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NUCLEI
Important Points:

1.

The nuclei having the same atomic number (Z), but different mass numbers (A) are called
isotopes.
Ex: 11H , 12 H , 13H are the isotopes of hydrogen atom.

2.

The nuclei having the same neutron number (N) but different atomic numbers (Z) are called
isotones.
Ex: 80 Hg 198 ,

3.

79

Au197 ,

20

Ca 40 , 19 K 39

The nuclei having the same mass number (A), but different atomic numbers (Z) are called
isobars.
Ex: 6 C14 , 7 N 14 ,

4.

32

Ge76 , 34 Se76

Nuclei having the same atomic number (Z) and mass number (A) but with different nuclear
properties such as radioactive decay and magnetic moments are called isomers.
Ex: 35 Br 80 m ,

35

Br 80 g

Here m denotes meta-stable state and g denotes ground state.

5.

The volume of the nucleus (V) is found to be proportional to its mass number (A).
1

R = R0 A 3 , Where R0 is constant of proportionality

6.

Mass Defect and Binding Energy:

a) The difference between the total mass of all the nucleons of the nucleus and the actual mass
of a nucleus is called mass defect, It is denoted by m .
b) Packing fraction: The mass defect per nucleon is called packing fraction or the ratio of mass
defect to the mass number is called packing fraction. pf =

7.

m
.
A

Relation between Mass Defect and Binding Energy:

Mass defect ( m ) = (Total mass of the protons + Total mass of the neutrons) - (Actual mass of
the nucleus)
m = Zm p + ( A Z ) mn mN Where, me= mass of electron

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8.

The binding energy can be defined as the energy released when protons and neutrons combine
to form a nucleus.
Binding energy ( E ) = mc 2

9.

Natural Radio Activity:

The nuclei of certain elements disintegrate spontaneously by emitting alpha ( ), beta( ), and
gamma( ) rays. This phenomenon is called natural radio activity.

10. Alpha Radiation:

When a nucleus emits an -particle its atomic number (Z) decreases by two units and its mass
number (A) decreases by four units. 92U 238 90 Th 234 + 2 He 4
11. Beta Radiation:
a) When a nucleus emits a -particle, the atomic number of the nucleus increases by one unit,
but the mass number does not change. 90 Th 234 91 Pa 234 + 1 0
b) Both electric charge and nucleon number are conserved in decay
12. Gamma Radiation:
a) -rays are nothing but electromagnetic radiations of short wave lengths (not exceeding
10-10m).
b) The emission of -rays from the nucleus does not alter either atomic number (Z) (or) mass
number (A).
13. Radio - Active Decay Law:
dN

a) The number of nuclei decaying per unit time at any instant

is directly proportional to
dt
the number of nuclei (N) present at that instant.
dN
N
dt

Or N = N 0et

b) Activity of a radioactive sample = N

c) The S.I unit for activity of radioactive substance is Becquerel (Bq)

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14. Half Life of a Radio Active Substance:
It the time required for the number of radioactive nuclei of the substance disintegrate to half of
its original number of nuclei.
T=

0.693

Half-life (T) depends upon the disintegration constant ( ) of the radioactive substance.
15. Average Life of a Radio Active Substance:
Average life time ( ) is equal to the total life time of all the nuclei divided by the total number
of original nuclei N0.

16. Nuclear Fission:

The phenomenon of splitting of a heavy nucleus (usually A > 230) into two or more lighter
nuclei is called Nuclear fission.
235
92

92
1
U +10 n 141
56 Ba + 36 Kr + 30 n + Q

21. Nuclear Fusion:

The proton - proton cycle is a source of energy in the sun and other stars of comparatively
lower temperatures (Red-dwarfs)
411 H 42 He + 20+1 e + 25.71MeV Of energy

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Very Short Answer Questions

1.

What are Isotopes and Isobars?

A.

Isotopes:
Nuclei having same atomic number (Z), but different mass numbers (N) are called isotopes.
1) 11 H , 21 H , 31 H are the isotopes of hydrogen.

Ex:

2) 168 O , 178 O , 188 O are the isotopes of oxygen.

Isobars:
Nuclides having the same mass number (A), but different atomic numbers (Z) are called
isobars.
1) 146 C ,

Ex:

14
7

N,

2)

76
32

Ge ,

76
34

Se

2.

What are Isotones and Isomers?

A.

Isotones: - Nuclei having the same neutron number (N) but different atomic numbers (Z) are
called isotones.
Ex:

40
20

Ca ,

39
19

2)

198
80

Hg ,

197
79

Au

Isomers:-Nuclides having same atomic number (Z) and mass number (A) but with different
nuclear properties such as radioactive decay and magnetic moment, etc... are called Isomers.
Ex:

80
35

Br m ,

80
35

Br g

Here

m = meta stable state

g = ground state

3. What is amu? What is its equivalent energy?

A. Atomic Mass Unit (A.M.U):
It is defined as

1
th
12

of the mass of the carbon

( C)
12

atom.

1 amu (u) = 931.5 Mev

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4.

What will be the ratio of the radii of two nuclei of mass numbers A1 and A2?

A.

A Nucleus of mass number 'A' has a radius, R = R0A1/3. Ratio of radii of two nuclei of mass
numbers A1 and A2 is
1/3

A
R 1 R 0 A11/3
=
= 1 .
1/3
R 2 R 0A 2
A2

5.

Natural radioactive nuclei are mostly nuclei of high mass number why?

A.

In all naturally occurring heavy radioactive nuclides, n/p value is more than 1.56. These are
more unstable. So they undergo radioactive decay.

6.

Does the ratio of neutrons to protons in a nucleus increase, decrease or remain the same
after the emission of an - particle?

A.

After the emission of an - particle, the ratio of neutron to proton is increases.

7. A nucleus contains no electrons but can emit them. How?

A. When a nucleus disintegrates and radiates -rays, it undergoes decay. -particle is nothing
but fast moving electron. In the conversion of a neutron into a proton a - particle is emitted.
n p + e + v

8. What are the units and dimensions of the disintegration constant?

A. SI unit: (sec)1
Dimensional formula: [ M 0 L0T 1 ]

9.

Why do all electrons emitted during - decay not have the same energy?

A.

The energy released in - decay is shared by the electrons and anti neutrino ( ). Hence
different electrons possess different energies.

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10. Neutrons are the best projectiles to produce nuclear reactions. Why?
A. Neutrons are electrically neutral and they are not deflected by both magnetic and electric field.
They have high penetrating power. Therefore neutrons enter the nucleus easily and are not
deflected by the positive charge of the nucleus. Thus neutrons are the best projectiles to produce
nuclear reactions.

11. Neutrons cannot produce ionization. Why?

A. As neutrons are electrically neutral and highly penetrating, they cannot produce ionization.

12. What are delayed neutrons? What is its importance?

A. Delayed Neutrons:
In nuclear fission process, few neutrons (around 1%) are emitted over a period of time. These
neutrons are called delayed neutrons.
Importance:
These neutrons play an important role in the working of nuclear reactor by accelerating the
fission process.

13. What are thermal neutrons? What is their importance?

A. Thermal Neutrons:
If fast moving neutrons pass through substances like heavy water, paraffin wax, graphite etc.,
they are slowed down to thermal energy levels. These neutrons are called thermal neutrons.
Importance:
These are used in nuclear fission reactions.

14. What is the value of neutron multiplication factor in a controlled reaction and in an
uncontrolled chain reaction?
A.

Neutron multiplication factor K = No. of neutrons in the present generation / No. of neutrons
in the previous generation.
For controlled chain reaction, K = 1
For uncontrolled chain reaction, K > 1

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15. What is the role of controlling rods in a nuclear reactor?
A. Control rods are the neutron absorbing materials like cadmium, boron etc. These absorb the
neutrons and there by controls the nuclear fission process.

16. Why are nuclear fusion reactions called Thermo Nuclear Reactions?
A.

Nuclear fusion reactions occurs only at very high temperatures of the order of 107K. These are
also known as thermo nuclear reactions.

17. Define Becquerel and Curie?

A. The S.I unit of activity is Becquerel (Bq) which is equal to 1 decay or disintegration per second.
1 Bq = 1 decay per second
Curie:
The activity of a radioactive substance one Curie (Ci) which is equal to 3.71010 decays or
disintegrations per second.
1 Ci = 3.7 1010

18. What is a chain Reaction?

A. A chain reaction is a self propagating process in which a number of neutrons multiply rapidly
during fission till the whole fissionable material is disintegrated.

19. What is the function of moderator in a nuclear reactor?

A. The purpose of the moderator is to slow down the fast moving neutrons produced as a result of
nuclear fission.
Ex: Heavy water, beryllium, carbon in the form of pure graphite, hydrocarbon plastics etc.

20. What is the energy released in the fusion of four protons to form a helium nucleus?
A.

4 11 H 42 He + 2 10 e + 26.7 MeV

Energy released = 26.7 Mev.

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Short Answer Questions

1.

Why is the density of the nucleus more than that of the atom? Show that the density of
nuclear matter is same for all the nuclei?

A. Most part of the atom is hollow. The entire mass is concentrated at the centre of atom i.e.
nucleus. Thus, mass per unit volume (density) of the nucleus is more than that of the atom.
Density of the Nucleus:
Volume of the nucleus =

4 3 4
4
r = (r0 A1/3 )3 = r03 A
3
3
3

Mass of each proton = 1.670020 1027 kg

Mass of the nucleus = 1.670020 1013 A
Density =

mass
1.67 1027 A
=
1017 kg / m3
4
volume
r0 A
3

Density of the nucleus does not depend on mass number (A) .Hence the density of nuclear
matter is same for all nuclei.

2.

Write a short note on the discovery of neutron?

A. Discovery of Neutron:
Bothe and Becker observed that a highly penetrating radiation was emitted when Boron or
Beryllium were bombarded with particles of energy about 5 MeV. These were thought to be
high energetic -rays because these are not affected by electric or magnetic fields.
4

Be9 + 2 He 4 6 C13 6C 13 +

Absorption measurements estimated that these -photon energy should be about 7MeV. Later
Curie and Joliot observed that when this radiation is passed through hydrogenated materials like
paraffin etc. A high energy protons were ejected with a maximum energy of about 5MeV. From
the calculation, it has shown that ejection of 5MeV protons require -photons of energy
55MeV. Thus this lea to controversies about the energy of the -photons.
Later in the year 1932 Chadwick concluded that these are a group of neutral particles of mass
equal to that of protons. These neutral particles are called neutrons.
4

Be9 + 2 He4 6 C 13 6C12 + 0 n1 + Q

( Q = energy )

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3.

What are the properties of a neutron?

A.

1) Mass of the neutron is 1.00866 amu = 1.6749 x 10-27 Kg.

2) It is an uncharged particle. Hence it is not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
3) These are having high penetrating power and low ionizing power.
4) These are more stable inside the nucleus and unstable outside the nucleus.
5) A free neutron decays into a proton, an electron ( - particle) and an antineutrino ( ) .

n p+e +v

6) Its Mean life is nearly 1000s.

7) These are fermions and having half -integral spins.
8) For non- relativistic velocities (V <<C), the wavelength associated with
neutrons is given by
=

4.

h
h
0.286 0
=
=
A (Here E is in eV)
p
2mE
E

What are nuclear forces? Write their properties?

A. Nuclear Forces:
The force that holds the nucleons together in the nucleus is an attractive force and it is called
nuclear force.
Properties:
1. Nuclear force is the strongest force of all the basic forces.
2. Nuclear forces are the short range force.
3. Nuclear forces are more effective if the separation between the nucleons if of order of 1
Fermi or less.
4. If the distance between the nucleons is less 0.4 Fermi, the nuclear forces become repulsive.
5. These are charge independent.
6. The magnitude of these forces between two protons or two neutrons or between a proton and
neutron are same.
7. Nuclear forces are spin dependent.

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8. Nuclear forces have saturation property, i.e., each nucleon interacts with its immediate
neighbor only.

5.

For greater stability, a nucleus should have greater value of binding energy per nucleon.
Why?

A.

Binding Energy per nucleon is the average energy per nucleon needed to separate a nucleus
into its individual nucleons.
It is denoted by Ebn
Average binding energy =
Ebn =

Binding energy
Atomic mass number

Eb
A

Ebn is an indication of the stability of the nucleus.

If Ebn is more for nuclei, it is considered as more stable.

A graph is plotted for the Binding Energy per nucleon Ebn versus the mass number A for large
number of nuclei as shown in fig. the main features of the graph are
(i) The Binding Energy per nucleon Ebn is practically constant i.e., practically independent of
the atomic number for nuclei of middle mass number (30<A<170).
(ii) The curve has a maximum of about 8.75 Mev for Iron (A=56) Hence it is more stable and
has a value of 7.6 Mev for Uranium (A=238) hence it is unstable.
(iii) Ebn is lower for both light nuclei (A<30) and heavy nuclei (A>170)

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(iv) To attain greater stability, Uranium (A = 240) breaks up into intermediate mass nuclei
resulting in a phenomenon called fission.
(v) Two lighter nuclei are combined to form a stable nucleus. This phenomenon is called
fusion.

6.

Explain - decay.

A.

- decay:

(i) When a nucleus disintegrates by radiating - rays, it is said to undergo -decay.

(ii) When a nucleus emits an alpha particle its atomic number (Z) decreases by two units and
its mass number a decreases by four units. The resultant nucleus corresponds to a different
element.
(iii) The original nucleus is called parent nucleus and the resultant nucleus after disintegration
is called daughter nucleus.
(iv) The general form of -decay can be written as
A
Z

A 4
Z 2

Y + 24 He

(v) Q - Value of above nuclear reaction is the difference between the initial mass energy and
the total mass energy of the decay products.
Q = [mx - my - mHe]C2 .

i.e.
Ex:

7.

238
92

Th +

234
90

4
2

He ( -dcay)

Explain decay.

A. decay:
In the decay, a nucleus spontaneously electron ( decay ) or a position ( + decay)
For decay

32
15

P S + e + v

For decay

32
11

22
Na 10
Ne + e+ + v

In decay an anti neutrino ( v ) and in + decay neutrino ( v ) are generated

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In both and + decay, the mass number A remains unchanged. In decay, the atomic
number Z of the nucleus increases by 1, while in + decay Z decreases by 1. The basic nuclear
process underlying decay is the conversion of neutron to proton.
n p + e + v

While for + decay, it is the conversion of proton into neutron

p n + e+ + v

8.

Explain - decay.

A.

- decay:

When a nucleus disintegrates by radiating -rays, it is said to undergo -decay. Gamma rays
are electromagnetic radiations having short wavelengths. Due to the emission of -rays, does
not alter either atomic number (Z) (or) mass number (A). But change of the energy state of a
nucleus is possible.
Ex: When

60
27

Co emits - particle, then the daughter nucleus ( 60

28 Ni ) is left in the excited state.

It suddenly makes transition from excited state to ground state there by emitting -rays as
shown in fig.

Here charge and mass (nucleon) number are remains conserved.

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9.

Define half life period and decay constant for a radioactive substance. Deduce the relation
between them?

A. Decay Constant:
Decay constant is defined as the ratio of its instant rate of disintegration to the number of atoms
present at that time.
=

dN

dt
N

Half life ( T1/ 2 ) :

Time interval in which the mass of a radioactive substance or the number of its atom reduces to
half of its initial value is called the half life of the substance.
i.e. if N =

N0
2

Then t = T1/ 2
Hence from N = N 0et
N0
log e 2 0.693
T
= N 0 e ( 1/2 ) T1/2
=
2

10. Define average life of a radioactive substance. Obtain the relation between decay
constant and average life?
A.

Average life time ( ): The average life time is defined as the ratio of the total life time of all
the N0 nuclei to the total number of original nuclei N0.
Average life ( ) =
But

tdN
.... (1)
N0

dN
= N
dt

dN = -N dt

( N = N0 e t )

dN = -N0 e t dt
To obtain mean life, integrate equation (1) from 0

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tN e

dt

N0

On integration we get =

The reciprocal of the decay constant is the average life of a radioactive substance.
11. Deduce the relation between half life and average life of a radioactive substance?
A. Half-Life:
The half life of a radioactive substance is defined as the time during which half of the atoms of
the substance will disintegrate.
The relation between half-life (T) and disintegration constant ( ) of radioactive substance is
T=

0.693

...........(1)

Mean life time (or) average life time ( Tavg ):

It is the ratio of total life of all the atoms of a given sample to the total number of atoms present
in the sample.
1
Tavg = ...........(2)

From (1) and (2) we have relation between average life and half-life of a radioactive substance
as
T = 0.693 Tavg =

T
0.693

12. What is nuclear fission? Give an example to illustrate it?

A.

Nuclear Fission:
The phenomenon in which a heavy unstable nucleus breaks into two fragments of nearly same
mass is called nuclear fission.
Ex: Consider

235
92

U nucleus was bombarded with slow neutrons. It splits into Barium and

krypton and the energy released is 200 MeV.

U + 01n

235
92

141
56

Ba +

92
36

Kr + 3 01n + 200 MeV

Mass defect m = total mass of reactants - Total mass of products.

Energy (E) = m C2 = m 931.5 MeV

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The binding energy per nucleon is 0.85 MeV
Hence energy released is 235 0.85 MeV
E = 199.75 MeV

13. What is nuclear fusion? Write the conditions for nuclear fusion to occur?
A.

Nuclear Fusion:
The process of the formation of a single stable nucleus by fusing two or more lighter nuclei is
called nuclear fusion. The energy released in this process is called fusion energy.
Ex:- Formation of a helium nucleus by fusing of four hydrogen nuclei and releasing 26.7MeV
of energy.
411 H 2 4 He + 2 +10 e + Energy

In the above reaction the mass of the helium nucleus is smaller than the sum of the masses of
four protons. This difference in mass appears as liberation of energy in the fusion process. In
the fusion of four protons, the energy released per nucleon is about 6.5MeV.
Conditions:
To carry out the fusion of two nuclei, they must be brought very close to each other so that
they overcome the repulsive force. This is only possible at a temperature nearly equal to
107 K, Such a high temperature is possible when an atomic bomb is explodes. Once the fusion
takes place, the energy released can maintain the minimum required temperature for further
fusion.
As fusion can occur at very high temperatures the fusion reactions are also known as thermo
nuclear reactions.
14. Distinguish between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
A.
Nuclear Fission

Nuclear Fusion

1) This is the process of splitting of a heavier 1) This is the process of fusing two lighter
into two or more stable fragments.

nuclei into a heavier nucleus to attain

stability.

2) Each fission gives about 200 MeV of 2) Each fusion gives about 28 MeV of energy.
energy.

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3) Energy released per nucleon is less and 3) Energy released per nucleon is more and
equal to 0.85 MeV.

equal to 6 MeV.

4) This is the principle of atom bomb.

4) This is the principle of hydrogen bomb.

5) Fission takes place at room temperature

5) Fusion takes place at high temperatures.

6) Energy is produced by nuclear reactors 6) Energy released by stars and sun is by

is by fission.

fusion.

15. Explain the terms Chain reaction and multiplication factor. How is a chain reaction
sustained?
A. Chain Reaction:
In a nuclear fission reaction three neutrons are released. Each of these neutrons inturn causes
further fission in three more Uranium nuclei resulting in release of nine neutrons. These
neutrons split nine more nuclei and release 27 neutrons. As this process continues the number
of neutrons released increases in geometric progression and this process is called chain reaction.
Neutron Multiplication Factor:
The ratio of second generation neutrons to the first generation neutrons is called neutron
multiplication factor.
Neutron multiplication factor (K) =

No of neutrons is second generation

No of neutrons in the first generation

a) If K < 1, the reaction is not self sustained. It is called sub- critical state.
b) If K = 1, then it is called a controlled chain reaction called critical state.
c) If K>>1, the reaction is self sustained. It is called super critical state (principle of atom
bomb).
Condition for Sustained Chain Reaction:
To sustain the chain reaction the mass of Uranium should be equal to or more than a particular
amount of mass called critical masses.

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Long Answer Questions

1.

Define mass defect and binding energy. How does binding energy per nucleon vary with
mass number? What is its significance?

A.

Binding Energy:
The minimum amount of energy required to split the nucleus into its constituent nucleons is
called binding energy.
Mass Defect:
The difference between the actual mass of a nucleus and the sum of the masses of the nucleons
present in it is known as the mass defect ( m).
m = [ Zm p + ( A Z )mn ] M

Where mp and mn are the masses of proton and neutron respectively and M is the actual mass
of the nucleus.
Z = Number of protons in the nucleus
A Z = Number of neutrons
The energy equivalent of the mass defect is the binding energy of the nucleus.
Binding energy of the nucleus= m x 931.5 MeV.
Binding Energy Curve:
The ratio of binding energy of nucleus ( Eb ) and the total number of nucleons (A) the nucleus is
called the binding energy per nucleon or binding fraction.
Binding fraction ( Ebn ) =

Binding energy of the nucleus mc 2

=
A
A

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The graph of binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number is shown in the figure.
1) The binding energy per nucleon rises sharply to a maximum of about 8.8MeV in
the neighborhood of A = 56, attains a 8.4MeV at about A = 140 and decreases to 7.6MeV for
uranium.
2) The value of BE per nucleon is close to the maximum value for the elements of range
28<A<138.
3) In the region of smaller mass numbers 24 He, 126C , and
elements 36 Li, 105 B, and

14
7

16
8

O, have maximum BE than those

N , which are nearby. This shows that the nuclei having equal number

of protons and neutrons are stable. The nuclei having even number of protons are more stable
than those of odd number of protons.
Significance:
1) More the binding energy, more the stability.
2) A large amount of energy can be liberated if heavier nuclei can be split into lighter nuclei
i.e. nuclear fusion.
3) A large amount of energy can be liberated if lighter nuclei can be made to fuse to form
heavier nuclei i.e. nuclear fusion.

2.

What is radioactivity? State the law of radioactive decay. Show that radioactive decay is
exponential in nature?

A. Radioactivity:
The process of spontaneous disintegration of the nuclei of heavy elements with the emission of
certain radiations is known as natural radioactivity.
The nuclei of certain elements with atomic number more than 82 disintegrate by emitting alpha
( ), beta ( ) and gamma ( ) rays. This phenomenon is called radioactivity.
dN

Radioactive Decay Law: The rate of disintegration,

i.e. the number of atoms
dt
disintegrated per second is directly proportional to the number of atoms present (N) at that
moment. This is known as radioactive decay Law.

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Explanation:
Let N0 be the number of atoms present in a radioactive sample initially (t = 0).
Let N be the number of atoms left at a time t and dN be the no of atoms disintegrating in a short
interval of time t.
The rate of disintegration =

dN
dt

According to decay law,

dN
N
dt

Or

dN
N
dt

Where = decay or disintegration constant. The negative sign indicates that as time increases,
the number of atoms decreases.
Or

dN
N
N

Integrating the above equation

dN
= dt
N

Or log e N = t + c (1)

Where c = integration constant and it can be found in the initial condition.

i.e., If t = 0, N = N0
Then,

logeN0 = c (2)

From equation (1)

LogeN = - t + logeN0
LogeN logeN0 = - t (or)
N
log e
= t
N
0
N
= e t
N0

OR

N = N 0 e t

Hence the number of radioactive nuclei decreases exponentially with time and reduced to zero
after infinite time.

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3.

Explain the principle and working of a nuclear reactor with the help of a labeled diagram.

A. Nuclear Reactor:
Nuclear reactor is used to produce a large amount of nuclear energy through a controlled
nuclear fission process.
i) Nuclear Fuel:
The fissionable material used in the reactor is called nuclear fuel. Commonly used fuels in the
reactors. The commonly used nuclear fuels in the reactors are Uranium isotopes
92

U 238 Plutonium Pu and thorium

99

92

U 235 and

th 232 are.

ii) Moderators:
These are used to slow down the fast moving neutrons produced in the fission process. The
materials used as moderators are heavy water, carbon in the form of pure graphite, hydrocarbon
plastics etc. The core is surrounded reflector to reduce leakage.
iii) Control Rods:
These are the materials that can absorb the neutrons and control the nuclear chain reaction.
Cadmium or Beryllium rods are generally used for this purpose.
iv) Safety Rods:
These are used to reduce the neutron reproduction rate to less than one abruptly to stop the
chain reaction whenever required.
v) Protective Shielding:
It is used to prevent the spreading of the radioactive effect to the space around the nuclear
reactor. For this purpose lead blocks, concrete walls of thickness 10m are used.
vi)Coolant:
The material used to absorb the heat generated in the reactor is called coolant. The coolants are
water, molten sodium etc.
Working:
Uranium fuels are placed in the aluminum cylinders which are separated by some distance. The
graphite moderator in the form of pure carbon blocks is placed in between the fuel cylinders. To
control the number of neutrons, a number of control rods of cadmium or beryllium or boron are
placed in the holes of graphite block.

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When a 235U nuclei undergo fission fast neutrons are liberated. These neutrons pass through the
surrounding graphite moderation and lose their kinetic energy to become thermal neutrons.
These thermal neutrons are captured by

235

U which carries out the fission reaction.

By using the control rods the fission process can be controlled. The heat generated in this
process is used for heating coolant which in turn heat water and produce steam. This steam is
used to rotate a turbine for the production of electric power.
Uses of a Nuclear Reactor:
1) To generate electric power.
2) To produce radioactive materials like Plutonium-239 used in the fields of medicine, industry
etc.
4. Explain the source of stellar energy. Explain the carbon-nitrogen cycle and proton-proton
cycle occurring in stars.
A. Nuclear Fusion:
The process in which two or more lighter nuclei combine to form a heavy nucleus with the
emission of energy is called nuclear fusion.
4 1 H 1 2 He4 + 2 +1 e1 + 26.7 MeV

Carbon Nitrogen Cycle:

Bothe proposed a set of reactions taking place in the central parts of the sun and stars in which
carbon and nitrogen act as catalysts.
6

C12 + 1 H 1 7 N 13 +

N 13 6C13 + 1e0 +

C13 + 1 H 1 7 N 14 +

N 14 + 1 H 1 8O15 +

O15 7 N 15 + 1e0 +

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7

N 15 + 1 H 1 6C 12 + 2 He 4

The net result of the above processes can be written as

4 1 H 1 2 He 4 + 2+1 e0 + 2 +

In this process four protons are fused to form a Helium nucleus and two positron releasing
energy of about 26.7 MeV and two anti neutrino.
Proton Proton Cycle:
Bothe and his co-workers suggested the following fusion reactions possible in a star.
1

H 1 + 1 H 1 1 H 2 + +1e0 + ...............(a )

H 1 +1 H 2 2 He3 + energy ................(b)

The above fusion reactions (a) and (b) must occur twice to yield two 2 He3 nuclei. Therefore the
next reaction can be written as
2

He3 + 2 He3 2 He4 + 21 H 1 + energy

The net result of the above reaction is that 4 protons are fused to produce an -particle and a few
other particles and release of a total energy 26.7MeV
4 1 H 1 2 He 4 + 2 +1e0 + 2 + 2

The proton proton cycle is an important source of energy in the sum and in stars of
comparatively lower temperatures (red dwarfs).

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PROBLEMS
1.

Show that the density of nucleus does not depend upon its mass number (density is
independent of mass)?
1

Sol: Radius of the nucleus r = r0 A3

Volume of the nucleus =

4 3 4
4
r = (r0 A1/3 )3 = r03 A
3
3
3

Mass of each proton = 1.670020 1027 kg

Mass of the nucleus = = 1.670020 1013 A
mass
1.67 1027 A
=
1017 kg/m3
4 3
volume
r0 A
3

Density =

Hence the density of the nucleus is independent of the mass number A and is the same for all
the nuclei.

2. Compare the radii of the nuclei of mass numbers 27 and 64?

Sol: A1 = 27, A2 = 64
R1 A1
=
R2 A2

27
=
64

3
4

3. The radius of the oxygen nucleus

16
8

O is 2.8 1015 m . Find the radius of lead nucleus

Sol: R1 = 2.8 1015 m, A1 = 16 ; A2 = 205, R2 = ?

R2 A2
=
R1 A1

R2 = 2.8 10

205
=

16

15

205

16

= 6.55 10 5 m

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205
82

Pb

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4.

Find the binding energy of

56
26

Fe . Atomic mass of Fe is 55.9349u and that of Hydrogen is

1.00783u and mass of neutron is 1.00876u

A.

Mass of the hydrogen atom mH = 1.00783u; Mass of neutron mH = 1.00867 u; Atomic

number of iron Z = 26; Mass number of iron A = 56; Mass of iron atom Ma = 55.9349u
Mass defect m = [ZmH+(A-Z)mn] - Ma
= [ 26 x 1.00783+(56-20)1.00867]-55.93493 u = 0.5287 u
Binding energy = (m)c 2 = (0.52878 ) c2 = (0.52878)(931.5MeV)
= 492.55 MeV

5. How much energy is required to separate the typical middle mass nucleus 120 50 Sn into
its constituent nucleons? (Mass of 12050Sn = 119.902199u, mass of proton = 1.007825u
and mass of neutron = 1.008665u)
Sol: Mass defect m = [ Zm p + ( A Z )mn mN ]
= (50 x 1.007825) + (70 x 1.008665) 119.902199= 1.095601 amu.
Binding energy = 1.095601 x 931.50 = 1021 MeV.

6.

Calculate the binding energy of an -particle. Given that mass of proton = 1.0073u, mass
of neutron = 1.0087u. and mass of -particle = 4.0015u.

A.

mP = 1.0073u, mN = 1.0087u, M = 4.0015u

N = A -Z =4 -2 =2

He 4 = Z X A

B.E = m x 931.5 MeV

= Zm p + ( A Z )mn M 931.5
= ( 2 1.0073) + ( 2 1.0087 ) 4.0015 931.5MeV
= 0.0305 x 931.5 MeV
B.E = 28.4 MeV

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7. Find the energy required to split

16
8

O nucleus into four -particles. The mass of an - particle

is 4.002603u and that of oxygen is 15.994915u?

4
Sol: 16
8 O 4 2 He

Mass of each -particle,

2

He4 = 4.002603 amu

Mass of 4 particles = 4 x 4.00603 = 16.010412 amu

Mass of

16
8

O = 15.994915 amu

Mass defect m = 16.010412 15.994915 = 0.015497 amu

Energy required = m 931MeV =0.015497 x 931 = 14.43 MeV.

8. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of

35
17

Cl nucleus. Given that mass of

35
17

Cl nucleus

= 34.98000u, mass of proton = 1.007825u, mass of neutron = 1.0068665 u and 1 is

equivalent to 931MeV?
Sol: For 17 Cl 35 , Z = 17, A= 35
m p = 1.007825amu , mn = 1.008665amu , mCl = 34.98000amu

Mass defect
= m = ( Zm p + ( A Z )mn ) M Cl
[17 (1.007825) + 18(1.008665)] 34.98000 = 0.30899amu
B.E = 931 x 0.30899 = 287.6743MeV
B.E 287.6743
=
= 8.22 MeV
A
35

9.

Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of 4020Ca. Given that mass of 4020Ca nucleus
= 39.962589 u, mass of proton = 1.007825 u. mass of Neutron = 1.008665 u and 1 u is
equivalent to 931 MeV?

A.

A =40, Z = 20, A -Z = 20
m = {Zm p + ( A Z ) mn } M n

= { (20 x 1.007825 + (20 x 1.008665)} - 39.962589

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= 40.329800 - 39.962589
m = 0.367211

Binding energy per nucleon =

m 931 0.367211 931

=
= 8.547 MeV .
A
40

10. Calculate (i) mass defect, (ii) binding energy and (iii) the binding energy per nucleon of
12 C nucleus. Nuclear mass of 12 C = 12.000000 u; mass of proton = 1.007825u and
6
6
mass of neutron = 1.008665u.
A.

A =12, Z =6, N=A -Z =12 - 6= 6

m = {Zm p + ( A Z ) mN } M n

= { (6 x 1.007825 + (6 x 1.008665)} - 12.000000

= 12.09894 - 12.000000
m = 0.09894u

ii) Binding energy = m x 931.5 MeV

= 0.09894 x 931.5

= 92.16 MeV

iii) Binding energy per nucleon =

B.E
92.16
=
=7.68MeV
A
12

11. The binding energies per nucleon for deuterium and helium are 1.1 MeV and 7.0 MeV
respectively. What energy in joules will be liberated when 2 deuterons take part in the
reaction?
A.

2
1

H + 12 H 24 He + Q

Binding energy per nucleon of helium ( 24 He ) =7 MeV

Binding energy = 4 x7 = 28 MeV
Binding energy per nucleon of deuterium ( 12 H ) = 1.1 MeV
Binding energy = 2 x 1.1 = 2.2 MeV
Energy liberated (Q) = (28 -(2.2)2] = 23.6 Mev.
i.e. Q = 23.6 x 106 x 1.6 x 10-19
Q = 37.76 1013 J

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12. Bombardment of lithium with protons gives rise to the following reaction:
7
3

Li + 11H 2 24 He + Q . Find the Q-Value of the reaction. The atomic masses of lithium,

proton and helium are 7.016u, 1.008u and 4.004u respectively?

A.

Mass of lithium = 7.016 amu

Mass of proton = 1.008 amu
Mass of helium = 4.004 amu
Q = [Mass of lithium + mass of proton -(2 x Mass of Helium)] x 931.5
= [7.016 + 1.008 - 2(4.004)] x 931.5 MeV
Q = 0.016 x 931.5 = 14.9 MeV

13. The half life of radium is 1600 years. How much time does 1 g of radium take to reduce
to 0.125g?
A.

1g becomes

1
1
1
1
g in one half -life. g becomes g in another half -life. g becomes
2
2
4
4

1
g = 0.125g in a third half-life.
8
Time taken = 3 half -lives = 3 x 1600 = 4800 years.

14. Plutonium decays with a half life of 24,000 years. If plutonium is stored for 72,000 years,
what fraction of it remains?
A.

T1/2 = 24,000 years

Duration of time (t) = 72,000 years
Number of half lives (n) =
=

t
T1/ 2

72000
=3
24000

1
1
1
1
2
3
1gm
gm
gm
gm
2
4
8

Fraction of plutonium remains =

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1
gm
8

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15. A certain substance decays to 1/232 of its activity in 25 days. Calculate its half-life?
Sol:

N 1
=
No 2

1
1
1
= =
232 2
25

n = 5 days
T=

25
= 5days
5

16. The half -life period of a radioactive substance is 20 days. What is the time taken for
7/8th of its original mass to disintegrate?
A.

Let the initial mass be one unit.

7
8

Mass remaining = 1 =
A mass of

1
8

1 unit becomes

1
unit in 1 half life
2

1
1
Unit becomes unit in 2nd half life
2
4
1
1
Unit becomes unit in 3rd half life
4
8
Time taken = 3 half life

= 3 x 20 = 60 days

A.

Given Half -life period (T) =

=

0.693

= 1.42 1017 s

0.693
= 4.88 1018
17
1.42 10

Avogadro number (N) = 6.023 x 1023 atoms

n = Number of atoms present in 1 gm of

238
92

U=

N
A

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UUUU

against -decay is 1.42 x 1017s?

82
39
2

17. How many disintegrations per second will Occur in one gram of

, if its half-life

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=

0.623 1023
= 25.30 1020
238
dN
= n = 4.88 x10-18 x 25.30 x 1020
dt

Number of disintegrations =

= 1.2346 x 104 disintegrates/sec

18. The half-life of a radioactive substance is 100years. Calculate in how many years the
activity will decay to 1/10th of its initial value?
A.

T1/2 = 100 years

N
1
0.693 0.693
=
;=
=
N 0 10
T1/ 2
100
N
= e t
N0

1
1
= t
10 e

et = 10 t = log10
e

t=

2.303log10
10

2.303 100
= 332.3 years
0.693

19. One gram of radium is reduced by 2milligram in 5 years by a-decay. Calculate the half-life
of radium?
A.

Initial mass of radium = 1 gm.

Amount left = 1- 0.002 = 0.998 gm
Time taken t = 5 years
n

Fraction remained

N 1
0.998 1
1000
=
= n 2n =
n log 2 = log1000 log 998
N0 2
1
2
998
n=

Half life of radius = T =

3 2.9991 0.0009
=
= 0.00299
0.3010
0.3010

t
5
=
= 1672.2 yrs
n 0.00299

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20. The half-life of a radioactive substance is 5000 years. In how many years, its activity will
decay to 0.2 times of its initial value? Given log105 = 0.6990?
A.

T = 5000 years,
=

N
2 1
= 0.2 =
=
N0
10 5

0.693 0.693
=
T
5000

N
= e t
N0
1
1
= t 5 = e t
5 e

loge5 = t
2.303 x 0.6990 = t
t=

2.303 0.6990 5000

0.693

t = 11614.6years = 1.1615104 years

21. An explosion of atomic bomb releases an energy of 7.6 x 1013 J. If 200 MeV energy is
released on fission of one 235 U atom calculate
(i) The number of uranium atoms undergoing fission.
(ii) The mass of uranium used in the atom bomb
A.

E = 7.6 x 103J
Energy released per fission = 200 MeV
= 200 x 106 x 1.6 x 10-19
= 3.2 x 10-11 J
Number of uranium atoms (n) =
n=

Total energy
Energy per fission

7.6 1013
= 2.375 10 24 atoms
3.2 1011

Avogadro number (N) = 6.0231023atoms

Mass of uranium =

n 235 2.375 1024 235

=
= 92.66gms
N
6.023 1023

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22. If one microgram of 23592U is completely destroyed in an atom bomb, how much energy
will be released?
A.

m =1 m gm = 10-6 gm = 10-9 kg
C = 3 x 108 m/s
E = mC2 = 10-9 x (3 x 108)2 = 9 x 107 J

23. Calculate the energy released by fission from 2 g of 23592U in kWh. Given that the
energy released per fission is 200 MeV?
A.

Mass of uranium = 2gm

Energy released per fission = 200 MeV
= 200 x 106 x 1.6 x 10-19 = 3.2 x 10-11 J
Number of atoms in 2 grams of uranium is
2 6.023 1023
n=
= 5.125 10 21 atoms
235

Total energy released = No. of atoms x energy released per fission

= 5.125 x 1021 x 3.2 x 10-11
= 16.4 x 1010J
16.4 1010
Kwh
Energy in Kwh =
36 105

= 0.455 x 105 Kwh

= 4.55 x 104 Kwh

24. 200MeV energy is released when one nucleus of U 235 undergoes fission. Find the number
of fissions per second required for producing a power of 1 megawatt?
106
A. 1Mw = 10 J / s , Number of atoms =
200 106 1.6 1019
6

1019
10 1014
=
= 3.125 1014 atoms
200 1.6
2 1.6

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25. How much 235U is consumed in a day in an atomic power house operating at 400 MW,
provided the whole of mass235U is converted into energy?
A.

Power = 400 MW = 400 x 106 W; time = 1 day = 86, 400 s.

Energy produced, E = power time = 400 x 106 x 86,400 = 3.456 x 1013 J.
As the whole of mass is converted into energy, by Einstein's mass -energy relation
E = Mc2
M=

E 3.456 1013
=
= 3.84 104 kg = 0.384 g.
2
8 2
c
(3 10 )

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