Marx's Dialectic of Labour

Marx's Dialectic of Labor
Author(s): G. A. Cohen
Source: Philosophy & Public Affairs, Vol. 3, No. 3 (Spring, 1974), pp. 235-261
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G. A. COHEN Marx's Dialectic of Labor
Begin not with the good old things but with

the bad new ones.
-Bertolt Brecht
The Communist Manifesto lampooned those who fought capitalism

on behalf of the traditional values it was corroding.1 Their conserva-
tive response was not only futile, but blind-to the new possibilities
capitalism creates and indeed partly realizes. Marx's celebration of
capitalism is the main theme of the present paper. It locates, amid the
evils of capitalist society, goods to be preserved and developed in free-
dom from their capitalist integument in a socialist future.
In the first part of this essay I accumulate materials later used to
exhibit capitalism's progressive character. In particular, I construct
(section I) a modest concept of dialectic, which leads to a description
(section II) of one form or aspect of freedom. It emerges (section III)
that labor under capitalism, though alienated, and just because alien-
ated, shows the seeds and some of the growth of this freedom, which
is lacking in earlier, much romanticized, craft labor. The claim is
strengthened (section iv) by attention to the varieties of division of
labor, and set within a wider context (section v) which invites hom-
age to capitalism. Section vi adumbrates a discussion of the fate of
labor under socialism.
I. DIALECTIC
In Hegel's theory of knowledge, there is an epistemological ascent in

three stages. The point of departure is sensuous consciousness, the
summit is reason, and understanding lies along the route between
them. The initial position is the most primitive encounter between
I. Marx-Engels Selected Works i (Moscow, 1958), pp. 54-57.
236 Philosophy & Public Affairs
mind and the world, predating any form of reflection. The mind does
not experience itself as divided from the world, and is incapable of
distinguishing things and aspects in what lies before it. The elements
of the object are merged, and the subject is merged with them. Under-
standing is the sphere of analysis: the subject asserts a distinction
between itself and the object, of an absolute kind, and is able to dis-
criminate parts and features of the object. Understanding is a neces-
sary phase in the acquisition of knowledge, but it must be surpassed
by reason, which maintains understanding's distinctions, yet also
recognizes deeper unities beyond understanding's competence. Rea-
son recaptures the integration understanding suspended, without
renouncing the achievements premised on that suspension.
Epistemology is not the only area Hegel trisected in the manner
just sketched. While I do not seek endorsement of his procedure in
epistemology or in general, I do submit that the rhythm realized in
the progress exhibited above sometimes occurs in a person's develop-
ment. With respect to categorially various items to which a person
may be related-his spouse, his family, his country, his job, his role,
his body, his desires-it seems possible for him to sustain something
like each of the three attitudes we have separated. He may fail in
significant ways to distinguish himself and what he is from the other
to which he is related; he may possess a strong sense of its otherness,
so that it seems alien to him; or he may have that sense, yet find it
compatible with close engagement. What is more, it sometimes hap-
pens that he occupies the three positions successively, in the order
Hegel thought canonical in epistemology and elsewhere.
A domain offering examples of the sequence Hegel favored is that
of marriage. In its early stages a person may feel his interests and
purposes to be identical with those of his spouse. Both may feel that
way, and thus combine their lives to an extent which from outside
looks artificial or moronic. But then one or both may revolt against
fusion, and become hostile to continued connection. Finally, a new
harmony may supervene, not through relapse into complete mutual
absorption, real or pretended, but by discovery of a unity which is not
antagonistic to the individuality of each.
Referring to this sequence in intimate relations, Hegel wrote in his
fragment "On Love" that "the process is: unity, separated opposites,
237 Marx's Dialectic of Labor
reunion."2 He thought the course of true love always has this structure,
but we need not agree when we acknowledge that there is such a
structure, and that it deserves attention. The term "dialecticar' will
hereafter be applied to processes of the envisaged kind. I shall say that
a subject undergoes a dialectical process if it passes from a stage
where it is undivided from some object, through a stage where it di-
vides itself from it in a manner which creates disunity, to a stage
where distinction persists but unity is restored. I shall label the suc-
cessive stages "undifferentiated unity," "differentiated disunity," and
"differentiated unity." Finally, a process may be deemed dialectical,
but incompletely so, if it passes from the first to the second stage
without achieving the third, or from the second to the third without
originating in the first.
I shall be meaning nothing more than this by the term "dialectical"
here. Some of the things to which so using the term does not commit
me are worth noting.
First, I do not maintain that all processes of spiritual growth are
dialectical in the specified sense.
Second, I do not claim that mine is the only defensible use of the
term, where a use of "dialectical" is defensible if it is both clear and
appropriately related to some Hegelian or Marxian use.
Finally, I do not affirm any dialectical laws. Processes displaying
the required structure count as dialectical whether or not their stages
generate one another: it is enough that they follow one another, for
whatever reason. In seeing dialectic in a process, we discern its con-
tour in an intellectually satisfying manner, but the explanation of
why it unfolds as it does is not thereby disclosed to us. I am not as-
serting that there is something necessary or natural about dialectical
sequence, not claiming that subjectivity merged with an object tends
in time to propel itself away from the object, and then tends to reunite
with it, the independence it has gained being preserved. But I do think
many processes in which subject and object are implicated in chang-
ing relation are well conceived as transitions from undifferentiated
unity, through differentiated disunity, to differentiated unity.
This concept of dialectic is the descriptive residue of a concept
which Hegel certainly, and Marx perhaps, thought had explanatory
2. "On Love," Early Theological Writings (Chicago, 1948), p. 308.
import as well. Whether it admits of explanatory construal is a ques-

tion not pursued here.
Hegel constructs dialectical sequences in all his major works. A
particularly clear one is his presentation of "Ethical Life," the name
he gave to the object of philosophical sociology. Ethical Life begins
with the family, a sphere of merger, the members being immediately
concerned in one another's welfare, not externally bound by calculated
ties of advantage. The weal and woe of any member of the family is
experienced as such by each. Counterposed to the family is civil so-
ciety, a collection of mutually autonomous individuals released from
the family cocoon, engaged in economic competition and cooperation.
Independence and separation predominate, and partnerships depend
on unfeeling contract. But civil society is subordinate to the state,
that is, not the political institutions merely, but the entire national
community, which sustains the independence at work in economic life
but complements it by providing collective identity and culture. The
family shows undifferentiated unity, civil society differentiated dis-
unity, and the state differentiated unity.
Turning to Marxism, we may cite the legendary development from
primitive communism, a collective structure and consciousness in-
hibiting individuation, through the divisions of class society, which
stimulate an assertion of selfhood, to modern communism, preserving
individuality in a context of regained collectivity.
The sequence primitive communism/class society/modern commu-
nism is more prominent in Soviet and kindred doctrine than in the
thought of Marx, which is dominated by a different triad: from pre-
capitalist society, through capitalism, to the communism of the future.
Whereas precapitalist society, even in its class-divided forms, displays
the appearance of community in a society integrated with nature,
capitalism sets individuals against one another, and society against
nature. Communism preserves the inherited individuation, but re-
stores community, and equilibrium between man and his environ-
ment. "'The association of the future' will combine the sober reason-
ableness of the bourgeois era with the 'care for the common social
welfare' which characterised previous societies."3 The Marxian
3. Hal Draper, in The Socialist Register (London, 1970), p. 305, quoting an un-
published I884 fragment. For an interesting exposition of communism's many
historical epochs thus correspond to Hegel's triadic division of Ethical

Life.
The dialectic of labor is one strand in the precapitalism/capitalism/
communism transformation. It will be introduced following a prepara-
tory discussion on freedom.
II. THE FREEDOM OF DETACHMENT
In the second stage of dialectical process the subject breaks free of

the object (which may be another subject) to which he has been at-
tached, and experiences himself as detached from it.4 I shall call what
he experiences "the freedom of detachment," and the absence of that
freedom will be called "engulfment."
This experience of freedom is not an experience of freedom from
constraint. For whatever engulfed the now detached subject may now
limit and pressure his choices, and the subject may be aware that it
does. That he has placed a distance between it and himself does not
mean it cannot by action at a distance constrain him.
Detachment from X is, then, compatible with experiencing X as con-
straining. Indeed it is entailed by experiencing X as constraining: I
can feel constrained by X only if I feel myself to be independent of X.
This holds even if X is an impulse or desire, for I cannot sense con-
straint by it unless it impinges upon me as though from without.
I do not assert that detachment from X is entailed by being con-
strained by X. The question whether engulfment by X is compatible
with constraint by X can be answered only by probing deeper than is
to my purpose.
An agent aware of constraint has a desire or project which he and
we can identify as his own and whose fulfillment is made impossible
or difficult by something felt as outside him. He may act against his
will, but his will is his own, not captured by the constraining agency.
But a person lacking the freedom of detachment does not treat himself
as separate from whatever compromises that freedom in a way that
syntheses, see Lucien Goldmann, in Socialist Humanism, ed. Fromm (Garden

City, I966), especially pp. 41, 49.
4. I here take "A experiences B" to entail "B exists." Thus the experience of
constraint entails constraint, that of freedom from constraint entails freedom
from constraint, and that of detachment entails detachment.
would enable him to think of it as impeding him, or dictating to him.

He does not experience it as in opposition to his will, for it envelops
his will.
A young child is in the thrall of his parents' ideas and values. They
enter his being, and control him more directly than by means of the
punishments and rewards required once his identity is more devel-
oped. In Hegel's language, the immature person's will is (in part)
immediately identical with that of his seniors. But the identity is not
symmetrical. Though the child's world is the world of his parents,
theirs is not the world of the child. One may say that he knows them
to be separate from him, yet does not know himself to be separate from
them.
To the extent that such a child is engulfed, he does not feel con-
strained. But no engulfment is total. The self is never effaced by en-
vironing circumstances or other selves. Hence engulfment by X is
compatible with a feeling of constraint by Y, where X and Y are dis-
tinct: a person lacking the freedom of detachment may also experi-
ence obstacles to, and pressures upon, his will. It is necessary to iden-
tify finely the values X and Y take here. The child may be engulfed by
his parents in some of their manifestations and not others.
Engulfment in X involves lack of awareness of oneself as capable
of independence from X. This includes the case of the child, who is
not in fact so capable, and the case of the spouse, who is but does not
grasp the fact. In either instance, engulfment does not survive a lucid
recognition of the nature of one's relation to the engulfing agency.
When that relation becomes perspicuous, it is broken. It may then
be true that the unfreedom of engulfment is replaced by an experience
of constraint. "I was unaware how much I fell in with X's desires and
intentions, how much my life was immersed in his. But I became
aware, and I now experience X and his plans as an obstacle to me."
One could not be aware of that immersion. (It does not follow that the
idea of a feeling of engulfment is self-contradictory, though it does
follow that any such feeling will include at most a confused awareness
of engulfment.)
The characterization of engulfment ventured above is incomplete.
I have, for example, left it open whether engulfment by X is com-
24I Marx's Dialectic of Labor
patible with constraint by X. This suggests a reductive maneuver which

would eliminate the interest of the concept. Someone hostile to my
attempt to find in engulfment the absence of a freedom which is not
freedom from constraint might contend that if I have a phenomenon
in view it is just that of an agent who is constrained without realizing
it. The contention is mistaken: this will not suffice for engulfment.
For a person may know himself to be independent of X, yet not know
that X promises the failure of a project he has. He may not know that
someone of his acquaintance by whom he is in no sense enthralled has
ensured that he will have to act against his wishes. Or he may not
know that a door through which he wants to pass is locked, and so
is forcing him to remain in the room.
Here there is ignorance of constraint without engulfment. What
must be added-added if engulfment is indeed compatible with con-
straint-is that the subject does not experience himself as independent
of X. That conception requires further clarification, but the latter is
not supplied by the clear idea of a constrained person's not knowing
that he is constrained.
III. TRADITIONAL AND MODERN LABOR
Many observers of the emerging factory civilization pictured the an-

cestral work scene as a garden from which the rhythms of capitalist
development expelled the producers, to deposit them in an industrial
hell. The artistic work of the handicraftsman, performed for its own
sake, not merely for the living it yields, appears in favorable con-
trast to the alienated toils of working class life. Traces of this outlook
may be found in Marixs writings. But he does not finally accept the
romantic attitude that the new society disrupted a preindustrial idyll.5
For he thinks the very values of traditional artisanship reveal the
engulfment of the artificer. His contentment with, and absorption in,
his own narrow trade compose what Marx deemed a "slavish relation-
ship."6 He identifies with his work and his role, but his mind is sub-
5. For an idealized conception of preindustrial life, with which Marx and

Engels were to break, see the opening pages of Engels's Condition of the Work-
ing Class in England in I844 (any edition).
6. The German Ideology (London, I965), p. 67.
jected to his occupation, whereas the modem proletarian does not care
about the job he performs, or what kind of job it iS.7 The wageworker's
indifference manifests his alienation. But it also betokens a birth of
freedom. The artisan using his own means of production, typically
handed down by his father, is caught like a "snail inside its shell";8
but the fact that the nineteenth-century worker is propertyless, which
explains his misery, signifies an independence, a detachment from
this particular machine and this particular job, a disengagement the
guildsman does not know.
Engels is not just thinking of the future when he finds such disen-
gagement appealing:
... it was absolutely necessary to cut the umbilical cord which still
bound the worker of the past to the land. The hand weaver who had
his little house, garden and field along with his loom was a quiet,
contented man, 'godly and honourable,' despite all misery and de-
spite all political pressure; he doffed his cap to the rich, to the
priest and to the officials of the state and inwardly was altogether
a slave. It is precisely modern large-scale industry which has turned
the worker, formerly chained to the land, into a completely prop-
ertyless proletarian, liberated from all traditional fetters, a free
outlaw. ... 9
The person here called "free" is typically forced to spend the best
part of his time and energy doing what he has no inclination to do,
in factory labor. That he does not doff his cap to the rich is compatible
with their extensive control over him. He has not escaped constraint:
he has won the freedom of detachment. By contrast, the "worker of the
past" could not so much as "conceive the idea'10 of rejecting his con-
ditions of life. He understood himself only as part of them.
The transition is from engulfment in nature, one's work, and one's
role in a society itself engulfed in nature; a passage from what Marx
7. Idem. See also Grundrisse der Kritik der Politischen okonomie (Berlin,
1953), p. 204; and "Excerpt-Notes of I844," in Writings of the Young Marx on
Philosophy and Society, eds. Easton and Guddat (Garden City, I967), p. 276.
8. Capital i (Moscow, I96I), p. 359.
9. "The Housing Question," Marx-Engels Selected Works I, p. 563. (All em-
phases reproduced from original, unless otherwise stated.)
Io. Ibid., p. 564.
called "naturwiichsig conditions of existence," to alienation, abstract"

individuality, and the freedom of detachment. At one point Marx
states the difference cryptically: only wageworkers stand in a relation
to their conditions of labor and life.'2 He means one can be related to
something only if one is suitably independent of it, whereas medieval
workers are, he says, "merged" with their instruments of labor.'3
This merger was not a useless misfortune, for "the subjection of
the producer to one branch exclusively ... is a necessary step in the
development" of the human productive faculty. The enclosure of the
worker inside a definite locale within the material and social condi-
tions of production ensures that
each separate branch of production acquires the form that is tech-

nically suited to it, slowly perfects it, and, so soon as a given degree
of maturity has been reached, rapidly crystallises that form.
Even the shape of the instruments of labor
once definitely settled by experience, petrifies, as is proved by their

being in many cases handed down in the same form by one genera-
tion to another during thousands of years.
Thereby the worker and the tools come to fit one another. But capitalist
industry violates this happy accommodation. The "new modern sci-
ence of technology" resolves each production "process into its constit-
uent movements, without any regard to their possible execution by
the hand of man.'4 The inhumane disregard breaks the snail's shell.
The resultant transition is dialectical in the sense specified in
section i. In the first stage the craftsman is fastened to his work facil-
ities and surroundings, absorbed into a particular cell within the body
social, which is at peace with nature. The proletarian is free of such
encumbrance, but also bereft of the solace and security it confers. He
enjoys an independence but loses the possession the craftsman knew.
To complete the dialectic, the socialist producer would have to estab-
ii. This term is discussed in section iv.

I2. Grundrisse, p. 389.
13. Ibid., p. 404 (tr. in Pre-Capitalist Economic Formations, ed. Hobsbawm
[London, I9641, p. io8).
I4. Capital i, pp. 485-486, my emphasis.
lish some new form of unity with his situation, without sacrificing the
acquired autonomy.
The respective experiences of craftsman and proletarian, the con-
trasting phenomenologies of their everyday lives, reflect and consoli-
date similarly antithetical ownership positions.'5 The preproletarian
laborer has the right and the duty to work with particular means of
production in a particular place. He is both endowed with and bound
to particular means of production. The proletarian lacks the right and
the duty to work in any particular factory. A labor contract, which
neither he nor his employer need renew, is required for him to engage
in production.
For Marx, the central episode in the genesis of capitalism is a dual
severance of the laborer from his means of production. Gone are his
intimate control of and by them, and his rights over, and duties to,
them. The prelude to capitalism is
a series of historical processes, resulting in a Decomposition of the

Original Union existing between the Labouring Man and his Instru-
ments of Labour.... The Separation between the Man of Labour
and the Instruments of Labour once established, such a state of
things will maintain itself and reproduce itself upon a constantly
increasing scale, until a new and fundamental revolution in the
mode of production should again overturn it, and restore the orig-
inal union in a new historical form.16
So we again encounter: undifferentiated unity, differentiation without

unity, differentiated unity.
Marx's dialectic of labor draws upon Hegel's dialectic of conscious-
ness and nature, but adds emphasis on the technological aspect. The
craftsman is sunk in the object, nature, means of production, land, the
immediate environment. The son succeeds his father as one season
gives way to the next: it is his natural destiny.17 The conflict between
15. Or production relations. For the connection between ownership and pro-
duction relations, see my "On Some Criticisms of Historical Materialism," Pro-
ceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volume, 1970.
i6. "Wages, Price and Profit," Marx-Engels Selected Works I, p. 425. Cf.
Grundrisse, p. 404 (tr. ed. Hobsbawm, p. I08), pp. 850-851; Capital i, part viii.
17. See the quotation from Hegel's Realphilosophie in Avineri, Hegel's Theory
of the Modern State (Cambridge, 1972), p. io6 n. 66.
consciousness and nature is undeveloped. It explodes under capital-

ism, as man splits himself off from nature, and splits it apart, exercis-
ing a destructive freedom. Capitalism is spirit in its negative form,
assaulting nature and hallowed naturwiuchsig social conditions. A
freely realized unity is established under socialism. Nature is returned
to spirit, but it is now a spiritualized nature.
The materialist elaboration of these formulae stresses that craft
production keeps man attached to nature by blocking the further de-
velopment of the productive faculty it once advanced, since it hinders
the collectivization of labor, which is a premise of increasing produc-
tivity. In handicraft the worker manages a total process of production.
He employs his own instruments in his own shop and fashions a com-
plete article, which he can call his own work. He does not serve up a
fragment to be joined to other fragments made by other men, or
merely add a contribution to an ensemble traveling along the factory
floor. Capitalism socializes labor and insults craft pride, but because
it makes the laborer cooperate "systematically with others, he strips
off the fetters of his individuality and develops the capabilities of his
species."18
Man transcends his limitations by working with others, and submis-
sion to the capitalist division of labor enables the stupendous produc-
tive feats of which the race is capable. The Promethean virtues listed
in Marx's characterization of specifically human labor19 are realized as
properties of the factory or industry as a whole.20 But under capitalism
these values make only an alienated appearance. The power of the
species is not suffused through its members. It confronts them as
something foreign,21 as the possession of the capitalist, who monopo-
lizes intention and knowledge. The capitalist may be personally ignor-
i8. Capital i, p. 329. Cf. ibid., pp. 76I-762.
I9. See "Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts," in Karl Marx: Early
Writings, ed. Bottomore (London, I963), p. I28; and Capital I, pp. 177-178. For
Marx human labor, as opposed to the animal's, is in its higher forms character-
ized by intentionality, limitless scope, etc.
20. "The first definition given above of productive labour [i.e. on pp. 177ff.-GAC],
a definition deduced from the very nature of the production of material objects,
still remains correct for the collective labourer, considered as a whole. But it no
longer holds good for each member taken individually" (Capital I, p. 509; cf.
ibid., pp. 36I, 508).
21I. Capital iII (Moscow, I962), p. 85.
ant, but he is the social repository of science, since those who know
are in his hire.22 Knowledge and skill are applied in the productive
process, but not by the producers themselves.23 Their action is imposed
on them, by supervisor and machine. As social production grows in
sophistication, less talent is required of each operative. In future soci-
ety the theory governing industry will be shared, and the achievement
of the species will no longer face its members as an alien power, but
will enter their lives as production is democratically planned and
understood by all. Socialism will provide for men the creative existence
achieved under capitalism by man.
So men sunk variously in nature but also at home in it lose that
integration to gain abstract freedom and collective power dissociated
from individuals-a step on the road to concrete freedom and dis-
alienation of that power.
IV. MODES OF THE DIVISION OF LABOR
The opposition abstract/concrete pervades the work of Hegel, and

was used in the last paragraph to sum up a train of thought recovered
from Marx. He did not himself use the terms with Hegelian frequency,
but they figure in the construction of a distinction basic to his eco-
nomics. In this section I begin with that distinction and attempt to
show its conceptual continuity with the Hegelian opposition it verbally
reproduces.
For Marx all labor is both concrete and abstract. It is concrete in-
sofar as it employs specific facilities in a specific way and issues in a
product of determinate physical properties, capable of satisfying some
human desires and not others, namely a use-value. It is abstract inso-
far as it is a quantity of total social labor, measurable by the amount
of time absorbed in its performance, and issuing, in market economies,
in an exchange-value, and in all economies in a proportion of social
wealth, however that be reckoned. Now under capitalism the abstract
moment gains ascendancy. For it matters neither to the laborer nor to
his employer what concrete labor is performed. Each cares only about
how much exchange-value he will obtain from its performance. Each
22. Capital i, pp. 386-387n.

23. Grundrisse, pp. 584-587; Theories of Surplus Value pt. ii (London, i969),
p. 234.
contrasts with the feudal serf and lord, since they consumed, and so
were interested in the concrete character of, the immediate result of
the serf's labor. Under capitalism the abstract aspect takes precedence
in fact and in consciousness.
But labor becomes abstract under capitalism in a further sense.
Concrete differences between different kinds of labor not only matter
less, as explained above: they are also reduced in extent. I shall eluci-
date by noticing the different forms the division of labor takes in
medieval and modern times.
Capitalism increases the number of distinct jobs involved in the
production of a given product, but at the same time it decreases the
specialization of the worker. Precapitalist weavers and tanners partici-
pated in several stages of the respective production processes, and
weaving operations differed significantly in kind from tanning opera-
tions, and among themselves. But mechanized textile and leather fac-
tories demand similar simple movements from their operatives.24 The
products of the factories differ because of diversity in raw materials
and machines on which, and at which, like labor is spent. Capitalism's
ideal is to homogenize tasks across and within all branches of pro-
duction, so that workers may move from job to job doing much the
same simple thing in a variety of settings.
To recapitulate. Under the sway of capital the immediate interest
in labor is for its abstract quality of producing wealth in general, ex-
change-value, the particular embodiment of which ceases to matter;
and the concrete differences between kinds of labor are diminished.
Labor is then abstract "not only as a category but in reality":
The fact that the particular kind of labour employed is immaterial

is appropriate to a form of society in which individuals easily pass
24. ". . . as the division of labour increases, labour is simplifted. The special
skill of the worker becomes worthless. He becomes transformed into a simple,
monotonous productive force that does not have to use intense bodily or intel-
lectual faculties. His labour becomes a labour that anyone can perform" ("Wage-
Labour and Capital," Marx-Engels Selected Works i, p. 102).
in the place of the hierarchy of specialized workmen that characterises

manufacture, there steps, in the automatic factory, a tendency to equalise and
reduce to one and the same level every kind of work that has to be done by the
minders of the machines" (Capital i, p. 420).
from one type of labour to another, the particular type of labour be-
ing accidental to them and therefore irrelevant. Labour, not only
as a category but in reality, has become a means to create wealth in
general, and has ceased to be tied as an attribute to a particular
individual.25
The last clause asserts that the transformation is liberating: it al-

lows escape from engulfment. Since the abstract labor of capitalism
lacks a definite shape, the man who performs it is not stamped by any
concrete work process and he becomes aware of his capacity and his
need for a full and unspecialized life:
What characterizes the division of labour in the automatic work-

shop is that labour has there completely lost its specialized char-
acter. But the moment every special development stops, the need
for universality, the tendency towards an integral development of
the individual begins to be felt.26
Man as proletarian has become labor in general, though only in

general, and he therefore aspires to develop his abilities generally. The
artisan lacks the aspiration just because some few of his abilities are
developed and fused with conditions of labor and life he cannot con-
ceive transcending. "The automatic workshop wipes out specialists
and craft idiocy."27 The "idiocy" is the same as that referred to rural
life in The Communist Manifesto.28 It is not feeble intelligence, for
it is compatible with advanced craftsmanship. It is rather "narrow
parochialism,"29 an uncomplaining acceptance of a restricted life, not
perceived as restricted.
Marx's contrast between medieval and modern labor moves in an
Hegelian orbit. The proletarian's freedom is the kind Hegel called
"abstract" and "negative," the "freedom of the void," "freedom as the
understanding conceives it," for the understanding30 knows only
25. A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (London, I97I), p.

2IO, my emphasis. Cf. The Poverty of Philosophy (Moscow, n.d.), pp. 58-59.
26. The Poverty of Philosophy, p. i6i.
27. Idem.
28. Marx-Engels Selected Works i, p. 38.
29. Theories of Surplus Value ii, p. 475.
30. See pp. 235-236 above.
249 Marxs Dialectic of Labor
distinction and separation, and so conceives freedom as the lack of

"every restriction and every content."31 It is a freedom from every-
thing particular, directed upon nothing in particular.
Nevertheless, this freedom abstract and negative, "fettered to no
determinate existence," "not bound at all by particularity,"32 is an
"essential factor"33 in the formation of full and concrete freedom,
which would appropriate its circumstances, not flee them.34
Medieval work for Marx is concrete but not universal. It has a
definite contour with the result that the laborer is defined and limited
by it. Modern work is universal but abstract. The laborer is not con-
fined but his activity has lost shape and sense. It has been "robbed
... of all real life-content" and is performed by "abstract individuals."35
Activity under communism is to be both universal and concrete, an
unrestricted engagement with something particular and definite, no
longer a freedom suspended in a vacuum (the proletarian), nor an
unfreedom with content (the craftsman).
V. THE PROGRESSIVE CHARACTER OF CAPITALISM
Those who see in engulfment only integration and a sense of belong-

ing oppose the disengagement capitalism brings. A representative com-
plaint is Lewis Mumford's:
What was . . . the boasted "mobility of labour" but the breakdown

of stable social relations and the disorganization of family life?36
Capitalism tramples upon communal values, and it is fair to counter
its boasts by recalling them. But it does not merely destroy. Mumford
forgets that mobility of labor is also mobility of human beings, who
escape confining perspectives and visit different milieux. I do not say
the gain outweighs the loss, for I do not know how to measure either.
But I do think that to admire stability and the pastorale and to notice
31. Philosophy of Right (Oxford, 1958), pp. 21-22.
32. Phenomenology of Mind (London, I96I), p. 232.
33. Philosophy of Right, p. 227.
34. Phenomenology of Mind, p. 234.
35. The German Ideology, p. 82.
36. Lewis Mumford, Technics and Civilisation (London, 1934), p. I95. That
Mumford's views are not normally conservative testifies to the attractiveness of
the conservative position he adopts here.
nothing good emerging in their collapse is to appreciate but one side of

human potential and need. Men want belonging and freedom, integra-
tion and independence, community and individuality, and when capi-
talism sacrifices the first member of these and like pairs, it concurrent-
ly enfranchises the second.
Labor mobility entails a prior release from economic bonds forged
by political and ideological authority. The impermanent ties replacing
them derive from what Marx called "callous cash payment."37 But
this did not prevent him from correcting "romantics" who saw "the
substitution of a monetary system, cold and hard, for picturesque re-
lations between men," and neglected the attendant liberation.38
That Marx was aware of the destructive side of capitalism needs no
proof. On countless occasions he emphasized that nothing is so exalted
as to be immune to exploitation in the drive for profit; that all natural
endowments, all skill, all science, all passion, are prey to capital's
cupidity. Less familiar is what he often went on to say, for example:
Hence the great civilizing influence of capital, its production of a

stage of society compared with which all earlier stages appear to be
merely local progress and idolatry of nature.39
Its destruction is
permanently revolutionary, tearing down all obstacles that impede

the development of the productive forces, the expansion of needs,
the diversity of production and the exploitation and exchange of
natural and intellectual forces.
It does away with
national boundaries and prejudices . . . the inherited self-sufficient

satisfaction of existing needs confined within well-defined bounds,
and the reproduction of the traditional way of life.40
Alienation is the cost of rescue from envelopment by his natural and

social environment which is man's estate before capitalism. Capital
37. "Communist Manifesto," Marx-Engels Selected Works I, p. 36.
38. Grundrisse, p. 874.
39. Grundrisse, p. 313 (tr. in Marx's Grundrisse, ed. McLellan [London, 1971],
p. 94). My emphasis on "hence."
40. Ibid., p. 313 (tr. ed. McLellan, pp. 94-95); cf. ibid., p. 389.
steals and shrinks each man's laboring power but promotes an un-
precedented increase in the power of mankind. Its enormous produc-
tion within the frame of a global market transforms a collection of
isolated groups of parochial men into a wondrously creative universal
humanity. There flourishes in parallel with alienation a magnificent
assertion of sovereignty over the physical world. A utilitarian attitude,
in theory and in practice, supplants the "idolatry of nature." There is,
to be sure, no, wisdom in the exercise of this sovereignty. It threatens to
mangle nature irreparably, and socialism will not perpetuate it in its
uncontrolled form.41 On the other hand, it will in some respects ex-
tend it, for not all humanly desirable transformations of nature are
compatible with the constraints of the market.42
Marx holds not only that capitalism as a matter of fact develops a
cosmopolitan civilization of production but also that it must do so and
that it alone can do so. This "extreme form of alienation" "in which the
worker . . . is opposed to his own conditions and to his own product is
a necessary transitional stage."43 Why is it necessary? Why must cap-
italism give rise to the asserted result? And why can capitalism alone
do it, and a precapitalist economy not? Marx answers these questions
by economic reasoning which will not be discussed here.44 To the ques-
tion why capitalist, and not precapitalist, arrangements are capable
of sponsoring great advances in production, he suggests an additional
answer on the level of philosophical anthropology, which we now
examine.
Under capitalism men are restless and unfulfilled. The identity
they once borrowed from their circumstances is gone, and no new one
has appeared. Precapitalist men are at peace with themselves and at
home in the world, unfrustrated and possessed of "plenitude." It
41. In a forthcoming article on "Use-value, Exchange-value, and a Distinctive

Contradiction of Advanced Capitalism" I argue that it is specifically capitalist
industrialism which portends ecological disaster.
42. Grundrisse, pp. 313-314 (tr. ed. McLellan, p. 95).
43. Ibid., p. 414 and cf. p. 317.
44. See "Use-value . . ." on why capitalism and capitalism alone fosters un-
limited production. There is also the point made above (p. 245) that precapitalist
economies fetter production by preventing the collectivization of labor. Technical
progress requires the latter, but it presupposes the mobility of labor which pre-
capitalist rules forbid.
is Marx's idea that they enjoy fulfillment only because their powers
and wants are limited, their human nature stunted. Prodigious
power develops explosively under capitalism, dissociated from individ-
uals, by virtue of an economic system which presupposes their aliena-
tion from that power. Only such a system can advance that power,
only a system in which it is not directed to serving their needs. For
those needs, inherited from past society, are narrow in range. If the
point of production were to fulfill them, it would fail to be prodigious.
It is only once production is out of gear with limited human needs that
they will be caused to lose their limited character; their development
will be stimulated by the development of production itself. The con-
tentment and order of the ancient world must be forfeited if human
nature is to grow:
At early stages of development the single individual appears to be

more complete, since he has not yet elaborated the abundance of
his relationships, and has not established them as powers that are
opposed to himself. It is as ridiculous to wish to return to that prim-
itive abundance as it is to believe in the continuing necessity of its
complete depletion. The bourgeois view has never got beyond op-
position to this romantic outlook and thus will be accompanied by it,
as a legitimate antithesis, right up to its blessed end.45
The second sentence rebukes both those who would retreat to bygone
tranquillity and those who think men are by nature unsatisfiable and
doomed to endless quest. The latter bourgeois view is fittingly resisted
by the former romantic one. Neither understands the nature of human
potential.
The theme is elaborated in a text worth quoting at length:
. . . the ancient conception, in which man always appears (in how-

ever narrowly national, religious, or political a definition) as the
aim of production, seems very much more exalted than the modern
world, in which production is the aim of man and wealth the aim
of production.
The parenthesis implies that the man of antiquity is man in confine-

ment. Forgetting that, we find antiquity superior to modernity, which
consumes individuals on the altar of productivity. Yet if we look
45. Grundrisse, p. 8o (tr. ed. McLellan, p. 71).
through the alienation to what is being achieved within it and dis-

torted by it, we find that to be the basis of true wealth and a larger
fulfillment. For
.. . what is wealth, if not the universality of needs, capacities, en-

joyments, productive powers, etc., of individuals, produced in uni-
versal exchange? What, if not the full development of human con-
trol over the forces of nature-those of his own nature as well as
those of so-called "nature"? What, if not the absolute elaboration
of his creative dispositions, without any preconditions other than
antecedent historical evolution which makes the totality of this
evolution-i.e. the evolution of all human powers as such, un-
measured by any previously established yardstick-an end in itself?
It is a familiar socialist criticism of capitalism that it fosters produc-

tion for production's sake, not for the satisfaction of human need. Yet
it is an equally familiar socialist ideal that labor should be performed
as an end in itself, not as a mere means to acquiring goods external
to it. What socialists despise in capitalism is thus an anticipation, on
an alienated plane, of what they value. Under capitalism's production
for production's sake, men produce only for rewards enjoyed outside
the production process. Under socialism's production servicing human
needs, they find productive activity itself rewarding.46
The passage concludes:
In bourgeois political economy-and in the epoch of production to

which it corresponds-this complete elaboration of what lies within
man appears as his total alienation, and the destruction of all fixed,
one-sided purposes as the sacrifice of the end in itself to a wholly
external compulsion. Hence in one way the childlike world of the
ancients appears to be superior; and this is so, as long as we seek
closed shape, form and established limitation. The ancients provide
a narrow satisfaction, where the modern world leaves us unsatisfied,
or, where it appears to be satisfied with itself, is vulgar and mean.47
46. Capitalism "produces the complete material conditions of the entire and
universal development of the productive forces of the individual" (Grundrisse,
p. 415). But what it makes possible for future individuals it makes already
actual for mankind, the latter being the foundation of the former. Cf. Theories
of Surplus Value ii, 117-lI8.
47. Grundrisse, pp. 387-388 (tr. ed. Hobsbawm, pp. 84-85). Cf. ibid., pp. 75-76
(tr. ed. McLellan, p. 67).
Hannah Arendt's Human Condition48 is a contemporary paradigm

of the search for "closed shape, form and established limitation." She
is revolted by current agitation and restlessness, by the fearful lacera-
tion of man's natural and historical home by man. But she is not a
socialist, for she discerns no good in the evils of capitalism, and so
expects socialism to perpetuate and magnify the evils, whereas it
promises to develop the goods.
For Marx the goods can be brought forth only in the train of the
evils. The process of inversion, in which men serve production instead
of production serving men, is necessary, though it
is obviously merely a historical necessity, a necessity for the devel-

opment of productive forces from a definite historical starting point,
or basis, but in no way an absolute necessity of production; it is,
rather, ephemeral. The result and the immanent aim of the process
is to destroy and transform the basis itself, as well as this form of
the process.49
The definite starting point is one of engulfment, rendering the inver-

sion necessary if production is to advance. The inversion advances
production, cancels engulfment, and, in the self-wrought collapse of
capitalism, cancels itself. What is the condition of man in the society
which lies beyond?
VI. PROSPECTS
To determine Marx's reply we must recall his thesis that the dialectic
spanning precapitalist society and capitalism is appropriately com-
48. (Garden City, 1958).

49. Grundrisse, p. 7I6 (tr. ed. McLellan, p. I5I). In the following alternative
statement the analogy with Feuerbach's idea of the inversion inherent in religion
is explicit: "From the historical point of view, this inversion appears as a transi-
tional stage that is necessary in order to obtain, by force and at the expense of
the majority, the creation of wealth as such, i.e. the unlimited productivity of
social labor which alone is able to constitute the material basis of a free human
society. It is necessary to traverse this antagonistic form just as it is inevita-
ble that man begin by giving his spiritual forces a religious form by erecting
them opposite himself as autonomous powers" ("Results of the Immediate Proc-
ess of Production," in McLellan, The Thought of Karl Marx [London, 197I], pp.
II8-II9).
pleted in a socialist future.50 The separations forced by capitalism will

be maintained in a society enjoying the integration once but no longer
purchased at the price of merger.
But to assert that socialism consummates the dialectic is not to
reveal in what manner it does so. What sort of activity preserves the
producer's transcendence of his job while restoring the engagement
missing in proletarian labor? A thorough review of the possibilities
will not be attempted. I limit myself to tentative comments on Marx-
ian pronouncements about future society which touch the theme of
unengulfed integration.
Before addressing myself to them, I want to consider an activity
which it may seem Marx must banish from future society: handicraft.
Its restoration is favored by that trend in socialism which descends
from William Morris, and by some enthusiasts of "communal living."
Since Marx thought craft labor engulfing, and since labor under social-
ism is to exhibit engagement without engulfment, must craft labor
not be omitted from the repertoire of future activity? Since, more-
over, Marxian socialism is based on advanced technology, must it not
for this second reason exclude craftsmanship, whose technology is
elementary? Yet if Marx's positions commit him against craft labor,
are they not in undesirable conflict with a plainly worthwhile aspira-
tion?
The tension between craft labor and high technology will be dealt
with later. Here I develop an answer which Marx could have given to
the first question.
Recall that the medieval artisan was engulfed not only in the labor
process proper, but also in the society environing it, and it was in con-
nection with that environment that his labor was engulfing. If we
consider craft labor in physical terms, characterized by the nature of
its techniques and products, then there is no proof that craft labor
and the craftsman's role in medieval society are inseparable, and so we
may hold that though craft labor was engulfing, it need not be so in
the future.
This is not to say that the engulfing effect of craft labor was entirely
due to the society in which it was placed. The circumstances surround-
ing it were a necessary condition of its engulfing quality, but its physi-
50. See above, pp. 238, 244, 249.
cal properties also mattered. Indeed, they contributed to the social

engulfment which made craft labor engulfing, by facilitating the
craftsman's intense identification with his role.
For the laborer to escape a "slavish relationship"51 to his work, it
was necessary that artisanship be replaced by a labor of repellent
material character, but it does not follow that a return to the earlier
physical form betokens a renewal of the engulfment which attended
it. Craft labor can be unengulfing, but if engulfed craft labor is the
point of departure, transition to craft labor without engulfment re-
quires the demise of craft labor and the rise of proletarian. Proletarian
labor effects a break with the engulfment craft labor promoted, but it
thereby enables craft labor to reappear free of its original "idiocy."52
The passage from engulfment to integration without engulfment is
impossible without an intervening phase of fragmented, alienated
labor. Craft labor cannot be fragmented: therefore proletarian labor
is an historical prerequisite of unengulfed craft labor. We saw above
that production for developed human needs cannot succeed produc-
tion for undeveloped human needs.53 A stage of production undirected
to human needs must first be traversed. Similarly, a meaningful work
process which is also enslaving cannot just lose its enslaving quality,
but can appear without it after a phase during which the work process
lacks meaning.
I have not said that Marx's socialism favors craft labor. I have
argued only that such favor would be compatible with his doctrine of
the engulfment inherent in historical craft labor. Whether craft labor
is supposed to flourish under socialism is another matter. To the ques-
tion what does happen under socialism we now turn.
Three familiar motifs in Marx's unfinished prognosis demand our

attention: (i) The conquest of nature by man, (ii) the abolition of
the division of labor, and (iii) the persistence of the realm of necessity.
(i) The precapitalist unity of man and nature rested on the fact
that man had not escaped nature's dominance. The unity of the future
reverses the original one, since it is based on the subjugation of nature
5I. See p. 241.

52. See p. 248.
53. See p. 252.
by man. Sometimes this appears to mean that nature is worked by

labor possessed of science and technology. But some of Marx's less
restrained forecasts raise the question whether his socialism is com-
patible with labor, in any economist's sense. He presents the conquest
of nature in extremely radical terms, foreseeing it as so transformed
by past scientific industry that technology is no longer applied to na-
ture but integrated with it:
Labour does not seem any more to be an essential part of the process
of production. The human factor is restricted to watching and su-
pervising the production process....
The worker no longer inserts transformed natural objects54 as
intermediaries between the material and himself; he now inserts
the natural process that he has transformed into an industrial one
between himself and inorganic nature, over which he has achieved
mastery. He is no longer the principal agent of the production proc-
ess: he exists alongside it.55
The world has been wrought into a system which by its own action
produces the environment and objects men need. Marx calls the bene-
ficiaries "workers," but the designation is inappropriate. They do not
wield tools or work at machines, but rule over an industrialized nature
the line between which and machinery is invisible. The writ of the
Curse of Adam lapses: there is no exploitation of labor because there
is no labor to be exploited, no toilers to be governed but only physical
process to be administered. Town and country are united because in-
dustry and nature are one. The ravages of class society give way to
freedom in an industrial Eden. And since the need to supervise cannot
consume much time, there is full range for "that development of hu-
man energy which is an end in itself,"56 for activity which is not labor
because it lacks an economic end-but which may nonetheless resem-
ble activity which once was labor. Those who want craftsmanship to
recapture its status as means of material existence must reject the pic-
ture, but the picture does not reject widespread performance, "along-
side the production process," of the creative activity they prize.
54. I.e. tools, machines.

55. Grundrisse, pp. 592-593 (tr. ed. McLellan, p. 142).
56. See p. 26i below.
(ii) If labor is abolished, so too is the division of labor. Marx prophe-

sied the latter's disappearance in The German Ideology, a decade be-
fore he wrote the Grundrisse text just discussed. I do not know wheth-
er the early prophecy was already accompanied by a belief in the
withering away of labor itself, as activity geared to economic ends. It is
unclear whether the attractively varied activity sketched below was
supposed to constitute production, or take place outside it. Let us
waive that question. The passage bears on the theme of integration
without engulfment whatever the answer is:
... as soon as the distribution of labour comes into being, each man
has a particular, exclusive sphere of activity, which is forced upon
him, and from which he cannot escape. He is a hunter, a fisherman,
a shepherd, or a critical critic, and must remain so if he does not
want to lose his means of livelihood; while in communist society,
where nobody has one exclusive sphere of activity but each can be-
come accomplished in any branch he wishes, society regulates the
general production and thus makes it possible for me to do one thing
today and another tomorrow, to hunt in the morning, fish in the
afternoon, rear cattle in the evening, criticize after dinner, just as
I have a mind, without ever becoming hunter, fisherman, shepherd,
or critic.57
Marx here attributes three desirable qualities to activity-be it labor

or not-in future society. First, and most obviously, a person does not
give himself up to one activity only. Second, he does not relate to any
of his several activities as to a role in a settled social structure. And
third, what he does is something he wishes to do. The last feature
raises issues far from the center of this essay, but I shall look at it
briefly after considering the second, which is relevant to our theme.
Communist man hunts, fishes, herds sheep, and criticizes "without
ever becoming hunter, fisherman, shepherd, or critic." I believe the
quoted phrase adds to the initial assertion of variation in activity.
57. The German Ideology, pp. 44-45. In a deleted sentence, communist man
is also said to go in for shoemaking, gardening, and acting. His interests (shoe-
making apart) are curiously similar to those of a cultured gentleman farmer. But
the meaning is clearly allegorical-which is not to say that the allegory is easy to
decode.
This man is not even successively a hunter, fisherman, and critic,

though he does hunt, fish, and criticize. For he is in none of these ac-
tivities entering a position in a structure of roles, in such a way that
he could identify himself, if only for the time being, as a hunter, etc.
He is nevertheless thoroughly engaged by what he is doing. The sum
of which is that he enjoys integration without engulfment. Perhaps
the thought I have tried to elicit is present more clearly here:
... with a communist organisation of society, there disappears the

subordination of the artist to local and national narrowness, which
arises entirely from the division of labour, and also the subordina-
tion of the artist to some definite art, thanks to which he is exclu-
sively a painter, sculptor, etc., the very name of his activity ade-
quately expressing the narrowness of his professional development
and his dependence on division of labour. In a communist society
there are no painters but at most people who engage in painting
among other activities.58
I am claiming that the last sentence does not say: "In a communist
society there are no full-time painters but at most part-time painters."
People paint, but the status "painter" is not assumed even from time
to time.
The abolition of roles may be conceptual or sociological nonsense,
but it is an idea we find in Marx. The reproach that he sought a com-
plete absorption of the individual by society states the reverse of his
aim. Having complained that in modern times "a general or a banker
plays a great part, but mere man . .. a very shabby part,"59 he would
not be impressed by a jack-of-all-roles, who is other than mere man,
whatever he took that to be. He wanted individuals to face one an-
other and themselves without mediation of institutions. For they rep-
resent "fixation of social activity, consolidation of what we ourselves
produce into an objective power above us."60 It is no great exaggeration
to say that Marx's freely associated individuals constitute an alterna-
tive to, not a form of, society.6'
58. Ibid., pp. 431-432, my emphasis.
59. Capital I, p. 44.
6o. German Ideology, p. 45.
6I. For more in this vein, see my "Beliefs and Roles," Proceedings of the Aris-
totelian Society, I966-I967, p. 32.
(iii) The third desideratum is that a person's activity suits his

wishes, since "society regulates the general production and thus makes
it possible for me to do one thing today and another tomorrow
just as I have a mind...."
Recall the question we postponed: does the variegated activity sub-
serve economic ends? Is it part of "general production," or divorced
from it? On the first interpretation, something like this must be
meant: we draw up a budget of tasks, and each of us undertakes
whichever ones appeal most to him, subject to there being reasonably
harmonious order in the resulting array of activities. I may not be able
to do everything I want to do, but whatever I do will be something I
like, and that is a significant recommendation.
This reading is compatible with the phrase "just as I have a mind"
only if economically productive activities can be generally appealing.
If they cannot, then the variegated activity must proceed outside the
economic sphere. Now at least sometimes Marx did view work tasks
as bound always to be unsatisfying. There was probably a deep pes-
simism on that score underlying his program for a nature which pro-
duces by itself, with minimal human input.62 A dismal perception of
the labor that remains under communism informs this famous pas-
sage:
. . the realm of freedom actually begins only where labour which

is determined by necessity and mundane considerations ceases;
thus in the very nature of things it lies beyond the sphere of actual
material production. Just as the savage must wrestle with nature to
satisfy his wants, to maintain and reproduce life, so must civilised
man, and he must do so in all social formations and under all possi-
ble modes of production. With his development this realm of phys-
ical necessity expands as a result of his wants; but, at the same
time, the forces of production which satisfy these wants also in-
crease. Freedom in this field can only consist in socialized man, the
associated producers, rationally regulating their interchange with
nature, bringing it under their common control, instead of being
ruled by it as by a blind power; and achieving this with the least
expenditure of energy and under conditions most favourable to, and
worthy of, their human nature. But it nonetheless still remains a
62. See above, p. 257.
realm of necessity. Beyond it begins that development of human

energy which is an end in itself, the true realm of freedom, which,
however, can blossom forth only with this realm of necessity as its
basis. The shortening of the working-day is its basic prerequisite.63
On this account, freedom inside socialist industry is regrettably

limited, and Marx looks for what he calls true freedom beyond the
economic zone. His idea is not that "labour has become not only a
means of life but life's prime want,"64 but that, being a means of life, it
cannot be wanted, and will be replaced by desired activity as the
working day contracts.
This negative appraisal of future working conditions, however war-
ranted it may be on other grounds, here rests on a fallacious confla-
tion of distinct ideas. Granted, there will always be a set of operations
on whose completion the provisioning of the race depends. But it does
not follow, and it is not equally undeniable, that there will always be
tasks which men perform against their inclinations because they have
to. That a task must be and is fulfilled does not imply that the motive
for its performance is that its performance is necessary. But Marx
accepts this implication when he says that the realm of freedom, first
glossed as activity not determined by mundane requirements, must
"in the very nature of things" lie beyond the sphere servicing those
requirements. Up to now the level of the productive forces has imposed
on economic activity the property of not being performed for its own
sake. Whether it must retain that property in future is a complex
question of technology and psychology, not a matter of the manifest
"very nature of things."
The possibility Marx swiftly excludes is that economic necessities
might be met, at least partly, by "that development of human activity
which is an end in itself." One cannot decide a priori the extent of
compatibility between labor and creative fulfillment. Marx thought
he knew the compatibility would always be small. Hence his need to
forecast a virtual disappearance of labor.65
63. Capital III, pp. 799-800 (translation corrected slightly). Cf. Capital II
(Moscow, I957), pp. 515-5I6.
64. "Critique of the Gotha Programme," Marx-Engels Selected Works II (Mos-
COW, I958), p. 24.
65. I thank Ted Honderich and Richard Wollheim for useful criticisms of an
earlier version of this article.

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Marx's Dialectic of Labor

Begin not with the good old things but with

The Communist Manifesto lampooned those who fought capitalism

In Hegel's theory of knowledge, there is an epistemological ascent in

import as well. Whether it admits of explanatory construal is a ques-

historical epochs thus correspond to Hegel's triadic division of Ethical

II. THE FREEDOM OF DETACHMENT

In the second stage of dialectical process the subject breaks free of

syntheses, see Lucien Goldmann, in Socialist Humanism, ed. Fromm (Garden

would enable him to think of it as impeding him, or dictating to him.

patible with constraint by X. This suggests a reductive maneuver which

III. TRADITIONAL AND MODERN LABOR

Many observers of the emerging factory civilization pictured the an-

5. For an idealized conception of preindustrial life, with which Marx and

called "naturwiichsig conditions of existence," to alienation, abstract"

each separate branch of production acquires the form that is tech-

Even the shape of the instruments of labor

once definitely settled by experience, petrifies, as is proved by their

ii. This term is discussed in section iv.

a series of historical processes, resulting in a Decomposition of the

So we again encounter: undifferentiated unity, differentiation without

consciousness and nature is undeveloped. It explodes under capital-

IV. MODES OF THE DIVISION OF LABOR

The opposition abstract/concrete pervades the work of Hegel, and

22. Capital i, pp. 386-387n.

The fact that the particular kind of labour employed is immaterial

in the place of the hierarchy of specialized workmen that characterises

The last clause asserts that the transformation is liberating: it al-

What characterizes the division of labour in the automatic work-

Man as proletarian has become labor in general, though only in

25. A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (London, I97I), p.

distinction and separation, and so conceives freedom as the lack of

V. THE PROGRESSIVE CHARACTER OF CAPITALISM

Those who see in engulfment only integration and a sense of belong-

What was . . . the boasted "mobility of labour" but the breakdown

nothing good emerging in their collapse is to appreciate but one side of

Hence the great civilizing influence of capital, its production of a

permanently revolutionary, tearing down all obstacles that impede

It does away with

national boundaries and prejudices . . . the inherited self-sufficient

Alienation is the cost of rescue from envelopment by his natural and

41. In a forthcoming article on "Use-value, Exchange-value, and a Distinctive

At early stages of development the single individual appears to be

. . . the ancient conception, in which man always appears (in how-

The parenthesis implies that the man of antiquity is man in confine-

through the alienation to what is being achieved within it and dis-

.. . what is wealth, if not the universality of needs, capacities, en-

It is a familiar socialist criticism of capitalism that it fosters produc-

In bourgeois political economy-and in the epoch of production to

Hannah Arendt's Human Condition48 is a contemporary paradigm

is obviously merely a historical necessity, a necessity for the devel-

The definite starting point is one of engulfment, rendering the inver-

48. (Garden City, 1958).

pleted in a socialist future.50 The separations forced by capitalism will

50. See above, pp. 238, 244, 249.

cal properties also mattered. Indeed, they contributed to the social

Three familiar motifs in Marx's unfinished prognosis demand our

5I. See p. 241.