Chapter 2: Morphology of the Permanent Incisors

Section I: General Description of incisors

A. Functions of incisors
1) Cut food (mandibular incisors are moving blades against the maxillary
incisors)
2) Enable articulate speech
3) Help to support the lip and maintain an esthetic appearance
4) Help to guide the mandible posterior during the final phase of closing just
before the posterior teeth contact
B. Class traits for all incisors: Traits that apply to all incisors
1) Developmental lobes
i. Facial surface
1. Forms from three labial lobes: the mesial, middle and distal
2. Have two shallow vertical developmental depressions
separating the three lobes
ii. Incisal surface
1. The three lobes contribute to three rounded elevations
called mamelons.
iii. Lingual surface
1. A fourth lobe forms the lingual bulge called cingulum.
2) General similarities of most incisors from the facial view
i. Incisor Crowns
1. Straight or slightly curved incisal edge
2. Relatively rectangular: longer incisogingivally than wide
mesiodistally (a)
3. Narrower in the cervical third and broader toward the
incisal third (b)
4. Crown outline more convex on the distal than on the mesial
surfaces. EXCEPT: mandibular central incisors, which are
symmetrical. (c)
5. Mesioincisal angles are more acute (sharper) than
distoincisal angles. EXCEPT: symmetrical mandibular
central incisors, where the angles are not noticeably
different. (d)
6. Mesial contact areas are located in the incisal third. (e)
7. Distal contact areas are more cervical than mesial.
EXCEPT: mandibular central incisors, where distal contact
areas are at the same level as the mesial due to its
symmetry.
8. The incisal edge slopes cervically (appears shorter) toward
the distal. EXCEPT: mandibular central incisors.
9. The cervical line curves toward the apex in the middle of
the facial and lingual surfaces.
ii. Incisor roots

1. Taper (become more narrow) from the cervical line to the

apex. (f)
2. Wider faciolingually than mesiodistally. EXCEPT:
maxillary central incisors, where the mesiodistal width is
approximately the same as the faciolingual thickness. (g)
3. May bend toward the distal in the apical third. EXCEPT:
maxillary central incisors, which are not likely to bend. (h)
4. Are longer than crowns. (i)
3) Characteristics of all incisors from the lingual view
i. Incisor crowns
1. Have a narrower lingual surface because the mesial and
distal surfaces converge lingually. (j)
2. The mesial and distal marginal ridges converge toward the
lingual cingulum. (k)
4) Characteristics of all incisors from the proximal views
i. Incisor crowns
1. Are wedge shaped or triangular, when viewed from
proximal. (m)
2. The facial outline is more convex cervically than incisally.
3. The facial height of contour is in the cervical third. (n)
4. The lingual height of contour is in the cervical third, on the
cingulum. (n)
5. The lingual outline is S-shape, being convex over the
cingulum and concave from the cingulum nearly to the
incisal edge. (p)
** The concave portion of the lingual surface on the maxillary
anterior teeth is the most important guiding factor in the
closing movements of the lower jaw because the mandibular
incisors fits into this concavity and against marginal ridges of
the maxillary incisors as maximum closure or occlusion is
approached.
6. The cervical line proximally curves toward the incisal edge.
The resultant curve is greater on the mesial surface than on
the distal. (o)
ii. Incisor roots
1. Are widest in the cervical third and gradually taper to a
rounded apex. (f)
5) Characteristics of all incisors from the incisal view
i. Incisor crowns
1. Have a lingual fossa that is concave just incisal to the
cingulum.
2. Have an incisal ridge that terminates mesiodistally at the
widest portion of the crown. (q)
3. The labial outline is broader and less curved than the
convex lingual outline.(r)
4. Marginal ridges converge toward the cingulum.(k)

5. The crown outline tapers from proximal contact area

toward the cingulum, resulting in a narrower lingual than
labial surface. (j)
C. Arch traits that distinguish maxillary from mandibular incisors
1) Mandibular incisors are generally smaller than maxillary incisors.
2) Mandibular central and lateral incisors look more alike and more nearly
the same size in the same mouth, compared to greater differences between
maxillary central and lateral incisors.
3) Mandibular incisors have contact areas located closer to the incisal ridge
than maxillary incisors.
4) Mandibular incisor crowns are relatively wider faciolingually than
mesiodistally compared to maxillary central incisors, which are wider
mesiodistally.
5) Mandibular incisor crowns have smoother lingual surfaces with less
prominent anatomy than maxillary crowns, which have deeper fossae and
more pronounced marginal ridges.
6) Mandibular incisor roots are longer in proportion to their crowns than are
maxillary incisor roots.
7) Incisal ridges of mandibular incisors are usually positioned lingual to the
mid-root-axis line.
8) Incisal ridges of maxillary incisors are more often on or labial to the root
axis line.
9) The wear on the incisal ridges of incisors occurs when the labial part of
the incisal edges of mandibular incisors slides forward and downward
while contacting the lingual surface and part of the incisal edge of
opposing maxillary incisors. The wear results in a shiny, flat, polished
surface of enamel on the incisal edge called a facet. Assuming a normal
tooth relationship:
i. Facets that commonly form on mandibular incisors are sloping
cervically to the labial. Wear occurs more on the facial surface.
ii. Facets that commonly form on maxillary incisors are sloping
cervically toward the lingual fossa. Wear occurs more on the
lingual surface.
Section II: Maxillary incisor type traits: similarities and differences useful to distinguish
maxillary central incisors from maxillary lateral incisors (from all views)
A. Maxillary incisors from the labial view
1. Crown shape
i. Maxillary central incisor
1. Is the longest of all human tooth crowns (based on
Woelfels studies). **Other authors describe the
mandibular canine crown as the longest crown overall.
2. Has the widest crown of all incisors.
3. The crown is usually longer incisogingivally than wide
mesiodistally. (a)

2.

3.

4.

5.

4. The crown is narrowest in the cervical third and becomes

broader toward the incisal third.
ii. Maxillary lateral incisor
1. Considerably narrower mesiodistally than the crown of the
maxillary central incisor
2. The root is longer giving this entire tooth a longer, slender
look.
3. The crown outline is less symmetrical than on the central
incisor.
4. The labial surface is more convex or less flat mesiodistally
than on the maxillary central.
5. Mamelons, and particulary labial depressions, are less
prominent and less common than on the central incisor.
Incisoproximal line-angles
i. Maxillary central incisor
1. The mesioincisal angle is nearly a right angle (b)
2. The distoincisal angle is more rounded, and the angle is
more obtuse or greater than the right angle. (b)
ii. Maxillary lateral incisor
1. Both the mesioincisal and the distoincisal angles are more
rounded than on the central incisor. (b)
2. The mesioincisal angle is more acute than the distoincisal
angle, accentuated by the incisal edge sloping cervically
toward the distal. (c )
Proximal contact areas
i. The mesial contacts of both are in the cervical third.
ii. The distal contacts of both are more cervical than the mesial. **For
a maxillary central incisor, the distal contact is near the junction of
the incisal and the middle thirds; for the maxillary lateral incisor it
is even more cervical, in the middle third. Making this distal
contact the most cervical for any incisor.
Root-to-crown proportions
i. Maxillary central incisor
1. The root is slightly longer than the crown resulting in a
root-to-crown ratio that is the smallest of any permanent
tooth (d)
ii. Maxillary lateral incisor
1. Longer root in proportion to the crown.
Root shape
i. Maxillary central incisor
1. Is thick in the cervical third and narrows through the
middle to a blunt apex.
2. An apical bend is not common.
3. Is the only maxillary root that is as thick at the cervix
mesiodistally as faciolingually.

** Because of the shortness and conical shape, the maxillary

central incisor root may be a poor choice to support a
replacement tooth as part of a dental bridge.
ii. Maxillay lateral incisor
1. The root tapers toward the rounded apex, and the apical end
is commonly bent distally.
B. Maxillary incisors from the lingual view
1. Lingual fossae
i. The lingual fossae of both maxillary incisors are more often deeper
than fossae in mandibular incisors.
ii. The lingual fossa of the maxillary lateral incisor is often more
pronounced than on the central incisor.
2. Cingulum
i. Maxillary central incisor
1. Well developed
2. Located off-centered
3. Distal to the root axis line
ii. Maxillary lateral incisor
1. Narrower
2. Almost centered on the root axis line
3. Marginal ridges
i. Mesial marginal ridges are longer than distal marginal ridges (f)
4. Pits and accessory ridges
i. Maxillary lateral incisor
1. Deep Lingual pits
ii. On both, accesory ridges may extend vertically from the cingulum
toward the center of the fossa.
5. Root shape
i. Convex and tapers toward the lingual surface
C. Maxillary incisors from the proximal views
1. Incisal edge
i. The incisal edge is commonly labial or on the root axis line. (o)
ii. Maxillary central incisor
1. The distolingual twist of the incisal ridge places the distal
portion more lingual than the mesial portion.
2. Cervical line
i. The cervical line curvature is greater on the mesial surface.
ii. Maxillary central incisor
1. Mesial curvature larger than for any other tooth.
3. Height (crest) of contour
i. In the cervical third.
4. Root shape and root depressions
i. Maxillary central incisor
1. Flatter facial root outline and more convex lingual root
outline.
ii. Maxillary lateral incisor

1. Tapers more evenly throughout the root toward the blunt

apex.
iii. Mesial root surfaces could have a slight depression in the middle
third.
D. Maxillary incisors from the incisal view
1. Crown proportion faciolingually versus mesiodistally
i. The incisal outline is wider mesiodistally than faciolingually.
1. Noticeably wider on maxillary central incisor. (h)
2. Outline shape and cingulum location of crowns
i. Maxillary central incisor
1. The incisal outline is somewhat triangular.
2. The labial outline is broadly curved
3. Cingulum located off-center to the distal
ii. Maxillary lateral incisor
1. The outline is more round or oval than triangular.
2. The labial outline is noticeably more convex than on the
central incisor.
3. Cingulum nearly centeres mesiodistally.
3. Incisal ridge contour
i. Maxillary central incisor
1. The incisal ridge is 1.5 to 2mm thick faciolingually.
2. The distal half of the incisal edge is twisted to the lingual.
(g)
ii. Maxillary lateral incisors
1. Straighter incisal ridges
Section III: Mandibular Incisor type traits: Similarities and differences useful to
distinguish mandibular central incisors from mandibular lateral incisors (from all views)
A. Mandibular incisors from the labial view
1. Crown shape
i. Mamelons are usually present on newly emerged mandibular
incisors
ii. Quite narrow relative to their crow length
iii. Mandibular central incisor
1. The narrowest crown in the mouth
iv. Mandibular lateral incisor
1. Little larger in all dimensions than the central
2. Its crown tilts distally on the root (l)
2. Incisal proximal angles
i. Mandibular central incisor
1. Mesioincisal and distoincisal angles are very similar,
forming nearly right angles. (j)
ii. Mandibular lateral incisor
1. Noticeably more rounded distoincisal angle than the
mesioincisal angle. (j)

3. Proximal contact areas

i. Mandibular central incisors
1. Mesial and distal contacts areas are at the same level: in the
incisal third. (i)
ii. Mandibular lateral incisors
1. The distal contact is noticeably cervical to the level of the
mesial contact.
4. Root-to-crown proportions
i. Proportionally longer roots compared to their crown length.
ii. Larger root-to-crown ratio for both mandibular incisors compared
to maxillary incisors.
5. Root shape
i. Very narrow mesiodistally but wide faciolingually (n)
ii. Taper uniformly on both sides from the cervical line to the apex.
iii. The apical end may curve slightly to the distal
B. Mandibular incisors from the lingual view
1. Cingulum
i. Mandibular central incisor
1. Convex
2. Small
3. Centered on the axis line of the root
ii. Mandibular lateral incisor
1. Lies slightly distal to the axis line
2. Lingual anatomy (marginal ridges and fossae)
i. The lingual fossae are barely visible, smooth and shallow, just
slightly concave in the middle and incisal thirds. (m)
3. Root shape
i. Mostly convex and slightly narrower on the lingual side than on
the labial side (as with other incisor roots).
ii. Evidence of mesial and distal longitudinal root depressions from
this view.
C. Mandibular incisors from the proximal views
1. Incisal edge
i. Are located on or lingual to the mid-root axis. (o)
ii. Mandibular lateral incisor
1. The distolingual twist of the incisal ridge places the distal
portion more lingual than the mesial.
2. Cervical line
i. The cervical line curvature is greater on the mesial surface.
3. Height (crest) of contour
i. In the cervical thirds on lingual and facial surfaces.
4. Root shape and depressions
i. The cervical portion of the roots is wider faciolingually than
mesiodistally.
ii. Usually slight longitudinal depression on the middle third of the
mesial and distal root surfaces.

iii. The distal depressions are more distinct.

D. Mandibular incisors from the incisal view
1. Crown proportions
i. Wider labiolingually than mesiodistally. ** Different from the
measurements of the maxillary incisors, which are wider MD than
FL.
2. Crown outline
i. Mandibular central incisor
1. Bilaterally symmetrical
2. The lingual and facial heights of contour are centered.
ii. Mandibular lateral incisor
1. The cingulum is located distal to the mesiodistal midline.
(k) **Also seen in maxillary central incisor.
3. Incisal ridge contour (Alignment)
i. Mandibular central incisor
1. 2mm thick
2. Runs in a straight line mesiodistally toward both contact
areas.
ii. The incisal ridge of both types of mandibular incisor is lingual to
the mid-root axis
iii. Mandibular lateral incisor
1. The distal half of the incisal edge is twisted lingually.
4. Labial contour
i. The labial surfaces of all mandibular incisors are only slightly
convex in the incisal third
ii. The outline in the cervical third is decidedly convex.
Section IV: Interesting variations and ethnic differences in incisors
A. Shovel-shape
a. Is the term commonly used to designate incisor teeth that have prominent
marginal ridges and a deep fossa on their lingual surfaces.
b. A high incidence has been observed in Mongoloid people, including
groups of American Indians.
c. White and Black people are reported to have less frequent occurrences of
this characteristic.
B. Three-quarter double shovel-shaped
a. When the teeth have a mesial marginal ridge on the labial surface and a
depression just distal to the ridge and a distal part unusually rounded.
b. Reported in some Arctic coastal populations.
C. In some Mongoloid people, the cingulum of mandibular incisors is
characteristically marked by a short deep groove running cervicoincisally.

Review Questions
** Ya estn contestadas
1) Mesiodistal dimension of the crown is larger than the labiolingual dimension.
Maxillary incisors
2) The incisal ridge exhibits a distolingual twist.
Maxillary central incisor
Mandibular lateral incisor
3) The root is very narrow mesiodistally with mesial and distal root depressions.
Mandibular incisors
4) The incisal edge is positioned more to the lingual of the root axis line.
Mandibular incisors
5) The distal proximal height of contour is more cervical than the mesial height of
contour.
Maxillary incisors
Mandibular lateral incisor
6) This tooth has the widest mesiodistally incisor crown
Maxillary central incisor
7) This tooth has the shortest root relative to its crown
Maxillary central incisor
8) This tooth is the most symmetrical incisor.
Mandibular central incisor
9) This tooth has the largest curvature of the mesial cervical line.
Maxillary central incisor
10) This tooth has the narrowest incisor crown (mesiodistally)
Mandibular central incisor