Twenty Instructional Strategies

For Success With Standards

Oswegos Instructional Design for Attainment of Standards identifies
instructional strategies that relate to the various types of learning
contained in the standards. The guide includes research-based
information and best practices designed to enhance student achievement
and an annotated bibliography of key resources. These strategies
should be an integral piece in the development of standards-based
lessons and units of study.

In this guide you will

learn to create a positive learning environment that will be most effective in
helping students acquire, integrate, extend, refine, and apply knowledge.
learn to select instructional strategies based on their effectiveness in supporting
student learning related to identified standards.
This resource addresses the following Oswego Goals for Professional Learning:
Using strategies for brain-based learning
Providing access for all students to the knowledge and skills described in the
standards
Providing instruction that uses time effectively and flexibly to achieve learning
goals related to the standards
Engaging students in active learning, building on prior knowledge and
experiences, and developing conceptual and procedural understanding, along
with student independence
Using projects and assignments that require students to integrate and apply their
learning in meaningful contexts and to reflect on what they have learned
Adapting the learning environment so that all students may attain the standards

Instructional Strategies
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Each teacher needs a repertoire of effective instructional strategies to use in the

classroom. Nine researched based strategies, which strongly affect student achievement,
are outlined below. These strategies are taken from A Handbook for Classroom
Instruction that Works by Robert Marzano et al. Additional instructional strategies taken
from other respected sources (see annotated resource list) follow those nine.
When an instructional strategy is known to be particularly effective for teaching
declarative knowledge (content/concepts) it is coded with a D below. When an
instructional strategy is particularly effective for teaching procedural knowledge
(skills/processes) it is coded with a P below.
Performance by Design is a system of instructional strategies for literacy. Training is
available in OCSD. For more information, contact Irene Dewey at idewey@oswego.org.

1. Identifying similarities and differences

Analyze two or more elements in terms of similarities and differences on one or more
characteristics.
Compare & Contrast (D)
Select the items you want to compare
Select the characteristics of the items on which you want to
base your comparison
Explain how the items are similar and different with respect to
the characteristics
[Adapted from Dimensions of Learning, Marzano et al (1997)]
Classifying (D)
Identify the items you want to classify
Select what seems to be an important item, describe its key
attributes, and identify other items that have the same attributes
Create the category by specifying the attributes that the items
must have for membership in the category
Select another item, describe its key attributes, and identify
other items that have the same attributes
Create the second category by specifying the attributes that the
items must have for membership in the category
Repeat the previous two steps until all items are classified and
the specific attributes have been identified for membership in
each category
If necessary, combine categories or split them into smaller
categories and specify the attributes that determine
membership in the category.
[Adapted from Dimensions of Learning, Marzano et al (1997)]
Metaphor (D)
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Identify the important or basic elements of the information or

situation with which you are working
Write that basic information as a general pattern by replacing words
for specific things with words for more general things and
summarizing information whenever possible
Find new information or a situation to which the general pattern
applies
Analogies (D)
Identify how the two elements in the first pair are related
State their relationship in a general way
Identify another pair of elements that share a similar
relationship

2. Summarizing and Note Taking

Summarizing (D)
Students need to know how to delete, substitute, and keep information.
Students need to analyze information at a higher level
Students need to understand the structure of the presentation of the
information.
Reciprocal Teaching After students have read a small section, a
single student acting as teacher summarizes what has been read. Other
students, with guidance from the teacher, can add to the summary.
Question The student leader next asks some questions to which
the class responds.
Clarify The student leader tries to clarify confusing points in the
passage, or he/she might ask other students to ask clarifying
questions.
The group attempts to clear up confusing parts. This may involve
rereading the passage.
Predict Student leader asks for predictions about what will
happen in the next segment of the text. The class then reads
another passage silently or aloud and a new student is selected as
student leader. The student leader now summarizes the reading
using the prediction questions as an aid.
The Rule Based Strategy
Delete trivial material that is unnecessary to understanding
Delete redundant material
Substitute super ordinate terms for more specific terms
(e.g., use fish for rainbow trout, salmon, and halibut)
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Select a topic sentence, or invent one if it is missing

Note Taking (D)

Note taking verbatim is ineffective. Students need to analyze the
incoming information and put it down in their own words.
Notes are always a work in progress and should be reviewed and
revised.
Notes should be used as a test prep tool.
There is a strong relationship between the amount of information in
the notes and student achievement on tests (more is better).
Students identify what is most important about the knowledge they are
learning, and then state that knowledge in their own words.
Teach students various formats for note taking (outline, web).
Teach students to use combination note (interactive notebooks).
Provide students with teacher prepared notes.
Remind students to review notes.

3. Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition

Reinforcing Effort
Not all students believe that effort pays off.
Students can learn to operate from the belief that effort can pay off.
Teach students that effort can improve achievement.
Ask students to chart effort and achievement.

Providing Recognition
Intrinsic motivation is not necessary negatively affected by
rewards
Rewards work well when they are connected to performance
standards.
Tangible rewards such as money and candy have been shown to be
ineffective whereas symbolic and abstract forms of reward are
powerful.
Use recognition tokens.
Use the pause, prompt and praise techniques

4. Homework and Practice

The amount of homework should vary by grade level.
Homework extends learning opportunities beyond the confines of the
school day.
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Establish and communicate a homework policy.

Clarify the purpose of homework.
Ask students to use homework assignment sheet.
Comment on homework.
Students need to practice skills and processes before they can use them
effectively.
Determine which skills are worth practicing.
Schedule masses and distributed practice.
Ask students to chart speed and accuracy.
Help students shape a skill or process.

5. Nonlinguistic Representations
Graphic organizers (D)

Used to organize declarative knowledge or information

Helps show patterns and relationships
Pictographic representations (D)
Drawing pictures or pictographs
May use key words with symbols
Mental images (D)
Construct or imagine a mental picture of knowledge you are
learning
Physical models (D)
Models, concrete representations, or manipulatives
Kinesthetic representations
Physical movement associated with specific knowledge
Flow Charts (P)
Teach students to create flow charts. This is best done after the
students have seen the skills or processes. As soon as possible
after these experiences, they should start creating a visual
representation of how the steps interact.

(Kidspiration and Inspiration are excellent software programs for children to

create nonlinguistic representations on the computer.)

6. Cooperative Learning: (D)

Cooperative groups should be small

Groups of three to five students are recommended
Positive interdependence
Face-to-face interaction
Individual and group accountability
Interpersonal and small group skills

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 Group processing
Jigsaw is one type of cooperative learning strategy
Meet in study teams to examine task
Work in expert groups to conduct research, discuss
information,
Answer questions
Experts teach study teams what they have learned
Evaluate individually and provide team recognition

7. Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback

Setting objectives
Set objectives that are not too specific
Personalize objectives
Communicate objectives
Negotiate contracts
Providing Feedback
Attribute students successes to their efforts
Use feedback from assessments
Specify what students did that produced success
Engage students in peer feedback
Ask students to self-assess

8. Generating and Testing Hypotheses

Systems Analysis
Explain the purpose of the system, the parts of the system, and
the function of each part.
Describe how the parts affect one another.
Identify a part of the system, describe a change in that part, and
then hypothesize what might happen as a result of this change.
When possible, test your hypothesis by actually changing the
part or by using a simulation to change the part. Or, test
your hypothesis by considering and describing the effects of
the change on the system
Problem Solving
Identify the goal you are trying to accomplish.
Describe the barriers or constraints that are preventing you
from achieving your goal or that are creating the problem.
Identify different solutions for overcoming the barriers or
constraints, and hypothesize which solution is likely to be the
most effective.
Try your solution either in reality or through a simulation.
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Explain whether your hypothesis was correct. Determine if

you want to test another hypothesis using a different solution.
Decision Making
Describe the decision you are making and the alternatives you
are considering.
Identify the criteria that will influence the selection, and
indicate the relative importance of the criteria by assigning an
importance score from a designated scale
Rate each alternative on a designated scale (e.g., 1-4) to
indicate the extent to which each alternative meets each
criterion.
For each alternative, multiply the importance score and the
rating and then add the products to assign a score for the
alternative.
Examine the scores to determine the alternative with the
highest score.
Based on your reaction to the selected alternative, determine if
you need to change any important scores or add or drop
criteria.

Historical Investigation

Clearly describe the historical event to be examined.

Identify what is known or agreed upon and what is confusing
or contradictory.
Based on what you understand about the situation, offer a
hypothesis.
Seek out and analyze evidence to determine if your
hypothetical scenario is plausible.

Experimental Inquiry
Observe something that interests you, and describe what has
occurred.
Explain what you have observed. What theories or rules could
explain what you have observed?
Based on your explanation, make a prediction.
Set up an experiment or activity to test your prediction.
Explain the results of your experiment in light of your
explanation. If necessary, revise your explanation or prediction
or conduct another experiment

Invention

Describe a situation you want to improve or a need to which

you want to respond.
Identify specific standards for the invention that would
improve the situation or meet the need.

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Brainstorm ideas and hypothesize the likelihood that each will

work.
If your hypothesis suggests that a specific idea might work,
begin to draft, sketch, and then create the invention.
Develop your invention to the point that you can test your
hypothesis.
Tell students you want them to revise the invention until it
meets the standards that have been identified.

9. Cues, Questions, and Advanced Organizers

Questions & Cues (D)

Focus on important information.

Use explicit cues.
Ask inferential questions.
Ask analytic questions.

Advance Organizers (D)

Use expository advance organizers.

Use narrative advance organizers.
Teach students skimming as a form of advance organizers.
Teach students how to use graphic advance organizers

Additional Strategies
10. Blooms Questioning Techniques
Use a variety of types of questions
Knowledge questions require students to recall or recognize
information (e.g., recall, recognize, define, identify, who?
what? where? etc.).
Comprehension questions require a student to organize
previously learned material so that he/she can rephrase it,
describe it in his/her own words, and use it for making
comparisons (e.g., describe, compare, illustrate, explain,
rephrase, contrast, etc.).
Application questions ask students to use previously learned
information to solve a problem (e.g., apply, classify, choose,
use, employ, solve, select, etc.).
Analysis questions ask students to identify reasons, causes, and
motives; to consider available evidence in order to reach a
conclusion, inference, or generalization; to analyze a
conclusion, inference, or generalization to find supporting
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evidence (e.g., analyze, conclude, infer, distinguish, deduce,

detect, etc.).
Synthesis questions require students to produce original
communications, make predictions, and solve problems, (e.g.,
solve, predict, write, draw, construct, originate, propose,
design, etc.).
Evaluation questions ask students to judge the merits of an
idea, a solution to a problem, or an aesthetic work (e.g., judge,
argue, decide, appraise, evaluate, state an opinion, etc.).

11. Assessing and Addressing Gardners Multiple Intelligences

Each person possesses all eight intelligences, and most people can develop each
intelligence to an adequate level of competency. Students need opportunities to
learn and to demonstrate their learning in areas of intelligence that are strengths
for them.
Linguistic intelligence refers to an individuals capacity to use
language effectively as a vehicle of expression and communication.
(Examples: storytelling, brainstorming, tape recording, journal
writing)
Logical-Mathematical intelligence refers to an individuals capacity
to think logically, use numbers effectively, solve problems
scientifically, and discern relationships and patterns between concepts
and things.
(Examples: calculations and qualifications, classification and
categorization, Socratic questioning, heuristics, and scientific thinking)
Spatial intelligence refers to the capacity to think visually and orient
oneself spatially. In addition, spatially intelligent people are able to
graphically represent their visual and spatial ideas.
(Examples: visualization, color cues, picture metaphors, idea
sketching, graphic symbols)
Musical intelligence refers to the capacity to appreciate a variety of
musical forms in addition to using music as a vehicle of expression.
Musically intelligent people are sensitive to rhythm, melody, and
pitch.
(Examples: rhythms, raps, songs, chants, musical concepts, mood
music)
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence refers to the capacity to use ones
own body skillfully as a means of expression or to work skillfully to
create or manipulate objects.
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(Examples: classroom theater, hands-on thinking, body maps)

Interpersonal intelligence refers to the capacity to appropriately
and effectively respond to other people and understand their feelings.
(Examples: peer sharing, cooperative groups, board games,
simulations)
Intrapersonal intelligence refers to the capacity to accurately know
ones self, including knowledge of ones own strengths, motivations,
goals, and feelings.
(Examples: one-minute reflection periods, choice time, goal-setting
sessions)
Naturalist intelligence refers to the fascination with the immense
variety of the worlds animal and plant species and the talent to assign
them to new or established taxa.(Examples: classification of plants and
animals in a specific ecosystems such as wetland or salt marsh)

12.Three-Minute Pause (D)

Every 10-15 minutes in class, ask students to do the following in three minutes:
Summarize what they have experienced.
Identify interesting aspects of what they have experienced.
Identify confusion and try to clear up.

13. KWL (D)

Before reading, listening, observing, or acting, identify what you know
about the topic.
Before reading, listening, observing, or acting, identify what you want
to know about the topic.
After reading, listening, observing, or acting, identify what you
learned about the topic.

14. Before, During and After (D)

Tell your students:

Before - Identify what you know about the topic.
List specific ideas.
Write specific questions that you would like answered.
Make specific predictions about what you think you will learn.
During
Try to generate mental pictures about what you are experiencing.
Occasionally summarize what you have just experienced.
Try to answer the questions you asked.
Determine if your predictions were correct.

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After

Identify things you are confused about.

Occasionally go back and try to clear up the confusing parts.
Create a summary of what you have learned.
State how you can use the information you have learned. (Model each
phase; explain to students they do not have to use every step in each
phase.)

15. Concept Attainment Process (D)

This strategy involves presenting students with clear examples and non-examples
of a new concept to be learned. Through this process, the concept is developed
and understood.
Present examples and non-examples.
This is an example of a compound word: boyfriend
This is not an example: boy
This is an example: railroad
This is not an example: car
Through this process, students figure out and list defining characteristics of the
concepts.
More pairs of examples and non-examples are presented so students
can test their initial hypotheses about defining characteristics of the
concepts.
More pairs are presented until students are able to state the defining
characteristics of the concept.
Students identify examples and non-examples of their own.
Students develop a written or oral description of the concept that
includes key or defining characteristics.

16. Think Alouds (P)

Use think alouds to demonstrate a new skill or process. For example,
a teacher might think aloud the organization of a science article saying such
things as, I notice that each section is highlighted by bold text in a question. The
first sentence of the section gives the answer with details that follow.

17. Written Steps (P)

Present students with a written set of steps.
For example: To read a bar graph:
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 Read the title of the graph. Get a sense of the information that will be
in it.
Look at the horizontal line at the bottom of the graph. Identify what is
being measured on it.
Look at the vertical line on the left side. What is being measured on
it?
Look at the scale that is used.
For each of the items measured on the horizontal line, identify its
height on the vertical line and interpret that height.
Make a statement that summarizes the important information in the bar
graph.

18. Mental Rehearsal

Teach students to mentally rehearse the steps involved in a skill or process.
Variations (P)
Demonstrate how students can alter
skills/processes/procedures.
Demonstrate and provide practice in the important variations of
the skill or process.
Point out common errors and pitfalls.
Provide a variety of situations in which students can use a
specific skill or process.
Internalization
Help students internalize skills/processes and procedures.
Help students set up a practice schedule
Massed practice-immediately and frequently.
Distributed practice-lengthening the intervals of time between
practice sessions.
Have students chart their accuracy when practicing new skills
or processes.

19. Simulation/Role Playing

Provide overview of simulation/role play.

Set up a scenario.
Assign roles.
Conduct simulation/role play.
Summarize events/insights.
Relate to real world/course content.

20. Writing-to-Learn

Writing is a means of reflecting on learning, of working through learning

problems, and of clarifying and solidifying newly learned concepts and skills. A
variety of writing-to-learn strategies exist, a few of which are described briefly
below.
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 Admit Slips As students enter class, distribute index cards, one to

each student. Ask each student to write a response to an open-ended
statement, such as.
A key point from last nights reading is
A question I have is..
I dont understand
Collect cards and use as a basis for discussion/clarification/response.
Admit slips are usually anonymous.
Exit Slips To learn what students know and need to know, hand out
index cards before students leave class. Ask each student to respond
to an open-ended statement, such as:
Today I learned.
.(new concept) means/is like.
Student responses can be written (anonymously) on an overhead
before the next days class to share with the group as a basis for review
and clarification.
Free Reading / Writing (Journaling) Ask students to write
continuously for a specified period of time (3 minutes, 5 minutes, etc.)
to generate ideas on a given topic. Form or correctness is not a factor,
it is the ideas that count.
Dialogues Students create a dialogue between two or more persons,
historical figures, or characters being studied.
Brainstorm Collect, in writing, all ideas about a topic generated by
an individual or a group.

Creating a Learning Environment

The learning environment needs to be adapted to ensure the success of all students.
Consider the following:
Connect with students
Talk informally with students about their interests before,
during, and after class.
Greet students in and out of school.
Call students by first names as they come into class.
Be aware of and comment on important events in students
lives.
Monitor your own attitudes
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Before class, mentally review students. Note those with whom

you anticipate having problems (academic or behavioral).
Imagine problem students succeeding in positive classroom
behaviors replace negative expectations with positive ones.
This is a form of mental rehearsal.
Consciously keep in mind your positive expectations when
interacting with students.
Accept all students
Make eye contact with each student; address all quadrants of
the room.
Arrange seating to give you clear and easy access to all
students.
Help students develop strategies for gaining acceptance from peers
in and out of school
Ask students about themselves rather than telling them about
yourself.
Compliment students on their positive characteristics.
Avoid reminding students about their negative qualities or
about bad things that have happened to them.
Help students develop a sense of comfort
Frequently and systematically use activities that involve
physical movement.
Periodically take short breaks that enable students to stand up,
move about, and stretch.
Set up classroom tasks that allow students to gather
information on their own, or in small groups, using sources that
are away from their desks.
Systematically switch from activities where students must work on
their own to tasks in which they must organize themselves in small
groups.
Use 2 to 5 minute exercise breaks when energy levels start to wane as
a regular aspect of instructional routine.
Establish and communicate classroom rules and procedures
Generate clear rules and standard operating procedures for the
classroom.
Communicate rules and procedures, discussing their meaning.
Provide a written list, post, role-play, or model use.
Acknowledge changes in rules and explain reasons for
exceptions.
Develop a sense of academic trust
Exhibit a sense of enthusiasm about material presented.
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Link classroom tasks to students interests and goals.

Ask students to generate tasks that apply to their interest and
goals.
Use classroom meetings to address issues
Bring up issue or problem.
Give examples/clarify.
Identify consequences/norms.
Make judgments about norms and discuss values.
Discuss alternatives.
Agree on which ones to follow.
Make a public commitment.
At a later date, assess effectiveness.
Use a resolution of conflict strategy
List facts pertinent to the conflict.
Make inferences about how the persons involved were feeling.
Propose and defend own resolution in light of those feelings.
Describe similar experiences.
Describe feelings of each participant in those situations.
Look at other ways of handling the situation.

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Annotated Resource List

Joyce, Bruce R. and Marsh Weil (1996). Models of Teaching. NY: Allyn and Bacon
The fifth edition of Models of Teaching covers the rationale of and research on the major well-researched
models of teaching and illustrates K-12 classroom use through scenarios and examples of instructional
materials.
Marzano, Robert J. (1992). A different kind of classroom: teaching with dimensions of learning.
Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
This book describes the Dimensions of Learning program, a comprehensive K-12 instructional framework
that teachers can use to improve the way they plan instruction, design curriculum, and assess student
performance.
Marzano, Robert J., Debra Pickering, Jane E. Pollock (2001). Classroom instruction that works:
research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
What works in education? How do we know? How can educational research find its way into the
classroom? Questions like these arise in most schools, and busy educators often dont have time to find the
answers. Robert J. Marzano, Debra J. Pickering, and Jane E. Pollock have examined decades of research
findings to distill the results into nine broad teaching strategies that have positive effects on student
learning.
Marzano, Robert J., Jennifer S. Norford, Diane e Paynter (2001). A handbook for classroom instruction
that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
This handbook reviews research and presents instructional strategies that work best to improve student
achievement. These strategies can be applied to all content, in all grades, with all students. Worksheets,
blackline masters, and other materials are supplied to help you envision how to use the strategies in your
classroom. To improve effectiveness in planning units, the authors describe a framework for using the
strategies.
Saphier, John and Robert Gower (1997). The skillful teacher: building your teaching skills. Action, MA:
Research For Better Teaching, Inc.
Research for Better Teaching has synthesized much of the knowledge base on teaching in one practical and
useful manual. The book divides the nuts and bolts of teaching into four areas: management, instruction,
motivation, curriculum.
Wolfe, Patricia (2001). Brain matters: translating research into classroom practice. Alexandria, VA:
ASCD.
This book makes it clear that before we can effectively match teaching practice to brain functioning, we
must first understand how the brain functions. It explores some implications of the research for practice:
why meaning is essential for attention, how emotion can enhance or impede learning, and how different
types of rehearsal are necessary for different types of learning. The author provides practical classroom
applications and brain-compatible teaching strategies.
In developing this document, The Oswego City School District found the following resource very helpful:
Using Standards in Your Classroom: Teacher Resource Guide, created by the Vermont Department of
Education.

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