Chapter 1

Historical Profile

1. Historical Profile 1.1 Introduction to Ethyl Benzene (EB):

Ethyl benzene is an organic chemical compound which is an aromatic hydrocarbon (
HC). Its major use is in the petrochemical industry as an intermediate compound
for the production of styrene, which in turn is used for making polystyrene, a c
ommonly used plastic material. Although often present in small amounts in crude
oil, ethyl benzene is produced in bulk quantities by combining the petrochemical
s benzene and ethylene in an acid-catalyzed chemical reaction. Catalytic hydroge
nation of the ethyl benzene then gives hydrogen gas and styrene, which is vinyl
benzene. Ethyl benzene is also an ingredient in some paints. Ethyl Benzene is us
ed almost exclusively as intermediate in the production of styrene monomer. It i
s produced by liquid phase alkylations or vapor phase alkylations of benzene with
ethylene. Commercial production started in the 1930s and has grown to over 23 mi
llion metric annually (MTA)
1.2 History of Ethyl Benzene:
The alkylation of HC with olefins in the presence of AlCl3 catalyst was first pr
acticed by M.Balsohn in 1879. However, Charles Friedel & James M. Crafts pioneer
ed much of early research on alkylation & AlCl3 catalyst .Over a century later,
the process that employ the classic Friedel-Crafts reaction chemistry remain a d
ominant source of EB. Ethyl benzene was first produced on a commercial scale in
the 1930s by Dow Chemical in US and by BASF in the Federal Republic of Germany.
Until 1980s , almost all ethyl benzene was manufactured with an aluminium chlori
de catalyst using a Fridal Crafts reaction mechanism . A few EB production units
employed a different Fridal-Crafts catalyst , boron trifluriede. Small amount o
f EB also recovered as a by product from mixed xylenes streams using a very inte
nsive distillation process. In 1980s ,the first commercial facility using a zeol
ite based process and the absence of maintenance nad environmental problems asso
ciated with the Fridal-Creafts catalyst havre allowed zeolite catalyst and to co
mpletely displace the order catalyst in all modern production facilities. The4fi
rst zeolite process was based on vapor phase reactor at temp. of over 4000C. In t
his temperature rang, reaction such as isomerisation/cracking and hydrogen trans
fer produce a number of by products that contaminates the EB product. Efforts we
re made to reduce by-product formation by changing reaction condition , but it a
s not until the advent of liquid phase processes operating at temperatures lower
than 2700C that zeolite catalysed processes were truly capable of producing high
purity EB . The first high purity zeolite based on technology developed by UOP
and ABB Lummus Global , started up in the 1990. The Ethyl benzene- Styrene indus
try remained relatively insignificant until World War 2. The tremendous demand f
or synthetic SBR during world war prompted accelerated technology improvements a
nd tremendous capacity expansion. This enormous wartime effort led to the constr
uction of several large scale factories, turning styrene production quickly in t
o a giant industry. In 1965, 10% of EB production was from super fraction of mix
ed xylene streams produced by catalytic reforming of naphtha. In 1986, the world
annual production capacity was 14*106 t. EB was first produced on a commercial
scale in the 1930s by Dow Chemical in US and by BASF in the Federal Republic of
Germany.
2

1.3 Natural Occurrences:

Ethyl benzene is a colorless, flammable liquid that smells like gasoline. It is
naturally found in coal tar and petroleum and is also found in manufactured prod
ucts such as inks, pesticides, and paints.
3

Chapter 2
Applications
4

2. Applications
2.1 Current Applications: All commercial EB production is captive consumed for t
he manufacture of styrene monomer Styrene is used in the production of poly styr
ene and a wide range of other plastics. Of the other minor applications, the mos
t significant in the paint industry as a solvent. Even smaller volumes go toward
s the production of acetophenon, diethyl benzene & ethyl anthraquinon.
2.2 Product Specification The product specification on EB is set to provide a sa
tisfactory feedstock to the associated styrene unit. Objectionable impurities in
the EB can be grouped in to two categories: a) Haliedes b) Diethylbenzene Purit
y Benzene Toluene O-xylene +Cumene m,p- xylene Allylbenzene Diethylbenzene Total
Chlorides Total organic sulpher Reactivity density @ 15o c APHA colour 99.5 wt,
% min 0.1-0.3 % 0.1-0.3% 0.02% max 0.2% max 0.2% max 20mg/kg max 1-3 mg/kg max
4 mg/kg max 0.869-0.872 15 max
5

Manufacturing Capacities:
PRODUCER CAPACITY*
BP Chemicals, Texas City, TX Chevron, St. James, LA Cos-Mar, Carville, LA Dow, F
reeport, TX Huntsman, Odessa, TX Lyondell Chemical, Channelview, TX Nova, Baypor
t, TX Sterling, Texas City, TX Westlake, Lake Charles, LA Total
1,100 1,800 2,200 1,900 350 3,000 1,400 2,000 380 14,130
*Millions of pounds per year of Ethyl benzene (EB).
In India: From Chemical Weekly Buyers Guide 2005- Vol.3 Pashim Petrochem Ltd. Am
ol Chemicals & Polymers Chemaroma Drug House Chemico Forum Enterprizes Ganesh Tr
ading Co. Manish Chemicals Mikit Chemicals Om Chemi Pharma Perfect Chemicals Sol
vchem Tanay Corporation
6

Chapter 3
Economic Scenario
7

3. Economic Scenario
3.1 Current & Projected Demand: Demand ( till 2004): 1999: 13,193 million pounds
2000: 13,444 million pounds 2004: 14,552 million pounds Growth Historical (1995
- 2000): 0.7 percent per year. Strength EB demand runs parallel to that of styr
ene, and styrene is a mature and stable commodity, used in many homopolymer, cop
olymer and terpolymer applications. These applications cover a wide scope in ind
ustrial, consumer and medical products. Weakness EBs major shortcoming is that it
is essentially a one market segment product - styrene. Moreover, as the styrene
is produced with captive EB there is not much noticeable market activity.
3.2 Price & Price Variations: PRICE Historical (1995 - 2000): High, $0.25 per po
und, bulk, f.o.b. Houston, TX, list ($ 0.5511 / Kg) By Friday 8 August, 2008: EB
was valued at $1,554-1,570/tonne FOB NWE. ($ 1.5541.570 / Kg) Price Variations:
The US unit sales value of EB in $/Kg from 1960 1986: Year 1960 1965 1970 1973 1
974 1975 1978 1979 1980 1983 1986 Sales ( $/Kg) 0.13 0.09 0.09 0.11 0.37 0.20 0.
24 0.35 0.51 0.50 0.480.51
8

3.3 Application wise Consumption Pattern: Application Styrene Production Paint i

ndustry as a solvent Production of Acetophenon, Diethylbenzene, Ethyl anthraquin
on Consumption ( in % ) 99 % < 1% < 1%
3.4 Site Considerations: Before any site selection work begins the
d be organized for expansion planning in a way that depends on the
irm. A company may want to utilize a standing committee, a special
or planning by one person. In any event the planning function must
responsibility of one individual.
Site Selection Factor:

company shoul
size of the f
project team
be clear cut

1. Markets 2. Work force 3. Unionization 4. Transportation 5. Energy 6. Business

climate 7. Water and waste systems 8. Living conditions 9. Topography The basic
aim of the site selector is to choose a location that maximizes income and mini
mizes cost compromises usually have to be made. No site is ever perfect, and it
is the mission of the site selection team to weigh the alternatives and compromi
ses on the best choice. Plant layout: Plant layout involves developing physical
equipment for a processing facility. The development must effect a balance of eq
uipment spacing and integration of specific systems related to facility as a who
le. Some of the factors to be considered for designing the plant layout are: 1.
Process 2. Economics 3. Client requirements 4. Operation 5. Erection and mainten
ance 6. Safety 7. Environment 8. Appearance 9. Expansion
9

In-line plant layouts are made in various arrangements which often are referred
to by letter designation. Various configurations are formed based on the main ar
tery of the process unit i.e. the pipe rack, which contains long process and the
utility lines that connect distant equipment and product piping entering and le
aving the plant. Space for instrument and electrical feeders is allocated in the
pipe rack such that they are connected to the related equipment. This area is k
ept free of piping and its related supports. Generally an I shaped plot is used
for small process and an H-shape plot for larger units. In developing the plant
layout for a chemical plant, it is essential that the firm decisions are made ea
rly as to equipments arrangement. This eliminates changes, which cost man-hours
as the job progresses through engineering and design. The distillation sections
are based on a grade-level process plant layout configuration. The steam generat
ion and power facilities are housed in a building. The basic arrangement follows
the equipment spacing charts and clearance tables. Based on all above factors w
e have selected Bombay High as our plant site due to good availability of raw ma
terials as well as for better market.
10

Chapter 4
Properties
11

4. Properties
4.1 Physical Properties: Under ordinary conditions, EB is a clear liquid with a
characteristic aromatic odor. EB is an irritant to the skin & eyes and is ordina
ry toxic by ingestion and skin adsorption. The properties are as follows: IUPAC
Name Other names Identifiers CAS Number RTECS Number SMILES Molecular Formula Mo
lar Mass Appearance Density (at 150 c) Density ( at 200 c) Density ( at 250 c) M
.P. B.P. ( at 101.3 K Pa) Refractive index (at 200 c) Refractive index ( at 250
c ) Critical pressure Critical temperature Flash point Auto ignition temperature
Flammability limit ( lower) Ethylbenzene Ethylbenzol, EB, Phenylethane
[100-41-4] DA0700000 c1ccccc1CC C8H10 106.167 g/mol Colourless liquid 0.87139 g/
cc 0.8669 g/cc
0.86262 g/cc -94.949 0 c 136.860 c 1.49588 1.49320 3609 K Pa (36.09 bar) 344.02
0 c 150 c 4600 c 1.0%
12

Flammability limit ( Upper) Latent heat ( fusion) Latent heat ( vaporization) He

ating value ( gross) Heating Value ( net) Kinematic viscosity (at 37.8 0 c ) Kin
ematic viscosity (at 98.90 c ) Surface Tension Specific heat capacity ( ideal ga
s, 250 c ) Specific heat capacity ( liquid, 25 0 c) Acentric factor Critical com
pressibility LEL UEL
----86.3 j/kg 335 j/kg 42999 j/kg 40928 j/kg 0.6428 * 10 -6 m2 / s 0.390 * 10 -6
m2 / s 28.48 mN/m 1169 kg-1 K-1 1752 kg-1 K-1 0.3011 0.264 1.2 % 6.8 %
4.2 Chemical Properties:
The most important chemical reaction of EB is its dehydrogenation to Styrene. Th
e reaction is carried out at: 1. High temprature ( 600-6700 c) 2. Usually over a
n iron oxide catalyst 3. Steam is used as dilutent Commercially, selectivities t
o styrene range from 89-96%with per rpass conversion 65-70%
13

. EB Styrene Another reaction of commercial importance is the oxidation of EB by

air to hydroperoxides 6H5 CH(OOH)CH3 . C
The reaction takes place in the liquid phase , with no catalyst required. With a
suitable catalyst EB can be converted to xylenes. Commercial processes for isom
erizing xylenes usually involve the catalytic isomerization or dealkylation of E
B. EB may be dealkylated catalytically or thermally to benzene.
4.3 Environmental & Health Effects: Emergency Overview: Clear, colourless liquid
with a characteristic, sweet, gasoline-like, aromatic odour. FLAMMABLE LIQUID A
ND VAPOUR. Liquid can accumulate static charge by flow, splashing and agitation.
Vapour is heavier than air and may spread long distances. Distant ignition and
flashback are possible. Liquid can float on water and may travel to distant loca
tions and/or spread fire. Closed containers may rupture and explode in heat of f
ire. TOXIC. May be harmful if inhaled. Central nervous system depressant. Vapour
may cause headache, nausea, dizziness, drowsiness, confusion, unconsciousness a
nd possibly death. SKIN IRRITANT. May cause skin irritation. Aspiration hazard.
Swallowing or vomiting of the liquid may result in aspiration (breathing) into t
he lungs. POSSIBLE CANCER HAZARD - may cause cancer, based on animal information
. Potential Health effects: Effect of short Term Exposure:
Inhalation:
Ethylbenzene readily forms high vapour concentrations and should be considered t
oxic by this route of exposure. Inhalation of the vapour or mists can irritate t
he nose and throat and produce symptoms of central nervous system depression suc
h as mild unsteadiness, headache, nausea, dizziness and a feeling of drunkenness
at approximately 100-200 ppm. Much higher concentrations can cause more severe
symptoms including unconsciousness and death. Human volunteers exposed to 85 ppm
for 8 hours reported no adverse health effects. Above 100 ppm, mild unsteadines
s, sleepiness and headache were reported. In another report, approximately 100 p
pm (cited as 400 mg/m3) produced a slight irritating effect on the respiratory t
ract, occasional headaches, sleepiness, slight drowsiness after 8 hours. More pr
onounced irritation, frequent headaches, sleepiness and a feeling of drunkenness
were observed at 200 ppm (860 mg/m3). At 1150 ppm (5000 mg/m3), irritation of n
ose and throat was experienced. Exposure to 1000-2000 ppm (0.1-0.2%) for 6 minut
es caused irritation of the nose and throat, fatigue and increasing unsteadiness
, chest constriction and dizziness in 4-6 male volunteers. Exposure to 5000 ppm
(0.5%) was considered
intolerable Skin Contact:
The liquid can cause moderate irritation, based on animal information. Ethylbenz
ene is absorbed through the skin to a small extent, but harmful effects are not
expected to occur by this route of exposure.
14

Eye Contact:
The liquid can cause mild to moderate irritation, based on limited animal inform
ation. Volunteers reported that exposure to approximately 100 ppm was slightly i
rritating to the eyes. At 1000 ppm (0.1%) the vapour was very irritating to the
eyes of 4-6 volunteers, producing smarting and burning, accompanied by profuse t
earing. This irritation, gradually decreased until, after a minute or two, it wa
s barely noticeable. At 2000 ppm (0.2%), the irritation was almost intolerable u
pon first exposure, but again became less irritating upon continued exposure, wh
ile 5000 ppm (0.5%) was considered intolerable.
Ingestion:
Ethylbenzene has relatively low toxicity following ingestion. As a central nervo
us system (CNS) depressant, it can cause nausea, vomiting, headache and dizzines
s. Very large amounts may cause unconsciousness and death. Ethylbenzene can caus
e severe lung damage or death if the liquid is accidentally breathed into the lu
ngs (aspirated), based on physical properties. There are no reports of aspiratio
n occurring in humans. Ingestion is not a typical route of occupational exposure
.
Effects of Long-Term (Chronic) Exposure:
Nervous System:
A number of human population studies involving painters and other occupational g
roups exposed to a wide range of solvents, including ethylbenzene, have led to s
ome investigators to conclude that long-term exposure to solvents may cause perm
anent effects on the central nervous system (CNS). The signs and symptoms are il
l-defined and include headaches, memory loss, fatigue and altered emotional reac
tivity. This syndrome is commonly known as Organic Solvent Syndrome. There are n
o specific studies that implicate ethylbenzene as a causal agent, although it is
present in many of the paints and other solvent-containing products. The availa
ble studies tend to have a number of deficiencies including concurrent exposure
to many different chemicals, and lack of exposure data. In a limited study, most
workers exposed to up to 11.5 ppm (cited as 0.05 mg/L) complained of headaches,
irritability and of tiring rapidly. Functional nervous system disturbances were
found in some workers employed for over 7 years.
Skin:
Repeated or prolonged contact may cause dry, red, chapped skin (dermatitis).
Skin Sensitization:
No allergic skin reaction was observed among 25 volunteers exposed to 10% ethylb
enzene in petrolatum.
Hearing:
Studies in rats have shown that simultaneous exposure to ethyl benzene and noise
increases the potential for hearing damage above that for noise exposure alone.
Guinea pigs do not appear to be sensitive to these effects.(54,55) The relevanc
e of these observations to human exposures is not known.
4.4 Handling, Storage & Transportation: EB is an flammable liquid. It is stored
& transported in steel containers . The US DOT identification number is UN 1175
. Foam, Carbon dioxide , dry chemical , halon & water ( fog pattern) are used in
fighting EB fires. The use of NIOSH approved respirators is recommended at high
concentration. Skin contact should be avoided.
15

Chapter 5
Manufacturing Processes
16

5. Manufacturing Processes:
Currently, the primary source of ethyl benzene is the alkylation of benzene with
ethylene. The only other source, the super fractionation of mixed C8 aromatic s
treams, supplies only a small portion of the ethyl benzene produced. Two distinc
t types of ethyl benzene alkylation processes are currently used commercially: l
iquid- phase alkylation and vapor-phase alkylation.
5.1 Liquid Phase Alkylation: Liquid phase aluminum chloride processes have been
the dominant source of ethylbenzene since the 1930s. Several companies have deve
loped variations of this technology. Processes currently in use include those of
Dow chemical, BASF, shell chemical, Monsanto, societe chimique des cahrbonnages
, and union carbide/ badger. The Monsanto process is currently the most modern c
ommercially licensed aluminum chloride alkylation technology. Alkylation of benz
ene with in the presence of an aluminum chloride catalyst complex is exothermic
(H-114 kJ/mol); the reaction is very fast and produces almost stoichiometric yiel
ds of ethy lbenzene. In addition to AlCl3, a wide range of Lewis acid catalysts,
including AlBr3, FeCl3, and BF3, have been used. Aluminum chloride processes ge
nerally use ethyl chloride or hydrogen chloride as a catalyst promoter. These ha
lide promoters reduce the amount of AlCl3 required. The reaction mechanism has b
een studied in detail Alkylation: In the conventional AlCl3 process (see Fig 1),
three phases are present in the reactor. Aromatic liquid, ethylene gas, and a l
iquid catalyst complex phase (a reddish brown material called red oil). A mixtur
e of catalyst complex, dry benzene, and recycled polyalkyl benzenes is continuou
sly fed to the reactor and agitated to disperse the catalyst complex phase in th
e aromatic phase. Ethylene and the catalyst promoter are injected into the react
ion mixture through spargers, and essentially 100% of the ethylene is converted.
Low ethylene: Benzene ratios are used to give optimum overall yield of ethylben
zene. Commercial plants typically operate at ethylene: because molar ratios of c
a.0.3-0.35. As the ratio is increased, more side reactions, such as transalkylat
ion and isomeric rearrangement, occur. Further alkylation of ethylbenzene leads
to the reversible formation of lower molecular mass polyalkylbenzenes. The loss
in net yield due to residue is minimized by recycling this material to the alkyl
ation reactor. In addition, because the reaction occurs close to thermodynamic e
quilibrium, the traditional processes use a single reactor to alkylate benzene a
nd transalkylate polyalkylbenzenes. The reaction temperature is generally limite
d to 1300C; a higher temperature rapidly deactivates the catalyst and favors for
mation of non aromatics and polyalkyllbenzenes, which are preferential absorbed
by the highly acidic catalyst complex, resulting in byproduct formation. Suffici
ent pressure is maintained to keep the reactants in the liquid phase. High alloy
materials of construction are also required for the piping and handling systems.
The liquid reactor effluent is cooled and discharged into a settler, where the
heavy catalyst phase is decanted from the organic liquid phase and recycled. The
organic phase is washed with water and caustic to remove dissolved AlCl3 and pr
omoter. The aqueous phase from these treatment steps in first neutralized and th
en recovered as a saturated aluminum chloride solution and wet aluminum hydroxid
e sludge. Removal of dissolved catalyst from the catalyst from the organic strea
m has long been a problem for ethylbenzene producers. Recently CdF chime found t
hat more complete recovery of AlCl3 could be achieved by first contacting the or
ganic phase with ammonia instead of sodium hydroxide.
17

Separation: Purification of the ethyl benzene product is usually accomplished in

a series of three distillation columns. The unreacted benzene is recovered by t
he first columns as an overhead distillate. The second column separates the ethy
l benzene product from the heavier polyalkylated components. The bottoms product
of the second column is fed to a final column, where the recyclable polyalkylbe
nzenes are stripped from non recyclable high molecular mass residue compounds. T
he residue or flux oil, consisting primarily of polycyclic aromatics, is burned
as fuel. Because the alkylation mixture can tolerate only minor amounts of water
, the recycled benzene and fresh benzene must be dried thoroughly prior to enter
ing the reactor. Water not only increases corrosion, but also decreases catalyst
activity. Benzene dehydration is accomplished in a separate column. The improve
d Monsanto process has distinct advantages compared to conventional AlCl3 proces
ses. The most important of these is a significant reduction in the AlCl3 catalys
t use, thus lessening the problem of waste catalyst disposal. Monsanto found tha
t by an increase in temperature and by careful control of ethylene addition, the
required AlCl3 concentration could be reduced to the solubility limit, thereby
eliminating the separate catalyst complex phase.. There fore, alkylation occurs
in a single homogeneous liquid phase instead of the two liquid phases is earlier
processes. Monsanto claims that a separate catalyst complex phase may actually
prevent the attainment of maximum reactor yields. With a few exceptions, the flo
w scheme of the Monsanto process is nearly the same as that of more traditional
processes. The process is also capable of operating with low- concentration ethy
lene feed. The process is also capable of operating with low concentration ethyl
ene feed. Typically, the alkylation temperature is maintained at 160-1800C. This
higher operating temperature enhances catalyst activity, with the additional be
nefit that the heat of reaction can be recovered as low- pressure steam. Whereas
the traditional process accomplishes alkylation and transalkylation in a single
reactor, the homogenous catalyst system must employ a separate transalkylation
reactor. At lower catalyst concentrations, the recycle of substantial amounts of
polyalkylbenzenes terminates the alkylation reaction. Therefore, only dry benze
ne, ethylene, and catalyst are fed to the alkylation reactor. The recycle polyet
hylbenzene stream is mixed with the alkylation reactor effluent prior to enterin
g the transalkylation reactor. The transalkylation reactor is operated at much l
ower temperature than the primary alkylation reactor. After transalkylation, the
reaction products are washed and neutralized to remove residual AlCl3. With the
homogenous process, all of the catalyst remains in solution. The catalyst-free
organic reaction mixture is then purified using the sequence described previousl
y for the conventional AlCl3 process. As with other AlCl3 process, the organic r
esidue is used as fuel and the aluminum chloride waste streams are usually sold,
or sent to treatment facilities.
5.2 Vapor Phase Alkylation: Vapor-phase alkylation has been practiced since the
early 1940s, but at that time processes were unable to compete with liquid-phase
aluminum chloride based technology. The alkar process developed by UOP, based o
n boron trifluoride catalyst, had modest success in the 1960s, but fell from fav
or because of high maintenance costs resulting from the severe corrosion caused
by small quantities of water. Nevertheless, some ethylbenzene units continue to
use this process. The Mobil badger ethylbenzene process represents the latest and
most successful vapor phase technology to be introduced. The process was develo
ped in the 1970s around Mobils versatile ZSM-5 synthetic zeolite catalyst. Earlie
r attempts at using zeolite or molecular sieves for benzene alkylation had suffe
red from rapid catalyst deactivation because of coke formation and poor transalk
ylation capabilities. The Mobil catalyst combines superior resistance to coke fo
rmation with high catalytic activity for both alkylation and transalkylation by
American Hoechst Corp. at their 408x10-3/t/a Bayport, Texas plant. Currently nin
e commercial plants have been licensed, representing ca. 3x10106 t/a of producti
on capacity.
18

ALKAR PROCESS: This process produces a high purity ethylbenzene product and can
use dilute ethylene feed stock. If the entry of water into the process is strict
ly prevented, the corrosion problems associated with aluminum chloride processor
s are avoided. However, even small amounts of water (<1mg/kg) hy6drolze the BF,
catalyst. The alkyation reaction takes place at high pressure (2.5-3.5 Mpa; 25-3
5 bar) and low temperature (100-1500C). Dehydrated benzene, ethylene, and make u
p BF3, catalysts are fed to the reactor. Typically, ethylene; benzene molar rati
os between 0.15 and 0.2 are used. The reactor inlet temperature is controlled by
recycling a small portion of the reactor effluent. Transalkylation takes place
in a separate reactor. Dry benzene, BF3 catalyst, and recycled polyethlybenzene
are fed to the transalkylation reactor. The effluent streams from the two reacto
rs are combined and passed to a benzene recovery column, where benzene is separa
ted for recycle to the reactors. Boron trifluoride and light hydrocarbons are ta
ken over head as a vapor stream from which the BF3, is recovered for recycle. Th
e bottom for the benzene recovery column is sent to a product column, where ethy
lbenzene of > 99.9% purity is taken overhead. A final column serves to recover p
olyethylebenzenes for recycle to the transalkylation reactor. The alkar process
can operate with ethylene feed containing as low as 8-10 mol% ethylene, enabling
a variety of refinery and coke-oven gas streams to be used. However, purificati
on of these streams is necessary to remove components that poison the BF3 cataly
st, e.g., trace amounts of water sulfur compound, and oxygenates. Mobil-Badger P
rocess: The fixed bed ZSM-5 catalyst promotes the same overall alkylation chemist
ry as those used in the other processes; however, the reaction mechanism is diff
erent. Ethylene molecules are adsorbed onto the Bronsted acid sites within the c
atalyst, which activates the ethylene molecule and allows bonding with benzene m
olecules to occur. Hence, the range of higher alkylated aromatic byproducts form
ed by the Mobil Badger process is some what different than that for the Friedel
Crafts processes. These components do not affect the ethylbenzene product purity
and are recycled to the reactor for transalkylation or dealkylation. The MobilBadger heterogeneous catalyst system offers several advantages when compared to
the other commercially available processes. The most important are that it is no
ncorrosive and nonpolluting. The catalyst is essentially silica alumina, which i
s environmentally inert. Because no aqueous waste streams are produced by the pr
ocess, the equipment for waste treatment and for catalyst recovery is eliminated
. In addition, carbon steel is the primary material of construction, high-alloy
materials and brick linings are not required. The reactor typically operates at
400-4500C and 2-3 Mpa (20-30 bar). At this temperature >99% of the net process h
eat input and exothermic heat of reaction can be recovered as steam. The reactio
n section includes two parallel multibed reactors, a fired heater, and heat reco
very equipment. The high-activity catalyst allows transalkylation and alkylation
to occur simultaneously in a single reactor. Because the catalyst slowly deacti
vates as a result of coke formation and requires periodic regeneration, two reac
tors are included to allow uninterrupted production: one is on stream while the
other is regenerated. Regeneration takes ca. 36h and is necessary after 6-8 week
s of operation. The catalyst is less sensitive to water, sulfur, and other poiso
ns than the Lewis acid catalysts. The reactor effluent passes to the purificatio
n section as a hot vapor. This steam is used as the heat source for the first di
stillation column, which recovers the bulk of the unreacted benzene for recycle
to the reactor. The remaining benzene is recovered from a second distillation co
lumn. The ethybenzene product is taken as the overhead product from the third co
lumn. The bottoms product from this column is sent to the last column, where the
recyclable alkylbenzenes and polyalkylbenzenes are separated from heavy nonrecy
clable residue. The low-viscosity residue stream, consisting mainly of diphenylm
ethane and diphenylethane, is burned as fuel. The Mobil-Badger process also
19

can use dispute ethylene feedstocks. In semi commercial applications, the proces
s has operated on streams containing as little as 15 mol% ethylene. 5.3 New Deve
lopments: Dow Chemical and Snamprogetti are developing a process for making ethy
lbenzene/styrene from ethane and benzene. The process combines the dehydrogenati
on of ethane and ethylbenzene in one unit and integrates the processes for prepa
ring ethylene, ethylbenzene and styrene. This process is claimed to have lower c
osts than the conventional route to styrene, largely stemming from the low cost
of ethane in relation to ethylene. A pilot plant has been operating since 2002 a
nd commercialisation could be possible by the end of the decade.
5.4 Comparison between Processes: Although both the alkylation process i.e. liqu
id phase & vapor phase are of equal use commercially. Yet there are some differe
nces:
1. In vapor phase alkylation, the reactors operates at higher temperatures(400450
0 c) which causes
catalytic deactivation by fouling as a result catalyst required periodic regener
ation.
2. In vapor phase alkylation process two reactors will be required so that proce
ssing and regeneration can
proceed alternatively without interrupting production.
3. All the ethylene feedstock is reacted completely in the liquid benzene, thus
eliminating off gas recovery
equipment.
4. Ethyl benzene yield is 99.7% in liquid phase alkylation process while in vapo
r phse alkylation it is around
98%.
5. Zeolite as a catalyst can be used in any of the processes. 6. Up to 99.95wt%
product purity in the with no xylene formation, in liquid phase alkylation proce
ss.
HAZARDS IDENTIFICATION
20

Chapter 6
Selected Process
21

6. Selected Process:
We have selected liquid phase alkylation process for ethyl benzene production, n
ow we will discuss process under the followings: Introduction to process: Effort
s were made to reduce by-product formation by changing reaction condition but it
was not until the advent of liquid phase at temperature lower than 2700 c that
zeolite catalyzed processes were truly capable of producing. The first high purit
y zeolite based EB plant , based on technology developed by UOP & ABB Lummus Glo
bal started up in 1990. Technology Supplier: UOP & ABB Lummus Global Current Sta
tus: Currently 16 plants are using this technology. Raw Materials: Ethylene & Be
nzene Product quality achievable: 99.95wt% pure EB can be produced. Catalyst: Ze
olite Material of construction: Carbon Steel Process Effluents: Inert component
of ethylene feed which will appear as benzene column vent.
6.1 Process Chyemistry: EB made by the alkylation of benzene with ethylene in th
e presence of zeolite catalyst. Successive alkylation also occurs to minor exten
t, producing diethylbenzens, collectively termed polyethylene benzene (PEB)
Benzene + Ethylene EB (Ethyl benzene)
EB + Ethylene DEB (Di- ethyl benzene)
22

6.2 Process Description Benzene alkylated with the ethylene to yield a mixture o
f alkylated benzenes. This mixture is distilled to recover product EB, and highe
r ethylated benzenes (PEB). The liquid phase alkylation reactor consists of mult
i[le beds of zeolite catalyst operating adiabatically. Process conditions are se
lected to keep the aromatic reaction mixture in the liquid phase. Excess benzene
is used, and ethylene is injected before each bed. Multiple ethylene injection
points improve selectively and enhance catalyst stability. In the alkylation rea
ctor, ethylene reacts completely, leaving only the inert constituents of the fee
d, such as ethane. These inters pass through the reactor and are from the plant
at a convenient point. The alkylation effluents are fed to the benzene column, w
here benzene is taken as the over head product for recycle to the reactor. The b
enzene column bottoms feed the ethyl benzene column. Here EB is taken as the ove
rhead product. The reboiler of the distillation columns may used hot oil, high-p
ressure steam, or direct firing. Overhead vapors are condensed in waste heat boi
lers, generating valuable steam useful in a downstream SM or propylene oxide/sty
rene monomer plant. The EB unit has considerable flexibility to mmet a verify of
local site conditions in an efficient manner. If no stream export is required,
the net heat import can be reduced considerably.
6.3 Plant Capacity:
The Ethyl benzene plant capacity is 1000MTPY(109 kg per year) based on: Current
demand and supply data for EB. As well as other capacities of other Ethyl benzen
e operating plants (or projected plants).
23

6.4 Process Flow Diagram:

H-1 R-1 C-1 L-1 T-1 T-2
Heater Reactor ( 270 0 c, 30-40 atmp) Cooler Light Column Benzene Column Ethyl B
enzene Column
24

Chapter 7
Mass & Energy Balances
25

Mass & Energy Balances

7.1 Process information: 1. Stream (1) Benzene is pure 2. Stream (2) ethylene co
ntains 7 mole % ethane as impurity. Ethane dose not react but moves in the proce
ss as inerts and vent in the light column. 3. Stream (3) B: E ratio is adjusted
to control reaction selectivity , 8:1. 4. Reactor (R-1) the limiting reactant ac
hivees 100% conversion. 5. Stream (8) composition is; Inerts 45% mole Benzene - 5
5% mole 6. Efficiency of T 1 is such that 99.9% of benzene that is fed is in the
overhead. 7. Stream(11) Ethyl benzene = 99.9% Benzene = 0.1% wt wt
8. All the EB fed in to the EB column (T2) is in overhead.
26

7.2 Mass balance Calculations: The plant capacity for ethyl benzene plant = 1000
MTPA For which we are suppose to produce the product as follows:The product eth
yl benzene which we will produce will contain:1190 kmol/hr ethyl benzene and 1.6
kmol/hr benzene
Since we are using liquid phase alkylation process for ethyl benzene production,
for which yield and conversion are as follows: Yield=99.7% Conversion=100% (w.r
.t ethylene)
Now consider PFD for ethyl benzene plant Stream (11) Ethyl benzene=1190 kmol/hr
Benzene = 1.6 kmol/hr
Now we are coming to the reaction part, here we have reactor:Reactor R1
B = ?, E= ?, Inerts = ?
Conversion = 100%
EB= 1190 kmol/hr, Inerts=?, B= ?, DEB = ?
27

Now we know that:Yield = [{(moles of product produced)*(stochiomertric coefficie

nt)} /(moles of reactant converted)]/100
99.7/100=1190/moles of reactant converted Moles of reactant converted(ethylene)=
1193.5 kmol/hr Now the reaction in the reactor are:C6H6 + C2H4
benzene ethylene
C6H5-C2H5
Ethyl benzene
C6H5-C2H5
Ethyl benzene
+
C2H4
ethylene
C6H4-(C2H5)2
Diethyl benzene
here, For 1 mole of Ethyl benzene = 1 mole of ethylene needed and For 1 mole of
diethyl benzene = 2 moles of ethylene needed.
Now after reactor 1190 kmol of ethyl benzene produced So ethylene consume is = 1
190 kmol Thus rest ethylene is = 1193.5 - 1190 = 3.5 kmol of ethylene
Since conversion is 100% It means that all ethylene had converted in to ethyl be
nzene and rest ethylene converted in to diethyl benzene. Now 2 moles of ethylene
will produce = 1 moles of diethyl benzene So, 3.5 kmol will produce= 3.5/2 = 1.
75 kmol/hr of diethyl benzene (DEB)
28

Now , to minimize the production of DEB we have choose high B : E ratio i.e. 8:1
Thus total benzene requirement is = 8 *1193.5 = 9548 kmol/hr
Since Ethylene is not pure it is having only 93mole % ethylene Thus total ethyle
ne stream (ethylene+ ethane) requirement is :=1193.5/0.93 = 1283 kmol/hr Inert =
1283 1193.5 = 89.5 k moles/ hr After reactor will also have unreacted benzene wh
ich will be :=Benzene fed benzene consumed = 9548-1193.5 = 8354.5 kmol /hr (unre
acted)
Now consider reactor-1 (R-1) again:Inputs: Benzene Ethylene Inert = 9548 kmol =
1193.5 kmol = 89.5 kmol
Outputs: Ethyl benzene Benzene Inert = 1190 kmol = 8354.5 kmol = 89.5 kmol
29

Diethyl benzene
=
3.5 kmol
Reactor R1 B = 9548 mol , E=1193.5 mol , Inerts =89.5 mol EB= 1190 mol, B= 8354.
5 mol, Inert =89.5 mol, DEB = 3.5 mol.
Conversion = 100%
Stream:-(6) Ethyl benzene Benzene Inert Diethyl benzene = 1190 kmol = 8354.5 kmo
l = 89.5 = kmol
3.5 kmol
30

Stream 7
Thus Consider Lights Column:
Inerts 89.5 mol
Lights Column L-1
Stream 6 EB= 1190 mol, B= 8354.5 mol, Inert =89.5 mol, DEB = 3.5 mol.
EB= 1190 mol, B= 8354.5 mol, DEB = 3.5 mol
Stream 8
31

Material balance of Benzene Column:

Benzene 8325.85 mol EB 0.6 mol
Benzene 8330 mol EB 1186.5 mol DEB 3.5 mol
Benzene Column
Benzene 4.15 mol EB 1186.5 mol DEB 3.5 mol
32

Now consider Ethyl benzene (EB) column:

Stream no :(10) Stream 10 will contain: EB= 1186.5 mol DEB= 3.5 mol Benzene= 4.1
5 mol
Now as we already know that stream (11) will be: Stream (11): EB = 1186.5 mol
Benzene= 0.15 mol
Stream (12): DEB = 3.5 mol
Benzene = 4 mol
33

Thus finally EB column is:

Stream 11
EB = 1186.5 mol Benzene= 0.15 mol
Stream 10
EB Column
EB= 1186.5 mol DEB= 3.5 mol Benzene= 4.15 mol
DEB = 3.5 mol Benzene = 4 mol
Stream 12 Thus finally :
Input Benzene = Ethylene = Inerts =
Ethyl Benzene Plant
9548 mol 1193.5 mol 89.5 mol
34
Output EB = DEB = Benzene = Inerts =
1186.5 mol 3.5 mol 4.15 mol 89.5 mol

Mass balance at a Glance:

For Reactor Input : Stream: Component Ethylene (E) Benzene (B) Inert (I) Total K
g/hr (10-3) 33420 742560 2685 778665 Kmol//hr 1193.5 9520 89.5
Output: Stream: Component Ethyl Benzene (EB) Di-ethyl Benzene (DEB) Benzene (B)
Inert (I) Total Kg/hr (10-3) 125768 472 649740 2685 778665 Kmol//hr 1186.5 3.5 8
330 89.5
35

For Light Column: Input: Stream: Component Ethyl Benzene (EB) Di-ethyl Benzene (
DEB) Benzene (B) Inert (I) Total Kg/hr (10-3) 125768 472 649740 2685 778665 Kmol
//hr 1186.5 3.5 8330 89.5
Output: Stream: Component Inert (I) Total Kg/hr (10-3) 2685 2685 Kmol//hr 89.5
& Stream: Component Ethyl Benzene (EB) Di-ethyl Benzene (DEB) Benzene (B) Total
Kg/hr (10-3) 125768 472 649740 775980 Kmol//hr 1186.5 3.5 8330
36

For Benzene Column: Input: Stream: Component Ethyl Benzene (EB) Di-ethyl Benzene
(DEB) Benzene (B) Total Kg/hr (10-3) 125768 472 649740 775980 Kmol//hr 1186.5 3
.5 8330
Output: Stream: Component Benzene (B) Total Kg/hr (10-3) 649416.3 649416.3 Kmol/
/hr 8325.85
& Stream: Component Ethyl Benzene (EB) Di-ethyl Benzene (DEB) Benzene (B) Total
Kg/hr (10-3) 125768 472 323.7 126563.7 Kmol//hr 1186.5 3.5 4.15
37

For Ethyl Benzene Column: Input: Stream: Component Ethyl Benzene (EB) Di-ethyl B
enzene (DEB) Benzene (B) Total Kg/hr (10-3) 125768 472 323.7 126563.7 Kmol//hr 1
186.5 3.5 4.15
Output: Stream : Component Ethyl Benzene (EB) Benzene (B) Total Kg/hr (10-3) 125
768 .0 11.7 125779.7 Kmol//hr 1186.5 0.15
& Stream: Component Di-ethyl Benzene (DEB) Benzene (B) Total Kg/hr (10-3) 472 31
2 784 mol//hr 3.5 4.00
38

7.3 Energy Balance Calculations: Energy balance across Heater:

Energy balance across Heater:
Stream 3 I/P
Heater
O/P
543K
Q = Q out Q in = (Q B + Q E + Q I )out (Q B + Q E + Q I )in where QB , QB =[ nB
( c p dT + )
Now we perform similar calculations for all the I/P components: Thus s.no. Compo
nent Mass in (mol/hr) 1 Benzene (B) Ethylene (E) Ethane (I) Total 1193.5 Qin (MJ
/hr) 0 Mass out (mol/hr) 1193.5 Qout (MJ/hr) 668.758
2
9520
0
9520
19.719
3 4
89.5
0 0
89.5
1.750 690.228
39

Energy Balance Calculations across Reactor: Qr = Qout - Qin = 1305.06 1441.28 =

- 136.22 MJ/hr
It means in the reactor we are having exothermic reaction. So we need dowtherm a
s an utility to make reactor at operating condition, which would be: Qr = mw * c
p * T mw = 2173 Kg/ hr
Energy balance across Cooler: Q c = Qout Qin = -357.697 MJ Thus water needed for
cooler: Qc = mw * cp * T mw = 5677.73 Kg/ hr
Energy balance across Benzene Column: We have assumed reflux ratio : R = 1.5 Thu
s in L: B= I= 12494 mol 134.25 mol
& in V: B = 20823.16 mol I= 223.75 mol
40

So condenser duty will be: Qc = QL + QD - QV = -658.55 MJ /hr Thus requirement o

f water as utility will be: Qc = mw * cp * T mw = 10453 Kg/ hr Now reboiler duty
will be: QR - QC = QD + QB - QF QR = 699.06 MJ/hr
Thus steam requirement will be: ms = 276.09 Kg/hr (at 90 atmp. & 577 K)
Energy Balance across Ethyl Benzene Column: We have assumed reflux ratio : R = 1
.5 Thus in L: EB = B= & in V: B = 2966.13 mol I= 2.0825 mol 1779.75 mol 1.2495 m
ol
So condenser duty will be: Qc = QL + QD - QV = -117.12 MJ/hr
41

Thus requirement of water as utility will be: Qc = mw * cp * T mw = 1868.38 Kg/ h

r
Now reboiler duty will be: QR - QC = QD + QB - QF QR = 63.167 MJ/hr
Thus steam requirement will be: ms = 24.95 Kg/hr
Thus Plant Utilities at a glance: s.no. Equipment Utility Amount (Kg/hr) 1 2 3 4
Heater Reactor Cooler Benzene Column (Condenser) 5 Benzene Column (Reboiler) 6
EB Column (Condenser) 7 EB Column (Reboiler) Steam 24.95 Water 1868.38 Steam 276
.09 Steam Water Water Water 272.5 2173 5677.73 10453
42

Chapter 8
Detailed Equipment Design
43

8. Detailed Equipment Design

8.1 Fixed Bed Catalytic Reactor Process Design: Feed composition component Kg/hr
Benzene Ethylene Inerts
742.56 33.42 2.685
Total
778.665
Feed flow rate in reactor = 778.665 Kg/hr. Reaction: C6 H6 + C2 H4 C6 H5 C2 H5
Reaction temperature =270 0 C ( 543 K) Catalyst: Zeolite Density of catalyst par
ticle: 630 kg/m3 Catalyst porosity : 0.3 Type of reactor: Shell and tube heat ex
changer type in which catalyst is placed inside the tube. Reaction is exothermic
: It is carried out in isothermal manner. Dowtherm A is to be circulated in liqu
id form on shell side to maintain the isothermal condition. Mass of catalyst req
uired in commercial scale plant = 2541 kg Superficial mass velocity of feed gas
G=0.55 kg/m2.s Capacity of plant =1000 MTA of Ethyl benzene Let no. of working d
ays per annum=330 days Production rate of ethyl benzene=(1000*1000)/(330*24) =12
6.2626 Kg/h Mass of catalyst; W/FA0= -ra = KrCE/(1+KEB.CEB) ..(1)
44

Where; Kr =0.69*106exp[(-6.344*104)/RT] KEB= -1.5202*10-2exp[(-3.933*103/RT] Put

ting all the values in equation (1) W = 2541 Kg Volume of solid catalyst = mass
of catalyst/ density of catalyst =2541/630 = 4.03 m3 Porosity of catalyst bed =
0.3 Bulk volume occupied by the catalyst= 4.03/(1-0.3) = 5.76 m3 Total cross sec
tional area of catalyst of tubes = (778.3/3600)/0.55 = 0.3935 m2 MOC of tube = S
tainless steel Tube OD Tube ID = 50.8mm = 43.28 mm
Total number of tube required nt = 0.3935/(/4)(0.04328)2 =267.48 =268 tubes Lengt
h of tube required L= net vol. of catalyst/nt (/4)di 2 = 4.03 *4/268*3.14*(.04328
)2 =10.22m =10m Aav = nt d0 L = 268*3.14*0.0508*10
45

=427.49 m2 Heat duty= HR Kmol/hr of ethylene consumption Qt =114123*33.42/28 = 37

.837 KW Calculation of fixed bed side film coefficient hi ; dp=equivalent dia. O
f catalyst cylindrical partical, dp3 / 6 = (/4)(1.5)2 * 5*10-9 dp=0.002565m d p/d
t =0.059 ( d t = tube diameter)
(hidt /k) =0.813 e-6dp/dt (dp G/)0.9 G= 0.55 kg/m2 .s k= 0.04 W/m.k =0.015mPa On C
alculation ; hi =31.49w/m2 C hi dp/k = 3.6(dpG/)0.365 hi*0.002565/0.04 =3.6(0.0025
65*0.55/0.02*10-3*0.3) hi =457.51W/m2 0C Let hi=31.49 W/m2 0C (Lesser of two val
ues)
Calculation of shell side heat transfer, h0 ; Tube pitch , Pt =1.25d0 =1.25*0.05
08 = 0.0635 m
Type of arrangement
= Equilateral triangular
Equivalent diameter de = 1.1/d0 (Pt 0.907 d02 ) = 1.1/0.0508[0.06352 0.907*0.050
82]
46

= 0.03663 m
Shell side mass flow rate m ; Qt =m*CLt
Properties of Dowtherm A at 270 0C
Property CL K Let t=2 0C m=37.837/2.5832*2) = 7.323 Kg/s Density of Dowtherm A at
270 0C, =0.709 Kg/L Circulation rate qv =7.323/0.709*(3600/1000) = 37.18 m3 /hr
Shell side flow area As: As= (Pt d0 ) Ds Bs /Pt
Value 2.5832 KJ/kg 0C 0.135 mPa .s 0.098 W/m 0C
Shell inside diameter, Ds : Db =d0 (Nt /K1 )1/n1 K1 = 0.319 and n1 = 2.142 Db =
50.8(268/0.319)1/2.142 = 1171.3mm Let clearance between shell internal dia and b
undle(Db),
47

Db = 15 mm
Let Ds= 1171.13+15= 1186 mm Baffle spacing Bs= 0.4D s = 0.4*1186= 474mm Shell si
de flow area As = (Pt-d0)DsBs/Pt =( 0.0635-0.0508)/0.0635(1.186*.474 = .1124 m2
Gs=m/As = 7.323/.1124 = 65.1512 kg/m2 s Reynolds number, Re=de*Gs/ =(0.03663*65.1
512)/0.135*10-3 =17677.90 Prandtl number; ,Pr = CL/k = (2.5832*0.135*10-3*103)/0.
098 =3.558 (h0 de/k)=Jh RePr0.33 (/ m )0.14 J h = 0.0046 (Heat transfer factor)
( h0 *0.03663)/0.098 =0.0046*17677*3.5580.33 h 0 =336.50 W/m2 0 C Overall heat t
ransfer coefficient U0 ; 1/ U0 =1/h0+1/h0d +d0 ln(d0 /di)/2Kw+d0 l/di hid +d0 l/
di hi = 1/336.5 + 1/5000 +{ 0.0508ln(0.0508/0.04328)}/(2*16) + (0.0508/0.04328)*
(1/5000) + U0 = 24.47 W/m2 0C Shell side pressure drop 0.0508/0.04328
48

ps =8 Jf(Ds/de)(L/Bs)(sus2/2)(/ w)0.14 = 8*0.0046*(1.186/0.03663)(10/0.474)(3.831*17

2/2) = 13.91 KPa Tube Side pressure drop pt =[{4f(LNp/di)+ 4Np}(um2/2] Re = umdi/ =
(810*0.0014*0.04328)/0.015*10-3 = 3271.968 f = [1.58 ln Re- 3.28 ]-2 = [ 1.58 ln
3271.968-3.28]-2 = 0.0110 Atp =( di2/4)(Nt/2) = 3.14*(0.04328)2/4*(268/2) = 0.19
m2 Um = mt/t Atp = 778.665/(810*0.19*3600) = 0.0014 m/s pt =[{(4*0.0110*10*1)/0.0
4328 +(4*1)}(810*0.00142)/2 = 0.011240 KPa
us= Gs/s =65.152/3.831 = 17.006
49

8.2 Mechanical Design for reactor Shell and tube type reactor Data; (a) Shell si
de Material carbon steel Number of shells Number of passes Fluid Working pressur
e Design pressure Inlet temperature Outlet temperature (Corrosion allowance- 3) 1 1 - Dowtherm A - 0.2 N/mm2 - 0.25 N/mm2 - 25 0C - 400
C
Segmental baffles (25% cut ) with tie rods and spacers Head Crown radius Knuckle
radius -1200 mm -120 mm
(b) Tube Side Tube and tube sheet material - stainless steel Number of tubes - 2
68 Out side diameter - 50.8 mm Length - 10 m Tube pitch - 0.0635 Fluid -Benzene
and ethelene Working pressure - 3.2 N/mm2 Design pressure - 3.6 N/mm2 Inlet temp
. 25 0C Outlet temp. 270 0C Permissible stress - 100.6 N /mm2 Shell thickness; t
s =PD/(2fJ+P) = .25*1200/(2*87*.85)+0.52 = 2.02 mm Including corrosion allowanc
e. Use 8 mm thickness Nozzel thickness ( diameter -75mm) tn=PD/(2fJ-P)
50

= 0.25*75/9\(2*87-0.25) = 0.1080 mm Adding corrosion allowance tn = 4mm Head thi

ckness(th) = PCrW/2fJ W=1/4(3+(Rc/R1)1/2 ) = 1/4(3+(1200/120)1/2) = 1.54 J=1 th=
2.431mm adding corrosion allowance th=5.431mm Using thickness same as for shell
i.e 8 mm Transverse Baffles Spacing between baffles= 0.4Ds = 0.4*1200 =480 mm Th
ickness of baffls = 5mm
Tube Side Thickness of tube; J=1 (seamless tube) tf =PD0/(2fJ+P) =3.6*50.8/(2*87
*0.85)+0.36 = 1.233 mm No corrosion allowance , since the tubes are of stainless
steel. Use a thickness of 2 mm
Design of Gasket and Bolt Size Gasket factor, m= 2.00 Minimum design stress =11.
2 N/mm2 Basic gasket seating width b0 Internal dia. Of Gasket 1200 mm External d
ia. 1240mm b0 = (1240-1200)/2 = 10mm Effective Gasket seating width, b= 2.5b01/2
=7.90mm Minimum bolt load at atm. Condition, Wm1 = 3.14*b*G*Ya = 3.14*7.9*(1240+
1200)/2*(11.2)
51

= 338949.184 At operating condition, Wm2=3.14(2b)GMP+3.14G2P =3.14*2*7.9*(1240+1

200)/2(0.25)+3.14/4(1240+1200)2/2(0.25) = 322361.82 Cross section area of bolt A
m1=338949.184/5870 = 57.74 Cm2 Am2= 322361.82/5450= 59.14 Cm2 Number of bolts= 1
220/(2.5*10) = 49 bolts Diameter of bolts= [(Am2/no. of bolts)*3.14/4]1/2 = [(59
/49)/49*(4/3.14)]1/2 = 1.533 cm Bolt area ,Ab = 2*3.14*YaGN/fa = (2*3.14*1220**1
1.2*20)/58 = 292 Cm2 N- Width of Gasket Ya Gasket seating stress G dia. Of gasket
lode reaction fa permissible stress. pitch of bolts= 4.75*18=85.6 mm pitch circ
le dia.=(85.6*49)/3.14 =1335mm Flange Thickness, tf = G(p/kf)1/2+c K= 1/[0.3+1.5
WmhG/HG] = 1/[0.3+(1.5*322361.82*(1335-1220)/2]/(3.14/4)*12202*0.25*1220] = 3.17
..(2)
52

putting all the values in equation (2) tf = 38.15 Tube Side: Thickness of tube;
tf =PD0/(2fJ+P) =3.6*50.8/(2*87*0.85)+0.36 = 1.233 mm No corrosion allowance , s
ince the tubes are of stainless steel. Use a thickness of 2 mm Thickness of nozz
les tn= pD/(2fJ-p) D = 75 mm ( inlet and outlet) J= 1 ( seamless pipe) tn= 3.6*7
5/(2*95-3.6) =1.448 mm Add corrosion allowace of 3mm tn= 5mm J=1 (seamless tube)
53

8.3 Process Design of Benzene Distillation Column In Benzene column, a product s

tream from reactor is coming which consists of benzene, ethyl benzene & some amo
unt of di-ethyl benzene. Since it is more than two component case, hence we will
perform multicomponent distillation in order to separate benzene from mixture a
nd recycle it back to reactor.
Benzene 8325.85 mol EB 0.6 mol
Benzene 8330 mol EB 1186.5 mol DEB 3.5 mol
Benzene Column
Benzene 4.15 mol EB 1186.5 mol DEB 3.5 mol
Here Benzene is light key component and EB is heavy key component. The column is
operating at 1 atm.
54

Now first of all we will calculate bubble point & dew point temperature. Bubble
point calculation: We have taken a temperature 100 0 c (373 K). Component B EB D
EB Total Pi mm Hg 1344.933 261.38 54.42 Ki = Pi/ 760 1.771 0.344 0.072 xi 0.875 0.
124 0.001 1 yi = kixi 1.55 0.043 0.000072 More than 1
Now will do trail & error untill we get a value of temperature for which yi = 1.
After some calculations we got a value of T = 84 0 c (357 K), for which: Compon
ent B EB DEB Total Pi mm Hg 851.79 148.84 27.61 Ki = Pi/ 760 1.12 0.196 0.036 xi 0
.875 0.124 0.001 1 yi = kixi 0.98 0.02 0.00003 (=0) 1
Thus bubble point will be 357 K. Dew point calculations: Similarly we can calcul
ate dew point as follows: At T= 112 0 c ( 385 K) Component B EB DEB Total Pi mm H
g 1171.84 220.60 44.35 Ki = Pi/ 760 1.54 0.29 0.058 yi 0.875 0.124 0.001 1 yi/ ki
0.556 0.427 0.017 1
The values of Pi can be determined by following relation between T & P; ln P = A
B/ (T + C) (where P is in mm Hg & T is in Kelvin.)
The various values of A,B,C are: Component A B C B 15.9008 2788.51 -52.36 EB 16.
0195 3272.47 -59.95 DEB 16.1140 3757.22 -71.18 *All the values of Antonies coffic
ient of A,B,C are taken from Coulson & Ricardson Vol. 6, Appendix D, page no. 94
7 - 967.
55

Calculation of Minimum
0 (i can be calculaed
B, EB, DEB.) Component
Ki 1.12 0.196 0.036 i

reflux ratio (Rm):For a liquid feed, q = 1 [(i xid)/( i )] =

as i = ki/khk which is 5.714, 1, 0.1836 correspondingly for
B EB DEB Xf 0.8750 0.1246 0.0004 Xd 0.9999 0.0001 0.0000
5.714 1.000 0.1836

From trial & error, = 1.52 [(i xid)/( i )] = Rm + 1 Rm + 1 = 1.242 (putting the val
e of = 1.52 in above equation.) Rm = 0.242
Calculation of Operating Reflux Ratio:Now operating reflux will be : Ro = 1.5 Rm
= 0.363
Calculation of number of ideal plates at operating reflux: By Gilliland correlat
ion: (Fig 5 in appendix)
Now to calculate Nmin :56

Nmin = [ln{(xdi/xbi)/(xdj/xbj)}] / [ln ( v)] Putting all the values , Nmin = 8 Pu

tting this value of Nmin in (a), We have,
N = 19
Thus we need 19 stages ideally.
Flow Rates: Average molar mass of feed. Mav = xi Mi = (78*0.875) + (106*0.124) +
(134*0.001) = 81.528 kg/kmol F = 9.52 kmol/hr D = 8.33 kmol/hr B = 1.194 kmol/hr
Now molar flow rates of vapor & liquid at top in enriching section: L = R * D =
0.363 * 8.33 = 3.0225 kmol/hr V = (R+1) * D = (0.363 +1) * 8.33 = 11.349 kmol/hr
Molar flow rates of vapor & liquid in stripping section: L = L + F * q = 3.0225 +
9.52 * 1 = 12.543 kmol/hr
V = F*(q-1) + V = 9.52*(1-1) + 11.349 = 11.349 kmol/h
57

Calculation of tower diameter: (a) Tower diameter required at top: Operating pre
ssure at the top of column = 1 atm = 101.325 kpa V = 11.349 kmol/hr L = 3.0225 k
mol/hr Here total condenser is used, hence Lw/Vw = L/V = 3.0225/11.349 = 0.266 m
Density of vapor: v = (p* Mav)/(R*T) = (78*273)/(357*22.414) = 2.66 kg/m3 ( Mav
= xi Mi = 78) Density of liquid at top:
= 1/(wi/i) = 1/ {(7.2*10-5)/867 +(0.9999)/
879} = 878.9 = 879 kg/m3 Liquid vapor flow factor at top: Flv = (Lw/Vw)*(v/
)0.5 =
0.226*(2.66/879)0.5 = 0.146 Tray spacing = 0.3 m Corresponding Cf = 0.06 (from
Introduction to Process Engineering & Design by S.B. Thakore & B.I Bhatt, Chapte
r 6, Process Design of distillation column, Page no. 448) Now flooding velocity:
vf = Cf * (/0.02)0.2 * {(l v)/v}0.5 (where = surface tension of liquid, N/m = ix
ssumed)
= 0.06 * (22.267*10-3/0.02)0.2 * {(879-2.66)/2.66}0.5 = 1.126 m/sec. Now actual
velocity: v = 0.85 * vf = 0.85 * 1.1126 = 0.946 m/sec.
Volumetric flow rate of liquid at top: Q = (V* Mav)/v = (11.349*78)/2.66 = 332.79
m3/hr = 0.0924 m3/sec Net area required at top: An = Q/v = 0.0924/0.946 = 0.0973
m2
58

Let downcomer area Ad, Ad = 0.12* Ac (Ac = internal cross-sectional area of towe
r)
& An = Ac Ad = Ac 0.12*Ac = 0.88 Ac Ac = An/0.88 = 0.0973/0.88 = 0.11 m2 Inside
diameter of column required at top: Di = {(4*Ac)/}0.5 = 0.375 m
(a) Tower diameter required at bottom: Operating pressure at the top of column =
1 atm + pt Where pt = total pressure drop in sieve tray tower Assuming tray effic
iency () = 0.5 Actual no. of trays =19/0.5 = 38 pt = Actual no. of trays**g*t = 32
.767 kpa Thus operating pressure= 101.325 + 32.767 = 134.092 kpa Temp. at bottom
= 112 0 c Molar flow rates: V = 11.349 kmol/hr L = 12.543 kmol/hr Here total cond
enser is used, hence Lw/Vw = L/V = 12.543/11.349 = 1.105 m Density of vapor: v =
(p* Mav)/(R*T) = {(134.092*106)*(273)}/(385*22.414*101.325) = 4.438 kg/m3 Densit
y of liquid at bottom: l = 1/(wi/i) = 879 kg/m3 Liquid vapor flow factor at bottom:
Flv = (Lw/Vw)*(v/ l)0.5 = 1.105*(4.438/879)0.5 = 0.0785 (where pressure drop, ht =
100mm of LC)
59

Tray spacing = 0.3 m Corresponding Cf = 0.06 Now flooding velocity:

(assumed)
vf = Cf * (/0.02)0.2 * {(l v)/v}0.5
(wee = surface tension of liquid, N/m = ixi)
= 0.06 * (16.57*10-3/0.02)0.2 * {(879-4.438)/4.438}0.5 = 0.811 m/sec. Now actual
velocity: v = 0.85 * vf = 0.85 * 0.811 = 0.69 m/sec.
Volumetric flow rate of liquid at bottom: Q = (V* Mav)/v = (11.349*106)/4.438 = 0.
0752 m3/sec Net area required at bottom: An = Q/v = 0.0752/0.69 = 0.109 m2 Let do
wncomer area Ad, Ad = 0.12* Ac (Ac = internal cross-sectional area of tower)
& An = Ac Ad = Ac 0.12*Ac = 0.88 Ac Ac = An/0.88 = 0.109/0.88 = 0.124 m2 Inside
diameter of column required at bottom: Di = {(4*Ac)/}0.5 = 0.400 m
Checking for weeping: Minimum vapor velocity through holes to avoid the weeping
given by following equation: vh, min = [{K 0.9(25.4 dh)}/(v)0.5] K constant can b
e obtained from Fig 8.19 (Introduction to Process Engineering & Design by S.B. T
hakore & B.I Bhatt, Chapter 6, Process Design of distillation column, Page no. 4
49) or Fig. 4 of appendix. ,is a function of (hw + how), where weir height (hw)
= 50 mm hole diameter(dh) = 5 mm Plate thickness (t) = 5mm
60

(a) For enriching section : height of liquid crest over the weir how = 750 (Lm/l*
lw) Lm = 0.7*L*Mav = 0.7*(11.349/3600)*78 = 0.172 kg/sec lw = 0.77* Di = 0.77* 0
.375 = 0.2885 Now putting all the values , how = 6.075 mm Thus (hw + how) = 56.0
75 mm corresponding K value from Fig 8.19: K = 30.2 Thus finally vh,min = 4.62 m
/sec Actual vapor velocity holes at actual vapor flow rate : vh,a = (0.7* Qv)/ A
h ..(a) Now Ad = 0.12 * Ac = 0.12 * 0.11 = 0.0132 m2 Act
hole area, Ah= 0.00836 m2 Now putting it in equation (a) we get, vh,a = 7.74 m/s
ec Since vh,a >> vh,min Thus in enriching section minimum operating rate is well
above weep point.
(b) For Stripping section: height of liquid crest over the weir how = 750 (Lm/l*l
w) Lm = 0.7*L*Mav = 0.7*(12.543/3600)*106 = 0.259 kg/sec lw = 0.77* Di = 0.77* 0
.400 = 0.308
61

l = 879 kg/m3 Now putting all the values , how = 23.19 mm Thus (hw + how) = 75.19
mm corresponding K value from Fig 8.19: K = 30.68 Thus finally vh,min = 5.8533
m/sec Actual vapor velocity holes at actual vapor flow rate : vh,a = (0.7* Qv)/
Ah ..(b ) Now Ad = 0.12 * Ac = 0.01488 m2 Active area Aa
Now putting it in equation (b) we get, vh,a = 6.3 m/sec Since vh,a >> vh,min Thu
s in stripping section minimum operating rate is well above weep point.
Tray pressure drop: (a) For enriching section: Dry plate pressure drop: hd = 51(
vh/C0)2(v/l)
..(c)
v = Qv/Ah = 0.0924/0.00836 = 11.053 m/sec From fig. 8.20 Plate thickness / Plate
Area = 1 Ah/Ap = Ah/Aa =0.1 ( Ap is perforated area which is slightly less than
active area.) Thus corresponding C0 = 0.8422 (from fig. 1 of appendix) Now putt
ing all the values in equation (c) hd = 26.58 mm Maximum height of liquid of cre
st over the weir:
62

how = 750 (Lm/l*lw) = 750{(0.172/0.7)/(867*0.288)} = 23.36 mm Residual Pressure d

rop: hr = (12.5*103)/l = (12500/867) = 14.41 mm Total tray pressure drop: ht = hd
+ hw + how + hr = 26.58 + 50 + 23.36 +14.41 = 114.16 mm
(b) For stripping section: Dry plate pressure drop: hd = 51(vh/C0)2(v/l)
..(c)
v = Qv/Ah = 0.0752/0.009424 = 7.979 m/sec From fig. 8.20 Plate thickness / Plate
Area = 1 Ah/Ap = Ah/Aa =0.1 ( Ap is perforated area which is slightly less than
active area.) Thus corresponding C0 = 0.8422 Now putting all the values in equa
tion (c) hd = 23.43 mm Maximum height of liquid of crest over the weir: how = 75
0 (Lm/l*lw) = 750{(7.979/0.7)/(879*0.308)} = 9.74 mm Residual Pressure drop: hr =
(12.5*103)/l = (12500/879) = 14.22 mm Total tray pressure drop: ht = hd + hw + h
ow + hr = 23.43 + 50 + 9.74 +14.22 = 97.39 mm
Checking of downcomer design: Type of downcomer: Straight & segmental downcomera
rea, Ad = 0.12Ac (for both sections)
63

(a) For enriching section: hdc = 166 (Lmd/l*Am) where Lmd = Liquid flow rate thro
ugh downcomer, kg/sec = L*Mav = (3.0225*78)/3600 = 0.065 kg/sec l = 867 kg/m3 Am
= Ad or Aap whichever is smaller Aap = hap*lw = (hw 10)*lw = (50 -10)*0.288 = 0.
1152 m2 Ad = 0.0836 m2 Since Aap<< Ad Thus Am = Aap = 0.0836 m2 hdc = 166{0.065/
(867*0.01152)}2 = 7.03* 10-3 mm
Liquid back in downcomer: hb = hw + how + ht + hdc = 50 + 6.075 + 114.16 + 7.03*
10-3 = 170.243 mm Tray spacing (lt) = 0.3 m =300 mm Now, (lt + hw)/2 = (300 + 50
)/2 = 175 mm Since hb < (lt + hw)/2 Thus downcomer area & spacing are acceptable
. Checking for residence time :  = (Ad*hb*l)/Lmd = (0.0836*0.170*867)/0.065 = 189
.56 sec which is greater than 3 sec. thus it is satisfactory.
(b) For stripping section: hdc = 166 (Lmd/l*Am) where Lmd = Liquid flow rate thro
ugh downcomer, kg/sec = L*Mav = 0.259 kg/sec l = 879 kg/m3 Am = Ad or Aap whichev
er is smaller Aap = hap*lw = (hw 10)*lw = 0.01232 m2 Ad = 0.09424 m2 Since Aap<<
Ad Thus Am = Aap = 0.01232 m2
64

hdc = 166{(0.259/0.7)/(867*0.01152)}2 Liquid back in downcomer: hb = hw + how +

ht + hdc = 50 + 9.74 + 97.39 + 5.67 = 162.80 mm Tray spacing (lt) = 0.3 m =300 m
m Now, (lt + hw)/2 = (300 + 50)/2 = 175 mm
= 5.67 mm
Since hb < (lt + hw)/2 Thus downcomer area & spacing are acceptable. Checking fo
r residence time :  = (Ad*hb*l)/Lmd = (0.09424*0.162*879)/(0.259/0.7) = 189.56 se
c which is greater than 3 sec. thus it is satisfactory.
Checking for entrainment: (a) For enriching section: Vapor velocity based on net
area (vn) = Q/ An = 0.0924 / 0.973 = 0.95 m/sec. % Flooding Flv = 0.146 From fig
8.18: = 0.11 or 11% Since % > 10% , thus higher efficiency will be obtained. = (
vn/vf)*100 = 85.35% (from fig 2 of appendix )
(b) For stripping section: % Flooding = 85% Flv = 0.0785 From fig 8.18: = 0.053
or 5.43% Since % < 10% , thus higher efficiency will be obtained
65

8.4 Mechanical Design of Benzene Distillation Column used in Ethyl Benzene Produ
ction Shell Thickness: Diameter = 400mm (taken for designing) Operating pressure
= 760mmHg Taking 10% allowance Pd = 684mm Hg Operating average temperature = 10
0 0C Design temperature = 1500 C Material used is carbon steel Specific gravity
of carbon steel = 7.7 Permissible tensile stress = 950 kg/cm2 (up to 250 0C) Ins
ulation material is mineral wood , 75mm thick , density = 130kg/m3 Shell minimum
thickness ts ts = Pd Di/(2f tJ-Pd) + C take C = 3mm ts = (0.9x400/2x950x1 -0.9)
+3 = 3.20 but for high vessels under external pressure take shell thickness ts=
8mm Head:Torispherical heads Let thickness = 8mm same as shell t = P dRc Cs/[2f
tJ + Pd(Cs-0.2)] Cs = [3 + (Rc/Rk)0.5] Take Rc = 400 mm ; J = 1 On solving Cs =
71.24 Therefore Rk = 5.026x10-3mm But Rk > 0.06Rc ; therefore Rk = 24mm
66

Shell Thickness at different Height:At a distance X m from the top of shell the
stress are (a) Axial stress:fap = Pd Di/4(ts-C) on substituting values fap = 18
kg/cm2 (b) Stresses due to dead load : (i) Compressive stress due to weight of s
hell (fds):= 7.7x10 -6X kg/cm2 (ii) Compressive stress due to weight of insulation(fdi):D m = Dins = (0.4 + 0.375)/2 = 0.3875 m fdi = 3.22x10 -5X kg/cm2 (iii) Compressi
ve stress due to liq. In the column up to height X
fd,liq= 2.134x10 -3X kg/cm2 (iv) stress due to attachement (f d, att)
wt. of attachements = 150 kg/m therefore fd = 11.46x10 -3X kg/cm2 (c) Stress due
to wind load:- fwx
67

wind pressure = 125 kg/m2 = 125x10 -6 kg/mm2 fwx = 1.34x10 -6X2 kg/cm2 Neglectin
g seisemic load equating all the stresses to zero fwx ( fdx + fd,liq + fdi + fds
) fap = 0 solving for X ; X = 17.6 Hence thickness taken as 8mm is sufficient a
s column ht. is 11.7m
Support:(a) stress due to dead weight:
Skirt diameter = 400 mm (Ds) Dead weight attachments = 46000 kg
(b) stress due to wind load Mw = 0.7PwDoX2
68

69

Chapter 9
Cost Estimation
70

9. Cost Estimation
9.1 Capital Cost Estimation & Distribution: Cost of producing ethyl benzene per
annum in 1965 = $ 5.5x106 Chemical plant index for the year 1965 = 76.2 Chemical
plant index for the year 2008 = 740 Therefore cost of plant in 2008 = Cost in 1
965x {(cost index in 2008)/ (cost index in1965)} = 5.5x106 (740/76.2) = $ 53.41x
105 Or Rs. 26.1709 Crores (1$ = Rs 49.0 ) Therefore fixed capital cost = FCC = R
s 26.1709 crores Total capital investment Working capital = TCI = FCC + Working
capital = 25% of TCI
Therefore working capital = Rs 32.714 crores
Distribution of capital cost: Direct cost Purchased Equipment Installation of eq
uipment Instrumentation (installed) Piping Electrical (installed) Building Yard
improvement Service facilities Land Total
% of FCC 20 9 3 15 8 12 2 12 1 82
Cost (Crores of Rs) 5.234 2.355 0 .785 3.926 2.094 3.140 0.523 3.140 0 .261 21.4
6
Indirect Cost Engineering supervisions Construction expenses Contractor fees Con
tingencies Total
% of FCC 4 6 3 5 18
Cost (Crores of Rs) 1.047 1.570 0.785 1.308 4.71
71

9.2 Estimation of total product cost: Let X be the total product cost Distributi
on of total product cost
Fixed charge = 16% of TPC (let) 20.1082 + 0.07125X = 0.16X X = 22.657 crores
General Expenses:
Total product cost = manufacturing cost + general expenses = (30.1082 + 0.76875X
) + 0.2375X = 30.1082 + 1.00625X X = 22.657 crores Therefore general expenses =
5.34 crores Therefore manufacturing cost = 20.42 crores or Direct production cos
t.
72

9.3 Break Even Analysis: Cost price of ethyl benzene per kg = 22.657x107/1x106=
226.57 or Rs. 227 Assuming a profit margin of 20% so selling price of the produc
t = Rs. 273 Gross annual earnings = total annual sales total annual product cost
= Rs. 4.6 crores Net annual earnings = gross annual earnings income tax = 23 40
%of 46 = 2.76 Crores
Payback period =
Total capital investment Net annual earnings
= 32.714/ 2.76 = 11.85 years (12 year approx)
Rate of return = =
=
Net profit FCC 2.76/26.17 10.54%
73

Chapter 10
Conclusion
74

Conclusion:
Nearly all commercial ethylbenzene is produced by alkylation of benzene with eth
ylene. Earlier processes were based on liquid phase alkylation using an aluminum
chloride catalyst but this route required disposal of aluminum chloride waste.
In the early 1980s, Mobil/Badger developed an alternative zeolite-based process
using vapor phase alkylation, offering higher yields and purity. More recently,
liquid phase processes using zeolite catalysts have been introduced. These lates
t technologies offer low benzene-to-ethylene ratios, which reduces the size of e
quipment, and lowers the production of byproducts. Nearly all the ethylbenzene (
EB) produced is used in the manufacture of styrene monomer (SM) with the remaind
er, at less than 1%, used in solvent applications. In addition, most of the EB i
s used captively, leaving a small merchant market for the product. Hence, EB dem
and runs in parallel to that of styrene. Here we have designed a plant for 1000
MTA, with a techno-economic feasibility report which is started with a need, dem
and & supply analysis and by going through a process of mass, energy balances an
d detailed design of equipments in the process.
75

References
76

References:
Chapter 22, Introduction to Multicomponent Distillation, Unit Operations of Chem
ical Engineering, by McCabe-Smith-Harriott, 6th Edition, Published by McGraw . H
ill International Edition, Chemical Engineering Series. Chapter 8, Process Desig
n of distillation Column, Introduction to Process Engineering & Design, Second r
eprint 2009, Published by, Tata-McGraw-Hill Publishing Company limited, New Delh
i. Chapter 6, Costing & Project Evaluation, Coulson & Richardsons volume 6, Third
Edition, Chemical Engineering Design, By R.K.Sinnot, Publisher by ButterworthHeinemann Publications. Chapter 11, Separation Columns, Coulson & Richardsons vol
ume 6, Third Edition, Chemical Engineering Design, By R.K.Sinnot, Publisher by B
utterworth-Heinemann Publications. Chapter 10, Process Design of Reactors, Intro
duction to Process Engineering & Design, Second reprint 2009, Published by, Tata
-McGraw-Hill Publishing Company limited, New Delhi. Process Equipment Design, By
M.V. Joshi & V.V. Mahajani, Third edition, published by McMillan India Limited.
Kirk Othmer Encyclopedia of chemical Technology 4th Edition. Ullmanns Encycloped
ia, Industrial Organic Chemicals, Volume 4 Chemical Weekly Buyers Guide 2005. SAXs
Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials. Hydrocarbon Processing. Basic Pri
ncipals & Calculations in Chemical Engineering, David M. Himelblau, 6th Edition,
PHI Publication. Physical, thermo physical & thermo chemical properties: Yaws C
.L., Physical properties. Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook , McGraw-Hill Publica
tions.

77

Appendices
78

(A) Figures:
Figure 1
79

Figure 2
80

Figure 3
Figure 4
81

Figure 5
82

(B) MSDS:
83

84

85

86

87

88