Polyphase Ac Circuits: 10.1 Single-Phase Power Systems
Polyphase Ac Circuits: 10.1 Single-Phase Power Systems
Polyphase Ac Circuits: 10.1 Single-Phase Power Systems
com
POLYPHASE AC CIRCUITS
10.1
load
#1
load
#2
Figure 10.1: Single phase power system schematic diagram shows little about the wiring of a
practical power circuit.
Depicted above (Figure 10.1) is a very simple AC circuit. If the load resistors power dissipation were substantial, we might call this a power circuit or power system instead of
regarding it as just a regular circuit. The distinction between a power circuit and a regular
circuit may seem arbitrary, but the practical concerns are definitely not.
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One such concern is the size and cost of wiring necessary to deliver power from the AC
source to the load. Normally, we do not give much thought to this type of concern if were
merely analyzing a circuit for the sake of learning about the laws of electricity. However, in the
real world it can be a major concern. If we give the source in the above circuit a voltage value
and also give power dissipation values to the two load resistors, we can determine the wiring
needs for this particular circuit: (Figure 10.2)
load
#1
120 V
P = 10 kW
load
#2
P = 10 kW
Figure 10.2: As a practical matter, the wiring for the 20 kW loads at 120 Vac is rather substantial (167 A).
I=
P
E
I=
10 kW
120 V
I = 83.33 A
Ptotal = 20 kW
Itotal = 166.67 A
83.33 amps for each load resistor in Figure 10.2 adds up to 166.66 amps total circuit current.
This is no small amount of current, and would necessitate copper wire conductors of at least
1/0 gage. Such wire is well over 1/4 inch (6 mm) in diameter, weighing over 300 pounds per
thousand feet. Bear in mind that copper is not cheap either! It would be in our best interest
to find ways to minimize such costs if we were designing a power system with long conductor
lengths.
One way to do this would be to increase the voltage of the power source and use loads built
to dissipate 10 kW each at this higher voltage. The loads, of course, would have to have greater
resistance values to dissipate the same power as before (10 kW each) at a greater voltage than
before. The advantage would be less current required, permitting the use of smaller, lighter,
and cheaper wire: (Figure 10.3)
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load
#1
240 V
P = 10 kW
load
#2
P = 10 kW
Figure 10.3: Same 10 kW loads at 240 Vac requires less substantial wiring than at 120 Vac (83
A).
I=
P
E
I=
10 kW
240 V
I = 41.67 A
Ptotal = 20 kW
Itotal = 83.33 A
Now our total circuit current is 83.33 amps, half of what it was before. We can now use
number 4 gage wire, which weighs less than half of what 1/0 gage wire does per unit length.
This is a considerable reduction in system cost with no degradation in performance. This is why
power distribution system designers elect to transmit electric power using very high voltages
(many thousands of volts): to capitalize on the savings realized by the use of smaller, lighter,
cheaper wire.
However, this solution is not without disadvantages. Another practical concern with power
circuits is the danger of electric shock from high voltages. Again, this is not usually the sort
of thing we concentrate on while learning about the laws of electricity, but it is a very valid
concern in the real world, especially when large amounts of power are being dealt with. The
gain in efficiency realized by stepping up the circuit voltage presents us with increased danger
of electric shock. Power distribution companies tackle this problem by stringing their power
lines along high poles or towers, and insulating the lines from the supporting structures with
large, porcelain insulators.
At the point of use (the electric power customer), there is still the issue of what voltage
to use for powering loads. High voltage gives greater system efficiency by means of reduced
conductor current, but it might not always be practical to keep power wiring out of reach at
the point of use the way it can be elevated out of reach in distribution systems. This tradeoff
between efficiency and danger is one that European power system designers have decided to
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risk, all their households and appliances operating at a nominal voltage of 240 volts instead of
120 volts as it is in North America. That is why tourists from America visiting Europe must
carry small step-down transformers for their portable appliances, to step the 240 VAC (volts
AC) power down to a more suitable 120 VAC.
Is there any way to realize the advantages of both increased efficiency and reduced safety
hazard at the same time? One solution would be to install step-down transformers at the endpoint of power use, just as the American tourist must do while in Europe. However, this would
be expensive and inconvenient for anything but very small loads (where the transformers can
be built cheaply) or very large loads (where the expense of thick copper wires would exceed the
expense of a transformer).
An alternative solution would be to use a higher voltage supply to provide power to two
lower voltage loads in series. This approach combines the efficiency of a high-voltage system
with the safety of a low-voltage system: (Figure 10.4)
83.33 A
load +120 V
#1 10 kW
-
+
240 V
-
load +120 V
#2 10 kW
-
+
240 V
-
83.33 A
Figure 10.4: Series connected 120 Vac loads, driven by 240 Vac source at 83.3 A total current.
Notice the polarity markings (+ and -) for each voltage shown, as well as the unidirectional
arrows for current. For the most part, Ive avoided labeling polarities in the AC circuits
weve been analyzing, even though the notation is valid to provide a frame of reference for
phase. In later sections of this chapter, phase relationships will become very important, so Im
introducing this notation early on in the chapter for your familiarity.
The current through each load is the same as it was in the simple 120 volt circuit, but the
currents are not additive because the loads are in series rather than parallel. The voltage
across each load is only 120 volts, not 240, so the safety factor is better. Mind you, we still have
a full 240 volts across the power system wires, but each load is operating at a reduced voltage.
If anyone is going to get shocked, the odds are that it will be from coming into contact with
the conductors of a particular load rather than from contact across the main wires of a power
system.
Theres only one disadvantage to this design: the consequences of one load failing open, or
being turned off (assuming each load has a series on/off switch to interrupt current) are not
good. Being a series circuit, if either load were to open, current would stop in the other load as
well. For this reason, we need to modify the design a bit: (Figure 10.5)
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83.33 A
+
+
-
120 V
0o
"hot"
"neutral"
0A
120 V
0o
"hot"
83.33 A
load +120 V
#1
0o
load +120 V
#2
0o
-
+
240 V
-
P
E
10 kW
I=
120 V
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+
-
120 V
120 V
+
240 V
-
Figure 10.6: American 120/240 Vac power is derived from a center tapped utility transformer.
transformer or alternator winding is minimal.
Here is where the (+) and (-) polarity markings really become important. This notation is
often used to reference the phasings of multiple AC voltage sources, so it is clear whether they
are aiding (boosting) each other or opposing (bucking) each other. If not for these polarity
markings, phase relations between multiple AC sources might be very confusing. Note that
the split-phase sources in the schematic (each one 120 volts 6 0o ), with polarity marks (+) to
(-) just like series-aiding batteries can alternatively be represented as such: (Figure 10.7)
"hot"
+
+
120 V
0o
120 V
180o
+
240 V
0o
"hot"
Figure 10.7: Split phase 120/240 Vac source is equivalent to two series aiding 120 Vac sources.
To mathematically calculate voltage between hot wires, we must subtract voltages, because their polarity marks show them to be opposed to each other:
Polar
120 0o
- 120 180o
240 0o
Rectangular
120 + j0 V
- (-120 + j0) V
240 + j0 V
If we mark the two sources common connection point (the neutral wire) with the same
polarity mark (-), we must express their relative phase shifts as being 180o apart. Otherwise,
wed be denoting two voltage sources in direct opposition with each other, which would give
0 volts between the two hot conductors. Why am I taking the time to elaborate on polarity
marks and phase angles? It will make more sense in the next section!
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Power systems in American households and light industry are most often of the split-phase
variety, providing so-called 120/240 VAC power. The term split-phase merely refers to the
split-voltage supply in such a system. In a more general sense, this kind of AC power supply
is called single phase because both voltage waveforms are in phase, or in step, with each other.
The term single phase is a counterpoint to another kind of power system called polyphase
which we are about to investigate in detail. Apologies for the long introduction leading up to
the title-topic of this chapter. The advantages of polyphase power systems are more obvious if
one first has a good understanding of single phase systems.
REVIEW:
Single phase power systems are defined by having an AC source with only one voltage
waveform.
A split-phase power system is one with multiple (in-phase) AC voltage sources connected
in series, delivering power to loads at more than one voltage, with more than two wires.
They are used primarily to achieve balance between system efficiency (low conductor
currents) and safety (low load voltages).
Split-phase AC sources can be easily created by center-tapping the coil windings of transformers or alternators.
10.2
Split-phase power systems achieve their high conductor efficiency and low safety risk by splitting up the total voltage into lesser parts and powering multiple loads at those lesser voltages,
while drawing currents at levels typical of a full-voltage system. This technique, by the way,
works just as well for DC power systems as it does for single-phase AC systems. Such systems are usually referred to as three-wire systems rather than split-phase because phase is a
concept restricted to AC.
But we know from our experience with vectors and complex numbers that AC voltages dont
always add up as we think they would if they are out of phase with each other. This principle,
applied to power systems, can be put to use to make power systems with even greater conductor
efficiencies and lower shock hazard than with split-phase.
Suppose that we had two sources of AC voltage connected in series just like the split-phase
system we saw before, except that each voltage source was 120o out of phase with the other:
(Figure 10.8)
Since each voltage source is 120 volts, and each load resistor is connected directly in parallel
with its respective source, the voltage across each load must be 120 volts as well. Given load
currents of 83.33 amps, each load must still be dissipating 10 kilowatts of power. However,
voltage between the two hot wires is not 240 volts (120 6 0o - 120 6 180o ) because the phase
difference between the two sources is not 180o . Instead, the voltage is:
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83.33 A 0o
"hot"
120 V
0o
"neutral"
load +120 V
#1
0o
load -120 V
#2 120o
+
120 V
120o
+
207.85 V
-30o
-
"hot"
83.33 A 120o
Figure 10.8: Pair of 120 Vac sources phased 120o , similar to split-phase.
Nominally, we say that the voltage between hot conductors is 208 volts (rounding up), and
thus the power system voltage is designated as 120/208.
If we calculate the current through the neutral conductor, we find that it is not zero, even
with balanced load resistances. Kirchhoff s Current Law tells us that the currents entering
and exiting the node between the two loads must be zero: (Figure 10.9)
83.33 A 0o
"hot"
load +
120 V 0o
#1
"neutral"
Node
Ineutral
load
o
#2 120 V 120
+
"hot"
83.33 A 120o
Figure 10.9: Neutral wire carries a current in the case of a pair of 120o phased sources.
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So, we find that the neutral wire is carrying a full 83.33 amps, just like each hot wire.
Note that we are still conveying 20 kW of total power to the two loads, with each loads
hot wire carrying 83.33 amps as before. With the same amount of current through each hot
wire, we must use the same gage copper conductors, so we havent reduced system cost over
the split-phase 120/240 system. However, we have realized a gain in safety, because the overall
voltage between the two hot conductors is 32 volts lower than it was in the split-phase system
(208 volts instead of 240 volts).
The fact that the neutral wire is carrying 83.33 amps of current raises an interesting possibility: since its carrying current anyway, why not use that third wire as another hot conductor, powering another load resistor with a third 120 volt source having a phase angle of
240o ? That way, we could transmit more power (another 10 kW) without having to add any
more conductors. Lets see how this might look: (Figure 10.10)
83.33 A 0o
+
120 V
0o
83.33 A 240o
+
120 V
240o
120 V
+ 120o
load
#1
120 V
10 kW
+
208 V
-30o
-
load #3
120 V
10 kW
load
#2
120 V
10 kW
83.33 A 120o
Figure 10.10: With a third load phased 120o to the other two, the currents are the same as for
two loads.
A full mathematical analysis of all the voltages and currents in this circuit would necessitate the use of a network theorem, the easiest being the Superposition Theorem. Ill spare you
the long, drawn-out calculations because you should be able to intuitively understand that the
three voltage sources at three different phase angles will deliver 120 volts each to a balanced
triad of load resistors. For proof of this, we can use SPICE to do the math for us: (Figure 10.11,
SPICE listing: 120/208 polyphase power system)
Sure enough, we get 120 volts across each load resistor, with (approximately) 208 volts
between any two hot conductors and conductor currents equal to 83.33 amps. (Figure 10.12)
At that current and voltage, each load will be dissipating 10 kW of power. Notice that this
circuit has no neutral conductor to ensure stable voltage to all loads if one should open.
What we have here is a situation similar to our split-phase power circuit with no neutral
conductor: if one load should happen to fail open, the voltage drops across the remaining
load(s) will change. To ensure load voltage stability in the event of another load opening, we
need a neutral wire to connect the source node and load node together:
So long as the loads remain balanced (equal resistance, equal currents), the neutral wire
will not have to carry any current at all. It is there just in case one or more load resistors
should fail open (or be shut off through a disconnecting switch).
This circuit weve been analyzing with three voltage sources is called a polyphase circuit.
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1
+
0
+
+
120 V
240o
1.44
R1
120 V
0o
3
R3
1.44
120 V
120o
1.44
R2
v(3,4)
1.200E+02
v(3,1)
2.078E+02
i(v3)
8.333E+01
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83.33 A 0o
"hot"
load
#1
120 V
0o
83.33 A 240o
+
120 V
"hot"
240o
120 V
+ 120o
"hot"
83.33 A 120o
0A
120 V
10 kW
load #3
120 V
10 kW
load
#2
120 V
10 kW
"neutral"
Figure 10.12: SPICE circuit annotated with simulation results: Three 3- loads phased at
120o .
The prefix poly simply means more than one, as in polytheism (belief in more than one deity), polygon (a geometrical shape made of multiple line segments: for example, pentagon and
hexagon), and polyatomic (a substance composed of multiple types of atoms). Since the voltage sources are all at different phase angles (in this case, three different phase angles), this is
a polyphase circuit. More specifically, it is a three-phase circuit, the kind used predominantly
in large power distribution systems.
Lets survey the advantages of a three-phase power system over a single-phase system of
equivalent load voltage and power capacity. A single-phase system with three loads connected
directly in parallel would have a very high total current (83.33 times 3, or 250 amps. (Figure 10.13)
load
#1
120V
250 A
10 kW
load
#2
10 kW
load
#3
10 kW
Figure 10.13: For comparison, three 10 Kw loads on a 120 Vac system draw 250 A.
This would necessitate 3/0 gage copper wire (very large!), at about 510 pounds per thousand
feet, and with a considerable price tag attached. If the distance from source to load was 1000
feet, we would need over a half-ton of copper wire to do the job. On the other hand, we could
build a split-phase system with two 15 kW, 120 volt loads. (Figure 10.14)
Our current is half of what it was with the simple parallel circuit, which is a great improvement. We could get away with using number 2 gage copper wire at a total mass of about 600
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+
+
125 A 0o
"hot"
120 V
0o
"neutral"
0A
120 V
180o
load
#1
120 V
15 kW
load
#2
120 V
15 kW
+
240 V
0o
-
"hot"
125 A 180o
Figure 10.14: Split phase system draws half the current of 125 A at 240 Vac compared to 120
Vac system.
pounds, figuring about 200 pounds per thousand feet with three runs of 1000 feet each between
source and loads. However, we also have to consider the increased safety hazard of having 240
volts present in the system, even though each load only receives 120 volts. Overall, there is
greater potential for dangerous electric shock to occur.
When we contrast these two examples against our three-phase system (Figure 10.12), the
advantages are quite clear. First, the conductor currents are quite a bit less (83.33 amps versus
125 or 250 amps), permitting the use of much thinner and lighter wire. We can use number
4 gage wire at about 125 pounds per thousand feet, which will total 500 pounds (four runs
of 1000 feet each) for our example circuit. This represents a significant cost savings over the
split-phase system, with the additional benefit that the maximum voltage in the system is
lower (208 versus 240).
One question remains to be answered: how in the world do we get three AC voltage sources
whose phase angles are exactly 120o apart? Obviously we cant center-tap a transformer or
alternator winding like we did in the split-phase system, since that can only give us voltage
waveforms that are either in phase or 180o out of phase. Perhaps we could figure out some
way to use capacitors and inductors to create phase shifts of 120o , but then those phase shifts
would depend on the phase angles of our load impedances as well (substituting a capacitive or
inductive load for a resistive load would change everything!).
The best way to get the phase shifts were looking for is to generate it at the source: construct the AC generator (alternator) providing the power in such a way that the rotating magnetic field passes by three sets of wire windings, each set spaced 120o apart around the circumference of the machine as in Figure 10.15.
Together, the six pole windings of a three-phase alternator are connected to comprise three
winding pairs, each pair producing AC voltage with a phase angle 120o shifted from either of
the other two winding pairs. The interconnections between pairs of windings (as shown for the
single-phase alternator: the jumper wire between windings 1a and 1b) have been omitted from
the three-phase alternator drawing for simplicity.
In our example circuit, we showed the three voltage sources connected together in a Y
configuration (sometimes called the star configuration), with one lead of each source tied to
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winding
1b
winding
1a
winding
3b
winding
3a
winding
1b
winding
2b
+
120 V
0o
+
+
120 V
120o
120 V
240o
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The phase-shifted voltage sources necessary for a polyphase power system are created in
alternators with multiple sets of wire windings. These winding sets are spaced around
the circumference of the rotors rotation at the desired angle(s).
10.3
Phase rotation
Lets take the three-phase alternator design laid out earlier (Figure 10.17) and watch what
happens as the magnet rotates.
winding
2a
winding
1a
winding
3b
winding
3a
winding
1b
winding
2b
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phase sequence:
1- 2- 3- 1- 2- 3- 1- 2- 3
1
TIME
phase sequence:
3- 2- 1- 3- 2- 1- 3- 2- 1
3
TIME
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need to have some other kind of instrument capable of doing the job.
One ingenious circuit design uses a capacitor to introduce a phase shift between voltage
and current, which is then used to detect the sequence by way of comparison between the
brightness of two indicator lamps in Figure 10.20.
to phase
#1
to phase
#2
C
to phase
#3
Figure 10.20: Phase sequence detector compares brightness of two lamps.
The two lamps are of equal filament resistance and wattage. The capacitor is sized to have
approximately the same amount of reactance at system frequency as each lamps resistance.
If the capacitor were to be replaced by a resistor of equal value to the lamps resistance, the
two lamps would glow at equal brightness, the circuit being balanced. However, the capacitor
introduces a phase shift between voltage and current in the third leg of the circuit equal to
90o . This phase shift, greater than 0o but less than 120o , skews the voltage and current values
across the two lamps according to their phase shifts relative to phase 3. The following SPICE
analysis demonstrates what will happen: (Figure 10.21), phase rotation detector sequence
= v1-v2-v3
1
+
0
+
2
1
120 V
0o
+
120 V
240o
120 V
120o
2650
R1
3
C1
4
1 F
2650
R2
2
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1-2-3-1-2-3-1-2-3-1-2-3-1-2-3 . . .
3-2-1-3-2-1-3-2-1-3-2-1-3-2-1 . . .
What is commonly designated as a 1-2-3 phase rotation could just as well be called 2-3-1
or 3-1-2, going from left to right in the number string above. Likewise, the opposite rotation
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Original 1-2-3
phase rotation
End result
10.4
Perhaps the most important benefit of polyphase AC power over single-phase is the design and
operation of AC motors. As we studied in the first chapter of this book, some types of AC motors
are virtually identical in construction to their alternator (generator) counterparts, consisting
of stationary wire windings and a rotating magnet assembly. (Other AC motor designs are not
quite this simple, but we will leave those details to another lesson).
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Step #1
N
Step #2
N
-
+
I
Step #3
S
Step #4
S
+
Step #1
N
Step #2
S
-
+
I
Step #3
S
Step #4
N
+
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Notice that with the exact same sequence of polarity cycles (voltage, current, and magnetic
poles produced by the coils), the magnetic rotor can spin in either direction. This is a common
trait of all single-phase AC induction and synchronous motors: they have no normal or correct direction of rotation. The natural question should arise at this point: how can the motor
get started in the intended direction if it can run either way just as well? The answer is that
these motors need a little help getting started. Once helped to spin in a particular direction.
they will continue to spin that way as long as AC power is maintained to the windings.
Where that help comes from for a single-phase AC motor to get going in one direction can
vary. Usually, it comes from an additional set of windings positioned differently from the main
set, and energized with an AC voltage that is out of phase with the main power. (Figure 10.25)
winding 2s voltage waveform is 90 degrees
out of phase with winding 1s voltage waveform
winding
2a
winding
1a
winding
1b
N
winding
2b
winding 2s voltage waveform is 90 degrees
out of phase with winding 1s voltage waveform
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1a
2a
1b
2b
C
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When all of the 1 bulbs are lit, the 2 bulbs are dark, and vice versa. With this blinking
sequence, there is no definite motion to the bulbs light. Your eyes could follow a motion
from left to right just as easily as from right to left. Technically, the 1 and 2 bulb blinking
sequences are 180o out of phase (exactly opposite each other). This is analogous to the singlephase AC motor, which can run just as easily in either direction, but which cannot start on its
own because its magnetic field alternation lacks a definite rotation.
Now lets examine a string of lights where there are three sets of bulbs to be sequenced instead of just two, and these three sets are equally out of phase with each other in Figure 10.28.
Time
1
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winding
2a
winding
1a
winding
3b
winding
3a
winding
1b
winding
2b
Figure 10.30: Three-phase AC motor: A phase sequence of 1-2-3 spins the magnet clockwise,
3-2-1 spins the magnet counterclockwise.
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AC induction and synchronous motors work by having a rotating magnet follow the
alternating magnetic fields produced by stationary wire windings.
Single-phase AC motors of this type need help to get started spinning in a particular
direction.
By introducing a phase shift of less than 180o to the magnetic fields in such a motor, a
definite direction of shaft rotation can be established.
Single-phase induction motors often use an auxiliary winding connected in series with a
capacitor to create the necessary phase shift.
Polyphase motors dont need such measures; their direction of rotation is fixed by the
phase sequence of the voltage theyre powered by.
Swapping any two hot wires on a polyphase AC motor will reverse its phase sequence,
thus reversing its shaft rotation.
10.5
Initially we explored the idea of three-phase power systems by connecting three voltage sources
together in what is commonly known as the Y (or star) configuration. This configuration of
voltage sources is characterized by a common connection point joining one side of each source.
(Figure 10.31)
120 V
0o
+
-
120 V
120o
+
120 V
240o
Figure 10.31: Three-phase Y connection has three voltage sources connected to a common
point.
If we draw a circuit showing each voltage source to be a coil of wire (alternator or transformer winding) and do some slight rearranging, the Y configuration becomes more obvious
in Figure 10.32.
The three conductors leading away from the voltage sources (windings) toward a load are
typically called lines, while the windings themselves are typically called phases. In a Yconnected system, there may or may not (Figure 10.33) be a neutral wire attached at the
junction point in the middle, although it certainly helps alleviate potential problems should
one element of a three-phase load fail open, as discussed earlier.
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"line"
+
120 V
0o -
+
+
"line"
120 V
120o
"neutral"
120 V
240o
"line"
+
+
120 V
120o
"line"
120 V
240o
"line"
Figure 10.33: Three-phase, three-wire Y connection does not use the neutral wire.
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Ephase
Iline = Iphase
However, the Y configuration is not the only valid one for connecting three-phase voltage
source or load elements together. Another configuration is known as the Delta, for its geometric resemblance to the Greek letter of the same name (). Take close notice of the polarity
for each winding in Figure 10.34.
"line"
120 V 0o
+
120 V
240o +
"line"
+
120 V
120o
"line"
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120 V 0o
+
120 V
240o
+
120 V
120o
Starting with the right winding (120 V 6 120o ) and progressing counter-clockwise, our KVL
equation looks like this:
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Iphase
10 kW
+
120 V
120o
10 kW
10 kW
I=
P
E
I=
10 kW
120 V
Iline =
Iphase
Iline =
3 (83.33 A)
Iline = 144.34 A
So each line current in this three-phase power system is equal to 144.34 amps, which is
substantially more than the line currents in the Y-connected system we looked at earlier. One
might wonder if weve lost all the advantages of three-phase power here, given the fact that we
have such greater conductor currents, necessitating thicker, more costly wire. The answer is
no. Although this circuit would require three number 1 gage copper conductors (at 1000 feet of
distance between source and load this equates to a little over 750 pounds of copper for the whole
system), it is still less than the 1000+ pounds of copper required for a single-phase system
delivering the same power (30 kW) at the same voltage (120 volts conductor-to-conductor).
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One distinct advantage of a -connected system is its lack of a neutral wire. With a Yconnected system, a neutral wire was needed in case one of the phase loads were to fail open
(or be turned off), in order to keep the phase voltages at the load from changing. This is
not necessary (or even possible!) in a -connected circuit. With each load phase element
directly connected across a respective source phase winding, the phase voltage will be constant
regardless of open failures in the load elements.
Perhaps the greatest advantage of the -connected source is its fault tolerance. It is possible for one of the windings in a -connected three-phase source to fail open (Figure 10.37)
without affecting load voltage or current!
120 V 0o
+
-
winding
failed open!
120 V
+
120 V
120o
120 V
120 V
Figure 10.37: Even with a source winding failure, the line voltage is still 120 V, and load phase
voltage is still 120 V. The only difference is extra current in the remaining functional source
windings.
The only consequence of a source winding failing open for a -connected source is increased
phase current in the remaining windings. Compare this fault tolerance with a Y-connected
system suffering an open source winding in Figure 10.38.
208 V
+
120 V
o
0
+
120 V
120o
104 V
104 V
winding
failed open!
Figure 10.38: Open Y source winding halves the voltage on two loads of a connected load.
With a -connected load, two of the resistances suffer reduced voltage while one remains
at the original line voltage, 208. A Y-connected load suffers an even worse fate (Figure 10.39)
with the same winding failure in a Y-connected source
In this case, two load resistances suffer reduced voltage while the third loses supply voltage
completely! For this reason, -connected sources are preferred for reliability. However, if dual
voltages are needed (e.g. 120/208) or preferred for lower line currents, Y-connected systems are
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+
120 V
o
0
winding
failed open!
+
120 V
120o
104 V
104 V
0V
Figure 10.39: Open source winding of a Y-Y system halves the voltage on two loads, and
looses one load entirely.
the configuration of choice.
REVIEW:
The conductors connected to the three points of a three-phase source or load are called
lines.
The three components comprising a three-phase source or load are called phases.
Line voltage is the voltage measured between any two lines in a three-phase circuit.
Phase voltage is the voltage measured across a single component in a three-phase source
or load.
Line current is the current through any one line between a three-phase source and load.
Phase current is the current through any one component comprising a three-phase source
or load.
In balanced Y circuits, line voltage is equal to phase voltage times the square root of 3,
while line current is equal to phase current.
Ephase
Iline = Iphase
In balanced circuits, line voltage is equal to phase voltage, while line current is equal
to phase current times the square root of 3.
Iline =
Iphase
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-connected three-phase voltage sources give greater reliability in the event of winding
failure than Y-connected sources. However, Y-connected sources can deliver the same
amount of power with less line current than -connected sources.
10.6
Since three-phase is used so often for power distribution systems, it makes sense that we
would need three-phase transformers to be able to step voltages up or down. This is only
partially true, as regular single-phase transformers can be ganged together to transform power
between two three-phase systems in a variety of configurations, eliminating the requirement
for a special three-phase transformer. However, special three-phase transformers are built for
those tasks, and are able to perform with less material requirement, less size, and less weight
than their modular counterparts.
A three-phase transformer is made of three sets of primary and secondary windings, each
set wound around one leg of an iron core assembly. Essentially it looks like three single-phase
transformers sharing a joined core as in Figure 10.40.
Figure 10.40: Three phase transformer core has three sets of windings.
Those sets of primary and secondary windings will be connected in either or Y configurations to form a complete unit. The various combinations of ways that these windings can be
connected together in will be the focus of this section.
Whether the winding sets share a common core assembly or each winding pair is a separate
transformer, the winding connection options are the same:
Primary - Secondary
The reasons for choosing a Y or configuration for transformer winding connections are
the same as for any other three-phase application: Y connections provide the opportunity for
multiple voltages, while connections enjoy a higher level of reliability (if one winding fails
open, the other two can still maintain full line voltages to the load).
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Probably the most important aspect of connecting three sets of primary and secondary windings together to form a three-phase transformer bank is paying attention to proper winding
phasing (the dots used to denote polarity of windings). Remember the proper phase relationships between the phase windings of and Y: (Figure 10.41)
+0 o
+
0o
+
120o
240
240
+
120o
()
(Y)
Figure 10.41: (Y) The center point of the Y must tie either all the - or all the + winding
points together. () The winding polarities must stack together in a complementary manner (
+ to -).
Getting this phasing correct when the windings arent shown in regular Y or configuration can be tricky. Let me illustrate, starting with Figure 10.42.
A1
B1
C1
T1
T2
T3
A2
B2
C2
Figure 10.42: Inputs A1 , A2 , A3 may be wired either or Y, as may outputs B1 , B2 , B3 .
Three individual transformers are to be connected together to transform power from one
three-phase system to another. First, Ill show the wiring connections for a Y-Y configuration:
Figure 10.43
Note in Figure 10.43 how all the winding ends marked with dots are connected to their
respective phases A, B, and C, while the non-dot ends are connected together to form the centers of each Y. Having both primary and secondary winding sets connected in Y formations
allows for the use of neutral conductors (N1 and N2 ) in each power system.
Now, well take a look at a Y- configuration: (Figure 10.44)
Note how the secondary windings (bottom set, Figure 10.44) are connected in a chain, the
dot side of one winding connected to the non-dot side of the next, forming the loop. At
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Y-Y
A1
B1
C1
N1
T1
T2
T3
N2
A2
B2
C2
Figure 10.43: Phase wiring for Y-Y transformer.
Y-
A1
B1
C1
N1
T1
T2
T3
A2
B2
C2
Figure 10.44: Phase wiring for Y- transformer.
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every connection point between pairs of windings, a connection is made to a line of the second
power system (A, B, and C).
Now, lets examine a -Y system in Figure 10.45.
-Y
A1
B1
C1
T1
T2
T3
N2
A2
B2
C2
Figure 10.45: Phase wiring for -Y transformer.
Such a configuration (Figure 10.45) would allow for the provision of multiple voltages (lineto-line or line-to-neutral) in the second power system, from a source power system having no
neutral.
And finally, we turn to the - configuration: (Figure 10.46)
When there is no need for a neutral conductor in the secondary power system, - connection schemes (Figure 10.46) are preferred because of the inherent reliability of the configuration.
Considering that a configuration can operate satisfactorily missing one winding, some
power system designers choose to create a three-phase transformer bank with only two transformers, representing a - configuration with a missing winding in both the primary and
secondary sides: (Figure 10.47)
This configuration is called V or Open-. Of course, each of the two transformers have
to be oversized to handle the same amount of power as three in a standard configuration,
but the overall size, weight, and cost advantages are often worth it. Bear in mind, however,
that with one winding set missing from the shape, this system no longer provides the fault
tolerance of a normal - system. If one of the two transformers were to fail, the load voltage
and current would definitely be affected.
The following photograph (Figure 10.48) shows a bank of step-up transformers at the Grand
Coulee hydroelectric dam in Washington state. Several transformers (green in color) may be
seen from this vantage point, and they are grouped in threes: three transformers per hydroelectric generator, wired together in some form of three-phase configuration. The photograph
doesnt reveal the primary winding connections, but it appears the secondaries are connected
in a Y configuration, being that there is only one large high-voltage insulator protruding from
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-
A1
B1
C1
T1
T2
T3
A2
B2
C2
Figure 10.46: Phase wiring for - transformer.
"Open "
A1
B1
C1
T1
T2
A2
B2
C2
Figure 10.47: V or open- provides 2- power with only two transformers.
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each transformer. This suggests the other side of each transformers secondary winding is at
or near ground potential, which could only be true in a Y system. The building to the left is the
powerhouse, where the generators and turbines are housed. On the right, the sloping concrete
wall is the downstream face of the dam:
Figure 10.48: Step-up transfromer bank at Grand Coulee hydroelectric dam, Washington state,
USA.
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