E-02 C |U|
m^3/s
5.0000E-04 d Srough
119.96
D Ph(U) deg
349.21
E Htot
W
ideal
Solid type
-138.43
F Edot
W
!--------------------------------- 2 --------------------------------RPN
(a) is time-average combustion power (Watt)
! Verify (A) > 1, to ensure enough fresh air. The fuel is methane,
! which has 50 MJ/kg LHV and 0.016 kg/mole. We need 2 moles of O2,
! and so 10 moles of air, per mole of CH4.
1000.0
a G or T
1.6000
A Verify
Ndot inp 50e6 / 0.016 / / 10 /
!--------------------------------- 3 --------------------------------BEGIN
Change from air to natural-gas combustion products.
sameas
0a a Mean P Pa
sameas
0b b Freq
Hz
sameas
0c c TBeg
K
sameas
1A d |p|
Pa
sameas
1B e Ph(p) deg
sameas
1C f |U|
m^3/s
sameas
1D g Ph(U) deg
sameas
0i i Ndot
mol/s
NGcbProd
Gas type
!--------------------------------- 4 --------------------------------RPN
(a) is methanes ratio of DeltaNdot to Qdot (mole/Joule)
! This is the value for methane, assuming H2O stays vapor:
! 3 moles combustion products / moleCH4.
! This segment increments Ndot appropriately.
3.7500E-06 a G or T
2.3750E-02
A mol/s
3.7500E-03
B mol/s
2a inp * # Ndot + =Ndot
!--------------------------------- 5 --------------------------------RPN
guess Tm increment
1105.8
a G or T
G
2005.8
A K
Tm inp + =Tm
!--------------------------------- 6 --------------------------------RPN
target increment in Htot
sameas
2a a G or T
=6A
1000.0
A W
Htot 1E !--------------------------------- 7 --------------------------------RPN
(a) is |Lambda1|, assuming sinusoidal combustion and
! an extra 10% for Vdot sub n. Set phase of Lambda1 same as that of p1.
! (A) is the new U1. (B) is the increment in U1 due to pulsed combustion.
1.1000 a G or T
(-1.0278E-02, 1.4681E-02) A m3/s
(-5.3554E-06, -3.1429E-03) B m3/s
gamma 1 - gamma / 2a * pm / p1 arg inp cmplx * # U1 + =U1
!--------------------------------- 8 --------------------------------RPN
(A) is the acoustic power created by pulsed combustion
0.0000 a G or T
24.433
A W
Edot 1F ...
...

265

15. Symbols
Variables not found here are intermediate factors, constants, or functions dened in the text
close to where they are used.

English letters
A
a
a
B
B
b
b
C
C
c
c
cp
COP
D12
D
d
d
E_
e
F
F
F
f
f
f
fM
H_
h

area, m2
sound speed, m/s
half of rectangular pores width, m
magnetic eld, tesla
rst virial coe cient, m3 /mol
a constant or function
half of rectangular pores breadth, m
compliance, m3 /Pa
a constant or function
a constant or function
heat capacity per unit mass, J/kg K
isobaric heat capacity per unit mass, J/kg K
_ W
_ or Q=
_ E_
coe cient of performance, Q=
2
binary mass diusion coe cient, m /s
diameter, m
diameter, m
dierential
acoustic power, W
2.71828...
force, N
a factor, fraction, friction factor, constant, or function
a function
frequency, Hz
spatially averaged diusion function
friction factor
Moody friction factor
rate at which energy ows, W
heat transfer coe cient per unit area, W/m2 K
266

I
i
J
K
K
ksFrac
k
kT
k
L
L
L
l
l
M
m
m
m
m0
NN u
NR
NSt
N_
n
p
Q
Q_
q_
R
R
R
R
Runiv
r
r
S
S
S_
s
T
t
U
u
V
V

electric
current, amp
p
1
Bessel function
spring constant, N
minor-loss coe cient
fudge factor by which (1
)ks is adjusted in STKSCREEN
thermal conductivity, W/m K
thermal diusion ratio
real or complex wave number, m 1
= k= m cp D12
electric inductance, henry
length, m
length, m
half of plate thickness, m
mass, kg
molar mass, kg/mol (e.g., 0.004002 kg/mol for helium)
screen mesh number, wires/m
multiplier for turbulent eects
turbulence multiplier for inertial pressure gradient
Nusselt number
Reynolds number
Stanton number, = NN u = NR
molar ow rate, mol/s (One mole = 6:022 1023 molecules)
mole fraction
pressure, Pa
heat, J
rate at which heat is transferred (thermal power), W
rate at which heat is transferred per unit length, W/m
acoustic resistance, Pa s/m3
electric resistance, ohm
mechanical resistance, kg/s
radius, m
universal gas constant, J/mol K
radius, m
radial coordinate, m
entropy, J/K
surface area, m2
rate of entropy generation, J/K s
entropy per unit mass, J/kg K
temperature, K
time, s
volume ow rate, m3 /s
x component of velocity, m/s
volume, m3
voltage, volt
267

v
v
W
_
W
w
X
X_
x
Y
y
Z
Z
z
z
zn

molar volume, m3 /mol

vector velocity, m/s
work, J
rate at which work is done (mechanical or electrical power), W
enthalpy per unit mass, J/kg
exergy, J
rate at which exergy ows, W
coordinate along sound-propagation direction, m
Neumann function
coordinate perpendicular to x direction, m
acoustic impedance, Pa s/m3
electric impedance, ohm
coordinate perpendicular to x and y, m
specic acoustic impedance, kg/m2 s = Pa s/m
= z= a

Greek letters
= (1= )(@ =@T )p ; thermal expansion coe cient, K 1
ratio of isobaric to isochoric specic heats
big dierence
penetration depth, m
small dierence
the
unit tensor, equal to unity for i = k and zero for i 6= k
ik
" surface roughness
" in mixtures, function dened by Eq. (10.199)
"20 = mN_ 20 = m jU1 j
" = mN_ = m jU1 j
correction factor for nite solid heat capacity
s
_ =Q_ H or E=
_ Q_ H
e ciency, W
phase angle
thermal diusivity, m2 /s
dynamic viscosity, kg/m s
kinematic viscosity, m2 /s
displacement of gas in x direction, m
perimeter, m
3.14159...
density, kg/m3
Prandtl number
nine-component viscous stress tensor, Pa
ik
transduction coe cient, N/amp = volt/(m/s)
!t
volumetric porosity
! = 2 f; radian frequency, s 1

268

Subscripts

bEM F
br
C
e
e
ext
fric
gen
geom
grad
H
H
h
HL
i
imp
ini
k
L
M
mix sep
m
max
N_
Nu
o
p
Q_
R
rad
rev
s
s
sat
stand
T
tot
trav
wat
D
D

back EMF
branch
cold
electric
eective
external
friction
generated
geometrical
gradient
hot
heavy component of mixture
hydraulic (i.e., rh is hydraulic radius)
head loss
inner
impedance
initial
thermal
light component of mixture
Moody
mixture separation
mean (or mechanical)
maximum
steady ow
Nusselt(i.e., NN u is Nusselt number))
outer
pressure
heat
Reynolds (i.e., NR is Reynolds number)
radiation
reversible
series
solid
saturation
standing
temperature
total
traveling
water
coupled mass and thermal diusion
coupled mass and thermal diusion
269

0
1
2
2; k
+
univ

thermal
viscous
environmentor ambientor independent of time
rst order, usually a complex amplitude
second order
sum of second-order enthalpy and ordinary conduction
positive-x direction
negative-x direction
universal (i.e., Runiv ' 8:314 J/mol K is the molar gas constant)

Special symbols
Im[ ]
Re[ ]
hi
jj
overbar
overdot
tilde

Imaginary part of
Real part of,
spatial average perpendicular to x
magnitude of complex number
time average
time derivative, time rate
complex conjugate

270

Bibliography
[1] T. J. Hoer. Thermoacoustic refrigerator design and performance. PhD thesis, Physics
department, University of California, San Diego, 1986.
[2] T. J. Hoer. Concepts for thermoacoustic refrigeration and a practical device. In Chairman Paul Lindquist, editor, Proceedings of the 5th International Cryocoolers Conference, pages 93101, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH, August 1988. Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base.
[3] S. L. Garrett, D. K. Perkins, and A. Gopinath. Thermoacoustic refrigerator heat exchangers: Design, analysis, and fabrication. In G. F. Hewitt, editor, Heat Transfer
1994: Proceedings of the 10th International Heat Transfer Conference. Vol. 4, pages
375380, Rugby, England, 1994. Institution of Chemical Engineers.
[4] G. W. Swift. Thermoacoustic engines. J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 84:11451180, 1988.
[5] S. Backhaus and G. W. Swift. A thermoacoustic-Stirling heat engine: Detailed study.
J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 107:31483166, 2000.
[6] R. Radebaugh. A review of pulse tube refrigeration. Adv. Cryogenic Eng., 35:11911205,
1990.
[7] R. Radebaugh. Development of the pulse tube refrigerator as an e cient and reliable cryocooler. Proc. Institute of Refrigeration (London), pages 1129, 2000.
http://cryogenics.nist.gov/Papers/Institute_of_Refrig.pdf, last viewed January, 2011.
[8] S. Backhaus, G. W. Swift, and R. S. Reid. High-temperature self-circulating thermoacoustic heat exchanger. Appl. Phys. Lett., 87:014102, 2005.
[9] G. W. Swift and S. Backhaus. Gas diodes for thermoacoustic self-circulating heat exchangers. In CP838, Innovations in Nonlinear Acoustics: 17th International Symposium
on Nonlinear Acoustics, edited by A. A. Atchley, V. W. Sparrow, and R. M. Keolian,
pages 399406, Melville, New York, 2001. American Institute of Physics.
[10] G. W. Swift and D. A. Geller. Continuous thermoacoustic mixture separation. J.
Acoust. Soc. Am., 120:26482657, 2006. Erratum 124:2421, 2008.
[11] L. E. Kinsler, A. R. Frey, A. B. Coppens, and J. V. Sanders. Fundamentals of Acoustics.
John Wiley and Sons, 4th edition, 1999.
[12] G. W. Swift. Thermoacoustics: A Unifying Perspective for some Engines and Refrigerators. Acoustical Society of America Publications, Sewickley PA, 2002.
271

[13] A. Migliori and G. W. Swift. Liquid sodium thermoacoustic engine. Appl. Phys. Lett.,
53:355357, 1988.
[14] M. Iguchi, M. Ohmi, and K. Maegawa. Analysis of free oscillating ow in a U-shaped
tube. Bull. JSME, 25:13981405, 1982.
[15] W. H. Press, B. P. Flannery, S. A. Teukolsky, and W. T. Vetterling. Numerical Recipes
in FORTRAN 77: The Art of Scientic Computing, Second Edition. Cambridge University Press, 1992.
[16] Reverse
Polish
notation
Wikipedia,
the
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_polish_notation.

free

encyclopedia,

[17] B. Brown, 2001.

Postx Notation Mini-Lecture, Retrieved on 7/7/2006 from
http://www.spsu.edu/cs/faculty/bbrown/web_lectures/postx/.
[18] D. L. Gardner and G. W. Swift. A cascade thermoacoustic engine. J. Acoust. Soc. Am.,
114:19051919, 2003.
[19] G. W. Swift. Encyclopedia of Applied Physics, volume 21, chapter Thermoacoustic
engines and refrigerators, pages 245264. Wiley, for American Institute of Physics,
1997.
[20] N. Rott. Damped and thermally driven acoustic oscillations in wide and narrow tubes.
Z. Angew. Math. Phys., 20:230243, 1969.
[21] N. Rott. Thermally driven acoustic oscillations, part III: Second-order heat ux.
Z. Angew. Math. Phys., 26:4349, 1975.
[22] G. W. Swift. Analysis and performance of a large thermoacoustic engine. J. Acoust.
Soc. Am., 92:15511563, 1992.
[23] P. Merkli and H. Thomann. Thermoacoustic eects in a resonance tube. J. Fluid Mech.,
70:161177, 1975.
[24] J. R. Olson and G. W. Swift. Similitude in thermoacoustics. J. Acoust. Soc. Am.,
95:14051412, 1994.
[25] I. Urieli and D. M. Berchowitz. Stirling Cycle Engine Analysis. Adam Hilger, Bristol
UK, 1984.
[26] A. J. Organ. Thermodynamics and Gas Dynamics of the Stirling Cycle Machine. Cambridge University Press, 1992.
[27] M. A. Lewis, T. Kuriyama, F. Kuriyama, and R. Radebaugh. Measurement of heat
conduction through stacked screens. Adv. Cryogenic Eng., 43:16111618, 1998.
[28] J. R. Olson and G. W. Swift. Acoustic streaming in pulse tube refrigerators: Tapered
pulse tubes. Cryogenics, 37:769776, 1997.
272

[29] J. R. Olson and G. W. Swift. Suppression of acoustic streaming in tapered pulse tubes.
In R. G. Ross Jr., editor, Cryocoolers 10, pages 307313. Plenum, New York, 1999.
[30] G. W. Swift, M. S. Allen, and J. J. Wollan. Performance of a tapered pulse tube. In
R. G. Ross Jr., editor, Cryocoolers 10, pages 315320. Plenum, New York, 1999.
[31] A. Bejan. Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics. Wiley, New York, second edition,
1997.
[32] P. M. Morse and K. U. Ingard. Theoretical Acoustics. McGraw-Hill, 1968.
[33] W. L. M. Nyborg. Acoustic streaming. In W. P. Mason, editor, Physical Acoustics,
Volume IIB, pages 265331. Academic Press, 1965.
[34] B. L. Smith and G. W. Swift. Measuring second-order time-average pressure. J. Acoust.
Soc. Am., 110:717723, 2001.
[35] L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz. Fluid Mechanics. Pergamon, 1982.
[36] R. S. Reid, W. C. Ward, and G. W. Swift. Cyclic thermodynamics with open ow.
Phys. Rev. Lett., 80:46174620, 1998.
[37] R. S. Reid and G. W. Swift. Experiments with a ow-through thermoacoustic refrigerator. J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 108:28352842, 2000.
[38] R. S. Reid. Open cycle thermoacoustics. PhD thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology,
School of Mechanical Engineering, 1999.
[39] S. Backhaus and G. W. Swift. A thermoacoustic-Stirling heat engine. Nature, 399:335
338, 1999.
[40] David Gedeon. DC gas ows in Stirling and pulse-tube cryocoolers. In R. G. Ross,
editor, Cryocoolers 9, pages 385392. Plenum, New York, 1997.
[41] G. W. Swift and S. Backhaus. A resonant, self-pumped, circulating thermoacoustic
heat exchanger. J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 116:29232938, 2004.
[42] P. S. Spoor and G. W. Swift. Thermoacoustic separation of a HeAr mixture. Phys.
Rev. Lett., 85:16461649, 2000.
[43] D. A. Geller and G. W. Swift. Saturation of thermoacoustic mixture separation.
J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 111:16751684, 2002.
[44] D. A. Geller and G. W. Swift. Thermoacoustic enrichment of the isotopes of neon.
J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 115:20592070, 2004.
[45] M. J. D. Powell. A hybrid method for nonlinear equations. In P. Rabinowitz, editor, Numerical Methods for Nonlinear Algebraic Equations, pages 87114. Gordon and
Breach, London, 1970.
273

[46] M. J. D. Powell. A FORTRAN subroutine for solving systems of nonlinear algebraic

equations. In P. Rabinowitz, editor, Numerical Methods for Nonlinear Algebraic Equations, pages 115161. Gordon and Breach, London, 1970.
[47] S. M. Hino, M. Sawamoto, and S. Takasu. Experiments on transition to turbulence in
an oscillatory pipe ow. J. Fluid Mech., 75:193207, 1976.
[48] M. Ohmi, M. Iguchi, K. Kakehashi, and M. Tetsuya. Transition to turbulence and
velocity distribution in an oscillating pipe ow. Bull. JSME, 25:365371, 1982.
[49] M. Ohmi and M. Iguchi. Critical Reynolds number in an oscillating pipe ow. Bull.
JSME, 25:165172, 1982.
[50] M. Ohmi, M. Iguchi, and I. Urahata. Flow patterns and frictional losses in an oscillating
pipe ow. Bull. JSME, 25:536543, 1982.
[51] I. E. Idelchik. Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance. Begell House, New York, 3rd edition,
1994.
[52] J. H. So, G. W. Swift, and S. Backhaus. An internal streaming instability in regenerators. J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 120:18981909, 2006.
[53] J. R. Olson and G. W. Swift. A loaded thermoacoustic engine. J. Acoust. Soc. Am.,
98:26902693, 1995.
[54] G. W. Swift and J. J. Wollan. Thermoacoustics for liquefaction of natural gas. GasTIPS,
8(4):2126, 2002. Also available at www.lanl.gov/thermoacoustics/Pubs/GasTIPS.pdf.
[55] R. W. Fox and A. T. McDonald. Introduction to Fluid Mechanics. Wiley, 1985.
[56] R. M. Olson. Essentials of Engineering Fluid Mechanics. Intext Educational Publishers,
New York, 1973.
[57] A. D. Pierce. Acoustics: An Introduction to Its Physical Principles and Applications.
Acoustical Society of America, Woodbury, New York, 1989.
[58] A. D. Pierce. Acoustics: An Introduction to Its Physical Principles and Applications.
Acoustical Society of America, Woodbury, New York, 1989. Eqs. (5-4.8), (5-4.9), (54.11b), (5-4.13b).
[59] W. P. Arnott, H. E. Bass, and R. Raspet. General formulation of thermoacoustics for
stacks having arbitrarily shaped pore cross sections. J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 90:32283237,
1991.
[60] G. W. Swift and R. M. Keolian. Thermoacoustics in pin-array stacks. J. Acoust. Soc.
Am., 94:941943, 1993.
[61] G. W. Swift and W. C. Ward. Simple harmonic analysis of regenerators. J. Thermophysics and Heat Transfer, 10:652662, 1996.
274

[62] W. M. Kays and A. L. London. Compact Heat Exchangers. McGraw-Hill, New York,
1964.
[63] P. J. Storch, R. Radebaugh, and J. E. Zimmerman. Analytical model for the refrigeration power of the orice pulse tube refrigerator. Technical note 1343, National Institute
of Standards and Technology, 1990.
[64] N. T. Weiland and B. T. Zinn. Open cycle traveling wave thermoacoustics: Mean
temperature dierence at the regenerator interface. J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 114:2791
2798, 2003.
[65] J. L. Smith and M. Romm. Thermodynamic loss at component interfaces in Stirling cycles. In Proceedings of the 27th Intersociety Energy Conversion Engineering Conference,
pages 5.5295.532. Society of Automotive Engineers, 1992.
[66] G. W. Swift and P. S. Spoor. Thermal diusion and mixture separation in the acoustic
boundary layer. J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 106:17941800, 1999. Errata J. Acoust. Soc. Am.
107:2299, 2000; 109:1261, 2001.
[67] D. A. Geller and G. W. Swift. Thermodynamic e ciency of thermoacoustic mixture
separation. J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 112:504510, 2002.
[68] D. A. Geller and G. W. Swift. Thermoacoustic mixture separation with an axial temperature gradient. J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 2009. In press.
[69] Y. S. Touloukian and C. Y. Ho. Properties of Nonmetallic Fluid Elements. McGrawHill, 1981.
[70] Y. S. Touloukian, S. C. Saxena, and P. Hestermans. Viscosity: Thermophysical Properties of Matter, Volume 11. Plenum, 1975.
[71] Y. S. Touloukian, P. E. Liley, and S. C. Saxena. Thermal Conductivity: Nonmetallic
Liquids and Gases: Thermophysical Properties of Matter, Volume 3. Plenum, 1970.
[72] R. A. Hiller and G. W. Swift. Condensation in a steady-ow thermoacoustic refrigerator.
J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 108:15211527, 2000.
[73] R. Pritchard, J. J. Guy, and N. E. Connor. Industrial Gas Utilization Engineering
Principles and Practice. Bowker Publishing Company, Epping, Essex, 1977.
[74] O. J. Foust, editor. Sodium-NaK Engineering Handbook. Gordon and Breach, New
York, 1972.

275

Segment index
ignoring steady ow, 19, 20
with steady ow, 107

ANCHOR
examples, 80
reference summary, 229
tutorial discussion, 82

HX
examples, 63, 80, 103
reference summary, 186

BEGIN
examples, 103
reference summary, 219
BLKDATA
reference summary, 239
BRANCH
examples, 168
reference summary, 167

IDUCER
examples, 171
reference summary, 169
tutorial discussion, 25
IEDUCER
examples, 166
reference summary, 163
tutorial discussion, 26
IESPEAKER
examples, 91, 166
magnetic ux saturation, 262
reference summary, 163
IMPEDANCE
reference summary, 158
INSULATE
reference summary, 229
ISPEAKER
examples, 171
magnetic ux saturation, 262
reference summary, 169
tutorial discussion, 26

COMPLIANCE
examples, 63
reference summary, 156
CONDUCT, see ANCHOR
CONE
examples, 63, 154
reference summary, 152
tutorial discussion
ignoring steady ow, 25
CONSTANTS
reference summary, 239
DUCT
examples, 12, 63, 80, 148
reference summary, 147
tutorial discussion
ignoring steady ow, 12, 25

JOIN
reference summary, 208
MINOR
examples, 113
reference summary, 159
tutorial discussion
with steady ow, 113
MIXBL
reference summary, 210

ENDCAP
HARDEND
examples, 63, 80, 107
reference summary, 222
tutorial discussion
277

tutorial discussion, 123

MIXCIRC
examples, 127
reference summary, 210
tutorial discussion, 123
MIXSLAB
reference summary, 210
tutorial discussion, 123
MIXTBL
reference summary, 213
MIXTCIRC
reference summary, 213
MIXTSLAB
reference summary, 213

reference summary, 173

STKPOWERLW
reference summary, 179
STKRECT
examples, 103, 176
reference summary, 173
tutorial discussion
with steady ow, 103
STKSCREEN
examples, 88, 107
reference summary, 179
tutorial discussion
ignoring steady ow, 88
with steady ow, 107
STKSLAB
examples, 63, 176
reference summary, 173
SURFACE
examples, 63, 80
reference summary, 157
SX
examples, 88
reference summary, 190
SYSEXEC
reference summary, 241

OPNBRANCH
examples, 168
reference summary, 167
PISTBRANCH
examples, 168
reference summary, 167
PX
reference summary, 190
RPN
examples, 88
reference summary, 230
tutorial discussion, 51

TBRANCH
examples, 91, 107
reference summary, 224
tutorial discussion
ignoring steady ow, 34
with steady ow, 107
TITLE
reference summary, 219
TX
reference summary, 186

SOFTEND
examples, 103, 107
reference summary, 222
tutorial discussion
ignoring steady ow, 34
with steady ow, 103, 107
STKCIRC
examples, 80, 176
reference summary, 173
STKCONE
reference summary, 183
STKDUCT
examples, 95
reference summary, 183
STKPIN
examples, 176

UNION
examples, 91, 107
reference summary, 227
tutorial discussion
ignoring steady ow, 34
with steady ow, 107
VDUCER
278

examples, 171
reference summary, 169
tutorial discussion, 25
VEDUCER
examples, 166
reference summary, 163
tutorial discussion, 26
VESPEAKER
examples, 70, 166
magnetic ux saturation, 262
reference summary, 163
VOLUME
reference summary, 238
VSPEAKER
examples, 67, 171
magnetic ux saturation, 262
reference summary, 169
tutorial discussion, 26
VXQ1
examples, 113
reference summary, 195
tutorial discussion
with steady ow, 113
VXQ2
reference summary, 195
VXT1
reference summary, 195
VXT2
reference summary, 195

279

Subject index
Autolayout, 87

<.blk>, 239
<.err>, 138
<.ini>, 136
<.ip>, 45
<.isv>, 41
<.out>, 12
<.sp>, 41
<.ssv>, 41
<.tpf>, 27, 248, 252
<.tpm>, 249
Flipping a model, 87
Font, changing size, 15

Branches, structured, 34, 224

Bugs, reporting, 138
Combustion, pulsed, 263
Comment lines, 86
Continuity equation, 10, 61, 132
Convergence problems
useful strategies, 78, 79
Convergence tolerance, 137
Debug alerts, 138

Gases, 27, 243

mid-model change of, 243
temperature oor, 136
user-dened, 27, 248, 249
Guesses and targets
convergence di culty, 78, 79
examples, 18, 71
general guidance, 18, 71, 134
in RPN, 54, 57
meeting targets, 78, 79
mixture separation, 124
non-standard guesses, 57
non-standard targets, 54, 231
restoring, 86
rewinding incremental plots, 49
shooting-method parameters, 137

Energy equation
axial, 62, 132
lateral, 102, 132
Energy notation, 134
Error messages, 138
reporting, 138
Examples
incremental plots, 45, 63, 80
mixture separation, 127
pulse-tube refrigerator, 95
self-circulating heat exchanger, 113
standing-wave engine, 80
standing-wave refrigerator, 63, 103
state plots, 17, 63, 80, 88, 95, 103, 107,
113, 127
Stirling engine, 107
Stirling refrigerator, 88
structured branches, 34, 107, 113, 224
traveling-wave engine, 107
traveling-wave refrigerator, 88
with nonzero N_ , 103, 107, 113, 127
Exergy, 99, 102

Harmonic content, 139

Head-loss equation, 102, 132
Highlights display, 33
Hydraulic radius, 88
Incremental plots, 45
cloning, 42
multiple models, 57

File types
281

rewinding, 49
Installation, 7
Integration variables, 132
acoustics only, 11
thermoacoustics, 63
with mixture separation, 124
with steady ow, 102
Inter-model links, 57

Size of font, 15
Solids, 27, 251
temperature oor, 136
user-dened, 252
Splitting a segment, 86
State plots, 17, 41
cloning, 42
phasor, 43, 96
with legs, 43
Steady ow, 101, 134
and user-dened gases, 248
Structured branches, 34, 224
Symbols, 266

Legs, 43, 224

Limitations, 139
Magnetic ux saturation, 262
Master plots, 57
Masterslave links, 29, 53
Messages, error and warning, 138
Mixture-separation equation, 124, 132
Momentum equation, 10, 61, 132

Targets, see Guesses and targets

Temperature oor, 136
Thermophysical properties
formulas for each gas, 243
formulas for each solid, 251
from the keyboard, 39
in RPN, 53, 230
Tolerance, convergence, 137
Turbulence, 28, 139
in CONE, 28, 153
in DUCT, 28, 147, 149
in MINOR, 159
in PX, 193
in STKPOWERLW, 183
in STKSCREEN, 183
in SX, 192
in VX**, 201

Nint, 136
Nonlinear eects, 6
Normalization mode, 137
Notation, 7, 266
energy, 134
Notes, user-specied, 86
Numerical options
integration steps, 136
shooting method, 137
temperature oor, 136
Options, numerical, 136
Phasor plots, 32, 43, 96
Plots, see State plots, Incremental plots,
Phasor plots, Schematic view
Power notation, 134
Printing the Users Guide, 6
Pulsed combustion, 263

Users Guide, printing, 6

Variables, 266
Warning messages, 138

Reporting bugs, 138

Rewinding incremental plots, 49
sameas, 28
Schematic view, 32
Screens, hydraulic-radius and porosity calculation, 88
Shooting method, see Guesses and targets
282