ECOLOGY

SECOND SEMESTER 2013

OIKOS ( Greek)Household
LOGOS study
The study of the environmental house includes all the organisms in it and all
the functional processes that make the house habitable.

Ernst Haeckel in 1869 proposed that ECOLOGY is the study of the

natural environment including the relations of organisms to one
another and to their surroundings.
Anton van Leeuwenhoekalso pioneered in the study of food chains and
population regulation.
Relationships- involve interactions with the physical world as well
as the interrelationships with the number of
species and individuals of the same species.
ENVIRONMENTincludes not only the physical but also the
biological conditions under which an organisms lives.
Nature-physical world: the physical world including all natural
phenomena and living things.
Speciesgroup of similarly constructed organisms capable of
interbreeding and producing fertile offspring; Organisms that
share a common gene pool.

Natural SelectionMechanism of evolution caused by environmental

selections of organisms most fit to reproduce; results in adaptation to the
environment.
Evolution Descent of organisms from common ancestors with the
development of genetic and phenotypic changes over time that make them
suited to the environment

Galapagos Island

Evolution and Natural Selection --Iguanas of the

Ecology is the scientific study of the distribution of the abundance of

life and the interactions between

organisms and their natural environment

Ecology is the study of environmental systems, or as it is sometimes
called, the economy of nature.
Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and social movement centered
on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment

"Environmental" usually means relating to the natural, versus humanmade world; the "systems" means that ecology is, by its very nature,
not interested in just the components of nature individually but
especially in how the parts interact.

When a normative or evaluative term is needed then it is more proper

to use the term environmental, i.e., environmental quality or
environmentally degrading.

Ecology is usually considered from the perspective of the specific

geographic environment that is being studied a the moment: tropical
rain forest, temperate grassland, arctic tundra, benthic marine, the
entire biosphere, and so on.
(Biomes One of the Biospheres major
communities, characterized in particular by certain climatic conditions
and particular types of plants.)

Thus you might study the population ecology of lions in an African

savanna, an ecosystems study of a marine benthic environment, global
nutrient budgets, and so on.

The subject matter of ecology is the entire natural world, including

both the living and the non living parts.

Biogeography focuses on the observed distribution of plants and

animals and the reasons behind it. More recently ecology has included
increasingly the human-dominated world of agriculture, grazing lands
for domestic animals, cities, and even industrial parks. Industrial
ecology is a discipline that has recently been developed, especially in
Europe, where the objective is to follow the energy and material use
throughout the process of, e.g., making an automobile with the
objective of attempting to improve the material and energy efficiency
of manufacturing.

Since ecology by its very nature is an integrative discipline, science

students preparing themselves professionally in the field are
encouraged to take a broad suite of courses, mostly in the natural
sciences and including physics, chemistry, and biology of many sorts
but certainly including evolution, meteorology, hydrology, geography,
and so on. (Applied ecology takes what is found from one or both of
these approaches and uses it to protect or manage nature in some
way.conservation biology. Plant ecology, animal ecology, and microbial
ecology have obvious foci.

Ecologists interested in human ecology are encouraged to take courses

and undertake readings in agronomy, demography, human geography,
sociology, economics, and so on. Since ecology is so broad there are
many things that an ecologist might wish to do and to train for.

There are a number of classical areas of interest in ecology, and they

revolve around questions similar to the following:
how much is the photosynthesis of a hectare of land?

How many animals of what types might that photosynthesis be

able to support as a base for their food
resources?
How many species might divide up the land or food resources
available?
How do the species present change as the physical conditions change,
for example as one ascends a mountain?
What is the proportion of food that is passed on from each food or
trophic level to the next?
What are the mechanisms that control the populations, communities
and ecosystems in some area?
How are human activities impacting these natural systems Ecology
should be more than just a set of ideas and principles that one might
learn in a classroom or book but rather more a way of looking at the
world which emphasizes the assessment and understanding of how the
pieces fit together, how each influences and is influenced by the other
pieces and how the whole operates in ways not really predictable from
the pieces.

It would seem that an ENVIRONMENTALIST implies one who is

concerned about issues that would affect our natural
environment, and perhaps one who organizes or participates in socio
political activities to further an agenda believed to benefit the
"environment".

American Heritage Dictionary says: An environment is ones

surroundings. Whereas an Ecologist is a scientist trained in
the "classic" sense in the study of ecologies, or "natural
systems", be they closed systems (like a fish tank), or an open
system (like an ocean).

American Heritage Dictionary says ecology is "The science of

relationships between organisms and their environment."

Ecology and environmental science are closely related disciplines.

The main difference between ecology and environmental science is

that the latter is a more overarching field that incorporates many
elements of Earth and life sciences to understand various natural
processes.

Ecology, on the other hand, is usually more focused on how organisms

interact with each other and with their immediate surroundings.

Both sciences provide very important information about nature and

what people can do to better protect the planet and conserve
resources.

An important difference between ecology and environmental science is

the goal of research in each discipline.

Unlike environmental scientists, ecologists tend to focus their

research on very specific populations of living things, such as a
certain type of grass or a group of fishes.

Ecologists seek to understand how populations interact,

reproduce, and thrive within an ec HYPERLINK
"http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-anecosystem.htm"osystem.

They concentrate mainly on immediate factors such as food

preferences, predation, and sexual selection within a group.

Through careful observation and historical research, ecologists

explain the developmental and evolutionary adaptations that
influence a species.

Environmental scientists conduct laboratory and field studies to learn

about a range of factors that influence an area.

Like ecologists, they study living things and their behaviors in detail.

In addition, environmental scientists consider the impacts of

climate, geological processes, temperature changes, and water
cycles when investigating ecosystems.

For example, an environmental scientist might research the impacts of

an especially dry season on the growth of different species of plants in
an area.

The scientist may then try to identify any negative resulting

consequences on herbivorous animals in the region.

Ecology is a broad biological science and can be divided into many

sub-disciplines using various criteria.

When discussing the study of a single species, a distinction is usually

made between its biology and its ecology.

For example, "polar bear biology" might include the study of the polar
bear's physiology, morphology, pathology and ontogeny, whereas
"polar bear ecology" would include a study of its prey species, its
population and metapopulation status, distribution, dependence on
environmental conditions, etc.

Historical Perspectives

F. E. Clements- gave ecology a hierarchical framework and introduced

innumerable terms and idea of environment indicators.

Frienenmann (1931)- viewed freshwater biology as ecological and

introduced the ideas of organic nutrient cycling and using the terms
producers and consumers.

Charles Darwin-Known for his Theory of Evolution and Origin of

Species.

Johannes Warming- advanced the idea of life form and the use of
dominant plants to describe vegetational association and note the
influence of fire and time of vegetational change. He wrote the first
text in plant ecology, Plantesumfund which tremendously influence
the development of ecology.

Tansley- Introduced the term and concept of Ecosystem.

Karl Mobius- Proposed the word Bioconose, which means that life has
something in common.

Charles Adams- wrote the first text on animal ecology, A Guide to

the Study of Animal in 1913.

Konrad Lorenz and N. Timbergen- developed the concepts of

instinctive and aggressive behavior (Behavioral Ecology).
Liebeg- Studied the limited supplies of nutrients in the growth and
development of plants (Physiological Ecology).

Gregor Mendel- studied genetics.

Tools used in the study of Ecology

1. Trace Methodology/Radioactive Dating- method of determining the
age of the substance such as fossil.
2. Spetroscopy- science that deals with the use of spectrometer and the
analysis of spectra.
3. Calorimetry- quantitative measurement of heat
4. Chromatography- separation and analysis of mixture of chemical
compounds by the use of absorbing materials so that the different
compounds become absorbed in separate sections.
5. Remote sensing is the observation or scanning especially the natural
features, from great distance by means of radar, aerial infrared photography,
seismology.

SPECTROSCOPY

chromatography is used to separate components of a

illustrating the experiment with plant pigments
chromatography its name

Thin layer
plant extract,
that gave

Related Disciplines and Approaches

Ecologist use knowledge from many different fields of study:
Biological Sciences ( Biology. Botany. Zoology. Biological
Psychology, Biochemistry, Anatomy, Physiology, Pathology,
Taxonomy)

Physical Sciences ( Nature of the universeAstronomy, Chemistry,

Physics, Geology, Meteorology)

Social Sciences ( man and societyAnthropology, Geography,

Physiography, Biogeography, Oceanography, Linguistics,
Political Science, Sociology)

Importance of Ecology

The concepts of ecology and environment are closely linked. The main
tenet of ecology is all things are interrelated. The reason, is ecology
is so important at this particular time is that humanity is entering a
critical era in which the knowledge that comes from different
sciences should really be integrated and treated on the holistic
way characteristic of ecology.

Furthermore the study of ecology increases mans understanding

of the world and all its creatures. This is vital because mans
survival and well being depend on relationship that exists on a
worldwide basis. Changes in distant parts of the world affect our
environment and us.

Ecology makes people aware of the problems of pollution,

overpopulation, and degraded environments, global warming,
deterioration of the ozone layer, acid rain, toxic waste and garbage.

Solar System
The eight major planets orbiting the Sun can be grouped into two
categories.
The four inner planetsMercury, Venus, Earth, and Marsare
terrestrial planets.

They are relatively small, with rocky surfaces and metal cores.

The four outer planetsJupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptuneare

called Jovian planets.

They are relatively large and cold, and have a gaseous composition

A cloud of interstellar gascomposed roughly of 98% hydrogen

and helium and 2% other elementscollapsed under its own
gravity, causing the matter to spin faster and flatten into a rotating
disk.

As the temperature cooled, the matter in the disk condensed into

clumps of particles that would grow into planets.

Closer to the center of the disk where the Sun was forming, rocks
and metals condensed to create the terrestrial planets.
Farther away from the Sun, where it was cold enough for the abundant
levels of hydrogen to form ice, the outer planets grew much larger than those
made of metals and rocks.

Pluto is actually a member of the Kuiper belta collection of

comets that orbit the Sun beyond Neptune.

In July 2005, a new large Kuiper belt object was discovered.

Earth

Earth is a complex, evolving body characterized by ceaseless change.

Just as the human body is composed of interrelated systems that

control specific bodily functions, Earth's four principal components
the atmosphere (air), lithosphere (land), hydrosphere (water),
and biosphere (life) perform critical roles that, together, support
and sustain life on the planet

Heat comes from two sources: solar energy and radioactivity in

the Earth's core.

Because of the angle at which the Sun strikes Earth, Earth's surface is
heated unevenly.

This creates Earth's three major climate zones tropical,

temperate, and polar which then influence what types of life
flourish in different locations. The uneven heating also controls
weather systems.

The heat absorbed by the oceans and carried by its currents is

constantly being released into the atmosphere.

This heat and moisture drive atmospheric circulation and set

weather patterns in motion.

The weather patterns then influence vegetation, as well as erosion

and sediment transport.

The other heat source, deep within Earth's core, is responsible for plate
tectonics, which gives the Earth its physical character: mountain
ranges and valleys, ocean basins and lake beds, and islands
and trenches.

The heat from Earth's core generates convection cells within its
mantle, which help drive plate activity

Ever since the first photos were sent back from space, our view of
Earth has changed.

Remote sensing instruments, such as satellites, allow us to better

understand the interrelationships between the different subsystem

Plate Tectonic Processes

Simplified map of the earth's crustal plates (U.S. Geological Survey, 1990,
Professional Paper 1515).
The Theory of Plate Tectonics suggests that the earths crust is
divided into larger plates moving very slowly in particular directions
with respect to one another.

To understand earthquakes, we need to know something about the

theory of plate tectonics. According to this theory, the earth's 120-mile
(200-km)-thick shell, called the lithosphere, is broken into several
rigid slabs called plates that slide over the uppermost layer of
the mantle (Fig.). Seven major oceanic and continental plates
have been identified, along with a number of smaller plates. Moving at
rates of 10 to 130 millimeters (0.4 to 5 inches) per year, these plates
interact with one another in various ways, producing mountain belts,
volcanoes, and earthquakes.

The Theory of Plate Tectonics suggests that the earths crust is divided into
larger plates moving very slowly in particular directions with respect to one

another

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

The location of some of the major faults

located on the Earth
Faults form in rocks when the stresses overcome the internal
strength of the rock resulting in a fracture.
A fault can be defined as the displacement of once connected blocks of rock
along a fault plane.
This can occur in any direction with the blocks moving away from each other.
Faults occur from both tensional and compressional forces.

Diastrophism-process which involves the movement of the earths crust such

that a portion is pushed up, pushed down or forced sideways

Deformation of rock involves changes in the shape and/or volume of

these substances. Changes in shape and volume occur when stress
and strain causes rock to buckle and fracture or crumple into folds.

A fold can be defined as a bend in rock that is the response to

compressional forces.

Folds are most visible in rocks that contain layering.

For plastic deformation of rock to occur a number of conditions must be

met, including:

The rock material must have the ability to deform under pressure and
heat.

The higher the temperature of the rock the more plastic it becomes.

Pressure must not exceed the internal strength of the rock. If it does,
fracturing occurs.

Deformation must be applied slowly.

A number of different folds have been recognized and classified by

geologists.

The simplest type of fold is called a monocline .(This fold involves a

slight bend in otherwise parallel layers of rock.

FOLDING= Bending of rocks deep in the crust

An anticline is a convex up fold in rock that resembles an arch like

structure with the rock beds (or limbs) dipping way from the center of
the structure .

A syncline is a fold where the rock layers are warped downward.

Both anticlines and synclines are the result of compressional stress.

Levels of BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION

Atom- smallest unit of an element composed of electrons, neutrons

and protons.

Molecules- union of two or more atoms of the same or different

elements.

Cell- the structural and functional unit of all living things.

Tissue- a group of cells with a common structure and function.

Organ- composed of tissues fuctioning together for a specific task.

Organ system- composed of several organs working together.

Organism- an individual; complex individuals contain organ systems.

Population- organisms of the same species in a particular area.

Community- interacting populations in a given area; includes all the

populations inhabiting a specific area at the same time.

Ecosystem- a community plus the physical environment; a biotic

community and its abiotic environment functioning as a system first

used by A. G. Tansley.

Biome- large regional or subcontinental system characterized by a

particular vegetation type ( temperate deciduous forest) ; biomes are
distinguished by the predominant plants associated with a particular
climate ( temperature and precipitation).

Biosphere-Regions of the Earths crust, Waters and atmosphere

inhabited by living things; Zone of air, land and water where living
organisms are found Population- group of individuals of the same
species living in a given area or habitat at a given time; that part of the
environment of earth in which living organisms are found.

Ecosphere- all of the living organisms of earth interacting with the

physical environment as a whole.

History of the Biosphere Concept

The term "biosphere" originated with the geologist Eduard Suess in

1875, who defined it as "the place on earth's surface where life
dwells".

Vladimir I. Vernadsky first defined the biosphere in a form resembling

its current ecological usage in his long-overlooked book of the same
title, originally published in 1926.

It is Vernadsky's work that redefined ecology as the science of the

biosphere and placed the biosphere concept in its current central
position in earth systems science.

It is that the Climate determines the type of plants that can exist in
each region, general appearance of vegetation is referred to as
physiognomy.

It constitutes general structure, shape and life forms of the species

comprising the vegetation and actually the classification of vegetation
type has been done on the basis of physiognomy.

The individual of several species in a community can be grouped in to

various life forms on the basis of their physiognomy appearance and
growth performance the life form of the vegetation are the product of
their genetic pool and tolerance towards the climatic variation.

The biosphere is the biological component of earth systems, which also

include the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and other "spheres" (e.g.
cryosphere, anthrosphere, etc.). The biosphere includes all living organisms
on earth, together with the dead organic matter produced by them.

The biosphere concept is common to many scientific disciplines

including astronomy, geophysics, geology, hydrology, biogeography
and evolution, and is a core concept in ecology, earth science and
physical geography. A key component of earth systems, the biosphere
interacts with and exchanges matter and energy with the other
spheres, helping to drive the global biogeochemical cycling of carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and other elements. From an ecological
point of view, the biosphere is the "global ecosystem", comprising the
totality of biodiversity on earth and performing all manner of biological
functions, including photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition,
nitrogen fixation and denitrification.

The biosphere has evolved since the first single-celled organisms

originated 3.5 billion years ago under atmospheric conditions
resembling those of our neighboring planets Mars and Venus, which
have atmospheres composed primarily of carbon dioxide.

Billions of years of primary production by plants released oxygen from

this carbon dioxide and deposited the carbon in sediments, eventually
producing the oxygen-rich atmosphere we know today.

Free oxygen, both for breathing (O2, respiration) and in the

stratospheric ozone (O3) that protects us from harmful UV radiation,
has made possible life as we know it while transforming the chemistry
of earth systems forever.

The biosphere is dynamic, undergoing strong seasonal cycles in

primary productivity and the many biological processes driven by the
energy captured by photosynthesis.

Seasonal cycles in solar irradiation of the hemispheres is the main

driver of this dynamic, especially by its strong effect on terrestrial
primary productivity in the temperate and boreal biomes, which
essentially cease productivity in the winter time.

In earth science, the biosphere represents the role of living organisms

and their remains in controlling and interacting with the other spheres
in the global biogeochemical cycles and energy budgets.

The biosphere plays a central role in the biogeochemical processing of

carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and other elements.

As a result, biogeochemical processes such as photosynthesis and

nitrogen fixation are critical to understanding the chemistry and
physics of earth systems as a whole.

The physical properties of the biosphere in terms of its surface

reflectance (albedo) and exchange of heat and moisture with the
atmosphere are also critical for understanding global circulation of heat
and moisture and therefore climate.

Alterations in both the physics (albedo, heat exchange) and chemistry

(carbon dioxide, methane, etc.) of earth systems by the biosphere are
fundamental in understanding anthropogenic global warmingThe
biosphere is a core concept within Biology and Ecology, where it serves

as the highest level of biological organization, which begins with parts

of cells and proceed to populations, species, ecoregions, biomes and
finally, the biosphere. Global patterns of biodiversity within the
biosphere are described using biomes.
HYDROSPHERE

ATMOSPHERE
Sea of air

Composition of air :

Nitrogen

Oxygen

Argon, Carbon Dioxide

Air is matter
it occupies space and has weight

The gases of the air are pulled by the earths gravity

The weight of the air above and the pull of the earths gravity tend to
keep most of the air molecules close to the surface of the earth.

Layers of the Atmosphere

Troposphere- 16 to 18 km-the lowest layer
Stratosphere- height of 85 km; within it is the ozone layer, which filters
harmful radiation from the sun
Ozone- 3 atoms of oxygen
Ionosphere- region of electrically charge particles---ions
- 1000km
-It can reflect radio messages to
earth
Exosphere